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thumb|A bowl of tortilla soup with all of the garnishes This is a list of notable soups. Soups have been made since ancient times. Some soups are served with large chunks of meat or vegetables left in the liquid, while others are served as a broth. A broth is a flavored liquid usually derived from boiling a type of meat with bone, a spice mix, or a vegetable mix for a period of time in a stock. A potage is a category of thick soups, stews, or porridges, in some of which meat and vegetables are boiled together with water until they form a thick mush. Bisques are heavy cream soups traditionally prepared with shellfish, but can be made with any type of seafood or other base ingredients. Cream soups are dairy based soups. Although they may be consumed on their own, or with a meal, the canned, condensed form of cream soup is sometimes used as a quick sauce in a variety of meat and pasta convenience food dishes, such as casseroles. Similar to bisques, chowders are thick soups usually containing some type of starch. Coulis were originally meat juices, and now are thick purées. While soups are usually heated, some soups are served only cold and other soups can optionally be served cold. ==Soups== Name Image Origin Type Distinctive ingredients and description Aguadito 122px Peru Chunky Peruvian green soup usually made with cilantro, carrot, peas, potatoes and can have chicken, hen, mussels or fish. It also contains ají amarillo (yellow chili pepper) and various other vegetables and spices. The green color is due to cilantro. It is known for having a potential for easing or alleviating symptoms associated with the hangover. Ajiaco 122px Colombia Chunky In the Colombian capital of Bogotá, ajiaco is typically made with chicken, three varieties of potatoes, and the Galinsoga parviflora herb commonly referred to in Colombia as guascas. In Cuba, it is a hearty stew made from beef, pork, chicken, vegetables, and a variety of starchy roots and tubers classified as viandas. Açorda 122px Portugal Chunky A typical Portuguese dish composed of thinly sliced bread with garlic, large amounts of finely chopped coriander, olive oil, vinegar, water, white pepper, salt and poached eggs. Acquacotta 122px Italy Chunky Originally a peasant food, historically, its primary ingredients were water, stale bread, onion, tomato, olive oil and any spare vegetables or leftovers. It has been described as an ancient dish. Amish preaching soup United States Chunky Typically served preceding or following Amish church services. Some versions are prepared with beans and ham hocks. Analı kızlı soup 122px Turkey Chunky Bulgur meatballs and chickpeas in gravy with yogurt Ash-e doogh 122px Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey Potage A yogurt soup that consists of yogurt and leafy vegetables. Served hot. Aush, aash, āsh 120x120px Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Caucasus Potage A variety of thick soups, served hot - with many different types of recipes and regional differences. Avgolemono 122px Greece Potage Chicken broth, rice or orzo, and lemon, thickened with tempered eggs Avocado soup 120px Can be prepared and served as a cold or hot soup Bacon soup 122px Europe Chunky Bacon, vegetables, and a thickening agent. Pictured is celery and bacon soup. Bak kut teh 122px Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore Herbal Consists of meaty pork ribs simmered in a complex broth of herbs and spices (including star anise, cinnamon, cloves, dang gui, fennel seeds and garlic) for hours.Grêlé D, Raimbault L, Chng N. Discover Singapore on Foot. Select Publishing, 2007. page 158. Bakso 122px Indonesia Meatballs soup Meatball noodle soup in rich beef broth, sometimes include bok choy, noodles, tofu, hard-boiled egg, fried shallots and wontons. Barley 122px Ancient Chunky Barley, vegetables, and broth Batchoy 122px Philippines Noodle soup A Filipino noodle soup made with pork offal, crushed pork cracklings, chicken stock, beef loin and round noodles. Beef noodle soup 122px East Asia Noodle Stewed or red braised beef, beef broth, vegetables and Chinese noodles. It exists in various forms throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia, and is popular as a Chinese and Taiwanese noodle soup. Beer soup 122px Europe Beverage soup Recipe from the middle ages using heated beer and pieces of bread;Recipe: DANISH BEER SOUP though other ingredients were also used. Bergen fish soup 122px Norway Fish White fish (haddock, halibut, cod) and various vegetables in a heavy cream Bermuda fish chowder 122px Bermuda Chowder Fish, tomato, onion, other vegetables, served with black rum and "sherry peppers". The national dish of Bermuda. Bilo-bilo 122px Philippines Dessert A Filipino dessert soup made of small glutinous balls (sticky rice flour rounded up by adding water) in coconut milk, sugar, jackfruit, saba bananas, various tubers, and tapioca pearls. Binakol Philippines Chicken A Filipino chicken soup made from chicken cooked in coconut water with grated coconut, green papaya (or chayote), leafy vegetables, garlic, onion, ginger, lemongrass, and patis (fish sauce). Binignit 122px Philippines Dessert Coconut milk, glutinous rice, fruits, root crops, and tapioca pearls, served hot but sometimes chilled Bird's nest soup 122px China Gelatinous Edible bird's nest, an expensive delicacy valued for its unusual texture Black sesame soup 122px China Dessert A sweet soup containing powdered black sesame seeds and rice, typically served warm Bob chorba 122px Bulgaria Bean Dried beans, onions, tomatoes, chubritza (summer savoury) or dzhodzhen (spearmint), carrots Borscht/ Borshch 122px Ukraine Chunky Cabbage and beet-based soup with meat. May be served hot or cold. A national Ukrainian dish and wide spread Belarusian, Polish (with mushrooms instead of cabbage, served on the Christmas Eve) and Russian dish. Bouillabaisse 122px France Fish A type of fish soup from Provençal, France. Bouillon 122px Haiti Sliced meat, potatoes, sliced plantains, yam, kelp, cabbage, and celery. Traditionally prepared on Saturdays Bourou-Bourou Greece (Corfu) Potage Vegetable and pasta Bread soup 122px Germany Bread Stale bread in a broth Brenebon 122px The Netherlands and Indonesia Beans Kidney bean soup served in pig's trotters broth, spiced with shallot, garlic, salt, sugar, pepper, nutmeg and clove. Mixed with chopped green beans, celery and scallion. Brown Windsor soup England Chunky Lamb or beef steak, parsnips, carrots, leeks, bouquet garni, Madeira wine; popular in England during the Victorian and Edwardian eras Bun bo Hue 122px Vietnam Noodle A noodle soup from central Vietnam, with beef. Buridda 122px Italy (Liguria) Chunky Seafood soup or stew. Butajiru (Tonjiru) 122px Japan Chunky Pork and vegetable soup, flavored with miso. Cabbage soup, kapusniak, kapustnica, zelnacka 122px Poland Slovakia Russia Ukraine Czech Republic Chunky Sauerkraut, meat Caldillo de congrio 122px Chile Eel Conger eel heads, garlic, onion, coriander, carrots, pepper, chopped tomatoes, cream, boiled potatoes, and conger meat. Caldillo de perro Spain (southern) Seafood Seafood, hake, garlic, olive oil, lemons, and Seville oranges. It is customarily served with sour orange juice. Caldo verde 122px Portugal and Brazil Chunky Potatoes, thinly sliced kale, with slices of chouriço added before serving. Callaloo 122px Caribbean Chowder Taro leaf or other leafy greens, usually with pork or crab added for flavor. The greens referred to as callaloo vary from island to island depending on availability. Canh chua Vietnam Fish A fish soup from southern Vietnam, made sour with tamarind. Canja de Galinha 122px Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde Chunky Chicken, pasta and lemon, particularly popular in the states of Minas Gerais and Goiás Czech Republic Fish Carp's head and offal, onion and vegetable. Part of traditional Czech Christmas Eve dinner. Carrot soup 120px Prepared with carrot as a primary ingredient, it can be prepared as a cream-style soup and as a broth-style soup. Cazuela 120x120px Latin America Chunky Clear broth, rice, potato, squash or pumpkin, corn and chicken or beef. Eaten in South America and Spain, it combines native and introduced ingredients. Pictured is an Ecuadorian cazuela. Chestnut bisque 122px France Bisque Chestnuts are a primary ingredient Chicken noodle soup 122px Noodle Chicken, stock, noodles, such as egg noodles Chicken soup 122px Clear or Stock Made from chicken that's simmered with various other ingredients. Pictured is southern Chinese style chicken soup with mushrooms and corn. Chicken vegetable soup 122px Vegetable soup Chicken, stock, onion, green beans, carrots, potato Chorba, shorba 120x120px Balkans, North Africa, Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Middle East, Indian subcontinent Stock Regionally recipes are made in different ways, but most all are a thinner, broth soup. Chupe 122px Peru Chowder Thin, milky seafood soup, also referred to as Chupe de Mariscos Chupe Andino Andes Refers to various soups and stews that are prepared in Andes Mountains region of South America Cioppino 122px San Francisco, California Fish Fish stew with tomatoes and a variety of fish and shellfish (Italian-American) Cock-a-leekie 122px Scotland Chunky Leek and potato soup made with chicken stock Cold borscht / Šaltibarščiai 122px Lithuania Cold (chilled) Beetroot (or sometimes tomato), popular in Eastern Europe. A Lithuanian specialty, usually made in summer time in one variety, almost always cold. Based on beets, usually served with either hot boiled or fried potatoes. Consommé 122px France Clear or Stock A type of clear soup made from broth or stock. Corn chowder 122px United States (New England) Chowder Similar to New England clam chowder, with corn substituted for clams in the recipe Crab bisque 122px France Bisque Crab stock and heavy cream Cream of apple soup Cream Granny Smith apples, stock, cream, spices Cream of asparagus 122px Cream Onions, asparagus, chicken broth, heavy cream Cream of broccoli 122px Cream Broccoli, stock, and milk or cream as primary ingredients Cream of celery 122px Cream Cream of chicken 122px Cream Mass- produced in a condensed soup form, various non-commercial and homemade variations also exist Cream of potato 122px Cream Cream of tomato 122px Cream Cream of Crab 122px France Bisque Pictured is Maryland cream of crab soup. Cream of mushroom 122px Cream Crème Ninon 122px Sweden Bisque Base of a heavy stock purée of green peas and dry champagne Cucumber soup 122px Cold (chilled) Cucumber soup is known in various cuisines. Cullen skink 122px Scotland Fish Smoked haddock, potatoes, onions and cream Curry Mee 122px Indonesia and Malaysia Noodle Thin yellow noodles or/and string thin mee-hoon (rice vermicelli) with spicy curry soup, chilli/sambal, coconut milk, and a choice of dried tofu, prawns, cuttlefish, chicken, egg, mint leaves and cockle. Dalithoy India (Konkan region) Hot, Vegetable Soup made with split yellow lentils and spices. It is a Konkani staple that is often served over rice. Dashi Japan Cold (chilled) Clear fish stock made with kombu (sea kelp) and katsuobushi (smoked bonito flakes). Dashi broth is often used as a base for miso soup and other Japanese soup broths. Dillegrout England Stew Chicken pottage made with almond milk, sugar, and spices traditionally presented at coronations of English monarchs by the lord of the manor of Addington. Dinengdeng 122px Philippines Fermented A dish of the Ilocano people of the Philippines, similar to pinakbet. It is classified as a bagoong monamon (fermented fish) soup-based dish. Duck soup noodles Malaysia Noodle The dish consists of ingredients such as duck meat in hot soup with mixed herbs and Bee sua served in particular at Penang hawker centres. Egg drop soup 122px China Noodle Savory soup made by pouring beaten eggs into swirling boiling water or broth Egusi soup Nigeria Chunky (Medicine) A soup thickened with Egusi, the culinary name for various types of seeds from groud plants, like melon and squash. Ezogelin soup 122px Turkey Chunky Savory soup made by red lentil, bulgur, onion, garlic, salt, olive oil, black pepper, hot pepper and peppermint Escudella 122px Spain (Catalonia) Stew A traditional Catalan meat and vegetable stew and soup. Typically during Christmas celebrations. Fabada Asturiana Spain (Asturias) Chunky Dried large white beans (fabes de la Granja, soaked overnight before use), shoulder of pork (lacón) or bacon (tocino), black pudding (morcilla), chorizo, and saffron (azafrán) Fanesca 122px Ecuador Fish Cod soup Fish soup bee hoon 122px Singapore Fish/seafood Seafood soup served with thin noodles called Bee hoon. Fish 122px Clear or Stock Fisherman's Soup 122px Hungary Fish Ηot and spicy river fish soup with a lot of hot paprika () French onion soup 122px France Potage Deep, rich broth made with onions and beef. Often topped with croutons and gruyere cheese melted golden on top, over the edges of the bowl. Frittatensuppe Austria Clear Broth with crumbled slices of pancakes, also popular in South Germany and Switzerland (Pfannkuchensuppe, Flädlisuppe) Fruktsoppa 122px Sweden Dessert soup Typically prepared using dried fruits, and typically served as a dessert dish. It may be served hot or cold. Fufu and Egusi soup Nigeria Chunky Vegetables, meat, fish, and balls of ground melon seed Fumet France Clear or Stock Fish stock, often concentrated and used as a base for sauces, and usually made with fish heads and bones Garmugia Italy (Lucca, Tuscany, central Italy) Chunky Primary ingredients include chicken or vegetable stock or broth, asparagus, artichoke hearts, fava beans, peas, onion and meats, such as pancetta and veal. Gazpacho 122px Spain Cold (chilled) Pureed tomato and vegetables Ginataan 122px Philippines Chunky Method of cooking using coconut milk. Due to the general nature of the term, it can refer to a number of different dishes, each called ginataan, but distinct from one another. Ginestrata Italy (Tuscany, Northern Italy) Clear or stock Thin, lightly spiced egg-based soup prepared with primary ingredients of egg yolks, chicken stock, and Marsala wine or white wine Gising-gising 122px Philippines Chunky A spicy Filipino vegetable soup or stew traditionally made with chopped winged beans (sigarillas or sigarilyas), and coconut milk spiced with labuyo chili, garlic, onions, and bagoong alamang (shrimp paste). Goat meat pepper soup 122px Nigeria Common ingredients are goat meat, crayfish, Uziza, Negro Pepper (also called Uda Ewentia or Enge) and nutmeg, such as Calabash Nutmeg (also called Ehu or Ariwo). Gogi guksu 122px South Korea (Jeju Province) Pork and noodle soup Gomguk 122px Korea Chunky Beef parts such as ribs, oxtail, brisket, ox's head or ox bones by slow simmering on a low flame. The broth of gomguk tends to have a milky color, with a rich and hearty taste. Goulash 122px Hungary Chunky Beef, pork, paprika, peppers, tomato, potato, and onion. translates roughly as cowboy Ground nut soup 122px West Africa Groundnuts, also known as peanuts Kimchi Guk 122px Korea Chunky Kimchi soup Gumbo 122px United States (Louisiana) Chunky Creole soup from the American South, most popular in New Orleans. Often includes seafood, made with shrimp or crab stock and andouille sausage and thickened with a dark roux. Harira 122px Magreb Chunky Popular as a starter but is also eaten on its own as a light snack. There are many variations and it is mostly served during Ramadan, although it can be made throughout the year. Hot and sour soup 122px Asia Chunky Soups from several Asian culinary traditions. In all cases, the soup contains ingredients to make it both spicy and sour. Ikan kuah kuning 122px Indonesia (Maluku, Papua) Fish Fish in a clear yellow broth. It is a side dish of papeda. Inubaran Philippines A Filipino chicken stew or soup made with chicken cooked with diced banana pith, coconut milk (gata) or coconut cream (kakang gata), a souring agent, lemongrass, and various spices. Íslensk Kjötsúpa Iceland Chunky Meat soup made with lamb and vegetables Joumou 122px Haiti Chunky Mildly spicy pumpkin soup made with pieces of beef, potato, plantains and vegetables such as parsley, carrots, green cabbage, celery and onions. It is eaten every first of January in honor of Haitian independence in 1804. Kadyos, baboy, kag langka Philippines Pork Pigeon peas, ham hock, and jackfruit soured with batuan fruits (Garcinia binucao) Kadyos, manok, kag ubad Philippines Chicken soup Pigeon peas, chicken, and banana pith Kharcho 122px Georgia Chunky Lamb, rice, vegetables and a highly spiced bouillon Kusksu 122px Malta Chunky Kusksu is a traditional Maltese soup made primarily from seasonal broad beans, small pasta beads - known locally as kusksu - and fresh ġbejniet. Although similar is shape, kusksu pasta, which gives the soup its name, is "not to be confused with couscous". Kwāti 122px Nepal Chunky Mixed soup of nine types of sprouted beans: black gram, green gram, chickpea, field bean, soybean, field pea, garden pea, cowpea, and rice bean Laksa 122px Indonesia and Malaysia Noodle A Peranakan cuisine. Lagman Uzbekistan Chunky Pasta, vegetables, ground lamb and numerous spices Leek soup 122px Wales Chunky Leeks and often potatoes. Popular during St. David's Day. Pictured is leek and potato soup. Lettuce soup 122px Lettuce is a primary ingredient. Some versions purée all of the ingredients together, and cream of lettuce soup is a type of lettuce soup. Lentil soup 122px Ancient Chunky Red, green, or brown lentils. Popular in the Middle East and Mediterranean area. Linat-an Philippines Pork stew or soup from the Visayas and Mindanao islands of the Philippines that characteristically uses pork ribs (or other bony cuts of pork) simmered until very tender, lemongrass (tanglad), string beans, starchy ingredients for a thicker soup (usually taro), and various other vegetables. Lobster stew 122px Spain Chunky Cream or stock-based soup with chunks of lobster Lobster bisque 122px France Bisque Lobster stock, heavy cream, and sherry Log-log Philippines Noodle Egg noodle soup (regional variants include Kinalas, Batchoy) Lohikeitto 122px Finland Fish Salmon, potatoes (other root vegetables can be added such as rutabaga, carrots, onions), cream, and dill Lung fung soup China Snake Snake, chicken, lemon, chili peppers, and other vegetables. Lyvzha Ossetia Beef Beef, potatoes, onion, garlic, carrots and thyme, etc. Maccu Italy (Sicily) Chunky fava beans is a primary ingredient Maki mi 122px Philippines Noodle soup A Filipino thick pork tenderloin soup originating from the Chinese-Filipino community of Binondo, Manila. It is made from lean pork pounded with a mallet until tender. It is marinated in soy sauce, garlic, black pepper, rice wine or vinegar, and onions before being covered with egg whites or starch (usually starch from corn, sweet potato or tapioca). It is then cooked in boiling beef stock, with beaten eggs dropped and stirred until they form strands. Egg noodles (mami) are also commonly added. Mami soup 122px Philippines Noodle soup A popular Filipino noodle soup made with wheat flour noodles, broth and the addition of meat (chicken, beef, pork) or wonton dumplings. Manhattan clam chowder 122px United States (Rhode Island) Chowder Tomato-based clam chowder Marghi special Africa (West Africa) Fish, vegetables, oil, seasoning, etc Maryland crab soup United States (Maryland) Chowder Vegetables, blue crab, and Old Bay Seasoning in a tomato base Matzah ball soup 122px Jewish (Ashkenazi) Chunky Staple food on Passover. The Matzah ball dumplings are traditionally served in chicken broth with sliced carrots, garnished with chopped parsley. Matzo balls are also referred to as knaidel or knaedle. Melon soup 122px Varies Soup prepared with melon as a primary ingredient. Pictured is a muskmelon soup. Minestrone 122px Italy Chunky Vegetables and pasta Miso soup 122px Japan Fermented Dashi stock base with dissolved miso paste (fermented rice, barley and/or soybeans). Common ingredients include tofu and seaweed. Miyeok guk 122px Korea Chunky Seaweed soup from Korea, which is traditionally served to women who have just given birth. Mohinga 122px Burma Fish Chickpea flour and/or crushed toasted rice, garlic, onions, lemongrass, banana tree stem, ginger, fish paste, fish sauce, and catfish in a rich broth. Served with rice vermicelli. Mote de queso Colombia Cheese Made with ñame (yam) and Costeño cheese. Mulligan Stew United States Chunky Improvised stew, typically made with whatever ingredients are available Mulligatawny 122px India Chunky Meat, vegetables, and spices. Based on an Indian sauce recipe. Naengmyeon 122px Korea Cold (chilled) Buckwheat noodles in a tangy iced beef broth, raw julienned vegetables, a slice of a Korean pear, and often a boiled egg and/or cold beef Nettle soup 122px Ancient Chunky Tender shoots of the stinging nettle, popular in Scandinavia and eastern Europe New England clam chowder 122px United States (New England) Chowders Bacon, mirepoix, clam juice and heavy cream, with other ingredients such as potatoes and chopped clams Nikujaga 122px Japan Meat, potatoes and onion stewed in sweetened soy sauce, sometimes with ito konnyaku and vegetables Nilaga 124px Philippines A traditional meat stew or soup from the Philippines made with boiled beef (nilagang baka) or pork (nilagang baboy) with various vegetables. It is typically eaten with white rice and is served with soy sauce, patis (fish sauce), labuyo chilis, and calamansi on the side. Odong 124px Philippines A Filipino noodle soup made with noodles, canned sardines in tomato sauce, bottle gourd (), loofah (), chayote, ginger, garlic, red onions, and various other vegetables. Okra soup 122px Okra Okroshka 122px Ukraine Russia Cold (chilled) Kvass-based vegetable and ham soup Oxtail soup 122px Chunky Oxtail soup is made with beef tails. The use of the word "ox" in this context is a legacy of nomenclature; no specialized stock of beef animals are used. At least five popular and unrelated versions of oxtail soup exist. In Asia, there are at least three distinctive variations: a traditional Korean dish; a Chinese dish which is more like a stew; a fried/grilled oxtail combined with soup variation (pictured) which is a popular dish in Java, Indonesia, where it is called as sop buntut. An ethnic dish of the American South which traces its lineage back to the pre-revolutionary war era, and a thick, rich, gravy-like soup popular in the United Kingdom since the 18th century. Creole oxtail soup is made from a tomato base with oxtails, potatoes, green beans, corn, mirepoix, garlic, and herbs and spices. In Germany, there is a variety of oxtail soups (called Ochsenschwanzsuppe or Ochsenschleppsuppe) usually containing oxtail, various root vegetables, herbs, and also Sherry or Madeira. Palm nut soup 122px Palm kernel Panada Europe Potage Bread soup made with leftover bread, eggs, beef broth and Parmigiano-Reggiano Cheese. Panadelsuppe 122px Austria Bread Made with broth, rolls and eggs Pancit buko Philippines A Filipino dish made from very thin strips of young coconut (buko) meat with various spices, vegetables, and meat or seafood. Pasta fagioli 122px Italy Noodle Chicken stock, pasta and vegetables. Yellow pea soup 122px Canada Chunky Pea soup, originating with French settlers in Canada. Also called "French-Canadian pea soup" Peanut soup 122px Africa Chunky Made from peanuts, popular in African cuisine. Pictured is peanut soup (left) with fufu. Philadelphia Pepper Pot United States (Philadelphia) Chunky Beef tripe pepper soup Phở 122px Vietnam Noodle Staple noodle soup made by simmering marrow-rich beef leg bones and knuckles with star anise, cinnamon, clove, cardamom, coriander, fennel, charred ginger, and charred onion to create the broth, served with rice noodles and various meats. Pho Dac Biet, or "Special Combination" Pho, usually includes rare beef slices, beef balls, tripe, and flank meat. Pho is garnished to taste with thai basil, squeezed lime, jalapeños, bean sprouts, and sometimes culantro. Sriracha and hoisin sauce are also popular additions. Chicken, seafood and vegetarian varieties also exist. Pickle soup 122px Chunky Various types of pickled vegetables, dill pickle soup is a variety of pickle soup prepared with pickled cucumber. Pictured is kidney and pickle soup with barley (rassolnik). Pork blood soup 122px Thailand Thai cuisine; one version is called tom lueat mu. Also a part of Chinese cuisine, and was consumed by laborers in Kaifeng "over 1,000 years ago". Pozole 122px Mexico Chunky Pork or chicken meat and broth, hominy, onion, garlic, dried chiles and cilantro, in a thick, hearty soup Psarosoupa (ψαρόσουπα) Greece Fish Oil-and-lemon sauce, vegetables, rice, and salt-water fish Pumpkin 122px North America Smooth or chunky Pumpkin cream soup may contain some green pepper (Italian), red bell pepper, onion, salt and some oil. Rucola leaves top the soup. Purée Mongole Smooth or chunky Split peas, tomatoes, carrots, onions, white turnips, leeks, stock (beef or chicken), milk; simplified versions may be made using canned, condensed pea and tomato soups as a base; also called Cream Mongole Ramen 122px Japan Noodle Fresh or dried noodles in a variety of broths with a variety of toppings such as various meats like pork or lobster, onion and other various herbs (miso), and sometimes even corn Rasam 122px India (southern) Potage Broth made in various ways using different spices and tamarind Rassolnik 122px Russia Chunky Dill pickle soup. It usually contains groats, such as pearl barley, rice or oatmeal, potatoes, greens and herbs. It is either vegetarian or more commonly made with meat (often offal, such as kidney). Rawon 122px Indonesia (Surabaya) Chunky beef A beef stew in black keluak soup that originated from Surabaya, East Java. Rishtay / Rqaq o Adas frameless|122px Middle East (Palestinian) Bean / Noodle A whole lentil soup made with hand cut wheat noodles (similar to linguine) and flavored with fried garlic. Rose hip soup (Nyponsoppa) 122px Sweden Watery A soup made from blended rose hips, usually served for breakfast or dessert Rumford's Soup 122px Germany (Munich, Bavaria) Potage Simple soup prepared with barley or barley meal and dried peas as primary ingredients that was utilized to feed impoverished people. Saimin 122px United States (Hawaii) Noodle Fresh, soft, undried egg noodles in bonito fish or shrimp broth with Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Hawaiian, Korean, and Portuguese influences Salmorejo 122px Spain Cold (chilled) Tomato soup with garlic and bread crumbs Sambar 122px India Chunky, gelatinous Sambar, also spelt sambhar, is a lentil-based vegetable stew or chowder based on a broth made with tamarind popular in South Indian and Sri Lankan Tamil cuisines, adapted in each to its taste and environment. Samgyetang 122px Korea Chunky Chicken ginseng soup made with glutinous rice, jujubes, chestnuts, garlic, and ginger Sayur Asem 122px Indonesia Cold An Indonesian vegetable soup that is sour and spicy Sayur Lodeh 122px Indonesia (Java) Chunky vegetable soup Vegetables stew in coconut milk based soup. Scotch Broth 122px Scotland Potage Mutton, barley, and various vegetables Shark fin soup 122px China Gelatinous An expensive Chinese delicacy using shark fins, valued for their texture; considered controversial for the killing of sharks for only their fins. Shchav, sorrel soup, green borscht, green shchi 122px Eastern Europe Chunky Sorrel soup in Polish, Russian, Ukrainian and Yiddish cuisines. In some recipes, sorrel is replaced by spinach or garden orache. Shchi 122px Russia Chunky Cabbage soup, a national Russian dish. Seafood chowder Ireland Chowder Salmon, mussels, shrimp, and scallops in a cream base She-crab soup 122px United States (Charleston, South Carolina) Chowder Blue crab meat and crab roe Shrimp bisque 122px France Bisque Shrimp Sinabawang gulay 122px Philippines A Filipino vegetable soup made with leafy vegetables (usually moringa leaves) and various other vegetables in a broth seasoned with seafood stock or patis (fish sauce). Sinigang 122px Philippines A Filipino soup or stew characterized by its sour and savoury taste. It is most often associated with tamarind (Filipino: sampalok), although it can use other sour fruits and leaves as the souring agent. It is one of the more popular dishes in Filipino cuisine. Sliced fish soup Singapore Fish Fish, prawns, and vegetables Snert 122px Netherlands Chunky Thick pea soup, eaten in the winter, traditionally served with sliced sausage Solyanka 122px Russia Chunky Pickled cucumbers, sausages, smoked meat, fish or mushrooms, olives Sop saudara 122px Indonesia (Makassar) Chunky Spicy beef soup contains bits of beef and offals (usually fried cow's lungs), rice vermicelli, perkedel (fried potato patty) and hard boiled egg. Sopa de Gato Spain (southern) Simple soup, typically includes water, bread, oil, garlic, and salt Sopas 122px Philippines Noodle soup A Filipino macaroni soup made with elbow macaroni, various vegetables, and meat (usually chicken), in a creamy broth with evaporated milk. Soto 122px Indonesia Chunky Rich soups based on various spice pastes, broths and sometimes coconut milk, often named by their originating region. Soto usually features numerous garnishes, including sprouts, sambal, crackers, fritters, and sometimes noodles. Soto ayam 122px Indonesia Noodle Rich chicken soup with shredded chicken and rice noodles. Served with a variety of garnishes, which may include bean sprouts, hard-boiled egg, green onions, fried shallots, sambal, compressed rice cakes, emping (melinjo nut crackers) and potato fritters. Soup alla Canavese Italy White stock, tomato puree, butter, carrot, celery, onion, cauliflower, bacon fat, Parmesan cheese, parsley, sage, salt, and pepper Soup No. 5 Philippines Chunky (aphrodisiac) The main ingredient of this dish are the bull's testes or/and penis, other ingredients include lemongrass, thai chili peppers, green onion, ginger, onions, garlic and fish sauce. Sour cherry soup 122px Hungary Cold (chilled) . Sour cherries, sour cream Sour rye soup, white borscht, żur 122px Poland, Belarus Made of soured rye flour (akin to sourdough) and meat (usually boiled pork sausage or pieces of smoked sausage, bacon or ham) Sour soup (fish soup) Vietnam Fish Rice, fish, various vegetables, and in some cases pineapple. The term also refers to various soups in a number of national cuisines. Spinach soup 120px Broth- or cream-based Prepared using spinach as a main ingredient Split pea 122px Ancient Chunky Dried peas, such as the split pea. It is, with variations, a part of the cuisine of many cultures. It is greyish-green or yellow in color depending on the regional variety of peas used; all are cultivars of Pisum sativum. Squash bisque 122px France Bisque Stone soup Portugal Chunky Pork meat products (such as black chouriço, common chouriço and bacon), red beans, and coriander Stracciatella Italy Broth with chunks Made by drizzling a preparation based on beaten eggs into boiling meat broth while stirring. Sulu köfte 122px Turkey Chunky Ground meat, rice, spices, broth Sup Kambing 122px Indonesia and Malaysia Chunky Goat meat, tomato, celery, spring onion, ginger, candlenut and lime leaf, its broth is yellowish in color Suam na mais 122px Philippines Chunky/Seafood Corn kernels, shrimp, pork, leafy vegetables Taco soup 122px United States Chunky Similar ingredients to those used inside a taco: ground beef, tomatoes, chopped green chilis, olives, onions, corn, beans, and a packet of taco seasoning. Vegetarian versions combine beans with the other ingredients, except for the ground beef. Talabaw 122px Myanmar Brothy to stewlike Primary ingredient is bamboo shoots, with a small amount of rice and some shreds of meat or seafood. One of the most well known soups in Myanmar, and widely considered to be the essential dish of Karen cuisine. Talbina Arabian Peninsula Talbina is a soup made from barley flour, formed by adding milk and honey to the dried barley powder. It is called talbina, which comes from the Arabic word laban meaning yogurt (milk/fermented churned milk), because of its resemblance to yogurt, as it is soft and white. Tāng Fěn China Noodle Rice noodles in broth, usually beef, chicken, or custom broth Tāng miǎn China Noodle Egg noodles in broth, usually beef, chicken, or custom broth Tapado 122px Garifuna Seafood Coconut milk, seafood, plantains Tarator 122px Bulgaria Cold (chilled) Yogurt and cucumbers Tarhana 122px Middle East Chunky Fermented grain and dairy Tekwan 122px Indonesia (Palembang) Chunky Fishcake or fishballs, jicama and mushroom soup in savoury broth. Specialty of the city of Palembang. Tiger penis soup China Tiger penis Soup prepared with tiger penis, and sometimes tiger bone as well. Preparation involves soaking dried tiger penis in water and then cooking it along with other medicines and spices. Believed to be a medicinal aphrodisiac in some cultures. Tinola 122px Philippines Potage Chicken, sliced green papayas, malunggay Tiyula itum Philippines A Filipino braised beef or goat soup or stew dish originating from the Tausug people. The dish is characteristically black due to the unique use of charred coconut meat. Tom Yum 122px Thailand Chunky Lemongrass, galangal and kaffir lime leaf, fish sauce and lime juice in the broth, often garnished with shrimp/seafood (Tom Yum Goong), straw mushrooms, hot chili peppers, and cilantro. Tomato bisque France Bisque Tomatoes and heavy cream; basil can be added to create tomato basil bisque Tomato soup 122px Smooth or chunky Tomato is the primary ingredient. Also popular in many countries, including Hungary () and Poland () Tongseng 122px Indonesia (Solo) Chunky meat A sweet and spicy goat meat soup, specialty of the city of Surakarta (also known as Solo), Central Java. Tortilla soup 122px Mexico Chunky Fried corn tortilla pieces submerged into a broth of tomato and other ingredients. Tteokguk 122px Korea Chunky The Tteok (rice cake) soup is eaten during New Year's day. Turkey soup United States and Canada Chunky Turkey stock and meat, vegetables (typically onions, carrots, celery), broad egg noodles or rice Ukha or yushka 122px Russia Ukraine Fish Various types of fish, vegetables, lime, dill, parsley, and black pepper Vegetable soup 122px Clear or Stock Vegetables are a primary ingredient Vichyssoise 122px France Cold (chilled) Creamy potato and leek soup, served with chives Vori vori 122px Paraguay Chunky Balls of corn flour and cheese, often with chicken Waterzooi 122px Belgium Fish Stew made with fish (traditional) or chicken Wedding soup 122px United States (Italian–American) Clear or Stock Green vegetables, meat, chicken broth Wine soup Hungary Beverage soup . Winter melon 122px China Chunky Winter melon, filled with stock (usually chicken stock), vegetables, and meat, which has been steamed for a few hours Zuppa pavese Italy Broth with chunks Consists of broth into which fried slices of bread and poached eggs are placed. It is usually served with grated cheese.Elizabeth David, Italian Food, 1954, p. 53 ===Unsorted=== * Abula * Alu tama * Apple soup * Bissara * Brenebon * Caldo de pollo * Caldo gallego * Caldo de queso * Caldo tlalpeño * Caldo Xóchitl * Cesnecka * Cockchafer soup * Coconut soup * Edikang Ikong * Guthuk * Harqma * Jusselle * Kawlata * Kesäkeitto * Lime soup * Mee ka tee * Mole de olla * Nsala soup * Pea soup * Peppersoup * Palóc soup * Pasulj * Pawpaw soup * Powsowdie * Prawn soup * Prdelačka * Sciusceddu * Sop saudara * Sopa de fideo * Squash soup * Taiwanese beef noodle soup * Tharida * Tuo Zaafi * Walnut soup * Watercress soup * Zalewajka ==See also== * Asian soup * Broth * Chowder * Consommé * List of fish soups * Fruit soup * List of Azerbaijani soups and stews * List of cheese soups * List of Chinese soups * List of cream soups * List of cold soups * List of fish and seafood soups * List of French soups and stews * List of German soups * List of Indonesian soups * List of Italian soups * List of Japanese soups and stews * List of Pakistani soups and stews * List of porridges * List of ramen dishes * List of Spanish soups and stews * List of vegetable soups * Soup and sandwich * Stew * Stocks * Three grand soups ==References== ==Further reading== * * Rumble, Victoria R (2009) Soup Through the Ages: A Culinary History With Period Recipes McFarland. . ==External links== * Soups |
In decision theory, the von Neumann–Morgenstern (VNM) utility theorem shows that, under certain axioms of rational behavior, a decision-maker faced with risky (probabilistic) outcomes of different choices will behave as if he or she is maximizing the expected value of some function defined over the potential outcomes at some specified point in the future. This function is known as the von Neumann–Morgenstern utility function. The theorem is the basis for expected utility theory. In 1947, John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern proved that any individual whose preferences satisfied four axioms has a utility function;Neumann, John von and Morgenstern, Oskar, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton, NJ. Princeton University Press, 1953. such an individual's preferences can be represented on an interval scale and the individual will always prefer actions that maximize expected utility. That is, they proved that an agent is (VNM-)rational if and only if there exists a real-valued function u defined by possible outcomes such that every preference of the agent is characterized by maximizing the expected value of u, which can then be defined as the agent's VNM-utility (it is unique up to adding a constant and multiplying by a positive scalar). No claim is made that the agent has a "conscious desire" to maximize u, only that u exists. The expected utility hypothesis is that rationality can be modeled as maximizing an expected value, which given the theorem, can be summarized as "rationality is VNM-rationality". However, the axioms themselves have been critiqued on various grounds, resulting in the axioms being given further justification.Peterson, Chapter 8. VNM-utility is a decision utility in that it is used to describe decision preferences. It is related but not equivalent to so-called E-utilities (experience utilities), notions of utility intended to measure happiness such as that of Bentham's Greatest Happiness Principle. == Set-up == In the theorem, an individual agent is faced with options called lotteries. Given some mutually exclusive outcomes, a lottery is a scenario where each outcome will happen with a given probability, all probabilities summing to one. For example, for two outcomes A and B, ::L = 0.25A + 0.75B denotes a scenario where P(A) = 25% is the probability of A occurring and P(B) = 75% (and exactly one of them will occur). More generally, for a lottery with many possible outcomes Ai, we write: :: L = \sum p_i A_i, with the sum of the p_is equalling 1. The outcomes in a lottery can themselves be lotteries between other outcomes, and the expanded expression is considered an equivalent lottery: 0.5(0.5A + 0.5B) + 0.5C = 0.25A + 0.25B + 0.50C. If lottery M is preferred over lottery L, we write M \succ L, or equivalently, L \prec M. If the agent is indifferent between L and M, we write the indifference relationKreps, David M. Notes on the Theory of Choice. Westview Press (May 12, 1988), chapters 2 and 5. L\sim M. If M is either preferred over or viewed with indifference relative to L, we write L \preceq M. == The axioms == The four axioms of VNM-rationality are then completeness, transitivity, continuity, and independence. Completeness assumes that an individual has well defined preferences: :Axiom 1 (Completeness) For any lotteries L,M, at least one of the following holds: ::\, L\succeq M, \, M\succeq L (the individual must express some preference or indifferenceImplicit in denoting indifference by equality are assertions like if L\prec M = N then L\prec N. To make such relations explicit in the axioms, Kreps (1988) chapter 2 denotes indifference by \,\sim, so it may be surveyed in brief for intuitive meaning.). Note that this implies reflexivity. Transitivity assumes that preferences are consistent across any three options: :Axiom 2 (Transitivity) If \,L \succeq M and \,M \succeq N, then \,L \succeq N. Continuity assumes that there is a "tipping point" between being better than and worse than a given middle option: :Axiom 3 (Continuity): If \,L \preceq M\preceq N, then there exists a probability \,p\in[0,1] such that ::\,pL + (1-p)N\, \sim \,M where the notation on the left side refers to a situation in which L is received with probability p and N is received with probability (1–p). Instead of continuity, an alternative axiom can be assumed that does not involve a precise equality, called the Archimedean property. It says that any separation in preference can be maintained under a sufficiently small deviation in probabilities: :Axiom 3′ (Archimedean property): If \,L \prec M\prec N, then there exists a probability \,\varepsilon\in(0,1) such that ::\,(1-\varepsilon)L + \varepsilon N\, \prec \,M \, \prec \,\varepsilon L + (1-\varepsilon)N. Only one of (3) or (3′) need to be assumed, and the other will be implied by the theorem. Independence of irrelevant alternatives assumes that a preference holds independently of the possibility of another outcome: :Axiom 4 (Independence): For any \,N and \,p\in(0,1], ::\,L\preceq M\qquad \text{iff}\qquad pL+(1-p)N \preceq pM+(1-p)N. :: Note that the "only if" direction is necessary for the theorem to work. Without that, we have this counterexample: there are only two outcomes A, B, and the agent is indifferent on \\{p A + (1-p)B: p \in [0, 1)\\}, and strictly prefers all of them over A. With the "only if" direction, we can argue that \frac 12 A + \frac 12 B \succeq \frac 12 B + \frac 12 B implies A \succeq B, thus excluding this counterexample. The independence axiom implies the axiom on reduction of compound lotteries:EconPort, "Von Neumann–Morgenstern Expected Utility Theory" http://www.econport.org/content/handbook/decisions-uncertainty/basic/von.html :Axiom 4′ (Reduction of compound lotteries): For any lotteries L, L', N, N' and any p, q \in [0,1], :: \text{if} \qquad L\sim qL'+(1-q)N', :: \text{then} \quad pL+(1-p)N \sim pqL'+ p(1-q)N' + (1-p)N. To see how Axiom 4 implies Axiom 4', set M = qL'+(1-q)N' in the expression in Axiom 4, and expand. == The theorem == For any VNM-rational agent (i.e. satisfying axioms 1–4), there exists a function u which assigns to each outcome A a real number u(A) such that for any two lotteries, ::L\prec M \qquad \mathrm{if \, and \, only \, if} \qquad E(u(L)) < E(u(M)), where E(u(L)), or more briefly Eu(L) is given by ::Eu(p_1A_1 + \cdots + p_nA_n) = p_1u(A_1) + \cdots + p_nu(A_n). As such, u can be uniquely determined (up to adding a constant and multiplying by a positive scalar) by preferences between simple lotteries, meaning those of the form pA + (1 − p)B having only two outcomes. Conversely, any agent acting to maximize the expectation of a function u will obey axioms 1–4. Such a function is called the agent's von Neumann–Morgenstern (VNM) utility. === Proof sketch === The proof is constructive: it shows how the desired function u can be built. Here we outline the construction process for the case in which the number of sure outcomes is finite. Suppose there are n sure outcomes, A_1\dots A_n. Note that every sure outcome can be seen as a lottery: it is a degenerate lottery in which the outcome is selected with probability 1. Hence, by the Completeness and Transitivity axioms, it is possible to order the outcomes from worst to best: :A_1\preceq A_2\preceq \cdots \preceq A_n We assume that at least one of the inequalities is strict (otherwise the utility function is trivial—a constant). So A_1\prec A_n. We use these two extreme outcomes—the worst and the best—as the scaling unit of our utility function, and define: :u(A_1)=0 and u(A_n)=1 For every probability p\in[0,1], define a lottery that selects the best outcome with probability p and the worst outcome otherwise: :L(p) = p\cdot A_n + (1-p)\cdot A_1 Note that L(0)\sim A_1 and L(1)\sim A_n. By the Continuity axiom, for every sure outcome A_i, there is a probability q_i such that: :L(q_i) \sim A_i and :0 = q_1\leq q_2\leq \cdots \leq q_n = 1 For every i, the utility function for outcome A_i is defined as :u(A_i)=q_i so the utility of every lottery M=\sum_i p_i A_i is the expectation of u: :u(M) = u\left(\sum_i p_i A_i \right) = \sum_i p_i u(A_i) = \sum_i p_i q_i To see why this utility function makes sense, consider a lottery M = \sum_i p_i A_i , which selects outcome A_i with probability p_i. But, by our assumption, the decision maker is indifferent between the sure outcome A_i and the lottery q_i\cdot A_n + (1-q_i)\cdot A_1. So, by the Reduction axiom, he is indifferent between the lottery M and the following lottery: :M' = \sum_i p_i [q_i\cdot A_n + (1-q_i)\cdot A_1] :M' = \left(\sum_i p_i q_i \right) \cdot A_n + \left(\sum_i p_i(1-q_i)\right)\cdot A_1 :M' = u(M)\cdot A_n + (1-u(M))\cdot A_1 The lottery M' is, in effect, a lottery in which the best outcome is won with probability u(M), and the worst outcome otherwise. Hence, if u(M)>u(L), a rational decision maker would prefer the lottery M over the lottery L, because it gives him a larger chance to win the best outcome. Hence: ::L\prec M \; if and only if E(u(L)) < E(u(M)). === Reaction === Von Neumann and Morgenstern anticipated surprise at the strength of their conclusion. But according to them, the reason their utility function works is that it is constructed precisely to fill the role of something whose expectation is maximized: > "Many economists will feel that we are assuming far too much ... Have we not > shown too much? ... As far as we can see, our postulates [are] plausible ... > We have practically defined numerical utility as being that thing for which > the calculus of mathematical expectations is legitimate." – VNM 1953, § > 3.1.1 p.16 and § 3.7.1 p. 28 Thus, the content of the theorem is that the construction of u is possible, and they claim little about its nature. == Consequences == === Automatic consideration of risk aversion === It is often the case that a person, faced with real-world gambles with money, does not act to maximize the expected value of their dollar assets. For example, a person who only possesses $1000 in savings may be reluctant to risk it all for a 20% chance odds to win $10,000, even though :20\%(\$10\,000)+80\%(\$0) = \$2000 > 100\%(\$1000) However, if the person is VNM-rational, such facts are automatically accounted for in their utility function u. In this example, we could conclude that :20\%u(\$10\,000)+80\%u(\$0) < u(\$1000) where the dollar amounts here really represent outcomes (cf. "value"), the three possible situations the individual could face. In particular, u can exhibit properties like u($1)+u($1) ≠ u($2) without contradicting VNM-rationality at all. This leads to a quantitative theory of monetary risk aversion. === Implications for the expected utility hypothesis === In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published a treatiseSpecimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis or Exposition of a New Theory on the Measurement of Risk in which he posits that rational behavior can be described as maximizing the expectation of a function u, which in particular need not be monetary- valued, thus accounting for risk aversion. This is the expected utility hypothesis. As stated, the hypothesis may appear to be a bold claim. The aim of the expected utility theorem is to provide "modest conditions" (i.e. axioms) describing when the expected utility hypothesis holds, which can be evaluated directly and intuitively: > "The axioms should not be too numerous, their system is to be as simple and > transparent as possible, and each axiom should have an immediate intuitive > meaning by which its appropriateness may be judged directly. In a situation > like ours this last requirement is particularly vital, in spite of its > vagueness: we want to make an intuitive concept amenable to mathematical > treatment and to see as clearly as possible what hypotheses this requires." > – VNM 1953 § 3.5.2, p. 25 As such, claims that the expected utility hypothesis does not characterize rationality must reject one of the VNM axioms. A variety of generalized expected utility theories have arisen, most of which drop or relax the independence axiom. === Implications for ethics and moral philosophy === Because the theorem assumes nothing about the nature of the possible outcomes of the gambles, they could be morally significant events, for instance involving the life, death, sickness, or health of others. A von Neumann–Morgenstern rational agent is capable of acting with great concern for such events, sacrificing much personal wealth or well-being, and all of these actions will factor into the construction/definition of the agent's VNM- utility function. In other words, both what is naturally perceived as "personal gain", and what is naturally perceived as "altruism", are implicitly balanced in the VNM-utility function of a VNM-rational individual. Therefore, the full range of agent-focussed to agent-neutral behaviors are . If the utility of N is pM, a von Neumann–Morgenstern rational agent must be indifferent between 1N and pM+(1-p)0. An agent-focused von Neumann–Morgenstern rational agent therefore cannot favor more equal, or "fair", distributions of utility between its own possible future selves. === Distinctness from other notions of utility === Some utilitarian moral theories are concerned with quantities called the "total utility" and "average utility" of collectives, and characterize morality in terms of favoring the utility or happiness of others with disregard for one's own. These notions can be related to, but are distinct from, VNM-utility: * 1) VNM-utility is a decision utility: it is that according to which one decides, and thus by definition cannot be something which one disregards. * 2) VNM-utility is not canonically additive across multiple individuals (see Limitations), so "total VNM-utility" and "average VNM-utility" are not immediately meaningful (some sort of normalization assumption is required). The term E-utility for "experience utility" has been coined to refer to the types of "hedonistic" utility like that of Bentham's greatest happiness principle. Since morality affects decisions, a VNM-rational agent's morals will affect the definition of its own utility function (see above). Thus, the morality of a VNM-rational agent can be characterized by correlation of the agent's VNM-utility with the VNM-utility, E-utility, or "happiness" of others, among other means, but not by disregard for the agent's own VNM-utility, a contradiction in terms. == Limitations == === Nested gambling === Since if L and M are lotteries, then pL + (1 − p)M is simply "expanded out" and considered a lottery itself, the VNM formalism ignores what may be experienced as "nested gambling". This is related to the Ellsberg problem where people choose to avoid the perception of risks about risks. Von Neumann and Morgenstern recognized this limitation: > "...concepts like a specific utility of gambling cannot be formulated free > of contradiction on this level. This may seem to be a paradoxical assertion. > But anybody who has seriously tried to axiomatize that elusive concept, will > probably concur with it." – VNM 1953 § 3.7.1, p. 28. === Incomparability between agents === Since for any two VNM-agents X and Y, their VNM-utility functions uX and uY are only determined up to additive constants and multiplicative positive scalars, the theorem does not provide any canonical way to compare the two. Hence expressions like uX(L) + uY(L) and uX(L) − uY(L) are not canonically defined, nor are comparisons like uX(L) < uY(L) canonically true or false. In particular, the aforementioned "total VNM- utility" and "average VNM-utility" of a population are not canonically meaningful without normalization assumptions. === Applicability to economics === The expected utility hypothesis is shown to have limited predictive accuracy in a set of lab based empirical experiments, such as the Allais paradox. Which leads some people to interpret as evidence that * humans are not always rational, or * VNM-rationality is not an appropriate characterization of rationality, or * some combination of both, or * humans do behave VNM-rationally but the objective evaluation of u and the construction of u are intractable problems. == References and further reading == * * Anand, Paul. Foundations of Rational Choice Under Risk Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1993 reprinted 1995, 2002 * Fishburn, Peter C. Utility Theory for Decision Making. Huntington, NY. Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co. 1970. * Sixto Rios (1998) Some problems and developments in decision science, Revista Matematica Complutense 11(1):113–41. * Peterson, Martin (2009). An Introduction to Decision Theory (Cambridge Introductions to Philosophy). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Category:Theorems Category:Game theory Category:Utility Category:John von Neumann |
Starship Troopers is a 1997 American science fiction action film directed by Paul Verhoeven. The film is based on the 1959 novel of the same name by Robert A. Heinlein and was written by Ed Neumeier. Set in the 23rd century, the film follows the story of teenager Johnny Rico and his friends as they serve in the military under the Earth world government, known as the United Citizen Federation. As humanity explores and colonizes outer space, they come into conflict with an alien species known as the Arachnids, leading to an interstellar war. The film stars Casper Van Dien, Dina Meyer, Denise Richards, Jake Busey, Neil Patrick Harris, Patrick Muldoon, and Michael Ironside. Development of Starship Troopers began in 1991 as a separate project called Bug Hunt at Outpost 7, written by Neumeier. Producer Jon Davison noticed many similarities between Neumeier's work and Heinlein's book and asked him to re- work the script to more closely follow the novel and gain more interest from studio executives. Even so, development was slow, with studios remaining non- committal on funding the expensive project up to the filming date. Filming began in April 1996 on a $100–110million budget, nearly half of which was committed to the extensive computer-generated (CGI) and practical effects required to vivify the Arachnid creatures, before concluding that October. Released on November 7, 1997, Starship Troopers received negative reviews from critics, who perceived the film as promoting fascism, criticized its violence and the performances of its central cast, and several leveled accusations against Verhoeven and Neumeier of being Nazi sympathizers. Despite initial success, the negative reviews and poor word-of-mouth led to the film’s box office grosses dropping week after week until it left theaters, and it earned $121million against its budget, becoming only the 34th-highest-grossing film of the year. The poor performance of Starship Troopers was blamed, in part, on competition from a high number of successful or anticipated science fiction and genre films released that year, and its satirical and violent content failing to connect with mainstream audiences. Verhoeven believed that audiences' misconceptions about the film were the result of poor marketing that presented Starship Troopers as an action film instead of a satire. Since its release, Starship Troopers has been critically re-evaluated, and is now considered a cult classic and a prescient satire of fascism and authoritarian governance that has grown in relevancy. The film helped launch a multimedia franchise that includes four sequels, Starship Troopers 2: Hero of the Federation (2004), Starship Troopers 3: Marauder (2008), Starship Troopers: Invasion (2012), and Starship Troopers: Traitor of Mars (2017), as well as an animated television series, Roughnecks: Starship Troopers Chronicles (1999), video games, comics, and a variety of merchandise. == Plot == In the 23rd century, Earth is governed by the United Citizen Federation, a stratocratic regime founded generations earlier by "veterans" after democracy and social scientists brought civilization to the brink of ruin. Citizenship is gained only through federal service, which grants rights—such as to vote and to breed—that are withheld from ordinary civilians. Humans, who are now spacefaring, conduct colonization missions throughout the galaxy, bringing them into conflict with a race of highly evolved insectoid creatures dubbed "Arachnids" or, derisively, "bugs". Despite the protestations of his parents about the risks, teenage jock Johnny Rico enlists as a mobile infantryman to remain close to his girlfriend, spaceship pilot Carmen Ibanez. Their psychic friend Carl Jenkins joins Military Intelligence, while Isabelle "Dizzy" Flores, who is in love with Rico, deliberately transfers to his squad. Carmen eventually breaks up with Rico because their career paths separate them and she has developed a mutual attraction with fellow pilot Zander Barcalow. During training, Rico impresses drill sergeant Zim, earning a promotion to squad leader. He makes a mistake during a training exercise, which causes the death of one of his squad and the resignation of another. Consequently, Rico is demoted and flogged. Rico resigns from the military, but reconsiders after learning that an asteroid sent by the Arachnids has destroyed Buenos Aires, killing millions, including his parents. An invasion force is deployed to Klendathu, the Arachnids' home planet, but the military intelligence underestimates the Arachnids' defensive abilities, leading to thousands of casualties. Badly wounded, Rico is rescued by lieutenant Jean Rasczak, his former high-school teacher, but is mistakenly reported dead, devastating Carmen. Following his recovery, Rico, Dizzy, and squadmate Ace Levy join Rasczak's special forces unit, the "Roughnecks". Rico eventually earns the rank of Corporal for his feats against the Arachnids, including killing a gigantic "Tanker Bug" on Tango Urilla, and becomes romantically involved with Dizzy. The Roughnecks respond to a distress call on Planet P, where they reconnoitre an Arachnid-ravaged outpost but are quickly overwhelmed by the bugs. Carmen and Zander recover the surviving Roughnecks by dropship, but not before Dizzy is mortally wounded and Rico is forced to mercy kill the mutilated Rasczak. The group returns to the fleet assembled in orbit above P, where Dizzy is eulogized. Jenkins, now a high-ranking colonel, explains the Roughnecks were deliberately sent into the trap, justifying it as a necessary sacrifice to prove the existence of a "Brain Bug"; an intelligent Arachnid strategically directing the others. He grants Rico command of the Roughnecks and field-promotes him to lieutenant, ordering him back to P to capture the Brain Bug. As the battle commences, Carmen's ship is destroyed by the Arachnids, forcing her and Zander to flee in an escape shuttle that crash lands into an underground tunnel system. The pair are captured by the Arachnids and the Brain Bug uses its proboscis to consume Zander's brain, absorbing his knowledge. Rico sends his squad to complete their mission while he, Ace, and their squadmate Watkins find Carmen and hold the Arachnids at bay with a miniature nuclear bomb. The Brain Bug escapes while the Arachnids attack and mortally wound Watkins, who sacrifices himself by detonating the bomb while his teammates escape. On the surface, they learn that Zim has captured the Brain Bug, and the assembled troops rejoice as Jenkins psychically detects it is afraid. A propaganda advertisement details how the Brain Bug is being invasively studied, supposedly to learn its secrets and ensure humanity's victory. The advert encourages the viewers to enlist and do their part in the war so they can become like Carmen, now captain of her own ship, and Rico, who enthusiastically leads his troops into another battle. == Cast == * Casper Van Dien as Johnny Rico: A school sports star turned military infantryman * Dina Meyer as Dizzy Flores: Rico's former classmate who joins the mobile infantry * Denise Richards as Carmen Ibanez: An aspiring starship pilot and Rico's girlfriend * Jake Busey as Ace Levy: A military infantryman * Neil Patrick Harris as Carl Jenkins: A psychic who joins military intelligence. * Clancy Brown as Sgt. Zim: Rico's sergeant during training * Seth Gilliam as Sugar Watkins: A member of the Roughnecks special forces unit * Patrick Muldoon as Zander Barcalow: Rico's rival who is romantically interested in Carmen * Michael Ironside as Jean Rasczak: A former teacher turned squad leader Starship Troopers also features Rue McClanahan as a biology teacher, Marshall Bell as General Owen, Eric Bruskotter as Breckinridge, Matt Levin as Kitten Smith, Anthony Ruivivar as Shujumi, Brenda Strong as Captain Deladier, and Dean Norris as Commanding Officer. Christopher Curry and Lenore Kasdorf appear as Mr. and Mrs. Rico, while Bruce Gray and Denise Dowse appear as Sky Marshals Dienes and Meru. Other military infantry characters include Katrina (Blake Lindsley) and Djana'd (Tami-Adrian George). Corporals Bronski and Birdie are portrayed by Teo and Ungela Brockman, Sergeant Gillespie by Curnal Alesio, and Robert David Hall portrays a heavily disfigured Recruitment Sergeant. Key crew members make cameo appearances, including producer Jon Davison as the Angry Survivor of the Buenos Aires asteroid attack who says "the only good bug is a dead bug", and Neumeier appears as a handcuffed prisoner standing before Federation judges. Verhoeven's assistant, Stacy Lumbrezer, is a smiling woman during a psychic advertisement, and Paul Sammon, author of The Making of Starship Troopers, appears as one of the men feeding a cow to an Arachnid. == Production == ===Development as Bug Hunt at Outpost 7=== Since the release of RoboCop (1987), producer Jon Davison had wanted to develop another project that would reunite members of the creative team such as writer Ed Neumeier and stop motion animator Phil Tippett, but struggled to progress any relevant projects. Neumeier had separately been struggling to develop new story ideas alongside his RoboCop co-writer Michael Miner. The pair eventually realized their writing partnership was no longer working, and Neumeier began developing a story treatment called Bug Hunt at Outpost 7. He said, "I wanted to do a big, silly, jingoistic, xenophobic, let's-go-out-and-kill-the-enemy movie, and I had settled on the idea that it should be against insects... I wanted to make a war movie, but I also wanted to make a teenage romance movie". Insects were chosen as the enemies, due to Neumeier's wife's strong fear of the creatures. In December 1991, Neumeier brought his idea to Davison at Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank, which also headquartered TriStar Pictures, with whom Davison had a pre-existing development deal. After discussing the idea, Davison realized it bore many similarities to the 1959 science fiction novel, Starship Troopers, by Robert A. Heinlein. The novel had received a strongly divided reception on its release for promoting military power and necessary violence while criticizing liberal social programs, but it had remained an enduringly popular work for over four decades. Neumeier and Davison had both read the novel as children and considered directly adapting Starship Troopers instead of Neumeier's story. However, Davison believed the film adaptation rights would have already been purchased by that point and encouraged Neumeier to continue his original idea, later retitled Outpost 7. By late 1992, Davison was working out of Sony Pictures Studios, Culver City, when Neumeier brought him the finished Outpost 7, alternately referred to as Bug Hunt. Although Davison liked the treatment, it was rejected by TriStar executive Chris Lee. Undeterred, Neumeier and Davison decided to research the film rights to Starship Troopers, believing the more well-known intellectual property would change Lee's mind. They learned the rights were available and instead pitched making Starship Troopers. Lee was more receptive, but the pair also received broader support from other executives including TriStar head of production, Mike Medavoy, who had been similarly supportive of making RoboCop. With the studio's support in place, the rights to Starship Troopers were purchased and Neumeier began adapting his Outpost 7 script to more closely fit Heinlein's novel. ===Development as Starship Troopers=== Progress of the Starship Troopers adaptation remained slow for the next few years as TriStar regularly replaced executives, including Medavoy, and high-value or risky projects were more closely scrutinized. Even so, Davison spent much of 1993 securing several key crew including Tippett and their other RoboCop collaborator, Paul Verhoeven. According to Neumeier and Davison, they had only ever considered Verhoeven as the director because they determined the fantastical creatures, genre, and political subtext suited his creative sensibilities. Verhoeven said, "I like science fiction movies. I mean, the Star Wars series is delightful, you know? ...but the main reason I decided to do Starship Troopers was Phil Tippett. I had worked with Phil on RoboCop and felt that was really interesting..." Verhoeven considered himself the director of the live characters, and described Tippett as effectively his co-director, leading filming of the creatures. Verhoeven also brought in Alan Marshall as a producer, having worked with him on Basic Instinct (1992) and his current project, Showgirls (1995). Verhoeven was in need of a promising project as, despite his previous successes in the early 1990s, his efforts to develop the pirate adventure Mistress of the Seas and the Arnold Schwarzenegger-starring Crusade had failed. Additionally, Showgirls had become a financial failure and earned him the worst reviews of his career. By 1994, the studio had still not agreed to move Starship Troopers out of the development phase and into pre- production. Key crew members, including Davison and Verhoeven, decided to produce test footage to demonstrate their intended visual style and tone. Although still busy filming Showgirls at this point, Verhoeven was determined to direct the sequence himself. The scene was storyboarded and detailed enough that Tippett's design for the "Warrior Bugs" changed little by the time of actual filming. The resulting scene, dubbed the "Bug Test" and running between 40 seconds and two minutes, was filmed at Vasquez Rocks near Los Angeles on July 21, 1994, at a cost of $225,000 provided by TriStar. Filmed by John Hora with a 30-person crew, the sequence depicts a soldier (played by Mitch Gaylord) being pursued and killed by two Warrior Bugs; Neumeier makes a cameo appearance as a dead soldier. The visual effects were finished by September, and the completed "Bug Test" screened for TriStar executives in early October. Executives including Lee and Mark Canton were impressed with the visual effects and did not realize they had been produced with computer-generated imagery (CGI). They approved moving into pre-production, but others remained non-committal on providing any substantial funding; according to Neumeier, these others did not understand the project. Development continued at a slow pace into early 1995 when Davison put together a detailed budget totalling $90million, based on Neumeier's third draft. Davison said TriStar was reluctant to provide this amount, often bringing up the financial failure of the $200million-budgeted Waterworld (1995), which was seen by industry experts as an example of excessive spending and had led to the firing of many involved executives at Universal Pictures. TriStar executives determined that the only way for Starship Troopers to continue development was to identify a business partner with whom they could split the production costs. Davison said he began screening the Bug Test for anyone he could, eventually attracting the interest of Walt Disney Studios. A meeting was held with, among others, Canton and Marc Platt from TriStar, Sony, Disney's head of motion pictures, Joe Roth, Verhoeven, Davison, and Marshall. An agreement was made that the studios would produce Starship Troopers via TriStar and Disney's Touchstone Pictures, splitting the budget costs and box office profits evenly, in exchange for Touchstone receiving all distribution rights to the film outside of the United States and Canada. Each studio was also given creative input on the film and its marketing. ===Writing=== Neumeier began adapting the Starship Troopers novel at the beginning of 1993, working out of his office in Eagle Rock, Los Angeles. He was initially concerned about how to translate the tone of Heinlein's work, recalling the awareness he had had in his youth of the controversy that surrounded the novel and which identified Heinlein as alternately a conservative, militarist, libertarian, and fascist. The novel espouses the benefits of military service, citizenship, and masculinity. Heinlein described the central theme as being "that a man, to be truly human, must be unhesitatingly willing at all times to lay down his life for his fellow man. [This theme] is based on the twin concepts of love and duty-and how they are related to the survival of our race". Neumeier was interested in writing about fascism, but was concerned it would be difficult to do so successfully. Despite this, he and Davison wanted to accurately adapt the novel's and Heinlein's viewpoint. Neumeier believed audiences would appreciate the concept of a failing democracy and stricter cultural controls. He said: "you want a world that works? Okay, we'll show you one. And it really does work. It happens to be a military dictatorship, but it works. That was the original rhythm I was trying to play with, just to sort of mess with the audiences". Neumeier struggled to adapt certain aspects, finding the first and third acts to be narratively strong but the middle act, focusing on Rico's boot camp experience, to be a lengthy piece "preaching to his readership", which would not make for an interesting film. He identified the elements he considered essential, including the high school opening, boot camp, battles, and the underlying philosophy and sociopolitics, and compensated for the novel's second act by expanding on sequences such as the high school romance, basing it on his own experiences of chasing women with no interest in him. The first draft was completed on July 8, 1993. It remained generally faithful to Heinlein's novel, including a secondary alien race known as the "Skinnies", the "Bounce"—a jet-assisted traversal method, and power armor, which granted the troops superhuman strength. Rasczak's lecture on citizenship was also paraphrased from the novel. A copy was sent to Heinlein's wife, who was pleased despite the minor differences to the novel. However, as development progressed, many aspects would be changed or removed, in part because of financial reasons, but also under Verhoeven's influence. Verhoeven tried to read the novel but "stopped after two chapters because it was so boring... it is really quite a bad book... it's a very right-wing book". He had Neumeier summarize the narrative for him, and found it militaristic, fascistic, and overly supportive of armed conflict, which clashed with Verhoeven's childhood experiences in the German-occupied Netherlands during World War II. Verhoeven determined that he could use the basic plot to satirize and undermine the book's themes by deconstructing the concepts of totalitarianism, fascism, and militarism, saying: "All the way through I wanted the audience to be asking, 'Are these people crazy?'" By 1994, Verhoeven was still filming Showgirls, but remained active in the second draft. Among his suggestions was to introduce a romantic subplot between Rico and Carmen, and combined the male character Dizzy with a Neumeier-created female called Ronnie who was romantically interested in Rico. This in turn led Neumeier to develop romantic triangles between Dizzy, Rico, and Carmen, and Rico, Carmen, and Zander. Other aspects were removed such as the Skinnies, because Verhoeven thought too many alien races would be confusing, while queen bugs and advanced canines called Neo- dogs were considered financially unviable. Another financially motivated change was the removal of "the Drop", a method of dropping troops from orbit in capsules that shed consecutive layers during landing, leading to the nickname "Cap Troopers". Preliminary designs were made of the capsules, but were generally attached to parachutes which did not match the intended aesthetic. Adding rockets was deemed impractical because it would have required numerous different visual effects and taken too much time to accomplish, so they settled for dropships. The most substantial change was making the enemy more insect-like, as Verhoeven did not want to "see a bug with a gun in his hand". The Bounce was also removed due to cost and because Marshall said they made the troops look like they were on pogo sticks and removed the threat of the Arachnids if troops could easily jump away. The most controversial omission from the novel, for fans, was the power armor. Davison said that despite the importance of the armor, it was financially impossible to create hundreds of suits for the cast and extras. He and Verhoeven initially agreed to use the power armor sparingly, and integrate various different ideas such as the Bounce and weapons into them, but later determined it gave the troops too much of an advantage against the Arachnids. Additionally, as development continued, any further increase in costs risked the production being cancelled entirely. The FedNet sequences, the main source of information in the future, was invented for the film. An intentional prediction of how Neumeier believed television and computers would eventually be combined, the sequences were depicted in a way that would excite a population with very patriotic narration. Verhoeven described the final script as being about contemporary American politics, such as a lack of gun control and increasing capital punishment under Texas governor George W. Bush, which he believed could potentially lead to fascism. The characters of Starship Troopers were "fascists who don't know they're fascists". He said: "If I tell the world that a right-wing, fascist way of doing things doesn't work, no one will listen to me. So I'm going to make a perfect fascist world: everyone is beautiful, everything is shiny, everything has big guns and fancy ships but it's only good for killing fucking Bugs!" Neumeier completed his third and final draft by early 1995. ===Pre-production=== Under the company name Big Bug Pictures, the Starship Troopers team were provided with a large suite in the Astaire Building on the Sony lot, from which to work. While pre-production began in earnest by September 1995, after Verhoeven concluded work on Showgirls, he had spent several months producing over 4,000 storyboard images of the Starship Troopers script. Conscious that the Arachnids, among other CGI elements, would be added after filming, he wanted a detailed image of how each scene would be set out during filming. Storyboard artists Robin Richesson and Giacomo Ghiazzi refined Verhoeven's storyboards, the bulk of the comic- book–style art being done by Ghiazzi. Many key crew members were hired during 1996, including Verhoeven's long-time cinematographer, Jost Vacano, as well as Vic Armstrong (second unit director and stunt coordinator), Mark Goldblatt (editor), John Richardson (special effects supervisor), Basil Poledouris (music composer), Stacey McIntosh (construction coordinator), Karen Higgins (construction foreman), Gregg Goldstone (first assistanct director), Kenneth Silverstein (second assistant director), John Blake (makeup artist), Kathy Blondell (hair stylist), William Petrotta (prop master), Robert "Rock" Galotti (weapons coordinator), production manager Robert Latham Brown, production coordinator Daren Hicks, and assistant production coordinators Janet Campolito and Lisa Hackler. Tippett also began hiring the nearly 100 additional staff required to realize the Arachnids, including Jules Roman (Tippett Studio visual effects producer), Craig Hayes (visual effects artist), Trey Stokes (Animation department head), Adam Valdez and Blake Clark (animators), Paula Luchessi (lead cg painter), Julie Newdoll (supervisor of CG lighting), Brennan Doyle (lead compositor), Desiree Mourad (lighting), and Joanna Ladolcetta (lead rotoscoper). Davison's responsibilities focused mainly on the special effects, while Marshall was concerned more with the filming. Production designer Allan Cameron and location manager Bill Bowling scouted several locations but rejected most as they did not consider them unique enough. Others, such as the Valley of Fire State Park in Nevada had too many environmental restrictions which could impact filming. The situation was made more difficult by an extended period of U.S. government shutdowns, which made obtaining the necessary filming and associated permits protracted, so they intentionally avoided further scouting of national or state parks or government-owned land. This restriction limited their options particularly for impactful scenery. Bowling eventually discovered Hell's Half Acre, located just outside of the town of Casper, Wyoming, which offered "colorful buttes and pinnacles," which could portray the alien planets of Klendathu and Planet P. The location was remote, being about from the Astaire Building or hotels and requiring an hour long drive every morning at 5am. It offered other logistical challenges as it was generally undeveloped land, so the production had to build roads for the trucks carrying their gear into the canyons for filming. Anything that could not be driven in had to be lowered by helicopter. Construction of some on-location sets such as Whiskey Outpost camp began in February 1996 and took six weeks. The local government was supportive of the project, subsidizing the building of the roads and camp. The crew later learned that the area was rife with rattlesnakes, although no crew was bitten. Another, more easily accessible location, Barry Barber Ranch near Kadoka, South Dakota and the Badlands National Park, featured little vegetations and smooth, undulating landscape, which could serve as Tango Urilla. Even as pre- production continued, Davison remained concerned about the studio's ongoing executive turnover and its inconsistent commitment to funding, saying: "I felt the plug could always be pulled on us any minute". In contrast, Verhoeven believed the repeated regime changes at the studio meant the project was being overlooked until it was too late to cancel it. ===Casting=== In casting Starship Troopers, Verhoeven wanted a cast who visually embodied the caucasian, blonde, blue-eyed, and beautiful image he had perceived in Triumph of the Will (1935) and Olympia (1938), the Nazi propaganda films by Leni Riefenstahl. He described it as "an idiotic story, young people go to fight bugs, so I felt the human characters should have a comic-book look". The search initially focused on popular, well-known film actors aged between their late teens and early twenties, but he realized that many of the contemporary stars were already in their thirties or already committed to other projects. Although television actors were still generally ignored when casting films, the production looked at shows such as Melrose Place and Beverly Hills, 90210, which featured young, photogenic, but less well known actors, such as Van Dien, Richards, and Meyer. Verhoeven later said Starship Troopers could have benefitted from casting actors for their ability instead of looks. Van Dien went through five auditions for the Rico role. He shared a similar history to the character, his father and grandfather having been in the military and attending military school himself, as well as being the captain of his high school football team. Van Dien was also a science fiction fan, particularly of Star Wars and Star Trek. He underwent eight months of training for his role, adding about of muscle and losing from his waist. Mark Wahlberg and Matt Damon also auditioned, but Verhoeven believed Van Dien closely fit the aesthetic of Riefenstahl's films. Richards also went through five auditions to portray Carmen in November and December 1995, before finally screen testing against Van Dien. Unlike her character, Richards said she was terrified of flying. She did not think about the politics of Starship Troopers, saying she was focused on avoiding being fired from her first major film role. Although her agent initially recommended auditioning for Carmen, Meyer was more interested in Dizzy. She thought she could convey the character's "heart" and vulnerability at being overlooked by Rico because her toughness makes her seem like just another guy. Harris was mainly known at the time for portraying a child doctor on Doogie Howser, M.D. (1989–1993), and wanted a project that would shed that image as he moved into his adult career. Describing playing Jenkins, Harris said: "He's bipolar, in a sense. Almost two completely separate characters. When you first meet [Jenkins]... he's Johnny's best friend. A bit geeky, but also funny, with lots of energy and quips... when you finally see him again... he's worn and pale and has the whole weight of the world on his shoulders. He's also dressed like a German Gestapo officer!" Starship Troopers was the feature film debut for Patrick Muldoon, who was mostly known for Melrose Place. Muldoon said Verhoeven and Neumeier saw Zander as having a dark side, but he considered him to be an "ambiguous character... he's very competitive, and he gets what he wants. But what we finally ended up with, I think, is actually a slightly tougher version of the relationship between Han Solo and Princess Leia in the Star Wars movies". Busey considered Ace Levy to be an integral part of the cast, who finds the humor in the most macabre situations, releasing the tension for the audience. Seth Gilliam described his character "like the Vietnam war veteran who kept reenlisting after every tour of duty was over. To my mind, Sugar couldn't deal with being 'back in the world,' as they used to call it". Clancy Brown portrays Sgt. Zim, a "crusty, macho, jingoistic, ultimately admirable drill instructor." Brown based his performance on archetypical "tough as nails" instructors from older American films such as The D.I. (1957) and Full Metal Jacket (1987), as well as taking guidance from retired Marine captain Dale Dye, who said that he should act as if his soldiers are watching every move he makes. Verhoeven was a fan of Ironside, having attempted to cast him in RoboCop and giving him a central role in Total Recall (1990). His Jean Rasczak character appears early in Starship Troopers to set the tone, and was an original character combining two characters from the novel: Rico's teacher, Lieutenant Colonel Jean V. Dubois, and Lieutenant Rasczak, a heroic soldier. Ironside said that after the character's family is killed in the destruction of Buenos Aires, "there isn't a God in Rasczak's life anymore. That makes him a little suicidal". About six main actors, including Van Dien, Meyer, Busey, Gilliam and Curnal Aulisio, as well as twenty-four extras undertook a 12-day boot camp training session under Dale Dye from April 17, 1996, to the first day of filming. Taking place in Hell's Half Acre, the boot camp taught basic combat skills and tactics as Dye perceived they may evolve centuries in the future. Activities included a daily run and other physical training in the very thin air of the area which was above sea level, how to march, perform maneuveurs, and handle weapons. Those involved slept in open-air military tents, dealing with the harsh conditions including of snow and ice following a blizzard, and windstorms, and some people did drop out. Extra Julia Rupkalvis later helped Dye train the hundreds of extras portraying troopers. As Richards was not in the Infantry cast she did not have to participate, but she chose to anyway, remarking how she, Van Dien and Busey bonded while huddling together for warmth during the blizzard. ===Filming=== Principal photography began on April 29, 1996, with six weeks of filming in Hell's Half Acre. The location featured extreme weather, with very warm days and frigid evenings that took a toll on much of the on-site equipment, requiring various replacements to be flown in on a regular basis. The location was also beset by torrential rain, blizzards, and wind storms up to per hour. The site had to be evacuated temporarily after rain mixing with the bentonite in the ground created a slick surface. The crew took as much equipment as they could, and after the rain stopped two weeks later, miles of electrical cables, some equipment, and even cars had been lost under the mud. Even so, only a few days were lost to the weather as a local warehouse had been converted into a soundstage for backup scenes to be filmed. Alongside the weather conditions, filming in Hell's Half Acre took its toll on the crew, resulting in respiratory illnesses and exhaustion. Dozens of people per day were treated for heat stroke from wearing heavy costumes in the heat, and production had to be shut down for a week at a cost of $1.5million a day after it affected Busey. The location was used for the Klendathu night battle, which featured about 1,300 background trooper extras on each night of filming. Scenes were filmed mainly with a steadicam while handheld footage was occasionally used for battle scenes, inspired by the Normandy landings in 1944, to make the audience feel a part of the scene. It was designed to be disorienting and gory to set expectations of the film's future combat scenes. The cast faced a lot of difficulties in interacting with creatures that were not present in the scene and had to learn how to act against invisible objects. Various methods were used to help, including cardboard cutouts and tennis balls or flags on sticks to indicate their positions, as well as Verhoeven wielding a broom. A fatal accident occurred during the Memorial Day holiday weekend in May when some crew, returning to Casper from their vacation at Yellowstone park, were involved in a car crash caused by an oncoming driver, killing the opposing driver and two crew members, and severely injuring Rachel Campos, a crew member's girlfriend. Counselling was offered for the remaining cast and crew, who provided donations towards Campos' recovery, as did the studio. Filming moved to Barry Barber Ranch on June 14, for scenes set on Klendathu and Tango Urilla, before returning to Casper on June 26. The post Tango Urilla battle celebration was filmed separately at Vasquez Rocks. Obstacles continued as the crew boarded their return flight to Los Angeles on June 29, to begin filming on sets July 3. One crew member was intoxicated, refused further alcohol by flight attendants and uttered a remark about a bomb which resulted in the plane being evacuated, cargo being searched, and all passengers being held in a holding area. The crew member was arrested for violating federal bomb threat laws while the remaining team had to wait another day for a flight, having to travel on a scheduled rest day and losing a day of filming in Los Angeles. The Buenos Aires education center classroom and biology lab sets were built on Sony Studios Stage 23 and filmed in late July. Jenkin's basement scenes were filmed on Stage 29; it involved a real ferret and features many of Heinlein's books in the background. The Jump Ball scene was filmed at the Long Beach Pyramid arena. Van Dien, Meyer, and Muldoon performed many of their own stunts for the scene apart from flips and somersaults, but otherwise encouraged each other to "go for it, try to lay me out." The exam results scene and the prom were both filmed at Kaiser Permanente. The prom scene involved over four hundred extras. The Federal Recruitment Center scene and the segment where Rico sees off Carmen were filmed over four days at the Los Angeles Convention Center, which Verhoeven chose because he considered its architecture to be futuristic and clean. The scenes there involved the highest number of extras in Starship Troopers, with about 400. Some minor scenes were also filmed at the Park Plaza Hotel. It was difficult to find a location for the Camp Currie boot camp scenes until finding Mile Square Regional Park in Fountain Valley. Cameron liked it because it had an abandoned World War II blimp runway onto which they laid a top coat of tarmac and paint for a parade ground. It also fit their image of a low- pollution Earth, being surrounded by flat ground and many trees. The entire structure was about and included an obstacle course and artillery ranges, as well as involving up to 300 extras. About six weeks were spent transforming the site, including adding seventeen pre-fabricated buildings. For the Rico flagellation scene, Teo was trained to use a bullwhip by Armstrong, who himself learned while doubling for Harrison Ford in the Indiana Jones film series. The tip of the whip was removed to avoid harm and the camera angle concealed that the whip ended a short distance away from Van Dien. The co-ed nude shower scene was filmed on a set at Sony Pictures and involved about fifteen cast members. Verhoeven had them gather around him clothed before clearing the set of all crew but himself and Vacano, after which he told the cast to undress at their own pace. Although some of the cast admitted to being nervous, they all undressed fairly quickly, but requested that Verhoeven and Vacano also be nude, to which they agreed. The scene would become one of Starship Troopers most infamous scenes, but Verhoeven remarked he had done a similar scene in RoboCop although few seemed to notice. For Starship Troopers he wanted people to take notice. He described the point of the scene as being that since all of the characters are fascists, they have no libido and only talk about their careers and combat. A separate nude scene was written for Richards but she refused to take part as she did not see the purpose. Armstrong filmed many of the film's action sequences as well as the complex stunts and special effect sequences that would be too consuming for the first unit. Also working as the stunt director, Armstrong delegated much of the first unit stunt work to Dickey Beer to avoid overworking himself. The fight between Rico and Zander was mainly performed by their actors while wearing padding suits. Van Dien was injured during a stunt that involved him riding on the back of a gigantic, moving, fiberglass "Tanker Bug" shell. The movement kept slamming him into the shell as he was held in place with ropes, chipping one of his teeth and bruising his ribs over the days of filming, but he refused to mention the pain and interrupt filming. One of the more dangerous stunts came near the end of filming, involving Van Dien, Busey, and Richards running out of an Arachnid tunnel followed by a real explosion. Only one take was done, and they were told that if someone tripped to pick them up and keep moving. Despite the difficult conditions and obstacles, principal photography concluded after six months of filming generally six days a week on October 16, 1996, not longer after the intended finishing date. Second unit filming concluded a week later on October 23, after filming various explosions and background scenery. Armstrong estimated that about 40% of Starship Troopers constituted second unit-filmed scenes. Most effects scenes were shot early in the schedule so there was sufficient time for the effects team to complete their work. ===Post-production=== Post-production began in late October 1996, and concluded about August 1997, covering editing, music, and effects. Starship Troopers was edited by Mark Goldblatt with co-editor Caroline Ross. Goldblatt described Verhoeven as very collaborative, allowing them to interpret his footage in their own way and even allowing them input during filming on how special effects may be staged. Even so, he said Verhoeven was conservative with what he filmed and generally only captured what he wanted with no coverage footage. Some scenes were changed for the release, including trimming the scene of the Brain Bug sucking brains. Another scene, of Carmen kissing Rico at the end was cut because test audiences thought it was "immoral" after Zander's death, and were unconvinced that a woman could love both men simultaneously. The audiences were also unhappy with Carmen choosing her career over her relationship with Rico and wanted her to die at the end instead of Dizzy. Several scenes were filmed during this period, including some of the FedNet propaganda sequences as there was no time to complete these during principal photography. Filmed over a week in late January 1997, with many of the same crew including Verhoeven and Vacano, mainly on location in and around Los Angeles, these sequences included survivors digging through the remains of Buenos Aires, shot on a vacant lot in downtown Los Angeles that was dressed with broken concrete and flame effects. Some of the crew stood in for the cast including Davison, Neumeier, Stacy Lumbrezer, and Paul Sammon, author of the film's "Making Of" book. Another scene of a psychic with a third eye was filmed in a Delta Airlines hangar at the Los Angeles International Airport. Starship Troopers is reported to have had a final budget of $100–$110million. Two rough cut screenings were held on May 29 and 30, 1997, for executives, and the reaction was positive with discussions of a sequel. Discussing the long development of Starship Troopers, Marshall said that he was proud of it whether it was a success or not, but would be happiest if audiences appreciated the work that had gone into it. Davison called it the project he was proudest to have associated with his name. ===Special effects=== About half of the budget for Starship Troopers was dedicated to realizing the required 500 special effect shots. Tippett Studio was mainly responsible for producing effects relating to the Arachnids while Sony Pictures Imageworks (SPI) was tasked with spaceship effects. Davison wanted to use other studios but it was made clear to him by studio executives that the film would not receive financing without using the in-house studio. SPI would lead to production problems, with their contributions falling months behind schedule and those effects that were completed being deemed insufficient by the filmmakers. A "highly placed" production employee said that SPI was poorly managed, disorganized, and rarely on set or involved in the production. while another said that SPI's priorities were split with developing the effects for the science fiction film, Contact (1997). Due to the high quantity of effects that needed to be completed, many of the special effects shots were reassigned from SPI to other companies, including Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Boss Film Studios, Visual Concepts Engineering (VCE), and Mass. Illusion. Toward the end of production, visual effects supervisor Laura Buff recommended visual effects artist, Scott E. Anderson, to Verhoeven, who insisted Anderson take over as effects supervisor at SPI, which improved the studios output. Designing the Arachnids was a collaborative process between Tippett, Hayes, Davison, Neumeier, and Verhoeven. Hayes said they "started by breaking the insects down into a bug hierarchy, then into individual groups. We did different drawings of bugs with weird stuff here and there, then fleshed out designs for each particular style. But there was a concerted effort to make them pretty familiar. [Starship Troopers] is not about this fantastic lifeform: the bugs had to be real and grounded so you wouldn't have any trouble telling the good guys from the bad guys." The final designs included the Warrior, Tanker, Plasma, Hopper, and Brain bugs. While CGI was the main method of realizing the creatures, some practical appliances were built by Amalgamated Dynamics, including two full-scale mechanized Warrior bugs capable of lifting an adult in their jaws. Realizing the wide variety of effects for the spaceship scenes required the efforts of SPI, ILM, and Boss Film. Jim Martin and SPI art director Michael Scheffe were mainly responsible for the design of the craft, with Martin providing broad outlines which were given greater detail and a more consistent appearance by Scheffe. Alongside developing the appearance of most of the spacecraft, SPI was also primarily involved in designing the outer space battles. Verhoeven provided ongoing input on the designs, based on what he thought futuristic spaceships would look like, being less streamlined due to the lack of air resistance in space, and taking some influence from compact combat places, such as the de Havilland Mosquito used in World War II. Thunderstone, SPI's model department, had to construct the various necessary craft, such as dropships and attack fighters, as well as versions that could be destroyed and a full-scale attack fighter for some close-up scenes. Many miniatures were made of the ships for different scenes, some of them measuring up to long. ===Music=== The score for Starship Troopers was composed by Basil Poledouris over a six-month period. Poledouris intended to score the film as an action movie, but Verhoeven wanted the music to offer a realistic background for the character's experiences. As a result, Poledouris focused on creating a sense of excitement, passion, and poignancy. He developed several distinct themes for specific characters and relationships, including one for the relationship between Rico and Carmen, and one for Rico and Dizzy, whom he considered the "heart" of Starship Troopers. He did not create a theme for the Arachnids, as he wanted their distinct noises to contrast with the music for the humans. Verhoeven eventually settled on Poledouris' theme for the Rodger Young spaceship as the basis for the overall score, with variations on this theme appearing throughout the score in cues later titled "Klendathu Drop." The score was recorded on a Sony Studios recording stage between June and September 1997, with a full orchestra of 97 musicians using mainly acoustic and percussion instruments. Evelyn Oz, a band including Poledouris' daughter, Zoe, performs two songs during the prom scene: an original song, "Into It," and "I Have Not Been to Oxford Town," composed by David Bowie. ==Release== ===Context=== In 1997, a record number of costly blockbuster films were released. By August, a record 10 films had earned over $100million, with The Lost World: Jurassic Park and Men in Black earning over $200million. However, the high cost of film production, with an average film costing $80million to produce and an additional $40million to promote, coupled with the large number of films vying for a limited audience, resulted in even successful films underperforming by 15%-20% at the box office. Despite this, Sony Pictures set an industry record by earning over $500million in ticket sales from summer releases including Air Force One, Men in Black, and My Best Friend's Wedding. The company was also restructuring its business to focus on translating its films, including Starship Troopers, into media franchises that would extend their merchandising profitability beyond their time in theaters. ===Marketing=== The first trailer for Starship Troopers was released in November 1996, in front of Star Trek: First Contact, with the second playing before Men in Black and Air Force One in 1997. Starship Troopers was initially scheduled for release on July 2, 1997, but was later pushed back to July 25, then September, and finally November 7. These shifts were reportedly made to allow more time to complete special effects work and increase public awareness of the film, but it was also thought that Men in Black and Air Force One, which starred well-known actors like Harrison Ford, were more commercially viable options for Sony Pictures. Marshall, a producer on the film, stated that no one involved in the production was happy about moving an anticipated summer blockbuster to the autumn. Verhoeven later said that Davison, the film's producer, had told him it would "never make its money back. [Davison] saw there was a problem with the American audience better than I had." ===Box office=== The premiere of Starship Troopers took place on November 4, 1997 in Westwood, Los Angeles, with an afterparty at the Museum of Flying. In the United States and Canada, the film was released on November 7, 1997, earning approximately $22.1million from 2,971 theaters, an average of $7,424 per theater. It was the top film of the weekend, beating out Bean ($12.7million) and the horror I Know What You Did Last Summer ($6.5million), both in their fourth weekend. This also made it TriStar's third-largest opening weekend, behind Total Recall (1990) and Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991). The New York Times gave 1,000 tickets for Bean to young males as a test, and recorded that many then snuck into the R-rated Starship Troopers. In its second weekend, the film dropped to second place, earning $10million, ahead of the re-release of The Little Mermaid ($9.8million) and behind the debut of The Jackal ($15.2million). This represented a 54% decrease from the previous weekend's box office. In its third weekend, Starship Troopers fell to seventh place with a box office gross of $4.7million, and left the top 10 highest-grossing films by its sixth weekend in mid-December. The film left most theaters by the end of the year with a total box office gross of about $54.8million, making it the 33rdhighest-grossing film of the year. Outside of the U.S. and Canada, the film is estimated to have earned an additional $66.3million, giving it a worldwide box office of $121million against its $105million budget, and making it the 34thhighest-grossing film worldwide. == Reception == ===Critical response=== Upon its release, Starship Troopers received generally negative reviews and was unpopular with critics and audiences. Audience polls by CinemaScore found that moviegoers gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an scale. Many reviewers did not interpret Starship Troopers as a satire and believed that its fascist themes were literal. An editorial in The Washington Post described the film as pro-fascist, made, directed, and written by Nazis. Stephen Hunter said the film was "spiritually" and "psychologically" Nazi and born of a Nazi-like imagination. Hunter described it as a "perversion" of Erich Maria Remarque's 1929 novel, All Quiet on the Western Front, which portrays the physical and mental tolls of war, by glorifying the horrors of war. Others, such as Empire, argued that the "constant fetishizing of weaponry" and "[Aryan] cast", combined with the militaristic imagery in RoboCop and Total Recall, made it seem as though Verhoeven admired Heinlein's world more than he claimed. Those who recognized the satirical elements said that the film walked a thin line between "overblown melodrama" and parody, with Verhoeven's RoboCop-style "news breaks", but that these ideas were often indistinguishable from the promotion of the "fascist utopia" it was satirizing. Salon argued that even with good satire, it is "self-defeatingly stupid" to use it in a story that wants its audience to care about its characters, and that Starship Troopers fails to replace Heinlein's themes with a worthwhile ideal. The Los Angeles Times wrote that Verhoeven had "lost his touch" with satire by failing to respect his audiences' intelligence and make the world of Starship Troopers interesting or convincing. Reviews generally regarded Starship Troopers as an unintelligent and "discordant" combination of ultraviolence, poor acting, and special effects, but in spite of this, it was one of the more "jaw-dropping" films of the year, amid a series of "disappointing" blockbusters. Berardinelli said that at its best, Starship Troopers replicated the thrills of Aliens (1986), while emulating Beverly Hills, 90210 in its worst moments. Roger Ebert said that Heinlein's novel was written for juveniles and the film's content would only be of interest to younger audiences. Janet Maslin and Kenneth Turan found Neuemeier's script to be unsuccessful in transitioning from the teenage love story to the carnage of war, but that Starship Troopers remained watchable as a live-action comic book. Turan, in particular, said that unlike its contemporaries, such as Independence Day and Twister (both 1996), Starship Troopers benefitted from a lack of pretence that the effects were less important than emotions or "pseudo-sensitivity." Ebert concluded that, apart from the satire, Starship Troopers lacked any humanity or basic entertainment value with which to establish a connection to the audience. Reviews were generally dismissive of the central cast, describing them as "no name" "mannequins" that offered an all-American superficial Aryan stereotype of beauty, while criticizing their limited acting abilities that made some of their critically derided peers seem like "classical thespians", and made it difficult to become invested in the narrative. Even so, some critics, such as James Berardinelli, said that Starship Troopers content would not work with good "or even competent" actors. Berardinelli also praised the cast for being "appealing and enthusiastic", particularly Van Dien and Meyer for retaining some human interest once the special-effects sequences become more prominent. Jonathan Rosenbaum and others found the violence to be consistent with Verhoeven's other work, offering a "kinky-camp ghoulishness", but that the battles with waves of Arachnids were "joyless", emotionally unsatisfying, and grew tiresome because the creatures lacked any personality and that audiences would quickly become desensitized to the extreme gore. Ebert said the battles were worsened by the "boring" rock- like planets on which the battles took place, that featured no other species beyond humans and Arachnids. The film's special effects received a mixed reception from those who found them impressive or "astonishing", and others who thought that the creations sometimes faltered and looked fake. ===Accolades=== At the 2nd Golden Satellite Awards in 1998, Starship Troopers was nominated for Best Motion Picture (Animated or Mixed Media). For the 70th Academy Awards, Tippett, Scott E. Anderson, Alec Gillis, and John Richardson were nominated for Best Visual Effects. Starship Troopers was also nominated for Best Action Sequence at the MTV Movie Awards, as well as receiving a nomination for Best Dramatic Presentation from the Hugo Awards. The Stinkers Bad Movie Awards ceremony saw Starship Troopers nominated for Worst Picture, losing to Batman & Robin. == Post-release == ===Performance analysis=== Retrospective analysis has attempted to understand the reasons for Starship Troopers poor performance at the box office. The film generally failed to connect with either critics or audiences, who found its mixture of satire, violence, gore, and "cheesy" performances unappealing to mainstream audiences. Other industry experts believe it was also adversely affected by the number of successful science fiction and genre films released in that year, such as The Lost World: Jurassic Park ($618.6million), Men in Black ($587.8million), and The Fifth Element ($263.9million). Additionally, Starship Troopers was released just a few weeks before Titanic ($1.8billion), which became the highest-grossing film of its time, as well as other successful or anticipated films such as Alien Resurrection, Flubber, Scream 2, and the latest James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies. The Washington Post also accused Starship Troopers of being a pro-Nazi film made by two Nazis, Verhoeven and Neumeier. Verhoeven said "We were accused by The Washington Post of being neo-Nazis!... It was tremendously disappointing. They couldn't see that all I have done is ironically create a fascist utopia." The narrative that Starship Troopers was effectively a "neo-Nazi" film was picked up by European news publications, such as Germany, Italy, and France. Verhoeven described it as "extremely punishing to us", and had to repeatedly explain to European journalists the context that Starship Troopers was using fascist imagery ironically. Verhoeven believed this helped dissuade audiences from turning out to see Starship Troopers and, alongside poor word-of-mouth from audiences that did attend, the U.S. box office gross dropped a rare 50% in its second weekend. The title was also seen as a possible factor, leading audiences to expect something akin to a light-hearted adventure such as Star Wars instead of a film about fascism. Verhoeven also believed audiences were not happy about Dizzy dying instead of Carmen, remarking: "we were trying to be good feminists." American historian Robert Sklar suggested that audiences had also grown tired of alien war films and science-fiction adventure in general after the recent releases of Mars Attacks! (1996), the blockbuster Independence Day (1996), and the Star Wars special editions (1997), and anticipated a resurgence in war films based on World War II instead. Verhoeven believed Starship Troopers had been poorly marketed in the U.S. by labelling it as an action film, in turn leading critics and audiences to overlook the satire. A Los Angeles Times editorial speculated the decision could have been a deliberate choice by the studio because satire films did not perform as well. Verhoeven anecdotally remarked that it was appropriately marketed as a satire in the United Kingdom. ===Home media=== Starship Troopers was released on VHS in 1998 and on DVD in 1999. The DVD included additional features such as a documentary about the making of the film, screen tests with some of the actors, commentary by Verhoeven and Neumeier, and deleted scenes including an alternate ending in which Rico and Carmen officially get back together. In 2002, a two-disc Special Edition DVD was released with additional features, including commentary by Verhoeven, Neumeier, and the cast, breakdowns of the special effects, and several documentaries: "Death from Above", a retrospective about the making of the film, "Know Your Foe", about creating the various Arachnid creatures, "The Starships of Starship Troopers", "FX Comparisons", showing how various components were combined to create various scenes, and "Scene De- Constructions", a breakdown of some scenes with commentary by Verhoeven. Starship Troopers was released on Blu-ray in 2008, containing many previously released extras and the addition of FedNet mode, which places a graphic overlay to the film with pop-up facts. A 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray remastered version was released for the film's 20th anniversary with previously released extras. A 25th anniversary 4K Blu-ray was released in 2022, in a limited edition steelbook case, and includes a reunion discussion between Neumeier, Van Dien, Richards, Meyer, Ironside, Brown, Busey, and Gilliam. The film score was released on compact disc (CD) in 1997, by Varèse Sarabande, but was criticized for including only 30 minutes of content. Bootleg copies were made containing additional material using the score from the film's DVD release. A limited edition two-disc CD was released in 2016, containing additional tracks. === Other media=== Starship Troopers merchandise included miniatures, action figures, and "Insect Touch", a three-issue comic book by Dark Horse Comics. Toy manufacturer Galoob developed twelve different products including action figures and vehicles. Retailers were reluctant to stock toys for an R-rated film, with both Wal-Mart and Target, which represented about 20% of all action figure sales, declining, although Toys "R" Us and KB Toys agreed. Sony executives called it an "open secret" that children were attending R-rated films. Author Paul Sammon spent six months accompanying filming for Starship Troopers, through pre-production and leading up to the film's release. His resulting work was released alongside the film as The Making of Starship Troopers. A CGI animated television series, Roughnecks: Starship Troopers Chronicles, was released in 1999. Based on elements of the film and Heinlein's novel, the series ran for forty episodes. The 1976 board game Starship Troopers was re-released and repackaged alongside the film as Starship Troopers: Prepare for Battle. A Starship Troopers pinball machine was also released in 1997. Starship Troopers: Terran Ascendancy, a strategy game, was released in 2000. A 2005 video game Starship Troopers features a narrative set five years after the events of the film, with Van Dien returning to voice Rico. A 2022 strategy game Starship Troopers – Terran Command allows the player to defend colonies against the Arachnid forces. == Themes and analysis == ===Politics and propaganda=== Starship Troopers explores themes including patriotism, authoritarianism, militarism, colonialism, and xenophobia. Verhoeven interpreted Heinlein's novel as fascistic, nationalistic, totalitarian, and in favor of military rule, something antithetical to the director's beliefs following his childhood experiences under the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands during World War II, and used the film adaptation to deconstruct and undermine these themes. Iconography of the German Nazi regime and Italian National Fascist Party, led by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini respectively, appear throughout Starship Troopers as symbols of fascism belonging to the United Citizen Federation (UCF). The UCF flag, bearing an eagle, resembles that of the Nazi coat of arms, officer uniforms resemble those worn by the Nazi secret police, the Gestapo, including the insignia, and the infantry uniforms bear a symbol similar to Mussolini's Blackshirts. Neumeier said the Nazi uniforms were used, in part, because "the Germans made the best-looking stuff," but Verhoeven also wanted to use that aesthetic in "an artistic way." Although some contemporary critics and audiences considered Starship Troopers to be an endorsement of fascism, Verhoeven said, "whenever you see something that you think is fascist, you should know that the filmmakers agree with your opinion." Other aspects of the Nazi regime influence Starship Troopers, from the architecture of Albert Speer, to propaganda films such as Triumph of the Will and Olympia by Leni Riefenstahl. The first scene of Starship Troopers, an advertisement for the Mobile Infantry, emulates scenes from Triumph of the Will, including the dialogue, "I'm doing my part!" Verhoeven emulated these themes to deliberately portray the film's protagonists as fascists, while casting attractive actors, described by Entertainment Weekly as conveying the Aryan ideal of beauty, to "seduce the audience into joining [Starship Troopers] society... but then ask, 'What are you really joining up for?'" In the novel, Rico is revealed at the end to be Fillipino, a deliberate choice to make readers empathise with the character before revealing he is not Caucasian. Verhoeven chose to make Rico white to further satirize the fascistic messaging. Further influence was taken from writer Susan Sontag's 1975 essay, "Fascinating Fascisms", that identifies key aspects of Nazism, such as the "cult of beauty", "fetishism of courage", "repudiation of the intellect", and serving the community at the expense of the self. Entertainment Weekly and The A.V. Club believed the filmmakers considered the main characters to be "petty and stupid", but that the film's best joke lies in Rico not being very intelligent but, in turn, becoming the ideal citizen and the "perfect blunt instrument" for the Arachnid war, abandoning any personal hopes and dreams outside of military life, to seek revenge against the creatures that apparently killed his parents. The propaganda depicted in Starship Troopers on the "FedNet" uses extreme examples to satirize the UCF, such as children holding weapons or stamping on cockroaches while an adult looks on happily, as well as slogans such as "Join the Mobile Infantry and save the world" and "Service guarantees citizenship." Writer Darren Mooney considered the FedNet to be prescient of the increasing prominence of fake news, presenting stories that those in positions of power want the populace to see, emphasizing patriotism and duty, while offering an illusion of choice and enlightenment by asking "would you like to know more?" The youth are indoctrinated through these slogans and propaganda, and information relating to the Arachnids is intended to provoke a xenophobic response, both convincing the protagonists that their cause is righteous and presenting the Arachnids as less than, by saying "the only good bug is a dead bug". Peace is never presented as an option. The A.V. Club wrote that Starship Troopers presents a society that has been convinced to trade its freedoms, rights, and identities for security from an alien threat. Starship Troopers was also Verhoeven's response to events he perceived in contemporary U.S. politics, such as limited gun restrictions and an increase of capital punishment, which he believed could eventually result in open fascism, as well as films that glorified U.S. military forces and depicted a casual attitude to violence. Entertainment Weekly found similarities between Starship Troopers and the action film Top Gun (1986), which follows physically strong, young, and attractive United States Navy pilots combating a vague enemy. Several action films from the 1990s, such as Independence Day (1996) and Air Force One (1997), also offered a similar American jingoism and pro-military message, with both films featuring a U.S. president character who is able to take an active role in the action because of their military backgrounds. ===Citizenship and violence=== In the militaristic society depicted in Starship Troopers, many rights are reserved only for citizens, those who have served in the military, and restricted to ordinary civilians. The boot camp shower scene involves several characters discussing their reason for enlistment, such as being able to serve as a politician, have children, receive a scholarship, or just not having to work on a farm. Such options, typical of everyone within a democracy, are restricted by the military government governing Earth, because they must be earned through military service. Even voting is presented as an act of force, of supreme authority, a right that must be taken instead of given. As Rasczak tells his students, "violence has resolved more conflicts than anything else. The contrary opinion that violence doesn't solve anything is merely wishful thinking at worst." The nudity in the shower scene was criticized, but Verhoeven believed such criticism was hypocritical, believing it was easier to depict extreme violence in American films without censorship than nudity. He wanted to convey that despite their nudity, the characters do not comment or react to the fact, implying that their libido was suppressed by their dedication to fascism, the war, and their careers. Although humanity is mainly presented as victims of the Arachnid threat, aspects of Starship Troopers reveal that humanity may have instigated the conflict by invading Arachnid worlds, and the creatures are defending themselves. The Arachnid's asteroid that strikes Earth is used to justify a full-scale war. This presents a cycle of war, in which Earth's youths are emboldened by the propaganda slogans to become readily disposable infantry. These soldiers' orders are to kill anything inhuman, and strategic failures are solved by using more soldiers. Writer Lloyd Farley considered the gory and explicit scenes depicting the dead as being intended to overtly display the "horrors of war" in a society solely dedicated to conflict. The countless soldier deaths on Planet P are quickly forgotten as troops celebrate their victory and capture of the Brain Bug, with the potential promise this will lead to the end of the war, but no actual conclusion is offered in Starship Troopers. This violence is reinforced with rewards, such as Rico's repeated promotions, but these openings often arise because his predecessor was killed. Starship Troopers culminates with the surviving protagonists not disagreeing with this system or choosing to fight against it, but becoming a part of it by appearing in recruitment propaganda to enlist the next generation of troops. ==Legacy== === Critical reassessment === Despite its initial negative reception, Starship Troopers has been re-evaluated and is now considered one of the best science fiction films ever made. The film has grown in esteem in the decades since its release, with retrospective analyses describing it as among the most subversive and misunderstood Hollywood studio films ever made, undermined by critics and audiences who misinterpreted the anti-fascist satire as an "endorsement of a fascist utopia". The Verge and The Atlantic described it as an obvious satire, in hindsight, that was released at the wrong time, amid an era of prosperity in the United States during the late 1990s when American audiences may not have seen, or wanted to see, the criticisms of their own society. The marketing was also blamed, which presented Starship Troopers as a typical science-fiction action film, making it easy for audiences not expecting satire to misinterpret it. Other publications argued that Starship Troopers was an example of Poe's law, where views are presented to such an extreme that it becomes impossible for audiences to understand if it is parody or serious. Opinions on the film gradually changed alongside societal shifts, making the satire more obvious, particularly in the 2010s as its critiques of right-wing militarism, the military–industrial complex, reactionary violence and American jingoism, made it seem ahead of its time. In a 2020 retrospective, for The New Yorker, David Roth argued that Starship Troopers message had become more meaningful because it presents a narrative in which humanity, built on a culture of fascism and violence, "gets its ass kicked", and its only solution is to inflict more violence, to little success. Roth further contrasted the culture of violence to contemporary police brutality against peaceful protests or government attempts to defeat the COVID-19 pandemic through will. Syfy said it remained "riveting", but was undermined by poor acting (even if that was intended) and melodrama. Alongside being looked on more favorably by critics, Starship Troopers is also considered a cult classic and an "unsung masterpiece". Empire called it the true spiritual successor to RoboCops "savage satire" and "gonzo violence," unlike that film's own sequels. Starship Troopers is now considered one of the best films of the 1990s. In 2021, the British Film Institute named it one of the 10 greatest science fiction adaptations. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes offers a approval rating from the aggregated reviews of critics, with an average score of . The website's critical consensus reads, "A fun movie...if you can accept the excessive gore and wooden acting." The film has a score of 51 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 20 critics' reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". ===Cultural influence=== Starship Troopers has continued to generate interest in the decades since its release, in part because of its critical reassessment, but also because of its elements which came to reflect future events such as September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and the subsequent actions of the U.S. government and president George W. Bush to convince the American people to surrender certain liberties to enable a war and defeat their enemies. Retrospectives in the late 2010s and early 2020s have described how a contemporary rise in fascist activity in the U.S. had made Starship Troopers seem prescient and more of a warning than satire. The A.V. Club described Starship Troopers as a "brilliant dissection" of wars and how propaganda is used to justify young people being sent to their deaths against a dehumanized enemy. Verhoeven followed Starship Troopers with the 2000 science fiction horror Hollow Man, a film that he believed lacked his own personal style as he acquiesced to studio demands. Disillusioned with the Hollywood studio system, and compounded by the failures of Showgirls and Starship Troopers, Verhoeven returned to Europe to work outside of the Hollywood studio system, going on to earn acclaim for his subsequent works such as Black Book (2006) and Elle (2016). In 2015, Van Dien remarked: "There has not been a week in my life since I did [Starship Troopers] where I can go down the street without someone going 'Rico!'" Richards has said she loved her character and how people responded to her as a strong female. Several filmmakers have named it as an influence or among their favorite films, including Ari Aster, Margaret Brown, Macaulay Culkin, David Lowery, Robert Rodriguez, Eli Roth, Riley Stearns, Quentin Tarantino, James Wan and Edgar Wright. A 2020 retrospective by The Guardian suggested that, with hindsight, Starship Troopers formed the final instalment of Verhoeven's unofficial science fiction action film trilogy about authoritarian governance, preceded by RoboCop (1987) and Total Recall (1990). Slogans used in the film, such as "I'm doing my part!" and "Would you like to know more?", have since become part of the cultural lexicon. In 2022, Starship Troopers inspired the ending credits sequence for the popular anime Kaguya-sama: Love Is War. Elements from the film were used for the setting of the video game Starship Troopers: Extermination. == Sequels and remake == Verhoeven had never developed a sequel to any of his films, but he was interested in directing a sequel to Starship Troopers, depending on its performance, although he said "I would need another three or four years of thinking to make sure the movie doesn't repeat itself." The relative failure of Starship Troopers derailed plans for a theatrical sequel and Verhoeven moved on to other projects. Even so, Starship Troopers was followed by two low-budget, direct-to-home media sequels. The first, Starship Troopers 2: Hero of the Federation (2004), was directed by Tippett from a script by Neumeier and featured no returning characters, though Brenda Strong appeared in the film in a different role from the one she had played in Starship Troopers. Neumeier wrote and directed the second sequel, Starship Troopers 3: Marauder (2008), which brought back Van Dien as an older Rico. The series narrative was continued in two CGI animated films: Starship Troopers: Invasion (2012) sees the return of Rico, Jenkins, and Ibanez (with different voice actors), while Starship Troopers: Traitor of Mars (2017) was written by Neumeier and features voice acting by Van Dien and Meyer. Beginning in 2011, reports suggested that producer Neal Moritz and Columbia Pictures were interested in rebooting the Starship Troopers film series by more closely following Heinlein's novel; there have been no updates since 2016. Verhoeven was unhappy with the idea of the reboot being more faithful to the book. In 2021, Van Dien said a potential television series was being discussed at Sony Pictures Television, although talks had been stalled due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. == References == ===Notes=== ===Citations=== ===Works cited=== * == External links == * * * * * Category:1997 films Category:1990s science fiction action films Category:American science fiction adventure films Category:1990s satirical films Category:1990s science fiction adventure films Category:American coming-of-age films Category:American satirical films Category:American science fiction action films Category:American science fiction war films Category:American splatter films Category:American teen films Category:1990s English-language films Category:Films about extraterrestrial life Category:Films based on American novels Category:Films based on science fiction novels Category:Films directed by Paul Verhoeven Category:Films scored by Basil Poledouris Category:Films set in Buenos Aires Category:Films set in the 23rd century Category:Films set on fictional planets Category:Films shot in South Dakota Category:Films shot in Wyoming Category:Films about impact events Category:War adventure films Category:Starship Troopers films Category:Touchstone Pictures films Category:TriStar Pictures films Category:1990s American films Category:Anti- war films Category:Films produced by Alan Marshall (producer) |
Susan Graham (born July 23, 1960) is an American mezzo-soprano. ==Life and career== Susan Graham was born in Roswell, New Mexico on July 23, 1960. Raised in Midland, Texas, Graham is a graduate of Texas Tech University and the Manhattan School of Music. Her teachers have included Cynthia Hoffmann and Marlena Malas. She studied the piano for 13 years.Martin Kettle, "America's most wanted". The Guardian, December 10, 2004. She was a winner in the Metropolitan Opera's National Council Auditions, and also a recipient of the Schwabacher Award from the Merola Program of San Francisco Opera. Graham made her international début at Covent Garden in 1994, playing Massenet's Chérubin. Hugh Canning, "Everything but the girl". The Times, March 11, 2007. She has also premièred several roles in contemporary operas, including John Harbison's The Great Gatsby (Jordan Baker), Jake Heggie's Dead Man Walking (Sister Helen Prejean), and Tobias Picker's An American Tragedy (Sondra Finchley).Anthony Tommasini, "Dreiser's Chilling Tale of Ambition and Its Price". New York Times, December 5, 2005. Graham is a noted champion of the French song repertoireAllan Kozinn, "Taking a Two-Century Voyage Through the Music of France". New York Times, January 31, 2007. and of songs by contemporary American composers, including Ned Rorem and Lowell Liebermann.Anthony Tommasini, "A Singer at Ease in Opera and in Song Repertory". New York Times, April 19, 2000. She made her Carnegie Hall recital debut in April 2003,Allan Kozinn, "A Brisk Tour, Concluding With a Boa". New York Times, April 18, 2003. and a recording of this recital was later released. Graham sang "Bless This House" at George W. Bush's second inauguration on January 20, 2005, and Schubert's "Ave Maria" at the nationally televised funeral mass for Senator Edward M. Kennedy of Massachusetts on August 29, 2009. She is a US delegate for UNESCO. == Opera roles == Her operatic roles include: * Dominick Argento ** The Aspern Papers (Sonia) 1990; (Tina) 2013 * Samuel Barber ** Vanessa (Erika)The Observer (Anthony Holden) Vanessa, you've been a very lucky girl November 23, 2003The Guardian (Tim Ashley) Vanessa November 18, 2003 * Alban Berg ** Lulu (Countess Geschwitz) Metropolitan Opera 2015 * Hector Berlioz ** Béatrice et Bénédict (Béatrice) 1997Philip Anson Béatrice et Bénédict: Bis! July 1, 1997 ** La damnation de Faust (Marguerite) La Scala, Metropolitan Opera November 2008 ** Les Troyens (Didon) Théâtre du Châtelet, (Paris); Metropolitan Opera;Great Performances at the Met – “Les Troyens” June 30, 2013 San Francisco Opera *Marc Blitzstein **Regina (Regina Giddens) 2018 * Christoph Willibald Gluck ** Iphigénie en Tauride (Iphigénie)The Guardian (Edward Greenfield) A new leash of life August 19, 2000 * Alexander Goehr ** Arianna (Arianna) * Charles Gounod ** Roméo et Juliette (Stephano) Seattle Opera * George Frideric Handel ** Alcina (Ruggerio)Renée Fleming Fifty ways to sing about love ** Xerxes (Serse – Title Role), San Francisco Opera ** Ariodante Houston Grand Opera, San Francisco Opera * John Harbison ** The Great Gatsby (Jordan Baker) 1999The Guardian (Martin Kettle) Great Scott! Jay and Daisy bring the jazz age to the Met * Jake Heggie ** Dead Man Walking (Sister Helen Prejean) **Three Decembers (Madeline Mitchell), Opera San Jose * Franz Lehár ** The Merry Widow Hanna Glawari (the title character)Anne Midgette, "How to Take a Widow Three Stages Past Merry". New York Times, December 24, 2003.Anthony Tommasini, "The Merry Widow Meets The Embarrassed Fiancée". New York Times, January 2, 2004. * Jules Massenet ** Werther (Charlotte) ** Chérubin Royal Opera HouseThe Guardian (Alfred Hickling) Louche cannon October 10, 2003 * Claudio Monteverdi ** L'incoronazione di Poppea (Poppea) ** Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (Minerva) * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ** Così fan tutte (Dorabella) ** Don Giovanni (Donna Elvira) Lyric Opera of ChicagoBernard Holland, "What Use an Update if Hearts Beat Still the Same?". New York Times, October 26, 2004. ** Idomeneo (Idamante) Houston Grand Opera, Palais Garnier, Paris ** La clemenza di Tito (Sesto) Opéra National de Paris and concert performancesThe Guardian (George Hall) La Clemenza di Tito May 4, 2005 ** Le nozze di Figaro (Cherubino) Metropolitan Opera ** Lucio Silla (Cecilio), Santa Fe OperaBernard Holland, "Haunted by the Deaths of Martyrs, a Century Apart". New York Times, August 1, 2005. * Tobias Picker ** An American Tragedy (Sondra Finchley) Metropolitan Opera world première * Henry Purcell ** Dido and Aeneas (Sorceress, Dido) * Gioachino Rossini ** Il barbiere di Siviglia (Rosina) * Richard Strauss ** Ariadne auf Naxos (Composer) Metropolitan Opera,Anthony Tommasini, "A Lithuanian Soprano Creates Her Own Ariadne ". New York Times, September 27, 2005. Royal Opera House,The Guardian (Tim Ashley) Ariadne auf Naxos June 24, 2004 and GlyndebourneThe Observer (Anthony Holden) Even the corpse is fantastic ** Der Rosenkavalier (Octavian)Jeremy Eichler, "Lushly Lamenting the Wages of Time and a Lost Golden Age". New York Times, March 15, 2005. * Giuseppe Verdi ** Falstaff (Meg Page) == Awards == * 2001 Chevalier of the Order of Arts and Letters (Chevalier dans l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres)Ned Rorem and Susan Graham Decoration * June 2005 Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters * Musical America 2004 Vocalist of the Year * 2004 Grammy Award for Best Classical Vocal Performance, for her album Ives: Songs (The Things Our Fathers Loved; The Housatonic At Stockbridge, Etc.) * 2005 Opera News Award * September 5, 2006 Midland, Texas first annual "Susan Graham Day"Midland, Texas declares Sept 5 “Susan Graham Day” * May 2008, Honorary Doctorate, Manhattan School of Music Some of the recordings have also received awards. See below. ==Recordings== ;1992 * Pulcinella (Stravinsky) Seattle Symphony Orchestra, Gerard Schwarz (conductor) Delos Records 3100 ;1995 * Scenes from Goethe's Faust (Schumann) Bryn Terfel, Karita Mattila, Jan-Hendrik Rootering, Barbara Bonney, Endrik Wottrich, Iris Vermillion, Brigitte Poschner-Klebel, Susan Graham, Hans Peter Blochwitz, Harry Peeters, Berliner Philharmoniker, Claudio Abbado (conductor). Sony Classical 66308 ;1996 * Roméo et Juliette (Charles Gounod) Plácido Domingo, Ruth Ann Swenson, Miles, Kurt Ollmann, Susan Graham, Alain Vernhes, Paul Charles Clarke; Bayerischen Rundfunkorchester und chor, Münchner Rundfunkorchester, Leonard Slatkin (conductor). RCA 68440 ;1997 * Béatrice et Bénédict (Berlioz). Catherine Robbin (Ursule), Gabriel Bacquier (Somarone), Gilles Cachemaille (Claudio), Jean-Luc Viala (Bénédict), Philippe Magnant (Léonato), Susan Graham (Béatrice), Sylvia McNair (Héro), Vincent le Texier (Don Pedro), Lyon Opera Orchestra and Chorus, John Nelson (conductor). MusiFrance 2292 * The Gold & Silver Gala Graham duets with Plácido Domingo in "Là ci darem la mano". EMI Classics 56337 * Les nuits d'été and Opera Arias (Berlioz) Les nuits d'été Op. 7 and songs from La Damnation De Faust Op. 24, Benvenuto Cellini, Les Troyens, Béatrice et Bénédict. Orchestra of the Royal Opera House, John Nelson (conductor) Sony 62730 ;1998 * La Belle Époque – The Songs of Reynaldo Hahn (Hahn) Roger Vignoles (piano) Sony. Awards: Winner of Performance Today "Critic's Choice" Award; the 1999 Caecilia Prize; Preis der Deutschen Schallplattenkritik critic's award; Choc du Monde de la Musique; Opera International's Timbre de Platine. Sony 60168 * Debussy La Damoiselle élue. Sylvia McNair, Susan Graham, Boston Symphony Orchestra Seiji Ozawa. Philips 446682 (with Ravel: Shéhérazade and Britten Les illuminations). ;2000 * Strauss: Der Rosenkavalier Act 1 – closing scene; Act 3 – Trio and finale; Arabella Act 1 duet; Capriccio – closing scene. Renée Fleming (Marschallin), Barbara Bonney, Susan Graham (Octavian), Vienna PO, Christoph Eschenbach (conductor) Decca 466 314-2The Guardian (Edward Greenfield) Other classical releases February 4, 2000 * Songs of Ned Rorem (Rorem) Malcolm Martineau (piano) Rorem's settings of poems by Paul Goodman, Theodore Roethke, Witter Bynner, Tennyson, Walt Whitman and others. Erato 80222The Guardian (Andrew Clements) Other classical releases March 31, 2000Eric Dahan: . , May 3, 2000 (interview). * Alcina (Handel) Renée Fleming, Susan Graham, Natalie Dessay, Kathleen Kuhlmann, Timothy Robinson, Laurent Naouri, Juanita Lascarro, Michael Loughlin-Smith, Maurizio Rossano, Laurent Collobert, Eric Demarteau, Les Arts Florissants, William Christie (conductor). Erato 80233The Guardian (Andrew Clements) Pretty vacant February 18, 2000 * Berlioz: L'enfance du Christ; Three Irlande songs; Sara la baigneuse Susan Graham, François Le Roux, John Mark Ainsley, Montreal SO and Chorus, Dutoit. DeccaThe Guardian (Edward Greenfield) Classical CD releases November 3, 2000 ;2001 * Il tenero momento (Mozart and Gluck). Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, Harry Bicket (conductor) Erato Best Recital Disc in 2001 (The Gramophone), German Echo Klassik award, Prix Gabriel Fauré and the Grand Prix (Académie du disque)The Guardian (Tim Ashley) Classical CD releases April 6, 2001 ;2002 * Dead Man Walking (Heggie) Susan Graham, Catherine Cook, Robert Orth, Frederica von Stade, Nicolle Foland, David Harper, San Francisco Opera Orchestra, Patrick Summers (conductor). Erato 86238-2The Guardian (Andrew Clements) Classical CD releases April 5, 2002 * C'est ça la vie, c'est ça l'amour (Songs by Moïse Simons, Messager, Maurice Yvain, Honegger, Hahn, and Mahler) City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, Yves Abel (conductor). Erato 42106 ;2003 * At Carnegie Hall (Songs by Brahms, Debussy, Berg, Poulenc, Messager, Moïse Simons, Hahn, Mahler, and Ben Moore.) Malcolm Martineau (piano) Erato 2564 60295-2BBC Classical Review (Andrew McGregor) Susan Graham at Carnegie Hall (includes audio samples)New York (Peter G. Davis) Cosi Fan Tutte, Beatrice et Benedict, Susan Graham ;2004 * Songs (Ives) 2005 Grammy Award for Best Classical Vocal Performance. Pierre-Laurent Aimard (piano), Emmanuel Pahud (flute), Tabea Zimmermann (viola). Warner Classics 2564 60297-2 (with Concord Sonata)BBC Classical Review (Andrew McGregor) Ives: Concord Sonata, Songs, Pierre-Laurent Aimard/Susan GrahamThe New York Times (Jeremy Eichler) The Best Classical CD's of 2004; IVES: SONGS, 'CONCORD' SONATAThe Observer (Anthony Holden) Ives, Piano Sonata No 2 'Concord' May 16, 2004The Guardian (Andrew Clements) Ives: Piano Sonata No 2, Concorde; Songs: Graham/ Aimard May 7, 2004 * Vanessa (Barber). Susan Graham (Erika), Christine Brewer (Vanessa), William Burden (Anatol), Michael Davis, Neal Davies (The Old Doctor), Catherine Wyn- Rogers (Old Baroness), Simon Birchall (Nicholas), Stephen Charlesworth (Footman), BBC Singers (Servants, Guests, Peasants), Anthony Legge (conductor), BBC Symphony Orchestra, Leonard Slatkin (conductor). Chandos CHSA 5032The Guardian (Edward Greenfield) Barber: Vanessa, Brewer/ Graham/ Wyn- Rogers/ Burden/ Davies/ BBC Singers and SO/ Slatkin * Les Troyens (Berlioz) – DVD. Susan Graham (Didon), Gregory Kunde (Énée), Laurent Naouri (Narbal), Lydia Korniordou (Andromaque), Mark Padmore (Iopas), Topi Lehtipuu (Hylas/Hélénus), Fernand Bernardi (Ghost of Hector), Danielle Bouthillon (Hécube), Nicolas Courjal (Trojan Guard), Benjamin Davies (Trojan soldier), Frances Jellard (Polyxène), Anna Caterina Antonacci (Cassandre), Ludovic Tézier (Chorèbe), Renata Pokupić (Anna), Quentin Gac (Astyanax), Stéphanie d'Oustrac (Ascagne), Nicolas Testé (Panthée), René Schirrer (Priam), Laurent Alvaro (Trojan Guard), Robert Davies (Greek Captain), Simon Davies (Priest of Pluto), Monteverdi Choir, Chœur du Théâtre du Châtelet, Orchestre Révolutionnaire et Romantique, John Eliot Gardiner (conductor). Opus Arte OA 0900 D * Dido and Aeneas (Purcell) Susan Graham (Dido), Ian Bostridge (Aeneas), Camilla Tilling (Belinda), Felicity Palmer (Sorceress), David Daniels (Spirit), Cécile de Boever (Second Woman), Paul Agnew (A Sailor), Emmanuelle Haïm (conductor), European Voices, Le Concert d'Astrée. Virgin Veritas 45605. Grammy Award nomination. Maria Callas award from the Académie du Disque LyriqueBBC Classical Review (Andrew McGregor) Purcell: Dido and Aeneas, Susan Graham, Ian Bostridge etc (includes samples)The New York Times (Allan Kozinn) The Best Classical CD's of 2004; PURCELL: 'DIDO AND AENEAS' ;2005 * Poèmes de l'amour – Chausson Poème de l'amour et de la mer; Ravel Shéhérazade; Debussy orch. Adams Songs from Le Livre De Baudelaire BBC Symphony Orchestra, Yan Pascal Tortelier Warner Classics 2564 619382 (CD)The Guardian (Andrew Clements) Chausson Poème de l'Amour et de la Mer; Ravel: Shéhérazade; Debussy (arr. Adams): Le Livre de Baudelaire: Graham/ BBC SO/ Tortelier May 20, 2005The Observer (Anthony Holden) Debussy/Chausson/Ravel, Songs May 15, 2005 * Sacred Songs Renée Fleming (soprano), London Voices, RPO/Delfs. Decca 475 6925. Graham sings a duet with Fleming in "Abends will ich schlafen gehn" from Engelbert Humperdinck's Hänsel und Gretel.The Observer (Anthony Holden) Classical CDs: Mozart | Sacred Songs | Matthew Taylor October 23, 2005 ;2006 * La clemenza di Tito (Mozart). Christoph Prégardien (Tito), Susan Graham (Sesto), Catherine Naglestad (Vitellia), Ekaterina Siurina (Servillia), Hannah Esther Minutillo (Annio), Roland Bracht (Publio). Opus Arte OA 0942 DVD * Werther (Massenet) – DVD Thomas Hampson (Werther), Susan Graham (Charlotte), Sandrine Piau, Stéphane Degout (Albert), Michel Plasson (conductor), Châtelet Opera, Orchestre National du Capitole de Toulouse. Virgin Classics ;2008 * Berlioz La mort de Cléopâtre Berliner Philharmoniker, Sir Simon Rattle EMI 2162240Rick Jones Simon Rattle: Berlioz – Symphonie Fantastique The Times August 30, 2008Anthony Holden Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique Berlin Philharmonic/Rattle (EMI 216 2240) # The Observer August 31, 2008 * Un Frisson Français: A Century of French Song Songs by Georges Bizet, César Franck, Édouard Lalo, Charles Gounod, Camille Saint-Saëns, Emmanuel Chabrier, Émile Paladilhe, Ernest Chausson, Alfred Bachelet, Henri Duparc, Maurice Ravel, André Caplet, Albert Roussel, Olivier Messiaen, Claude Debussy, Gabriel Fauré, Reynaldo Hahn, Erik Satie, Arthur Honegger, Joseph Canteloube, Manuel Rosenthal, and Francis Poulenc. Malcolm Martineau (piano) Onyx Classics ONYX4030 ;2010 * Susan Graham – French Songs Ideale Audience International: 3079128 (DVD) * Mahler: Songs with Orchestra, Susan Graham, Thomas Hampson, San Francisco Symphony, Michael Tilson Thomas Avie: 82193600362 * Passing By - Songs by Jake Heggie Avie: AV2198 (singing "A lucky child" from At the Statue of Venus, and "Motherwit" and "Mother in the mirror" from Facing Forward/Looking Back) == References == == External links == * * Susan Graham Operabase * The New York Times Susan Graham news Category:1960 births Category:Living people Category:American women pianists Category:Manhattan School of Music faculty Category:Operatic mezzo-sopranos Category:People from Roswell, New Mexico Category:People from Midland, Texas Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Texas Tech University alumni Category:Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Category:Singers from Texas Category:Singers from New Mexico Category:20th-century American women opera singers Category:20th-century American pianists Category:21st- century American women opera singers Category:Classical musicians from Texas Category:21st-century American pianists Category:Women music educators Category:Erato Records artists Category:American women academics |
Erin Boag (born 17 March 1975) is a professional ballroom dancer. She has danced from the age of three, originally starting ballet and later moving into ballroom, Latin and jazz. Born in Auckland, New Zealand, she moved to Australia as a teenager to progress her dancing career, before moving to London in 1996. She started professionally dancing and is well known for being on Strictly Come Dancing in the UK with her partner Anton Du Beke. Boag is an honorary patron of the theatre charity The Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America. ==Professional career== Boag's regular professional partner is Anton du Beke. They met in 1997, and won the 1998 and 1999 New Zealand Championships. They turned professional in 2002, competing mainly in the United Kingdom. Their best result on the competition circuit was in November 2003 when they won the IDTA Classic in Brighton. They appeared on the first 10 series of Strictly Come Dancing. Boag has not appeared as a professional on Strictly Come Dancing since Series 10, although du Beke still appears on the show. She made a brief cameo in 2015, giving advice to contestant Katie Derham, who was partnered with du Beke that year. ==Strictly Come Dancing== ===Highest- and lowest-scoring performances per dance=== Dance Partner Highest Partner Lowest American Smooth Colin Jackson 37 Ricky Groves 29 Cha Cha Cha Austin Healey 35 Julian Clary Richard Arnold 19 Charleston Richard Arnold 29 Peter Shilton 17 Foxtrot Austin Healey 36 Richard Arnold 17 Jive Austin Healey 34 Julian Clary Martin Offiah 21 Paso Doble Austin Healey 38 Peter Schmeichel 19 Quickstep Colin Jackson 39 Richard Arnold 25 Rumba Colin Jackson 36 Martin Offiah 21 Salsa Austin Healey 36 Peter Shilton 17 Samba Austin Healey Colin Jackson 32 Peter Schmeichel 19 Tango Austin Healey 38 Ricky Groves 22 Viennese Waltz Austin Healey Colin Jackson 34 Peter Schmeichel 28 Waltz Colin Jackson 37 Peter Shilton Ricky Groves 21 From 2004 to 2012, Boag competed as one of the professional partners in ten series and six Christmas specials of the BBC celebrity ballroom competition show, Strictly Come Dancing. In the show's first series, Boag was partnered up with former England rugby league player, Martin Offiah. They were eliminated in week six of the competition, finishing in fourth place. In the show's second series, Boag was partnered up with comedian, Julian Clary. They reached the finals of the competition, but were eliminated in third place. In the show's third series, Boag was partnered up with former Olympic athlete, Colin Jackson. They also reached the finals of the competition, but were named the runners-up to cricketer Darren Gough and his professional partner, Lilia Kopylova. She and Jackson later competed in the 2005 Christmas special, where they finished in fifth place. In the show's fourth series, Boag was partnered up with former Danish professional footballer, Peter Schmeichel. They were eliminated on the seventh week of the competition, finishing in seventh place. She later reunited with Jackson to compete in the 2006 Christmas special, and were voted the winners of the competition. In the show's fifth series, Boag was partnered up with former professional snooker player, Willie Thorne. They were eliminated on the second week of the competition, finishing in thirteenth place. In the show's sixth series, Boag was partnered up with former England rugby union player, Austin Healey. They reached the quarter-finals of the competition, but were eliminated in fourth place. In the show's seventh series, Boag was partnered up with former EastEnders actor, Ricky Groves. They were eliminated in week ten of the competition, finishing in sixth place. She later participated in the 2009 Christmas special, where she was partnered with her former celebrity partner Austin Healey. They finished the Christmas special in joint-fifth place, alongside Ricky Whittle and his professional partner, Natalie Lowe. In the show's eighth series, Boag was partnered up with former England professional footballer, Peter Shilton. They were eliminated in week four of the competition, finishing in twelfth place. She later participated in the 2010 Christmas special, where she was partnered with Liberal Democrats politician, Vince Cable. They finished the Christmas special in second place, losing to actor John Barrowman and his professional partner, Kristina Rihanoff. In the show's ninth series, Boag was partnered up with comedian and impressionist, Rory Bremner. They became the third couple to be eliminated from the competition, finishing in twelfth place. She later competed in the 2011 Christmas special, where she was partnered with former professional boxer, Barry McGuigan. They finished the Christmas special in joint-second place, alongside Simon Webbe and his professional partner, Katya Virshilas. In the show's tenth series, Boag was partnered up with television presenter, Richard Arnold. They became the sixth couple to be eliminated from the competition, finishing in ninth place. The tenth series was her final series before being replaced by Janette Manrara in the eleventh series. Series Celebrity partner Place Average Score 1 Martin Offiah 4th 23.0 2 Julian Clary 3rd 24.5 3 Colin Jackson 2nd 33.7 4 Peter Schmeichel 7th 24.7 5 Willie Thorne 12th 23.5 6 Austin Healey 4th 34.5 7 Ricky Groves 6th 25.8 8 Peter Shilton 12th 20.3 9 Rory Bremner 12th 26.0 10 Richard Arnold 9th 22.6 ;Series 1 - with celebrity partner Martin Offiah; placed 4th Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Phillips Goodman Tonioli 1 Waltz / "Come Away with Me" 5 6 7 7 25 No elimination 2 Rumba / "Hero" 3 5 7 6 21 Safe 3 Jive / "Great Balls of Fire" 5 5 5 6 21 Safe 4 Foxtrot / "Let There Be Love" 6 5 7 6 Safe 5 Samba / "Crickets Sing for Anamaria" 5 5 6 6 22 Safe 6 Quickstep / "It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)" Cha-Cha-Cha / "Smooth" 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 24 24 Eliminated ;Series 2 - with celebrity partner Julian Clary; placed 3rd Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Phillips Goodman Tonioli 1 Cha-Cha-Cha / "I'm Outta Love" 4 4 5 6 19 Safe 2 Quickstep / "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" 6 7 7 7 27 Safe 3 Tango / "Roxanne" 6 7 7 7 27 Safe 4 Paso Doble / "Les Toreadors" 4 5 6 5 20 Safe 5 Samba / "Conga" 5 5 7 7 24 Bottom two 6 Waltz / "You Light Up My Life" Rumba / "You're Still the One" 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 28 27 Bottom two 7 Foxtrot / "Fever" Jive / "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go" 5 4 5 3 8 7 6 7 Safe 8 Quickstep / "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" Samba / "Conga" 7 5 7 5 8 7 7 6 Third place ;Series 3 - with celebrity partner Colin Jackson; placed 2nd Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Phillips Goodman Tonioli 1 Cha-Cha-Cha / "Save the Last Dance for Me" 8 8 8 8 32 Safe 2 Quickstep / "Nice Work If You Can Get It" 9 9 9 9 Safe 3 Tango / "Ride It" 7 5 7 7 26 Safe 4 Paso Doble / "Thriller" 8 7 8 8 31 Safe 5 Samba / "Naughty Girl" 8 8 8 8 32 Safe 6 Foxtrot / "New York, New York" 8 8 8 8 32 Safe 7 Viennese Waltz / "Stop!" 9 9 8 8 34 Safe 8 Rumba / "You're Beautiful" American Smooth / "Me & My Shadow" 9 9 9 10 9 9 9 9 Safe 9 Waltz / "I Will Always Love You" Jive / "Footloose" 9 7 9 7 10 8 9 8 30 Safe 10 Quickstep / "Nice Work If You Can Get It" Rumba / "You're Beautiful" Showdance / "You're Easy to Dance With" 9 9 10 9 10 9 10 9 Runners-up ;Series 4 - with celebrity partner Peter Schmeichel; placed 7th Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Phillips Goodman Tonioli 1 Waltz / "The Greatest Love of All" 6 5 7 7 25 Safe 3 Tango / "Tango Notturno" 6 8 9 8 31 Safe 4 Paso Doble / "Mission Impossible Theme" 2 5 6 6 Safe 5 Viennese Waltz / "Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman?" 6 7 8 7 28 Safe 6 Samba / "Use It Up and Wear It Out" 3 4 6 6 Safe 7 Foxtrot / "Something's Gotta Give" 6 6 7 7 Eliminated ;Series 5 - with celebrity partner Willie Thorne; placed 13th Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Phillips Goodman Tonioli 1 Waltz / "Run to You" 5 5 7 7 24 Safe 3 Tango / "Obertura" 5 6 6 6 23 Eliminated ;Series 6 - with celebrity partner Austin Healey; placed 4th Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Phillips Goodman Tonioli 1 Waltz / "The Rainbow Connection" 7 8 9 8 Safe 3 Jive / "You Can't Stop the Beat" 8 8 9 9 Safe 5 Samba / "Move Your Feet" 8 8 8 8 32 Safe 6 Viennese Waltz / "Send In the Clowns" 8 8 9 9 Safe 7 Quickstep / "S'Wonderful" 8 9 10 9 Safe 8 Rumba / "When You Tell Me That You Love Me" 5 8 8 8 29 Safe 9 Tango / "Libertango" 9 9 10 10 38 Safe 10 Cha-Cha-Cha / "It's Raining Men" 8 9 9 9 35 Safe 11 Foxtrot / "L-O-V-E" Paso Doble / "España cañí" 8 10 9 10 9 8 10 10 36 Safe 12 American Smooth / "The Best Is Yet to Come" Salsa / "Johnny's Mambo" 8 8 8 9 9 10 9 9 36 Eliminated ;Series 7 - with celebrity partner Ricky Groves; placed 6th Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Goodman Dixon Tonioli 1 Waltz / "What'll I Do" Cha-Cha-Cha / "Jump (for My Love)" 4 6 6 7 6 7 5 6 21 26 Safe 3 Paso Doble / "One Vision" 7 7 8 7 29 Safe 4 Foxtrot / "All of Me" 6 8 7 7 28 Safe 5 Jive / "The Boy from New York City" 6 7 7 5 25 Safe 6 American Smooth / "Chim Chim Cher-ee" 7 8 7 7 29 Safe 7 Rumba / "Licence to Kill" 4 8 7 5 Safe 8 Salsa / "Acuyuye" 6 7 6 6 25 Bottom two 9 Viennese Waltz / "Nights in White Satin" 7 8 7 7 29 Bottom two 10 Tango / "U Got The Look" 5 6 6 5 Eliminated ;Series 8 - with celebrity partner Peter Shilton; placed 12th Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Goodman Dixon Tonioli 1 Waltz / "Take It to the Limit" 4 6 6 5 21 No elimination 2 Salsa / "Mambo No. 5" 3 5 5 4 17 Bottom two 3 Quickstep / "Lullaby of Broadway" 6 7 7 6 26 Safe 4 Charleston / "Cabaret" 2 5 6 4 Eliminated ;Series 9 - with celebrity partner Rory Bremner; placed 12th Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Goodman Dixon Tonioli 1 Waltz / "Weekend in New England" 6 7 7 7 27 No elimination 3 Salsa / "Vehicle" 4 6 6 6 22 Safe 3 Quickstep / "Top Hat, White Tie and Tails" 7 8 8 8 31 Safe 4 Cha-Cha-Cha / "Dance to the Music 4 7 6 7 24 Eliminated ;Series 10 - with celebrity partner Richard Arnold; placed 9th Week # Dance / Song Judges' scores Total Result Horwood Bussell Goodman Tonioli 1 Waltz / "You Don't Bring Me Flowers" 5 5 7 5 22 Safe 2 Cha-Cha-Cha / "Love Shack" 3 6 5 5 19 Bottom two 3 Quickstep / "9 to 5" 6 7 6 6 25 Safe 4 Paso Doble / "O Fortuna" 5 5 7 5 22 Safe 5 Foxtrot / "Big Spender" 3 5 5 4 Bottom two 6 Charleston / "Pencil Full of Lead" 7 8 7 7 29 Safe 7 Salsa / "Club Tropicana" 5 6 7 6 Eliminated ==Personal life== After they were introduced by Camilla Dallerup, Boag became engaged to business consultant Peter O'Dowd on Christmas Eve 2007. The couple were married on 17 June 2009, in Italy. On 24 April 2014, Erin gave birth by emergency caesarean section to a baby boy, named Ewan Robert Geoffrey O'Dowd. He was born on his father's 50th birthday; Boag's professional dancing partner Anton du Beke is the child's godfather. == Dance tours and other professional engagements == In August 2017, Erin and du Beke announced a three-month 2018 UK Tour From Broadway to Hollywood. In September 2018, Erin announced she would be appearing with du Beke at Donahey's Dancing with The Stars Weekends. The tour was to comprise three weekend breaks in England and Wales in 2019, and to feature the stars of Strictly Come Dancing teaching and performing. == References == ==External links== * Category:1975 births Category:Living people Category:People from Auckland Category:New Zealand ballroom dancers Category:21st-century New Zealand dancers Category:New Zealand expatriates in England |
Angelo Torricelli is an Italian architect. == Biography == Torricelli was born in Milan in 1946. He graduated from Polytechnic University of Milan's Faculty of Architecture in 1969 . Full professor in Architectural composition, he has been dean of the Faculty (whereupon School) of Civil Architecture of the Polytechnic University of Milan from 2008 until 2015; from 2011 until 2016 he has been head of the Architecture Board of the Polytechnic University of Milan. He also taught at Palermo's Faculty of Architecture and during Università Iuav di Venezia's summer workshops of Architectural Design. He has been visiting professor on occasion of the international architectural and urban design Seminar in Bergamo, Parma, Salsomaggiore Terme, Vigevano; at the international museography design Seminar at Hadrian's Villa and for the advanced course "Cultura del progetto in ambito archeologico" of the Roma Tre University; at the international architecture workshops in Naples, Athens, Alexandria, Beirut. From 2000 he is a member of the Doctorate school in Architectural Composition's teacher college and, from 2013, of the Doctorate School of Architecture, Built environment and Construction engineering, both at Polytechnic University of Milan. From 2007 is a member of the scientific committee and teacher at the Itinerant master's degree Program promoted by Accademia Adrianea di Architettura e Archeologia. From 2012 he is coordinator of the territorial Lab of Milan-Bergamo's metropolitan area within the project "QVQC. Quale velocità/Quale città", sponsored by Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane. From 2010 until 2013 he has been head of the mission "Program for the Urban quality in Guangdong Province", China; in 2014 scientific manager of the "Construction Project Design Contract for the Yanzishan Hakka Hotel" in Huizhou City. Head of researches financed by Miur, Cnr and other public and private authorities, he coordinated, as person in charge by the Department of Architectural design, the urban plans for the municipalities of Cerignola and San Giovanni Rotondo in Apulia, and Cardano al Campo in Lombardy. He worked with a number of reviews of architecture, among which "Casabella", "Hinterland", "Controspazio", Materia, "Edilizia Popolare", "d'Architettura", "Aión", "Il Disegno di Architettura", , "Ottagono", "Costruire in Laterizio", "Recuperare". From 1982 until 1983 he edited the review "AL. Architetti Lombardi". From 2008 he is editor in chief of the review "Architettura Civile". He is also a member of the scientific board of the architecture series published by the houses Aión of Florence, Araba Fenice of Cuneo, Libraccio of Milan. He promoted the new architecture series of the house FrancoAngeli, which published the books on the work of Ernesto Nathan Rogers, Guido Canella, Carlo De Carli. His theoretical and critical activity has been presented in various national and international conventions and seminars, and gave forth an intensive production of writings and essays. == Theoretical activity. Selected writings == In his work, he addressed the contemporary issues on the architectural design and its teaching, starting from the volume Per costruire l'ambiente. Aspettative nel sociale e appropriazioni progettuali (1981), to the most recent essays Dialogo sul disegno e l'invenzione in architettura (2010); The Theme of Composition(2010); Oltre lo specchio, la forma (2011); '’Thesis Projects'’ (2011); Quello che è / quello che non è il progetto urbano (2012); Farewell to Typology? Going Forward, dialogue with Francesco Collotti (2013); Composition as a Necessity, (2015); Architecture Schools: What Is Beneficial and Necessary (2016). About the work, the theories and the poetic of modern architects he published the monography Aldo Andreani 1887–1971. Opere e progetti (1989); Opposizioni nella modernità. A proposito del "vecchio Behrens" (2011); La composizione come necessità, about Alessandro Christofellis (2012); Un lungo percorso di operatività del progetto, about Ignazio Gardella (2012); Nuovi inizi e analogie, about Giuseppe Terragni (2012); L'organismo architettonico: tipo e struttura interna, about Saverio Muratori (2013); L'architettura a Milano e la "continuità" di Rogers (2013); Guido Canella e la Scuola di Architettura Civile (2014); Authenticity and Balance about Luigi Caccia Dominioni (2014); Aldo Andreani à rebours (2015); O. M. Ungers architetto tedesco (2015); Anamnesis in Composition about Gianugo Polesello (2016); Attualità del "progetto storico" di Fischer von Erlach (2016); Forma e "liturgia" dell'abitare nell'opera di De Carli (2016); La forma costruita nel modo di Danilo Guerri (2017); Seriamente logica e altamente artistica about Camillo Boito (2017); All'inizio era la favola. Aldo Rossi e l'analogia come principio (2017). He published, about the historiography of architecture, The "Step We Need to Take" in History (2012) and Space, Time and Architecture. The Growth of a New Tradition, of Sigfried Giedion (2012). He addressed the issue of restoration and the relation between the ancient and the new, and the problems of the architectural approach within the archaeological areas. Specifically, he was responsible of the national research projects: L’antico nella città e nelle tradizioni del moderno (1995); Aree archeologiche e progetto di architettura (1998); I luoghi irrisolti della città: gli spazi dell’archeologica e le trasformazioni urbane (1998). On these subjects he wrote: “Non per altro si restaura che per apprendervi”: l’antico nella città e nelle tradizioni del moderno (1990); Memoria e immanenza dell’antico nel progetto urbano (2002); Conservazione e progetto (2004); Profondità archeologica, immaginazione progettuale (2008); Aree archeologiche e progetto per la città (2010); La ricerca progettuale come interrogazione del tempo (2010); L’antico come principio di nuova architettura (2013). He conducted studies and design experiences on monumental sites, that were published in: Il Castello a mare di Palermo (1993); Il medio corso del Po tra Piacenza e Cremona. Identità dei luoghi, scena urbana, paesaggio naturale (2003), Per una architettura di interpretazione (2005); Archeologia, città, museo. Atene come inizio (2007); Il Museo e la Passeggiata archeologica di Milano (2009); Città di frontiera. Alessandria tra Oriente e Occidente (2009); La lezione di Villa Adriana (2012); Immagini per i Fori Imperiali, idee per Roma (2017). Upon the role of architecture in urban transformations he headed national researches as: “La città d’autore. Milano e alcune città padane” (1987); “Aggiornamento tipologico e costruttivo dell’edilizia residenziale in Lombardia” (2004–2007); he published essays: Istruzione come costruzione. Civiltà, contesti, trasmissione del sapere (1981); Ecologia, tipo, compito rappresentativo della biblioteca (1984); Storia, architettura e rimodellamento urbano di San Pellegrino nella città Brembana (1984); Milano: il luogo di Loreto (1985); Ferrovie e stazioni: struttura della città, “catastrofi” urbane (1987); Milano: Castello, Quartiere delle milizie, Città militare nella trasformazione del centro e nella costruzione della periferia (1989); Gli anni delle trasformazioni. Nuovi paesaggi urbani (1994); Agrotown as a paradigm (2005); Darsena as Grande Piazza in South Milan (2009); Scali ferroviari. Responsabilità e ruolo del progetto urbano (2012); L’integrazione tra Campo di Brera e Campus delle Arti. Una nuova articolazione della Pinacoteca e dell’Accademia nella città (2014); Anticipazioni dalla scena urbana (2015); La chiesa nel paesaggio della città metropolitana. Nuove occasioni di centralità e significazione formale (2017). He also addressed the topic of the relation between figuration and construction in architecture, particularly in the essays: Forme dall’apparenza nuda (2004); Architettura e costruzione. Ricerche progettuali nel campo della sostenibilità (2010); Tensioni da comporre (nell’enfasi della costruzione sostenibile) (2011); ‘’Back to Construction’’ (2012). Recently he published the books Architettura in Capitanata. Opere e progetti / Works and projects 1997–2012 (2014) and Palermo interpretata (2016). ==Main works and architectural designs== Along with Torricelli Associati, his firm in Milan, he is author of competitions' designs as well as public and private professional assignment. Among the urban-scale design, the one for the area Garibaldi-Repubblica in Milan (1991); the reconversion of Baggio's barracks and military installations (1993); Ispra's Eco Center (1994); the hotel, residential and cultural equipment pole for Fiera di Milano in the Pantanedo village of Rho (1995); the requalification of piazza Bagolino and of piazza della Repubblica in Alcamo (1996); the design for a new center for Christian ecumenism in Bari Punta Perotti (2006); the transformation design of Farini railway line in Milano (2009); the design for a new articulation for the Pinacoteca and for the Academy of Brera in Milan (2014); the design for Borgo Nuovo's diffused hotel il progetto in Monteleone di Puglia (2015); the retraining and refuncionalization designs for the Expo area and the Gasometer field in Bovisa, Milano (2016); the requalification design for Piazza Castello and Foro Buonaparte in Milan (2017). Among the built work, the schools in Lumezzane (1973–79), in Cesano Boscone (1978–79), in Cerignola (1997–2001) and in Monteleone di Puglia (2006–09); the Lodi Park in Settimo Milanese (1983–87); the burial chapel at the Monumental Cemetery of Milan (1988–92); the subsidized housing in Legnano (1992–95) and in Cerignola (1997–2000); the Campari factories in Bussolengo (1985–87), in Cinisello Balsamo, (1986–87) and in Osimo (1988–91); the council hall and public square of Villa Marazzi in Cesano Boscone (1996–99); the new residential buildings and services (1998–2006) and the Social center (2004–05) in Cerignola; the villa in Vanzago (1999–2002) and the villa on the Riviera di Ponente (2006–11). In 2004 he obtained the jury's special mention for the international design competition “Darsena” in Milan; in 2005 he won the competition for the a parochial complex in Milan and in 2009 the ideas contest for the “Restoration and historic-urban-environmental development of Piazza del Duomo in Cerignola”; his design has been mentioned in the international social Housing design competition "Il borgo sostenibile – Milano Figino" (2009); his proposition has been selected for the international ideas contest for the residential development of the ex-Barracks “Serafino Gnutti” in Brescia (2013); the design for "Borgo Nuovo's diffused hotel" international design competition in Monteleone di Puglia won the first prize (2015); the design for the international design competition Piazza Castello – Foro Buonaparte in Milano won the third place (2017). == Awards and acknowledgements == His professional activity was rewarded with prizes and acknowledgements, among which the 9th Compasso d'Oro ADI (1979); the IN/Arch session within the "Rassegna critica delle opere di architettura in Lombardia" (1983); the "Marble Architectural Awards Italy" special mention (1988); the selection for the international architecture exhibition of Venice's Biennale (2006); the Special Prize "Architettura in Capitanata" (2010). His work has been exposed in occasion of many exhibitions and conferences, in Italy and abroad: at the Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnica, Milan (1995 e 1999); at the TU Delft Faculty of Architecture (1996, 2005 and 2009); at Milan's Triennale (1973, 1979, 1995 e 2003); at the Faculdade de Arquitectura da Universidade do Porto (2003); at the Festival dell'Architettura di Parma (2004 e 2010); at Venice's Biennale (2006); at the Universidad de Granada (2009); at the Università Iuav di Venezia (2009); at Milan's Urban Center (2010 e 2013); in Cittadella (Pd) and Bari (2011); in Tokyo (2011); at Athens' Italian Institute of Culture (2012). His built work and his designs are published on specialized books and reviews either Italian and foreign. His work was subject of articles written by, among the others, Gianni Accasto, Marcella Aprile, Marco Biraghi, Federico Bucci, Enrico Bordogna, Guido Canella, Francesco Cellini, Francesco Collotti, Ernesto D'Alfonso, Emilio Faroldi, Giovanni Klaus Koenig, Francesco Menegatti, Luca Molinari, Raffaella Neri, Mario Pisani, Cesare Piva, Manfredo Tafuri, Virgilio Vercelloni. == Bibliography == A part of his work has been published into the recent monograph Angelo Torricelli. Architettura in Capitanata. Opere e progetti / Works and projects 1997–2012, edited by C. Baglione (Padova 2014). His work was published upon the main national and international reviews, guides and history of architecture's books, among which: * M. Tafuri, Storia dell'architettura italiana 1944–1985, Giulio Einaudi Editore, Torino 1986; * M. Casciato e G. Muratore (edited by), Annali dell'architettura italiana contemporanea 1985, Officina, Roma 1986; * G. Carnevale e M. Montuori (edited by), Annali dell'architettura italiana contemporanea 1986–87, Officina, Roma 1991; * Aa. Vv., Almanacco dell'architettura italiana, Electa, Milano 1993; * M. Biraghi e S. Micheli, Storia dell'architettura italiana 1985–2015, Einaudi, Torino 2013; * M. Biraghi, S. Micheli, G. Lo Ricco, Guida all'architettura di Milano 1954–2014, Hoepli, Milano 2013; * i volumi di Identità dell'Architettura Italiana, Diabasis, Reggio Emilia dal 2003 al 2013; * C. Baglione (edited by), Angelo Torricelli. Architettura in Capitanata, Il Poligrafo, Padova 2014. ==Related Voices== *Politecnico di Milano *Guido Canella *Antonio Monestiroli *Francesco Cellini == External links == * |Torricelli Associati * |Angelo Torricelli su Europaconcorsi * |Ordine degli Architetti, Pianificatori, Paesaggisti e Conservatori della provincia di Milano * Scuola di Architettura Civile, Politecnico di Milano Category:1946 births Category:Living people Category:Architects from Milan Category:Polytechnic University of Milan alumni Category:Academic staff of the Polytechnic University of Milan Category:Compasso d'Oro Award recipients |
The COVID-19 vaccination program in Colombia is an ongoing effort of mass immunization put in place by the Colombian government in order to respond to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The virus causing COVID-19 was confirmed to have reached Colombia on 6 March 2020. Colombia's preparation and readiness for a vaccine program allowed it to join the first group of countries who received vaccines through COVAX. The first vaccine in Colombia was given to a nurse on 17 February 2021. Over 70 percent of the population is fully vaccinated. As of 16 August 2022, 36,027,994 people have received their first dose of a two-dose vaccine and 29,883,374 of them also received the second dose, while 6,624,372 people have been vaccinated with single-dose vaccines, for a total of 36,507,746 fully vaccinated people. In addition to this, 13,731,703 people have received first booster doses and 1,470,593 people received a second booster dose for a total of 87,738,036 vaccine doses administered across the country. == Background == === Purchase agreements === On 28 July 2020, Health Minister Fernando Ruiz stated in an interview with W Radio that Colombia had signed confidentiality agreements with two pharmaceutical companies, Pfizer and AstraZeneca, for the acquisition of a vaccine for COVID-19, and that the country would seek agreements with at least three other companies. === Clinical trials === On 24 August, Minister Ruiz confirmed the participation of Colombian volunteers in the Phase III trials of the Ad26.COV2.S vaccine, developed by Janssen Pharmaceuticals. The clinical trials were scheduled to take place within weeks, once the report on the previous stages of the vaccine was available. Ruiz added that a confidentiality agreement had already been signed. On 7 October, the Phase III clinical trials of the vaccine developed by Janssen Pharmaceutica began, with the application of the first dose to a volunteer in Floridablanca. The trials of this vaccine were being carried out in 10 medical centers throughout the country. On 12 October, Johnson & Johnson announced it would briefly pause the trials after one volunteer became ill with "an unexplained disease". == Vaccination schedule == After the Colombian government was promised 40 million doses from Pfizer and AstraZeneca, on 18 December 2020 the government announced a schedule for the vaccination program. Mass vaccination began in February 2021 and was divided into five stages with the goal of achieving herd immunity. In the first phase, the objective was reducing mortality and severe case incidence rates from COVID-19, as well as protecting health workers. The second phase was aimed at reducing infection rates. When the vaccination plan was announced, the government expected to vaccinate roughly 70% of the Colombian population, or 35.7 million people. Initially, people who had already had the disease were not to be vaccinated, nor would children under 16 as vaccines had not been tested on that age group. Phases and stages of Colombian vaccination plan Phase Stage Began Eligibility Population covered 1 1 17 February 2021 All front-line health and support workers, and people aged over 80. 1,453,432 2 15 March 2021 All remaining health and support workers, people aged 60–79, and control body officers. 6,620,274 3 21 May 2021 People aged 50–59, people aged 16–49 with comorbidities, and all elementary and high school teachers. 9,325,861 2 4 15 June 2021 Institutional caregivers and population involved in risky occupations and situations, people aged 40–49 without comorbidities. 8,436,318 5 14 July 2021 People aged 16–39 without comorbidities. 15,750,703 On 29 January 2021, President Iván Duque signed the decree for the National Plan of Vaccination which had been announced in December as the country's guideline for mass vaccination, and he announced that vaccinations in Colombia would begin on 20 February 2021. In an interview published 11 April 2021, Minister Ruiz said that progress was being made with the vaccination of people in their 70s. At that time, the goal was to vaccinate adults with comorbidities by mid-year and begin Phase 2 in the second half of 2021. Vaccination of people over 65 began on 13 April, and the minimum age was lowered to 60 on 30 April. Originally, Stage 3 was to include people aged 16–59 with comorbidities, while those in that age group who did not have comorbidities were to wait until Stage 5. On 3 May 2021, it was announced that everyone in their 50s, with or without comorbidities, would become eligible in Stage 3. On 8 May 2021, the Colombian government issued the Decree 466 with the new adjustments to the country's vaccination plan. Workers of health care companies (EPS) and those who work in control bodies and different organizations that assist, accompany and validate the process of management of the pandemic were prioritized in Stage 2, while people with additional comorbidities such as AIDS, cancer, tuberculosis, obesity and others were included in Stage 3 along with the population aged 50–59. Furthermore, Stage 4 was updated to include people aged 40–49, members of relief corps, inmates and those in permanent contact with them, as well as street dwellers, while Stage 5 will now only include the population aged 16–39 without comorbidities. === Foreign residents === In December 2020, President Duque said that undocumented Venezuelan immigrants would not be eligible for a vaccine in Colombia since he expected that Venezuelans would "stampede the border" if that opportunity was presented to them. The January 2021 decree specified that foreigners accredited on diplomatic or consular missions within Colombia would be eligible for a vaccine. It was expected that other foreigners would also eventually be eligible. In mid-April 2021, the U.S. Embassy website was updated to reflect that U.S. citizens had become eligible to receive the vaccine in Colombia. === Beginning of vaccinations === On 15 February 2021, Minister Ruiz confirmed that an intensive care nurse from Sincelejo's University Hospital and another nurse from the National Cancerology Institute in Bogotá would be the first two people to be vaccinated in the country, on 17 February. As planned, intensive care nurse Verónica Machado was the first to be vaccinated on the morning of 17 February, under widespread media coverage. == Vaccines on order == As of 20 March 2021, Colombia had received 2,472,964 Sinovac doses, 400,242 Pfizer-BioNTech doses from bilateral agreements, and 117,000 additional Pfizer doses and 244,800 AstraZeneca doses through the COVAX strategy. === Bilateral deals === Vaccine Progress Doses ordered Emergency Use Authorization Deployment Pfizer–BioNTech Phase III clinical trials 15 million Sinovac Phase III clinical trials 11.5 million Oxford–AstraZeneca Phase III clinical trials 10 million Janssen Phase III clinical trials 11.5 million Moderna Phase III clinical trials 10 million === Multilateral mechanisms === Mechanism Doses ordered Joined Deployment COVAX 20 million == Vaccines in trial stage == Vaccine Type (technology) Phase I Phase II Phase III Clover Subunit CureVac RNA == Deployment == On 29 January, President Iván Duque confirmed the purchase of 10 million doses from Moderna and 2.5 million doses from Sinovac. Along with 10 million doses from Pfizer–BioNTech, 10 million doses from Oxford–AstraZeneca, 9 million doses from Janssen, and 20 million doses through COVAX, the government expected to be able to cover the 34 million Colombians eligible for vaccination. On 15 February, the first batch of COVID-19 vaccines manufactured by Pfizer and BioNTech, containing 50,000 doses, arrived at El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá where it was received by President Iván Duque, Vice President Marta Lucía Ramírez, and Minister of Health Fernando Ruiz. Duque said that this first batch of vaccines would be destined for front-line health and support personnel, while also confirming that the Colombian government expected the arrival of 1,600,000 additional doses within the following 30 days. On 19 February, the Ministry of Health confirmed that at least 45,000 doses out of the first shipment of 192,000 doses of the vaccine by Sinovac, which were expected to arrive in the country the following day, would be sent to the municipalities of Leticia, Puerto Nariño, Mitú, and Inírida in the departments of Amazonas, Vaupés, and Guainía to immunize the entirety of the population aged over 18. Those three departments border Brazil, and the Colombian government's intent was to epidemiologically "blockade" the Brazilian variant and prevent its arrival in other areas of the country. This exceptional measure did not cover pregnant women nor people with a COVID-19 positive test result earlier than 90 days. (The Pfizer vaccine was also effective against the Gamma variant, according to a study published 8 March in the New England Journal of Medicine.) During the first two weeks of the vaccination program, 191,480 first doses were administered. Public health expert Luis Jorge Hernández said the distribution was operating under a scarcity mentality given that only 509,724 doses had arrived in Colombia (including the ones already administered), whereas the Health Ministry had expected to have 850,000 by that point. Over the next month, an additional 3 million doses arrived. The former health minister Gabriel Riveros acknowledged that the vaccination program remained limited by this relatively low number. In the first days of April 2021, it was revealed that thousands of people over 70 in several regions and cities in the country, such as Cartagena, Barrancabermeja, and Cali had refused to be vaccinated upon finding out that the vaccine assigned to them was the one by Oxford–AstraZeneca as their relatives, caretakers or even themselves expressed concerns on the safety of the vaccine after events of blood clots after vaccination as well as the suspension of its rollout in some European countries became known. In Cartagena, it was reported that less than 1,000 doses out of a first shipment of 7,100 had been administered, while in Barrancabemeja only 400 out of 920 doses had been administered, and in Cali the rates of refusal of that specific vaccine were also higher than those of the other two manufacturers in distribution in the country (Pfizer–BioNTech and Sinovac). Despite this, Minister of Health Fernando Ruiz has encouraged the administration of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine, stating that thromboembolic events were found to happen in only one per million vaccinated people, a higher rate than in people consuming contraceptives at one per 10,000 people, as well as citing the recommendations issued by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) to continue administering the vaccine, confirming that the vaccine's benefits still outweighed its potential risks. On 15 June 2021, the Ministry of Health announced an extension of the interval between doses of the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine from 21 to 84 days (12 weeks) starting from Stage 4, backing its decision on scientific evidence showing a greater effectiveness of the vaccine when the interval between doses was extended, as well as citing the examples of the vaccination programs in the United Kingdom, Canada, Denmark, Norway and France, where the same decision had been adopted. In response to this decision, Pfizer issued a release stating that the safety and efficiency of the vaccine were tested with a 21-day interval, and that no other periods of time between doses had been tested since the volunteers taking part in their tests did not receive their second dose above said interval, which prompted backlash from users and academic organizations who were concerned about possible effects on the effectiveness of the vaccine. However, the manufacturer also stated that recommendations on intervals between doses depended on the health authorities of each country and may be based on public health principles. On 24 August 2021, the National Institute of Food and Drug Surveillance (Invima) advised the Colombian government not to extend the interval of the Pfizer vaccine to 84 days, arguing the lack of enough scientific evidence supporting such an extension and recommended to continue following the 21-day interval suggested by the manufacturer. However, Invima also stated that the government was not prevented to extend the interval of vaccines if there was enough scientific research backing such a measure and if further development of the pandemic and the vaccination campaign warranted it. At the same time, the Ministry of Health also requested to extend the interval of the Moderna vaccine (made under the same technology as the Pfizer one) to 84 days. On 3 September 2021, the interval of the Moderna vaccine for people without comorbidities aged below 50 was also extended to 84 days, citing the scientific evidence available, the experiences of other countries with this vaccine as well as Colombia's own experience with vaccines from other manufacturers. On 16 September 2021, the Ministry of Health issued new guidelines for vaccine rollout, aiming to achieve the goal of 35 million people immunized by 31 December 2021: * Population aged over 18 will be administered any of the Oxford–AstraZeneca, Sinovac or Janssen vaccines. * Population aged 12–17 will be vaccinated with Pfizer, and due to the limited availability of that vaccine, the Moderna one could also be used for this age group pending approval by Invima. * Highly dispersed populations, especially those based in remote areas of the Vichada, Chocó, and La Guajira departments, will be covered with the Janssen single-dose vaccine. * The recommendation to administer the second dose of the Pfizer, Moderna, and AstraZeneca vaccines after 84 days was kept in place, except for those people who might need to receive their second dose at a shorter interval for traveling or study reasons, in which case they might get their second dose at any moment between the 24th and the 84th day after their first dose. === Booster doses === On 16 September 2021, accompanying updates to the national vaccination plan, the Ministry of Health approved booster doses for people aged over 70. The first booster doses were administered on 1 October. On 19 November 2021, the minimum age was lowered to 50. On 21 December 2021, the minimum age was lowered to 18. Initially, boosters were available by appointment only and could be scheduled through healthcare providers (EPS). When the minimum age was lowered to 18, boosters were administered even without EPS and without appointment. The rollout began with people over 70 because this age group has lower immune capacity and higher mortality rates, and for them a third dose can be especially protective. The Ministry advised that individuals receive a booster dose from the same manufacturer as their previous doses, or an mRNA vaccine such as the Pfizer or Moderna ones, and that it be administered at least six months after their second dose. On 6 May 2022, the government authorized a fourth dose for everyone over 50. === Support === Uber announced that, beginning 12 April 2021, it would offer up to 25,000 free rides, valued at a maximum of COP 10,000 per ride, if they were taken to or from a vaccination center. Each person could request up to two rides through the app. == Opinion polling == Before vaccinations began, a poll conducted from 9 November to 10 December 2020 by the National Administrative Department of Statistics (Dane) found that only half of Colombians wanted to be vaccinated against coronavirus. In Quibdó, 72 percent said they wanted the vaccine, but in Cali, only 43 percent wanted it. Among those who said they did not want the vaccine, most said they feared side effects. In Bogotá, a poll conducted 9–25 February 2021 found that 58% wanted to be vaccinated, 19% did not, and 23% were still unsure. Polls conducted between January and March 2021 in 23 cities, as analyzed by the Dane found that 76% of men and 70% of women wanted to be vaccinated. == Progress == On 6 May 2022, President Duque celebrated having achieved the original goal of vaccinating 70% of the Colombian population, or 35.7 million people. The information below is sourced from the official daily statistics published by the Ministry of Health of Colombia. === Cumulative vaccinations === === Doses administered per day === === Doses by department === Department Population (est. 2021) Assigned doses Administered doses border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Amazonas Amazonas 80,464 145,842 143,782 border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Antioquia Antioquia 6,782,584 11,746,999 12,650,795 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Arauca Arauca 301,270 405,457 418,967 border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Atlántico Atlántico 2,771,139 4,971,426 5,124,420 22x20px|Flag of Bogotá Bogotá, D.C. 7,834,167 14,817,222 16,259,697 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Bolívar Bolívar 2,213,061 3,494,209 3,805,572 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Boyacá Boyacá 1,251,675 2,230,333 2,442,297 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Caldas Caldas 1,027,314 1,906,509 1,888,850 border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Caquetá Caquetá 414,841 505,526 507,863 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Casanare Casanare 439,238 684,606 737,118 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Cauca Cauca 1,504,044 1,633,193 1,550,774 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Cesar Cesar 1,322,466 1,893,903 1,925,128 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Chocó Chocó 549,225 510,852 462,409 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Córdoba Córdoba 1,844,076 2,679,284 2,713,976 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Cundinamarca Cundinamarca 3,372,221 4,888,257 5,388,340 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Guainía Guainía 51,450 60,040 55,103 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Guaviare Guaviare 88,490 109,840 120,047 border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Huila Huila 1,131,934 1,717,370 1,819,813 border|22x20px|Flag of La Guajira La Guajira 987,781 1,209,920 1,349,680 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Magdalena Magdalena 1,449,087 2,188,577 2,261,952 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Meta Meta 1,072,412 1,562,968 1,625,608 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Nariño Nariño 1,627,386 2,274,383 2,463,565 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Norte de Santander Norte de Santander 1,642,746 2,531,301 2,648,060 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Putumayo Putumayo 364,085 366,055 357,134 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Quindío Quindío 562,177 1,157,949 1,113,309 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Risaralda Risaralda 968,626 1,752,333 1,830,701 22x20px|Flag of the Department of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés 64,672 137,703 132,732 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Santander Santander 2,306,455 3,836,943 3,956,857 border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Sucre Sucre 962,457 1,444,326 1,552,247 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Tolima Tolima 1,343,898 2,447,524 2,528,355 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Valle del Cauca Valle del Cauca 4,556,752 7,329,521 7,757,296 border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Vaupés Vaupés 46,808 46,439 43,152 22x20px|Flag of the Department of Vichada Vichada 114,557 105,064 87,187 51,049,498 82,791,874 87,738,036 == References == Category:COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia Category:COVID-19 vaccination by country Category:2021 in Colombia Category:COVID-19 pandemic by country |
Below is a partial list of Minor League Baseball players in the Los Angeles Angels system. ==Players== ===Caden Dana=== Caden Lawrence Dan (born December 17, 2003) is an American professional baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Dana attended Don Bosco Preparatory High School in Ramsey, New Jersey, where he was the New Jersey Gatorade Baseball Player of the Year his senior year in 2022. He was drafted by the Los Angeles Angels in the 11th round of the 2022 Major League Baseball Draft. His brother, Casey, was also drafted by the Angels that year. Dana made his professional debut in 2022 with the Arizona Complex League Angels and pitched one game with the Inland Empire 66ers. He started 2023 with Inland Empire before being promoted to the Tri-City Dust Devils. ===Mason Erla=== Mason Andrew Erla (born August 19, 1997) is an American baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Erla played college baseball at Michigan State for five seasons. He pitched in two games as a freshman before tearing the Latissimus dorsi muscle in his pitching shoulder and using a medical redshirt. In 2018, he briefly played collegiate summer baseball with the Yarmouth–Dennis Red Sox of the Cape Cod Baseball League. Erla went 2-0 four starts before the 2020 season was cut short due to the coronavirus pandemic. As a redshirt junior, he had a 5-6 record with a 3.50 ERA 80 strikeouts. Erla was selected in the 17th round by the Los Angeles Angels in the 2021 Major League Baseball draft. After signing with the team he was assigned to the Arizona Complex League Angels and made two appearances before being promoted to the High-A Tri-City Dust Devils. Erla was assigned to the Double-A Rocket City Trash Pandas at the start of the 2022 season. After his first start, Erla was placed on the injured list due to shoulder soreness and did not return for six weeks. *Michigan State Spartans bio ===Denzer Guzman=== Denzer Guzman (born February 8, 2004) is a Dominican professional baseball shortstop in the Los Angeles Angels organization. On January 15, 2021, Guzman signed with the Angels as an international prospect for $2 million. He was first assigned to the rookie-level Dominican Summer League Angels on June 8, 2021. In 44 DSL games, Guzman batted .213 with three home runs and 27 RBIs. On June 6, 2022, Guzman was assigned to the rookie- level Arizona Complex League Angels. In 52 games, Guzman batted .286 with three home runs and 33 RBIs. On August 25, he was promoted to the Single A Inland Empire 66ers of the California League. In five games with Inland Empire, Guzman went 3-for-17 (.176) with two RBIs. ===Jeremiah Jackson=== Jeremiah Jackson (born March 26, 2000) is an American professional baseball shortstop in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Jackson attended St. Luke's Episcopal School in Mobile, Alabama, where he played baseball. He committed to play college baseball at Mississippi State University prior to his sophomore year. As a senior in 2018, he batted .637 with 15 home runs and 49 RBIs in 34 games, and was named Alabama Mr. Baseball. After his senior year, he was selected by the Los Angeles Angels in the second round (57th overall) of the 2018 Major League Baseball draft. Jackson signed with the Angels and made his professional debut that year with the Rookie-level Arizona League Angels before being promoted to the Orem Owls of the Rookie Advanced Pioneer League. Over 43 games between the two clubs, he batted .254 with seven home runs, 23 RBIs and ten stolen bases. In 2019, he returned to Orem, slashing .266/.333/.605 with 23 home runs and sixty RBIs over 65 games, earning Pioneer League All-Star honors. His 23 home runs tied the Pioneer League single-season record. He did not play a minor league game in 2020 due to the cancellation of the minor league season caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Jackson was assigned to the Inland Empire 66ers of the Low-A West for the 2021 season. He missed over two months due to a quad strain. Over 45 games with the 66ers, Jackson slashed .263/.352/.527 with eight home runs and 46 RBIs. He was selected to play in the Arizona Fall League for the Glendale Desert Dogs after the season. He was assigned to the Rocket City Trash Pandas of the Double-A Southern League to begin the 2022 season.https://twitter.com/trashpandas/status/1512094743311888384/photo/1 After two games, he was placed on the injured list. He returned in late May. Over 87 games with Rocket City, he batted .215 with 14 home runs and 44 RBIs. Jackson returned to Rocket City to open the 2023 season. ===Brett Kerry=== Brett Dustin Kerry (born April 12, 1999) is an American professional baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Born and raised in Clemmons, North Carolina, Kerry began his high school career at West Forsyth High School in Clemmons before transferring to Wesleyan Christian Academy in High Point, North Carolina. He went 10-1 with a 0.60 ERA as a senior in 2018.https://greensboro.com/sports/high-school/baseball/hsxtra-com-all-area- baseball/article_5340bce6-642f-11e8-8743-0bf7ebef14fb.html Unselected in the 2018 Major League Baseball draft, he enrolled at the University of South Carolina to play college baseball for the Gamecocks. As a freshman at South Carolina in 2019, Kerry made 22 appearances (with two starts), going 4-1 with a 2.62 ERA, 65 strikeouts, and seven saves over innings. After pitching only 15 innings in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, he spent the summer playing for the Lexington County Blowfish of the Coastal Plain League.https://www.thestate.com/sports/college/university-of-south- carolina/usc-baseball/article242848596.html For the 2021 season, Kerry made 17 appearances with three starts and went 5-1 with a 2.15 ERA and 84 strikeouts over innings. Following the season, he was selected by the Los Angeles Angels in the fifth round of the 2021 Major League Baseball draft. Kerry signed with the Angels and spent his first professional season with the Inland Empire 66ers of the Low-A West and the Rocket City Trash Pandas of the Double-A South, posting a 1.26 ERA over five starts and innings. He returned to Rocket City for the 2022 season. Over 25 games (twenty starts), he went 5-7 with a 4.46 ERA and 118 strikeouts over 103 innings. To open the 2023 season, Kerry was assigned to Rocket City. *South Carolina Gamecocks bio ===Jake Madden=== Jake Thomas Madden (born December 26, 2001) is an American baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Madden grew up in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania and attended East Pennsboro High School. He committed to play college baseball at South Carolina from 15 scholarship offers during his junior year. Madden tore his ulnar collateral ligament in his senior season and continued to play as East Pennsboro's designated hitter. He decommitted from South Carolina in the summer after his senior year and instead enrolled at Northwest Florida State College. Madden redshirted his first season at Northwest Florida while recovering from Tommy John surgery to repair his elbow injury. He committed to transfer to Alabama for his remaining collegiate eligibility prior to his sophomore season. As a redshirt freshman, Madden went 4-4 with a 4.53 ERA and 76 strikeouts in innings pitched. He dealt with blister issues on his pitching hand throughout the season. Madden was selected in the fourth round by the Los Angeles Angels in the 2022 Major League Baseball draft. He signed with the Angels on July 22, 2022, for an over-slot signing bonus of $997,500. *Northwest Florida State Raiders bio ===Luke Murphy=== Luke Evan Murphy (born November 5, 1999) is an American professional baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Murphy attended East Robertson High School in Cross Plains, Tennessee and played college baseball at Vanderbilt University. He was drafted by the Los Angeles Angels in the fourth round of the 2021 Major League Baseball draft. Murphy made his professional debut with the Tri-City Dust Devils. He started 2022 with the Rocket City Trash Pandas. ===Braden Olthoff=== Braden Richard Olthoff (born March 12, 1999) is an American professional baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Olthoff attended El Camino High School in Oceanside, California and played college baseball at Palomar College and Tulane University. During his first year at Tulane in 2020, he started four games and went 4-0 with a 0.32 ERA over 28 innings before the season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. He returned to the starting rotation in 2021. He finished the season 6-3 with a 3.78 ERA, 91 strikeouts, and 11 walks, and was selected by the Los Angeles Angels in the ninth round of the 2021 Major League Baseball draft. Olthoff signed with the Angels, and split his first professional season between the Arizona Complex League Angels and Inland Empire 66ers. Over five starts, he went 0-2 with a 5.94 ERA and 26 strikeouts over innings pitched. He opened the 2022 season with the Tri-City Dust Devils and was promoted to the Rocket City Trash Pandas in late May. Over 23 games (17 starts) between the two teams, he posted a 5-9 record with a 4.15 ERA and 73 strikeouts over innings. *Tulane Green Wave bio ===Kyren Paris=== Kyren Terrell Paris (born November 11, 2001) is an American professional baseball shortstop in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Paris attended Freedom High School in Oakley, California. He was drafted by the Los Angeles Angels in the second round of the 2019 Major League Baseball draft. He signed with the Angels rather than play college baseball at the University of California, Berkley. Paris made his professional debut with the Arizona League Angels with whom he appeared in three games. He did not play a minor league game in 2020 because the season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. He started 2021 with the Inland Empire 66ers before being promoted to the Tri- City Dust Devils. Over 47 games between the two teams, he slashed .267/.388/.459 with four home runs, 25 RBIs, and 22 stolen bases. He missed two months due to a fractured fibula. ===Edgar Quero=== Edgar Yoel Quero (born April 6, 2003) is a Cuban professional baseball catcher in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Quero signed with the Los Angeles Angels as an international free agent in February 2021 and received a $200,000 signing bonus. He was assigned to the Rookie-level Arizona Complex League Angels to begin his professional career and was later promoted to the Low-A Inland Empire 66ers and batted .240 with five home runs for the 2021 season. Quero returned to Inland Empire to begin the 2022 season. On June 13, Quero earned his first Prospect Team of the Week selection after going 7-for-18 (.389) with two home runs and eight runs batted in (RBI). On July 18, he earned another selection after going 11-for-23 (.478) with one home run and three RBI. On August 8, Quero earned his third selection to the weekly team after he went 10-for-25 (.400) with two home runs and eight RBI. On August 17, Quero was ranked as the third-best prospect in the Angels farm system, behind organizational newcomers Logan O'Hoppe and Zach Neto. ===Ryan Smith=== Ryan William Smith (born August 13, 1997) is an American professional baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Smith attended Garden City High School in Garden City, New York, and played college baseball at Princeton University. In 2018, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Cotuit Kettleers of the Cape Cod Baseball League. As a senior at Princeton in 2019, he pitched innings, compiling a 3.45 ERA and 76 strikeouts. He was selected by the Los Angeles Angels in the 18th round of the 2019 Major League Baseball draft. Smith signed with the Angels and made his professional debut with the Orem Owlz of the Rookie Advanced Pioneer League, going 0–2 with a 5.26 ERA over innings. He did not play a game in 2020 after the minor league season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Smith began the 2021 season with the Inland Empire 66ers of the Low-A West and earned promotions to the Tri-City Dust Devils of the High-A West, the Rocket City Trash Pandas of the Double-A South, and the Salt Lake Bees of the Triple-A West during the season. Over 24 games (23 starts) between the four clubs, Smith went 7–7 with a 4.24 ERA and 153 strikeouts over innings. He returned to Salt Lake for the 2022 season.https://twitter.com/SaltLakeBees/status/1511460490114859008/photo/1 Over 32 games (ten starts), he went 2-6 with a 6.75 ERA and 81 strikeouts over innings. ===Eric Torres=== Eric Anthony Torres (born September 22, 1999) is an American professional baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels organization. Torres attended Sussex Hamilton High School in Sussex, Wisconsin, and played college baseball at Kansas State University. In 2019, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Wareham Gatemen of the Cape Cod Baseball League. In 2020, he played in the Northwoods League for the Green Bay Booyah. As a redshirt sophomore at Kansas State in 2021, Torres went 4-0 with a 2.75 ERA, 58 strikeouts, and nine walks over innings pitched. After the season, he was selected by the Los Angeles Angels in the 14th round with the 411th overall selection of the 2021 Major League Baseball draft. Torres made his professional debut with the Tri-City Dust Devils and gave up five earned runs over innings. He played the 2022 season with the Rocket City Trash Pandas. Over 42 relief appearances, he went 2-2 with a 1.59 ERA and 81 strikeouts over 51 innings, and was third in the minor leagues with 22 saves. He returned to Rocket City to open the 2023 season. *Kansas State Wildcats bio ==Full Triple-A to Rookie League rosters== ===Triple-A=== ===Double-A=== ===High-A=== ===Single-A=== ===Rookie=== ===Foreign Rookie=== == References == Minor league players Los Angeles A |
The situa or citua (in Quechua ) was the health and ritual purification festival in the Inca Empire. It was held in Cusco, the capital of the empire, during the month of September on the day of the first moon after the spring equinox, which in the southern hemisphere takes place normally on September 23. It was a very important festival whose rites are well described by the early Spanish chroniclers, in particular Cristóbal de Molina, Polo de Ondegardo and Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. The latter witnessed situas as a child after the Spaniards had reduced them to memorials of the actual Inca festival. The situa is also mentioned by Bernabé Cobo, who copied, most probably, its text from Molina,Bauer, Brian S.; Smith-Oka Vania; E. Cantarutti, Gabriel (editors) (2011) Account of the Fables and Rites of the Incas by Cristóbal de Molina - With an introduction by Brian S. Bauer - University of Texas Press - Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa and Juan de Betanzos. The festival was held when the rain season had just begun and many illnesses tended to occur. Rituals to the Creator-god were thus executed both in Cusco and in other lands conquered by the Incas in order to purify them and "send the evil away". thumb|Cusco center at Inca time. Note that the plaza was much larger than today The four days rites included offerings "rams" (that is llamas and alpacas), carefully chosen for their white color, to the deities,Ondegardo, Polo de (1559). Los errores y svpersticiones de los indios, sacadas del tratado y aueriguacion que hizo el licenciado Polo de Ondegardo - In "Informaciones acerca de la Religión y Gobierno de los Incas". Notas biográficas y concordancia de los textos por Horacio H. Urteaga, 1916 - Imprenta y Librería Sanmartí - Lima − Reprint 2017 as "Crónicas tempranas del siglo XVI - Volume II − El patrimonio hegemónico de la escritura: Descripciones historiográficas del Cusco (1542-1590)" - Ministerio de Cultura de Peru - Cusco- edited by Carlos Velaochaga Dam, Alejandro Herrera Villagra and Rafael Warthon Calero purification by bathing in the river water, lighting large straw torches (like large balls, called panconcos) and preparing and eating the ritual maize buns called sanco (sankhu in Quechua)Comisión de la Academia Mayor de la lengua quechua (2005). Diccionario quechua - español - quechua - Gobierno Regional Cusco - Cusco – Second edition whose dough was often mixed with blood. All were allowed to drink chicha (fermented beverage, corn beer) during the four days festival «without stopping». A great number of persons and beasts gathered in the main plaza of Cusco (Haucaypata), which in Inca times was much larger than the current . Figures of the deities from the huacas (shrines) were carried to their respective temples they had in Cusco. To obtain proper cleanliness of the city, all foreigners and with those with physical defects were banished from the city for a distance of two leagues. According to Molina, Pachacuti Inca was the sovereign who defined the way the festival had to be performed, giving rules to an ancient tradition. ==Description of the situa== ===Preparation=== According to Garcilaso, the priests could detect the equinox by observing the shadows of stone columns as projected though an east to west line and could discern the exact date of the situa. In order to obtain proper cleanliness of the city, all those who were not natives of Cusco were banished for a distance of two leagues. Moreover, anyone who had broken earlobes,the Inca nobility inserted large plugs in their earlobes. It was considered bad luck if a lobe broke. all the hunchbacks and anyone who had a lesion or defect on their body were taken out of city, being considered as carriers of bad fate. Even the dogs were chased out of the city so that they would not howl. They could all return to the city at the beginning of the last day of the festival. In the meantime, the population of Cusco prepared for this festival with fast and abstinence for three days. Children fasted just one day. On the night before the start of the festival, men, women and children gathered at the house of the eldest brother of the family and prepared the bread called sanco, made with corn flour and other previously toasted cereals, cooked with little water and some fat. This bread, prepared in buns the size of a small apple, was used in ceremonies as sacred food and it was left half cooked. A variety of Sanco was additionally prepared with blood in the dough (in Quechua yawar sankhu, where yawar means blood), which Garcilaso affirms was taken from children between five and ten, by bloodletting through a cut in the middle of the eyebrows,. The two kinds of sanco were cooked separately. Polo de Ondegardo reveals that the blood was in fact taken from sacrificed beasts. He also reports that the acllas, Virgins of the Sun, prepared a great amount of buns, which were also given to the foreigners in the last day of the festival, while even more buns were sent to the distant shrines and to the kurakas (local chiefs and governors) as a sign of confederation and loyalty to the Sun-god and the Inca. Sanco was also used to warm people, statues and mummies, rubbing it on the bodies so as to revitalize them. The chroniclers use the Spanish word calentar for this action. Before dawn, everyone washed their bodies and took a little of the blood sanco and passed it over their heads and faces, chests and backs, arms and legs in order to cleanse their bodies of all diseases. The elder brother, lord of the house, smeared the threshold of the street door with sanco and left it glued to them, as a sign that the lavatory had been done and all the persons were cleansed. The situa lasted four day as follows: * the first day was dedicated to ritual bathing and purification by eating sanco; * the second day was dedicated to the deities: Creator, Sun, and Thunder, with sacrifices for them and saying prayers for the Inca; * the third day was for the Moon and the Earth, and sacrifices and prayers were performed to them; * the next day all the nations subjected to the Inca entered the plaza with their huacas, dressed in the finest clothing of their lands, bringing a large amount of livestock. ===Day 1=== On the day of the conjunction of the Moon, at noon, the Inca went to the Coricancha (Quechua Qorikancha), the temple of the Sun-god, with his council, the priests and the most noble persons of Cusco. There they discussed the details of the festival, because in some years certain aspects could be added or removed.Rostworowski, María (2001 [1953]). Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui - Obras Completas I - Serie: Historia Andina, 23 - IEP Instituto de Estudios Peruanos In the meantime, many armed warriors met in the small square in front of the temple, while the statues of the deities from some huacas were brought to that same square. The high priest of the Sun would then declare the festival opened. In the middle of the main plaza of Cusco there was a special ushnu (a ceremonial platform) which was shaped as a golden pillar and resembled a well.Albornoz, Cristobal de (ca. 1582 [1984]) Instruccion para descubrir todas las guacas del Piru y sus camayos y haziendas - In "Albornoz y el espacio ritual andino prehispanico" - edited by Pierre Duviols. Revista andina 2(1): 169–222 It was filled with chicha poured on top of it as a sacrifice, which everyone could drink. Four hundred runner warriors, fully armed, were assembled and waiting around the ushnu; each group of one hundred was facing one of the four suyus (provinces of the Inca Empire): Chinchaysuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW) and Qullasuyu (SE). When the priests form the Coricancha arrived, the four hundred warriors shouted a ritual cry and started running towards the four directions of the Inca empire. The runners, continuously shouting the ritual words, carried their weapons; after a quarter of a league they passed them to other warriors and so on until they were about "five or six leagues out of the city. There the runners bathed and washed their weapons in the rivers at the places they had reached. The warriors going to Collasuyu bathed in the Urubamba River (also known as Vilcanota) near the modern town of Quiquijana, those going to Chinchaysuyu bathed in the Apurímac River below the modern town of Limatambo. Those who carried their shouts to Antisuyu bathed in the Urubamba River beside the modern town of Písac and those who went to Cuntisuyu washed at the Cusibamba River. Molina states that: «the reason that they bathed in these rivers was because these are voluminous rivers [that] they know lead to the sea, and so [the rivers] would carry the illnesses [away]». While the warriors passed along the ceques, the sacred paths radiating from Cusco joining the huacas, people stood out of their houses shaking their clothes and blankets while shouting for the illnesses to leave the city and asking for a prosperous year. Bauer points out that «during Inca times, the ritualized cleansing of evil ended with the four relays of warriors bathing themselves and their weapons in the major rivers of the region. In the later and more limited rituals witnessed by Garcilaso de la Vega, the situa festival ended with the runners sticking their spears “in the ground as a barrier to prevent the ills from re-entering the area from which they had been banished"». Moreover Garcialso states that a royal blood Inca, not necessarily the Sapan Inca, fully dressed and with a spear, run down from the Sacsayhuamán fortress to the Haucaypata, where four royal blood Incas (and not four hundred warriors) awaited and then run towards the four suyus. When the night came everybody danced, including the Inca. ===Day 2=== thumb|During the situa festival straw torches were lit and carried around to remove the evils by night At dawn, people went to the rivers and springs to bathe, and ordered any illness to leave them. After bathing, they prepared and lit large straw torches, similar to large balls tied with ropes, called pancuncos or panconcos (pankunku in Quechua, meaning dry wood or straw torch). The men went around playing and hitting each other with them. These torches interested the Spanish chroniclers and they gave different descriptions of the practice. Polo de Ondegardo states «[…] they emitted great shouts, with torches in their hands, crying “Evil be driven out,” and hitting one another with the torches. These were called panconcos.» Garcilaso de la Vega states «[…] they went out with great torches of straw woven like the jackets for oil jars in round balls. These were called pancuncu, and took a long time to burn. Each was fastened to a cord a fathom in length, and they used to run through all the streets trailing the torches till they were outside the city, as if the torches removed the evils by night as the spears did by day. The burned torches were finally cast into the streams that pass through the city, together with the water in which the people had washed the previous day, so that the running water might carry the ills they had driven out of their houses and out of the city down to the sea.» Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala, who describes the situa in his manuscript (First New Chronicle and Good Government), states «Men armed as if they were going to fight a war, throwing fire slings, saying in a loud voice: "Leave sicknesses and pestilences from the people and from this town! Leave us!"» Guamán provides a picture of the pancuncus.Guaman Poma de Ayala, Felipe (1615/1616). El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno - Autograph manuscript - København - Det Kongelige Bibliotek, GKS 2232 4° Poma de Ayala, Guaman (2009 [1615]) The first new chronicle and good government: On the history of the world and the Incas up to 1615 - Translated and edited by Roland Hamilton - Austin: University of Texas Press. After this, the men returned to their houses, to end the day eating sanco, which they also put on their faces and in places where they kept their food and clothes. They also threw sanco into the springs, wishing not to be ill and any illness to be kept out of their houses. Sanco was also given to the other members of the family and friends. The mummies of the dead relatives were warmed with sanco, so that they could enjoy the celebration. The day ended in joy, and everyone ate and drank the best foods they had; even the poorest persons had saved food for the festival. During this celebration no one argued with one another, nor pronounced angry words, nor asked to be repaid a debt because they believed that if they had behaved badly in this day, they would have quarrels and difficulties all year long. That night the statues of the Creator the Sun and the Thunder, were taken out of their respective temples and the priests warmed them with sanco. ===Day 3=== On the next morning the priests brought fine foods to be presented to the statues of the Creator, the Sun, and the Thunder in their respective temples. The priests of the huacas received this food and burned it as a sacrifice to the deities. As in other cultures, the Incas mummified their dead sovereigns, the Sapan Inca and his Qoya (queen) and worshipped them after the death. Mummies were taken care of by the panaka (lineage) of the dead emperor and shown in public at festivals. Thus the third day of situa each panaka took out and brought to the main square the royal mummies they were taking care of and at night they ritually washed them in the same baths that each sovereign had been using while alive. Once the mummies were taken back to their respective homes they were warmed with sanco and then each mummy was offered the food they liked most in their life, which after this rite was burnt as an offering to the deities. When the Sapan Inca finished his own bath he went to his private room with his principal wife where both were warmed with sanco on their heads, which were then adorned with the iridescent plumes of a bird. The same ritual was performed on the statue of the Creator-god. Afterward the Inca, fully dressed in his richest robes and accompanied by his court, went to the main plaza of Cusco. At the same time, the main image of the Sun-god, accompanied by the priests of the Sun, was brought to the plaza together with two other gold images representing its wives. ===Day 4=== During this last day, all those who were driven out of the city at the beginning of the festival were summoned inside once again to join the celebration. Everyone went again to the plaza with the priests, the huacas and the Inca. A great amount of livestock, of all types and from each of the four regions, was brought to the plaza too. Molina states that «according to those who gave statements … there were over one hundred thousand heads. This livestock had to be clean, without any blemishes or marks, and woolly, having never been shorn». The high priest of the Sun choose four among the cleanest and whitest rams, rubbing them with blood sanco and sacrificed them. The high priest then warned everyone that those who dare eating sanco in sin will be punished by the gods, while those who ate sanco in pure spirit will be rewarded by «joyful years, bountiful food, and everything else needed for success». The high priest ate his portion of sanco followed by the nobility from the two Cusco neighborhoods, hanan and hurin (upper and lower), saving some for those who were absent. The lungs of the sacrificed rams were taken out and inflated by blowing into them. The priests then looked for any signs that implied either fruitful or bad incoming years. Then the lungs were burnt and the meat of the four rams was eaten by the priests, while all the other people were invited to share the remaining rams sacrificed and cooked on the square. A great amount of chicha, prepared in due time from white maize for the purpose of the festival, was brought to the plaza and drank. Meantime the priests carried their huacas to the plaza on litters, while the nobility joined their two groups in one to make room for them. The local chiefs were then rubbed with sanco and they recited a joint prayer, after which they ate the rams meat. All the nations danced the , the special song for the situa festival. Then the representatives of the nations asked permission to return to their respective lands and were given a reward by the Inca for having participated to the festival. ===Prayers=== Molina reports several prayers recited during the situa both in Quechua and with a translation in Spanish. They are an important witness of the ancient Inca rites. A welll known prayer, whose text is also provided by Guaman Poma de Ayala, Martín de MurúaOssio, Juan M. A. (2008) Murua's two manuscripts: A comparison. In The Gett y Murúa, edited by Thomas B. F. Cummins and Barbara Anderson, 77–94. Los Angeles: Gett y Research Institute and Juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui SalcamayguaSanta Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua, Joan de (1950 [ca. 1613]). Relacion de antiguedades deste reyno del Peru - In "Tres relaciones de antigüedades peruanas", edited by Marcos Jimenez de la Espada, 207–281. Asuncion, Paraguay: Editora Guarania. is the following: ===Later remnants=== When the Spaniards conquered the Empire and imposed the Christian religion as the only one, they started a fight against idolatry, forbidding all Inca festivals and ritual practices to take place. Even the situa, among the most important, was suppressed. It became a sort of folkloric memorial rather than a religious feast. Polo de Ondegardo states in 1559 that the bathing, the drunkenness and some trace of the situa still lasted four days with somewhat differentiated ceremonies, and with a lot of secrecy. Garcilaso confirms in 1609 that the celebration was still practiced, in a reduced form as compared with the festivals of the 1540s and 1550s. While he was a young boy he was an eyewitness to part of the rituals since, as a child, he was not allowed to see all of it. He writes: «I remember having seen part of this celebration in my childhood. […] I saw the four Indians running with their spears. I saw the common people shaking their clothes and making the other gestures, and saw them eat the bread called sanco. I saw the torches or pancunu [sic], but did not see the nocturnal rite, because it was very late and I had already gone to bed». == See also == * Inti Raymi * Coricancha * Inca Empire * Ceque system == References == Category:Peruvian culture Category:Festivals in Peru Category:Inca mythology |
In quantum mechanics the delta potential is a potential well mathematically described by the Dirac delta function - a generalized function. Qualitatively, it corresponds to a potential which is zero everywhere, except at a single point, where it takes an infinite value. This can be used to simulate situations where a particle is free to move in two regions of space with a barrier between the two regions. For example, an electron can move almost freely in a conducting material, but if two conducting surfaces are put close together, the interface between them acts as a barrier for the electron that can be approximated by a delta potential. The delta potential well is a limiting case of the finite potential well, which is obtained if one maintains the product of the width of the well and the potential constant while decreasing the well's width and increasing the potential. This article, for simplicity, only considers a one-dimensional potential well, but analysis could be expanded to more dimensions. == Single delta potential == thumb|right The time-independent Schrödinger equation for the wave function of a particle in one dimension in a potential is -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{d^2 \psi(x)}{dx^2} + V(x) \psi(x) = E \psi(x), where is the reduced Planck constant, and is the energy of the particle. The delta potential is the potential V(x) = \lambda \delta(x), where is the Dirac delta function. It is called a delta potential well if is negative, and a delta potential barrier if is positive. The delta has been defined to occur at the origin for simplicity; a shift in the delta function's argument does not change any of the following results. === Solving the Schrödinger equation === The potential splits the space in two parts ( and ). In each of these parts the potential is zero, and the Schrödinger equation reduces to \frac{d^2\psi}{dx^2} = -\frac{2mE}{\hbar^2} \psi; this is a linear differential equation with constant coefficients, whose solutions are linear combinations of and , where the wave number is related to the energy by k = \frac{\sqrt{2mE}}{\hbar}. In general, due to the presence of the delta potential in the origin, the coefficients of the solution need not be the same in both half-spaces: \psi(x) = \begin{cases} \psi_\text{L}(x) = A_\text{r} e^{ikx} + A_\text{l} e^{-ikx}, & \text{ if } x < 0, \\\ \psi_\text{R}(x) = B_\text{r} e^{ikx} + B_\text{l} e^{-ikx}, & \text{ if } x > 0, \end{cases} where, in the case of positive energies (real ), represents a wave traveling to the right, and one traveling to the left. One obtains a relation between the coefficients by imposing that the wavefunction be continuous at the origin: \psi(0) = \psi_L(0) = \psi_R(0) = A_r + A_l = B_r + B_l, A second relation can be found by studying the derivative of the wavefunction. Normally, we could also impose differentiability at the origin, but this is not possible because of the delta potential. However, if we integrate the Schrödinger equation around , over an interval : -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \int_{-\varepsilon}^{+\varepsilon} \psi(x) \,dx + \int_{-\varepsilon}^{+\varepsilon} V(x)\psi(x) \,dx = E \int_{-\varepsilon}^{+\varepsilon} \psi(x) \,dx. In the limit as , the right- hand side of this equation vanishes; the left-hand side becomes -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} [\psi_R'(0) - \psi_L'(0)] + \lambda \psi(0), because \int_{-\varepsilon}^{+\varepsilon} \psi(x) \,dx = [\psi'(+\varepsilon) - \psi'(-\varepsilon)]. Substituting the definition of into this expression yields -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} ik (-A_r + A_l + B_r - B_l) + \lambda(A_r + A_l) = 0. The boundary conditions thus give the following restrictions on the coefficients \begin{cases} A_r + A_l - B_r - B_l &= 0,\\\ -A_r + A_l + B_r - B_l &= \frac{2m\lambda}{ik\hbar^2} (A_r + A_l). \end{cases} === Bound state (E < 0) === right|thumb|350px|The graph of the bound state wavefunction solution to the delta function potential is continuous everywhere, but its derivative is not defined at . In any one-dimensional attractive potential there will be a bound state. To find its energy, note that for , is imaginary, and the wave functions which were oscillating for positive energies in the calculation above are now exponentially increasing or decreasing functions of x (see above). Requiring that the wave functions do not diverge at infinity eliminates half of the terms: . The wave function is then \psi(x) = \begin{cases} \psi_\text{L}(x) = A_\text{l} e^{\kappa x}, & \text{ if } x \le 0, \\\ \psi_\text{R}(x) = B_\text{r} e^{-\kappa x}, & \text{ if } x \ge 0. \end{cases} From the boundary conditions and normalization conditions, it follows that \begin{cases} A_\text{l} = B_\text{r} = \sqrt{\kappa},\\\ \kappa = -\frac{m \lambda}{\hbar^2}, \end{cases} from which it follows that must be negative, that is, the bound state only exists for the well, and not for the barrier. The Fourier transform of this wave function is a Lorentzian function. The energy of the bound state is then E = -\frac{\hbar^2\kappa^2}{2m} = -\frac{m\lambda^2}{2\hbar^2}. === Scattering (E > 0) === right|thumb|350px|Transmission (T) and reflection (R) probability of a delta potential well. The energy is in units of \frac{m\lambda^2}{2\hbar^2}. Dashed: classical result. Solid line: quantum mechanics. For positive energies, the particle is free to move in either half-space: or . It may be scattered at the delta-function potential. The quantum case can be studied in the following situation: a particle incident on the barrier from the left side . It may be reflected or transmitted . To find the amplitudes for reflection and transmission for incidence from the left, we put in the above equations (incoming particle), (reflection), (no incoming particle from the right) and (transmission), and solve for and even though we do not have any equations in . The result is t = \cfrac{1}{1 - \cfrac{m\lambda}{i\hbar^2k}}, \quad r = \cfrac{1}{\cfrac{i\hbar^2 k}{m\lambda} - 1}. Due to the mirror symmetry of the model, the amplitudes for incidence from the right are the same as those from the left. The result is that there is a non-zero probability R = |r|^2 = \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{\hbar^4 k^2}{m^2\lambda^2}} = \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{2\hbar^2 E}{m \lambda^2}} for the particle to be reflected. This does not depend on the sign of , that is, a barrier has the same probability of reflecting the particle as a well. This is a significant difference from classical mechanics, where the reflection probability would be 1 for the barrier (the particle simply bounces back), and 0 for the well (the particle passes through the well undisturbed). The probability for transmission is T = |t|^2 = 1 - R = \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{m^2\lambda^2}{\hbar^4 k^2}} = \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{m \lambda^2}{2\hbar^2 E}}. === Remarks and application === The calculation presented above may at first seem unrealistic and hardly useful. However, it has proved to be a suitable model for a variety of real-life systems. One such example regards the interfaces between two conducting materials. In the bulk of the materials, the motion of the electrons is quasi- free and can be described by the kinetic term in the above Hamiltonian with an effective mass . Often, the surfaces of such materials are covered with oxide layers or are not ideal for other reasons. This thin, non-conducting layer may then be modeled by a local delta-function potential as above. Electrons may then tunnel from one material to the other giving rise to a current. The operation of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) relies on this tunneling effect. In that case, the barrier is due to the air between the tip of the STM and the underlying object. The strength of the barrier is related to the separation being stronger the further apart the two are. For a more general model of this situation, see Finite potential barrier (QM). The delta function potential barrier is the limiting case of the model considered there for very high and narrow barriers. The above model is one-dimensional while the space around us is three-dimensional. So, in fact, one should solve the Schrödinger equation in three dimensions. On the other hand, many systems only change along one coordinate direction and are translationally invariant along the others. The Schrödinger equation may then be reduced to the case considered here by an Ansatz for the wave function of the type \Psi(x,y,z)=\psi(x)\phi(y,z)\,\\!. Alternatively, it is possible to generalize the delta function to exist on the surface of some domain D (see Laplacian of the indicator). The delta function model is actually a one-dimensional version of the Hydrogen atom according to the dimensional scaling method developed by the group of Dudley R. HerschbachD.R. Herschbach, J.S. Avery, and O. Goscinski (eds.), Dimensional Scaling in Chemical Physics, Springer, (1992). The delta function model becomes particularly useful with the double-well Dirac Delta function model which represents a one-dimensional version of the Hydrogen molecule ion, as shown in the following section. == Double delta potential == thumb|300px|right| The symmetric and anti-symmetric wavefunctions for the double-well Dirac delta function model with "internuclear" distance The double-well Dirac delta function models a diatomic hydrogen molecule by the corresponding Schrödinger equation: -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{d^2 \psi(x)}{dx^2} + V(x) \psi(x) = E \psi(x), where the potential is now V(x) = -q \left[ \delta \left(x + \frac{R}{2}\right) + \lambda\delta \left(x - \frac{R}{2} \right) \right], where 0 < R < \infty is the "internuclear" distance with Dirac delta-function (negative) peaks located at (shown in brown in the diagram). Keeping in mind the relationship of this model with its three-dimensional molecular counterpart, we use atomic units and set \hbar = m = 1. Here 0 < \lambda < 1 is a formally adjustable parameter. From the single- well case, we can infer the "ansatz" for the solution to be \psi(x) = A e^{-d \left|x + \frac{R}{2}\right|} + B e^{-d \left|x - \frac{R}{2} \right|}. Matching of the wavefunction at the Dirac delta-function peaks yields the determinant \begin{vmatrix} q - d & q e^{-d R} \\\ q \lambda e^{-d R} & q \lambda - d \end{vmatrix} = 0, \quad \text{where } E = -\frac{d^2}{2}. Thus, d is found to be governed by the pseudo-quadratic equation d_\pm(\lambda ) = \frac{1}{2} q(\lambda + 1) \pm \frac{1}{2} \left\\{q^2(1 + \lambda)^2 - 4\lambda q^2 \left[1 - e^{-2d_\pm(\lambda )R}\right]\right\\}^{1/2}, which has two solutions d = d_{\pm}. For the case of equal charges (symmetric homonuclear case), , and the pseudo-quadratic reduces to d_\pm = q \left[1 \pm e^{-d_\pm R}\right]. The "+" case corresponds to a wave function symmetric about the midpoint (shown in red in the diagram), where , and is called gerade. Correspondingly, the "−" case is the wave function that is anti- symmetric about the midpoint, where , and is called ungerade (shown in green in the diagram). They represent an approximation of the two lowest discrete energy states of the three-dimensional H2^+ and are useful in its analysis. Analytical solutions for the energy eigenvalues for the case of symmetric charges are given byT. C. Scott, J. F. Babb, A. Dalgarno and John D. Morgan III, "The Calculation of Exchange Forces: General Results and Specific Models", J. Chem. Phys., 99, pp. 2841–2854, (1993). d_\pm = q + W(\pm q R e^{-q R}) / R, where W is the standard Lambert W function. Note that the lowest energy corresponds to the symmetric solution d_+. In the case of unequal charges, and for that matter the three-dimensional molecular problem, the solutions are given by a generalization of the Lambert W function (see ). One of the most interesting cases is when qR ≤ 1, which results in d_- = 0. Thus, one has a non-trivial bound state solution with . For these specific parameters, there are many interesting properties that occur, one of which is the unusual effect that the transmission coefficient is unity at zero energy. ==See also== *Free particle *Particle in a box *Finite potential well *Lambert W function *Particle in a ring *Particle in a spherically symmetric potential *Quantum harmonic oscillator *Hydrogen atom or hydrogen-like atom *Ring wave guide *Particle in a one-dimensional lattice (periodic potential) *Hydrogen molecular ion *Holstein–Herring method *Laplacian of the indicator *List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions ==References== * * For the 3-dimensional case look for the "delta shell potential"; further see K. Gottfried (1966), Quantum Mechanics Volume I: Fundamentals, ch. III, sec. 15\. ==External links== * Category:Quantum mechanical potentials Category:Quantum models Category:Scattering theory Category:Schrödinger equation Category:Exactly solvable models |
thumb|312x312px|right|Aboriginal man with shield and boomerang 238x238px|thumb|right|Child asleep in wooden dish, central Australia, c.1940s Australian Aboriginal artefacts include a variety of cultural artefacts used by Aboriginal Australians. Most Aboriginal artefacts were multi-purpose and could be used for a variety of different occupations. Spears, clubs, boomerangs and shields were used generally as weapons for hunting and in warfare. Watercraft technology artefacts in the form of dugout and bark canoes were used for transport and for fishing. Stone artefacts include cutting tools and grinding stones to hunt and make food. Coolamons and carriers such as dillybags, allowed Aboriginal peoples to carry water, food and cradle babies. Message sticks were used for communication, and ornamental artefacts for decorative and ceremonial purposes. Aboriginal children’s toys were used to both entertain and educate. == Weapons == Aboriginal peoples used several different types of weapons including shields (also known as hielaman), spears, spear-throwers, boomerangs and clubs. Peoples from different regions used different weapons. Some peoples, for example, would fight with boomerangs and shields, whereas in another region they would fight with clubs. Weapons could be used both for hunting game and in warfare. 206x206px|right|thumb|Aboriginal men with spears and shields Weapons were of different styles in different areas. For example, a shield from Central Australia is very different from a shield from North Queensland. === Spears === Aboriginal peoples used spears for a variety of purposes including hunting, fishing, gathering fruit, fighting, retribution, punishment, in ceremony, as commodities for trade, and as symbolic markers of masculinity. Spears were historically used by skilful hand-throwing, but with changes in Aboriginal spear technologies during the mid-Holocene, they could be thrown further and with more accuracy with the aid of spear-thrower projectiles. Spears could be made from a variety of materials including softwoods, bamboo (Bambusa arnhemica), cane and reed. Projectile points could also be made from many different materials including flaked stone, shell, wood, kangaroo or wallaby bone, lobster claws, stingray spines, fish teeth, and more recently iron, glass and ceramics. These spear points could be bound to the spear using mastics, glues, gum, string, plant fibre and sinews. === Clubs === An Aboriginal club, otherwise known as a waddy or nulla- nulla, could be used for a variety of purposes such as for hunting, fishing, digging, for grooving tools, warfare and in ceremonies. A fighting club, called a ‘Lil-lil’, could, with a heavy blow, break a leg, rib or skull. Clubs which could create severe trauma were made from extremely hard woods such as acacias including ironwood and mitji. Many clubs were fire hardened and others had sharpened stone quartz attached to the handle with spinifex resin. === Boomerangs === The boomerang is recognised by many as a significant cultural symbol of Australia. The term 'returning boomerang' is used to distinguish between ordinary boomerangs and the small percentage which, when thrown, will return to its thrower. The oldest wooden boomerang artefact known, excavated from the Wyrie Swamp, South Australia in 1973, is estimated to be 9,500 years old. Boomerangs could be used: * as hunting or fighting weapons; * for digging; * as cutting knives; * for making fire by friction; and * as percussion instruments for making music. === Shields === Shields were mainly used by Aboriginal warriors to defend themselves in dispute battles, often for commodities such as territory. A shield which had not lost a battle was thought to be inherently powerful and was a prized possession. Shields were made from wood or bark and usually had carved markings or painted designs. They could also be used in ceremonies such as in corroborees. The Elemong shield is made from bark and is oval in shape. A handle is attached to the back and the shield was often painted with red and white patterns. Arragong and Tawarrang shields were carved of wood often with an outer layer of bark. Tawarrang shields were notably narrow and long and had patterns carved into the sides. This particular category of shield could also be used as a musical instrument when struck with a club, in addition to its use as a weapon.200x200px|thumb|Aboriginal shields from Ian Potter Centre Shields originating from the North Queensland rainforest region are highly sought after by collectors due to their lavish decorative painting designs. These shields were made from buttress roots of rainforest fig trees (Ficus sp.) They were painted with red, yellow, white and black using natural materials including ochre, clay, charcoal and human blood. Shields from the post-contact period can, in some instances, include the colour blue. A piece of lawyer cane (Calamus australis) would be pushed up the shield owner's nose to cause bleeding. Blood would be put onto the shield, signifying their life being shared with the object. Designs on each shield were original and would represent the owners’ totemic affiliations and their country. This could be done through symbolism, composition and other means of visual representation. On the final day of a young Aboriginal man's initiation ceremony, he is given a blank shield for which he can create his own design. It was believed that the shield harnessed the power and protection of the owners totem and ancestral spirits. ==== Findings ==== Museum Collections The Australian Museum The British Museum == Watercraft == Types of watercraft differed among Aboriginal communities, the most notable including bark canoes and dugout canoes which were built and used in different ways. Methods of constructing canoes were passed down through word of mouth in Aboriginal communities, not written or drawn. Canoes were used for fishing, hunting and as transport. === Dugout canoes === 236x236px|thumb|right|Aboriginal canoe makingDugout canoes were a major development in watercraft technology and were suited for the open sea and in rougher conditions. They could be used for hunting dugongs and sea turtles. === Bark canoes === Bark canoes were most commonly made from Eucalypt species including the bark of swamp she-oak Casuarina glauca, Eucalyptus botryoides, stringybark Eucalyptus agglomerata and Eucalyptus acmenoides. Bark could only be successfully extracted at the right time of a wet season in order to limit the damage to the tree's growth and so that it was flexible enough to use. The bark would be cut with axes and peeled from the tree. More than one piece of bark was sometimes used. "Canoe trees" can be distinguished today due to their distinctive scars. The shaping was done by a combination of heating with fire and soaking with water. The ends of the bark canoe would be fastened with plant-fibre string with the bow (front of canoe) fastened to a point. Branches could be used to reinforce joints; and clay, mud or other resin could be used to seal them. Due to the small draft and lightness of bark canoes, they were used in calmer waters such as billabongs, rivers, lakes, estuaries and bays. Aboriginal men would throw spears to catch fish from the canoe, whereas women would use hooks and lines. Bark paddles could be used to propel the canoe and thick leafy branches were held to catch the wind. == Stone artefacts == 194x194px|thumb|Aboriginal grain grinding Cutting tools made of stone and grinding or pounding stones were also used as everyday items by Aboriginal peoples. Cutting tools were made by hammering a core stone into flakes. Grinding stones can include millstones and mullers. Quartzite is one of the main materials Aboriginal people used to create flakes but slate and other hard stone materials were also used. Flakes can be used to create spear points and blades or knives. Grindstones were used against grass seeds to make flour for bread, and to produce marrow from bones. Stone artefacts not only were used for a range of necessary activities such as hunting, but they also hold a special spiritual meaning. Indigenous Australians describe a stone artefact as holding the spirit of an ancestor who once owned it. 30,000-year- old grinding stones have been found at Cuddie Springs, NSW. Leilira blades from Arnhem Land were collected between 1931 and 1948 and are held at the Australian Museum. == Coolamons and carriers == Coolamons are Aboriginal vessels, generally used to carry water, food, and to cradle babies. Coolamons could be made from a variety of materials including wood, bark, animal skin, stems, seed stalks, stolons, leaves and hair. When travelling long distances, coolamons were carried on the head. Akartne was placed underneath the coolamon to support its weight. They could be made from possum hair, feathers, or twisted grass. === Findings === Museum Collections Australian Museum South Australian Museum The South Australian Museum holds a wooden coolamon collected in 1971 by Robert Edwards. The British Museum holds a bark water carrying vessel originating from the Worrorra in the Kimberley, North-Western Australia. == Message sticks == thumb|205x205px|Message stick Message sticks, also known as "talking-sticks", were used in Aboriginal communities to communicate invitations, declarations of war, news of death and so forth. They were made of wood and were usually flat with motifs engraved on all sides to express a message. The type of wood and shape of a message stick could be a part of the message. Special messengers would carry message sticks over long distances and were able to travel through tribal borders without harm. After the message had been received, generally the message stick would be burned. === Findings === Museum Collections Australian Museum South Australian Museum The South Australian Museum holds 283 message sticks in its collection. British Museum The British Museum holds 74 message sticks in its collection. National Museum of Australia The National Museum of Australia holds 53 message sticks in its collection. Pitt Rivers Museum The Pitt Rivers Museum holds a message stick from the 19th century made of Acacia homalophylla which originates from Queensland. Originally sent by a Yagalingu man to a Wadjalang man, it is an invitation to hunt emu and wallaby. Zig-zagged symbols carved into the wood represent ‘emu’ and the cross-hatching represent ‘wallaby’. The British Museum holds a Kalkatungu message stick, collected by Charles Handley in 1900, created to communicate the death of three children through a combination of diamond-shaped engravings. == Ornamental artefacts == Some Aboriginal peoples used materials such as teeth and bone to make ornamental objects such as necklaces and headbands. === Teeth ornaments === The most common teeth ornaments consisted of lower incisors of macropods such as kangaroos or wallabies. One of the most fascinating discoveries was a necklace made from 178 Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) teeth recovered from Lake Nitchie in New South Wales in 1969. Forehead ornaments have also been found to use porpoise and dolphin teeth from the Gulf of Carpentaria. Crocodile teeth were used mainly in Arnhem Land. === Bone ornaments === Bones were often used for ornamental purposes, especially necklaces and pendants. These were usually worn in association with ritual or age status but could also be worn casually. Bone ornaments found from Boulia in central western Queensland were made from the phalanges of kangaroos and dingoes. Branchiostegal rays of eels from the Tully River were used as pendant units by the Gulngay people. In western Victoria, echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) quills were threaded as necklaces. A pendant made from goose down, shells, a duck beak and the upper beak of a black swan was discovered from the Murray River in South Australia. Talons of eagles were incorporated into ornaments among the Arrernte of Central Australia. Wombat (Vombatus ursinus) claw necklaces are known from Victoria. Painted requiem shark vertebrae necklaces have been found in western Arnhem Land. ==Clothing== ===Kopis=== The Kopi mourning cap is an item of headware made from clay, worn by mostly womenfolk of some Aboriginal peoples, for up to six months after the death of a loved one. After cutting off their hair, they would weave a net using sinews from emu, place this on their head, and cover it with layers of gypsum, a type of white clay obtained from rivers. They could be heavy (up to ), and were sometimes worn by men. When the mourning period was over, the Kopi would be placed on the grave of the deceased person. Other names for the Kopi were widow's cap, korno, mulya, mung-warro, pa-ta, and yúgarda. == Children's toys == Children's toys made by Aboriginal peoples were not only to entertain but also to educate. Toys were made from different materials depending on location and materials available. === Dolls === "Dolls" could be made from cassia nemophila, with its branches assembled with string and grass. Features were often painted with clay to represent a baby. Dolls made from Xanthorrhoea are called Kamma dolls and are from Keppel Island. Shell dolls could also be made from conical shells and were often wrapped in fabric to distinguish age or status. === Rattles === Rattles could be made out of a variety of different materials which would depend on geographical accessibility. For example, they could be made out of land snail shells, sea snail shells (Haliotis asinina), valves of scallop (Annachlamys flabellata), walnut seeds or olive shells which were strung together with string or hair and were often painted. === Bags and baskets === In Arnhem Land, the Gulf region of Queensland and Cape York, children’s bags and baskets were made from fibre twine. === Toy spears === Play spears, which were often blunt wooden spears, were used by boys in mock battles and throwing games. === Collections === Museum Collections Australian Museum 370 toys collected between 1885 and 1990 are currently held at the Australian Museum. In 1899 Walter Roth found and collected three rattles (Strombus campbelli, Cyroea subviridis and Arca pilula) from Mapoon, Batavia River and Cape York Peninsula. Three dolls made of curved stick and fabric date back to the early 1900s from North Queensland. Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery Three wooden dolls from Mornington Island are held by the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery. == Sacred items == Artefacts sometimes regarded as sacred items and/or used in ceremonies include bullroarers, didgeridoos and carved boards called churinga. == Art == Most Aboriginal art is not considered artefact, but often the designs in Aboriginal art are similar designs to those originally on sacred artefacts. ==Keeping Places== A Keeping Place (usually capitalised) is an Aboriginal community- managed place for the safekeeping of repatriated cultural material or local cultural heritage items, cultural artefacts, art and/or knowledge. Krowathunkooloong Keeping Place in Gippsland, Victoria is one example of a Keeping Place. In Western Australia there is a collaboratively developed and managed online system for managing cultural heritage known as The Keeping Place Project. == See also == * Australian Aboriginal culture * Indigenous Collection (Miles District Historical Village) == References == == External links == * Aboriginal art * Didgeridoo art * Aboriginal artifacts. Category:Australian Aboriginal bushcraft Category:Individual sports Category:Recreational weapons Category:Sports equipment Category:Throwing clubs Category:Australian inventions Category:Sports originating in Australia Category:Physical activity and dexterity toys Category:Australian English Category:Hunting equipment Category:National symbols of Australia Category:Primitive weapons Category:Weapons of Australia |
Sir Oswald Ernald Mosley, 6th Baronet (16 November 1896 – 3 December 1980) was a British politician during the 1920s and 1930s who rose to fame when, having become disillusioned with mainstream politics, he turned to fascism. He was a member of parliament and later founded and led the British Union of Fascists (BUF). After military service during the First World War, Mosley was one of the youngest members of parliament, representing Harrow from 1918 to 1924, first as a Conservative, then an independent, before joining the Labour Party. At the 1924 general election he stood in Birmingham Ladywood against the future prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, coming within 100 votes of defeating him. Mosley returned to Parliament as Labour MP for Smethwick at a by-election in 1926 and served as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in the Labour Government of 1929–31. In 1928, he succeeded his father as the sixth Mosley baronet, a title that had been in his family for more than a century. He was considered a potential Prime Minister but resigned because of discord with the government's unemployment policies. He chose not to defend his Smethwick constituency at the 1931 general election, instead unsuccessfully standing in Stoke-on-Trent. Mosley's New Party became the British Union of Fascists (BUF) in 1932. Mosley was imprisoned in May 1940 and the BUF was banned. He was released in 1943 and, politically disgraced by his association with fascism, moved abroad in 1951, spending most of the remainder of his life in Paris and two residences in Ireland. He stood for Parliament during the post-war era but received very little support. During this latter period he was an advocate of Pan-European nationalism, developing the Europe a Nation ideology. He is also known for the influence he had on the thinking of the founders of the Soil Association, a catalyst for the organic farming movement in Great Britain. == Life and career == === Early life and education === Mosley was born on 16 November 1896 at 47 Hill Street, Mayfair, Westminster. He was the eldest of the three sons of Sir Oswald Mosley, 5th Baronet (1873–1928), and Katharine Maud Edwards-Heathcote (1874–1950), daughter of Captain Justinian H. Edwards-Heathcote of Apedale Hall, Staffordshire. He had two younger brothers: Edward Heathcote Mosley (1899–1980) and John Arthur Noel Mosley (1901–1973). The family traces its roots to Ernald de Mosley of Bushbury, Staffordshire, in the time of King John in the 12th century. The family was prominent in Staffordshire and three baronetcies were created, two of which are now extinct. His five-time great-grandfather John Parker Mosley, a Manchester hatter, was made a baronet in 1781. He was the fourth cousin of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother through her father, Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. After Mosley's parents separated, he was raised by his mother, who went to live at Betton Hall near Market Drayton, and his paternal grandfather, Sir Oswald Mosley, 4th Baronet. Within the family and among intimate friends, he was always called "Tom". He lived for many years at his grandparents' stately home, Apedale Hall, and was educated at West Downs School and Winchester College. Mosley was a fencing champion in his school days; he won titles in both foil and sabre, and retained an enthusiasm for the sport throughout his life. === Military service === In January 1914, Mosley entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, but was expelled in June for a "riotous act of retaliation" against a fellow student. During the First World War he was commissioned into the British cavalry unit the 16th The Queen's Lancers and fought in France on the Western Front. He transferred to the Royal Flying Corps as an observer, but while demonstrating in front of his mother and sister he crashed, which left him with a permanent limp, as well as a reputation for being brave and somewhat reckless. He returned to the trenches before the injury had fully healed and at the Battle of Loos (1915) passed out at his post from pain. He spent the remainder of the war at desk jobs in the Ministry of Munitions and in the Foreign Office. === Marriage to Lady Cynthia Curzon === On 11 May 1920, he married Lady Cynthia "Cimmie" Curzon (1898–1933), second daughter of the 1st Earl Curzon of Kedleston (1859–1925), Viceroy of India 1899–1905, Foreign Secretary 1919–1924, and Lord Curzon's first wife, the U.S. mercantile heiress Mary Leiter. Lord Curzon had to be persuaded that Mosley was a suitable husband, as he suspected Mosley was largely motivated by social advancement in Conservative Party politics and Cynthia's inheritance. The 1920 wedding took place in the Chapel Royal in St James's Palace in London. The hundreds of guests included King George V and Queen Mary, as well as foreign royalty such as the Duke and Duchess of Brabant (later King Leopold III and Queen Astrid of Belgium). During this marriage, he began an extended affair with his wife's younger sister, Lady Alexandra Metcalfe, and a separate affair with their stepmother, Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston, the American-born second wife and widow of Lord Curzon of Kedleston. He succeeded to the Baronetcy of Ancoats upon his father's death in 1928. === India and Gandhi === Among his many travels, Mosley travelled to British India accompanied by Lady Cynthia in 1924. His father-in-law's past as Viceroy of India allowed for the acquaintance of various personalities along the journey. They travelled by ship and stopped briefly in Cairo. Having initially arrived in Ceylon (present day Sri Lanka), the journey then continued through mainland India. They spent these initial days in the government house of Ceylon, followed by Madras and then Calcutta, where the Governor at the time was Lord Lytton. Mosley met Mahatma Gandhi through C.F. Andrews, a clergyman and an intimate friend of the "Indian Saint", as Mosley described him. They met in Kadda, where Gandhi was quick to invite him to a private conference in which Gandhi was chairman. They enjoyed each other's company for the short time they were together. Mosley later called Gandhi a "sympathetic personality of subtle intelligence". === Marriage to Diana Mitford === Cynthia died of peritonitis in 1933, after which Mosley married his mistress Diana Guinness, née Mitford (1910–2003). They married in secret in Nazi Germany on 6 October 1936 in the Berlin home of Germany's Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda Joseph Goebbels. Adolf Hitler was their guest of honour. Mosley spent large amounts of his private fortune on the British Union of Fascists (BUF) and tried to establish it on a firm financial footing by various means including an attempt to negotiate, through Diana, with Hitler for permission to broadcast commercial radio to Britain from Germany. Mosley reportedly made a deal in 1937 with Francis Beaumont, heir to the Seigneurage of Sark, to set up a privately owned radio station on Sark. == Member of Parliament == By the end of the First World War, Mosley had decided to go into politics as a Conservative Member of Parliament, as he had no university education or practical experience because of the war. He was 21 years old. He was driven by, and in Parliament spoke of, a passionate conviction to avoid any future war, and this seemingly motivated his career. Largely because of his family background and war service, local Conservative and Labour associations preferred Mosley in several constituencies – a vacancy near the family estates seemed to be the best prospect. He was unexpectedly selected for Harrow first. In the general election of 1918 he faced no serious opposition and was elected easily. He was the youngest member of the House of Commons to take his seat, although Joseph Sweeney, an abstentionist Sinn Féin member, was younger. He soon distinguished himself as an orator and political player, one marked by extreme self-confidence, and made a point of speaking in the House of Commons without notes. Mosley was an early supporter of the economist John Maynard Keynes. The economic historian Robert Skidelsky described Mosley as "a disciple of Keynes in the 1920s". == Crossing the floor == Mosley was at this time falling out with the Conservatives over its Irish policy, and condemned the operations of the Black and Tans against civilians during the Irish War of Independence. He was secretary of the Peace with Ireland Council. \- As secretary of the council, he proposed sending a commission to Ireland to examine on-the-spot reprisals by the Black and Tans. In late 1920, he crossed the floor to sit as an independent MP on the opposition side of the House of Commons. Having built up a following in his constituency, he retained it against a Conservative challenge in the 1922 and 1923 general elections. According to Lady Diana Mosley's autobiography, By 1924, he was growing increasingly attracted to the Labour Party, which had just formed a government, and in March he joined it. He immediately joined the Independent Labour Party (ILP) as well and allied himself with the left. When the government fell in October, Mosley had to choose a new seat, as he believed that Harrow would not re-elect him as a Labour candidate. He therefore decided to oppose Neville Chamberlain in Birmingham Ladywood. Mosley campaigned aggressively in Ladywood, and accused Chamberlain of being a "landlords' hireling". The outraged Chamberlain demanded that Mosley retract the claim "as a gentleman". Mosley, whom Stanley Baldwin described as "a cad and a wrong 'un", refused to retract the allegation. Mosley was noted for bringing excitement and energy to the campaign. Leslie Hore-Belisha, then a Liberal Party politician who later became a senior Conservative, recorded his impressions of Mosley as a platform orator at this time, claiming that his "dark, aquiline, flashing: tall, thin, assured; defiance in his eye, contempt in his forward chin". Together, Oswald and Cynthia Mosley proved an alluring couple, and many members of the working class in Birmingham succumbed to their charm for, as the historian Martin Pugh described, "a link with powerful, wealthy and glamorous men and women appealed strongly to those who endured humdrum and deprived lives". It took several re-counts before Chamberlain was declared the winner by 77 votes and Mosley blamed poor weather for the result. His period outside Parliament was used to develop a new economic policy for the ILP, which eventually became known as the Birmingham Proposals; they continued to form the basis of Mosley's economics until the end of his political career. Mosley was critical of Winston Churchill’s policy as Chancellor of the Exchequer. After Churchill returned Britain to the Gold Standard, Mosley claimed that "faced with the alternative of saying goodbye to the gold standard, and therefore to his own employment, and goodbye to other people's employment, Mr. Churchill characteristically selected the latter course". In 1926, the Labour-held seat of Smethwick fell vacant, and Mosley returned to Parliament after winning the resulting by-election on 21 December. Mosley felt the campaign was dominated by Conservative attacks on him for being too rich, including claims that he was covering up his wealth. In 1927, he mocked the British Fascists as "black-shirted buffoons, making a cheap imitation of ice-cream sellers". The ILP elected him to Labour's National Executive Committee. Mosley and Cynthia were committed Fabians in the 1920s and at the start of the 1930s. Mosley appears in a list of names of Fabians from Fabian News and the Fabian Society Annual Report 1929–31. He was Kingsway Hall lecturer in 1924 and Livingstone Hall lecturer in 1931. == Office == ===Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster=== Mosley then made a bold bid for political advancement within the Labour Party. He was close to Ramsay MacDonald and hoped for one of the Great Offices of State, but when Labour won the 1929 general election he was appointed only to the post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, a position without Portfolio and outside the Cabinet. He was given responsibility for solving the unemployment problem, but found that his radical proposals were blocked either by Lord Privy Seal James Henry Thomas or by the Cabinet. ===Mosley Memorandum=== Realising the economic uncertainty that was facing the nation because of the death of its domestic industry, Mosley put forward a scheme in the "Mosley Memorandum" that called for high tariffs to protect British industries from international finance and transform the British Empire into an autarkic trading bloc, for state nationalisation of main industries, for higher school-leaving ages and pensions to reduce the labour surplus, and for a programme of public works to solve interwar poverty and unemployment. Furthermore, the memorandum laid out the foundations of the corporate state which intended to combine businesses, workers and the government into one body as a way to "Obliterate class conflict and make the British economy healthy again". Mosley published this memorandum because of his dissatisfaction with the laissez-faire attitudes held by both Labour and the Conservative party, and their passivity towards the ever-increasing globalisation of the world, and thus looked to a modern solution to fix a modern problem. But it was rejected by the Cabinet and by the Parliamentary Labour Party, and in May 1930 Mosley resigned from his ministerial position. At the time, according to Lady Mosley's autobiography, the weekly Liberal-leaning paper The Nation and Athenaeum wrote: "The resignation of Sir Oswald Mosley is an event of capital importance in domestic politics... We feel that Sir Oswald has acted rightly – as he has certainly acted courageously – in declining to share any longer in the responsibility for inertia." In October he attempted to persuade the Labour Party Conference to accept the Memorandum, but was defeated again. The Mosley Memorandum won the support of the economist John Maynard Keynes, who stated that "it was a very able document and illuminating". Keynes also wrote, > "I like the spirit which informs the document. A scheme of national economic > planning to achieve a right, or at least a better, balance of our industries > between the old and the new, between agriculture and manufacture, between > home development and foreign investment; and wide executive powers to carry > out the details of such a scheme. That is what it amounts to. ... [The] > manifesto offers us a starting point for thought and action. ... It will > shock—it must do so—the many good citizens of this country...who have > laissez-faire in their craniums, their consciences, and their bones ... But > how anyone professing and calling himself a socialist can keep away from the > manifesto is a more obscure matter." According to Lady Mosley's autobiography, thirty years later, in 1961, Richard Crossman wrote: "this brilliant memorandum was a whole generation ahead of Labour thinking." As his book, The Greater Britain, focused on the issues of free trade, the criticisms against globalisation that he formulated can be found in critiques of contemporary globalisation. He warns nations that buying cheaper goods from other nations may seem appealing but ultimately ravage domestic industry and lead to large unemployment, as seen in the 1930s. He argues that trying to "challenge the 50-year-old system of free trade ... exposes industry in the home market to the chaos of world conditions, such as price fluctuation, dumping, and the competition of sweated labour, which result in the lowering of wages and industrial decay." In a newspaper feature, Mosley was described as "a strange blend of J.M. Keynes and Major Douglas of credit fame". From July 1930, he began to demand that government must be turned from a “talk-shop” into a “workshop.” In 1992, the then UK prime minister, John Major, examined Mosley’s ideas in order to find an unorthodox solution to the aftermath of the 1990-91 economic recession. == New Party == Dissatisfied with the Labour Party, Mosley and six other Labour MPs (two of whom resigned after one day) founded the New Party. Its early parliamentary contests, in the 1931 Ashton-under-Lyne by-election and subsequent by- elections, arguably had a spoiler effect in splitting the left-wing vote and allowing Conservative candidates to win. Despite this, the organisation gained support among many Labour and Conservative politicians who agreed with his corporatist economic policy, and among these were Aneurin Bevan and Harold Macmillan. Mosley's corporatism was complemented by Keynesianism, with Robert Skidelsky stating, "Keynesianism was his great contribution to fascism." It also gained the endorsement of the Daily Mail newspaper, headed at the time by Harold Harmsworth (later created 1st Viscount Rothermere). The New Party increasingly inclined to fascist policies, but Mosley was denied the opportunity to get his party established when during the Great Depression the 1931 General Election was suddenly called – the party's candidates, including Mosley himself running in Stoke which had been held by his wife, lost the seats they held and won none. As the New Party gradually became more radical and authoritarian, many previous supporters defected from it. According to Lady Mosley's autobiography, shortly after the 1931 election Mosley was described by The Manchester Guardian: > When Sir Oswald Mosley sat down after his Free Trade Hall speech in > Manchester and the audience, stirred as an audience rarely is, rose and > swept a storm of applause towards the platform – who could doubt that here > was one of those root-and-branch men who have been thrown up from time to > time in the religious, political and business story of England. First that > gripping audience is arrested, then stirred and finally, as we have said, > swept off its feet by a tornado of peroration yelled at the defiant high > pitch of a tremendous voice. == Fascism == After his election failure in 1931, Mosley went on a study tour of the "new movements" of Italy's Benito Mussolini and other fascists, and returned convinced, particularly by Fascist Italy's economic programme, that it was the way forward for Britain. He was determined to unite the existing fascist movements and created the British Union of Fascists (BUF) in 1932. The BUF was protectionist, strongly anti-communist and nationalistic to the point of advocating authoritarianism. He claimed that the UK Labour Party was pursuing policies of "international socialism", while fascism's aim was "national socialism". It claimed membership as high as 50,000, and had the Daily Mail and Daily Mirror among its earliest supporters.Cameron, James (1979). Yesterday's Witness. BBC, p. 52. The Mirror piece was a guest article by the Daily Mail owner Viscount Rothermere and an apparent one-off; despite these briefly warm words for the BUF, the paper was so vitriolic in its condemnation of European fascism that Nazi Germany added the paper's directors to a hit list in the event of a successful Operation Sea Lion. The Mail continued to support the BUF until the Olympia rally in June 1934. John Gunther described Mosley in 1940 as "strikingly handsome. He is probably the best orator in England. His personal magnetism is very great". Among Mosley's supporters at this time included John Strachey, the novelist Henry Williamson, military theorist J. F. C. Fuller, and the future "Lord Haw Haw", William Joyce. Mosley had found problems with disruption of New Party meetings, and instituted a corps of black-uniformed paramilitary stewards, the Fascist Defence Force, nicknamed "Blackshirts", like the Italian fascist Voluntary Militia for National Security they were emulating. The party was frequently involved in violent confrontations and riots, particularly with communist and Jewish groups and especially in London. At a large Mosley rally at Olympia on 7 June 1934, his bodyguards' violence caused bad publicity. This and the Night of the Long Knives in Germany led to the loss of most of the BUF's mass support. Nevertheless, Mosley continued espousing anti-Semitism. At one of his New Party meetings in Leicester in April 1935, he said, "For the first time I openly and publicly challenge the Jewish interests of this country, commanding commerce, commanding the Press, commanding the cinema, dominating the City of London, killing industry with their sweat-shops. These great interests are not intimidating, and will not intimidate, the Fascist movement of the modern age." The party was unable to fight the 1935 general election. In October 1936, Mosley and the BUF attempted to march through an area with a high proportion of Jewish residents. Violence, since called the Battle of Cable Street, resulted between protesters trying to block the march and police trying to force it through. At length Sir Philip Game, the Police Commissioner, disallowed the march from going ahead and the BUF abandoned it. Mosley continued to organise marches policed by the Blackshirts, and the government was sufficiently concerned to pass the Public Order Act 1936, which, amongst other things, banned political uniforms and quasi-military style organisations and came into effect on 1 January 1937. In the London County Council elections in 1937, the BUF stood in three wards in East London (some former New Party seats), its strongest areas, polling up to a quarter of the vote. Mosley made most of the Blackshirt employees redundant, some of whom then defected from the party with William Joyce. In October 1937 in Liverpool, he was knocked unconscious by two stones thrown by crowd members after he delivered a fascist salute to 8,000 people from the top of a van in Walton. As the European situation moved towards war, the BUF began to nominate Parliamentary by-election candidates and launched campaigns on the theme of "Mind Britain's Business". Mosley remained popular as late as summer 1939. His Britain First rally at the Earls Court Exhibition Hall on 16 July 1939 was the biggest indoor political rally in British history, with a reported 30,000 attendees. After the outbreak of war, Mosley led the campaign for a negotiated peace, but after the Fall of France and the commencement of aerial bombardment during the Battle of Britain overall public opinion of him became hostile. In mid-May 1940, he was nearly wounded by an assault. == Internment == Unbeknown to Mosley, MI5 and the Special Branch had deeply penetrated the BUF and were also monitoring him through listening devices. Beginning in 1934, they were increasingly worried that Mosley's noted oratory skills would convince the public to provide financial support to the BUF, enabling it to challenge the political establishment. His agitation was officially tolerated until the events of the Battle of France in May 1940 made the government consider him too dangerous. Mosley, who at that time was focused on pleading for the British to accept Hitler's peace offer of March, was detained on 23 May 1940, less than a fortnight after Winston Churchill became Prime Minister. Mosley was interrogated for 16 hours by Lord Birkett but never formally charged with a crime, and was instead interned under Defence Regulation 18B. Most other active fascists in Britain met the same fate, resulting in the BUF's practical removal at an organised level from the United Kingdom's political stage. Mosley's wife, Diana, was also interned in June, shortly after the birth of their son (Max Mosley); the Mosleys lived together for most of the war in a house in the grounds of Holloway prison. The BUF was proscribed by the British Government later that year. Mosley used the time in confinement to read extensively in classics, particularly regarding politics and war, with a focus upon key historical figures. He refused visits from most BUF members, but on 18 March 1943, Dudley and Norah Elam (who had been released by then) accompanied Unity Mitford to see her sister Diana. Mosley agreed to be present because he mistakenly believed that it was Lady Redesdale, Diana and Unity's mother, who was accompanying Unity. The internment, particularly that of Lady Mosley, resulted in significant public debate in the press, although most of the public supported the Government's actions. Others demanded a trial, either in the hope it would end the detention or in the hope of a conviction. During his internment he developed what would become a lifelong friendship with fellow prisoner Cahir Healy, a Catholic Irish nationalist MP for the Northern Irish parliament. In November 1943, the Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison, ordered the release of the Mosleys. After a fierce debate in the House of Commons, Morrison's action was upheld by a vote of 327–26. Mosley, who was suffering with phlebitis, spent the rest of the war confined under house arrest and police supervision. On his release from prison, he first stayed with his sister-in-law Pamela Mitford, followed shortly by a stay at the Shaven Crown Hotel in Shipton-under-Wychwood. He then purchased Crux Easton House, near Newbury, with Diana. He and his wife remained the subject of much press attention. ==Post-war politics== After the Second World War, Mosley was contacted by former supporters and persuaded to return to participation in politics. In 1948 he formed the Union Movement, which called for a single nation-state to cover the continent of Europe (known as Europe a Nation) and in 1962 attempted to launch a National Party of Europe to this end. He had connections with the Italian neo-Fascist political party, Movimento Sociale Italiano, and contributed to a weekly Roman magazine, (Ace of Clubs, published from 1948 to 1957), which was supported by his Europe a Nation. The New European has described Mosley as an "avowed Europhile". The Union Movement's meetings were often physically disrupted, as Mosley's meetings had been before the war, and largely by the same opponents. This may have contributed to his decision, in 1951, to leave Britain and live in Ireland. He responded to criticism of his abandoning his supporters in a hostile Britain for a life abroad by saying, "You don't clear up a dungheap from underneath it."Jonathan Guinness, Catherine Guinness, The House of Mitford (1985), p. 540. In the 1950s Mosley advocated for Africa to be divided into black and white areas, but the decolonisation of the 1960s put an end to this proposal. Mosley was a key pioneer in the emergence of Holocaust denial. While not denying the existence of Nazi concentration camps, he claimed that they were a necessity to hold "a considerable disaffected population", where problems were caused by lack of supplies due to "incessant bombing" by the Allies, with bodies burned in gas chambers due to typhus outbreaks, rather than being created by the Nazis to exterminate people. He sought to discredit pictures taken in places like Buchenwald and Belsen. He also claimed that the Holocaust was to be blamed on the Jews and that Adolf Hitler knew nothing about it. He criticised the Nuremberg trials as "a zoo and a peep show". In the wake of the 1958 Notting Hill race-riots, Mosley briefly returned to Britain to stand in the 1959 general election at Kensington North. He led his campaign stridently on an anti-immigration platform, calling for forced repatriation of Caribbean immigrants as well as a prohibition upon mixed marriages. Mosley's final share of the vote was 8.1%. Shortly after his failed election campaign, Mosley permanently moved to Orsay, outside Paris. In 1961, he took part in a debate at University College London about Commonwealth immigration, seconded by a young David Irving."Mosley Packs Them In", Pi Newspaper, 2 February 1961. He returned to politics one last time, contesting the 1966 general election at Shoreditch and Finsbury, and received 4.6% of the vote. After this, he retired and moved back to France, where he wrote his autobiography, My Life (1968). In 1968 he remarked in a letter to The Times, "I am not, and never have been, a man of the right. My position was on the left and is now in the centre of politics." In 1977, by which time he was suffering from Parkinson's disease, Mosley was nominated as a candidate for Rector of the University of Glasgow in which election he polled over 100 votes but finished bottom of the poll. Mosley's political thought is believed to have influence on the organic farming movement in Great Britain. Henry Williamson, the agricultural writer and ruralist, put the theories of "blood and soil" into practice, which, in effect, acted as a demonstration farm for Mosley’s ideas for the BUF. In The Story of a Norfolk Farm (1941) Williamson recounts the physical and philosophical journey he undertook in turning the farm's worn-out soil back into fertile land. The tone contained in this text is more politically overt than in his nature works. Throughout the book, Williamson makes references to regular meetings he had held with his "Leader" (Mosley) and a group of like- minded agrarian thinkers. Lady Eve Balfour, a founder of the Soil Association, supported Mosley's proposals to abolish Church of England tithes on agricultural land (Mosley's blackshirts "protected" a number of East Anglian farms in the 1930s from the bailiffs authorised to extract payments to the Church). Jorian Jenks, another early member of the Soil Association, was active within the Blackshirts and served as Mosley's agricultural adviser. == Personal life == Mosley had three children with his first wife Lady Cynthia Curzon. * Vivien Elisabeth Mosley (1921–2002); she married Desmond Francis Forbes Adam (1926–58) on 15 January 1949. Adam had been educated at Eton College and at King's College, Cambridge. The couple had two daughters, Cynthia and Arabella, and a son, Rupert. * Nicholas Mosley (1923–2017) (later 3rd Baron Ravensdale a title inherited from his mother's family), and 7th Baronet of Ancoats; he was a novelist and wrote a biography of his father and edited his memoirs for publication. * Michael Mosley (1932–2012), unmarried and without issue. In 1924, Lady Cynthia Curzon joined the Labour Party, and was elected as the Labour MP for Stoke-on-Trent in 1929. She later joined Oswald's New Party and lost the 1931 election in Stoke. She died in 1933 at 34 after an operation for peritonitis following acute appendicitis, in London. Mosley had two children with his second wife, Diana Mitford (1910–2003): * (Oswald) Alexander Mosley (1938–2005); father of Louis Mosley (born 1983) * Max Mosley (1940–2021), who was president of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) for 16 years == Death and funeral == Oswald Mosley died on 3 December 1980 at Orsay. His body was cremated in a ceremony held at the Père Lachaise Cemetery, and his ashes were scattered on the pond at Orsay. His son Alexander stated that they had received many messages of condolence but no abusive words. "All that was a very long time ago," he said. == Archive and residences == Mosley's personal papers are held at the University of Birmingham's Special Collections Archive. Mosley's ancestral family residence, Rolleston Hall in Staffordshire, was demolished in 1928. Mosley and his first wife, Cynthia, also lived at Savay Farm, Denham.Understanding Historic Parks and Gardens in Buckinghamshire Immediately following his release in 1943, Mosley lived with his second wife, Diana, at Crux Easton, Hampshire In 1945, he moved to Crowood Farm, located near Marlborough, Wiltshire, which he ran. In November 1945, Mosley was summoned to court for allegedly causing unnecessary suffering to be caused to pigs by failing to provide adequate feeding and accommodation for them. When the decision of the court was announced, Mosley, who had pleaded not guilty, and summoned his own defence, was responsible for an outburst. The hearing lasted for five hours. Mosley's residence in Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland, known as Ileclash House, was put up for sale in 2011, and again in 2016, 2018 and 2020. A Georgian style house, it was built in the 18th century and by 2011 was accompanied by 12 acres. It had fallen into a state of disrepair until it was purchased and restored by Mosley in the 1950s. \- \- \- In the same decade, he bought and restored Clonfert Palace, also in Ireland. \- == In popular culture == ===Alternative history fiction=== Comics * In the Elseworlds comic Superman: War of the Worlds, Mosley becomes prime minister after the defeat of the Martian invasion of 1938. Literature * In Terrance Dicks' Doctor Who New Adventures novel Timewyrm: Exodus, Prime Minister Mosley is shown addressing Britain's first National Socialist parliament. * In Kim Newman's The Bloody Red Baron, Mosley is shot down and killed in 1918 by Erich von Stalhein (from the Biggles series by W. E. Johns) and a character later comments that "a career has been ended before it was begun". * In Philip Roth's The Plot Against America, a secret pact between Charles Lindbergh who has become president of the United States and Hitler includes an agreement to impose Mosley as the ruler of a German-occupied Britain with America's blessing after a ruse in which Lindbergh convinces Churchill to negotiate peace with Hitler, which deliberately fails – mirroring the dishonesty and repudiation of key Hitler-signed treaties, the Munich Conference Accord and Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. * In C. J. Sansom's novel Dominion, the Second World War ends in June 1940, when the British government, under the leadership of prime minister Lord Halifax, signs a peace treaty with Nazi Germany in Berlin. By November 1952, Mosley is the home secretary in the cabinet of Lord Beaverbrook, who leads a coalition government consisting of the pro-treaty factions of the Conservatives and Labour as well as the BUF. The government works closely and sympathises with the Nazi regime in Germany. Under Mosley's leadership, the police have become a feared force and an "Auxiliary Police" consisting mainly of British Union of Fascists thugs that has been set up to deal with political crime. * In Lavie Tidhar's A Man Lies Dreaming (2014), Mosley is running for (and eventually becomes) prime minister, in a world where the Communist Party of Germany, rather than the Nazis, successfully overthrew the Weimar Republic in 1933. * Mosley appears more than once in the works of Harry Turtledove. ** The Colonization trilogy sees Mosley, still an MP in 1963, spearheading an effort to pass legislation revoking the citizenship of all Jews; the plan fails in the short term. ** In the Presence of Mine Enemies (2003) empowers Mosley as British leader in a scenario in which Nazi Germany won the Second World War. ** In the Southern Victory series, Mosley is the minister of war under prime minister Winston Churchill in an authoritarian and revanchist Britain after the Entente lose the First Great War. Taking power around 1932, the Churchill/Mosley government joins the Kingdom of France and the Russian Empire in attacking the German Empire and the Central Powers in the Second Great War from 1941 to 1944 with disastrous results. * In Guy Walters' The Leader, Mosley has taken power as "The Leader" of Great Britain in 1937. King Edward VIII is still on the throne after his marriage, Winston Churchill is a prisoner on the Isle of Man, and prime minister Mosley is conspiring with Adolf Hitler about the fate of Britain's Jewish population. * In the sixth book in Jacqueline Winspear's Maisie Dobbs series, Among the Mad, Maisie's investigation takes her to a meeting of Oswald Mosley followers where violence ensues. * In the 1944 Second World War novel Kaputt by Curzio Malaparte, Mosley appears in an important dream sequence. This happens in chapter IV of the book that is based on the writer's experiences in Moldavia, just before he recounts his first hand experiences of the Iași pogrom. * In Roy Carter's alternative history novel, The Man Who Prevented WW2, Mosley wins the 1935 election, allies Britain with the Axis Powers, abolishes the monarchy and declares war on Ireland and France. Film *In the mockumentary It Happened Here (1964), showing a Nazi-occupied Britain in the mid-1940s, Mosley is never mentioned by name. A British fascist leader resembling him is, however, shown in "documentary" footage from the 1930s. Mosley's portrait can be seen alongside Hitler's in government offices. The film's fictional Immediate Action Organisation seems to be inspired by Mosley's British Union of Fascists, with members referred to as "blackshirts" and the symbol of the BUF appearing on their uniforms. Video games * In the Hearts of Iron series of grand strategy games, Oswald Mosley is usually the leader of the United Kingdom if the fascists seize power. === Historical and modern day fiction === Film *In Darkest Hour (2017), Churchill, played by Gary Oldman, discusses with his Outer Cabinet the possibility of Britain becoming a slave state of Nazi Germany under Mosley if the decision is made to pursue peace talks right before his "We Shall Never Surrender" speech. * In the film Pink Floyd: The Wall (1982), during the "In the Flesh" segment, the character Pink (at this stage in the story, a modern Fascist leader) is dressed in a fashion similar to that of Mosley's. * In the film The Remains of the Day (1993), the character Sir Geoffrey Wren is based loosely on Sir Oswald Mosley. Literature * Amanda K. Hale's novel Mad Hatter (2019) features Mosley as her father James Larratt Battersby's leader in the BUF. * Aldous Huxley's novel Point Counter Point (1928) features Everard Webley, a character who is similar to Mosley in the 1920s, before Mosley left the Labour Party. * In H. G. Wells's novel The Holy Terror (1939), the Mosley-like character Lord Horatio Bohun is the leader of an organisation called the Popular Socialist Party. The character is principally motivated by vanity, and is removed from leadership and sent packing to Argentina. * P. G. Wodehouse's Jeeves short-story and novel series includes the character Sir Roderick Spode from 1938 to 1971, who is a parody of Mosley. Music * Originally, Elvis Costello's song "Less Than Zero" (1977) was an attack on Mosley and his politics. Listeners in the United States had assumed that the "Mr. Oswald" in the lyrics was Lee Harvey Oswald, so Costello wrote an alternative lyric to refer to Kennedy's assassin. * On Mosley's release from prison in 1943, Ewan MacColl wrote the song "The Leader's a Bleeder", set to the tune of the Irish song "The Old Orange Flute". The song suggests that Mosley had been treated relatively well in prison owing to his aristocratic background. Periodicals * In 2006, BBC History magazine selected Mosley as the 20th century's worst Briton. Television * The Channel 4 biographical miniseries Mosley (1997) starred Jonathan Cake. * The satirical television programme Not the Nine O'Clock News lampooned the British media's favourable 1980 obituaries of Mosley in a comedic music video, "Baronet Oswald Ernald Mosley". The actors, dressed as Nazi punks, performed a punk rock eulogy to Mosley, interweaving some of the positive remarks by newspapers from all sides of the political spectrum, including The Times and The Guardian.Not The Nine O'Clock News: "Baronet Oswald Ernald Mosley", Some of the Corpses are Amusing. *The BBC Wales-produced 2010 revival of Upstairs Downstairs, set in 1936, included a storyline involving Mosley, the BUF and the Battle of Cable Street. *Mosley, played by Sam Claflin, was the primary antagonist in the fifth and sixth series of the BBC crime drama Peaky Blinders. *Mosley was played by Jonathan McGuinness in the first series of the BBC war drama World on Fire. == See also == * The European * Houston Stewart Chamberlain == References == Notes Citations Bibliography * * * * * Further reading * * * Gottlieb, Julie V. (2000). Feminine Fascism: Women in Britain's Fascist Movement 1923-1945. London: I.B. Tauris. * * * * == External links == * Friends of Oswald Mosley at oswaldmosley.com, containing archives of his speeches and books * * * * * (last accessible, 23 October 2017) * * * * Category:1896 births Category:1980 deaths Category:20th-century English memoirists Category:16th The Queen's Lancers officers Category:Anti-Masonry Category:Antisemitism in the United Kingdom Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of Great Britain Category:British Army personnel of World War I Category:British Holocaust deniers Category:British political party founders Category:British Union of Fascists politicians Category:British white supremacists Category:Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Category:Deaths from Parkinson's disease Category:English expatriates in France Category:English far-right politicians Category:Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst Category:Independent Labour Party National Administrative Committee members Category:Independent members of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom Category:Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Category:Mosley baronets Oswald Category:Neurological disease deaths in France Category:Pan-European nationalism Category:People detained under Defence Regulation 18B Category:People educated at West Downs School Category:People educated at Winchester College Category:People from Burton upon Trent Category:Racism in the United Kingdom Category:Royal Flying Corps officers Category:Sexism in the United Kingdom Category:UK MPs 1918–1922 Category:UK MPs 1922–1923 Category:UK MPs 1923–1924 Category:UK MPs 1924–1929 Category:UK MPs 1929–1931 Category:Union Movement politicians Category:People with Parkinson's disease |
A fatwā ( ; ; plural fatāwā ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (sharia) given by a qualified Faqih (Islamic jurist) in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a mufti, and the act of issuing fatwas is called iftāʾ. Fatwas have played an important role throughout Islamic history, taking on new forms in the modern era. Resembling jus respondendi in Roman law and rabbinic responsa, privately issued fatwas historically served to inform Muslim populations about Islam, advise courts on difficult points of Islamic law, and elaborate substantive law. In later times, public and political fatwas were issued to take a stand on doctrinal controversies, legitimize government policies or articulate grievances of the population. During the era of European colonialism, fatwas played a part in mobilizing resistance to foreign domination. Muftis acted as independent scholars in the classical legal system. Over the centuries, Sunni muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, while Shia jurists in Iran progressively asserted an autonomous authority starting from the early modern era. In the modern era, fatwas have reflected changing economic, social and political circumstances, and addressed concerns arising in varied Muslim communities. The spread of codified state laws and Western-style legal education in the modern Muslim world has displaced muftis from their traditional role of clarifying and elaborating the laws applied in courts. Instead, modern fatwas have increasingly served to advise the general public on other aspects of sharia, particularly questions regarding religious rituals and everyday life. Modern public fatwas have addressed and sometimes sparked controversies in the Muslim world, and some fatwas in recent decades have gained worldwide notoriety. The legal methodology of modern ifta often diverges from pre-modern practice, particularly so in the West. Emergence of modern media and universal education has transformed the traditional institution of ifta in various ways. While the proliferation of contemporary fatwas attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims, little research has been done to determine how much these fatwas affect the beliefs or behavior of the Muslim public. ==Terminology== The word fatwa comes from the Arabic root f-t-y, whose meanings include 'youth, newness, clarification, explanation'. A number of terms related to fatwa derive from the same root. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a mufti. The person who asks for a fatwa is known as mustafti. The act of issuing fatwas is called iftāʾ. The term futyā refers to soliciting and issuing fatwas. In older English language works the spelling fetva, from Turkish, is used, relating to the Ottoman Empire. ==Origins== The origins of the fatwa can be traced back to the Quran. On a number of occasions, the Quranic text instructs the Islamic prophet Muhammad how to respond to questions from his followers regarding religious and social practices. Several of these verses begin with the phrase "When they ask you concerning ..., say ..." In two cases (4:127, 4:176) this is expressed with verbal forms of the root f-t-y, which signify asking for or giving an authoritative answer. In the hadith literature, this three-way relationship between God, Muhammad, and believers, is typically replaced by a two-way consultation, in which Muhammad replies directly to queries from his Companions (sahaba). According to Islamic doctrine, with Muhammad's death in 632, God ceased to communicate with mankind through revelation and prophets. At that point, the rapidly expanding Muslim community turned to Muhammad's Companions, as the most authoritative voices among them, for religious guidance, and some of them are reported to have issued pronouncements on a wide range of subjects. The generation of Companions was in turn replaced in that role by the generation of Successors (tabi'un). The concept of fatwa thus developed in Islamic communities under a question-and-answer format for communicating religious knowledge, and took on its definitive form with development of the classical theory of Islamic law. ==In pre-modern Islam== ===Process of iftāʾ=== thumbnail|upright=0.8|Turkish mufti (1687 engraving) The legal theory of the fatwa was formulated in the classical texts of usul al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence), while more practical guidelines for muftis were found in manuals called adab al-mufti or adab al-fatwa (etiquette of the mufti/fatwa). Fatwas are issued in response to a query. They can range from a simple yes/no answer to a book-length treatise. A short fatwa may state a well-known point of law in response to a question from a lay person, while a "major" fatwa may give a judgment on an unprecedented case, detailing the legal reasoning behind the decision. Queries to muftis were supposed to address real and not hypothetical situations and be formulated in general terms, leaving out names of places and people. Since a mufti was not supposed to inquire into the situation beyond the information included in the query, queries regarding contentious matters were often carefully constructed to elicit the desired response. A mufti's understanding of the query commonly depended on their familiarity with local customs and colloquialisms. In theory, if the query was unclear or not sufficiently detailed for a ruling, the mufti was supposed to state these caveats in their response. Fatwas were solicited by men and women from all social classes. A mufti could be an obscure scholar, who occasionally replied to queries from people in his neighborhood, or, at the other extreme, a famous jurist or a powerful state official. The level of technical detail supplied in a fatwa, such as citations of sources or specification of legal methodologies employed, depended on the technical level of the petitioner. In theory, a petitioner was supposed to verify the mufti's scholarly reputation, but mufti manuals (adab al-mufti) recognized that it would be difficult for a lay person to do so, and advised the petitioner to trust their sense of the mufti's piety and ideally follow the advice of a single scholar known for exemplary morals. The mufti was often a well-known figure in his neighborhood. Some petitioners could choose among several local muftis, while others had to or chose to travel to receive a fatwa. Judges commonly sent letters to solicit fatwas from prominent jurists in another town or even country. Sunni legal theory generally permits the petioner to obtain a fatwa from multiple jurists on the same query, provided that it addresses a real and not hypothetical situation. Some petitioners sought out a second fatwa because they were unsatisfied with the first, and the two sides in a legal dispute generally each sought to obtain a fatwa that would support their position. Muftis often consulted another mufti on difficult cases, though this practice was not foreseen by legal theory, which saw futya as a transaction between one qualified jurist and one "unqualified" petitioner. In theory, a mufti was expected to issue fatwas free of charge. In practice, muftis commonly received support from the public treasury, public endowments or private donations. Taking of bribes was forbidden. Until the 11th or 12th century, the vast majority of jurists held other jobs to support themselves. These were generally lower- and middle-class professions such as tanning, manuscript copying or small trade. In theory, fatwas could be delivered orally or in writing, but it is not clear how common oral fatwas were, aside from those issued by an Ottoman office established specifically for the purpose of issuing oral fatwas. Many routine, written fatwas were delivered directly to the petitioner on the piece of paper containing the query, leaving no documentary trace. However, large collections of ordinary fatwas are preserved in Ottoman and Indian archives. Mufti manuals contained a number of regulations about the standard format of a fatwa, such as avoiding blank space that could be used for a spurious addition and concluding the fatwa with an expression like allahu a'lam (God knows best). Nonetheless, fatwas took on a variety of forms depending on the local legal culture. The 14th century jurist Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyya was known for his methodology of issuing fatwas through direct research of the Qur'an and Hadith, rather than being restrained by the mechanism of the madhhabs (legal schools). Explaining Ibn Taymiyya's approach to issue fatwas, his student Al- Dhahabi writes: > "He was well informed of the legal views of the [Prophet’s] companions and > their followers, and he rarely talked about a subject without quoting the > four schools of the imams. Yet, he contradicted the four schools in well- > known matters about which he wrote and for which provided arguments from the > Koran and the Sunna. He has compiled a work entitled Politics According to > Divine Law for Establishing Order for Sovereign and Subjects and a book > [called] Removing the Reproach from the Learned Imams.... For some years now > he has not issued fatwas (legal opinions) according to a specific school, > rather he bases these on the proof he has ascertained himself. He supported > the pure Sunna and the way of Salafiyah". ===Role of fatwas=== The classical institution of fatwa is similar to jus respondendi in Roman law and the responsa in Jewish law. Fatwas have played three important roles in the classical legal system: * managing information about Islam by providing legal advice to Muslim populations as well as counseling them in matters of ritual and ethics; * advising courts of law on finer points of Islamic law, in response to queries from judges; * elaborating substantive Islamic law, particularly though a genre of legal literature developed by author-jurists who collected fatwas of prominent muftis and integrated them into books. Before the rise of modern education, the study of law was a centerpiece of advanced education in the Islamic world. A relatively small class of legal scholars controlled the interpretation of sharia on a wide range of questions essential to the society, ranging from ritual to finance. It was considered a requirement for qualified jurists to communicate their knowledge through teaching or issuing fatwas. The ideal mufti was conceived as an individual of scholarly accomplishments and exemplary morals, and muftis were generally approached with the respect and deference corresponding to these expectations. thumbnail|upright=1.3|Page from a compilation of fatwas from Safavid Persia, late 17th century Judges generally sought an opinion from a mufti with higher scholarly authority than themselves for difficult cases or potentially controversial verdicts. Fatwas were routinely upheld in courts, and if a fatwa was disregarded, it was usually because another fatwa supporting a different position was judged to be more convincing. If a party in a dispute was not able to obtain a fatwa supporting their position, they would be unlikely to pursue their case in court, opting for informal mediation instead, or abandoning their claim altogether. Sometimes muftis could be petitioned for a fatwa relating to a court judgement that has already been passed, acting as an informal appeals process, but the extent of this practice and its mechanism varied across history. While in most of the Islamic world judges were not required to consult muftis by any political authority, in Muslim Spain this practice was mandatory, so that a judicial decision was considered invalid without prior approval by a legal specialist. Author-jurists collected fatwas by muftis of high scholarly reputation and abstracted them into concise formulations of legal norms that could be used by judges, giving a summary of jurisprudence for a particular madhhab (legal school). Author-jurists sought out fatwas that reflected the social conditions of their time and place, often opting for later legal opinions which were at variance with the doctrine of early authorities. Research by Wael Hallaq and Baber Johansen has shown that fatwa compilations could, and sometimes did, have a significant impact on the development of Islamic law. During the early centuries of Islam, the roles of mufti, author- jurist and judge were not mutually exclusive. A jurist could lead a teaching circle, conduct a fatwa session, and adjudicate court cases in a single day, devoting his night hours to writing a legal treatise. Those who were able to act in all four capacities were regarded as the most accomplished jurists. From the standpoint of morality and religious obligation, the term fatwa has been contrasted with taqwa (piety, fear of God), particularly in Sufi literature. Fatwas may allow a choice between lenient and strict interpretation of sharia on a certain matter, or they may employ legalistic stratagems (hiyal) to circumvent a stricter interpretation, while such strategies may not be acceptable from the standpoint of taqwa. ===Qualifications of a mufti=== The basic prerequisite for issuing fatwas under the classical legal theory was religious knowledge and piety. According to the adab al-mufti manuals, a mufti must be an adult, Muslim, trusted and reliable, of good character and sound mind, an alert and rigorous thinker, trained as a jurist, and not a sinner. On a practical level, the stature of muftis derived from their reputation for scholarly expertise and upright character. According to legal theory, it was up to each mufti to decide when he was ready to practice. In practice, an aspiring jurist would normally study for several years with one or several recognized scholars, following a curriculum that included Arabic grammar, hadith, law and other religious sciences. The teacher would decide when the student was ready to issue fatwas by giving him a certificate (ijaza). During the first centuries of Islam, it was assumed that a mufti was a mujtahid, i.e., a jurist who is capable of deriving legal rulings directly from the scriptural sources through independent reasoning (ijtihad), evaluating the reliability of hadith and applying or even developing the appropriate legal methodologies. Starting from around 1200 CE, legal theorists began to accept that muftis of their time may not possess the knowledge and legal skill to perform this activity. In addition, it was felt that the major question of jurisprudence had already been addressed by master jurists of earlier times, so that later muftis only had to follow the legal opinions established within their legal school (taqlid). At that point, the notions of mufti and mujtahid became distinguished, and legal theorists classified jurists into three or more levels of competence. Among Twelver Shia, the Akhbari school of jurisprudence, which was predominant for a time during the early modern era, hold a different view on ifta from the currently predominant Usuli school. According to the Usulis, fatwas can be based on valid conjecture (zann) arrived through ijtihad, and every Muslim who is not qualified to be a mujtahid should become a follower (muqallid) of a mujtahid. In contrast, Akhbaris hold that all Shia Muslims must be muqallids of the Twelve Imams, and that fatwas should reflect only knowledge that is certain (qatʿ) and based on the traditions of the Imams. Unlike the post of qadi, which is reserved for men in the classical sharia system, fatwas could be issued by qualified women as well as men. In practice, the vast majority of jurists who completed the lengthy curriculum in linguistic and religious sciences required to obtain the qualification to issue fatwas were men. Slaves and persons who were blind or mute were likewise theoretically barred from the post of a judge, but not that of mufti. ===Fatwa vs. court judgement=== The mufti and the judge play different roles in the classical sharia system, with corresponding differences between a fatwa and a qada (court decision): * A fatwa is nonbinding (unless issued by a government judge in an Islamic state), while a court decision is binding and enforceable. * A fatwa may deal with rituals, ethical questions, religious doctrines and sometimes even philosophical issues, while court cases dealt with legal matters in the narrow sense. * The authority of a court judgment applies only to the specific court case, while a fatwa applies to all cases that fit the premises of the query. * A fatwa is made on the basis of information provided in the request, while a judge actively investigates the facts of the case. * A judge evaluates rival claims of two parties in a dispute in order to reach a verdict, while a fatwa is made on the basis of information provided by a single petitioner. * Fatwas by prominent jurists were collected in books as sources of precedent, while court decisions were recorded in court registers, but not otherwise disseminated. * While both muftis and judges were interpreters of sharia, judicial interpretation centered on evaluating evidence such as testimony and oath, while a mufti investigated textual sources of law (scripture and legal literature). * In the classical legal system, judges were civil servants appointed by the ruler, while muftis were private scholars and not appointed officials. ===Institutions=== Before the 11th century CE, anyone who possessed scholarly recognition as an Islamic jurist could issue fatwas. Starting around that time, however, the public office of mufti began to appear alongside the private issuing of fatwas. In Khurasan, the rulers appointed a head of the local ulama, called shaykh al- Islam, who also functioned as the chief mufti. The Mamluks appointed four muftis, one for each of the four Sunni madhhabs, to appellate courts in provincial capitals. The Ottomans organized muftis into a hierarchical bureaucracy with a chief mufti of the empire called shaykh al-islam at the top. The Ottoman shaykh al-Islam (Turk. şeyhülislam), was among the most powerful state officials. Scribes reviewed queries directed to Ottoman muftis and rewrote them to facilitate issuing of fatwas. In Mughal India and Safavid Iran the chief mufti had the title of sadr. For the first few centuries of Islam, muftis were educated in informal study circles, but beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries, the ruling elites began to establish institutions of higher religious learning known as madrasas in an effort to secure support and cooperation of the ulema (religious scholars). Madrasas, which were primarily devoted to the study of law, soon multiplied throughout the Islamic world, helping to spread Islamic learning beyond urban centers and to unite diverse Islamic communities in a shared cultural project. In some states, such as Muslim Spain, muftis were assigned to courts in advisory roles. In Muslim Spain jurists also sat on a shura (council) advising the ruler. Muftis were additionally appointed to other public functions, such as market inspectors. ==== In Shia Islam ==== While the office of the mufti was gradually subsumed into the state bureaucracy in much of the Sunni Muslim world, Shia religious establishment followed a different path in Iran starting from the early modern era. During Safavid rule, independent Islamic jurists (mujtahids) claimed the authority to represent the hidden imam. Under the Usuli doctrine that prevailed among Twelver Shias in the 18th century and under the Qajar dynasty, the mujtahids further claimed to act collectively as deputies of the imam. According to this doctrine, every Muslim is supposed to choose and follow a high-ranking living mujtahid bearing the title of marja' al-taqlid, whose fatwas are considered binding, unlike fatwas in Sunni Islam. Thus, in contrast to Sunni muftis, Shia mujtahids gradually achieved increasing independence from the state. ===Public and political fatwas=== While most fatwas were delivered to an individual or a judge, some fatwas that were public or political in nature played an important role in religious legitimation, doctrinal disputes, political criticism, or political mobilization. As muftis were progressively incorporated into government bureaucracies in the course of Islamic history, they were often expected to support government policies. Ottoman sultans regularly sought fatwas from the chief mufti for administrative and military initiatives, including fatwas sanctioning jihad against Mamluk Egypt and Safavid Iran. Fatwas by the Ottoman chief mufti were also solicited by the rulers to lend religious legitimacy to new social and economic practices, such as financial and penal laws enacted outside of sharia, printing of nonreligious books (1727) and vaccination (1845). At other times muftis wielded their influence independently of the ruler, and several sultans in Morocco and the Ottoman Empire were dethroned as a result of fatwas issued by influential jurists. This happened, for example, to the Ottoman sultan Murad V on the grounds of his insanity. Public fatwas were also used to dispute doctrinal matters, and in some case to proclaim that certain groups or individuals who professed to be Muslim were to be excluded from the Islamic community (a practice known as takfir). In both political and scholarly sphere, doctrinal controversies between different states, denominations or centers of learning were accompanied by dueling fatwas. Muftis also acted to counteract the influence of judges and secular functionaries. By articulating grievances and legal rights of the population, public fatwas often prompted an otherwise unresponsive court system to provide redress. ==In the modern era== ===Anti-colonial fatwas=== Early in the era of Western colonialism, several fatwas were issued drawing on the classical legal distinction between lands under Islamic rule (dar al-Islam) and lands of war (dar al-harb) or unbelief (dar al-kufr). These fatwas classified countries under European domination as lands of war or unbelief and invoked the legal theory obliging Muslims to wage war against the rulers of these lands or emigrate. A number of such fatwas were issued during the 19th century, including in 1803 by Shah Abdul Aziz in India and in 1804 by Usman dan Fodio in West Africa. The unrealistic nature of these fatwas was soon recognized and in 1870 the ulama of northern India issued fatwas stating that Indian Muslims were not obliged to rebel or emigrate. A similar doctrinal controversy occurred in French-ruled Algeria. The fatwas solicited by the Algerian anti-colonial leader Abd al-Qadir differed in their technical detail, while the French authorities obtained fatwas from local muftis, stating that Muslims living under the rule of unbelievers were not obligated to fight or emigrate as long as they were granted religious freedom by the authorities. On many other occasions, fatwas served as an effective tool for influencing the political process. For example, in 1904 a fatwa by Moroccan ulema achieved the dismissal of European experts hired by the Moroccan government, while in 1907 another Moroccan fatwa succeeded in deposing the sultan on accusation that he failed to mount a defense against French aggression. The 1891 tobacco protest fatwa by the Iranian mujtahid Mirza Shirazi, which prohibited smoking as long as the British tobacco monopoly was in effect, also achieved its goals. ===Modern institutions=== Under European colonial rule, the institution of dar al-ifta was established in a number of madrasas (law colleges) as a centralized place for issuing of fatwas, and these organizations to a considerable extent replaced independent muftis as religious guides for the general population. Following independence, most Muslim states established national organizations devoted to issuing fatwas. One example is the Egyptian Dar al-Ifta, founded in 1895, which has served to articulate a national vision of Islam through fatwas issued in response to government and private queries. National governments in Muslim-majority countries also instituted councils of senior religious scholars to advise the government on religious matters and issue fatwas. These councils generally form part of the ministry for religious affairs, rather than the justice department, which may have a more assertive attitude toward the executive branch. While chief muftis of earlier times oversaw a hierarchy of muftis and judges applying traditional jurisprudence, most modern states have adopted European-influenced legal codes and no longer employ traditional judicial procedures or traditionally trained judges. State muftis generally promote a vision of Islam that is compatible with state law of their country. Although some early theorists argued that muftis should not respond to questions on certain subjects, such as theology, muftis have in practice handled queries relating to a wide range of subjects. This trend continued in modern times, and contemporary state-appointed muftis and institutions for ifta respond to government and private queries on varied issues, including political conflicts, Islamic finance, and medical ethics, contributing to shaping a national Islamic identity. There exists no international Islamic authority to settle differences in interpretation of Islamic law. An International Islamic Fiqh Academy was created by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, but its legal opinions are not binding. ===Legal methodology=== Modern fatwas have been marked by an increased reliance on the process of ijtihad, i.e. deriving legal rulings based on an independent analysis rather than conformity with the opinions of earlier legal authorities (taqlid). While in the past muftis were associated with a particular school of law (madhhab), in the 20th century many muftis began to assert their independence from traditional schools of jurisprudence. The most notorious result of disregarding classical jurisprudence are the fatwas of militant extremists who have interpreted the Quran and hadith as supporting suicide bombings, indiscriminate killing of bystanders, and declaration of self-professed Muslims as unbelievers (takfir). New forms of ijtihad have also given rise to fatwas that support such notions as gender equality and banking interest, which are at variance with classical jurisprudence. This is commonly accomplished by application of various traditional legal doctrines such as the maqasid (objectives) of sharia, maslaha (public interest) and darura (necessity), in place of adhering to the letter of scriptural sources. The main argument for this approach is that Islamic law is meant to serve the interest of Muslims and make their lives easier (taysīr). This form of ijtihad is particularly prominent in fiqh al-aqallīyāt (minority jurisprudence), a recently developed branch of Islamic jurisprudence that aims to address the needs of Muslims living in countries with a non-Muslim majority. Its opponents object that sharia is supposed to determine the interests of Muslims, and not the other way around. ===Political fatwas and controversies=== thumbnail|upright=1.2|Fatwa supporting the Ottoman proclamation of jihad in 1914, read by the Custodian Of The Fatwa (Fetva Emini) On November 14, 1914 the Ottoman sultan proclaimed a jihad to mark the official entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I. The proclamation was supported by a fatwa issued by the Shaykh al-Islam. Contrary to the German hopes that the proclamation would trigger Muslim revolts in British and French colonies, it was either rejected or quietly ignored by their Muslim authorities. It also quickly gave rise to a heated academic debate in Europe. The controversy was sparked by an 1915 article by the prominent Dutch orientalist C. Snouck Hurgronje, titled Heilige Oorlog [Holy War] Made in Germany. In it Hurgronje denounced his German colleagues, who he felt instigated the jihad proclamation in an irresponsible appeal to an antiquated concept that threatened the project of modernizing the Muslim world. The article was widely circulated in an English translation and its accuracy continues to be debated by historians, who acknowledge both the German influence and the internal political calculations of the Ottoman government underlying the proclamation. Several boycott fatwas were issued in modern times, such as the one issued by Iraqi ulema in 1933, calling on Muslims to boycott Zionist products. In 2004 Yusuf al-Qaradawi issued a fatwa calling for boycott of Israeli and American products, arguing that buying these goods would strengthen the "enemy" fighting against Muslims in the struggle over Palestine. Some muftis in the modern era, like the mufti of the Lebanese republic in the mid-20th century and the Grand Mufti of the Sultanate of Oman, were important political leaders. In Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini used proclamations and fatwas to introduce and legitimize a number of institutions, including the Council of the Islamic Revolution and the Iranian Parliament. Khomeini's most publicized fatwa was the proclamation condemning Salman Rushdie to death for his novel The Satanic Verses. Khomeini himself did not call this proclamation a fatwa, and some scholars have argued that it did not qualify as one, since in Islamic legal theory only a court can decide whether an accused is guilty. However, after the proclamation was presented as a fatwa in Western press, this characterization was widely accepted by both its critics and its supporters, and the Rushdie Affair is credited with bringing the institution of fatwa to world attention. Together with later militant fatwas, it has contributed to the popular misconception of the fatwa as a religious death warrant. Many militant and reform movements in modern times have disseminated fatwas issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti. A famous example is the fatwa issued in 1998 by Osama bin Laden and four of his associates, proclaiming "jihad against Jews and Crusaders" and calling for killing of American civilians. In addition to denouncing its content, many Islamic jurists stressed that bin Laden was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or declare a jihad. The Amman Message was a statement, signed in 2005 in Jordan by nearly 200 prominent Islamic jurists, which served as a "counter-fatwa" against a widespread use of takfir (excommunication) by jihadist groups to justify jihad against rulers of Muslim-majority countries. The Amman Message recognized eight legitimate schools of Islamic law and prohibited declarations of apostasy against them. The statement also asserted that fatwas can be issued only by properly trained muftis, thereby seeking to delegitimize fatwas issued by militants who lack the requisite qualifications. Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals in recent times have sometimes given rise to complaints about a "chaos" in the modern practice of ifta. ===Fatwas in the West=== In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks, a group of Middle Eastern Islamic scholars issued a fatwa permitting Muslims serving in the U.S. army to participate in military action against Muslim countries, in response to a query from a U.S. Army Muslim chaplain. This fatwa illustrated two increasingly widespread practices. First, it drew directly on the Quran and hadith without referencing the body of jurisprudence from any of the traditional schools of Islamic law. Secondly, questions from Western Muslims directed to muftis in Muslim-majority countries have become increasingly common, as about one-third of Muslims now live in Muslim-minority countries. Institutions devoted specifically to issuing fatwas to Western Muslims have been established in the West, including the Fiqh Council of North America (FCNA, founded in 1986) and the European Council for Fatwa and Research (ECFR, founded in 1997). These organizations aim to provide fatwas that address the concerns of Muslim minorities, helping them to comply with sharia, while stressing compatibility of Islam with diverse modern contexts. The FCNA was founded with the goal of developing legal methodologies for adopting Islamic law to life in the West. The ECRF draws on all major schools of Sunni law as well as other traditional legal principles, such as concern for the public good, local custom, and the prevention of harm, to derive fatwas suitable for life in Europe. For example, a 2001 ECRF ruling allowed a woman who had converted to Islam to remain married without requiring her husband's conversion, based in part on the existence of European laws and customs under which women are guaranteed the freedom of religion. Rulings of this kind have been welcomed by some, but also criticized by others as being overly eclectic in legal methodology and having potential to negatively impact the interpretation of sharia in Muslim-majority countries. The needs of Western Muslims have given rise to a new branch of Islamic jurisprudence which has been termed the jurisprudence of (Muslim) minorities (fiqh al-aqallīyāt). The term is believed to have been coined in a 1994 fatwa by Taha Jabir Alalwani, then the chairman of FCNA, which encouraged Muslim citizens to participate in American politics. This branch of jurisprudence has since been developed primarily, but not exclusively for Muslim minorities in the West. ===Role of modern media=== Advances in communication technology and the rise of the internet have changed the reception and role of fatwas in modern society. In the pre-modern era, most fatwas issued in response to private queries were read only by the petitioner. Early in the 20th century, the reformist Islamic scholar Rashid Rida responded to thousands of queries from around the Muslim world on a variety of social and political topics in the regular fatwa section of his Cairo-based journal Al-Manar. In the late 20th century, when the Grand Mufti of Egypt Sayyid Tantawy issued a fatwa allowing interest banking, the ruling was vigorously debated in the Egyptian press by both religious scholars and lay intellectuals. In the internet age, a large number of websites has appeared offering fatwas to readers around the world. For example, IslamOnline publishes an archive of "live fatwa" sessions, whose number approached a thousand by 2007, along with biographies of the muftis. Together with satellite television programs, radio shows and fatwa hotlines offering call-in fatwas, these sites have contributed to the rise of new forms of contemporary ifta. Unlike the concise or technical pre-modern fatwas, fatwas delivered through modern mass media often seek to be more expansive and accessible to the wide public. Modern media have also facilitated cooperative forms to ifta. Networks of muftis are commonly engaged by fatwa websites, so that queries are distributed among the muftis in the network, who still act as individual jurisconsults. In other cases, Islamic jurists of different nationalities, schools of law, and sometimes even denominations (Sunni and Shia), coordinate to issue a joint fatwa, which is expected to command greater authority with the public than individual fatwas. The collective fatwa (sometimes called ijtihād jamāʿī, "collective legal interpretation") is a new historical development, and it is found in such settings as boards of Islamic financial institutions and international fatwa councils. ===Social role of fatwas=== As the role of fatwas on strictly legal issues has declined in modern times, there has been a relative increase in the proportion of fatwas dealing with rituals and further expansion in purely religious areas like Quranic exegesis, creed, and Sufism. Modern fatwas also deal with a wide variety of other topics, including insurance, sex-change operations, moon exploration, beer drinking, abortion in the case of fatal foetal abnormalities, or males and females sharing workplaces. Public "fatwa wars" have reflected political controversies in the Muslim world, from anti-colonial struggles to the Gulf War of the 1990s, when muftis in some countries issued fatwas supporting collaboration with the US-led coalition, while muftis from other countries endorsed the Iraqi call for jihad against the US and its collaborators. In the private sphere, some muftis have begun to resemble social workers, giving advice on various personal issues encountered in everyday life. The social profile of the fatwa petitioner has also undergone considerable changes. Owing to the rise of universal education, those who solicit fatwas have become increasingly educated, which has transformed the traditional mufti–mustafti relationship based on restricted literacy. The questioner is now also increasingly likely to be female, and in the modern world Muslim women tend to address muftis directly rather than conveying their query through a male relative as in the past. Since women now represent a significant proportion of students studying Islamic law and qualifying as muftiyas, their prominence in its interpretation is likely to rise. A fatwa hotline in the United Arab Emirates provides access to either male or female muftis, allowing women to request fatwas from female Islamic legal scholars. The vast amount of fatwas produced in the modern world attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims. However, there is little research available to indicate to what extent Muslims acknowledge the authority of various fatwas and heed their rulings in real life. Rather than reflecting the actual conduct or opinions of Muslims, these fatwas may instead represent a collection of opinions on what Muslims "ought to think". ==See also== * List of fatwas * Schools of Islamic jurisprudence == References == === Citations === === Sources === * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * == External links == * Fatwa – multi-part article from The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, via Oxford Islamic Studies Category:Sharia Category:Islamic jurisprudence Category:Arabic words and phrases in Sharia Category:Islamic courts and tribunals |
Path of Exile is a free-to-play action role-playing video game developed and published by Grinding Gear Games. Following an open beta phase, the game was released for Microsoft Windows in October 2013. A version for Xbox One was released in August 2017, and a PlayStation 4 version was released in March 2019. Path of Exile takes place in a dark fantasy world, where the government of the island nation of Oriath exiles people to the continent of Wraeclast, a ruined continent home to many ancient gods. Taking control of an exile, players can choose to play as one of seven character classes – Marauder, Duelist, Ranger, Shadow, Witch, Templar, and Scion. Players are then tasked with fighting their way back to Oriath, defeating ancient gods and great evils during their journey. == Gameplay == The player controls a single character from an overhead perspective and explores large outdoor areas and caves or dungeons, battling monsters and fulfilling quests from non-player characters (NPCs) to gain experience points and equipment. The game borrows heavily from the Diablo series, particularly Diablo II, which Path of Exile has been described as the spiritual successor of. All areas aside from the central encampments are procedurally generated for increased re-playability. While all players on a single server can freely mingle in encampments, gameplay outside of encampments is highly instanced, providing every player or party with an isolated map to freely explore. Players can choose from seven available classes to play as (Duelist, Marauder, Ranger, Scion, Shadow, Templar and Witch). Each of these classes are aligned with one or two of the three core attributes: Strength, Dexterity, or Intelligence. The exception is the Scion, formerly a locked prestige class released in 2013, which is aligned with all three attributes. The different classes are not restricted from investing into skills not aligned with their core attributes, but will have easier access to skills that are aligned with their core attributes. Items are randomly generated from a wide variety of basic types and endowed with special properties and gem sockets. They come in different rarities with increasingly powerful properties. This makes a large part of gameplay dedicated to finding well-balanced and synergistic equipment. Skill gems can be placed in gem sockets of armor, weapons and some types of rings, giving them an active skill. As the character advances and levels up, the equipped skill gems also gain experience, allowing the skills themselves to level up and increase in potency. Active skills can be modified by items known as Support Gems. Depending upon the number of linked sockets the player possesses, a primary attack or skill can be modified with increased attack speed, faster projectiles, multiple projectiles, chaining hits, life leech, auto-cast spells on critical strike, and more. Given limits on the number of sockets, players must prioritize gem usage. All classes share the same selection of 1,325 passive skills, from which the player can choose one each time their character levels up, and as an occasional quest reward. These passive skills improve the core attributes and grant further enhancements such as increased Mana, Health, damage, defenses, regeneration, speed, and more. Each one of the characters start on a different position on the passive skill tree. The passive skill tree is arranged in a complex network starting in separate trunks for each class (aligned with the permutations of the three core attributes). The player must therefore not only focus on maximizing all modifiers related to their primary offense and defense, but must also take care to select the most efficient path through the passive skill tree. As of the 3.0 Fall of Oriath Release, the maximum possible number of passive skill points was 123 (99 from leveling and 24 from quest rewards). Each class also has access to an Ascendancy class, which grants much stronger, specialized bonuses. Each class has three Ascendancy classes to choose from, except for the Scion, who only has one Ascendancy class that combines the elements of all other Ascendancy classes. Up to 8 Ascendancy skill points can be assigned out of 12 or 14. Path of Exile is unusual among action role-playing games in that there is no in- game currency. The game's economy is based on bartering "currency items." Unlike traditional game currencies, these items have their own inherent uses (such as upgrading an item's rarity level, rerolling affixes, or improving an item's quality) and thus provide their own money sinks to prevent inflation. Most of these items are used to modify and upgrade equipment, though some identify items, create portals to town or grant skill refund points. === Leagues === The game offers several alternate play modes. The following permanent leagues are available: * Standard – The default gameplay league. Characters who die here respawn in the last city visited (with experience loss at higher levels). * Hardcore (HC) – Characters cannot be resurrected but instead respawn back in the Standard league. This mode is analogous to permadeath in other games. * Solo Self Found (SSF) – Characters cannot join a party with other players, and may not trade with other players. This type of gameplay forces characters to find or craft their own items. Current temporary (challenge) leagues: * The Crucible league. Other leagues are usually designed for specific events. They have their own set of rules, item accessibility and aftermath. These rules widely vary depending on the league. For example, timed "Descent" league features another map set, new monster sets and rewards, but characters in this league are no longer available for playing after the league ends. "Turbo solo immolation" leagues, as another example, are running on the same maps as standard modes, but with much harder monsters, no partying, replacing physical damage with fire damage and monsters exploding on death—and return the survivors to Hardcore league (while dead characters resurrect in Standard). Racing leagues last between 30 minutes and 1 week. The permanent leagues have counterpart ladder leagues with different rulesets that last three months. == Synopsis == ===Setting=== The game is set in a dark fantasy world. The player starts the game waking up on the shores of Wraeclast, a continent that once was the center of a mighty empire but is now a cursed land which serves as a penal colony for criminals and other unwanted individuals from the nearby Island of Oriath. Regardless of the reasons for their exile, players must now face the unforgiving wilderness and its dangerous inhabitants amidst the crumbling ruins and bloody secrets of the Eternal Empire and the Vaal civilization that came before, and band together with other exiles to survive. ===Plot=== High Templar Dominus exiles the player character, referred to as "Exile," from Oriath for some crime depending on which class the player chose. Exiles are sent to Wraeclast, a penal colony, where they kill various monsters and people who have been tormenting other exiles in Wraeclast. It is discovered that Dominus has been secretly working with his assistant Piety studying thaumaturgy and are the cause of many of the troubles in Wraeclast. The Exile finds and kills both of them. In the process, the Exile encounters a 200-year-old woman called Dialla who explains how a thaumaturgical "Rapture Device" created by a man called Malachai is being used to awaken and release "The Beast". The Exile travels to Highgate where they enter the Beast and kill Malachai. Now that Wraeclast is apparently saved, the Exile returns to Oriath. The successor to Dominus, High Templar Avarius, has been abusing his ordained power of divinity. The corrupt templar are exercising their power to wrest control of Oriath, enslaving a race of people known as Karui. The Exile takes advantage of the ongoing Karui slave rebellion and overthrows the templar order by killing Avarius and defeating the Templar god "Innocence". After defeating Innocence, his brother Sin returns and informs the Exile that by killing the Beast, the Exile has inadvertently caused the old gods of the world to reawaken. The formerly oppressed Karui, now empowered by their god Kitava, are running rampant in Oriath, destroying whatever they can find. Sin takes the Exile to fight Kitava, but the Exile fails. Sin explains that the essence of the Beast is needed to battle Kitava - and that the Beast was his creation. A plan is formulated to return to Wraeclast to extract the essence from the Beast's dead body and use it to stop Kitava from destroying Oriath. After travelling through Wraeclast once more and defeating the gods that have reawakened, the Exile returns to Oriath and finds that Innocence has returned. With Innocence reborn and amending for his past mistakes, Sin and Innocence take the Exile to Kitava's lair, and with their combined strength they destroy Kitava. == Development == Path of Exile began when a small group of action role-playing game enthusiasts became frustrated by the lack of new releases in the genre and decided to develop their own game. It was developed under the radar for three years before being publicly announced on 1 September 2010. In the time since then, Grinding Gear Games has published a number of development posts on their website ranging from screen shots of new classes, monsters, and skills to presentations of game play or technical aspects. The game's lead designer is Chris Wilson. He said the team drew inspiration from several earlier games, including action role-playing games such as the Diablo series (particularly Diablo II), Titan Quest, and Dungeon Siege, the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, the massively multiplayer online role-playing game Guild Wars, and the role-playing video game franchise Final Fantasy (particularly the Materia system of Final Fantasy VII and the Sphere Grid system of Final Fantasy X). Alpha started around June 2010, and ended when 0.9.0 was released in August 2011. Following a period under closed beta which players could pay to join, the developers started an open beta (ver. 0.10.0) on 23 January 2013 which was free to play with purchasable microtransactions. The game was patched for release version 1.0.0 on 23 October 2013. On this date, it was also made available on Steam. The game continues to be updated with new content and fixes on roughly a monthly basis. The developers of Path of Exile stated that one of their core goals is to provide a genuinely free- to-play game financed only by "ethical micro-transactions". Players can create multiple accounts and even have more than one logged in at a time. Path of Exile mainly offers cosmetic item skins for players willing to spend money on the game, but it does also gate specific account features such as semi- automated public trading inventories or additional character slots behind a paywall. It is also possible for players to pay to create private, invite-only leagues, each secluded in its own economy. On 18 January 2017, Grinding Gear Games announced they would be expanding into the console market. During closed beta, by 21 January 2013, Path of Exile received US$2.2m in crowd-sourced contributions. During Exilecon in November 2019, Grinding Gear Games announced that a version of the game for mobile devices was also in development within their studio. One of the main topics discussed in the reveal video was the current trend in free-to-play mobile business models (such as "pay-to-win microtransactions, time gates, energy bars, random nag screens, notifications, video ads") and that POE Mobile would aim to avoid that approach, and retain the full gameplay of the desktop version. However, it was also stated that the mobile version was "experimental" and that continued development will be dependent upon the feedback from fans. The game started with DirectX graphic rendering which supports a wide array of video cards. During Delirium league, February 2020, Grinding Gear Games (GGG) released a beta support version of Vulkan graphic rendering with the goal of providing more consistent game play and to collect feedback from players to improve the new mode through bug reports. Vulkan support implementation provided a smoother experience, reducing the number of times the games frames-per-second would drop or bottom out during high intensity game play. Vulkan beta support continued into Harvest with updates at the start of the league but negatively affected performance. Another release late into the Harvest league with 300+ changes that affects both DirectX and Vulkan beta support are still waiting for feedback. In September 2020 through patch 3.11.2, Grinding Gear Games released a substantial code quality refactoring which required a full game download to deploy. The release includes: optimized future game patching for stand-alone and Steam game store versions, game file storage which improves HDD game load time, compressed and sharper texture quality, audio quality improvements, graphic engine improvements, a first-ever Apple macOS version release and Epic Game Store version release. === Expansions === Patch Title Release date Notes 1.0 Path of Exile (full release) 23 October 2013 In October 2013, Path of Exile officially launched leaving what had been Open Beta, the launch was an expansion that changed the shape of the game. Originally Open Beta version 0.10.0 in January 2013 marked the point where Path of Exile was opened to the public as a free-to-play game. Half way through the Open Beta the first pair of Challenge Leagues were released Anarchy and Onslaught, with the official launch of the game new Challenge Leagues launched alongside the release Domination and Nemesis. The launch of the game introduced the second half of Act 3 (six new world areas) and made Dominus the final boss of the game, it introduced the seventh character class the Scion and more. 1.1 Sacrifice of the Vaal 5 March 2014 Path of Exiles first digital expansion, Sacrifice of the Vaal, was released on 5 March 2014. The expansion included new bosses, currency, areas, Ambush and Invasion leagues, and PvP modes. Shrines from Domination and Nemesis mods on monsters have been added to the core game. 1.2 and 1.3 Forsaken Masters 20 August 2014 The second expansion, Forsaken Masters, was announced on 31 July 2014 and released on 20 August 2014. It comes with a host of new features, including crafting, recruitable NPCs called Masters (who remain at the player's hideout offering them daily training missions and specialized items), customized personal hideouts, reworked passive skill tree, new gems, Beyond and Rampage were leagues in 1.2, former Ambush and Invasion content added to core game and more. The next major patch, 1.3, was considered part of the expansion, which adds another NPC, the PVP Master, Leo, new leagues Bloodlines and Torment, new gems and more. Former Rampage and Beyond content added to core game. 2.0 The Awakening 10 July 2015 The Awakening, entered closed beta on 20 April 2015 and fully released on 10 July 2015. It includes the addition of a fourth Act containing new map tilesets, quests, and monsters. Other additions include new skills and items, passive skill tree sockets and jewels, item filters, two new challenge leagues, and game balance. Also an optional "Lockstep" mode was added in an effort to fix the desync network synchronization issues at the cost of latency. The two new challenge leagues were Warbands and Tempest. Bloodlines and Torment content was added to the core game. 2.1 Talisman 11 December 2015 The expansion update added the Standard and Hardcore version of the Talisman challenge leagues, the first league to be shared across Standard and Hardcore instead of there being two leagues in parallel. It was the start of a rough three month expansion schedule for the game. This update also added twelve new gems. 2.2 Ascendancy 4 March 2016 The expansion included more than the usual new items and new skills adding 19 ascendancy classes. This expansion was also timed to be made live at the same time as the Perandus challenge leagues. The ascendancy classes are each tied to one of the base classes, with three ascendancy classes for each base class, except the Scion which only has one ascendancy class. Each of these new classes contain its own unique ascendancy skill tree to advance. These new skill trees are much smaller than the base classes full- blown passive trees, but provide a unique specification to one's class not previously seen in the game. 2.3 Prophecy 3 June 2016 The expansion introduced the Prophecy league, it also introduced the Endgame Labyrinth, five new skills and more. 2.4 Atlas of Worlds 2 September 2016 The expansion introduced a new end-game, 30 new maps and 19 new bosses. Also started the three-month Essence challenge league. Previous Prophecy league system added to the core game. 2.5 Breach 2 December 2016 The expansion introduced the Breach league. Essence league content added to the core game. 2.6 Legacy 3 March 2017 The expansion featured the Legacy challenge leagues that paid homage to the leagues and items of the past. 3.0 Fall of Oriath 4 August 2017 The expansion added six new acts and was the largest expansion released to date. The expansion replaced cruel and merciless difficulties with Acts V-X. A new Character Selection Screen was added. A help panel has been created for players to use as well as eight new Vaal side areas with new bosses. There is also a new passive skill tree planning system. There are three new skill gems and numerous support gems added as well. 24 new unique items have been added, five of them being designed by supporters of the game. The areas of the first five acts are revisited with changes to the environment that were the result of the players' actions. The Pantheon system has also been added, where a player can obtain interchangeable buffs from boss gods found in the new content. The associated league of 3.0 patch is Harbinger. Breach added in maps by default. 3.1 War for the Atlas 8 December 2017 The expansion was revealed on 16 November 2017, and released on 8 December 2017. It focused on overhauling the "Atlas of Worlds" end-game system, adding 32 new maps, as well as other new items including ten new gems. Alongside the expansion the Abyss challenge league was introduced. 3.2 Bestiary 3 February 2018 The expansion added the Bestiary league, the uber elder encounter, new gems and more. Abyss was added to the core game. 3.3 Incursion 6 June 2018 A Vaal-themed expansion that features the Incursion league, new gems and reworked twenty existing gems. 3.4 Delve 31 August 2018 The expansion features an infinite dungeon and socketable currency items, new skill gems and more. 3.5 Betrayal 7 December 2018 The Betrayal expansion and league was revealed on 13 November 2018, and was released on 7 December 2018. The Betrayal expansion offered a rework of in- game systems: the Master, crafting system as well as other content. The leagues Bestiary, Incursion and the Delve became permanent mechanics in the Betrayal expansion. 3.6 Synthesis 8 March 2019 The expansion contains the Synthesis challenge league, new gems, a complete rebalance of spells, an integrated version of the Betrayal league and more. 3.7 Legion 7 June 2019 The expansion contains the Legion challenge league, new gems, a game-wide overhaul of melee combat and more. 3.8 Blight 6 September 2019 The expansion contains the Blight challenge league, three revamped balance archetypes with new skills and support gems, integration of Legion and the boss fights from Synthesis into the core game and more. 3.9 Conquerors of the Atlas 13 December 2019 The expansion overhauled the end-game system. It also shipped with bow attacks rebalance and new bow skills. At the same time the temporary league of 3.9 would be Metamorph. Blight mechanics added to the core game. 3.10 Delirium 13 March 2020 The expansion contains the Delirium challenge league, the new Cluster Jewel system, new skills and support gems, new unique items, and further improvements to the Atlas endgame. Metamorph mechanics added to the core game. 3.11 Harvest 19 June 2020 Harvest adds a new NPC named Oshabi who is cultivating the Sacred Grove where you plant seeds, grow them into monsters and kill them for items, crafting, and life-force. The expansion adds new crafting options, eight new skills, two new support gems, revamps of Two- handed Weapons, Warcry skills, Brands, Slams and the Passive Skill Tree itself. In addition, twelve new unique items were introduced, as well as a rebalancing of over fifty existing ones. Former Delirium league integrated to the core game. 3.12 Heist 18 September 2020 The expansion introduced Heist league as well as other features such as rework of curse and "Steel" skills that can be use by in-game player character. The studio also started the public beta access of their MacOS port. The Heist mechanic of the league, which added to the core game in 3.13, introduced the ability to hires combat NPC to perform special role in a heist, as well as new unique item subset called "Replica" and new skill gem that have alternative skill effect. 3.13 Echoes of the Atlas 16 January 2021 Echoes of the Atlas expansion reworked the end game "Atlas of Worlds" system by introducing regional atlas passive skill trees, 11 new end-game map areas and new end-game pinnacle boss, the Maven. The patch also reworked some of the Ascendancy character classes as well as a new end game mechanic, Maven's Invitation, that deals with fighting multiple bosses at the same time. The associated temporary league of the patch is Ritual, which introduced new item basetypes. Versions of former leagues Harvest and Heist are incorporated into the core game. 3.14 Ultimatum 16 April 2021 The expansion introduced Ultimatum league as well as overhauling the loot of past leagues content that incorporated into core game in the past. Ritual was also added to the core game. 3.15 Expedition 23 July 2021 The expansion contains the Expedition challenge league, four new NPC traders, nineteen new skill and support gems, a massive balance changes to make the game more challenging, including a full rework of the flask system and more 3.16 Scourge 22 October 2021 The expansion contains the Scourge challenge league, a rework to the passive skill tree including the addition of Passive Skill Masteries, new skill gems, the Expediton league going core, retiring the Perandus league, improvements to the Atlas endgame, new guild features and more. 3.17 Siege of the Atlas 4 February 2022 In the expansion two new Eldritch Horrors threaten to consume the Atlas of Worlds. Join Commander Kirac's militia and defend the Atlas and Wraeclast itself against these celestial foes. This large endgame expansion contains new Atlas systems, pinnacle bosses, one gigantic Atlas passive skill tree, Eldritch implicit endgame crafting, new unique items, the Archnemesis challenge league, the Prophecy mechanic is removed from the game with many rewards moved to other content and much more. 3.18 Sentinel 13 May 2022 The expansion contains the Sentinel challenge league, 20 atlas keystone passives, seven uber version boss fights, new pinnacle unique items, revamped monster modifiers taken from the Archnemesis league mechanics and some Bloodlines and Nemesis mechanics which are removed as leagues from the core game, game controller support and more. 3.19 Lake of Kalandra 19 August 2022 The expansion contains the Kalandra challenge league, Atlas Memories new endgame content, four new gems, revised Archnemesis mods, revamped Beyond with the monsters and bosses from Scourge, changes to Harvest, a new unique map with the Trialmaster from Ultimatum, a variety of balance changes and more. 3.20 The Forbidden Sanctum 9 December 2022 The expansion contains the Sanctum challenge league, two new Skill Gems, significant balance changes, two new Atlas Memories themed around Domination and Bestiary, replacing of the Archnemesis monster mod system and Ruthless an optional challenging new way to play Path of Exile with extreme item scarcity, limited crafting and other changes. 3.21 Crucible 7 April 2023 The expansion introduces the Crucible challenge league where weapons can be imbued with powerful Passive Skill Trees of their own, a new skill gem and 3 support gems, as well as improvements and revamps of existing endgame systems. 3.22 Middle of 2023 The 3.22 expansion will be previewed at ExileCon 2023 on 29 July. 4.0 Path of Exile 2 Beta 2023 Announced in 2019, Path of Exile 2 features a new seven-act storyline that is available alongside the original campaign. Both the current and new storyline lead to the same shared endgame. Path of Exile 2 will retain all expansion content that has been created and introduces a new skill system, ascendancy classes, and engine improvements. At ExileCon 2023 on 29 July most new game systems and content is planned to be unveiled, and the date the closed beta starts. == Reception == Path of Exile received "generally favorable reviews" according to review aggregator Metacritic. Critics praised the innovations to the action role-playing systems from its predecessors such as the Diablo series. Destructoids Patrick Hancock praised the world design, remarking that it "has a grimy, grungy, uncomfortable feel to it that constantly makes the player feel slightly off just for inhabiting it". Kyle Hillard of Game Informer was critical on how the game "throws a lot at you with little direction", adding that "the experience is not friendly to newcomers". Eurogamer was not impressed by the graphics and presentation, saying that "Path of Exile doesn't have Torchlight 2s sense of style or Diablo 3s polish". Path of Exile was named 2013 PC Game of the Year by GameSpot, and best PC role-playing game of 2013 by IGN. By February 2014, the game had five million registered players. IGN's Leif Johnson remarked how Path of Exile was "into far darker territory than I'd seen in other contemporary action-RPGs". In 2020, it won the award for "Best Evolving Game" at the 16th British Academy Games Awards. == Sequel == In November 2019, Grinding Gear Games announced the sequel, Path of Exile 2 during their Exilecon. Previously known as Path of Exile 4.0.0 (working title), the sequel introduced a new 7 act storyline campaign with a major overhaul of the engine and gameplay. However, both Path of Exile and Path of Exile 2 share the same game client and end-game system, leaving the player a choice to play the Path of Exile or the sequel campaigns before reaching the end-game. Players can also interact with each other regardless of their choice of campaign. A Beta version of Path of Exile 2 was expected to release in "very late" 2020. However, it was delayed due to COVID-19 lockdown in New Zealand as well as China and the rest of the world where the outsourcing companies are located. It is now expected to release in 2024. ==References== ==External links== * Category:2013 video games Category:Action role-playing video games Category:Dark fantasy video games Category:Free-to-play video games Category:Multiplayer online games Category:Online-only games Category:PlayStation 4 games Category:Role-playing video games Category:Video games developed in New Zealand Category:Windows games Category:Xbox One games Category:Xbox One X enhanced games Category:Video games using procedural generation Category:Video games with expansion packs Category:BAFTA winners (video games) Category:Garena games Category:Kakao Games games |
thumb|261px|Chile inflation rate 1971 - 1994 Salvador Allende was the president of Chile from 1970 until he was murdered in 1973, and head of the Popular Unity government; he was a Socialist and Marxist elected to the national presidency of a liberal democracy in Latin America.Don Mabry, Allende's Rise and Fall. In August 1973 the Chilean Senate declared the Allende administration to be "unlawful," Allende's presidency was ended by a military coup before the end of his term. During Allende's three years, Chile gradually transitioned into a socialist state. During his tenure, Chilean politics reached a state of civil unrest amid political polarization, hyperinflation, lockouts, economic sanctions, CIA-sponsored interventionism and a failed coup in June 1973. Allende's coalition, Unidad Popular, faced the problem of being a minority in the congress and it was plagued by factionalism. On 11 September 1973, a successful coup led by General Augusto Pinochet overthrew the government of Allende. During the bombing of the presidential palace by the Chilean Air Force, President Allende, after mounting a brief armed resistance against the military, eventually died by suicide. In Chilean historiography, Allende's presidency is the last one of the period known as the "Presidential Republic" (1925–1973). ==Election== thumb|left|Chileans marching in support of Allende In the 1970 election, Allende ran with the Unidad Popular (UP or Popular Unity) coalition. Succeeding the FRAP left-wing coalition, Unidad Popular comprised most of the Chilean Left: the Socialist Party, the Communist Party, the Radical Party, the Party of the Radical Left (until 1972), the Social Democratic Party, MAPU (Movimiento de Acción Popular Unitario) (in 1972, a splinter group – MAPU Obrero Campesino – emerged) and since 1971 the Christian Left. Allende received a plurality with 36.2% of the vote. Christian Democrat Radomiro Tomic won 27.8% with a very similar platform to Allende's. Both Allende and Tomic promised to further nationalize the mineral industry and redistribute land and income among other new policies. Conservative former president Jorge Alessandri, standing for the National Party, received slightly under 34.9% of the vote.Angell, 1993, p. 50 According to the constitution, Congress had to decide between the two candidates who had received the most votes. The precedent set on the three previous occasions this situation had arisen since 1932 was for Congress simply to choose the candidate with the largest number of votes; indeed, former president Alessandri had been elected in 1958 with 31.6% of the popular vote. In this case, however, there was an active campaign against Allende's confirmation by Congress, including clandestine efforts to prevent him taking office, and his presidency was ratified only after he signed a "Statute of Constitutional Guarantees". This statute was suggested as a means to convince the majority of Christian Democrat senators that favoured Allessandri, as they doubted Allende's allegiance to democracy, or at least the UP's. After signing the statute, members of the Christian Democrat party in the Senate gave their vote in favor of Allende. It has been argued that given that less than the majority of the voters voted for him, Allende did not have a clear "mandate" to embark in the policies put forward on his program; however, it is also true that in the post-World War II period three out of the four previous presidents of Chile had, like Allende, also been elected with less than 50% of the vote, due in part to Chile's multi-party system. Specifically, the winners of the four presidential elections prior to Allende's 1970 election had won with: 56.1% (the 1964 election of Frei), 31.6% (the 1958 election of Alessandri), 46.8% (the 1952 election of Ibáñez) and 40.2% (the 1946 election of Gonzalez Videla). The legality of the 1970 election itself is not in dispute. =="The Chilean Way to Socialism"== In office, Allende pursued a policy he called "La vía chilena al socialismo" ("The Chilean Way to Socialism"). This included nationalization of certain large-scale industries (notably copper), of the healthcare system, continuation of his predecessor Eduardo Frei Montalva's policies regarding the educational system, a program of free milk for children, and land redistribution. The previous government of Eduardo Frei had already partly nationalised the copper industry by acquiring a 51 percent share in foreign owned mines. The primary U.S. business in Chile at this time was copper mining. The Chilean government sought to fully nationalize U.S. mining operations and the Chilean constitution required "just compensation" to be made according to "minimum international standards." However, the Allende government chose to hold mining companies liable for damages they caused to the state. Subsequently, Chile made significant deductions in computing the amount of compensation due to the North American industries. Such deductions included charges for "loans invested poorly" and "excessive profits" among other reasoning. "Excessive profits" were assessed dating back to the 1950s. Ultimately, deductions for "social and financial malfeasance" when combined with other deductions resulted in the total deductions greatly exceeding the base book values of the mining enterprises. In effect, compensation to three of the five nationalized mines was wholly eliminated by subjective deductions determined by Allende's government.John Fleming, The Nationalization of Chile's Large Copper Companies in Contemporary Interstate Relations, 18 Vill. L. Rev. 593 (1973) Allende also nationalized coal mining in 1971, a move that was welcomed by the miners of Lota. Chilean presidents were allowed a maximum of six years in office, which may explain Allende's haste to restructure the economy. He had a significant restructuring program organized. At the beginning, there was broad support in Congress to expand the government's already large part of the economy, as the Popular Unity and Christian Democrats together had a clear majority. But the government's efforts to pursue these policies led to strong opposition by landowners, some middle- class sectors, the rightist National Party, financiers, and the Roman Catholic Church (which in 1973 was displeased with the direction of the educational policyCECH - Conferencia Episcopal de Chile [www.iglesiachile.org] ). Eventually the Christian Democrats united with the National Party in Congress. The Popular Unity coalition itself was far from unanimous. Allende himself said he was committed to democracy and represented a more moderate faction of his Socialist Party. He was supported by the Communist Party, that—despite being ultimately less committed to representative democracy—favoured a cautious, gradual approach. For example, the Communists urged to find a compromise with the Christian Democrats and supported the application of reforms through Congress. In contrast, the radical leftist wing of the Socialist Party wanted to smash the capitalist system at once, even if that meant violent actions. If one includes smaller parties, Allende's moderate left-wing line was supported by moderate Socialists, Communists, Radicals (Social Democrats merged with that party in June 1972) and part of the MAPU (later: MAPU/OC), whereas the left-wing Socialists (led by Altamirano), the extremist elements of the MAPU, of the Christian Left and the MIR (not belonging to the Unidad Popular) represented the far-left. During its first year in office, the Allende Government achieved economic growth, reductions in inflation and unemployment, a redistribution of income, and an increase in consumption. The government also significantly increased salaries and wages, reduced taxes, and introduced free distribution of some items of prime necessity. Groups which had previously been excluded from the state labor insurance scheme (mainly the self-employed and small businessmen) were included for the first time, while pensions were increased for widows, invalids, orphans, and the elderly. The National Milk Plan affected 50% of Chilean children in 1970, providing 3,470,000 with half a litre of milk daily, free of charge.Ricardo Israel Zipper, Politics and Ideology in Allende’s Chile The land-redistribution that Allende highlighted as one of the central policies of his government had already begun under his predecessor Eduardo Frei Montalva, who had expropriated between one-fifth and one-quarter of all properties liable to takeover. The Allende government's intention was to appropriate all holdings of more than eighty basic irrigated hectares.Faundez, 1988 Allende also intended to improve the socio-economic welfare of Chile's poorest citizens; a key element was to provide employment, either in the new nationalized enterprises or on public works projects. Towards the end of 1971, Fidel Castro toured Chile extensively during a four-week visit.Castro Speech Data Base - LANIC - Browse Speeches from 1971 This gave credence to the belief of those on the right that "The Chilean Way to Socialism" was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba. ==Economics== The short-term economic results of Minister of Economics Pedro Vuskovic's expansive monetary policy were unambiguously favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in GDP, accompanied by major declines in Chile’s long-endemic chronic inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). In 1972 the Chilean escudo changed 140%. The average Real GDP contracted between 1971 and 1973 at an annual rate of 5.6% ("negative growth"), and the government's fiscal deficit soared while foreign reserves declined.Flores, 1997: title missing from ReferencesStats on declining GDP, in constant dollars http://www.indexmundi.com/facts/chile/gdp-per-capita During this time, a shortage in basic commodities led to the rise of black markets which ended in late 1973 after Allende was ousted. In addition to the earlier-discussed provision of employment, Allende also raised wages on a number of occasions throughout 1970 and 1971. These rises in wages were negated by continuing increases in prices for food. Although price rises had also been high under Frei (27% a year between 1967 and 1970), a basic basket of consumer goods rose by 120% from 190 to 421 escudos in one month alone, August 1972. In the period 1970-72, while Allende was in government, exports fell 24% and imports rose 26%, with imports of food rising an estimated 149%.Nove, 1986, pp. 4–12, tables 1.1 & 1.7 Although nominal wages were rising, there was not a commensurate increase in the standard of living for the Chilean population. The falls in exports were mostly due to a fall in the price of copper. Chile was at the mercy of international fluctuations in the value of its single most important export. As with almost half of developing countries, more than 50 percent of Chile's export receipts were from a single primary commodity.Hoogvelt, 1997 Adverse fluctuation in the international price of copper negatively affected the Chilean economy throughout 1971-72. The price of copper fell from a peak of $66 per ton in 1970 to only $48–49 in 1971 and 1972. In addition to the hyperinflation, the fall in the value of copper and lack of economic aid would further depress the economy. Initially, the governing coalition expected the unearned wage increases and the consequent increase in government spending to be corrected once the 'structural changes' like nationalisation and agrarian reforms were completed. However, by June 1972, Allende was beginning to see the economic hazards. The minister of economy was changed and some austerity measures introduced, but to little avail. Amidst declining economic indicators, Allende's Popular Unity coalition actually increased its vote to 43 percent in the parliamentary elections early in 1973. However, by this point what had started as an informal alliance with the Christian DemocratsFederal Research Division of the Library of Congress: Chile - Constitutional History - Development and Breakdown of Democracy, 1830-1973. Retrieved 11 December 2006. was anything but that. The Christian Democrats now leagued with the right-wing National Party and other three minor parties to oppose Allende's government, the five parties calling themselves the Confederation of Democracy (CODE). The conflict between the executive and legislature paralyzed initiatives from either side. His economic policies were used by economists Rudi Dornbusch and Sebastian Edwards to coin the term macroeconomic populism.Dornbusch, Edwards, 1989 ==Foreign interference and relations== ===Argentina=== Allende received the 1973 election of Héctor Cámpora, who had previously lived in exile in Chile, as good news. Allende sent in Aniceto Rodríguez to Buenos Aires to work on an alliance between the Socialist Party of Chile and the Justicialism. Later Allende assisted to the presidential inauguration of Campora. All of this was seen with good eyes by Juan Perón who came to refer to Allende as "compañero". However Perón also used Allende as a warning example for the most radical of his followers. In September just a few days before the 1973 Chilean coup d'etat he addressed the Tendencia Revolucionaria: Perón condemned the 1973 coup as a "fatality for the continent" stating that the coup leader Augusto Pinochet represented interests "well known" to him. He praised Allende for his "valiant attitude" of committing suicide. He took note of the role of the United States in instigating the coup by recalling his familiarity with coup-making processes. ===Soviet Union=== Salvador Allende's predecessor, President Frei, improved relations with the USSR. In February 1970, President Frei's government signed Chile's first cultural and scientific agreement with the Soviet Union. Allende's Popular Unity government tried to maintain normal relations with the United States, but when Chile nationalized its copper industry, Washington cut off U.S. credits and increased its support to opposition. Forced to seek alternative sources of trade and finance, Chile gained commitments from the USSR to invest some $400 million in Chile in the next six years. Allende's government was disappointed that it received far less economic assistance from the Soviet Union than it hoped for. Trade between the two countries did not significantly increase and the credits were mainly linked to the purchase of Soviet equipment. Moreover, credits from Soviet Union were much less than those provided by China and countries of Eastern Europe. When Allende visited Soviet Union in late 1972 in search of more aid and additional lines of credit, he was turned down. Allegations have been made in a book by Christopher Andrew, based on the handwritten notes of alleged KGB archivist Vasili Mitrokhin, that Allende was connected to the KGB.The Times extract from the Mitrokhin Archive volume II, by Mitrokhin and historian Christopher Andrew However, the belief that Allende was a KGB agent is not universal. Declarations from KGB General Nikolai Leonov, former Deputy Chief of the First Chief Directorate of the State Security Committee of the KGB, state that the Soviet Union supported Allende's government economically, politically and militarily.Nikolai Leonov, "Soviet Intelligence in Latin America During the Cold War ", Lectures by General Nikolai Leonov, Centro de Estudios Publicos (Chile), 22 September 1999. Leonov stated in an interview at the Chilean Center of Public Studies (CEP) that the Soviet economic support included over $100 million in credit, three fishing ships (that distributed 17,000 tons of frozen fish to the population), factories (as help after the 1971 earthquake), 3,100 tractors, 74,000 tons of wheat, and more than a million tins of condensed milk. In mid-1973, the USSR had approved the delivery of weapons (artillery, tanks) to the Chilean Army. However, when news of an attempt from the Army to depose Allende through a coup d'état reached Soviet officials, the shipment was redirected to another country. ===United States opposition to Allende=== The United States opposition to Allende started several years before he was elected President of Chile. Declassified documents show that from 1962 through 1964, the CIA spent $3 million in anti-Allende propaganda "to scare voters away from Allende's FRAP coalition", and spent a total of $2.6 million to finance the presidential campaign of Eduardo Frei. U.S. President Richard Nixon, then embroiled in the Vietnam War and Cold War with the Soviet Union, was openly hostile to the possibility of a second socialist regime (after Cuba) in the Western Hemisphere. There was clandestine support by the U.S. government to prevent Allende from taking office after election: On 16 October 1970, a formal instruction was issued to the CIA base in Chile, saying in part, "It is firm and continuing policy that Allende be overthrown by a coup. It would be much preferable to have this transpire prior to 24 October, but efforts in this regard will continue vigorously beyond this date. We are to continue to generate maximum pressure toward this end, utilizing every appropriate resource. It is imperative that these actions be implemented clandestinely and securely so that the USG and American hand be well hidden". Regarding the botched attempted-kidnapping and manslaughter of Chilean Army Commander René Schneider on 22 October 1970 (Schneider was a constitutionalist opposed to the idea of a coup preventing Allende from taking office or removing him after the fact), the Church Committee observed: "The CIA attempted, directly, to foment a military coup in Chile. It passed three weapons to a group of Chilean officers who plotted a coup. Beginning with the kidnapping of Chilean Army Commander-in-Chief Rene Schneider. However, those guns were returned. The group which staged the abortive kidnap of Schneider, which resulted in his death, apparently was not the same as the group which received CIA weapons." However, the group which killed Schneider had previously been in contact with the CIA. The agency later paid that group $35,000, according to the Hinchey report, "in an effort to keep the prior contact secret, maintain the good will of the group, and for humanitarian reasons".Hinchey Report , 18 September 2000. CIA documents indicate that while the CIA had sought his kidnapping, his killing was never intended. Public outrage over the killing of Schneider cooled sentiments for a coup, and neither the U.S. nor Chilean military attempted other removal actions in the early years of the Allende administration. On 26 October, President Eduardo Frei Montalva (Salvador Allende was inaugurated 3 November) named General Carlos Prats as commander in chief of the army in replacement of René Schneider. Carlos Prats was also a constitutionalist.Andrew J. Rhodes, "Chilean Civil-Military Relations" With Allende in office, the United States reduced economic aid to the Chilean government. In 1973, the CIA was notified by contacts of the impending Pinochet coup two days in advance, but contends it "played no direct role" in the coup. After Pinochet assumed power, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger told Nixon that the United States "didn't do it" (referring to the coup itself) but had "created the conditions as great as possible".Kissinger Telcons on Chile ==Crisis== In October 1972, Chile saw the first of what were to be a wave of confrontational strikes led by some of the historically well-off sectors of Chilean society; these received the open support of United States President Richard Nixon. A strike by trucking company owners, which the CIA supported by funding them with US$2 million within the frame of the "September Plan", began on 9 October 1972.El paro que coronó el fin ó la rebelión de los patrones , El Periodista, 8 June 2003 The strike was declared by the Confederación Nacional del Transporte, then presided by León Vilarín, one of the leaders of the far-right paramilitary group Patria y Libertad. The Confederation, which brought together 165 trucking company business associations, employing 40,000 drivers and 56,000 vehicles, decreed an indefinite strike, paralyzing the country. It was soon joined by the small businessmen, some (mostly professional) unions, and some student groups. Its leaders (Vilarín, Jaime Guzmán, Rafael Cumsille, Guillermo Elton and Eduardo Arriagada) expected to topple the government through the strike. Other than the inevitable damage to the economy, the chief effect of the 24-day strike was to bring the head of the army, general Carlos Prats, into the government as Interior Minister, as a sign of appeasement. Comienzan los problemas , part of series "Icarito > Enciclopedia Virtual > Historia > Historia de Chile > Del gobierno militar a la democracia" on LaTercera.cl. Retrieved 22 September 2006. Carlos Prats had succeeded General René Schneider after his assassination on 24 October 1970, by two groups, General Roberto Viaux and General Camilo Valenzuela, who had benefitted from logistical and financial support from the CIA. Prats was a supporter of the legalist Schneider doctrine and refused to involve the military in a coup against Allende. In March and July 1972, Allende and the Christian Democrats tried to forge a compromise. The moderate Party of the Radical Left, representing the UP coalition in March, held talks with the Christian Democratic Party over regulations of nationalized firms, but ultimately failed, as the minister of economy Pedro Vuskovic boycotted the negotiations and carried out legally dubious expropriations. As a result, the Radical Left also left the UP coalition, hence the coalition lost 5 senators and 7 deputies. In July, the resumed talks were almost going to succeed, until the more conservative elements within the Christian Democrat party managed to break off the negotiations. From that point on, the political life of the country was highly polarized between two opposing camps: the governing left-wing Unidad Popular and the right-wing opposition of Christian Democrats who were allied with the National Party, a vehemently right-wing opposition party. ===Tanquetazo=== ===Congressional resolutions=== On 22 August 1973, the Christian Democrats and the National Party members of the Chamber of Deputies voted 81 to 47, a resolution that asked the authorities"The President of the Republic, Ministers of State, and members of the Armed and Police Forces". to "put an immediate end" to "breach[es of] the Constitution...with the goal of redirecting government activity toward the path of Law and ensuring the Constitutional order of our Nation, and the essential underpinnings of democratic co-existence among Chileans". The resolution declared that the Allende Government sought "to conquer absolute power with the obvious purpose of subjecting all citizens to the strictest political and economic control by the State...[with] the goal of establishing a totalitarian system", claiming it had made "violations of the Constitution...a permanent system of conduct". Essentially, most of the accusations were about the Socialist Government disregarding the separation of powers, and arrogating legislative and judicial prerogatives to the executive branch of government. Finally, the resolution condemned the "creation and development of government-protected [socialist] armed groups, which . . . are headed towards a confrontation with the armed forces". President Allende's efforts to re-organize the military and the police forces were characterised as "notorious attempts to use the armed and police forces for partisan ends, destroy their institutional hierarchy, and politically infiltrate their ranks".English translation on Wikisource. Two days later, on 24 August 1973, Allende responded, point-by point to the accusations and, in turn, accused Congress of "facilitat[ing] the seditious intention of certain sectors" and promoting a coup or a civil war by "invoking the intervention of the Armed Forces and of Order against a democratically elected government". He pointed out that the declaration had failed to obtain the required two-thirds majority constitutionally required to bring an accusation against the president and argued that the legislature was trying to usurp the executive role. He wrote, "Chilean democracy is a conquest by all of the people. It is neither the work nor the gift of the exploiting classes, and it will be defended by those who, with sacrifices accumulated over generations, have imposed it...With a tranquil conscience...I sustain that never before has Chile had a more democratic government than that over which I have the honor to preside". He concluded by calling upon "the workers, all democrats and patriots" to join him in defense of the constitution and of the "revolutionary process". La respuesta del Presidente Allende on Wikisource. ===Final coup=== In early September 1973, Allende floated the idea of resolving the crisis with a referendum. However, the Chilean military seized the initiative of the Chamber of Deputies' 22 August Resolution (which had implored Allende's military removal) to oust Allende on 11 September 1973. As the Presidential Palace was surrounded and bombed, Allende died by suicide. ==See also== * Vuskovic plan - UP's economic policy * Chilean nationalization of copper * Death of Salvador Allende - controversy regarding his death * Project Cybersyn ==Notes== ==References== * Alan Angell (1993). Chile de Alessandri a Pinochet: En busca de la utopía. Santiago: Editorial Andrés Bello. * Simon Collier & William F. Sater (1996). A History of Chile: 1808-1994. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Julio Faundez (1988). Marxism and democracy in Chile: From 1932 to the fall of Allende, New Haven: Yale University Press. * Anke Hoogvelt (1997). Globalisation and the postcolonial world, London: Macmillan. * Henry Kissinger (1970). National Security Decision 93: Policy Towards Chile, Washington: National Security Council. * Alec Nove (1986). Socialism, Economics and Development, London: Allen & Unwin. * Don Mabry (2003). Chile: Allende's Rise and Fall. *Sebastián Hurtado-Torres. 2019. "The Chilean Moment in the Global Cold War: International Reactions to Salvador Allende's Victory in the Presidential Election of 1970." Journal of Cold War studies. ==External links== * An extensive Spanish-language site providing a day-by-day chronology of the Allende era. The research and detail are enormous. * The 22 August 1973 document under which the Chamber of Deputies opposed the Allende regime. This is a solid translation of the document, although the introductory note is clearly that of an apologist for the coup. * Examination of the coup that ended the Allende presidency, including ties to direction by the CIA. * Allende's 24 August 1973 response * National Security Archive's Chile Documentation Project which provides documents obtained from FOIA requests regarding U.S. involvement in Chile, beginning with attempts to promote a coup in 1970 and continuing through U.S. support for Pinochet * LIFE Magazine July 16, 1971 "Allende: A special kind of Marxist" Category:1970 establishments in Chile Category:1973 disestablishments in Chile Category:Politics of Chile Category:Presidential Republic (1925–1973) |
Capcom developed two light novels in the Devil May Cry series, written by Shinya Goikeda, illustrated by Shiro Miwa and published by Kadokawa Shoten. Originally released alongside Devil May Cry and Devil May Cry 2 the novels act as preludes, with the epilogue of the novel leading into the opening scene of the game. In 2006, Tokyopop released English language editions of the novels, translated by Paul Cheng and Gemma Collinge and adapted into English by Ethan Russell. ==Devil May Cry Volume 1== thumb|150px|right|Devil May Cry Volume 1 Pages: 206 Devil May Cry Volume 1 spans from the death of Dante's mother Eva until the beginning of the first Devil May Cry video game, though evidence suggests that the story may also take place before Devil May Cry 3 as well. Series creator Hideki Kamiya was able to work closely with Goikeda during the development of the novel, stating that his depiction of Dante and Goikeda's depiction are very similar."Because I had free time, I was really able to really get on the same page as Mister Goikeda and offer my input from start to finish." (p. 203); "Goikeda's Dante and my Dante really share the same soul." (p. 205). Hideki Kamiya, Devil May Cry Volume 1 pg 203, TokyoPop, 2006 === Plot === The novel begins with Dante, under the alias Tony Redgrave, confronted by the thug "Mad Dog" Denvers for the ninety-ninth time.Shinya Goikeda, Devil May Cry Volume 1, TokyoPop, 2006 Dante kills all of Denvers' men and leaves. As Denvers reminisces about how Dante's appearance two years previously caused the fall of the local underworld, he is killed by scythe- wielding devils screaming Dante's name. In Bobby's Cellar, a mercenary hideout, Dante talks with his partner Grue. He then leaves Bobby's Cellar, heading to Goldstein's Shop, run by gunsmith Nell Goldstein. Bantering with Nell, Dante mentions he wrecks guns quickly due to the rate of fire he employs. Returning to Bobby's Cellar, Dante acquires a lucrative job with Grue. During the job it becomes clear to Dante and Grue that it is too dangerous, so they retreat. Later, as both men evaluate the aftermath of the pitched battle, they are attacked by the corpses. Dante destroys them, though Grue freezes. Afterwards, Grue and Dante eat dinner with Grue's family. At Bobby's Cellar Enzo introduces a new mercenary named Gilver, a tall man swathed in bandages who wields a katana. Gilver fights Dante, proving himself equal. Deciding to settle the fight with drinking, Dante wins and Gilver is robbed by the bar patrons. After leaving, Dante is beset by demons and an undead Denvers. Dante awakens in the home of a local woman, who he spurns before leaving. He learns that killing Denvers has led to a bounty being placed on his head by the Oz Club. He leaves to confront the club directly.Entering a bank, he fights the same demons once again. Defeating them he runs into Gilver, who has slaughtered the Oz Club. Weeks later, Dante and Gilver are now being paired on numerous jobs and Grue is missing. On the way to work, Dante stops by Nell's home, giving him two handguns and warning him about Gilver. Dante runs into Grue, who has been taking assassination jobs. After leaving Dante, Grue kills a heavily in debt thug. This sparks a demonic transformation among the thug's friends and Grue's hiding place is revealed by Gilver. Grue ignites a grenade on his chest, trying to kill Gilver. Dante and Gilver continue as partners, and Enzo reveals that Grue did assassinations because of his daughter Jessica's illness. Dante goes to the hospital and finds it overrun by demons. Dante faces the demon in charge, who is feeding on Jessica's despair. He kills the demon and Jessica, shattering the connection between the human world and demon realm. Due to the hospital massacre and Grue's disappearance, Dante is publicly scorned by other mercenaries. Gilver converts the patrons of Bobby's Cellar into demons while Dante goes to Nell Goldstein's for rest. Soon after he leaves, an explosion engulfs Goldstein's Shop in flames. Dante charges in, finding Nell working on two handguns made especially for him: Ebony and Ivory. Giving him the handguns, Nell then dies. Dante ceases using the Tony Redgrave alias. Dante returns to Bobby's Cellar and confronts Gilver. Amidst a furious sword fight, Gilver shoots Dante with the shotgun purchased at Nell's shop. Fatally shooting Gilver in turn, Dante is horrified to discover that Gilver is his brother Vergil. Much later, Enzo drops by Bobby's Cellar and helps Dante leave. In the novel's epilogue, Dante sits in his shop as Devil May Cry begins. ==Devil May Cry Volume 2== Devil May Cry Volume 2 covers the period after the first Devil May Cry video game until the events of Devil May Cry 2. This release features a different art style than Devil May Cry Volume 1, with the artist utilizing shading and ink washes in addition to black and white. The translators of the novel deliberately chose not to translate the Beastheads' name into Cerberus due to the appearance of the Cerberus in Devil May Cry 3: Dante's Awakening, despite the obvious resemblance. Likewise, they maintained Vergil's alias as Nelo Angelo despite feeling that Nero Angelo (lit. Black Angel) was more correct.Paul Cheng & Gemma Collinge, Devil May Cry Volume 2 pg 205, TokyoPop, 2006 === Plot === The novel begins as a redheaded woman, Beryl, storms through a temple. As a priest tells her that no evil is within the temple, they are attacked. Warned by a scar, Beryl expends her anti-tank gun on her foe before it flees.Shinya Goikeda, Devil May Cry Volume 2, TokyoPop, 2006 Dante and Enzo talk about work in Dante's shop, Devil May Cry. As they discuss Dante's work habits and Trish's non-presence, Dante gets a call for work. As Enzo drops Dante off near the temple, Dante races towards the evil he feels and discovers humanoid demons, who he fights. Enzo finds Beryl on the road and agrees to take her back up the mountain. Beryl catches up with Dante as he finishes his foes, and she nearly hits him with her weapon by accident. Beryl then explains the Beastheads, a demonic statue which she has chased for years. A youth named Ducas is awakened by a demon crashing through his roof. In the demon's hands is the Beastheads statue, which Ducas takes. Chen, the boss of organized crime in the area, quickly arrives. Chen dismisses Ducas and instead focuses on the dead demon and discovers that Ducas has the statue. Meanwhile, Dante broods about the Beastheads. Beryl locates Dante's office, having tracked down the Beastheads to Ducas. Beryl persuades Dante to help her investigate. Ducas' good luck continues and he is learning to control the Beastheads, allowing him to see the future and sees Dante killing him. Moments later, Dante and Beryl crash through the window as Ducas hides. After they leave, Ducas escapes by sprouting feathered wings, which Beryl and Dante notice. Ducas lands on a building, encountering Chen. Chen offers Ducas safety, sending his demonic minions to stop Dante. Dante dispatches the foes with ease, though Beryl finds herself overwhelmed. As Dante and Beryl decide to confront Chen, Ducas finds himself alone on a yacht. He places the Beastheads in his mouth and chews it to pieces to consume its power. The Beastheads, now an enormous three-headed dog, tracks Dante and Beryl to a sea-side cliff. The despair the Beastheads causes nearly incapacitates Beryl. Seeing Dante fight reminds Beryl of the Dark Knight, Sparda, a fairy tale she was told as a child. She gets up and aids Dante, though defeating the Beastheads causes them to warp somewhere. Beryl dreams, remembering how the Beastheads corrupted her father. She awakens in a cave with Dante. Dante investigates and discovers they are in a parallel world where Mundus captured him as a child and his brother Vergil led Mundus' lieutenants against him. Dante agrees to fight Mundus a second time. The village housing the rebel demons is attacked by an army, all of whom resemble Trish. Mundus' former lieutenants give their lives to aid Dante in killing Trish, an action he regrets. Griffon leads Dante to Mundus' castle. Dante and Beryl enter and Dante defeats Mundus a second time while Beryl watches. Beryl and Dante awaken in Chen's labs, where Chen performs experiments on demons. The building vibrates as Chen acquires the Beastheads' power. They attack Chen, killing his minions and causing him to flee. Dante and Beryl follow and are caught in Chen's trap. Chen discovers that the Beastheads consumes human souls but replenishes demonic power. Dante carves his way out of the trap while Chen devours the Beastheads statue. Chen and Dante clash, both using the Sparda's sword-style. Chen gains the upper hand until Dante hurls his sword through Chen's head. Beryl uses her gun to punch through Chen's defense, allowing Dante to destroy the Beastheads. The book ends months later with a white-hilted dagger flying through Dante's front window, bearing an invitation to the museum seen in the beginning of Devil May Cry 2. ==Devil May Cry 4: Deadly Fortune== Devil May Cry 4: Deadly Fortune is a two-volume adaptation of the fourth video game in the series, Devil May Cry 4. It was written by the game's writer, Bingo Morihashi, with assistance from Yasui Kentarou. The two novels were published by Capcom during 2009. In the afterword, Bingo wrote that these removed scenes were intended to be included in the game, but were not due to some production reasons. The novel adapts the story of Devil May Cry 4 that focuses on a young holy knight named Nero who works for the Order of the Sword. Nero is given the job of capturing Dante after he seemingly kills Sanctus, the leader of the Order of the Sword. The novel expands the story from Devil May Cry 4 such as Nero's background. It is revealed he was found as, a baby, alone in Fortuna and was adopted by the parents of Credo and Kyrie. Having decided to follow Credo's footsteps, Nero joined the Order of the Sword but he was not accepted due to his use of guns, something which the hunters did not allow. During Nero's quest he meets an unknown man in a dream when he receives the sword Yamato. Dante also takes an interest in Nero's origins after finding that he is very similar to his twin brother, Vergil. As in the game, Nero discovers that Sanctus and his soldiers have become demons and plan to use the power from Dante's father, Sparda, to open the gates from the Demon World and gain people's faith by saving them from the demons. After Nero and Dante ally to defeat Sanctus, the former starts his own demon hunting business in Fortuna after the Order of the Sword is disbanded. ==Devil May Cry 5 Before the Nightmare== Devil May Cry 5 -Before the Nightmare- (角川スニーカー文庫) is a prequel novel that takes places before Devil May Cry 5 and leads up to beginning of the game. It was written by the game's writer, Bingo Morihashi. The novel was released on March 1, 2019 in Japan, days before Devil May Cry 5 was released. Taking place five years after Devil May Cry 4, Nero and Kyrie are living together in the ruins of Fortuna when the former is approached by weapon artist Nico Goldstien. While initially wary of her rude demeanor and her heritage as both the daughter of the Order of the Sword's scientist Angus, and the granddaughter of the gunsmith whose firearms Dante possesses, Nero gradually warms up to her. As the trust between them grew, Nico offers her services to refurbish Nero's van so he can make money as a traveling demon hunter. Not long after however, Nero encounters a dying demon who rips off his Devil Bringer arm with Nero losing consciousness. Meanwhile, Dante returns to Vie de Marli after ten years and helps Lucia defend the island against a fire- imbued demon named Balrog, who utilized a fragment of Vergil's sword Yamato to enter the human world. After Dante manages to defeat Balrog using the ice- imbued Cerberus Devil Arm, the demon recognizes him as Sparda's son and the one who defeated his master Argosax. He then offers himself as a new Devil Arm to replace the shattered Cerberus, until he can become strong enough to challenge Dante to a rematch. A few days later while visiting Grue's surviving daughters Tiki and Nesty, J.D. Morrison encounters a man known as "V" who requests him to take him to the Devil May Cry office so he may hire Dante, Lady, and Trish in suppressing a certain demon who gives the demon hunter a reason to fight. While Dante learns the identity of the demon, Lady is visited by Morrison as a television broadcast regarding the appearance of the demonic Qliphoth tree in Red Grave City airs, leading Lady to realize Dante is somehow connected to the city. Dante's group soon arrive at the Qliphoth tree in response to their quarry Urizen awakening ahead of schedule, with V enlisting Nero who leaves Fortuna in secret to not concern Kyrie and Nico. Shortly after as Dante's group begin their mission, Trish reflects on how Mundus kept tabs on Dante and Vergil since Eva's death. Knowing of their survival, Mundus then created both her and the Angelos to succeed in killing them where the demons in his employ failed. Thanks to her knowledge of various demons, Trish attempts to figure out who Urizen is before she and Lady are knocked out by the Demon King before Dante arrives. Dante engages in a friendly banter with Urizen before assuming Devil Trigger mode to fight him, as V and Nero arrive. But Urizen proves too much for the group as Dante holds him off so V can get Nero to safety, V telling Nero they have a month to prevent the end of the world. V chooses to remain in Red Grave City to collect intel and save as many as he can from the Qliphoth's blood-sucking roots, expressing some guilt of his former self. Nero meanwhile returns to Fortuna where he learns Nico is building his Devil Breaker prosthetic while insisting to accompany him for maintenance and to meet Dante. ==See also== * ==References== ==External links== * Devil May Cry Official website * TokyoPop Official website * Devil May Cry 4 Novel Deadly Fortune Category:Devil May Cry Category:Demon novels Category:Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko Category:Light novels Category:Tokyopop titles Category:Novels based on video games Category:Works based on Capcom video games |
This article lists programs broadcast by Mega Channel and on Mega Cosmos for international viewers from Greece: ==Current programming== Note: Titles are listed according to their year of debut on the network in parentheses. ===Dramas=== *I Gi tis Elias (2021) ===Docuseries=== *Mega Stories with Dora Anagnostopoulou (2020) ===Reality/non-scripted=== *Fos Sto Tounel with Aggeliki Nikolouli (1995) *Fishy with Giannis Tsimitselis (2021) ===Game shows=== *Celebrity Game Night (2014) *The Chase with Maria Bekatorou (2021) ===Talk shows=== *Eleni with Eleni Menegaki (2011) *Everything about our life with Michalis Kefalogiannis (2021) *Pame Danai with Danai Barka (2020) ===Late night shows=== *Mega View with Niki Lyberaki (2021) ===Specials=== *Spiti me to Mega (2020) ===News and information=== *MEGA Central News (1989) *MEGA Afternoon News (1989) *MEGA Weekend (2005) *Koinonia Ora MEGA (2006) *Live News with Nikos Evagelatos (2020) *Mega Good Morning with Eleonora Meleti (2021) *Smile Again with Sissy Christidou (2021) ===Sports=== *UEFA Champions League *Super Bala Live (2002) ==Former programming== ===Soap operas=== Title Premiere date Finale Notes Seasons The Thirst 2 Parallel Streets 2 The Dawn 1 Forbidden Love 8 A Place under the Sun 3 Ambitions 4 Wedding Ring 3 Ugly Maria 2 One Moment Two Lives 2 The Secrets of Edem 4 The Other' s Life 3 Stolen Dreams 4 The Kings 2 It was a dream 1 The Ring of Fire 1 Tomorrow is ours 1 == Series == ===Action/mystery=== * Skorpios (Scorpio) 1994-1995 - starring and directed by Antonis KafetzopoulosEntry for Skorpios in IMDb * Peirasmos (Temptation) 1995-1996 - starring Stavros Zalmas * Epifaneia (Surface) 2001-2002 - starring Entry for Epiphaneia in IMDb * Me Thea to Pelago (With View to the Sea) 2003-2004 - written by Elena Akrita and Giorgos Kyritsis * Ihni (Traces) 2007-2008 - starring Giannis Zouganelis *Eglimata mistiriou (2020-2021) ===Drama=== * H Dipsa (Thirst) 1989-1991 - starring Giannis Voglis * Spiti gia Pente (A House for Five) 1991-1992 - starring Karmem Rougeri * Gynaikes (Women) 1992-1993 - written by Mirella Papaoikonomou * Africa 1992-1993 - starring Nikos Sergianopoulos and Stavros Zalmas * Oi Frouroi tis Achaeas (Achaea's Guards) 1992-1993 - starring Mimi Ntenisi and Stratos Tzortzoglou * Anastasia 1993-1994 - written by Mirella Papaoikonomou * Esu Apofasizeis (It's Your Decision) 1993-1996 - starring Giannis Vouros * Mi Fovasai ti Fotia (Don't Be Afraid of the Fire) 1994-1995 - written by Mirella Papaoikonomou * To Teleutaio Antio (The Last Goodbye) 1994-1995 - starring Giorgos Kimoulis and Kariofyllia Karampeti * Apon (Absent) 1995-1996 - written by Mirella Papaoikonomou, starring Yannis Bezos * Palirria (Tide) 1996-1997 - starring Nikos Sergianopoulos and Stratos Tzortzoglou * Logo Timis (Due to my Honour) - written by Mirella Papaoikonomou * Tzivaeri 1997-1998 - starring Vana Mparmpa * Psithuroi Kardias (Whispers of the Hearts) 1997-1998 - Directed by Manousos Manousakis * I Zoi Pou Den Ezisa (The Life I Didn't Lived) 1998-1999 - written by Mirella Papaoikonomou * To Simadi tou Erota (Love's Sign) 1998-1999 - starring Vana Mparmpa and Stratos Tzortzoglou * I Aithousa tou Thronou (Throne's Chamber) 1998-1999 - starring Alekos Alexandrakis * Thumata Eirinis (Victims of Peace) 1998-1999 - starring Anna-Maria Papaharalambous * O Megalos Thumos (The Big Anger) 1998-1999 - starring Gregoris Valtinos and Kariofyllia Karampeti * Vendetta 1999-2000 - starring Giannis Fertis and Koralia Karanti * Sti Skia tou Polemou (In War's Shadow) 1999-2000 - starring Mimi Ntenisi and Stratos Tzortzoglou * H Zoi mas Mia Volta (Our Life is a Walk) 1999-2000 - starring Christoforos Papakaliatis and Fylareti Komninou * Fugame (Let's Go) 1999-2000 - Directed by Nikos Koutelidakis * Aerines Siopes (Silence in the Air) 2000-2003 - starring Marios Athanasiou, Katerina Papoutsaki and Panagiota Vlanti * Na Me Proseheis (Take Care of Me) 2000-2001 - starring Konstantinos Markoulakis and Christoforos Papakaliatis * Alma Libre (Free Soul) 2001-2002 - starring Nikos Sergianopoulos * Fevga (Leave) 2002-2003 - starring Themis Mpazaka * Kleise ta Matia (Close your Eyes) 2002-2004 - starring Pemu Zouni and Christoforos Papakaliatis * Leni 2003-2004 - written by Mirella Papaoikonomou, starring Katia Dandoulaki * Se Apostasi Anapnois (Too Close) 2003-2004 - starring Kostas Sommer and Maria Solomou * Etsi Ksafnika (Suddenly) 2004-2005 - written by Mirella Papaoikonomou, starring Konstantinos Markoulakis * Sto Fos tou Feggariou (Under the Moonlight) 2004-2005 - starring Lina Sakka * Epafi (Contact) 2004-2005 - starring Nikos Sergianopoulos * Metrao Stigmes (Counting Moments) 2004-2005 - starring Stavros Zalmas * Gi kai Ouranos (Earth and Sky) 2005-2006 - starring Konstantinos Markoulakis * Duo Meres Mono (Only Two Days) 2005-2007 - starring Christoforos Papakaliatis * Oi Magisses tis Smyrnis (The Witches of Smyrna) 2005-2006 - starring Maria Kavogianni * Mazi Sou (With You) 2006-2007 - starring Apostolos Totsikas * Stous 31 Dromous (In the 31 Streets) 2007-2008 - starring Sofia Karvela * Agria Paidia (Wild Kids) 2008-2009 - starring Antinoos Almpanis * Xara Agnoeitai (Chara is Missing) 2008-2009 - starring Maria Kavogianni * Koukles (Dolls) 2010-2011 - starring Lina Sakka and Dimitra Matsouka * To Nisi (The Island) 2010-2011 - starring Katerina Lehou and Stelios Mainas ===Soap operas=== * Apagorevmeni Agapi (Forbidden Love) 1998-2006 - starring Marios Athanasiou * Gia Mia Thesi ston Hlio (For a Place in the Sun) 1999-2002 - starring Petros Fyssoun * Filodoksies (Ambitions) 2002-2006 - starring Giannis Vouros * Vera Sto Dexi 2004-2007 - written by Elena Akrita and Giorgos Kyritsis, starring Katia Dandoulaki and Kostas Kazakos * Maria, i Aschimi (Ugly Maria) 2006-2008 - Greek version of the Colombian TV series Yo soy Betty, la fea starring Aggeliki Daliani * Komplicoj al la rekupero (Accomplices to the Rescue) 2007 - Greek version of the Mexican telenovela Cómplices Al Rescate * Mia Stigmi, Duo Zoes (One Moment, Two Lives) 2007-2009 - starring Giannis Papazisis *Amoj plumbo (Amores Lead) 2008 - Greek version of the Mexican telenovela Amores, querer con alevosia * Ta Mustika tis Edem (Eden's Secrets) 2008-2011 - written by Elena Akrita and Giorgos Kyritsis, starring Danis Katranidis * H Zoi tis Allis (The Other Woman's Life) 2009-2012 - starring Katia Dandoulaki; Greek version of the Mexican telenovela Querida Enemiga * Klemmena Oneira (Stolen Dreams) 2011–2015 - starring Alexandros Stavrou ===Romantic comedies=== * Ax Elen (Oh, Helen) 1992-1993 - starring Eleni Radou * Love Sorry (1994-1995) - starring Tasos Chalkias * Ntoltse Vita (Sweet Life) 1995-1996 - starring Anna Panayiotopoulou, Katiana Balanika and Maria Foka * Dyo Ksenoi (Two Strangers) 1997-1999 - starring Nikos Sergianopoulos and Evelina Papoulia * Eimaste ston Aera (We Are On Air) 1997-1999 - starring Thodoris Atheridis * Kati Trexei Me Tous Dipla (There's Something Wrong with the Neighbors) 1999-2000 - starring Dimitra Matsouka * Esu Ftais (It's Your Fault) 1999-2000 - starring Renia Louizidou * Peri Anemon kai Ydaton (About Everything) 2000-2003 - starring Spyros Papadopoulos and Thanasis Veggos * Eisai to Tairi mou (You Are My Love Mate) 2001-2002 - starring Vicky Stavropoulou and Alexis Georgoulis * Fae ti Sokolata Sou (Eat Your Chocolate) 2003-2004 - starring Anna Panayiotopoulou and Nikos Sergianopoulos * S1ngles 2004-2008 - starring Maria Solomou * Kaneis de leei s' agapo (No One Says I Love You) 2004-2005 - starring Anna-Maria Papaharalambous, Giorgos Karamihos and Kostas Triantafyllopoulos * Lakis o Glykoulis (The Adorable Lakis) 2008-2009 - starring Petros Filipidis ===Comedies=== * Oi Treis Harites (The Three Graces) 1990-1993 - starring Anna Panayiotopoulou, Nena Menti and Mina Adamaki * Oi Aftheretoi 1990-1991 - starring Vasia Trifili * Oi Aparadektoi (The Unacceptables) 1991-1993 - starring Spyros Papadopoulos, Dimitra Papadopoulou, Yannis Bezos and Vlassis Bonatsos * Ekmek Pagoto (Ekmek Ice cream) 1991-1992 - starring Spyros Papadopoulos and Chrisoula Diavati * H Eliza kai oi Alloi (Eliza and the Others) 1992-1993 - starring Mirka Papakonstantinou * Kai oi Tesseris Itan Yperoxes (The Four Were Great) 1992-1995 - starring Maria Foka * Deka Mikroi Mitsoi 1992-2003 - starring Lakis Lazopoulos * To Dis Eksamartin 1993-1996 - starring Nena Menti * Rozalia 1993-1994 - starring Anna Panayiotopoulou * O Ios tou Patera (The Father's Son) 1996-1998 - starring Tasos Chalkias * O Kakos Vezuris 1997-1998 - starring Haris Romas * Oi Andres Den Yparxoun Pia (Men Don't Exist Anymore) 1998-2000 - starring Katerina Lexou * S'Agapo M'Agapas (I Love You, You Love Me) 2000-2002 - starring Dimitra Papadopoulou and Thodoris Atheridis * Ti Psyhi Tha Paradoseis Mori? (What Soul Are You Going To Give To God, You Fool Woman) 2000-2001 - starring Eleni Radou * Kapou Se Ksero (I Know You From Somewhere) 2001-2002 - starring Maria Kavogianni and Kaiti Konstantinou * Savvatogennimenes (Born on Saturday) 2003-2004 - starring Eleni Radou * Safe Sex: The TV Series 2005-2008 - a series based on the box office hit movie Safe Sex * 50-50 (Fifty-Fifty) 2005-2007 - starring Petros Filipidis, Pavlos Haikalis and Sakis Mpoulas * Sto Para Pente (In the Nick of Time) 2005-2007 - starring Giorgos Kapoutzidis, Smaragda Karydi * To Kokkino Domatio (The Red Room) 2005-2008 - written by Alexandros Rigas and Dimitris Apostolou * Pali Apo Tin Arhi (Again From the Beginning) 2006-2007 - starring Memos Begnis and Anta Livitsanou * Mavra Mesanyxta (Black Midnight) 2007-2009 - starring Stelios Mainas * L.A.P.D. 2008-2010 - starring Ieroklis Mihailidis * Ola ston Aera (Everything on Air) 2008-2009 - starring Maria Lekaki and Katiana Balanika * H Genia Ton 592 Euro (The Generation of 592 Euro) 2010-2011 - starring Spyros Papadopoulos * Me lene Vaggeli (Me lene Vaggeli) 2011-2012 - starring Vasilis Haralampopoulos * Kliniki Periptwsi 2011-2012 - starring Yannis Bezos * Me Ta Pantelonia Kato 2013-2014 - starring Ieroklis Mihailidis * Kato Partali 2014–2015 - starring Giannis Tsimitselis *Mia mera pano sti Gi (2020-2021) ===Family comedies=== * Patir, Ios kai Agio Pnevma (Father, Son and Holy Ghost) 1989-1990 - starring Spyros Papadopoulos * To Retire 1990-1992 - starring Katerina Gioulaki * Ta Epta Kaka tis Moiras Mou (The Seven Wrongs of My Fate) 1991-1994 - starring Giorgos Konstantinou * Mana Einai Mono Mia (Mother is Only One) 1992-1994 - starring Mary Chronopoulou * Oi Mikromessaioi (The Middle-class People) 1992-1993 - starring Martha Karagianni * To Soi Mas (Our Family) 1992-1994 - starring Ntina Konsta * Hi Rock 1992-1994 - starring Petros Filipidis and Tasos Chalkias * Emeis ki Emeis (Just Us) 1994-1998 - starring Eleni Gerasimidou * O Petros kai ta Koritsia tou (Peter and his Girls) 1994-1996 - starring Petros Filipidis * Kare tis Ntamas 1997-1999 - starring Joyce Evidi * Me Dyo Mamades (With Two Mothers) 1998-1999 - starring Nena Menti and Chrysa Ropa * Deka Lepta Kirigma (Ten Minutes Preaching) 2000-2004 - starring Dimitris Kouroumpalis * Epta Thanasimes Petheres (Seven Deadly Mothers-in-Law) 2003-2010 - starring Vicky Stavropoulou * I Ntanta (The Nanny) 2003-2005 - Greek version of the American sitcom The Nanny, starring Maria Lekaki * I Ora I Kali (2004-2007) - starring Panos Mixalopoulos * Eftyhismenoi Mazi (Happy Together) 2007-2009 - starring Yannis Bezos * Latremenoi mou Geitones (My Lovely Neighbors) 2007-2009 - starring Kostas Koklas * I Polykatoikia (The Block of Flats) 2008-2011 - starring Pavlos Haikalis *Paidiki Hara (Playground) 2009-2010 - Kostas Koklas, Renia Louizidou, Giorgos Alevizakis, Giannis Kyrikos and Vasilis Galaios. * Piso sto spiti 2011-2013 - starring Maria Kavogianni * To Spiti tis Emmas 2013-2014- starring Yannis Bezos-Katia Dandoulaki * Monterna Oikogeneia 2014–2015 - starring Antonis Kafetzopoulos * Mana X Ouranou 2014–2015- starring Maria Solomou == Shows == ===Various shows=== * Mega Star 1989-2010 and 2020-2021- a music show presenting the most popular songs in Greece **1989-1990 hosted by Arianna Dimitropoulou **1990-1991 hosted by Rika Vagiani and Nikos Diamantaropoulos **1992-2004 hosted by Natalia Germanou **2004-2005 hosted by Betty Maggira **2005-2007 hosted by Evi Adam **2007-2008 hosted by Ioanna Kanellopoulou **2008-2010 hosted by Katerina Stikoudi **2020-2021 hosted by Mando Gasteratou and DJ Antonis Dimitriades * Disney Club 1994-2002 - Greek version of the popular children's show * Traction 1998–2011 - a show about cars and motorcycles hosted by Kostas Stefanis * Stin Kouzina Olotaxws 2000-2004 - a show about cooking hosted by Ilias Mamalakis * Rantevou gia Cinema 2000-2009 - a show about cinema presenting the new releases in a weekly basis hosted by Orestis Andreadakis * Ta Mustika tis Vefas 2003-2004 - a cooking show hosted by Vefa Alexiadou * Mpoukia kai Sugxwrio 2003-2008 - a cooking show hosted by Ilias Mamalakis traveling around Greece, finding traditional recipes * Megalicious Chart Live 2005-2006 - countdown of top music charts and live performances of Greek stars hosted by Themis Georgantas * Extreme Makeover 2008-2009 - the Greek version of the American show, hosted by Zeta Douka * Glykies Alximies 2008-2010 - a cooking show hosted by Stelios Parliaros focusing on pastry * Food and the City 2010-2011 - a cooking show hosted by Vasilis Kallidis ===Morning shows=== * Xamogelate Einai Metadotiko 1993-1995 hosted by Andreas Mikroutsikos * Metaxi Mas 1995-1998 hosted by Sofia Vossou and Elnta Panopoulou * San Sto Spiti Sas 1999-2003 hosted by Fotis Sergoulopoulos and Maria Mpakodimou * Omorfos Kosmos To Prwi 2003-2010 **2003-2009 hosted by Grigoris Arnaoutoglou **2009-2010 hosted by Nikos Papadakis * Proino Mou 2010–2014 **2010–2013 hosted by Giorgos Liagkas and Fei Skorda **2013–2014 hosted by Petros Kostopoulos and Jenny Balatsinou ==Game shows== * Tilemplofes 1989 (Revival of the Greek version of Break the Bank) hosted by Vasilis Tsivilikas * Kontres 1991-1995 (original Greek version of Family Feud) hosted by Vlassis Bonatsos * Rantevou sta Tyfla 1991-1998 **1991-1996 hosted by Vasia Trifili **1996-1998 hosted by Isavella Vlasiadou * Mega Banca Show 1992-1995 (Greek version of Bob's Full House / Trump Card) hosted by Giorgos Polixroniou * To Megalo Pazari 1992-1995 (Greek version of Let's Make a Deal) hosted by Andreas Mikroutsikos * Rouk Zouk 1994-1997 (Greek version of Bruce Forsyth's Hot Streak / Ruck Zuck) hosted by Mary Miliaresi * Risko 1995-1997 (Greek version of Wipeout) hosted by Giorgos Polixroniou * H Agora tou Aiona 1997 (Greek revival of Sale of the Century) hosted by Mary Miliaresi * Kontra Plake 1995-1999 (revived/remade Greek version of Family Feud) hosted by Spyros Papadopoulos * Vres ti Frasi 1998-2001 (Greek version of Catch Phrase) **1998-2000 hosted by Miltos Makridis **2000-2001 hosted by Joyce Evidi * Poios Thelei Na Ginei Ekatommyriouxos 1999-2002 (Greek version of Who Wants To Be A Millionaire) hosted by Spyros Papadopoulos * O Pio Adunamos Krikos 1999-2002 (Greek version of The Weakest Link) hosted by Elena Akrita * Taxi Girl 2006-2010 (Greek Version of Cash Cab) hosted by Vicky Stavropoulou * Eisodimatias 2007-2009 hosted by Grigoris Arnaoutoglou * Power of 10 2008-2009 (Greek version of the American game show of the same name) hosted by Konstantinos Markoulakis * H Ekdikisi tis Ksanthias 2008-2009 hosted by Giorgos Liagas * Fifty Fifty 2010-2011 hosted by Giorgos Liagas * Money Drop 2010-2011 (Greek version of the British game show The Million Pound Drop) hosted by Grigoris Arnaoutoglou * 1,000,000 yien 2020-2021 (Gameshow, hosted by Smaragda Karidi) ==Entertainment== * Akouna Matata 1998-1999 hosted by Christos Ferentinos, who travels around Greece talking to the local people * Omorfos Kosmos 2002-2003 hosted by Grigoris Arnaoutoglou; the show has the same concept as Ferentinos' show Akouna Matata * Backstage 2003-2006 - news and information about the world of show biz. Features the latest from TV, movies, music, fashion, nightlife and more hosted by Giorgos Satsidis * I Love TV 2004-2006 - a variety show with guests from all avenues of entertainment, from singers to dancers to athletes to actors, hosted by Fotis Sergoulopoulos and Maria Mpakodimou * Prive 2004-2006 - a talk show featuring interviews with famous stars hosted by Elena Katritsi * Oi Kipouroi tou Mega 2010-2011 - a show hosted by Makis Tsokas, Giannis Panayiotopoulos and Sotiris Vrettos about gardening ==Reality/talent shows== * Na I Eukairia 1989-2003 - talent show **1989-1990 hosted by Sofia Aliberti **2001-2002 hosted by Eva Kotanidi **2002-2003 hosted by Aleka Kamila * Bar 2001-2002 - reality show hosted by Miltos Makridis * Popstars 2002-2003 - Greek version of the talent show * H Farma 2002-2004 - reality show **2002-2003 hosted by Grigoris Arnaoutoglou **2003-2004 hosted by Hlias Valasis * Party 2003-2004 - reality show hosted by Katerina Laspa * Super Idol 2003-2004 - Greek version of the talent show Pop Idol, hosted by Themis Georgantas * Survivor 2002-2007 - Greek version of the famous reality show **2002-2004 hosted by Grigoris Arnaoutoglou **2006-2007 hosted by Konstantinos Markoulakis * So You Think You Can Dance 2006-2008 - Greek version of the talent show hosted by Vicky Kaya * MasterChef Greece 2010-2012 - Greek version of the cooking show ** 2010-2011 hosted by Eugenia Manolidou **2011-2012 hosted by Mary Sinatsaki * Just the Two of Us 2010-2011 and 2013-2014 - Greek version of the reality singing contest hosted by Giorgos Kapoutzidis * Junior MasterChef Greece 2011-2012 - Greek version of the cooking show hosted by Maria Bekatorou ==Night shows== * Alla Kolpa 1994-1996 hosted by Vlassis Bonatsos * Bravo 1994-2000 hosted by Roula Koromila * Oti Kalutero 1998-2000 hosted by Anna Drouza * Apo Stoma Se Stoma 2003-2004 hosted by Fotis Sergoulopoulos and Maria Mpakodimou * Zo Ena Drama 2004-2005 hosted by Takis Zaharatos * Poly tin Kyriaki 2005-2007 hosted by Grigoris Arnaouroglou **2005-2006 co-hosted by Marietta Chrousala **2006-2007 co-hosted by Kalomoira *Sto spiti me to Mega (We stay at home) (March 2020-2022) == Sports == * Coppa Italia (final only in 2019–20) * FA Cup (from quarter finals in 2019–20) * Taça de Portugal (final only in 2019–20) *UEFA Champions League (2021-2024) *UEFA Super Cup (2021-2024) == Comedy == *Cheers *Full House *Home Improvement *I Dream of Jeannie *The Muppet Show *The Nanny *Roseanne == Children's/animated == *101 Dalmatians: The Series *The Adventures of Tintin *Aladdin *Bonkers *Buzz Lightyear of Star Command *Doug *Extreme Ghostbusters *Godzilla: The Series *Honey, I Shrunk the Kids: The TV Show *Jackie Chan Adventures *Kidd Video *Max Steel *My Little Pony *Rurouni Kenshin *Saban's Adventures of the Little Mermaid *Samurai Pizza Cats *Teen Angel Returns *The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh *The Real Ghostbusters *The Smurfs *The Spectacular Spider-Man *The Weekenders *Timon & Pumbaa *Tiny Toon Adventures == Drama/mystery == *Dallas *Dynasty *General Hospital *Santa Barbara ==See also== *Mega Channel ==References== ==External links== Mega Channel Mega Channel |
thumbnail|400px|right|The first South Sudanese stamps on a cover from Juba to Canada cancelled 26 August 2011. The Republic of South Sudan became independent on 9 July 2011 from Sudan and issued its first stamps on 13 July 2011. Only almost three months later, on 4 October 2011, did South Sudan become a member of the Universal Postal Union (UPU). Before independence, South Sudan used stamps issued by Sudan. The Directorate of Postal Services of the Ministry of Telecommunication and Postal Services is responsible for postal affairs in South Sudan.information provided by the official website of the Government of South Sudan (GoSS) ==Postage stamps since independence== ===First stamps=== right|thumb|The coat of arms of South Sudan. The first postage stamps for South Sudan were issued on 13 July 2011 by the Ministry of Telecommunications and Postal ServicesSouth Sudan announces new currency, country code, and stamps (July 14, 2011) Retrieved 11 October 2011 and should have featured the flag of South Sudan on the one South Sudanese Pound (SSP) stamp, the coat of arms of South Sudan on the 2.5 SSP stamp, and an image of John Garang, the pre-independence leader, on the 3.5 SSP stamp. Unfortunately, however, the wrong coat of arms for South Sudan appeared on the 2.5 SSP stamp, with the eagle looking to the right instead of the left, while it carries two spears instead of one spear and one spade, therefore, it was decided not to issue this stamp, but only the ones of 1 SSP and 3.5 SSP. This first set of stamps was a gift from the People's Republic of China, and was designed and printed in China by Beijing Security Printers. The official hand-over to the Ministry by the Chinese Chargé d'Affaires in South Sudan took place on 11 July 2011. A set of three envelopes carrying a Chinese stamp and either the 1 SSP, 2.5 SSP or 3.5 SSP stamp were also officially handed over by the Chinese delegation. This special cover is in commemoration of the establishment of the diplomatic relations between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of South Sudan on 9 July 2011.commemorative cover issued by the China National Philatelic Corporation, ref. no. PFTN WJ2011-8 Both special cancellation seals, and the one for South Sudan and the one of China, are dated Saturday 9 July 2011, reflecting the originally foreseen day of issue on the day of the declaration of Independence of South Sudan. The few 2.5 SSP stamps on the philatelic market are from the few full sets of the commemorative covers, while some singles are also available, which were reportedly sent out by Beijing Security Printers to some of their clients as samples. The set is currently in high demand, with a complete set of three reaching hundreds of US dollars on internet auction sites. "South Sudan £2.50 Coat of Arms stamp in strong demand" in Linn's Stamp News June 2018, https://www.linns.com/news/world-stamps-postal-history/2018/june/south-sudan- coat-of-arms-stamp.html ===Later stamps=== The release of a second permanent set of stamps was planned for 9 July 2012, the first anniversary of independence. Due to financial austerity measures and for other reasons, the set was released late.Bill Barclay, The Republic's 2nd Permanent Set of Stamps, in The South Sudan Philatelic Society Newsletter, 2nd Issue, March 2013 The set consists of 6 stamps with values of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 SSP, showing birds, wildlife and the national coat of arms. Only the four lowest values were released initially to the public.see e.g Lawrence Cohen "South Sudan Nation Without Postcards" pp. 1024 - 1027 in American Philatelist, November 2013. Mr. Cohen reported that in April 2013 he was only able to buy the denominations of 1, 2 and 10 SSP of the new postage stamp set from the post master of the main Juba Post Office All stamps include reference to the “First Anniversary of Independence 9 July 2012”. Details on the animals depicted on the different stamps are as follows: * 1 SSP : Shoe-billed Stork (Balaeniceps rex); * 2 SSP : Bearded Vulture or ‘Lammergeier’ (Gypaetus barbatus); note, however, the typo on the stamp which reads 'Lammengeier' with an 'n' instead of an 'r'; * 5 SSP : Saddled Bill or Saddle-billed Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis); * 10 SSP : Nile Lechwe (Kobus megaceros), additional text on stamp: “Only Found in South Sudan”; * 20 SSP : text on stamp states “White-Eared Kob Found in South Sudan in Greatest Migrating Numbers”, but the picture shows actually an Eland Antelope (Taurotragus oryx), in particular note the distinctive hump on the shoulders and hanging skin between the legs; * 50 SSP : Coat of arms including a stylized picture of the African Fish Eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer). In a number of the 10 SSP sheetlets (Nile Lechwe) a printing flaw occurs in the third stamp on the second row, with a clear yellowish spot in the red background color above the white value identification. An unissued second set of two postage stamps was planned to commemorate the occasion of the official state visit of President Salva Kiir to the People's Republic of China, 23 – 25 April 2012. The set, a gift of China to South Sudan like the first issue, consists of a 1 SSP stamp depicting the flags of both South Sudan and China, and a 3.5 SSP bearing a portrait of President Kiir wearing his trade-mark Stetson. An identical portrait was also used on a commemorative cover issued on this occasion by the China National Philatelic Corporation.commemorative cover issued by the China National Philatelic Corporation, ref. no. PFTN WJ2012-18 The same flags can be found on a special presentation folder commemorating the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and South Sudan in 2011. Due to a border conflict which broke out with Sudan, the state visit was cut shortCNN, April 26, 2012: South Sudan president cuts short trip to China amid dispute with Sudan http://edition.cnn.com/2012/04/25/world/africa/sudans-conflict/index.html and the official hand-over of the postage stamp set was cancelled. The stamps were purportedly handed over to the President's entourage and later stored at the Office of the President in Juba. They were reportedly never handed over to the Ministry of Information, Communications Technology and Postal Services or the postal authorities and presumably remain stored in the President's office.see Facebook page ”South Sudan Stamp Collectors”, contribution of 17 December 2017 On 15 September 2017 South Sudan Post started to sell surcharged overprints on the 1 SSP National Flag and the 3.5 SSP Dr John Garang of the 1st postage stamp issue of 2011 and on the 1, 2 and 5 SSP Birds of the 2nd set of 2012/2013. Because of the rampant inflation of the South Sudanese Pound, new increased postal rates have been proposed and in line with those proposals new, increased face-values. The lower values of the 1st and 2nd issues were withdrawn late 2016 and subsequently overprinted with the new surcharged values based on the needs according to the proposed new postal rates.Bill Barclay and Leo van der Velden in September 2017 on the South Sudan Stamp Collectors page on Facebook; see also entries on the South Sudan surcharge varieties in Commonwealth Stamps Opinion #1171, 1 February 2018 https://commonwealthstampsopinion.blogspot.nl/2018/02/1171-surcharge- varieties-of-south-sudan.html On 21 July 2020 South Sudan released a new stamp issue commemorating the health workers assisting in the fight against the Covid-19 pandemic. The new stamp series titled "Struggle against Covid-19 Pandemic: Tribute to healthcare personnel" is a joint issue with a number of other African postal services based on a common design depicting a medical crew surrounding planet Earth as a protective layer. The whole form suggests the coronavirus shape. The South Sudan issue was designed by the South Sudan Stamp Committee under the chairmanship of the South Sudan designer Mr. Stanislaus Tombe Felix, using some design features of that joint theme. The set has six face values: 50, 100, 200, 300, 500 and 1000 SSP and one souvenir sheet with face value 1000 SSP. For both the set as well as the souvenir sheet an official FDC has been made available for the first time. Commonwealth Stamps Opinion no. 1706 dated 21 July 2020 http://commonwealthstampsopinion.blogspot.com/2020/07/1706-south-sudans- covid-19-stamps.html; see also the Facebook page "South Sudan Stamp Collectors" of 21 July 2020. ==Postal covers and other postal items== thumb|August 2011 cover with mixed franking sent from Renk (with Malakal cancellation) to the Netherlands| left In the first months after Independence of South Sudan on 9 July 2011 and the start of selling of their own first stamps of the Republic of South Sudan to the public a few days later, the South Sudan postal authorities were also still selling their stock of stamps of Sudan, resulting in covers with mixed franking (see illustration). ==Revenue stamps== South Sudan is also using postage stamps for other than postage usage. For instance, the application fees for a post office box, 5 SSP, is paid in the form of five 1 SSP stamps, pasted on the application form itself. The central Government of South Sudan, however, has not issued any national revenue stamps. Only Central Equatoria State is known to have issued its own state revenue stamps, which are used on certain documents issued by the state, like Age Assessment Certificates. Central Equatoria State has been using also after independence of South Sudan the old three revenue stamps of 1, 2 and 5 SDG (Sudanese Pound) with text in English and Arabic, used with a 1 to 1 parity to the SSP. All three values have been re-issued in SSP in 2014 or 2015.L. van der Velden & H. Krieg, Stempelmarken des Südsudan, in: ArGe Fiskalphilatelie Heft 61 2016/1, pp23-27 ==Post offices in independent South Sudan== thumb|upright|Old style postal cancellation still used in independent South Sudan At the time of the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) between Khartoum and the SPLM/SPLA in Nairobi on 9 January 2005, only the post offices in the four garrison towns of Juba, Wau, Malakal and Renk remained open, but they hardly functioned. Dozens of post offices and agencies were closed during the second civil war in the South between 1983 and 2005. A complete listing of post offices and agencies which existed in Southern Sudan can be found in the booklet Post Offices and Postal Agencies of the Sudan 1867 -1998.Stock, Richard. (ed.) (1999) Post Offices and Postal Agencies of the Sudan 1867 -1998. The Sudan Study Group. The first of the closed post offices to be officially re-opened was in Torit (capital of Eastern Equatoria State) in 2010, followed on 5 July 2011 by the post office of Yambio (Western Equatoria State), on 25 July 2012 by the post office of Yei., on 20 February 2013 the PO of Maridi, a month later on 28 March 2013 the PO in Rumbek, the capital of Lakes State and two days later the PO in Aweil, the capital of Northern Bahr el Ghazal State.Gurtong 31 March 2013: Aweil Postal Office officially opened It has been reported that the post office of Kaya in Central Equatoria has also re-opened already in October 2010, but became operational only some time later, with only one post officer. ==Collecting South Sudanese stamps== thumb|left|upright|New type of postal cancellation South Sudan entered the world of stamp-issuing countries in July 2011 with a design error already in its first issue and the subsequent withdrawal of that 2.5 SSP stamp. This was followed by a set of stamps, which was designed and proof printed, but never issued, although a few sets are available at internet auction sites. The second set officially issued also has a design error, the 20 SSP stamp shows a picture of an Eland Antelope, but the text on the stamp refers to the White-Eared Kob. It is difficult to collect stamps of South Sudan, because the routing of international mail via the postal authorities in Sudan ceased in April 2012 with the discontinuation of the direct flights between Juba and Khartoum, there has been no international mail connection.Bakhita Radio, 7 May 2012, 'Juba-Khartoum flight ban stops postal services to South Sudan' No independent postal exchange office has yet been established, although the Directorate of Postal Services intended to sign an agreement with Ethiopian Airlines and Kenyan Airlines early 2012 to carry mail abroad in order to be independent of northern Sudan, but this didn't materialize. As a consequence, it is almost impossible to reach them by mail, although some incoming international mail arrivessee Lawrence Cohen "South Sudan Nation Without Postcards" pp. 1024 - 1027 in American Philatelist, November 2013. via EthiopiaBakhita Radio, 7 May 2012, 'Juba-Khartoum flight ban stops postal services to South Sudan'; the acting Director General of Postal Services Francis Apaya is quoted as saying that some mail was arriving directly from Ethiopia and lately especially via Kenya, while the postal authorities has no agreement with any international stamp agency for the marketing of its stamps. The South Sudan Philatelic Society is a philatelic society interested in South Sudan philately, that so far has published two issues of its newsletter and since September 2017 there is a Facebook group "South Sudan Stamp Collectors". ==See also== *List of people on stamps of Sudan *Postage stamps and postal history of Sudan ==References== Category:Communications in South Sudan Category:Philately of Sudan |
thumb| This article lists characters from the animated series American Dad!. ==Voice cast== Cast members Cast members Cast members Cast members Cast members Cast members Cast members 150x150px 150x150px 150x150px|upright 150x150px 150x150px|upright 150x150px|upright Seth MacFarlane Wendy Schaal Scott Grimes Rachael MacFarlane Dee Bradley Baker Jeff Fischer Patrick Stewart Stan Smith, Roger Francine Smith Steve Smith Hayley Smith Klaus Heisler, Rogu Jeff Fischer Deputy Director Avery Bullock The voice actors are not assembled as a group when performing the lines of their characters; rather, each of the voice actors perform their lines privately. The voice actors have stated that because of their personalities and tendency to goof off when together as a group, they would never get anything completed if they performed their lines collectively. ==Appearances== Character Voice actor Appearances 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Main characters Stan Smith Seth MacFarlane colspan="21" Roger Smith colspan="21" Francine Smith Wendy Schaal colspan="21" Steve Smith Scott Grimes colspan="21" Hayley Smith Rachael MacFarlane colspan="21" Ace "Klaus Heisler" McNasty Dee Bradley Baker colspan="21" Rogu Smith colspan="14" colspan="6" Jeff Fischer Jeff Fischer colspan="7" colspan="14" Deputy Director Avery Bullock Patrick Stewart colspan="5" colspan="2" colspan="12" ==Main characters== ===Stan Smith=== Stanford Leonard "Stan" Smith (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the title character on American Dad! who has an exaggeratedly masculine voice and manner about him. Stan is Francine's husband and Hayley and Steve's father. Hayley may or may not be Stan's biological daughter since Francine revealed to have cheated on Stan at a bachelorette party in the episode "The Kidney Stays in the Picture", but Stan regards Hayley as his daughter. As the Smith family breadwinner, Stan is a CIA agent. Early on in the series, Stan was exaggeratedly patriotic and Conservative. His character, however, has progressed over the course of the series from the ultra right-wing it had been. All the same however, Stan has proven to be drastic and extreme in numerous other ways beyond politics. He is often shown rashly taking extreme measures in ways that are conspicuously destructive, disastrous, and life- threatening to others. Making his extreme-measure taking worse, Stan is utterly inconsiderate and insensitive, thus he does not stop to think of how others are negatively impacted, nor does he care. As examples of this: in the episode "Dope & Faith" when Stan found out one of his friends was an atheist, he tried getting him to pray by blowing up his home, spreading the bird flu at his restaurant, brainwashing his wife into thinking she was a lesbian, and taking his kids away; in the episode "I Can't Stan You," Stan evicted his entire neighborhood and his own family just for overhearing some of his neighbors gossiping about him behind his back; in the episode "Four Little Words," Stan framed his wife as a murderer all so as not to hear her say the words "I told you so"; etc. Not a stranger to going to any and all lengths to achieve his desired ends—even to the point of shamelessly harming others—Stan is characterized as very dog-eat-dog. Aside from his thoughtlessly drastic and endangering behaviors, he has an endearing. kinder, and sensitive side as well. It has been revealed that he very much desires fatherly love and attention but has always lacked this. Stan's parents separated when he was very young (later learned because of Stan himself in the episode "Blood Crieth Unto Heaven"); thus he has a father (Jack Smith) who was not around much and mistreated him. ===Francine Smith=== Francine Lee Smith (née Ling, voiced by Wendy Schaal) is Stan's wife and the mother of Steve and Hayley. Indignant, Francine can usually be seen nagging and scolding her family (particularly Stan) over their wrongdoings. Francine often nags at her family to uphold certain virtues and over any unwholesome or reprehensible behaviors they engage in. Ironically, it is mostly in the midst of all her moralizing and urging others to do the right thing that she demonstrates blatant inappropriateness, indecorum, and inelegance. Sporadically while engaged in moralizing others, Francine will randomly throw in remarks and behaviors that are in bad taste and lack all propriety. Adding to her paradoxical nature, Francine's behaviors have been known to become downright immoral and sometimes even fiendish, all the while trying to get others to live more wholesomely and do what is right. For example, in the episode "The Boring Identity," Francine made efforts to get Stan to be a more civilized and respectable husband. In the process, she deceived him into thinking he was an entirely different person after he got struck with amnesia. Another example, in the episode "Can I Be Frank With You," Francine was disgruntled by the fact that she and Stan were not a closer couple. To achieve this, she encroached in on Stan's guys' night using a male disguise that could fart for extended periods of time. Francine has also been shown to have a randomly wacky and peculiar side. For example, in the episode "The Scarlett Getter," while Francine was engaged in an angry rant about Stan, she stated "Those two are stuck on each other like gum on a hot summer sidewalk on a summer afternoon. I'm sorry, I'm taking a creative writing class." ===Hayley Smith=== Hayley Dreamsmasher Smith–Fischer (voiced by Rachael MacFarlane) is Stan and Francine's new-age hippie daughter and college-aged oldest and the sister of Steve. As revealed in the episode "The Kidney Stays in the Picture," she may or may not be Stan's biological daughter, Francine revealed to have cheated on Stan at a bachelorette party; nonetheless, Stan regards her as his daughter. One to stand up for her beliefs, Hayley is passionate, insistent and vocal in her convictions. In mentality, she is portrayed as Liberal, what was originally intended to be the antithesis to her father's ultra-conservative mentality. These character traits were particularly emphasized in the show's beginnings back when Hayley was a focal character in the program; however, they were heavily toned down after early seasons. Intuitive and insightful, Hayley is able to instinctively grasp the hidden, inner, and obscure nature of situations. As examples, in the episode "Stan Knows Best", she is able to see through Stan's disguise as a Russian communist, and instantly upon entering the room in the episode "Finger Lenting Good," Hayley realizes what Stan and Steve are up to in trying to get Jeff to hug them so as to lose his finger for engaging in a vice. As another example, in the episode "Da Flippity Flop" when the essence of Klaus has entered Stan's body and taken control over it, he attempts to deceive Hayley and Francine into thinking he is truly Stan; however, Hayley instantaneously and lackadaisically acknowledges that it is Klaus. Hayley can also be casually rude and insulting, particularly towards her brother, Steve. Several story arcs have been used with regards to Hayley's romantic relationship to Jeff. Back when the two were dating, they had several breakups. In one of their breakups, Hayley dated an urban black man in a koala body (Reginald the Koala) across a string of episodes. Since then, Hayley has married Jeff but continues to live under her parents' roof. ===Steve Smith=== Steven Anita "Steve" Smith (voiced by Scott Grimes) is the baby of the family and sometimes middle child who is Stan and Francine's high-school aged son and the brother of Hayley. He attends Pearl Bailey High School. There have been three versions of the "Steve" character over the course of American Dad! The first version was a one-off execution limited to the unaired precursory pilot (not to be confused with the season premiere episode entitled "Pilot"). This original version of Steve stood out as most contrasting and atypical, particularly in appearance and voice. In this precursor pilot, he was voiced by Ricky Blitt. Here, he was much nerdier, gawkier, and scrawnier than his later versions. By the series premiere, Scott Grimes began voicing the character. Also by the series premiere, Steve became taller, thicker, manlier and more mature than before, though still nerdy. By Steve's third design, he was made softer, more emotional, cuter, and more endearing than before. Despite his wimpy and nerdy characteristics, Steve is particularly conceited and obnoxious. Along with this, he often proves to be a showman, always ready to put on a performance and show off his abilities, often singing-wise. Steve shows great ambition and enthusiasm for his various interests and pursuits. He possesses a keen interest in the opposite sex and has had an obese girlfriend, Debbie, who Stan disapproved of. Steve's relationship with his father is strained with Stan often behaving judgmentally and intolerantly over Steve's nerdiness, immaturity, and sensitivity. Steve has been known to cop attitude, sometimes rightfully so at Stan over his offensive acts. Steve has three best friends: Snot (with whom he shares a bromance), Toshi, and Barry. ===Roger Smith=== Roger Smith (voiced by Seth MacFarlane impersonating Paul Lynde) is the very zany pansexual alien who lives in the Smith family's attic. Blithely so, Roger is depraved, devious, and cruel. He typically exhibits a lighthearted, carefree temperament while also engaged in his freakish grossness, outrageous malice, and rascally shenanigans. Having no limits on his shocking and brazen ways, Roger typically says and does anything and everything that comes to his mind. Initially being banned by the family from going into the public and often being depressive because of that in early episodes, Roger later begins to be shown to assume different aliases and has a carousel of seemingly endless costumes, which allows him to do almost everything he wants. Everyone outside the Smith family is fooled by his disguises, and each family member has a persona that they do not see through. ===Klaus Heissler=== Klaus Heissler (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker in a German accent) is the Smith family's hapless and saturnine goldfish. He is consultative and full of sage advice, sometimes even wearing glasses and taking on a scholarly appearance. Klaus was once an East German Olympic ski-jumper until his mind was transferred into the body of a goldfish during the 1986 Winter Olympics by the CIA to prevent him from winning the gold medal, leaving him permanently trapped in the goldfish's body. Klaus has yet to come to terms with what happened, at times malcontent and gloomy. Not confined to his fishbowl, Klaus is often seen uniquely scooting himself about the Smith residence, reclined in a glass of water. In these moments, it is only his very lower back that is actually in the water. In the early going, Klaus had an obsessive crush on Francine and often made sexual advances at her. For much of the series discounting its beginnings, the Smith family and particularly Roger have been shown to treat Klaus with disdain, take him for granted, and even mistreat him. Ironically, Klaus started out on the series as a bully, known for his ridicule and cruel teasing of all the show's main characters, particularly Roger. ===Jeff Fischer=== Jeff Fischer (voiced by Jeff Fischer) is Hayley's slacker, mellow, hippie, henpecked, often stoned boyfriend and later husband. An unemployed high school dropout with no apparent skills, or employment motivation, he is emasculated, weak-willed, pathetic and frequently behaves naively. Jeff is often shown to be infatuated with Hayley's mother, Francine, having made subtle passes at her on many occasions. Jeff's own mother abandoned him early on, giving birth to him in a van, within which he lives until moving in with the Smiths. His relationship with his father, Henry, is abysmal, with Henry viewing and treating Jeff as a failure. Before moving in with the Smiths, Jeff lived from his van, which he had parked in front of the Smiths' residence when he started dating Hayley. In the episode "Joint Custody" however, Jeff moves in with the Smiths as a result of Stan having a demolition crew crush his van into smithereens with a wrecking ball. Stan effected this in an effort to get Jeff away from his [Stan] property. Throughout the series, Hayley repeatedly dumps Jeff for being a needy, clingy pushover, leaving Jeff crushed until their inevitable reconciliations. In the show's one-hundredth episode, the two finally marry. In the episode "Naked to the Limit, One More Time", Jeff learns that Roger is an alien. Because of this, Stan informs that he must kill either Roger or Jeff to protect his family. Roger, however, informs that he will call his fellow aliens to take him back to his birth planet; however, Roger surprise chucks Jeff into the spaceship while he stays behind on Earth. In the Season 9 episode "Lost in Space", Jeff escapes from an alien spaceship and starts to make his way back to Earth. In a Season 10 episode "Longest Distance Relationship," Jeff is able to communicate with Hayley through a CB radio and discovers a way to return to earth through a wormhole. Jeff and Sinbad's Ghost arrive 60 years in the future and learns that he cost her a chance to have a great life with Millionaire Matt Davis. Unhappy with having upset the family and giving the elderly Hayley a heart attack, he and Sinbad's Ghost return through the wormhole. Jeff tells the again-young Hayley to move on with her life. In the season 12 episode "Holy Shit, Jeff's Back!", it is revealed that Jeff was killed by aliens and his body dissected, before an alien disguised as Jeff is sent to Earth to capture Stan. The alien later has Jeff's brain planted into his body so he can remain on Earth with Hayley as Jeff. In the episode "Portrait of Francine's Genitals", Jeff revealed he took Hayley's last name, making him Jeff Smith, though is contradicted in the episode "Downtown", Later in the season, in the episode "Roger's Baby", Jeff is reborn as a human, via Roger eating his brain and rebirthing him. In the season 19 episode "Book of Fischer", Jeff writes in a sketchbook to remember his thoughts but later leaves the book in the freezer and forgets it. In The Future, His sketchbook is discovered and a religion gets formed out of it. ===Rogu Smith=== Rogu (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) – A homunculus that formed from Roger's tumor in "Persona Assistant" and since then lives in the Smith house. Roger treats him like a son, and he often acts as his alien father's sidekick and assistant. Rogu has an omnivore diet, strange bodily functions and abilities like Roger, and speaks in slow, simplistic English. ===Steve's best friends=== thumb|Steve's friend group. From left to right: Toshi, Snot, Barry and Steve. * Schmuley "Snot" Lonstein (voiced by Curtis Armstrong) – Steve's best friend with whom he shares a bromance. Snot is a mustached and acne-covered Jew. He is physically modeled after his voice actor's character's appearance from the movie Revenge of the Nerds, as Dudley "Booger" Dawson. Since Snot was a toddler and throughout much of the series, he had a crush on Hayley; however, in "The Missing Kink", when Hayley finally succumbed to Snot's advances and began to desire him romantically, Snot lost interest in her and deceived her into thinking he was gay, claiming it was the act of pursuing her that aroused him. He speaks Klingon, and can read Quenya. Like Steve, he has a fetish for octogenarian women. His parents are poor, as they could not afford a bar mitzvah celebration, although Steve pays for one in an attempt to apologize when he is falsely accused of theft. His parents have him see a therapist who is implied to engage with him inappropriately and romantically. Steve reveals that his father left Snot's family and may have been abusive towards his mother. He is generally considered Steve's best friend but is quite fickle in this role, having cheated with Steve's girlfriends and pelted him with apples during a period where Steve was in a brace for scoliosis in order to gain social acceptance. When Snot and Steve were younger, they solved mysteries together. He refused to help Steve figure out the mystery, as he quit when "the case of the missing bike horn turned into a double rape homicide". Snot appears to be the least eccentric member of Steve's clique. It is also revealed in the episode "Wiener of our Discontent" that he can somewhat understand Toshi. Toshi exclaims "Oh, my God", and Snot replies "I think you mean 'oh, my Godzilla'." * Toshi Yoshida (voiced by Daisuke Suzuki) – Steve's Japanese American sansei friend. Though he can understand English perfectly, he always speaks Japanese with subtitles. A running gag is everyone misunderstanding Toshi, assuming he has said something completely different from or opposite to what he has actually said. Toshi studies Russian in order to impress an attractive mail order bride named Svetlana in "Of Ice and Men". He is mischievous, and sometimes, cruel and anti-American. Toshi has expressed the desire to kill Steve as his greatest wish, and he claims to have killed before. Toshi used a katana to kill a group of serial murderers who were chasing the Smith family in "Best Little Horror House in Langley Falls". Toshi has demonstrated that he is the only character outside the Smith family able to see through Roger's disguises, describing him as "the alien in the wig". Toshi has a sister named Akiko, who acts as a translator. Despite his apparent inability to speak English, his mother, father, and sister speak fluent English (with his mother even mentioning that she does not even know Japanese). However, in "A Roger Story", he revealed that he does in fact speak fluent English and has the whole time. Toshi spoke English for the first time in the series in the episode "A Piñata Named Desire" after Snot angrily smacked him and demanded that he learn English. He attempted to say "Eat my balls!", but his heavy accent resulted in it sounding like "Eat my bowls!", which was reflected in the subtitles. He later sang part of "Yah Mo B There" by James Ingram and Michael McDonald on the episode "Home Wrecker". Additionally he briefly spoke English in the episode "Independent Movie" when he asked Steve, Snot, and Barry to leave him alone in a corn field during a soul searching session. Toshi also sings in English while part of the band B12 in season 8's "Can I Be Frank (With You)." * Barry Robinson (voiced by Eddie Kaye Thomas for his normal voice, Craig Ferguson for his evil voice) – Steve's morbidly obese friend, who has an inarticulate, strident, and sloppy vocal quality. Stan disdains Barry, often impulsively yelling insults at him about his weight without even knowing why. Like Snot, Barry can speak Klingon and seems to be able to read Quenya. Barry apparently has a fetish for Miss Piggy. His borderline mentally retarded and innocent personality is the result of powerful anti-psychotic pills. In "With Friends Like Steve's" after stopping his medication regimen, Barry turns into a deranged and demonic mastermind, speaking in a low-pitched voice "like Gary Oldman", framing Steve for the destruction of Stan's beloved commemorative plates. Barry did this in an attempt to replace Steve within his immediate family. Barry's madness grows worse over the episode, culminating with him trying to eliminate everyone that might get between himself and Stan. Steve ultimately tricks Barry into taking his medication, reverting him to his usual self. This facet of his personality is hinted at when he helps Snot and Toshi beat up a drugged Steve and screams that they should kill Steve's whole family. Barry describes his parents as ignorant and implies that they engage in bondage sex play and smoke pot. Other statements about his parents imply that they abuse him or are negligent, making him sleep in their basement and often forgetting he is their son (and that they even have a son). He has a cameo appearance in the fat camp in the episode "Killer Queen" of the sitcom Family Guy. ===Other main characters=== * Avery Bullock (voiced by Patrick Stewart) – A Deputy Director of the CIA and Stan's depraved, eccentric, and erratic 58-year-old boss. While somewhat less paranoid and usually more competent, he is as high strung as Stan and, more often than not, is even less moral in his actions and authority. He is also the user of many recreational drugs, and often engages in sexual fetishes. For instance, in the episode "Death By Dinner Party" he tells Roger that drugs helps him think. He had a brief relationship with Hayley Smith, which almost cost Stan his job until Hayley left Avery for her old boyfriend. He was married, but his wife Miriam was once held hostage in Fallujah where she was hand-cuffed to a radiator as he "does not negotiate with terrorists." She was later rescued by Stan, but was eventually killed by one of Roger's personas. Bullock prefers the company of younger, "plump Asian" women (as he sings about girl fantasies). Many jokes are built around Avery giving respected Shakespearean actor Patrick Stewart the most unlikely scenes and lines, such as a Seussian rhyme about all the things that can be purchased at a strip club, an energetic two-hour banjo session, singing "Little Girls" by Oingo Boingo while dressed in a woman's robe, and jokes referring to Stewart's prominent role as Star Trek: The Next Generation captain Jean-Luc Picard. A recurring joke is that Bullock runs the CIA like kindergarten, with time-outs, show-and-tell, snack time, and field trips. In "Bullocks to Stan", during the fight scene at the end of the episode, there is a joke referring to Star Trek, however, this is hidden by Klaus' commentary (though the joke was revealed during the actual DVD commentary for the episode). Bullock appears in the Family Guy episode "Lois Kills Stewie" where he and Stan attempt to stop Stewie at gunpoint. The character is drawn identically to Stewart's appearance as himself on Family Guy. * Principal Brian Lewis (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) – The principal of Pearl Bailey High School which Steve and his friends attend. Portrayed as an aggressive borderline psychotic with a checkered past, he displays a multitude of violent tendencies and a flippant attitude, and his dedication to the school is questionable. When Steve is the Student Body President, he commandeers Principal Lewis' office, as the student body president is entitled to secure any school grounds he needs. Lewis does not mind, since in doing this Steve proves that he can read and that the system works. He later allows Stan to teach a "morally upright" sexual education class, but only Steve is signed up for it. Lewis is a member of the "Illuminutty" – an organization revolving around a supposed conspiracy involving the invention of peanut butter. When presented with a tip that Steve is in possession of narcotics, he displays detailed knowledge of the source of the drugs and the method of "cutting" them, and concludes that a specific drug lord named Esteban Montilla is back in business; he tells Steve to tell Esteban that El Lobo Negrón (which translates to "The Black Wolf") sends his regards. Lewis keeps $500 hanging out of his pocket to make the students think he is rich. He has taken part in war reenactments, including a Vietnam War reenactment. In "100 A.D.", Principal Lewis is among the characters that pursue Hayley and Jeff for the bounty that Stan offers. In the episode "Naked To The Limit, One More Time" it is implied that Lewis is a drug dealer. In the scene, he shoots both men paying for the drugs, then takes the plane they flew in on and flies off. Steve just says, "False alarm, it’s just my principal." In "You Debt Your Life", Lewis explicitly states that he used to run cocaine. This statement is accidentally made over the school PA system. Lewis' questionable past is often the source of comedy and subplots for the show, such as when Lewis is shown to own an aquarium shop in addition to being a principal. Lewis' family was apparently the inspiration for the sitcom Diff'rent Strokes, with Brian Lewis himself being the inspiration for Arnold, according to the episode "The Worst Stan". ==Secondary characters== ===Smith family relatives=== ====Stan's relatives==== * Jack Smith (voiced by Daran Norris) – The abusive, neglectful, deceitful, and opportunistic father of Stan and Rusty Smith and the paternal grandfather of Steve and Hayley. For most of his life, Stan believed his father to be a secret agent but, in reality, he was a jewel thief. After the man Stan paid to pretend to be his father died, "Grandpa Smith" (the real Jack) dropped in on the family. Roger developed a "boy crush" on Jack but the other family members were wary of him. Roger goes so far as to dress like him and keeps Francine locked in a cage because Jack put her in there. Jack has black hair, sports an eyepatch on his left eye (based on the traditional look of Marvel Comics' super-spy Nick Fury), but otherwise resembles his son Stan. Roger compares him to Kurt Russell's character Snake Plissken from Escape from New York and Escape from L.A.. Jack's second appearance is a single line of him being heard but not seen in a flashback to Stan's childhood where he asks his father to read to him. Jack replies with a single line "Who the hell are you?" Jack makes his third appearance in a flashback showing him running out on Stan and his mother. : Jack makes his fourth appearance in which Steve decides to visit him in his jail. When it is discovered that Stan never learned to ride a bicycle because his father was not there for him at the moments of need, Steve decides to reconcile them both by making Stan visit the jail where Jack is passing his sentence. After the latter one is released on Stan's parole, Klaus suggests the three of them should go camping as an act of reuniting Stan with his own father. It turns out to be a bad idea as Stan soon finds out that Jack is using his grandson to appeal to Stan so that he could defend his own father in court during the next trial verdict. Jack then turns Steve to his side and both run away, all while Steve begins viewing Jack as a father figure. When things get out of hand, however, Jack confesses that he is a crook who was up to no good all this time and wishes Stan would not lose Steve in times of need as much he himself once did. When Stan finds out about this, he forces himself to ride his bike to the courthouse to give his own word of reference about his father's verdict, but arrives too late, much to both Jack's and Steve's contempt. Jack is sentenced to five more years of prison, but is not bothered by the idea now that he has formed a genuine relationship with his grandson, and Stan promises to visit him this time. : In "Blood Crieth Unto Heaven" (which was depicted in the style of a stage play), it turned out that Jack had left the family after Stan found his mother making out with Jack (who was disguised as a clown at the time) and that he was eventually arrested after the police commissioner that Stan idolized and invited to his birthday called for police backup while investigating the thefts of the fruits from a fruit truck. In "Minstrel Krampus" (which was depicted in the style of a Christmas story), Jack is revealed to have trapped Krampus while as a child. When Stan frees Krampus to teach Steve a lesson and it does not go well, Stan had to use his CIA connections to get Jack out of prison. After being shot by Santa Claus while protecting Stan Smith, the blood of Jack and Krampus combine which revives Jack as Krampus. In this form, Jack plans to continue his predecessor's job in tormenting naughty children. In the episode "Ninety North, Zero West," Jack Smith is still in his Krampus form as Stan persuades him to help save Steve from Santa Claus at the time when he plans to awaken the Sumerian giant Humbaba. In the episode "Klaustastrophe.tv", Jack reappears, now a human again. No explanation for this is given. In the episode "Ghost Dad", he gets killed in a police car chase and ends up as a ghost haunting a sports museum. * Betty Smith (voiced by Swoosie Kurtz) – Jack's ex- wife, Stan's mother, and the paternal grandmother of Steve and Hayley. After Jack abandoned them, Stan took care of her and Betty began to depend unnaturally on her son. This relationship evolved to the point where Stan abducted all of Betty's new boyfriends from fear that they would end up hurting her, dumping them on an uncharted island. Betty later marries Hercules, a widowed Greek butcher, who she met through Francine. Betty tells Stan that neither she nor her son need to depend on one another as they once did, finally ending his obsessive protectiveness of her. Stan accepts that Betty has moved on and tolerates their marriage, though only after he has tried to stop them on board their flight to Greece. Betty is still unaware of her son's earlier actions, and all her previous suitors remain on a deserted island, which the two couples sail near after Betty and Hercules get married in Greece. A short time later, Hercules dies as well, once again leaving Betty as a widow. She moves back into Stan's house, living in the attic with a put- upon Roger, who goes by the alias of Tom Yabbo. She later falls in love with Roger and marries him. They take a trip to Niagara Falls where Betty plans to kill her new spouse, to collect the insurance money on a policy that she has taken out on him. Despite Stan's attempt to save his life, "Tom" falls to his death in the Falls, but Stan then notices Roger in a rain slicker leading a tour group, indicating he is fine. Betty manages to collect the insurance money and moves to Paris, France, where she is seen going into a theater to watch "Fast and the Furious 7" enjoying the gay sex scenes depicted. * Rusty Smith (voiced by Lou Diamond Phillips) – Stan's Native American half-brother who lives in Arizona with his wife Sooleawa'Uha and son Glen. He is the son of Jack Smith and a Cherokee woman he met in Santa Fe. Rusty and his family visit Stan's family every Thanksgiving. When their paternal grandfather was dying, he left Rusty and Stan $20,000 and some land he thought was worthless. Stan took the cash (which he loses on a bus) while Rusty takes the land, which turned out to have enormous copper deposits. During their annual reunions Stan treats his relatives in a patronizing way believing that they are poor. On a return visit to Arizona it becomes clear that earnings from copper mining have made Rusty the extremely wealthy owner of a desert estate, living in a huge mansion modeled on that of a Roman emperor. Humiliated and jealous Stan unsuccessfully attempts to steal the property only to be expelled by Rusty's security detail. Previously polished and courteous, the now-furious Rusty vows to kill his half-brother if he returns. After Hayley and Jeff rescue Stan, Francine, Steve, and Roger from the desert, Rusty appears with a gun stating that they are still on his property. When Stan asks how much land he has, Rusty states "sooooo much" in a dated and stereotyped Native American response. Rusty is distracted when the half-bodied helicopter pilot returns, giving the Smiths and Jeff the opportunity to escape. * Sooleawa'Uha Smith (voiced by Tonantzin Carmelo) – The Native American wife of Rusty and the paternal aunt of Steve and Hayley. She is also the sister in law to Stan and Francine Smith. Sooleawa'Uha patiently tolerates condescending remarks by Francine, although she lives in far greater affluence, with servants and a much larger kitchen. * Glen Smith (voiced by Danny Cistone) – The seldom speaking son of Rusty and Sooleawa'Uha and the paternal cousin of Steve and Hayley, the nephew of Stan and Francine Smith. ====Francine's relatives==== * Bàba and Māma Ling (voiced by Tzi Ma and Amy Hill respectively) – Francine's Chinese-American adoptive parents and the maternal grandparents of Steve and Hayley. Stan once found their ways of life and Mandarin linguistics to be unbearably obnoxious. This was especially because they practically took over his house and redecorated it in all of their original visits. However, after Baba saved Stan's life when his house was set on fire, he warmed up to the Lings and ultimately came to respect them. Bàba, in turn, apologized to Stan for not showing him more respect. In these moments, Baba also admitted he and Mama had been focusing most of their attention on their other daughter Gwen over Francine. They admitted to their belief that Stan was a decent son-in-law who has taken good care of her since they have been married. For this reason, both Baba and Mama know that it be unwise to give their money to Francine as opposed to Gwen when they pass away. Much of their behavior is a parody of Oriental stereotypes and are a mix of Chinese culture and Japanese. For example, bowing is a more pronounced characteristic of Japanese culture than Chinese (at least in the modern day), and their redecoration of the Smith house is in a Japanese (washitsu) style, complete with a kotatsu table. (Note: "Bàba" and "Māma" are the Mandarin equivalents of "Dad" and Mom"—their full names have not been revealed. Ling (凌) is a common Chinese surname.) * Gwen Ling (voiced by Uma Thurman) – Gwen is Francine's older sister, the biological child of the Lings. After Stan meets Francine's biological parents, he tries to manipulate Francine into wanting to meet them and disowning Baba and Mama. He accomplishes this by showing Francine their will in which everything is left to Gwen. At the episode's end, Baba reveals to Stan that it is Chinese customs to give the money to the child that needs the help and explains why they chose Gwen over Francine. He and Mama both know that she is an idiot and promiscuous. Gwen failed school when she was younger and therefore they know she will need a lot of help when they die. However unlike Gwen, Francine is smart, has a good husband, and she does not need their money. During an "expositional" joke, Gwen is implied to be three years younger than Francine, although she is actually three years older than Francine. It is implied that Baba and Mama both resent her for not being more like Francine. Stan apparently lusts after Gwen, who is repeatedly described as being "Playboy hot", which irritates Francine to no end as she and her parents know about her promiscuity. He has mused over a marriage between Gwen and either Greg or Terry. Francine talks Stan out of this, citing the fact that Greg and Terry are obviously homosexual and are not interested in getting involved with her sister. Stan does not immediately accept this, preferring to believe that Gwen is "too hot" for either man, but he eventually comes to terms with and accepts their homosexuality. Gwen makes her first on-screen appearance in "Now and Gwen" when she visits the family as a cover for her probation officer and continue her scams. Hayley gets annoyed with Francine always covering her and finally confronts Gwen, receiving a vague warning. When she tells Francine, she discovers that Gwen took the blame for a school fire started when Francine tried to emulate her sister's smoking in school and had tried to make up for it ever since. As a result of Hayley's confrontation, she planned on setting the school on fire and frame Francine for it. With Gwen admitting that she took the blame the first time due to her love for her sister, they work out their differences. Gwen offers Francine a cigarette to celebrate patching things up, but the two accidentally set the school on fire. Francine agrees to take the blame and be arrested. Gwen however gets arrested for violating her parole while Francine's charges are dismissed under a suspended sentence due to Stan's connections to the CIA. As a result, Gwen promises revenge against her sister once she gets out of prison. * Nicholas and Cassandra Dawson (voiced by Jeffery "Jeff" Perry and Holland Taylor respectively) – Francine's biological parents who are also the parents of Janet. They abandoned Francine as an infant just to fly first class on a vacation four decades ago, since they could not do so with her. They are wealthy and appear good-natured, but deep down they are extremely self-centered. Stan once befriended them and tried to introduce them to Francine (who has no memory of them), by inviting them in the house. When the Dawsons admitted that they gave her up just to keep their first class ticket, this made Stan nervous around them, but is determined to keep them around. However, Klaus sees both Nicholas and Cassandra for the monsters they truly are and warns Stan to get them out of the house because he is setting Francine up to be hurt by them. He tried to ignore Klaus, but eventually realizes that the German Goldfish was right about the Dawsons. Stan stopped trying after being put off by their selfish nature, especially when they leave him trapped in his burning house instead of helping him out, feeling that Francine is better off not knowing about them. They leave without meeting her. In the episode "Family Plan," Francine officially meets Nicholas when she decides to be part of a bigger family. By this time, Cassandra had committed suicide by hanging and Nicholas has pitted the family against each other in order to see who gains control over the family fortune. After Francine is the left the victor, he tries to finish off her as well, only for Stan to save her. Nicholas is left alone with only his cat (Roger in disguise). * Janet Dawson (voiced by Jillian Bell) - Francine's cousin through Nicholas and Cassandra. Apart from Nicholas, she is the only member of Francine's biological family that is still alive. ====Other==== * Henry Fischer (voiced by Clancy Brown) – Father of Jeff, who grows and deals marijuana in Raleigh, North Carolina. He has used Jeff to ship drugs, which has gotten Jeff framed for drug-trafficking. When Stan and Roger learn that Jeff is wanted on drug charges in Florida, they pursue him to his father's farm hoping to cash in on the reward and get Jeff out of Stan's life. They are tricked and tied up by Henry who declares that he intends to turn in Jeff himself for the reward money. He also reveals a startling fact that he had grown the marijuana Jeff was found with on his farm and sent Jeff to bring it to Florida, though Jeff had been totally unaware of any of this. Stan and Roger escape but Mr. Fischer has already turned Jeff in at the Boca Raton Police Department, and openly admits that he cares more about the money than his son. Stan, however, proves Mr. Fischer's guilt, because he had been wearing a wire during his confession as he always wears a wire for his job. Mr. Fischer is taken away for the drug charge and for attempting to murder Roger and Stan. Henry later popped up as an audience member in "Phantom of the Telethon". ===Corbin-Bates family=== * Greg Corbin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – The local news anchor on W-ANG-TV, he is Terry's brown-haired co-anchor and domestic partner. He along with Terry are neighbors to the Smiths. He and Terry have a penchant for minor bickering, flirting, and working on stereotypical "couples' issues" on the set or in other scenes of the show. Greg is a member of the Log Cabin Republicans. He is presented as being very culturally sophisticated, at one point causing Stan to choose him over Francine as his guest to get into Avery Bullock's high-end party. He and Terry have a surrogate baby daughter, Liberty Belle. Before Libby's birth, Greg is panicky, questioning his ability and readiness to be a father, but immediately loves Libby upon holding her for the first time. He is the "power top" in his and Terry's relationship and was once involved in a heterosexual marriage, during a period of time in which he was "confused" and believed he was heterosexual. * Terry Bates (voiced by Mike Barker) – Terry Bates is a Langley Falls local news anchor, Greg's co-anchor and domestic partner, and the Smiths' neighbor. Terry is a Democrat with blonde hair. He once goes out for a night with Stan as Stan erroneously attempts to "become gay" by choice, though they stop short of having sex when Stan realizes that he cannot choose to be gay. He has a surrogate daughter with Greg—Liberty Belle—and owns a French bulldog named "Heath Ledger". He is the bottom in their relationship. Another strain on his relationship with Greg was when Greg was revealed to be a Log Cabin Republican, to which Terry threw a tantrum in front of the whole neighborhood in disbelief at how Greg could have voted for George W. Bush (whom Terry calls "He-Who-Must-Not-Be-Named"). Terry eventually leaves Greg to follow the band 311 around. Terry's removal from the series was due to Mike Barker leaving the show due to creative differences. * Liberty Belle "Libby" Corbin-Bates – Terry and Greg's daughter, conceived with an egg donor and Francine as a surrogate mother. Shortly after her birth, Stan kidnapped her because he believed that gay couples should not be allowed to raise children; they nearly reached Nebraska but Stan was finally convinced to return her to Greg and Terry. Stan had named her after the Liberty Bell, and for reasons unexplained, her fathers kept the name, but barred him from seeing Libby again for his actions. It is said in a later episode that Francine was named Libby's godmother, likely due to Greg and Terry's gratitude over her carrying Libby via surrogacy. * "Tank" Bates (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) – Tank is Terry's father and a retired Washington Redskins player. In early episodes, Terry is implied to be closeted from his father, stating, "I've told you, as soon as my father dies I will wear the ring", upsetting Greg, who believes Terry should stop hiding their relationship. When "Tank" comes to visit, Terry pretends that Francine is his girlfriend and that Libby is their illegitimate daughter, and claims that Stan and Greg are gay lovers. During the time he spent in the episode, Tank is shown to be quite intolerant of homosexuality, constantly mocking Stan and calling him "fairy". When Stan drunkenly outs Terry, Tank disowns his son. After unsuccessful attempts by Stan to decipher the basis of Tank's homophobia, Terry eventually gives his father the option of accepting him and being a part of their family or leaving, with Tank choosing to disown him. Tank later participates in a Vietnam War reenactment in the episode "In Country...Club", but has no dialogue. In "Gorillas in the Mist," Tank was shown watching the news in a bar, where Terry mentions that he forgives his dad. Tank changes the channel and tells the bartender that the guy dancing on television is his son. In "The Two Hundred," Tank Bates appears as one of the savage survivors. ===CIA personnel=== * Jackson (voiced by Mike Henry) – One of Stan's co-workers at the CIA. He was once a real estate agent, and is a "former homosexual". Apparently, when he stopped selling houses, his "sodomy cleared right up." His conversion has been suggested to be unsuccessful, suggesting that he may be transgender as well. Moreover, when asked if he ever "did it with a dead mermaid," he replied "Mermaid, no." He had a body double who was accidentally killed by Stan. He is almost always seen with something in his hands, such as a coffee cup. * Dick Reynolds (voiced by Stephen Root from 2005 to 2007, David Koechner from 2008 to present) – Another of Stan's CIA co-workers. His wife eventually got a job in which she earned more money than he did, eventually surpassing him so much in earning power that his genitals disappeared, a joke referencing his sense of emasculation. He has a son who has a freakishly large hand with which he beats his father. He is now divorced from his wife Sheila and has a dog named Biscuit, which he seized from Sheila (who also had an affair with Dick's barber, Al) when he was angry that the courts awarded ownership of the dog to her during their divorce. In "One Little Word", Stan and Bullock unknowingly encounter Dick dressed as an automobile at a furry convention and seen "running over" (erotic roleplay) a furry. He is later seen still (in costume) running over an unconscious Roger, but stops when he gets a call on his cellphone (which reveals his identity to the viewer). * Reginald the Koala (voiced by Donald Fullilove in 2009, Erik Durbin from 2010 to present) – Like Klaus, Reginald is an animal with the brain of a human. Differently however, he is a koala with very urban mannerisms and behaviors. His first appearance was in "Family Affair" where he was revealed to have been a homeless man at one point who, in exchange for a free hot meal, chose to partake in a CIA experiment that had his brain put into the body of a koala. The lyrics of an '80s theme song played in the episode imply that he uses his new adorable body to go on missions, able to distract the enemy with his cute koala body such that no one would question him. In the episode "Wife Insurance," it is shown that he goes on dangerous missions like Stan and the others. He is regularly seen relaxing in Stan's pool. Reginald has dated Hayley. Reginald is also skilled in the Afro-Brazilian martial art known as Capoeira and has used it to fight Bullock over Hayley. * John Sanders (voiced by Mike Barker) – Another of Stan's CIA co-workers. He often takes part in meetings with Bullock and Stan. He goes out with Jackson and Dick and once killed a panda. * Ray (voiced by Victor Raider-Wexler) – A CIA agent and one of Stan's poker buddies alongside Bad Larry. Ray always recalls what he ate after he killed someone. In "Office Spaceman," Ray is among the CIA Agents on the CIA's Alien Task Force. In 100 A.D., Ray (alongside Duper) died in a bus crash with the other background characters that wanted the bounty that Stan offered for the capture of Hayley and Jeff. He has since turned up alive. In "Old Stan in the Mountain," Stan mocks his age to persuade Bullock that he should replace him in the demonstration of a high-tech killing machine. But Stan is cursed by another old man that he had mocked and is rapidly aged to even older than Ray. The demonstration is a disaster, much to Ray's delight as Avery asks if this was a way to mock him. * Bad Larry (voiced by Don Lake) – A CIA agent. He recalls his first kill where he shot his ex-partner who was a double-agent. He helps Ray and Roger get Stan his first kill—a pedophile named Randy—whom they trail to the "Wet, Young, & Wild" water park, where he plans to molest and kill Steve, Snot, Barry, and Toshi. When Randy brags that he will get off (or at least get a light sentence) due to his mother's money and a good lawyer, Stan fires his gun and accidentally shoots Bad Larry, who dies from the shot and subsequently becomes Stan's actual first kill. He also appears in "Tearjerker" and "Widowmaker." * Duper (voiced by Phill Lewis in most appearances, Dee Bradley Baker in "The Kidney Stays in the Picture") – Agent Duper was a CIA Agent and rival of Stan Smith who first appeared in "Roger Codger". He beats Stan's time on a "Regime Change" testing simulation following with a better snappy line than Stan's. When Stan placed a bomb in Bullock's office to make himself look good by saving the day, Duper disabled it when Stan could not see the manual (after dropping and breaking his reading glasses). In a later episode, his essay on President Bush beat Stan's, but he was disqualified after learning most of his essay was plagiarized from Willy Wonka. In 100 A.D., Duper and Ray died in a bus crash with the other background characters that wanted the bounty that Stan offered for the capture of Hayley and Jeff. In "Son of Stan", Duper appears to be mourning himself, but it is actually a clone the CIA made. The clone is exactly the same as Duper (except Duper was married to, in the clone's words, "some ugly chick"). This inspired Stan to clone Steve for a parenting experiment. Later in the series, Duper suffers from the effect of a time-travel experiment gone wrong. Since he failed to return to the present before midnight, he returned as a blob of what used to be flesh. In "Honey, I'm Homeland," Duper took part in Avery Bullock's activity to test Mount Rushmore's defenses by posing as Christoff of the Occupy cell. In "She Swill Survive," Duper is on Bullock's list of people who like crocs. * Bill (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) – Bill is Stan's CIA double. The only noticeable difference between the two is Bill's southern accent; and he can easily impersonate Stan's voice. He often takes Stan's place when there are things he does not want to go to, such as Steve's baptism or cooking classes with Francine. When Stan was faced with the dilemma of whether to go to the high school reunion prom with Betty Sue, the Homecoming Queen and saving his marriage with Francine in "It's Good to Be Queen", Stan called in Bill to take Francine out to dinner while he went to the prom. But soon Francine decided to go to the prom, making things a bit complicated, since Stan decided to give up his dream rather than lose his wife. When the two of them were standing in the same gym, Francine took Stan's gun, preparing to shoot his leg. She ends up shooting the one who did not apologize, who was actually Bill. Bill was taken aboard a helicopter, hearing that his leg cannot be saved. In "Pulling Double Booty", Hayley meets Bill after going to the CIA to have an Argument with Stan. Mistaking Bill for Stan she apologizes which leads to them getting into a relationship. When Bill is shown by Stan how "hot" Francine is, Bill tries to have sex with Francine by impersonating Stan. Stan throws Bill out of the window, by what appears to be his genitals, and tells Bill that he cannot see Hayley again. In order to stop Hayley going on a rampage when Bill dumps her, Stan pretends to be Bill to take Hayley out on a date. * Lorraine (voiced by Niecy Nash) – Lorraine is the obese secretary of CIA Headquarters. She first appears in "Chimdale" in which Steve shows her the bald eagle balloon that he brought for his dad whom he believes is working without his wig but finds out he is still wearing it. Lorraine has a crowd scene cameo after Jeff claims the money in "100 A.D.". In "G-String Circus", Deputy Director Bullock directs her to send a mass e-mail to all agents to join him at XanaBoobs to spend the CIA surplus funds. Lorraine becomes Deputy Director Bullock's personal assistant in "Flirting With Disaster". When Francine is hired to replace her as secretary, all of the CIA employees start paying attention to Francine and ignore Lorraine. During lunch with Stan who is also depressed that he feels he cannot flirt with the office ladies while Francine is around, the both agree that Francine has to go. While Stan merely wants to get Francine fired, Lorraine throws acid in Francine's face, melting it and is arrested. Despite her previous legal problems, she is seen as a secretary again in "Wheels & the Legman and the Case of Grandpa's Key" when she enlists the help of the duo to locate her missing bird Flygirl which is already dead and Steve struggles to hide the body until he learns to confront people with bad news and tells her the truth. Lorraine appears in "The Missing Kink" during the "He's Got a Kink" song in which she is seen sitting on a man wearing a green S&M; suit while another man in an orange S&M; suit stands by wearing a lamp shade over his head. ===Pearl Bailey High School=== * Akiko Yoshida (voiced by Grey DeLisle in 2009, Grace Park from 2010 to present) – Akiko is Toshi's younger sister. She first appears in "American Dream Factory" as a child with no dialogue when Toshi brings her to audition as a drummer for Steve's Band "The Asstones" but on her next appearance in "Weiner of Our Discontent", she is a pre-teen or young teenager. She refereed the hot dog eating contest between Toshi and Steve in the same episode. She speaks perfect English and occasionally translates for Toshi. Akiko dressed as Chun-Li from the video game series Street Fighter for Halloween in "Best Little Horror House in Langley Falls". When Steve develops a crush on Akiko, they are forced to flee from Toshi until Steve convinces him that he is being too possessive of her. Thinking he can open up to Akiko, Steve is stunned when she announces she has a crush on a nine-year-old named Doug because he is a great dancer; however, in a later episode "Spelling Bee My Baby", Akiko developed feelings for Steve and vice versa. * Debbie Hyman (voiced by Lizzy Caplan) – An overweight goth girl and Steve's main crush. When she and Steve begin dating, it causes Stan to become anorexic because he is disgusted by her obesity. Steve breaks up with her after he realizes she is causing it, but they reunite when he realizes it did not help. Stan accepts her after she demonstrates prowess with firearms, but is disliked by Francine. Debbie appears in "Iced, Iced Babies", though she reportedly breaks up with Steve by the end. She and Steve get back together in "Escape from Pearl Bailey", where Steve gets Debbie to run for Student Council President against Lisa Silver. Debbie loses when an insulting page of her on the Internet is shown around school. Steve, thinking that Lisa and her friends did it, gets revenge on them. When he tells Debbie she breaks up with him, as she does not believe in vengeance, it turns out that Steve's friends made the slam page because they view her as monopolizing his time and everyone in the school goes after them. They are caught by Debbie's clique, who tells them to let Steve go and makes up with him. She tries to get Steve to come with her, but he says he wants to stay by his friends. Debbie lets them all go while she and the other goths distract the student body. In "Bar Mitzvah Shuffle", Debbie falls for Snot's Bar Mitzvah study buddy Etan because she says he is more mature than Steve. Steve sabotages Etan's Bar Mitzvah, hoping to prove that Etan is less mature than she thinks he is. However, Snot is blamed for the sabotage. When Steve admits to sabotaging the party before the Jewish Court, Debbie is also displeased with this, and permanently ends her relationship with Steve. * Lisa Silver (voiced by Carmen Electra in the pilot, Elizabeth Banks in later appearances) – Head cheerleader and most popular girl in school. Her best friends are Janet Lewis and Amy. She first appears in the pilot episode, where Steve tries to ask her out but she rejects him. When Steve becomes Student Council President they date, but she dumps him when he tries to kiss her, and Stan has her family deported. She reappears in "1,600 Candles" when Steve successfully asks her out to the prom after his confidence is boosted by the appearance of his first pubic hair. In "Escape from Pearl Bailey," Lisa wins re-election as Student Council President, defeating Debbie, and Steve infects her with oral herpes, believing her responsible for a slam page that cost Debbie the election only to learn with humiliation that his friends were behind it with the belief that Steve deserves someone else more worthy of his time. * Vince Chung (voiced by John Cho) – A very popular Asian student part of the school swim team and one of the school's many known bullies. Vince is introduced in "Helping Handis" in which he temporarily befriends Steve, but only due to being attracted to Steve's huge breasts from steroids. In later seasons, Vince Chung remained a frequent character, making a wide variety major and minor appearances both with and without lines, primarily in cases to bully Steve and his friends. * Lindsay Coolidge (voiced by Terri Lyn Rodriguez) – A cheerleader and one of several girls that Steve tries to impress. In her first appearance she remarks that Steve is more fun to be around than she expected. However, she discovers Roger's secret identity as an alien and has to have her memories wiped by Stan. Later, Lindsay states that she likes guys who engage in risky behavior, resulting in Steve accidentally blowing his thumb off with a firecracker. After the accident she lets Steve touch her breast, but when he admits that he cannot feel anything (due to the anesthesia in his hand) she storms off. Steve learns to play the cello in an effort to impress Lindsay, who he describes as "a cello slut". Steve is successful, but brushes Lindsay off after a recital to attend to an injured cat. Lindsay makes several cameo appearances in later episodes. * Superintendent Ellen Riggs (voiced by Anjelica Huston) – The superintendent of Pearl Bailey High School. In the episode "A Ward Show," Roger convinces Riggs to fire Principal Brian Lewis when he reveals that Lewis is using Steve for his accounting and other things. In "The Worst Stan", Stan hooks up Riggs with Lewis in marriage so that he can be Brian's best man. Riggs only wants to marry Brian because she believes that marrying him will dispel rumors about her and allow her to achieve her ultimate goal of city comptroller. She achieves this when she ends up marrying Tracey Bryant, Lewis's former prison cellmate, after she knocks out Stan. She is shown taking Tracey home, becoming pregnant with his child, and winning the campaign to become comptroller. ===Around the neighborhood=== * Linda Memari (voiced by Megyn Price) – A woman of Iranian descent, the wife of Bob Memari, and best friend to Francine. Linda saved Francine from the Lady Bugs, a social group for women who cheat on their husbands, by kissing her. It has been suggested that Linda may not be attracted to her husband and is in reality a closeted lesbian. In an attempt to hit on Francine, she rearranged her clothes to make her bust more prominent and knocked on the Smiths' door (prompting a drunk Stan to comment "When did you get those?"). After thinking that Stan was beating Francine, she makes an awkward excuse to leave. Francine then says, "She's a weird chick." Linda's husband is apparently resigned to her preferences, and asks, in a defeated tone, if he can "at least watch this time", when he sees Linda eying Francine. In "Cheek to Cheek: A Stripper's Story", Roger states that Linda has died. * Bob Memari (voiced by Ron Livingston) – Born in Cleveland, Ohio, Bob is the Iranian husband to Linda Memari and neighbor of Stan. Stan initially discriminates against Bob and suspects he and his wife are terrorists because of their ethnic background, as seen in the episode "Homeland Insecurity". Ironically, Bob is not upset at Stan's accusations, because he himself says his previous neighbors were far worse; "They were black." implying he himself is racist. * Chuck White (voiced by Mike Barker) – Stan's gloating arch-enemy who often outdoes Stan. Chuck is abusive towards his daughter, Betsy, forcing her to do gymnastics and keeping her away from boys because he believes they will get her pregnant. He ends each sentence with a mocking laugh, e.g. "Looks like you're parking in the sun again, ha-ha!"; however, he does not seem to have any control over it, and always seems to laugh even when angry or depressed. Ever since his first appearance, however, Chuck's life has been slowly falling apart: Betsy was accidentally impregnated with Roger's child and as a result lost her shot at the Olympics, and his wife was shamed in the local paper for smoking cannabis and is known to be openly promiscuous. * Buckle (voiced by Matt McKenna) – Buckle first appears in "An Apocalypse to Remember" as a mountain man the Smiths meet when Stan thought that a nuclear-war drill was the real thing. Buckle secretly follows them home to try to abduct and marry Hayley. The Smiths concoct a plan to distract him from Hayley and bail Roger out of a fake-wedding-to-get-a-new-blender jam by setting Buckle up with Roger's intended bride, Sharri Rothberg, who proceeds to annoy him with constant nagging. In "An Incident at Owl Creek", the Rothberg-Buckles move into the Smiths' neighborhood. In "Best Little Horror House in Langley Falls," it was revealed that Buckle used to work as a Walt Disney Imagineer until his designs were deemed too scary. Buckle's name is conjecture; when introduced in "An Apocalypse to Remember" he states that he can not remember his name and settled on "Buckle" because "Buckle feels right." He is based on James "Grizzly" Adams. * Sharri Rothberg (voiced by Lisa Edelstein) – Sharri Rothberg is a woman that Roger dupes into marrying him. After Stan accidentally destroyed Roger's blender during his nuclear war panic (when he mistook the drill for that for the real thing), he meets her on J-Date, after Klaus told him about it. Sharri's "Jewish-American princess" side comes out while registering for their gifts at Crate and Roundish Cylinder, becoming pushy and demanding. On their wedding day, Roger dumps Sharri after he receives the blender he wanted. She marries Buckle (the mountain man that followed the Smiths home from the woods intent on marrying Hayley) and proceeds to annoy him with frequent nagging. In "An Incident at Owl Creek", she and Buckle move into the neighborhood. * Sergei Kruglov () (voiced by Steve Hely) – A former KGB agent known as the "Wolf of Leningrad". In 1988, Stan and Sergei were captured by their respective opponent sides, but during the prisoner exchange Stan was recaptured by the Soviets. After the Berlin Wall falls and the Soviet Union collapses, Sergei's wife leaves him for a West German tennis equipment salesman and his son becomes an entrepreneur who sells Halloween costumes for dogs. Vowing to steal Stan's son for communism, he eventually moves to Langley Falls and into the home formerly owned by Mr. Hallworthy after it is discovered that Mr. Hallworthy has died. Sergei then helps Steve construct a model rocket while teaching him the ways of communism. Stan then wins Steve back, and Sergei helps Barry construct a rocket which wins the school's contest. Toward the end of the episode he acts like a normal neighbor to Stan coming over both to threaten him and then give Stan mail belonging to him that was in his mailbox. Sergei is on the Homeowners' Association Board. * Father Donovan (voiced by Martin Mull) – The pastor of the Episcopalian Church that the Smiths attend. He is extremely bored with and resentful of his job and faith, preferring to go fishing on Sunday. Donovan gets all information for eulogies from driver's licenses and is not above having sex with married women of his congregation (though he is especially attracted to Francine). Donovan implies that he is an atheist – when Stan asks him what to do about his best friend who does not believe in God, Donovan replies, "Well Stan, we're hardly best friends." In "Rapture's Delight," when everyone is ascending into Heaven, Father Donovan is left behind with Roger, Stan, and Francine, at which point he remarks, "Turns out there is a God". He has a heart surgery scar on his chest. In "Season's Beatings," Father Donovan casts Stan and Roger in a televised Christmas play at the mall, but when they break out brawling during a performance, he bans Stan from the church on his superiors' behalf with the only way of re-admittance being either donating a lot of money to the church, finding the Holy Grail, or killing the Anti- Christ. When Stan realizes that the baby Hayley and Jeff took in and named Nemo is the Anti-Christ, Stan was able to present evidence of this to Father Donovan causing them, with Roger and Jeff, to pursue and kill Nemo. Father Donovan is badly injured when Nemo uses his powers to burn down the orphanage, severing the priest's legs. * Al Tuttle (voiced by Richard Kind) – Generally referred to as simply "Tuttle", this character is one of the Smiths' neighbors, such a chatty fellow that Stan originally circled the block six or seven times to avoid talking to him in "Homeland Insecurity" (when his name was given as Bob Tuttle). When Stan finally runs out of gas and has to stop and talk, he and Francine learn that Tuttle's wife Betty died several months earlier. By "Don't Look a Smith Horse in the Mouth," he is named Al and has become severely obese from mourning and loneliness, but when Steve and his friends help him out of his house for the first time since the first season, he returns to his friendly and optimistic self, though still fat. In the same episode, a photo of his wife's grave is shown, depicting her name as Lisa, not Betty. As of the episode "Roots", Tuttle is shown to be back to his regular weight. * James A. Garfield (voiced by Chris Parnell) - A cloned duplicate of the 20th President of the United States created by Stan to teach Hayley the importance of history. He is later named Mayor of Langley Falls after Stan was briefly elected and overthrown by Roger's coup to take over the town that left the previous mayor dead. ==Recurring characters== * Barb Hanson (voiced by Rachael MacFarlane) – Barb is the Langley Falls realtor at Expositions Realty. Her right hand was cut off after Stan sent her to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in "Threat Levels" and she wears a prosthetic hook. She seems to have a strong dislike for Francine and is often seen hanging out with Kristy White. The episode "Roger 'n' Me" reveals that she and Captain Monty are best friends. * Captain Monty (voiced by Matt McKenna) – A man with only one eye, only one hand and only one leg, wearing stereotypical pirate gear, such as an eye patch, a prosthetic hook, and a peg leg. He speaks very slowly and in an excessively elaborate and hyperbolic manner. He is shown working as a waiter for a fondue restaurant, the host of the most prestigious children's books author interview program in Langley Falls and is best friends with Barbara Hanson. He is a parody of James Lipton. * Hideki Yoshida (voiced by Reggie Lee) – Toshi and Akiko's father. According to Stan, he is a venture capitalist, and by his own admission claims to always follow his gut. He is apparently a ruthless businessman, as he had little trouble drawing a firearm against Stan and Roger during the celebration for their cake cutter, and later rips off Stan and Roger's idea for male stripper shoes. * Hiko Yoshida (voiced by Sandra Oh) – Toshi and Akiko's mother. She asks Steve to take Akiko trick- or-treating in "Best Little Horror House in Langley Falls", following an argument with Toshi over his refusal to wear the Samurai costume she bought him. Though she speaks perfect English, and in "Spelling bee My Baby" even admits to not knowing how to speak Japanese, Francine claims not to understand her in "Weiner of Our Discontent" due to a disagreement between the pair, Francine mockingly asking if anyone spoke "sushi hostess". In the episode "Spelling Bee My Baby", she's presented as a tiger parent who forces her will on her children. This brings out Francine's ultra-wicked side and the two engage in a bitter rivalry at the expense of Steve and Akiko. * Santa Claus (voiced by Matt McKenna) – A figure of the holiday season. In this show, Santa Claus is portrayed as a villainous commercialist promoter with a habit for bearing deep-seated grudges. His vendetta against the Smith family began in "For Whom the Sleigh Bell Tolls" when Stan gives Steve an Ak-47 assault rifle that he used to accidentally shoot Santa while he was posing as a Mall Santa. Buried and left for dead by the family, Santa was retrieved by his Christmas Elves and recovered with the intent to kill the Smiths every Christmas. In "Minstrel Krampus" (which was depicted in the style of a Christmas story), Santa fakes a ceasefire with the Smiths to kill his former partner Krampus to preserve his investment in big toy companies. In "Ninety North, Zero West," Santa Claus kidnaps Steve Smith as part of a plot to awaken the Sumerian giant Humbaba and claim his powers. This did not go well as Humbaba sucked Santa Claus and most of the North Pole into him. Though Santa survived while emerging from Humbaba long after the monster was decapitated by Steve Smith, he ends up being killed and later resurrected in "Santa, Schmanta" to reclaim his powers from Roger. * Sinbad (voiced by himself) – Sinbad is a known actor and comedian. He appeared in "Lost in Space" as a slave in a giant space mall for Roger's people. After Jeff Fischer is captured, he shows him around the slave camp and takes him to EmBARcaderos, where Jeff finds out the only way to escape his fate is to prove his love for Hayley. Sinbad points out that the price of failure is losing his privates as Sinbad had done. Jeff tries anyway, but apparently fails the test of The Majestic until he realizes that only bad memories were shown. He confronts The Majestic and it reveals that it was ordered to show only bad memories after Emperor Zing lost his own love. Jeff and the slaves start a revolt. With Sinbad's help, Jeff makes his way to an escape pod as The Majestic reveals the Emperor's own love life that was ruined by Roger cheating on him. The rest of his people join the rebellion against him, leaving only his own guards to fight for him. Sinbad sends Jeff on his way while holding off the guards at the cost of his own life. Unfortunately, Jeff finds out that he must explore thousands of worlds to find the right Earth. It is revealed during the credits that Sinbad came back as a Jedi-like ghost to join Jeff in his journey. In "Longest Distance Relationship," Sinbad's ghost is still traveling with Jeff as they try to find their way back to their Earth. * Dr. Kalgary (voiced by Alan Tudyk) - A German-accented mad scientist acquainted with Klaus. He first appears in the episode "Roots" where Steve goes to him hoping he can help him grow, but changes his mind after Stan tells him that he had the same stall in his growth at that age. In "Family Plan", Kalgary gets married. He is often accompanied by his creation Billy, an extremely fragile boy. (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson). ==Appearing in The Golden Turd== As seen in "Homeland Insecurity," it is revealed that Roger's excrement is solid gold and jewel-encrusted. The Golden Turd enters the life of different characters which often end with someone dying or suffering some other terrible fate. The following characters appear in "The Golden Turd" sketches: * Mikey and Jim (voiced by Mike Barker and Elias Koteas respectively) – Two best friends who work for the Langley Falls public works department. They both find Roger's Golden Turd in "Homeland Insecurity" which resulted in Mikey getting killed by Jim who then hides his body. When Jim plans to call his fiancé Abby to tell them that they are rich, another man answers the phone, revealing that Abby is having an affair. Jim screams upon this reaction. In "Failure is Not a Factory-Installed Option," Jim regrets what he has done to Mikey and the fact that Abby is having an affair. Jim commits suicide by driving his car onto the train tracks and right in front of an approaching train. * Lt. Eddie Thacker (voiced by Beau Bridges) – A police lieutenant who investigates Jim's suicide. He finds the Golden Turd amongst the wreckage and hides it from his partner Chris. Eddie brings it home to his wife Marilyn where he tells her how it will pay for a great retirement and a house in Boca Raton. When Eddie changes his mind, Marilyn secretly adds rat poisoning to his tea. In "Blagsnarst: A Love Story," it was confirmed that Eddie died from the poisoned tea. * Marilyn Thacker (voiced by Swoosie Kurtz) – The wife of Eddie Thacker. She sees the Golden Turd that Eddie brought home as he states that it will help pay for a great retirement and a house in Boca Raton. After Eddie changes his mind, Marilyn secretly adds rat poisoning to his tea. In "Blagsnart: A Love Story," Marilyn Thacker had been arrested by the police offscreen for the death of her husband and was seen being executed by lethal injection at the Virginia State Prison. * Vincent Thacker-Edmonds (voiced by Corey Stoll) – The son of Eddie Thacker and Marilyn Thacker. After Eddie was killed by his wife's tea filled with rat poisoning, Vincent was present when his mother was executed by lethal injection. Following his mother's death, Vincent works to become an attorney general when he finds the Golden Turd under the floorboards. Vincent then contacts Wyatt Borden with plans to help him out and get him to become President of the United States. In "Father's Daze," Vincent has continued his obsession of the Golden Turd until his campaign manager confronts him about his motives. Spying the Golden Turd, the campaign manager gets into a struggle with Vincent which ends in his death. Moments after Vincent's death, the campaign manager is shot by Vincent's arriving bodyguards. * The Pope (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) – Following the death of Vincent Edmonds and his campaign manager, the Pope was given the Golden Turd by a cleaning lady that found the Golden Turd while she was cleaning out the room where Vincent Edmonds was killed. The Pope then meets with the board of religious leaders who begin to wonder how to return it to its proper place. The final scene showed a tablet that has Roger astride across an Egyptian Pyramid. In "300," the religious leaders fall under its spell and kill each other in a gunfight. The Knights Turdler who began guarding the Golden Turd find that a delivery girl is immune to it as they task her to return it to Roger. ==References== Category:Lists of characters in American television adult animation Category:Lists of American sitcom television characters Category:Animated human characters |
The Elder Conservatorium of Music, also known as "The Con", is Australia's senior academy of music and is located in the centre of Adelaide, the capital of South Australia. It is named in honour of its benefactor, Sir Thomas Elder. Dating in its earliest form from 1883, it has a history in professional training for musical performance, musical composition, research in all fields of music, and music education. The Elder Conservatorium of Music and its forerunners have been parts of the University of Adelaide since the early 1880s. ==History== The Elder Conservatorium of Music was formally constituted in 1898 as the result of a major philanthropic bequest from the will of the Scottish-Australian pastoralist, Sir Thomas Elder, whose statue stands outside Elder Hall. The history, however, goes back further than 1898. An earlier philanthropic donation from Sir Thomas Elder had helped to establish the Elder Professorship of Music in 1883, with the first incumbent taking up the post in 1884. At the same time, Sir Thomas Elder had established endowment funds for the Royal College of Music in London to support the Elder Overseas Scholarship (in Music) and the Music Board of the University of Adelaide to support the Elder Scholarships in Music. 1883 was also the year in which Berlin-trained pianist Immanuel Gotthold Reimann founded his privately owned and run Adelaide College of Music, of which Cecil Sharp (later to become famous as collector of folk songs) became co-director in 1889. For the first few years the new school of music at the University of Adelaide (which focussed on composition and theory) and the Adelaide College of Music (which focussed on practical training in performance) complemented each other. In 1898 the two schools were merged, operating in the college's Wakefield Street premises until 1900, when the North Terrace building was completed. Hermann Heinicke founded the first Conservatorium Orchestra. The Elder Conservatorium of Music is a product of three mergers: one in the late nineteenth century (1898) with the Adelaide College of Music; one in the late twentieth century (1991), with the School of Performing Arts of the then South Australian College of Advanced Education; and one at the beginning of the twenty-first century (2001), with the School of Music of the Adelaide Institute of TAFE (aka Flinders Street School of Music). Formerly a faculty of the university (the Faculty of Music) it is now constituted as a professional School within the Faculty of Arts. Since 2002 it has been an associate member of the Association of European Conservatoires (AEC), and is also a partner school of the Helpmann Academy, an umbrella body created by the State Government of South Australia to promote collaboration between various schools of visual and performing arts. There have so far been only seven incumbents of the Elder Professorship of Music, all of whom have also served as director and/or dean of the Elder Conservatorium of Music and have provided the artistic and academic leadership for the institution: professor Joshua Ives (1884–1901); professor J. Matthew Ennis (1902–1918); Professor Dr. E. Harold Davies (1918–1948); pianist and arts administrator, Professor John Bishop, OBE (1948–1964); the tenor, Professor David Galliver, AM (1966–1983); German conductor, Professor Heribert Esser (1986–1993); and composer, Professor Dr. Charles Bodman Rae (since 2001). Since the late 1970s the administrative position of director of the Conservatorium has from time to time been occupied by a staff member other than the Elder Professor of Music. In this category can be included: the clarinettist, David Shepherd; the pianist, Clemens Leske AM; the horn player, Patrick Brislan; the pianist, David Lockett AM; and the choral conductor, Carl Crossin OAM. Since 2014 the director has been the noted composer, Professor Graeme Koehne, AO. In 1886, Professor Ives established the first Australian public music examinations system, modelled on that of the Guildhall School of Music in London. This directly led to the establishment of the Australian Music Examinations Board (AMEB). In 1898, through the Elder Conservatorium, the University of Adelaide was the first in Australia to establish regulations for the degree of Doctor of Music (DMus), and in 1902, Edward Harold Davies was awarded the first Australian doctorate of music. In 1918 the university became the first in Australia to award a doctorate in music to a woman, Ruby Davy. In addition to Davies and Davy, recipients of the DMus award have included: Tristram Cary, OAM; Sir Peter Maxwell Davies, CBE; Graeme Koehne; Charles Bodman Rae; David Lockett, AM; and Ross Edwards, AM. In addition to the Elder Professors, many composers and performing musicians have been members of staff, including: Sir Peter Maxwell Davies (composition fellow); Prof. David Cubbin (flute); Clive Carey (singing); Jiří Tancibudek (oboe); Gabor Reeves (clarinet); Beryl Kimber (violin); Clemens Leske (piano); James Whitehead (cello); Lance Dossor (piano); Richard Meale (composition); Tristram Cary (electronic music); Janis Laurs, cello; Keith Crellin, OAM (violist); Graeme Koehne (composition); Stephen Whittington (composition, piano, computer music) Stefan Ammer (piano); Lucinda Collins (piano). From 1978 to 1994 Prof. Andrew McCredie held a personal chair in musicology. The Australian String Quartet was established in 1985 and since 1991 has been quartet-in-residence at the Elder Conservatorium. The Bishop years are generally considered to have been some of the most exciting and progressive in the history of the Elder Conservatorium, with initiatives such as the appointment of the University of Adelaide Wind Quintet, and the establishment of the Adelaide Festival of Arts (of which Bishop was the inaugural artistic director). The years since the appointment of Bodman Rae in 2001 also witnessed transformational changes that re- established the position of the Elder Conservatorium as one of Australia's leading music academies. In 2005 the Elder Conservatorium received a Classical Music Award (from the Australasian Performing Right Association) for "outstanding contribution by an organisation" (the only Australian music academy to have won such an award), in recognition of its music program for the 2004 Adelaide Festival of Arts (curated by Bodman Rae). In 2011, 2013, 2015, and for the last two years the Elder Conservatorium hosted the National Music Camp (Australian Youth Orchestra's annual summer school, founded by Bishop), which is Australia's largest annual musical event. Non-traditional research activities range across performance studies (classical, jazz, pop and electronica), composition, music curatorial studies, music industry entrepreneurship, and digital arts and related multi-media. The Conservatorium is co-host to two research aggregations: the Sia Furler Institute for Contemporary Music and Media, and the JM Coetzee Centre for Creative Practice. ==Academic programs== The Elder Conservatorium of Music has been awarding degrees and diplomas in music to both men and women since the end of the nineteenth century. It was originally intended that the degree program be modelled on that at the University of Cambridge."Regulations: Of the Degree of Bachelor of Music", The Adelaide University Calendar for the Academical Year 1885 (Adelaide: W.K. Thomas & Co., 1885), p. 112. It is true that Professor Ives had graduated (albeit as an external candidate) with the MusB degree from Cambridge, and the academic robes are based on those from Cambridge, but the degree programs of the University of Adelaide were – and to a large extent still are – based on the Scottish rather than English model. This reflects the fact that most of the founding fathers of the university were Scots. Furthermore, the Cambridge MusB degree was taken as a second, postgraduate degree, whereas the Elder Conservatorium's BMus degree is a first degree award. Whereas women were not able to graduate from the University of Cambridge until shortly after the Second World War, they were graduating from the Elder Conservatorium of Music (and the University of Adelaide as a whole) fifty years earlier. The Elder Conservatorium offers two main Undergraduate programs, with the following specialisations. Postgraduate awards include Graduate Diplomas in Performance and Pedagogy, and Music Performance; Master's Degrees in Performance Studies and Performance and Pedagogy and Graduate Certificate in Music Teaching. === Undergraduate programs === ==== Diploma in Music ==== * Diploma in Music (Music Production) * Diploma in Music (Song writing & Commercial Music) ==== Bachelor of Music ==== * Bachelor of Music (Classical Voice) * Bachelor of Music (Music Performance – Classical) * Bachelor of Music (Music Composition) * Bachelor of Music (Music Performance – Jazz) * Bachelor of Music (Music Education and Pedagogy) * Bachelor of Music (Musicology) * Bachelor of Music (Popular Music) * Bachelor of Music (Sonic Arts) * Bachelor of Music Advanced * Bachelor of Music Advanced Performance – Classical Voice * Bachelor of Music Advanced Performance – Classical Performance * Bachelor of Music Advanced Performance – Jazz Performance * Bachelor of Music Advanced Creative Arts – Composition * Bachelor of Music Advanced Creative Arts – Popular Music * Bachelor of Music Advanced Creative Arts – Sonic Arts * Bachelor of Music Advanced Research – Musicology * Bachelor of Music Advanced Research – Music Education * Bachelor of Music Theatre ==== Honours ==== * Honours Degree of Bachelor of Music (Classical Voice) * Honours Degree of Bachelor of Music (Music Composition) * Honours Degree of Bachelor of Music (Music Performance – Classical) * Honours Degree of Bachelor of Music (Music Performance – Jazz) * Honours Degree of Bachelor of Music (Musicology) * Honours Degree of Bachelor of Music (Popular Music & Creative Technologies) * Honours Degree of Bachelor of Music (Sonic Arts) === Postgraduate Programs === ==== Graduate Diploma in Music and Master of Music ==== * Classical Performance: Brass (French horn, trumpet, trombone, tuba, euphonium) * Classical Performance: Conducting * Classical Performance: Keyboard (piano, organ, harpsichord) * Classical Performance: Percussion (tuned and untuned classical percussion) * Classical Performance: Strings (violin, viola, cello, double bass, guitar, harp) * Classical Performance: Voice * Classical Performance: Woodwind: (flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, recorder, saxophone) * Jazz Performance (trumpet, trombone, saxophone, guitar, bass, piano, drums, voice) The degree of Master of Philosophy is offered for the specializations of Composition, Musicology, Music Education, Music Performance, Music Performance, Pedagogy and Sonic Arts. Specializations for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy include Composition, Musicology, Music Education, Music Performance and Sonic Arts. ===Associate in Music, University of Adelaide=== Associate in Music, University of Adelaide (AMUA) was a degree conferred by the university. It was initially introduced in 1900 as a diploma course, predating the formation of the Australian Music Examinations Board (AMEB) in 1918. It was phased out in 1972. Notable graduates included: Maude Mary Puddy, (first graduate, 1900); Clytie Hine, 1908; and Arnold Matters, 1926. ===Centre for Aboriginal Studies in Music=== The Centre for Aboriginal Studies in Music (CASM, founded 1972) is located within the Elder Conservatorium, but is one of three units affiliated with the National Centre for Aboriginal Language and Music Studies. ==Facilities== ===Elder Hall=== Elder Hall is one of Australia's concert halls. Building commenced in 1898 and it was officially opened in 1900 by the then Governor of South Australia, Lord Tennyson. Its interior features a hammer-beam roof modelled on the Middle Temple in London, and a three-manual organ built by Casavant Frères of Canada. Elder Hall is the primary focus of the Conservatorium's successful annual concert series. Conservatorium concerts are also given in several other locations, including the Adelaide Town Hall, and St Peter's (Anglican) Cathedral in North Adelaide. ===Electronic Music Unit=== The Electronic Music Unit (EMU) is the hub of music technology, sound production, sonic arts and electronic music at the Elder Conservatorium. Formerly known as the Elder Electronic Music Studio (1962–1994) and the Performing Arts Technology Unit (1994- 2001) it was founded in 1962 as a result of the engagement of Dr. Henk Badings as composer in residence at the Elder Conservatorium. Its facilities include recording studios, computer suites, and a collection of analogue synthesizers dating back to the 1960s. It is also used as a public venue for concerts of contemporary and experimental music. It was the first such studio in Australia. Many composers have been associated with it, including Henk Badings, Peter Tahourdin, Tristram Cary (the designer of the legendary VCS3 synthesizer), Martin Wesley-Smith and Stephen Whittington. EMU offers programs providing knowledge and skills in music technology, such as sound engineering, sound designing for games or films, electronic composition or performance, and software for plug-in development or sound art. ==Performing ensembles== === Classical Choirs === Carl Crossin OAM has been head of Choral Music at the Conservatorium since 2002 when the current choral program was initiated. He is also artistic director and conductor of Adelaide Chamber Singers and was awarded an OAM for his services to music (choral music in particular) in the 2007 Australia Day Honours List. ==== Elder Conservatorium Chorale ==== The Elder Conservatorium Chorale is a mixed voice choir that draws its membership from the Elder Conservatorium of Music, the University of Adelaide at large, other universities, and from the wider community. As well as putting on their own concerts as part of the Elder Conservatorium's Concert Series, the choir regular performs with the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra. ==== Bella Voce ==== Bella Voce is a female voice choir. === Orchestras === ==== Elder Conservatorium Symphony Orchestra ==== The Elder Conservatorium Symphony Orchestra (ECSO), conducted by Luke Dollman, consists mainly of full-time students from the Conservatorium's music programs and also includes some students from other faculties within the university. ==== Elder Conservatorium Wind Orchestra ==== The Elder Conservatorium Wind Orchestra is conducted by Luke Dollman. ==== Elder Conservatorium Chamber Orchestra ==== Founded in 1973 by the late Jiri Tancibudek, the Elder Conservatorium Chamber Orchestra draws on advanced students from the Conservatorium. Currently directed by Elizabeth Layton. === Jazz Ensembles === ==== Adelaide Connection ==== The Adelaide Connection is the Elder Conservatorium's premier Jazz Choir. Under the direction of Anita Wardell, the group consists of between 15 and 18 students and has a mixture of soprano, alto, tenor and bass voices. The Connection have built a repertoire of harmonically sophisticated vocal music, both a cappella and accompanied. The majority of the vocal arrangements focus on close part harmony and complex jazz rhythms and sight reading is a strong focus for this ensemble. To strengthen the students' knowledge of jazz history, chosen repertoire includes music from early jazz choir arrangers such as Gene Puerling to current arrangers such as Darmon Meader and Kerry Marsh. ==== Elder Conservatorium Big Band ==== Under the long time direction of Hal Hall and now Dusty Cox, the Big Band has showcased a broad range of material from the traditions of Basie and Ellington to contemporary music. The ensemble has worked with many 'jazz giants', including James Morrison, Lee Konitz, Errol Buddle, Don Burrows and many others. It has appeared at the Manly Jazz Festival three times; in 1995 it featured at the Monsalvat Jazz Festival, and in 2002 performed at the Wangaratta Jazz Festival. The Big Band has also toured extensively throughout South Australia and in 1994 it produced a CD, Live at the Walker's Arms and completed a studio recording in 2008. ==== Elder Conservatorium Latin Jazz Ensemble ==== The Latin Jazz Ensemble, directed by Mark Ferguson, was formed in 2009 as the Latin Ensemble to replace three previous student ensembles; Big Band 3, the Jazz Percussion Ensemble and the Keyboard Ensemble. It is a training ensemble; a stepping stone into the Big Band 1. In 2012 it was rebadged as the Cuban Ensemble and the repertoire now focuses on music from the Caribbean, Colombia and New Orleans. === Elder Conservatorium Guitar Ensemble === The Elder Conservatorium Guitar Ensemble is directed by Oliver Fartach-Naini constitutes a core component of the Elder Conservatorium's classical guitar program. Most of its members are full-time music students. == Institutional links == The Elder Conservatorium is affiliated with music institutions including the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, the Australian String Quartet and the State Opera of South Australia. === Adelaide Symphony Orchestra === The Adelaide Symphony Orchestra (ASO) is South Australia's largest performing arts organisation, established in 1936. The orchestra, which is based a short walk from the Conservatorium, provides opportunities for occasional training experience for selected classical performance and composition students. A recent initiative provides for the joining of forces between the ASO and the Elder Conservatorium to offer a conducting program. It is the first time an Australian university and orchestra have collaborated on such a degree program for conductors. Students can study for a Master of Music degree, a Graduate Diploma, or do an Honours year majoring conducting. === Australian String Quartet === The Australian String Quartet (ASQ) is Quartet-in-Residence at the University of Adelaide. Collaborative activities include performances in the Elder Hall lunch hour and evening series concerts, composer forums, chamber music workshops, participation in 1:1 teaching and mentoring opportunities. === State Opera of South Australia === State Opera of South Australia (SOSA) is a professional opera company in Adelaide, South Australia, established in 1976. Each year, the State Opera presents at least two major operatic productions at the Adelaide Festival Theatre as well as producing or supporting other smaller productions in the Opera Studio at Netley. Conservatorium graduates in Classical Voice often find employment as professional singers with the State Opera, usually through the Young Artists program, and most of SOSA's current principal singers and many of its chorus are Conservatorium graduates. In addition, the Conservatorium has recently established an ongoing partnership with SOSA that offers student internships and produces a full operatic production each year. This collaboration involves both the Conservatorium's Classical Voice cohort and the symphony orchestra. ==Sources== *Bridges, Doreen: More Than a Musician: a life of E. Harold Davies (Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2006) 185pp. *W. D. K. Duncan and R. A. Leonard: Chapter 4, 'The Music Men' in The University of Adelaide 1874-1974 (Adelaide: Rigby, 1973) 203pp. *Lauer, Helena: The role of the first five Elder Professors in the development of music in the Elder Conservatorium, 1885-1985 (MA diss.; University of Adelaide, 1998), 192pp. *Symons, Christopher: John Bishop: a life for music (Melbourne: Hyland House Publishing, 1989) 336pp. *Edgeloe, Victor: The Language of Human Feeling: A Brief History of Music in the University of Adelaide (Adelaide : University of Adelaide, 1985) 89pp. *University of Adelaide Archives: Series 108 - University of Adelaide Calendars. ==External links== The Elder Conservatorium of Music Retrieved 4 January 2021. Category:Music schools in Australia Category:Education in Adelaide Category:University of Adelaide Category:South Australian Heritage Register Category:Educational institutions established in 1883 Category:Australian vocational education and training providers Category:1883 establishments in Australia |
Steel Vengeance, formerly known as Mean Streak, is a steel roller coaster at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio. The roller coaster, originally constructed by Dinn Corporation as a wooden roller coaster, was rebuilt by Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC) and opened to the public on May 5, 2018. It is a hybrid coaster, using RMC's steel I-Box track and a significant portion of Mean Streak's former support structure. Upon completion, Steel Vengeance set 10 world records, including those for the tallest, fastest, and longest hybrid roller coaster. Mean Streak opened to the public on May 11, 1991, as the tallest wooden coaster in the world with the longest drop height. After more than 25 years of operation, Cedar Point closed Mean Streak on September 16, 2016, casting doubt and uncertainty regarding the ride's future. Over time, the park dropped subtle hints about a possible track conversion, which was officially confirmed in August 2017. It was marketed as the world's first hybrid hypercoaster – a wooden and steel roller coaster at least in height – and reemerged as Steel Vengeance. A minor collision on opening day led to a temporary closure and later modifications from RMC. == History == === Wooden roller coaster === Cedar Point revealed in 1990 that a new roller coaster would be built for the 1991 season. It was officially named Mean Streak on October 24, 1990. Construction began two months earlier in late August 1990 with land preparation. It continued through the rest of the year and spring of the following year. Mean Streak opened with the park's seasonal debut on May 11, 1991, in the Frontiertown section of the park behind one of Cedar Point & Lake Erie Railroad's stations. The ride's media day press conference was held on May 22, 1991. Mean Streak was one of eleven roller coasters designed and manufactured by Ohio-based Dinn Corporation before the company went out of business in 1992. It was a twister coaster model designed by Curtis D. Summers, and the ride cost $7.5 million to construct. In September 2010, a small section caught fire, which was quickly contained by firefighters to a small portion of the ride. === Hybrid refurbishment === On August 1, 2016, Cedar Point announced that Mean Streak would offer its last rides to the public on September 16, 2016. Park officials, however, declined to confirm that the ride was being torn down. Following its closure, unconfirmed rumors emerged that the roller coaster was being refurbished by Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC), a manufacturing company well known for its restoration work on existing wooden roller coasters. Cedar Point began teasing the public on the ride's future with the release of an 18-second teaser video entitled "They're Coming" on April 1, 2017. Cedar Point showed video shots briefly panning several elements of the rumored conversion. Another similar video showing snippets of the new ride was released a few months later in June. Three more videos were released over the summer of 2017, with catchphrases "They're rollin' in like thunder", "There's a score to settle", and "They stake their claim." On August 16, 2017, Cedar Point held an official announcement for Steel Vengeance. It was also announced that a virtual recreation of the ride would be made available in the PC video game, Planet Coaster. Steel Vengeance opened to the public on May 5, 2018, but a minor collision between two trains forced Steel Vengeance to remain closed for most of its opening day. The coaster resumed operation with only a single train while RMC investigated the issue and made modifications. The ride was closed on certain weekday mornings to allow RMC to make repairs. The park temporarily removed the ride from its Fast Lane Plus lineup and considered timed boarding passes as a result of its limited capacity. Normal two-train operation resumed on June 1, 2018. Following an incident on Twisted Timbers at Kings Dominion, where a phone hit a rider in the face during the ride, Cedar Point issued a temporary ban on cell phones when entering the ride's queue beginning in August 2018. The ban was lifted the following season after zipper pouches were installed on the trains to safely secure loose items. Metal detectors were installed in the queue, ensuring that all loose articles were placed in these pouches. The pouches were removed in 2020 following the COVID-19 pandemic, and the previous ban was reinstated. ==Characteristics== Mean Streak's wooden track was approximately in length and the height of the lift hill was approximately . It was constructed from more than 1.5 million board feet (4,000 m³) of treated southern yellow pine. In 1994, a trim brake was installed on the first drop reducing its overall speed in an attempt to prevent abnormal track wear and increase ride comfort. Over the years, Mean Streak had been re-tracked several times. Some re-tracking was completed by Martin & Vleminckx. Prior to the 2012 operating season, many sections of track after the first drop were replaced. This was the most significant work done on the ride since it opened. Also, in 2012, a portion of the queue was removed to make room for a new building. The building is located in the infield of Mean Streak and is used for the HalloWeekends haunted house, Eden Musee. It is also used for storage during the off-season and summer. Philadelphia Toboggan Coasters (PTC) manufactured three trains for Mean Streak. Each train had seven cars with riders arranged two across in two rows for a total of 28 riders per train. The minimum height required to ride was , and guests were secured by an individual ratcheting lap bar and seat belt. During the 2011–2012 off-season, all three trains were sent to PTC's headquarters for maintenance and refurbishment. After the conversion to Steel Vengeance, the coaster's track length was extended to and the ride's peak height was increased to . Its three new trains are each based on a character from the themed backstory of the ride: Jackson "Blackjack" Chamberlain, Chess "Wild One" Watkins, and Wyatt "Digger" Dempsey." Statistic Mean Streak Steel Vengeance Operating years May 11, 1991 – September 16, 2016 May 5, 2018 – present Manufacturer Dinn Corporation Rocky Mountain Construction Designer Curtis D. Summers Alan Schilke Track Type Wood Steel Height Drop Length Speed Duration 3:13 2:30 Inversions 0 4 Height Requirement 48 inches 52 inches ==Ride experience== ===Mean Streak=== After leaving the station, the Mean Streak train passed through the storage tracks and made a 180-degree turn to the right, before ascending the lift hill. After cresting the top of the hill, the train dropped at a 52-degree-angle, reaching a top speed of . While dropping, riders went through a set of trim brakes on the first drop. Riders then went through a twisted turnaround followed by a small airtime hill, and then another twisted turnaround. The train maneuvered over the lift hill and dipped down to the right. After that, the train traveled through the ride's structure and down another hill, turning to the left into the mid-course brake run. The train then dipped down to the left into another airtime hill. Riders then went through several small airtime hills and turned through the ride's structure followed by the final brake run. One cycle of the ride lasted 3 minutes and 13 seconds, making it the former longest duration of any roller coaster at Cedar Point. When Mean Streak opened in 1991, it was the tallest wooden roller coaster in the world and featured the longest drop. Upon closure in 2016, Mean Streak had the seventh tallest lift, the tenth fastest speed, the fourth longest track-length and the seventh longest drop. ===Steel Vengeance=== thumb|upright=1.0|Steel Vengeance in the background After leaving the station, the train makes a 180 degree right turn, passes over two small bunny hills, and begins its ascent up the chain lift hill. After cresting the top of the lift hill, the train drops at a 90-degree angle, reaching its maximum speed of . After this drop, the train traverses a small airtime hill, followed by a climb into a larger airtime hill, which drops riders slightly to the right. Next, the train climbs up a left outward banked hill, dips slightly right, and passes over another small airtime hill, which leads to the first inversion, a zero-g roll. thumb|left|upright=1.0|A train entering the first inversion After this, the train dips right, passes underneath the lift hill, and traverses an overbanked right turn, which leads into the second inversion, a half stall, that sees the train pass through the lift hill structure for a second time. Then, the train dips straight, passes over a small airtime hill, and climbs up a hill. The train then makes an upward left-hand turn, which leads to the mid- course brake run. Following this, the train makes another sharp left turn into a short, steep drop slightly to the left. Next, the train navigates an upward, slightly overbanked turn to the left, traverses another airtime hill, then upward into a slightly overbanked left turn. This is followed by a small drop into a high-speed overbanked left turn, which leads into the third inversion, a zero-g roll. Next is a double-up into another high-speed overbanked left turn, which leads into the fourth inversion, a final zero-g roll. Next, another overbanked left turn into an airtime hill, followed by four more airtime hills, which lead to the final brake run back into the station. One cycle of the ride lasts 2 minutes and 30 seconds. ==World records== Steel Vengeance broke 10 world records when it opened, some of which have since been broken. Past records: * World's tallest hybrid * World's fastest hybrid roller coaster at * World's steepest drop on a hybrid roller coaster at 90 degrees * World's longest drop on a hybrid roller coaster at * Most inversions on a hybrid roller coaster at 4 Current records: * World's longest hybrid roller coaster at * Fastest airtime hill on a hybrid roller coaster at * Most airtime on a hybrid roller coaster at 27.2 seconds * Most airtime on any roller coaster at 27.2 seconds * World's first "hyper-hybrid" roller coaster == Incidents == thumb|right|upright=0.9|Free lockers for personal belongings near entrance * During opening day on May 5, 2018, Steel Vengeance was temporarily closed following a minor collision between two trains. As a train was reentering the station, it "lightly bumped" another parked train. Four riders were treated for minor injuries and later returned to the park. * On July 21, 2018, a 17-year-old boy was arrested and charged with a misdemeanor for throwing a hot sauce packet at a moving train. Seven people were treated by the park's EMS after the packet exploded and hit them in the face and eyes. * On August 10, 2018, a tire from the drive system located near the brake run became detached and landed near the queue. The ride was then evacuated and reopened later that same evening. ==Reception== Writers from The Pantagraph stated that Mean Streak was "the best-kept-secret at Cedar Point," as it was located at the very back of the park. The ride was also featured on the Today show in 1992 in connection with the 100th anniversary of roller coasters. Mean Streak had been ranked as one of the most popular wooden roller coasters in the world. Amusement Today magazine's Golden Ticket Awards ranked Mean Streak as one of the world's 50 best wooden roller coasters nine times from 1998 to 2012. Steel Vengeance received the Golden Ticket Award for Best New Ride in 2018. It has also been ranked among the top 50 steel coasters every year since its reopening, except in 2020, when the Golden Ticket Awards were not held. ==See also== * Twisted Timbers – a roller coaster at sister park Kings Dominion that underwent a similar conversion. ==References== ==External links== * Steel Vengeance at Rocky Mountain Construction Category:Roller coasters in Ohio Category:Cedar Point Category:Hybrid roller coasters Category:Roller coasters operated by Cedar Fair Category:1991 establishments in Ohio Category:Best New Ride winners |
Eureka Seven, known in Japan as , is a 2005 Japanese anime series created by Bones. The series was directed by Tomoki Kyoda, with series composition by Dai Satō, character designs by Kenichi Yoshida and music by Naoki Satō. Eureka Seven tells the story of Renton Thurston and the outlaw group Gekkostate, his relationship with the enigmatic mecha pilot Eureka, and the mystery of the Coralians. The fifty-episode series aired in Japan on MBS between April 2005 and April 2006. It was licensed by Funimation in North America, Madman Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand and by Anime Limited in the United Kingdom for English home video releases. The series spawned six manga adaptations, a light novel, three video games and a feature-length anime film which was released in Japan in April 2009. One of the manga titled Eureka Seven: AO which was serialized in Shōnen Ace between January 2012 and October 2013, was further adapted into an anime series which aired twenty-four episodes in Japan between April and November 2012. Eureka Seven was well received by critics and earned several awards at numerous award shows in Japan, most notably the 2006 Tokyo International Anime Fair. ==Overview== ===Setting=== ; Scub Coral : Eureka Seven takes place in the year 12005 and it has been 10,000 years after humanity has made a mass exodus into space, due to the arrival of the , an intelligent, sentient life who merged with the planet, forcing the humans to abandon it. In the current timeline, the remnants of humanity are now settled on an unknown planet (actually a terraformed Earth) known as the Land of Kanan, but the majority of the surface of this planet is now covered by a rock-like surface formed by the Scub Coral. The Scub Coral inhabited the Planet until the return of humans. The theory that the Scub Coral is an intelligent life form was proposed by the scientist Adroc Thurston, who also claimed the Scub is looking for mutual co-existence with humanity. All theories and information about the Scub Coral being a sentient being are kept from the general population. In addition to being the surface of the planet, the Scub Coral has several physical manifestations, called , that are observed throughout the series. These manifestations are either natural occurrences or a response to attacks from humans. The manifestations are: ; Command Cluster Coralian : The Command Cluster is a large concentration of the Scub Coral which acts as the central mind for the rest of its "body". It stores all the information the Scub has collected over the last 10,000 years, and keeps the rest of the Scub Coral in a dormant state. ; Kute-class Coralian : A Kute-class is massive sphere of concentrated energy that materializes suddenly in the skies. Though it is a rare natural occurrence, they can be artificially triggered by causing heavy damage to the Scub Coral. The disappearance of a Kute causes a massive release of energy, ravaging the surrounding landscape and lowering the Trapar count in the area to almost non-existent levels. ; Antibody Coralians : Antibody Coralians are, as the name suggests, creatures created by the Scub Coral to destroy anything nearby that might be causing it harm. They are unleashed in massive swarms through a Kute-class Coralian when the Scub Coral is threatened or attacked. These antibodies can range in size from as small as a wheelbarrow, or as large as a bomber plane. Their shapes vary wildly, from eyeballs to flying slugs to giant hovering flower-like objects. Most forms are based on the sea creatures they absorbed when they just started their 'growth'. Their powers are: sending lasers in profusion from their bodies, thus being able to destroy large aircraft, burrowing into a victim's body and imploding it (unconfirmed), and creating a spherical void, which makes anything within its surface area to vanish. Antibody Coralians generally appear in response to deliberate attacks on the Scub Coral. They appear for 1246 seconds (20 minutes 46 seconds) - which is the amount of time the Seven Swell phenomenon is active. After those 1246 seconds, they crumble to dust. Their appearances are that of basic invertebrates such as flat worms, mollusks, and cnidaria. One of each kind appears in Another Century's Episode 3: The Final and Super Robot Wars Z. ; Human-form Coralians : Human-form Coralians are beings created by the Scub Coral in the form of humans. They are regarded by scientists as emissaries of the Scub Coral, sent to learn about humanity. Humans have attempted to create their own artificial human-form Coralians, but the results are often less than satisfactory. As shown with Eureka in the sequel series, human-form Coralians are biologically capable of reproducing the same way as humans do; she gave birth to a daughter and son. However, due to her children being Human-Coralian hybrids, the high level of Trapar would be too dangerous for them. ; Trapar waves and lifting : In Eureka Seven, as a result of the Scub Coral covering the planet, the atmosphere is permeated by an enigmatic energy known as , dubbed waves for short. Norbu, the Vodarac leader, states that all thought carries with it energy. As a result, a sentient life form on the scale of the Scub Coral produces a tremendous amount of energy. The most important use of Trapar energy is its use as a method of propulsion for flight-capable vehicles. : Though Trapar-propelled airships are relatively common, using Trapar waves for is their predominant use. Lifting uses surfboard-like devices called "reflection boards" ( for short) to ride Trapar waves in a manner similar to surfing, and is a popular sport in the series. The most grandiose use of Trapar—massive humanoid fightercraft—are a recent development, made possible by the discovery of bizarre alien life-forms within the Scub Coral. ===Plot=== The series focuses on Renton Thurston, the fourteen-year-old son of Adrock Thurston, a military researcher who died saving the world. He lives what he considers a boring life with his grandfather in a boring town. He loves lifting, a sport similar to surfing but with trapar, a substance abundant throughout the air, as the medium. He dreams of joining the renegade group Gekkostate, led by his idol Holland Novak, a legendary lifter. An opportunity to do so literally falls into his lap when a large mechanical robot, called the Nirvash type ZERO, and Eureka, its pilot and a member of Gekkostate, crash into Renton's room. Renton's grandfather orders him to deliver a special part to the Nirvash called the "Amita Drive", which releases the immense power dormant within the type ZERO called the "Seven Swell Phenomenon". Afterwards, Renton is invited to join Gekkostate, where he quickly discovers that the behind-the-scenes life of Gekkostate is hardly as glamorous or as interesting as printed in the glossy pages of their magazine, ray=out. Only one thing makes it all worthwhile for him: the presence of Eureka, the mysterious pilot of the Nirvash. Renton, Eureka, and the Gekkostate embark on an adventure that will shape their future as well as the world's. ==Development== The series was made by Bones and co-produced by Bandai Entertainment. Bandai Entertainment provided the title and handled the creative aspects of the series. Bandai had originally proposed a mecha anime series to the animation studio Bones. The studio had initially rejected it, but later reversed its position because it had already planned to create an anime using mecha designs by Shoji Kawamori. With the appointment of director Tomoki Kyoda and writer Dai Satō, Bandai's proposal was more or less scrapped and the staff began work on their own series that would become Eureka Seven. While conceptualizing Eureka Seven, Kyoda "wanted something that reflected the music and the subculture of his generation—and a love story." As such the show contains several references from music of the 1980s and the 1990s, and almost all of the show's episodes are named after real songs, composed by both Japanese and foreign artists. The director wished to design the series as one that would at first focus on the personal elements and conflicts of the characters, then subsequently move the framework into a broader scale and perspective. The series' two halves each have their own very clear focus that reflects this design choice. With the premise of the surfer robots in mind, Satō interviewed several real-life surfers and came to conclusion that they are close to nature. From this perception, he envisioned the environmental thematic as central point of the story. He said "I thought it might be an effective message for children, especially in Japan. It's pretty veiled. I didn't want to be preachy." ==Release== ===Anime=== Eureka Seven consists of fifty episodes which aired from April 17, 2005, to April 2, 2006, on the Mainichi Broadcasting System and Tokyo Broadcasting System networks. Eureka Seven was available for online viewing on the Adult Swim Fix, Adult Swim's online video service before its televised debut on the Adult Swim channel between April 16, 2006, and ended on April 29, 2007. Adult Swim traditionally cut down the opening and ending themes from each episode to fit the series to American television's time restraints, which resulted in the final episode's first airing having actual content cut from it as the episode originally had no theme song sequences; it was re-aired properly the following week. In Canada, Eureka Seven premiered on YTV's Bionix block on September 8, 2006. Bandai Entertainment and its affiliates distributed the English version of Eureka Seven. It was released in the United States and Canada by Bandai Visual USA, in the United Kingdom by Beez Entertainment, and in Australia by Madman Entertainment. The first translated Region 1 DVD volume of the series was released on April 25, 2006, in the U.S., while the European Region 2 version was released on September 25, 2006. The English version was produced by Bang Zoom! Entertainment in Burbank, California. Following the 2012 closure of Bandai Entertainment, Funimation acquired the rights to the TV series and re- released the series on Blu-ray and DVD in 2014. An anime sequel titled Eureka Seven: AO began airing on April 12, 2012, and ended on November 20, 2012. There is a total of 24 episodes. It has been released in Japan on Blu-ray and DVD, along with an OVA titled "The Flower Fields of Jungfrau". On May 16, 2013, Funimation announced the official release date in English dub. The first twelve dubbed episodes were released on DVD/Blu-ray on August 13, 2013, and the rest of the series released on October 15, 2013. On January 6, 2014, Manga Entertainment had released the first half of the series. ===Music=== Eureka Seven uses ten pieces of theme music. The opening themes of Eureka Seven are "Days" by Flow (episodes 1–13), by Home Made Kazoku (episodes 14–26), , by Bivattchee (episodes 27–32, 34–39) and "Sakura" by Nirgilis (episodes 40–49). The ending themes are by Kozue Takada (episodes 1–13, 26), "Fly Away", by Asami Izawa (episodes 14–25), "Tip Taps Tip", by Halcali (episodes 27–39) and "Canvas", by Coolon (episodes 40–49). The two insert songs are "Storywriter", by Supercar and , by Denki Groove (episode 50). The soundtrack music is available on three different albums composed by Naoki Satō and a variety of other artists who composed insert songs used in the series. The first and second soundtrack albums were released on November 2, 2005 and April 5, 2006, respectively. The third soundtrack, titled Eureka Seven: Complete Best include the full-length versions of the opening and ending themes for both the series and game, as well as the insert song for the final episode. The anime adaptation of Eureka Seven: AO uses six pieces of theme music. For the 13 first episodes, the opening theme is "Escape" performed by Hemenway and the ending theme is "stand by me" by Stereopony. Starting with episode 14, the opening theme changes to performed by FLOW and the ending theme changes to performed by joy. The two insert songs are "Parallel Sign" and "Seven Swell", both performed by LAMA. ==Media== ===Manga=== A manga adaptation of the original anime was created by Jinsei Kataoka and Kazuma Kondou. The manga was published by Kadokawa Shoten and began serialization in Monthly Shōnen Ace from the March 2005 issue and ended in the January 2007 issue, with a total of 23 chapters. The chapters were later compiled into six volumes. Viz Media published the manga digitally. A second manga titled by Miki Kizuki, features the protagonists of the video games New Wave and New Vision. It was published by Kadokawa Shoten and serialized in Comptiq magazine. Two volumes were released in Japan on November 7, 2005, and September 26, 2006, respectively. Viz Media also published this series digitally. A manga adapting a proposed alternative ending of the series, titled Psalms of Planets Eureka Seven New Order was serialized in Comptiq by Kadokawa Shoten between June 2012 and May 2013 and compiled into two volumes. On December 22, 2011, Kadokawa Shoten's Monthly Shōnen Ace magazine announced that a sequel manga titled Eureka Seven: AO based on the sequel series would be launched in their January 2012 issue. It featured an original story by Bones and was illustrated by Yūichi Katō. The manga began in January 2012, and concluded in October 2013, with a total of 21 chapters spanning over five volumes. A spin-off manga titled Eureka Seven AO - Save a Prayer began in February in Kadokawa Shoten's Newtype A and concluded in June 2013, and focuses on a girl named Yuna and her two friends as they make their way from becoming trainees in Generation Bleu's Headquarters. It was compiled into two volumes. A manga titled Eureka Seven nAnO was published as a 4koma in Kadokawa Shoten's 4-koma Nano A from July 2012 to January 2013, and featured characters from the AO series. It was compiled into one volume. ===Light novel=== A light novel series written by Tomonori Sugihara and illustrated by Robin Kishiwada was published by Kadokawa Shoten under their male oriented Sneaker Bunko label in 2005 and 2006. Bandai Entertainment released all four volumed in English between 2009 and 2011. A novelization of the film Pocketful of Rainbows sharing the same name, also written by Tomonori Sugihara and illustrated by Hiroki Kazui and Seiji was released in Japan on May 1, 2009. ===Video games=== Eureka Seven has four video games, developed by Bandai and later Namco Bandai Games. The first to be released was , which was released in Japan on October 27, 2005, and in North America on October 24, 2006. The game features a different cast of characters and takes place two years before the anime. A sequel, , was released in Japan on May 11, 2006, and in North America on April 17, 2007. New Vision takes place two years after the events of New Wave. Both games were released on the PlayStation 2 and feature the theme song "Realize", sung by Flow. A PlayStation Portable game sharing the same name of the anime was released on April 6, 2006, in Japan. This game is based on the events from the first half of the show. An action game based on the AO sequel series, Eureka Seven: AO Attack the Legend, was released on the PlayStation 3 on September 20, 2012. ===Films=== A theatrical adaptation, , was first announced in the May 2008 issue of Newtype; it was publicly released on April 25, 2009, during Golden Week, with the animation production handled by Kinema Citrus."Eureka Seven Movie's Title, Release Date Announced". Anime News Network (December 11, 2008). Retrieved on December 11, 2008. It contained a new mythos in an alternative universe, despite still featuring Renton and Eureka as the main characters, and confirming the events of the original series happened in a parallel world.At Anime Expo 2009, Bandai announced that it would be releasing the film. The main theme song for the film is "Space Rock", by iLL. Good Night, Sleep Tight, Young Lovers screened at select theaters nationwide in the U.S. for a one night–only special event on September 24, 2009, courtesy of Fathom Events. The movie also played at the Fantasia festival in Montreal on July 28, 2009. A second three-part theatrical adaptation, , was announced on March 17, 2017. The film trilogy takes place before and during the events of the original series, as well as having an original story. The first movie, , was released on September 16, 2017. It shows the "First Summer of Love" phenomenon, previously only alluded to in the series and retells the "Charles and Ray" arc (mainly episodes 22–27) of the original. The second film, taking place in an alternative universe and focusing on Anemone, was released on November 10, 2018, under the title . The last film, titled was originally planned for release in 2019, but was delayed to early summer 2021. It was delayed again to November 26, 2021. At Anime Boston, Masahiko Minami confirmed that the first film of the trilogy will premiere in Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand in Fall 2017, and that Funimation will distribute the film in the United States. Madman Entertainment distributed the film in Australia and New Zealand. Anime Limited distributed the film in the UK. Odex distributed the film in Southeast Asian territories. ==Reception== Towards the end of its original Japanese run, Eureka Seven won multiple awards at the 2006 Tokyo International Anime Fair, including Best Television Series, Best Screenplay for Dai Satō, and Best Character Designs for Kenichi Yoshida. Yoshida, the series' main animator and character designer, also received an individual award at the 10th Animation Kobe Awards in September 2005. The series also won an award at the 20th Digital Content Grand Prix in Japan in January 2006. At the Anime Expo 2006 SPJA Awards, Eureka Seven won the award for Best Television Series, and Best Female Character for Eureka. Anime Insider voted it "Best DVD Series of the Year" in 2006.Anime Insider Best of the Best. Tokyopop blog entry (2006). Retrieved on 2007-04-07. During a conference in 2010, writer Dai Satō claimed that many anime fans dismissed Eureka Seven as a clone of Neon Genesis Evangelion without even watching it. The sequel series, Eureka Seven: AO, was met with mixed-to-negative reviews from fans and critics, who criticized the series for contradicting themes of Eureka Seven; primarily the fact Renton and Eureka's children cant survive in the 22nd century due hybrids reacting badly to Trapar. It was however awarded the jury selection prize by the 17th Japan Media Arts Festival Awards. ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * Series outline on MBS * Eureka Seven Category:Fiction set in the 7th millennium or beyond Category:2005 Japanese novels Category:2005 manga Category:2005 anime television series debuts Category:2009 anime films Category:2012 anime television series debuts Category:2017 anime films Category:Anime series Category:Adventure anime and manga Category:Anime with original screenplays Category:Animeism Category:Aniplex Category:Bandai Entertainment anime titles Category:Bandai Entertainment manga titles Category:Bandai Namco franchises Category:Bandai Visual Category:Bones (studio) Category:Coming-of-age anime and manga Category:Environmental television Category:Fictional motorsports in anime and manga Category:Funimation Category:Kadokawa Shoten manga Category:Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko Category:Kinema Citrus Category:Light novels Category:Mainichi Broadcasting System original programming Category:Mecha anime and manga Category:Romance anime and manga Category:Films with screenplays by Shō Aikawa Category:Shōnen manga Category:TBS Television (Japan) original programming Category:Toonami Category:Films scored by Naoki Satō Category:Viz Media manga |
V: The Final Battle (abbreviated as V:TFB) is a 1984 American TV miniseries. It is a sequel to the 1983 miniseries V written by Kenneth Johnson about aliens known as "The Visitors" trying to take over Earth. Johnson parted ways with NBC over creative differences regarding the content of the miniseries; his writing contribution is credited under the pseudonym "Lillian Weezer". V: The Final Battle is included in the V novelization written by A. C. Crispin. ==Synopsis== V: The Final Battle was played out over three episodes, set several months after the events of the original miniseries. ===Part 1=== Teleplay by Brian Taggert and Peggy Goldman Story by Lillian Weezer & Peggy Goldman & Faustus Buck (pseudonym for Craig Faustus Buck) & Diane Frolov and Harry & Renee Longstreet The first episode begins with a nightmare showing Mike Donovan and his son, Sean, trying to escape from a Visitor mother-ship with Visitor troopers in pursuit. Mike is knocked down by laser fire, Sean is shot in the back and apparently killed. Juliet rouses Mike from his sleep as the Resistance prepares for a raid on a Visitor processing plant to rescue humans who have been repackaged into food cocoons. The raid is easily thwarted at the plant perimeter, due to the Visitors' advanced armor and security measures. In the raid's debriefing at the Resistance hideout, the team bickers over how things went wrong. Robin Maxwell's pregnancy is also at an advanced stage but she has told nobody that the father is a Visitor. The rebels later get wind of a major event to be held at the Los Angeles Medical Center, where John is expected to announce a medical breakthrough—a universal cancer cure. Due to the extensive media coverage, the rebels infiltrate the hospital. While he can provide uniforms for the infiltration, Martin however cannot supply weapons, as all Visitor armories are heavily guarded. The rebels scout the facility and secure medical supplies. Meanwhile, after discovering that the Visitors are indeed reptilian, Robin insists on an abortion with Juliet's help. However, the abortion is canceled because of potentially fatal complications to Robin and she is therefore forced to continue with the pregnancy to full term. Meanwhile, television reporter Kristine Walsh begins to doubt her association with the Visitors, after Mike's claim that Sean is a captive aboard the mother-ship. Her suspicions are aroused even more after a well-known doctor makes a stinging criticism about her being the Visitors' puppet spokesperson, but then days later gives her a tremendously warm reception (due to Diana's subjecting him to her conversion process). During a scouting mission, the rebels succeed in capturing Willie, a friendly Visitor technician, whom they bring to their hideout for study. Willie's human girlfriend, Harmony, then makes a case among the rebels for humane treatment of the prisoner. The hospital raid is a success, with Juliet unmasking John's true, reptilian nature. Martin and Lorraine, another member of the Fifth Column, prevent the mother-ship from cutting off the live feed. Diana also kills Kristine after she disobeys her orders to report the incident as a terrorist hoax and instead makes a desperate call for rebellion. After a firefight inside the hospital corridors, the rebels escape with help from the Fifth Column, who have assigned a transport crew to "capture" them; however, it is a Pyrrhic victory, as Juliet, now separated from the group, is captured during her attempt to escape from the hospital. After the fiasco of the previous evening Diana has the scene re- enacted under heavy security to be passed off as the actual broadcast, with the audience held at gunpoint and Eleanor DuPres eagerly taking Kristine's place reporting the event. As it concludes, Stephen tells John and Diana they have the location of the resistance base and that troops are on their way. On the mothership, Juliet is undergoing the conversion process. As she endures the torture, Diana watches, claiming Juliet will be her masterpiece. ===Part 2=== Teleplay by Brian Taggert and Diane Frolov Story by Lillian Weezer & Diane Frolov & Peggy Goldman & Faustus Buck Two mercenaries, Ham Tyler and associate Chris Farber, join the Resistance. Ham reveals the existence of an international resistance force that can supply armor-piercing ammunition plus other effective weapons for the war. The Visitors storm the hideout, but the rebels escape with the help of Tyler and Farber and further advance-warning from Ruby, who now works at the Visitors' security headquarters as a cleaner. They relocate to an old western movie studio. Juliet's brainwashing continues in the conversion chamber. The process inflicts horrifying hallucinations on Juliet's mind, designed to brainwash her into a Visitor ally. However, she proves quite strong, forcing Diana to continually increase the intensity of the process. This eventually causes Juliet to go into cardiac arrest and nearly die. Despite Juliet's failing health, she is forced to undergo another conversion session. Frustrated with Juliet's resistance, Diana takes the power of the chamber to maximum. Now in intense agony, Juliet struggles to resist. Just as her heart is beginning to give out, Juliet breaks and Diana stops the session. Juliet collapses to the ground, seemingly converted. After the session, Mike Donovan bursts in and attempts to shoot Diana, but Jake kills him in time. Seeing this, however, appears to snap Juliet out of her brainwashing. It is later revealed that the man appearing to be Mike is a Fifth Column agent in disguise. Because of the danger of Fifth Column infiltration (especially now with the arrival of Diana's superior, Squadron Commander Pamela), Martin suggests that all major prisoners be transferred from the mother-ship to the security headquarters on the ground for further protection. Mark's girlfriend, Maggie Blodgett, who has seduced collaborator and Visitor Youth member Daniel Bernstein, brings this information to the rebels, who see the opportunity and rescue Juliet. Daniel, however, kills Ruby after she cuts the power for the laser fencing, a critical part of the operation. Once again in the ranks of the Resistance, Juliet tells the others of a 30-day plan to steal all the water from southern California by means of a water pipeline to a Visitor mothership. With the aid of devices that make their voices similar to those of the Visitors, the rebels scout the facility and prepare to destroy it. Tyler questions Juliet's loyalty, convinced she had been converted. She responds firmly and retains command in front of the others. In private, however, she is mentally scarred from her torture aboard the mothership. She shows signs that the conversion was successful, making her unsure of herself. She finally seeks comfort in Mike's arms. At the same time, Maggie confronts Mark over their relationship in light of her undercover liaison with Daniel. They make peace, and he proposes to her. The attack on the water facility goes as planned, and after explosives are placed a fire-fight ensues between the rebels and the aliens. Mark is wounded and sacrifices his life to cover the escape. Maggie grieves over the loss of her fiancé. Later on, Diana and Stephen appear in a news bulletin along with Sean, whom Stephen had ordered Brian to take out of stasis as a favor to Eleanor. It is a clear invitation for Mike to surrender to them in exchange for his son. Mike gives himself up and is taken on a mothership, while Ham and Julie bring Sean to safety. The rebels relocate to an old city jail afterwards, where their prisoner Willie gradually wins their trust when he helps Robin through her pre-labor stage. A Fifth Column agent named Oliver visits Mike at his cell and offers a suicide pill to prevent him from divulging information about the Resistance and the Fifth Column, in light of Diana's ultra-potent truth serum. Jake kills Oliver and Diana injects Mike with the drug. The effects take place immediately, with Mike forced to compromise Martin, who is present. Martin tries to shoot Diana, but she escapes with the knowledge that he is a Fifth Columnist. Donovan and Martin hide in the mother-ship's air shafts. The episode ends when Robin goes into labor and via a caesarian section gives birth to dizygotic twins—a human looking girl with a forked tongue, and a reptilian boy with blue human-like eyes. ===Part 3=== Teleplay by Brian Taggert and Faustus Buck Story by Lillian Weezer & Faustus Buck & Diane Frolov & Peggy Goldman The first few days after Robin's delivery prove to be challenging for her and the others. The male child dies while the baby girl, Elizabeth, begins to grow at a rapid rate. Juliet and Robert's analysis of the male child's corpse reveals certain bacteria that affected only the boy, despite his proximity to Elizabeth in the uterus. Encouraged by the sudden development, the duo decide to culture the germs as a potential weapon. Mike Donovan and Martin skydive out of the mothership and Martin hides with other ground-based Fifth Columnists. After Mike reaches the jail, the team discuss testing the bacterium, now called the "Red Dust," but firmly reject Ham's suggestion of using Willie as a guinea pig. Instead, the rebels capture Brian at the Bernstein house and frame Daniel. Stephen retaliates by sending Daniel off to be processed as food. The team locks up Brian, and Robin (with Elizabeth in tow) visits him in the middle of the night. However, the family reunion is short, as Robin seeks revenge by throwing a vial of the Red Dust into Brian's holding chamber. The results are fatal. Father Andrew Doyle, the team's resident priest, carries Elizabeth off to safety as the others look at the outcome. While Ham and Mike mull over capturing a Visitor Youth member to be used as a test subject, Juliet enters the chamber and proves the dust is non- lethal to humans. Father Andrew brings Elizabeth to Diana, who initially welcomes them. Later she murders the priest after reading the Bible, realizing through its words that she is 'vulnerable.' The danger of compromise forces the rebels to evacuate and regroup at a coastal lighthouse complex, where more Red Dust stocks are produced. Ham and Mike get into a physical argument over delivering the stocks to other resistance groups before a vaccine is ready, one that would protect the Fifth Columnists. Martin later asks Mike to stop producing the toxin and reveals the Visitors' contingency plan: using their mothership as a doomsday device if the situation was lost. In light of the new complication the team debate whether to attack. Elias makes the case that attack remains the best chance for saving the world, and the majority of the resistance agree. The planning sessions take place, but Juliet notices Sean overhearing the details. She then tells Mike of the possibility that Sean was converted before the exchange, which Ham later confirms. Sean escapes the hideout to warn the Visitors, but the original plan of using United States Air Force planes to spread the toxin into Earth's atmosphere turns out to be a ruse; the rebels will use hot air balloons instead. Martin and a number of Fifth Column members arrive at the complex aboard a Visitor tanker vehicle, which will carry a stock of Red Dust for dispersal aboard the mothership. They are later given a vaccine for the Red Dust. The raid begins in earnest and Sean's false information leads the bulk of the Visitor forces to secure all airbases for an attack that never arrives. The tanker strike team manages to steal aboard the mother-ship, where Mike closes all security feeds as the rest of the team pump the toxin into the ventilation system. Robert, Ham, and Chris lead the assault on the Visitor security headquarters. Red Dust mortar blasts eliminate the defenders with no human casualties. Desperate to escape, Stephen kills Eleanor, but Ham takes him down long enough to douse his face with a bag of Red Dust. The balloons' mass dispersal of Red Dust around the world will allow the deadly bacteria to multiply in Earth's ecosystem. The Visitor forces evacuate Earth. Diana activates the doomsday device aboard the Los Angeles ship before shooting John for his refusal to take part in her plan. Mike, Juliet, Elias, and Lorraine get pinned down by Visitor troops in a ventilation tunnel. The Red Dust begins to circulate, killing more soldiers. Martin joins up with them as they face Diana on the bridge. Mike wounds Diana in the shoulder, disarming her. Lorraine and Mike attempt to disarm the auto-destruct sequence. The other rebels and Visitors evacuate the ship while Martin attempts to move it out of the atmosphere beyond Earth orbit. Diana uses her conversion of Juliet to distract her long enough to escape. Elizabeth steps up and stops the countdown with her latent superhuman powers. Martin then brings the mothership back to Earth. ==Cast== === Humans === * Marc Singer as Mike Donovan * Faye Grant as Juliet Parrish * Michael Ironside as Ham Tyler * Mickey Jones as Chris Farber * Thomas Hill as Father Andrew Doyle * Michael Durrell as Robert Maxwell * Viveka Davis as Polly Maxwell * David Packer as Daniel Bernstein * Neva Patterson as Eleanor Donovan Dupres * Blair Tefkin as Robin Maxwell * Michael Wright as Elias Taylor * Jason Bernard as Caleb Taylor * Hansford Rowe as Arthur Dupres * Jenny Sullivan as Kristine Walsh * Diane Civita as Harmony Moore * Denise Galik as Maggie Blodgett * Sandy Simpson as Mark * Eric Johnston as Sean Donovan * Jenny Beck as Elizabeth Maxwell === Visitors === * Jane Badler as Diana * Sarah Douglas as Pamela * Richard Herd as John * Andrew Prine as Stephen * Frank Ashmore as Martin * Robert Englund as Willie * Peter Nelson as Brian * Greta Blackburn as Lorraine * Stack Pierce as Jake ==Reception== Like the first miniseries, V: The Final Battle was successful for NBC. Its three parts averaged a 25.1 rating and 37 share, beating ABC's miniseries The Last Days of Pompeii, which aired on the same days as The Final Battle. Ed Siegel of The Boston Globe stated that The Final Battle was "by far the better" of the two and "spirited escapist entertainment", but still "rather uninspired". He judged both inferior to PBS's Concealed Enemies, which Siegel stated "treats its audience as if it has an IQ above 25." In his review for the New York Times, John J. O'Connor opines how "in its own dizzy way, 'V' is rarely less than compelling," adding that, "the continuing saga is still impressive where it counts most in this sort of science-fiction caper. The overall look and the special effects are remarkably striking, perfectly calibrated for the context of the small television screen." On Rotten Tomatoes, V: The Final Battle has an aggregate score of 69% based on 20 positive and 9 negative critic reviews. The website’s consensus reads: "V tempers its ambitions for the better in this rousing if silly climax, dialing back the awkward allegory while upping the pulpy spectacle." ==Awards and nominations== Year Association Category Result 1984 36th Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Achievement in Makeup Outstanding Film Sound Editing for a Limited Series or a Special Outstanding Individual Achievement - Special Visual Effects 1996 Saturn Award Best Genre Video Release ==References== ==External links== * Kenneth Johnson's Official Site * * Category:1980s American science fiction television series Category:1980s American television miniseries Category:1984 American television series debuts Category:1984 American television series endings Category:Alien invasions in television Category:NBC original programming Category:Saturn Award-winning television series Category:Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios Category:Television sequel films Category:Television shows set in Los Angeles Category:V (franchise) |
Holly Holliday is a recurring fictional character from the Fox musical comedy- drama series, Glee. Portrayed by Gwyneth Paltrow, the character appeared in three episodes during the show's second season and two episodes of the fifth. This was Paltrow's first role on television. Holly was developed by Glee co- creator Ryan Murphy, a personal friend of Paltrow's, who suggested that she showcase her vocal and dancing abilities ahead of the release of her film Country Strong, in which she played a country singer. Introduced as a substitute teacher who takes the place of glee club director Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) while he is ill, she forms a romantic bond with Will, but decides to break up with him and takes a teaching job in another town after realizing that he is still in love with Emma Pillsbury (Jayma Mays). Paltrow's debut performance attracted positive commentary and earned her a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series in 2011. Many reviewers praised her subsequent portrayal of Holly in the "Sexy" episode, preferring it to her first appearance in "The Substitute" installment, though they disagreed over how Paltrow was used. Her final appearance in the "A Night of Neglect" episode was met with divergent reactions. She performed several musical numbers during her appearances, which include critically acclaimed renditions of "Forget You" by Cee Lo Green and "Landslide" by Fleetwood Mac. Paltrow was additionally featured in the 2011 concert film Glee: The 3D Concert Movie. In 2014, she reprised the role for the show's hundredth episode and the following episode. ==Storylines== Holly is a substitute teacher who makes her first appearance on Glee in the second season's seventh episode, "The Substitute". She is filling in at McKinley High School for the ailing Spanish teacher Will (Matthew Morrison), who is also director of the glee club, New Directions. Club member Kurt (Chris Colfer), who had seen her perform "Conjunction Junction" when she subbed for his English class, asks her to also take over Will's glee club rehearsals. Instead of assigning songs, Holly asks the club members what kind of music they would like to perform, and when Puck (Mark Salling) suggests "Forget You", she sings the song and they all join in, except for Rachel (Lea Michele). Holly later wins her over by asking Rachel what she would like to sing that she hasn't been able to, and they perform a number from Chicago together. Holly bonds with Sue (Jane Lynch), who is the acting principal with Principal Figgins (Iqbal Theba) also out sick, and Sue fires the still-ailing Will, making Holly the full-time director of the glee club. When he recovers, Will confronts Holly at school, but she is unwilling to give up her new position. She later discovers she is in over her head when Mercedes (Amber Riley) gets in trouble, and Holly turns to Will for help. She reveals that she was once a more serious teacher like Will until a student punched her in the face, at which point she became far more free spirited. Holly ultimately returns to substitute teaching and Will is reinstated. He assigns the glee club to perform "Singin' in the Rain" on his return, but faced with their dismay at being given another old song, he asks for Holly's help to modernize it, and they all perform a mash-up of it with Rihanna's "Umbrella". Holly later returns to McKinley High as a substitute sex education teacher in the season's fifteenth episode, "Sexy". She informs Will that the members of New Directions are woefully ignorant about sex. He invites her to teach the glee club about safe sex, and she performs a rendition of Joan Jett's "Do You Wanna Touch Me (Oh Yeah)", much to the chagrin of the new head of the celibacy club, guidance counselor Emma (Jayma Mays). Holly advises Puck and Lauren (Ashley Fink) that the sex tape they plan to make is illegal, as both are minors, and helps Brittany (Heather Morris) and Santana (Naya Rivera) start to come to terms with their true feelings for each other, later performing "Landslide" with them in front of the club. When Emma's choice of "Afternoon Delight" as an abstinence song reveals her sexual naivete, her husband Carl (John Stamos) asks Holly for an appointment for him and Emma to work out issues in their sex life. During the counseling session, he reveals that Emma is still a virgin, and in answer to a question from Holly, Emma admits that she may still have feelings for Will. At the end of the episode, Holly begins a relationship with Will. Holly makes her final second-season appearance two episodes later in "A Night of Neglect". She is still dating Will, and suggests to him that in order to help raise funds for the academic decathlon team, the glee club should present a benefit concert at the school that will feature songs by "neglected" artists. Her contribution to the benefit is a performance of Adele's "Turning Tables". At the end of the episode, realizing that he is still in love with Emma, Holly breaks up with Will and takes a several-month substitute teaching job in another town. In January 2014, it was confirmed that Gwyneth Paltrow would reprise her role as Holly for the show's special two-part hundredth episode, among other past guest stars. In the episode, Holly slide through the class after being invited by an apologetic April Rhodes (Kristin Chenoweth) to keep the glee kids and alumni's spirit up by performing. She refuse to follow Will's assignment of redoing the songs they performed and instead sings "Happy". She and April vows to try to save the glee club after seeing Will giving a pep talk to the alumni. In the following episode, it is revealed that she and Sue remain best friends and auditioned for The Amazing Race together, going by the name "Team Gorgeous". She asks Sue to give glee club a chance to slip onto other clubs at school and Sue gives her a week to try. After her performance of "Party All the Time" got parents mad, Will told her to stop trying as he has accepted that Glee is over. Holly enlists Artie Abrams (Kevin McHale) to make a video for Will and his unborn baby filled with the glee club members and alumni's testimonies of what he and the glee club means to them. After Will performs one last time with the kids, Holly asks April to go on a gay boy cruise so that they will get all the attention as they will be the only ladies there. April answers with Holly's signature phrase "i thought you'd never ask". ==Development== thumb|right|The role of Holly Holliday was created specifically for Paltrow (pictured). The role of Holly was created by series co-creator Ryan Murphy specifically for Paltrow, a personal friend. Murphy suggested that she showcase her vocal and dancing talent ahead of the December 2010 release of the film Country Strong, in which Paltrow plays a country singer. Murphy said of Paltrow, "Gwyneth is a great singer. She's done it a little bit but I really want to show it off and show everyone how great she is." It was not the first time Paltrow had sung on screen: she played a karaoke singer in the movie Duets in 2000, and had a number one hit in Australia for her duet of "Cruisin' from its soundtrack. The character was originally set to appear for two episodes, as a love interest for Will Schuester in a love quadrangle with Will, Emma and Carl. Her debut was subsequently reduced to a single episode, and the relationship plot removed. After "The Substitute" episode aired, Murphy expressed interest in having Paltrow return with the right storyline. A few months later, she confirmed she would be seen again on the series, and was initially supposed to appear in episodes fifteen and sixteen, but instead appeared in episodes fifteen and seventeen, "Sexy" and "A Night of Neglect", the second of these being her final appearance. Paltrow initially said about a possible return to Glee in its third season: "No, I don't think so. I don't think I should. Though it's honestly been one of the best jobs I've ever had." She did later state that she would love to come back, and said that Holly was "probably the most fun character I've ever gotten to play". Murphy stated before the second season ended that he had plans for Paltrow to return in season three, though nothing specific has been mentioned since the beginning of the third season. Paltrow, however, was featured in Glee: The 3D Concert Movie after being filmed while she performed "Forget You" as Holly in the 2011 Glee Live! In Concert! tour performances of June 16 and 17, 2011. ==Critical reception== Paltrow's performance in "The Substitute" episode earned her a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series and attracted critical praise. Indeed, at the time, Entertainment Weekly Tim Stack and E! Online's Kristin dos Santos called her appearance Emmy-worthy, with the former rating it among her best performances, and the latter stating that Holly received "some of Glee best-ever one-liners. The A.V. Club Emily VanDerWerff wrote that Holly injected an effortless sense of fun, despite much of her plot being nonsensical. The Atlantic Meghan Brown commented that Paltrow "brought a massive spark to what could have been a one-note role", and her co-author Kevin Fallon wrote that her energetic performance saved an episode that might have been "in shambles without her presence". Robert Canning of IGN noted that Paltrow's casting could have been distracting, but instead she fit the role "seamlessly". Brett Berk of Vanity Fair found her "surprisingly great", and James Poniewozik of Time stated that while her casting was somewhat distracting, she was able to make Holly a sympathetic character without overdoing her neediness and commitment-phobia. However, the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) took exception Paltrow's history classroom scene where she role-plays as Mary Todd Lincoln, which it stated "mocked and trivialized bipolar disorder". Several critics preferred Paltrow's return in the "Sexy" installment to her initial appearance. The Washington Post Emily Yahr felt that she was better integrated into this episode, and Raymund Flandez of the Wall Street Journal called her return "infinitely better" than her first appearance: "Back then, she was a puzzle, a loony bin. Here, she's sly and quick-witted, appropriately adult and seductively saucy in an episode that showcased more of her comedic timing, than her stiff dance skills. All the better for us." Fallon wrote that Paltrow was "if possible, even sassier and sultrier" than before, and felt that she served to anchor a busy episode. In contrast, Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly had mixed feelings about Holly and believed that she dominated screen time. VanDerWerff liked Paltrow's acting, but disliked Holly's interaction with Will, saying they lacked "chemistry". Soraya Roberts of the Daily News disliked her return for prolonging Will and Emma's separation, branding Holly a home-wrecker. She commented that while Paltrow's appearance in "The Substitute" was "relatively fresh", in "Sexy" she was "acting almost like a cardboard cutout version of her former self, overly enunciating her lines [and] treading carefully around her choreography". Poniewozik found all of Paltrow's scenes "labored and ridiculous", and wrote that the actress failed to bring an element of realism to her character. Canning said that "the moment she came on screen the whole episode lit up", and the episode was a "fun and funny showcase for everybody's favorite recurring character", and Futterman echoed him when she called Paltrow "our new favorite cast member". Paltrow's final appearance in the "A Night of Neglect" episode was met with divergent reactions. Both MTV journalist Aly Semigran and Gonzalez approved of Holly's departure, the latter of whom stating that Glee writers gave the character an appropriate ending and rounded out her arc. In contrast, CNN writer Lisa Respers France was dismayed by the character's exit and favored Holly's "memorable" characterization in the episode. The Washington Post Lisa de Moraes expressed interest in a season three return, and Canning described Holly as "charming as ever" in the episode. Myles McNutt, writing for The A.V. Club, felt the installment "captured the occasional awkwardness of Paltrow's presence on the show", and wrote that casting such a prominent actress "has its disadvantages when you know that she's only around on a temporary basis". TVLine correspondent Michael Slezak noted that Will and Emma's romance—and that Paltrow probably was not ready to commit to the series full-time—led to Holly's adieu. Slezak concluded that what he liked about Holly, was that she did not succumb to Will, which, according to Slezak, made him less annoying. ==Musical performances== Paltrow's rendition of Cee Lo Green's "F#@k You", sanitized and retitled "Forget You" and featured on the soundtrack album Glee: The Music, Volume 4, garnered positive critical reception. Anthony Benigno, an editor for the Daily News, and Time James Poniewozik criticized the show for sanitizing the song, but while the latter found it inferior to the original version, the former preferred Paltrow's deeper voice and awarded it an "A". Rolling Stone Erica Futterman felt the censorship of the song did not adversely affect its success, and deemed the performance "charming and sassy". Megan Vick of Billboard favored it as "the most exciting number" of the episode, and Entertainment Weekly Tim Stack went further in his praise: he bestowed a grade of "A+" and lauded it as "one of the most memorable and energetic Glee performances ever, thanks in no small part to Paltrow". Green expressed approval of the rendition. Benigno gave her short performance of "Conjunction Junction" an "A", and described it as "a glorious ten seconds", and granted the installment's mash-up of "Singin' In The Rain / Umbrella" a "B". Stack said that he loved the mash-up and gave it an "A−". Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times appreciated the mash-up's choreography and the manner in which "Paltrow's sassiness undercuts [Morrison's] overripe sweetness", and named it potentially her favorite group number of the second season. "Forget You" reached number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 and twelve on the Canadian Hot 100, and the "Singing in the Rain / Umbrella" peaked at number ten on the Irish Singles Chart. Green's "Fuck You!" entered the top ten of the Hot 100 for the first time following the Glee cover, with sales rising 94% in a week. Most reviewers agreed that the performance of "Do You Wanna Touch Me (Oh Yeah)" was sexy. Benigno was one of these and was entertained by the number, but he thought Holly's "vocals seem oddly subdued trying to imitate Joan Jett's voice" and gave it a "B" grade. Gonzalez gave the same grade and also took issue with the vocals, though she enjoyed the energy. Futterman had a different view of the singing, and said that "Holly can't quite muster Jett's vocal power". Berk gave the song four stars out of five and noted the "amazing hairography", while Roberts called the performance a "leather-clad, hair- whipping mess". Slezak gave the performance an "A" and wrote that Paltrow "completely captured the track's naughty spirit". "Do You Wanna Touch Me (Oh Yeah)" entered the Hot 100 at number fifty-seven, and the Canadian Hot 100 at number sixty-three. There was not much enthusiasm for Morrison and Paltrow's performance of Prince's "Kiss". BuddyTV's Jen Harper noted that "Holly saved the song" for her. Futterman did not "feel the chemistry" until the final kiss. Benigno, on the other hand, said that the chemistry between them was "palpable", called the cover "pretty great", and gave it a "B+". Roberts deemed Paltrow's tango rigid, and The Atlantic author Patrick Burns commented that white people ought to be deterred from performing Prince. He called the music "uninteresting and soulless", and was dismayed that the tango was "just white with white people tango dancing". Flandez, however, enjoyed their dancing and wrote, "The strong holds, the slow cuts, the perfect swivel of hips and the lean-to's were mesmerizingly seductive." "Kiss" charted at number eighty-three on Hot 100, and also made number eighty on the Canadian Hot 100. Paltrow's performance of Fleetwood Mac's "Landslide" received the most praise of the songs in the "Sexy" installment; indeed, both VanDerWerff and Harper named it the episode's best number. Harper noted the "great harmonies" and added, "I got goose bumps." Houston Chronicle contributor Bobby Hankinson called the rendition "gorgeous" and Berk used "perfection"; Berk went above his five star maximum to give the performance six stars. Roberts found the performance "pretty but uninspired", though Flandez called it "a dreamy, perfectly pitched power song of lesbian love" and Poniewozik "surprisingly poignant". Benigno and Slezak both noted that the cover was based on the version by the Dixie Chicks, and gave grades of and "B+" respectively. The "B+" from Gonzalez came with a caveat: she wished that Rivera, rather than Paltrow, had sung the lead vocal because of the meaning the song held for Santana. Stevie Nicks welcomed the cover of "Landslide", and hoped it would bring the Fleetwood Mac's songs to a new generation. She approved of the performance, and said that Paltrow "sang it beautifully". On the Hot 100, the rendition of "Landslide" debuted at number twenty-three;Peak chart positions for season 2 singles in the United States: "Landslide", "Do You Wanna Touch Me (Oh Yeah)", "Animal", and "Kiss" it was at number thirty-five on the Canadian Hot 100. Paltrow's performance of Adele's "Turning Tables" was considered inferior to the original. While Flandez called it a "scene-stealing turn" and commended it visually and vocally, he noted that Paltrow lacks Adele's veracity. Futterman named it her least-favorite of Paltrow's covers to date and said that her vocals "lacked the texture that made Adele's version so heartbreaking." Gonzalez gave the performance her lowest grade of the episode, a "B−", and Semigran opined that while Paltrow is "a nice enough singer," she "in no way has the chops" the piece requires. McNutt characterized the decision to have Paltrow cover "Turning Tables" unfair in comparison to Adele's original, "given that Paltrow's singing is only passable". Slezak, however, said that Paltrow delivered a controlled, understated performance and CNN's Lisa Respers France simply deemed the performance memorable. The version reached number sixty-six in the US and Canada. ==References== Category:Television characters introduced in 2010 Category:Fictional schoolteachers Category:Fictional singers Category:Glee (TV series) characters Category:American female characters in television Category:Female characters in television |
Chesterfield is a town and an unparished area in the Borough of Chesterfield, Derbyshire, England. The town and surrounding area contain 208 listed buildings that are recorded in the National Heritage List for England. Of these, one is listed at Grade I, the highest of the three grades, 14 are at Grade II*, the middle grade, and the others are at Grade II, the lowest grade. Most of the listed buildings are houses, cottages and associated structures, shops, banks and offices, public buildings, farmhouses and farm buildings. The other listed buildings include churches, chapels and items in churchyards, public houses, former mills, a lock on the Chesterfield Canal and a bridge crossing it, lamp posts and lamp standards, a town pump, a former workhouse, former schools, a market hall, cemetery buildings, a memorial hall later used as a museum, statues, four war memorials, a cinema and ballroom, and a bandstand and a conservatory in Queen's Park. __NOTOC__ ==Key== Grade Criteria I Buildings of exceptional interest, sometimes considered to be internationally important II* Particularly important buildings of more than special interest II Buildings of national importance and special interest ==Buildings== Name and location Photograph Date Notes Grade Church of St Mary and All Saints centre The church is in stone, and has been extended and altered through the centuries. The north transept was rebuilt in 1769, and the church was restored in 1843 by George Gilbert Scott. It has a cruciform plan, consisting of a nave with a clerestory, a south porch, north and south aisles, north and south transepts, a chancel with four chapels, and a steeple at the crossing that is high. The steeple has a tower surmounted by a spire clad with lead plates, that is crooked due to warping of its timber. The church is the largest in the county, measuring by . 191 Old Road The building has a cruck frame, it is encased in stone with brick dressings, and has a stone slate roof. There is a single storey and five bays. Inside are full height crucks, resting on stylobates. Brampton Barn The barn, later used for other purposes, is in stone with a slate roof. There are three bays, it is supported on three crucks, and contains garage doors. Dobbin Clough Farmhouse and barn centre The farmhouse, which is rendered on the west front, has a hipped stone slate roof, three storeys and two bays. The windows are casements irregularly placed, and stone steps lead up to the doorway in the middle floor. The barn to the south is in red brick with a pantile roof and about five bays. Inside the barn is a partition with exposed wattle. Dunston Farm buildings The buildings have a timber framed core, later encased in stone, with quoins, and roofs of stone slate and corrugated asbestos with coped gables and kneelers. There are two storeys, the openings include a segmental arch with a keystone, windows, vents, and pitching eyes, and there is an external wooden staircase. Part of the building is cruck framed. Buildings west of Dunston Hall The buildings have a timber framed core, later encased in red brick, and a slate roof. The north end projects to the east to form a two-storey cottage. The range to the south contains stables and other buildings with lofts above, and the windows are casements. Inside, there are two pairs of massive crucks. Eyre Chapel centre The former chapel, which was converted for community use in 1987–89, is in stone with a stone slate roof. There are plain pinnacles on the four corners, and a crocketed pinnacle on the west gable. On the south front are two doorways, one with a Tudor arch, the other with a tympanum containing Norman carving in relief, and with traces of moulding on the jambs, and two Perpendicular windows. Former Falcon Inn centre The building, at one time an inn, has a timber framed core, and is plastered on the exterior. There are three storeys and an attic, all jettied, and two gabled bays, the gables with bargeboards. The first floor is carried on three large Tuscan columns, behind which is a shop front with panelled pilasters, and a passage entry on the right. The upper floors contain canted oriel windows, between which is an original pilaster. The Manor House, The Green The house, which was later extended, and then refronted in the 19th century, is roughcast with a stone slate roof. There are two storeys, and on the front are three gables with applied timber framing. On the front are French windows and sash windows, and at the rear are mullioned windows and cross windows. 2 St Mary's Gate centre A house later used for other purposes, it has a timber framed core, and was encased in stone in the early 17th century. It is in painted roughcast with a stone slab roof. There are two storeys, three bays, and a cross-wing. The windows are three-light sashes, those in the ground floor with cornices. The doorway to the right has a wide Tudor arch, a moulded architrave, a panel with plaster decoration and a broken pediment. At the rear is a wide segmental arch with pilasters, and an inserted door. The Peacock Inn centre The public house is timber framed on a stone plinth, with coved eaves and a slate roof. There are two storeys and cellars, the upper floor is jettied, and two bays. In the ground floor is a public house front with an entablature and panelled pilasters, and the upper floor contains two oriel windows. The Royal Oak Inn centre The public house is timber framed with close studding, additions in brick, and a roof of tile and slate. The earlier part has two storeys, the upper storey jettied, and the later part has three storeys. On the north front are two oriel windows on curved brackets with embattled sills, containing mullioned windows, the lights with pointed heads. There is another oriel window on the west wall, and a blocked doorway with a Tudor arch. The east front is roughcast, and contains sash and casement windows. 9 Beetwell Street centre A roughcast house with a tile roof, two storeys and a cellar, four bays, and a rear wing. In the left bay is a carriageway arch with timber framing visible within. To its right is a shop front with panelled pilasters and reeded consoles, and a doorway with an architrave and a fanlight, and the windows are sashes. Manor House, Whittington Hill The house, which was later extended, is in stone and has two storeys and an attic, and two later cross-wings. On the front is a large mullioned window, with five lights over six, and a gabled dormer. The Close The house, which was later altered and extended, is in stone with a slate roof. There are two storeys and four bays. On the front is a two-storey porch and a doorway with a hood mould. In the ground floor are modern bay windows, and elsewhere are sash windows and a three-light mullioned window. The house has an arched cellar with brick vaults. Barn, Loundsley Green Farm The barn is timber framed, later encased in stone, and with a stone slate roof. There are three bays, and a half bay later added to the south. Inside, there is a variety of truss types. Gazebo, Somersall Hall The gazebo in the grounds of the house is in stone, and is rebuilt in brick at the rear. It has a coped gable on each side, a parapet with a ball finial at each corner, and one on the apex of the roof. There is a square plan, and two storeys. On each front, in the upper floor, is a three-light mullioned window with a continuous hood mould. Birdholme House The house, which was later extended and divided, is in stone with a string course, and it has a hipped roof in stone slate at the front and pantile on the side. There are three storeys, and four bays. On the front is a two-storey 17th-century porch with a coped gable. Some mullioned windows remain, and the others are a mix of sashes and casements. Dunston Grange Farmhouse The farmhouse, which was refronted in the 19th century, is in stone with quoins and a slate roof with a coped gable and kneelers. There are two storeys and three bays. On the front is a double door with a fanlight, and sash windows. At the rear are cellars, two doorways, one with a fanlight, and casement windows. Dunston Hall The house, which has been extended, is in stone, and has a slate roof with coped gables. The northern part has three storeys and two bays, and the southern part has two storeys and three bays. The roofs are of similar height, and there are four gables. The windows have Tudor arches and hood moulds, and there is a canted bay window. The porch has a four-centred arch, piers, and an embattled parapet. Fields Farmhouse The farmhouse is in stone with quoins and a stone slate roof. There are two storeys and attics, and three bays. On the front, two bays are gabled, and there is a brick porch. At the rear is an external staircase, the windows are casements or replacements, and in the gable end is a loft door and a pitching eye. Former Holywell Cross Post Office centre The former post office, which probably has a timber framed core, is plastered on the exterior, and has a brick eaves cornice and a slate roof. There are two storeys, three bays, and a lower two-storey cross-wing at the rear. In the angle on the corner is a doorway, and on the front is a shop window that has an entablature with a cornice, an architrave, and pilasters with a motif. To its right is another doorway, and the upper floor contains casement windows. On the cross-wing is a similar shop window, and a doorway with pilasters and a cornice. Manor House, Brampton centre A house that has been altered, refronted in the 19th century, and later converted for other uses. It is mainly rendered, with pebbledashing at the rear, and a stone slate roof. There are two storeys and attics, and the building consists of three gabled ranges, and a recessed wing at right angles. On the front is a porch in the form of a conservatory. Most of the windows are sashes, and there are mullioned windows in the wing and at the rear. Park Hall The house, which contains earlier features, is in stone, with quoins, and a stone slate roof with a coped gable. The main range has two storeys, to the east is a projecting three-storey wing, and there is an outshut containing the entrance, over which is a reset dated plaque. The windows are mullioned, some with hood moulds, and there is a dormer. Revolution House centre The remaining part of the Old Cock and Pynot Inn is in stone, and has a thatched roof with coped gables and kneelers. There is a single storey and an attic, and it contains two mullioned windows and a dormer. On the gable end is a plaque with an inscription stating that a meeting took place in the inn in 1688 that led to the Glorious Revolution. Somersall Hall The main part of the house is dated 1763, with the remainder of the old hall forming the rear wing, and the house was extended in the 19th century. It is in stone and has a stone slate roof with coped gables. The main range has three storeys and three bays, to the north is a two-storey extension, and the rear wing has one storey and an attic. In the centre is a porch with clustered columns, an ornamental entablature, an embattled parapet and a doorway with an ornamental fanlight. Most of the windows are sashes, there is a canted bay window, and in the rear wing are two three-light mullioned windows. Stables, Somersall Farm The stable building is in stone with a stone slate roof and two storeys. In the centre is a doorway with a rusticated surround, a cambered head, and a hood mould. The windows are mullioned with hood moulds, at one gable end is an external staircase, and in the other gable end are pigeon holes. Stud Farm Cottages A pair of cottages in stone with quoins, and roofs with Welsh slate at the front and stone slate elsewhere. There are two storeys and an L-shaped plan. On the front are mullioned windows, and two former carriage entrances infilled with windows, and between them is a round-arched door. Tapton Manor A stone house with a stone slate roof, two storeys and attics, an L-shaped plan, and a garden front of two bays. In the centre is a modern glazed porch, and the windows are mullioned. The Old Mansion House The house, which has been altered and extended, has been divided into three dwellings. It is in stone on a coped plinth and has a slate roof. There are two storeys, and the east front has three bays and a small central gable. The central doorway has an architrave, and the windows are sashes with stuccoed voussoirs. Farm buildings north of The Manor House The farm buildings are in stone with a stone slate roof. The southern range has four bays and coped gables. To the north are cowsheds with a small central gable. The Old House centre 1678 The house, later extended and used for other purposes, is in stone and has a tile roof with coped gables. There are two storeys and an L-shaped plan, with a range of four bays, and a single storey wing. The windows are mullioned. Unitarian Chapel centre 1693 The chapel is in stone, partly roughcast, with quoins, and a hipped stone slab roof. There are two storeys, and the east front has two bays. The south front has six bays, the second to fourth bays projecting under a pediment, with an oculus, a frieze and a cornice. The central doorway has a segmental head and a pediment, over which are two panels. The windows are mullioned and transomed in architraves. Crewe Cottage The cottage is in stone with a stone slate roof. There are two storeys and four bays, and the windows are mullioned with two lights. Barn and cottage, Park Hall Farm The south end of the barn was later converted into a cottage. It is in stone with quoins and a stone slate roof with coped gables. The barn contains doorways with massive quoined surrounds, and there is a former wagon entrance. Former threshing barn, Plover Hill Farm The former barn has a corrugated iron roof, and coped gables with kneelers. There are five bays, and the barn contains massive timber trusses. Two barns, Somersall Farm The barns are in stone with stone slate roofs, the east barn with quoins, and the west barn with a gable end in brick. The barns contain doors, windows with hood moulds, and vents, some vertical and some triangular. There is a single- story extension with a hipped roof, and a timber framed wagon entrance infilled with brick. Barn, Dunston Farm 1716 The barn is in stone with quoins, and a stone slate roof with coped gables and kneelers. It contains double doors and stable doors, a pitching eye, and vents. Above the doorway is a datestone with a monogram. Gazebo, Manor House The gazebo is in stone with quoins, a coved eaves cornice, and an ogee roof in stone fish scale-shaped slabs with a ball finial on a pedestal. There is a tall single storey on a basement, and the entrance is approached by external steps lined by walls containing an alcove seat with a curved back and coved cornice. The windows are sashes. Spital Barn centre Originally a coach house and stable block, it was converted for residential use in the 20th century, and is in stone with quoins and a stone slate roof. On the front are two segmental-arched openings, stable doors, a loft door, and mullioned windows. 48 and 50 Church Street North A pair of houses in stone that have a slate roof with coping and kneelers at the rear. There are two storeys and two bays. The doorways are in the centre, and the windows are sashes. 5 and 7 Low Pavement centre A pair of shops in red brick with a moulded cornice, a parapet, and a slate roof with coped gables. At the rear is a plinth and quoins. There are three storeys and three bays, the middle bay projecting slightly. In the top floor are lunette windows, and the middle floor contains Venetian windows. In the ground floor are two shop fronts, with an entablature, a moulded cornice, a frieze, and an architrave. The interior of the right shop contains glazed tiles, and the left shop front is curved on the right. 41 Low Pavement centre The building forms a vaulted entrance to shops behind. It is in painted brick and has rusticated quoins, bands, and a parapet. In the ground floor are three round arches on columns with keystones. There are three storeys and an attic, and three bays. In the upper floors are sash windows with wedge lintels. 43 Low Pavement centre A stone shop with a moulded cornice and blocking course. There are three storeys, three bays flanked by rusticated pilasters, and a further bay on the left. In the ground floor is a 19th-century shop front flanked by rusticated pilasters, over which is a dentilled cornice and end pedimented consoles. The upper floors contain sash windows in architraves with keystones. 45 Low Pavement centre A brick shop with a sill band, a modillion eaves cornice, a blocking course with moulded coping, ramped at the centre and the ends, and a roof with coped gables. There are three storeys, three bays and a rear wing. In the ground floor is a modern shop front, and to its left is a former carriage arch with a rusticated surround, now infilled. The windows are sashes, the central windows with moulded architraves and keystones, and that in the middle floor also with a pulvinated frieze. 77 Low Pavement A shop on a corner site in painted brick with bands, a moulded eaves band, and a stone slate roof. There are three storeys, one bay on the front, and a rear wing. The ground floor contains shop fronts, in the middle floor is a display window with a cornice, and in the top floor is a sash window with an engraved lintel and a keystone. 1 Sheffield Road centre The building is in red brick on a plinth, with quoins, bands, bracketed eaves, and a slate roof. There are two storeys and five bays. The central doorway has a stuccoed moulded architrave and a cornice. The windows are sashes with stuccoed keystones. 5 and 7 South Street centre The building, which contains earlier features, is in red brick and has a slate roof with coped gables. There are three storeys and three bays. In the ground floor is a 19th-century shop front with a cornice, an architrave, and consoles with floral decoration. The window in the centre of the middle floor is blind, and has a segmental arch and a keystone. The windows in the outer bays are sashes, those in the middle floor with wedge lintels. 42 St Mary's Gate centre A red brick house in Georgian style, with quoins, stone floor bands, a moulded eaves cornice, and a stone slab roof. There are three storeys and five bays. The central doorway has a moulded architrave, a rectangular fanlight, a frieze and a cornice. The windows are sashes with keystones. Brampton House A red brick house, which was later altered, with a slate roof. The main front facing Welwyn Grove has two storeys, two gables with an eaves band, and two dated plaques. The doorway has engaged columns and an open pediment, and sash windows. The front facing Old Hall Road has three storeys and two bays, and a pierced and scalloped bargeboard. Elm Lodge The house, with possibly an earlier core, was extended in the 19th century. It has a rendered front, a stone slate roof, and five bays. On the front is a porch, and the windows are sashes. To the right is a later cross-wing with a slate roof. Long Cottage A stone house that has a pantile roof with coped gables and kneelers. There are two storeys and four bays, and the windows are sliding casements. Former Post Office centre A house, used as the post office from 1886, and later converted for other uses. It is in red brick, the ground floor in rusticated stone, with pilasters, an eaves cornice, and a coped parapet. There are three storeys and a symmetrical front of five bays, the middle three bays projecting under a pediment with an oeil-de-boeuf in the tympanum. The doorways in the outer bays have rectangular fanlights and keystones, and hoods on consoles, and above them is a cornice on decorated consoles. The upper floors contain sash windows with keystones. Gate piers, Somersall Hall The gate piers near the front of the house are in rusticated stone. They are square, and have moulded caps and ball finials. The Court House and adjoining buildings centre The house is in red brick, and has a slate roof with stone slate verges. There are two storeys and three bays. The windows are a mix of sashes and sliding casements. Adjoining at the north end, and forming an L-shaped plan, is a range of red brick buildings. Cannon Mill and mill wheel centre 1775 The former mill is in red brick, and has a pantile roof with slate verges and a coped gable with ornamental cresting. There are two storeys and three bays. In each bay on the east front is a blank Gothic arch. On the mill is an oval cast iron plaque depicting a cannon with cannonballs, and dated 1816. The mill contains a large overshot iron water wheel. 54 and 56 Church Street North centre A pair of stone houses with a stone slate roof, two storeys and two bays. The doorways are in the centre, and the windows are sliding casements. 87 New Square centre A red brick house with sill bands, a modillion eaves cornice and a coped blocking course. There are three storeys and four bays. Steps lead up to the doorway in the third bay that has pilasters, a semicircular fanlight, a triglyph frieze, and a pediment. The flanking bays are full height canted bay windows. All the windows are sashes, those in the lower two storeys with wedge lintels. The windows above the doorway have an architrave and a triple keystone, and the window in the middle floor also has a pediment. 1 Somersall Lane centre A former lodge to Somersall Hall, it is stuccoed with wide eaves and a hipped stone slate roof. There is a single storey, and the corners are canted. The doorways have four-centred arches, and the windows are casements with pointed heads and architraves. 2 Somersall Lane centre A former lodge to Somersall Hall, it is stuccoed with wide eaves and a hipped stone slate roof. There is a single storey, and the corners are canted. The doorways have four-centred arches, and the windows are casements with pointed heads and architraves. Somersall Farmhouse Originally the coach house to Somersall Hall, it is in stone with quoins. There are two storeys and five bays. Over the middle bay is a pediment containing a round panel in the tympanum over arched pigeon holes. In the centre is a segmental arch that is infilled, containing a three-light sash window, and a single-light sash above with a hood mould. The other windows are Gothic casements with Gothic glazing. Walton Hall A house in gritstone, with a sill bands, a moulded eaves cornice, and a stone slate roof with coped gables and moulded kneelers. There is an L-shaped plan, with a main range of two storeys and attics and three bays, and a two-storey rear wing. The doorway has a moulded head, a rectangular fanlight, and a cornice hood. In the ground floor the windows are sashes, there are cross windows in the middle floor, and casements in the attic. Mill buildings, Walton Works centre A former cotton mill and associated buildings, built in stone and red brick with roofs of slate, stone slate, and pantile. They are mainly in three storeys, with parts in two and four storeys, and there is an irregular plan, including a water tower. Tapton Mill Bridge centre The bridge carries a path over the Chesterfield Canal. It is in red brick with a stone coped parapet, and has a curved plan. It consists of a single low arch, and is flanked by brick pilasters. Tapton Lock centre The lock on the Chesterfield Canal is in stone with a brick band and stone coping. At the entrance is stone coped brickwork. 11 Beetwell Street centre 1780 A shop in red brick with a slate roof, three storeys, two bays, and a long rear wing. In the right bay is a carriageway arch, and the left bay contains a shop front with a cornice on consoles with a floral design. In the upper floors are sash windows, those in the middle floor with stuccoed lintels. Tapton House centre 1782–94 A country house in red brick with bands, a modillion cornice, and a hipped slate roof. There are three storeys, and the entrance front has eight bays. The fifth bay projects under a pediment, and contains a doorway with columns, side lights, and a pediment, above which are three-light windows. The other bays contain sash windows. The right return has five bays, and at the rear are eight bays and a doorway with a pediment. Hasland Hall School A house, later part of a school, it is in stone with a band, a cornice and blocking course, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and five bays. In the centre is a semicircular porch with Doric columns, a panelled frieze, a cornice with mutules, and a blocking course, containing a round-arched doorway with a fanlight and side lights. The windows are sashes, the window above the porch with an ornamental surround and a cornice on brackets. Holywell House centre The house, which has since been used for other purposes, is in stone, the front facing the street is in brick, and it has an eaves band, a hipped slate roof, and two storeys, The southeast front has three bays, and a central semicircular porch with four Tuscan columns, and a panelled frieze. The doorway has a round-arched head, flanking windows, and a segmental hood, and the window above it has an architrave and a cornice on brackets. The left bay contains sash windows, and in the right bay are blind windows. The middle two bays of the northeastern front project under a pediment. Boiler House behind 9 Beetwell Street A small brick building with a corrugated iron roof and a single storey. It contains a bow window with a dentilled cornice and corbels. 13 and 15 Beetwell Street centre A shop in red brick with a slate roof, three storeys and two bays. In the ground floor is a 19th-century shop front with a cornice on decorated consoles, and a fascia board. In the upper floors are sash windows, those in the middle floor with stuccoed lintels. Buildings to rear of 13 Beetwell Street Originally a blacksmith's shop, the range of buildings is in red brick and has one storey. 4 Central Pavement A shop in red brick with a moulded wooden eaves cornice and a slate roof. There are three storeys and three bays. In the ground floor is a shop front dating from the late 19th or early 20th century with a cornice and end consoles, and a modern fascia board. The upper floors contain sash windows, those in the middle floor with stuccoed lintels. 402–406 Chatsworth Road A terrace of three houses on a plinth, in red brick on the front and stone at the rear, and with a stone slate roof. There are two storeys, and each house has one bay. The doorways have architraves, and the windows are sashes. The ground floor windows and the doorways have painted wedge lintels. 8–14 Church Street North A terrace of four stone houses with a stone slate roof. There are two storeys and eight bays. Most of the windows are sashes, and most of the doors are replacements. 16 and 18 Church Street North A pair of houses at right angles to the road, in stone with a stone slate roof. There are three storeys, three bays, and a single-storey outshut on the left. The round-arched doorways have impost bands, fanlights, archivolts, and keystones, and the windows are sashes with architraves. Garden wall, 1 Durrant Road The garden wall to the northeast of the house is about high, and is plastered. 10 High Street A shop in red brick, with a moulded eaves cornice, three storeys and three bays. In the ground floor is a late 19th-century shop front with Corinthian pilasters, and an elaborate entablature with a modillion cornice and a frieze. To its left is a round-arched doorway with a semicircular fanlight, and to its right is a segmental-arched carriageway. The upper floors contain sash windows with stuccoed wedge lintels. 87 High Street A house in red brick with three storeys and three bays. The central doorway is round-headed with a semicircular fanlight, impost bands, and a stuccoed archivolt. The windows are sashes with stuccoed wedge lintels. 39 and 41 Holywell Street centre A pair of red brick houses with a moulded eaves cornice and a hipped slate roof. There are three storeys and two bays. The round-arched doorways have stuccoed reveals, semicircular fanlights, and moulded impost bands. The windows are sashes with stuccoed wedge lintels. 1 and 1A Low Pavement centre A pair of shops in painted brick with a moulded eaves cornice and a slate roof. There are three storeys and two bays. In the ground floor are shop fronts with a cornice and consoles, and the upper floors contain sash windows with stuccoed lintels. 3 Low Pavement centre A shop in painted brick with a moulded eaves cornice and a slate roof. There are three storeys and two bays. In the ground floor is a modern shop front and a segmental arched carriageway entrance on the right. The upper floors contain sash windows with stuccoed lintels. 9 Low Pavement centre A shop in red brick with a slate roof and two bays. The right bay has four storeys, and contains a segmental carriageway, and in the upper floors are sash windows. The left bay is the same height, with three storeys. In the ground floor is a 19th-century shop front with panelled pilasters and fluted consoles. The upper floors contain sash windows, the window in the middle floor with an engraved lintel and a keystone. 35 Low Pavement centre A shop on a corner site in painted brick with a moulded parapet. There are three storeys, two bays on the front and one on the left return. In the ground floor is a modern shop front, and the upper floors contain sash windows. 39 Low Pavement A pair of shops in painted brick with a moulded parapet. There are three storeys and three bays. In the ground floor are two shop fronts with pilasters and pedimented consoles. The upper floors contain sash windows with shallow segmental heads. 61, 61A, 61B 63 and 63C Low Pavement centre Two shops in painted brick, with an eaves cornice and a tile roof. There are three storeys, five bays, and a two-storey rear wing. In the second bay is a segmental-arched carriageway entrance, now infilled with a doorway. To its left is a modern shop front, to the right is a larger shop front, and the upper floors contain sash windows. 69 and 71 Low Pavement A red brick shop with a moulded wooden eaves cornice and a hipped slate roof. There are three storeys and three bays. In the ground floor is a shop front dating from the later 19th or early 20th century, and the upper floors contain sash windows with engraved stuccoed lintels. 73 and 75 Low Pavement centre A shop in painted brick with a moulded wooden eaves cornice and a tile roof. There are three storeys and three bays. In the ground floor, the right bay contains a segmental carriage archway, now infilled with a doorway, and to its left are shop fronts dating from the later 19th or early 20th century. The upper floors contain sash windows with stuccoed lintels. 21 Market Place Two houses, later shops, on a corner site, in painted brick with a moulded eaves cornice, and a hipped slate roof. There are three storeys, three bays on High Street and four on Market Place. In the ground floor are modern shop fronts, and the upper floors contain mainly sash windows, with some casements. 21 and 23 Newbold Road A pair of houses, later combined, in red brick with a stone slate roof. There are three storeys and four bays. In the centre is a double trellised porch with arched entrances, and doorways with moulded architraves. The windows in the middle bays in the upper floors are blind, in the top floor are casement windows, elsewhere the windows are sashes with moulded surrounds, and all the windows have stuccoed wedge lintels. 39 Newbold Road A pair of cottages, later combined, in stone with a slate roof. There are two storeys and two bays. The doorway has a moulded architrave, and the windows are sliding casements. 57 and 59 Saltergate centre A pair of red brick houses on a rendered plinth, with a moulded eaves cornice. There are three storeys and five bays. The two doorways have rectangular fanlights with radial glazing, and the windows are sashes. The doorways and the windows in the lower two floors have stuccoed wedge lintels. 63 Saltergate centre A house in red brick, with an eaves cornice, three storeys, and one bay. On the front is a doorway, and sash windows with moulded surrounds and engraved wedge lintels, and at the rear is a casement window. 12 and 13 The Shambles centre A shop on a corner site, possibly with a timber framed core. It is in red brick, and has three storeys and fronts of two bays. In the ground floor is a shop front with panelled pilasters, double cornices, a frieze, and a cornice, and the windows are sashes. 19 and 21 West Bars centre A group of rendered shops with a moulded cornice, a coped parapet, and a pantile roof with coped gables. There are three storeys and three bays. In the ground floor are shop fronts, and the upper floors contain sash windows. Boundary wall The wall is in stone, coped, and high. It is on the eastern side of a footpath extending from No. 65 High Street to the churchyard of St Bartholomew's Church. Dryhurst The house is colourwashed, and has quoins, a sill band, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and three bays. The central doorway has a pediment, and the windows are sashes. Highfield Hall School The school is in stone with an eaves cornice and slate roofs, the sides pedimented. There are two storeys and five bays. On the front is a canted bay window, and the windows are casements. The porch has four columns, a round- arched doorway with a fanlight, and a segmental hood. Holme Hall Farmhouse The farmhouse, later used for other purposes, is in stone with sill bands and a stone slab roof. There are two storeys and four bays. On the front is a gabled porch, and the windows are sashes with cambered heads, quoined surrounds, and lintels cut to shallow arches. Cowsheds north of Holme Hall Farmhouse The cowsheds have roofs of slate and stone slate. The central bay has two storeys, and contains a segmental arch with a keystone, and the flanking bays have a single storey. Plover Hill Farmhouse The farmhouse, which has an earlier core, is in red brick with a stone slate roof. There are two storeys, three bays, and a later rear wing. Some windows are 19th-century casements, and the others are modern. Raised pavement, Church Street North The raised pavement runs along the north side of the junction between Church Street North and the approach to the church. It consists of a stone embankment wall with coping, a central flight of stone steps, and later railings. Gate piers, Tapton House The gate piers at the entrance to the drive are in stone, and each has a fluted frieze and a pediment. Mounting block, Tapton House The mounting block near the entrance to the drive is in stone, and consists of five steps. The Market Hotel centre The public house is in red brick, mostly rendered, on a plinth, with a moulded eaves cornice and a slate roof. There are three storeys and three bays. In the left bay is a shop front, and the other bays have bow windows, between which is a doorway. In the upper floors, most windows are sashes with engraved lintels. The Spread Eagle Public House centre The public house, which probably has an earlier core, has a front in painted brick with a sill band, and a roof in slate at the front, in pantile at the rear, and with coped gables. The front has three storeys and two bays. In the right bay is an arched carriageway, and the windows are sashes, in the ground floor with three lights. The doorway is in the passageway, and has pilasters, medallions, and a cornice. The rear has two storeys and three bays, and contains casement windows. Entrance Lodge, Whittington Grange The lodge is in stone and has a slate roof and a large chimney. There are two storeys and three bays. On the front is a stone porch, and the windows are casements with leaded lights. United Reformed Church centre 1822 The church is in sandstone with a band, and a parapet with piers, panels, capping, and finials. There are two storeys and a front of three bays. In the centre is a doorway with Doric columns, an entablature, a semicircular fanlight, an archivolt, and impost bands, over which is an inscribed and dated plaque. The windows are casements with mullions and engraved lintels. On the right return are six bays, two gabled and containing round-arched windows with keystones, and a doorway in a moulded architrave with floral medallions and a cornice. Lamp post, Church of St Mary and All Saints 1824 The first gas lamp post in the town, it was later moved from Market Square to its present site in the churchyard. It is in cast iron, and has a chamfered plinth, a fluted column that has a bulbous base with leaf decoration, and a lamp with a finial. 4–16 Abercrombie Street centre A terrace of seven stone houses with wide eaves and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys, and each house has one bay. The windows, most of which are sashes, and the doorways, have engraved lintels with keystones. Wall and gate piers, 9 Abercrombie Street The high garden wall running along the street is in stone with stone coping, and is ramped. It contains stone gate piers. 2 Central Pavement centre A red brick building on a corner site, with a bracketed eaves cornice, and a slate roof, hipped at the south. There are three storeys, three bays on Market Place and one on Central Pavement. In the ground floor are modern shop fronts, and the upper floors contain sash windows with stuccoed lintels. 39A Holywell Street A red brick house, later an office, on a corner site, with moulded eaves and a hipped slate roof. There are three storeys, and one bay on each front. In the right return is a modern doorway and small shop window. The other windows are sashes with stuccoed wedge lintels. 27 Newbold Road The house is roughcast with a pantile roof, two storeys and two bays. In the right bay of the ground floor is a sash window with Gothic glazing bars, and the other windows are three-light sliding casements. 2 and 4 Marsden Street centre A pair of red brick houses on a corner site. No. 2 has three storeys, and No. 4 has two storeys and an attic. The doorways, including a passage doorway, have stuccoed wedge lintels. No. 2 has a round-headed window, and a window with a segmental head, and the other windows in both houses have flat heads, most with stuccoed wedge lintels. 69–79 Saltergate and railings centre A terrace of six red brick houses with sill bands and a moulded eaves cornice. There are three storeys and basements, and a symmetrical front of twelve bays, the middle four bays projecting under a pediment containing an oval plaque in the tympanum. Steps lead up to the round-arched doorways that have recessed fluted Roman Doric columns, an entablature, and an ornamental fanlight. The windows are sashes, and the basement areas are enclosed by iron railings. 81 Saltergate centre A stone house with a sill band, an eaves cornice, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and four bays. The round-arched doorway has a fanlight, an engraved archivolt, impost bands, and a keystone. In the right bay is a segmental-arched carriage entrance. The windows are sashes with engraved wedge lintels, and in the roof are three dormers. 91–97 Saltergate centre A terrace of four red brick houses on a stuccoed plinth, with moulded eaves, and a slate roof with coped gables and kneelers. There are three storeys and seven bays. The doorways have elliptical arches, impost bands, fanlights and keystones, and in the centre is a narrow arched entrance. The windows are sashes, those in the lower two floors with wedge lintels. 123 Saltergate A stone house on a plinth, with quoins, and a moulded eaves cornice. There are two storeys, a double depth plan, and three bays. The central doorway has pilasters, an architrave shaped as a pediment, a fanlight, a moulded cornice, a keystone and a decorative frieze. The windows are sashes with plain architraves. Bank Close A house, later used for other purposes, it is in stone with a floor band, a corbelled eaves cornice and blocking course, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and fronts of three and five bays. In the centre of the entrance front is a portico with columns, a frieze and a flat hood. In the centre of the southwest front is a doorway with engaged Ionic columns, a Greek key frieze, and a modillion cornice. The windows are sashes, those in the ground floor with panelled lintels and decorative keystones. The window above the portico has an architrave, pilasters, a frieze cornice on reeded brackets, and a panelled apron. Former coach house and stables, Bank Close The buildings are connected to the house by walls containing gate piers, and they form a courtyard. They are in stone with quoins, a string course, and a slate roof, and are mainly in two storeys. They contain two arches with keystones, round-arched windows, and a door with an architrave and a radial fanlight. Gatepiers, Bank Close Drive The gate piers at the entrance to the drive are in stone, and are octagonal. Each pier has a cornice and a cap. Former Coach House and wall The former coach house is in red brick with a hipped stone slate roof. There are two storeys and a gable containing a loft door, and two bays. The ground floor contains two large arches, and in the upper floor are sash windows. Attached to the coach house is a high wall containing a blocked carriageway arch with a keystone. Former College of Art building The building, later used for other purposes, is in stone, on a plinth, with a moulded eaves cornice, and a hipped stone slate roof. There are two storeys and an entrance front of three bays. In the centre is a porch with Doric columns, a flat hood, and a round-arched doorway with a fanlight. To the right is a square bay window, and the other windows are sashes. At the rear are two round-headed windows. Dorset House A red brick house with a moulded eaves cornice and a hipped slate roof. There are three storeys and two bays. The doorway in the left bay has an architrave and a rectangular fanlight, the windows are sashes, and all the openings have stuccoed wedge lintels. Entrance gates and railings, Dunston Hall The entrance to the drive is flanked by stone piers with panels, and between them are decorative cast iron gates. Flanking the piers are low quadrant walls with railings, ending in similar piers. Entrance block, Elder Yard Unitarian Chapel centre The entrance block was originally a school that was enlarged in 1845–46. The front is in stone on a plinth, with a sill band, and a hipped pantile roof. There are two storeys and three bays. In the centre is a segmental arch with a keystone, and the windows are sashes. The rear was rebuilt in brick in 1900, and has five bays, a stone pediment, an eaves cornice, and a balustrade. Elmwood A stone house with a hipped tile roof, two storeys and three bays. On the ground floor are casement windows with square heads, the upper floor contains sash windows with chambered heads, and all have gothic glazing. Hady House A red brick house with a hipped slate roof, two storeys, three bays, and a rear wing. The central doorway has a moulded stone archivolt and a round- arched fanlight, and the windows are sashes with engraved lintels. Holly House A house later used for other purposes, it is in stone with quoins, a floor band, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and three bays. In the centre is a doorway with Doric columns, engaged pilasters, mutules, a fanlight, and an open pediment. On the west front is a square bay window, the north front contains a canted bay window, most of the other windows are sashes, and there is a segmental-headed window with Gothic glazing. Netherleigh A stone house with a floor band, an eaves band, a blocking course, and a slate roof, hipped on the east side, and gabled on the north and south sides. There is a T-shaped plan, the north wing with a single storey, and the rest with two storeys. Most of the windows are sashes, and the doorway has a rectangular fanlight. Newbold Fields A stone house with a sill band and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and three bays. In the centre is a portico with a pedimented stone hood, and the windows are sashes. Red House The house is in red brick with an eaves cornice, two storeys and three bays. The doorway has fluted pilasters, a panelled frieze, and a trellis surround with palmate decoration. The windows are sashes. Rose Cottage A stone house with an eaves cornice and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and three bays. The doorway has panelled pilasters, a rectangular fanlight, and a cornice, and the windows are sashes. The Nags Head Public House centre The public house is in grooved stucco with a stone slate roof. There are two storeys, a main range, and a taller cross-wing on the right with a hipped gable. The doorway on the right has a moulded architrave and a hood on scrolled brackets, and the windows are casements with Gothic glazing. Former Whittington Hall Hospital A house, at one time used as a hospital, and later converted into flats. It is in stone with bands, an eaves cornice and blocking course, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys, and fronts of four and five bays. On the northwest front is a two-storey bay window, and at the southeast is a porch with a large segmental hood. All the windows are sashes. Lodge, Whittington Hall Hospital The lodge is in stone with a hipped slate roof and a tall chimney. There is a single storey and two bays. Above the doorway on the southwest front is a cornice. Yew Tree House The house is in stone with a red brick front and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and three bays. The central doorway has engaged columns, a radial fanlight with tracery, and a pediment, and the windows are sashes. 23 West Bars centre A red brick house with a sill band, moulded stone eaves, and a hipped 'slate roof. There are two storeys and three bays. Steps lead up to the central round-headed doorway that has a moulded architrave with fluted pilasters, and a semicircular fanlight. The windows are sashes with engraved lintels. Gate piers, 23 West Bars The gate piers at the entrance to the drive are in stone. They have a square section, reeded panels, and stone caps. St Thomas' Church, Brampton centre 1830–32 A Commissioners' Church, the chancel was added in 1888, and the church was restored in 1903. The church is built in gritstone with freestone dressings and a slate roof. It consists of a nave, a chancel, a south vestry, a north organ chamber, and a west tower. The tower has three stages, angle buttresses, a west doorway with a window above, a clock face on the south side, and a roundel on the west side. The bell openings are paired and have a transom formed by a quatrefoil frieze, and at the top is an embattled parapet with eight pinnacles. There are pinnacles on the nave, and the east window has five lights. St Thomas' Rectory The rectory is in brick with stone dressings and a slate roof. There are two storeys, three bays, and an additional bay on the left. The middle bay is gabled and contains a canted bay window, and there is a similar window in the added bay. The other windows are mullioned, and in the lower floor they are also transomed. Town pump centre The pump and bowl are in cast iron on a stone plinth that may be older. The plinth is octagonal, and has four steps on the north side, and is curved on the south. The pump has a square section, panelled sides, and a pyramidal cap with a finial. The bowl has an octagonal plinth and a ribbed stem, and a wide shallow bowl with a moulded base and edging. Former engineer's offices, Goods Yard centre 1837 The office was built by the North Midland Railway, and has since been used for other purposes. It is in stone on a plinth, with quoins and a tile roof. There is a single storey at the front, two storeys at the rear, and three bays. In the centre is a pediment containing the coat of arms of the North Midland Railway in the tympanum. Below this is a doorway with a rectangular fanlight, and it is flanked by sash windows. Former workhouse centre 1837–39 The workhouse, designed by Scott and Moffatt, was later used as a hospital, and subsequently partly demolished, and the remainder converted into flats. It is in red brick with stone dressings, bands, and a slate roof with a cupola. The middle section has four storeys and seven bays, the middle bay containing a doorway with a rusticated surround. The outer bays form full- height canted bay windows with a cornice and a pediment. The flanking wings have three storeys and three bays, and the windows are sashes. Holy Trinity Church centre 1838 The church was altered in 1888–89 by Samuel Rollinson, and the west choir vestry was added in 1938. The church is built in gritstone with freestone dressings and a slate roof. It consists of a nave, a chancel with a south organ chamber, a northeast vestry, a west choir vestry, and a west tower with flanking porches. The tower has four stages, angle buttresses with gabled tops, a west lancet window over which is a clock face, double lancet bell openings, and an arcaded parapet with triangular merlons and large corner pinnacles. Along the nave are lancet windows, and the east window is a three- light stepped lancet. 1, 3 and 3A Abercrombie Street centre A row of houses in stone with a floor band, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys, four bays, and a single-story outshut on the east side. The doorway on the front has a rectangular fanlight, and the windows are sashes. On the west side is a two-storey bay window with a pediment. 5 and 7 Abercrombie Street centre A pair of stone houses with a band, a moulded eaves cornice, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and a west front of three bays. The houses contain French windows, and most of the other windows are sashes. Garden wall and piers, 28 Abercrombie Street centre The coped stone wall encloses the garden along two roads. At the corner is a massive rounded stone corner post with a plinth and a pyramidal cap. Flanking the gates are gate piers. Ashton Lodge A stone house with quoins, a floor band, wide eaves, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and two bays. In the left return is a round-headed doorway with a fanlight, and on the front is a two-storey canted bay window. Hurst House centre The house, later used for other purposes, is in stone with sill bands, sash windows, and a slate roof. The south front has three storeys and a pedimented gable. In the ground floor is a doorway with a stuccoed surround and a moulded cornice, and round-arched windows. The north front has two storeys and three bays. There is a former doorway with a stuccoed portico, a cornice and a blocking course, with an inserted window. West Lawn centre The house has a stone front and red brick elsewhere, with quoins, bracketed eaves, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and a front of three bays. In the centre is a trellis porch, and the windows are sashes. Former grammar school centre 1846 The grammar school moved to another site in 1967, and the building has since been used for other purposes. It is in stone with quoins, a moulded floor band, and a tile roof with coped gables, kneelers and finials. The northern part has three storeys, three gables, and three bays, the upper floors with mullioned windows, and the ground floor windows also with transoms. The centre part has two gables, and a tower in the angle between them, and the southern part is recessed, with two storeys, a gable, and three bays. Well at rear of 11 Beetwell Street The well head in the courtyard at the rear of the house is in brick, and has a handle, a beam and a roof. 52 Sheffield Road A red brick house in Gothic style with a slate roof. There are three storeys and a symmetrical front of three bays, the outer bays gabled with finials. The central doorway is round-headed with columns, above it is a Gothic-arched window with a balustrade, and at the top is a balustraded parapet. In the ground floor, the left bay has a square bay window, and in the right bay is a four-light window, the middle two lights angled outwards. The middle floor contains three-light windows with cusped heads, and in the top floor are two- light windows. Building formerly occupied by the Sheepbridge Engineering Company centre The building is in red brick with stuccoed dressings, and a hipped slate roof. There are two storeys and ten bays, the middle two bays projecting under a pediment. On the front is a gabled porch containing a round-arched doorway with a fanlight, some of the windows are sashes, and others are replacements. On the roof is a cupola with a clock face, a domed top and a weathervane. Churchyard walls and piers, Church of St Mary and All Saints centre The churchyard is enclosed by low stepped stone walls. These contain polygonal piers with pseudo-battlemented caps and shields. Gatepiers, gates and wall, Hurst House centre The coped stone wall runs along the road, and is ramped up towards the house. It contains a doorway with a massive surround, a cornice on scrolled brackets and a blocking course. The iron gates, which have spear-shaped finials, are flanked by stone piers with moulded bands under the caps. Former National Westminster Bank The building is in stone, with a floor band, and a slate roof with coped gables. There are two storeys and three gabled bays, with roundels in the gables. In the ground floor are two round-arched doorways with semicircular fanlights and keystones. The windows are mullioned and transomed in architraves. Southern garden wall, Stud Farm Cottages The garden wall is in stone with wide coping. In the northeastern part of the wall are six brick Gothic arches. The Vicarage The vicarage is in rusticated stone, with a floor band, and a roof with coped gables. There are two storeys, a double depth plan, and two bays. On the front are two gables, and the right bay contains a porch and a doorway with a Gothic arch. The windows are sashes, in the ground floor with flat heads, and in the upper floor with Gothic arches. Former coachhouse stable, west of The Vicarage The building is in stone, and has a slate roof with coped gables. It contains two windows and garage doors. Walls and gate piers, The Vicarage On the west side of the garden is a high stone stepped wall containing a doorway to the former school yard. Along the south boundary is a low wall, and stone gate piers with pyramidal caps. Annunciation Church centre 1854 The church, which was designed by Joseph Hansom, was extended at the west end in 1874. It is in stone, and consists of a nave with a clerestory, north and south aisles, the south aisle with a gabled Lady chapel, a north porch, and a chancel. At the west end is a broad tower-like structure with a large window flanked by buttresses, and a corner turret with a short spire. Church of St John the Evangelist centre 1857 The aisles were added to the church in 1957. It is built in gritstone with a slate roof, and consists of a nave, north and south aisles, a south porch, and a chancel with a south organ chamber and a north vestry. At the west end is a full-height buttress carrying an octagonal arcaded bellcote with a spirelet. Market Hall centre 1857 The market hall is in red brick with stone dressings, quoins, sill bands, corbelled eaves, and a slate roof. There are three storeys and a hollow rectangular plan. The ground floor is arcaded with rusticated pilasters and archivolts. In the centre of the east front is a tower with a clock face and an ogee-domed cupola. Church and Chapel, Spital Cemetery centre 1857 The church and chapel are joined, and are in Decorated style. They are in stone, and have tile roofs and two coped gables. Features include a short obelisk-type spire, and a steeple that has a broach spire with lucarnes. Entrance wall, arch and gate piers, Spital Cemetery 1857 The entrance to the cemetery is flanked by large gabled gate piers. On each side are stone walls which, on the left side, contain a gabled pointed arch. Lodge, Spital Cemetery centre 1857 The lodge is in stone with quoins and an L-shaped plan. The main part is gabled with two storeys and one bay, containing a bay window, and paired windows above with Gothic arches. To the left is a single-storey wing, and to the right is a truncated three-storey tower with a lancet window in each floor. Physiotherapy Department centre 1862 A Baptist chapel, later used for other purposes, it is in red brick with stone dressings and a slate roof. At the front are three bays, the middle bay convex under a moulded cornice and pediment, both with paired corbels. The bay contains a large round-arched window with a moulded arch and a corbelled impost band. Each outer bay has a projecting porch containing a round-arched window with impost blocks and a keystone, and on the inner face is a round-arched doorway with a fanlight. Above each porch is a blind panel, and on the left return are two storeys. In the upper floor are three large round-headed windows, and in the lower floor are five windows. The Eagle Club centre 1862–63 A school and master's house that was later extended, and then used for other purposes. The school is in rusticated stone on a plinth with a slate roof. There is a single storey, and on the front are two gables, with two gabled dormers between. The windows are mullioned and transomed. The house to the right has a half-hipped roof, two storeys and two bays. There is a round-arched porch, and the windows are sashes with Gothic arches. Gate piers and walls, Church of St John the Evangelist The churchyard is enclosed on the west, east and south sides by coped stone walls, and the entrance is flanked by stone piers. Wall, former school yard The stone wall runs along the south side of the yard of the former school. Central Methodist Church centre 1869–70 The church is in stone on the front and red brick elsewhere, and is in Renaissance style. It has a plinth, bands, a cornice frieze and a modillion cornice. There are two storeys, five bays on the front and seven along the sides. On the front is a giant portico with two Ionic columns, square outer pilasters, and a pediment with a modillion cornice and a palmette finial. Behind it are three doorways with moulded architraves, broken pediments, and hanging lamps. In the upper floor are round-arched windows with moulded archivolts separated by pilasters. Former Methodist Church centre 1869–70 The former church is in red brick, with dressings in polychromatic brick and stone, eaves on stone brackets, and a slate roof. There are two storeys, a front of seven bays, turrets on three corners, and bowing at the rear. The doorway and windows have round-arched polychromatic heads, and Coade stone impost bands. The turrets have truncated pyramidal roofs, and crowns of iron balustrading. 37 Low Pavement centre The shop, which has an earlier core, has a façade in red brick with stone dressings, a moulded cornice on consoles, and a parapet with ball finials. There are three storeys and three bays flanked by pilasters, with a pediment over the middle bay. The ground floor is rusticated and contains three round-headed arches, over which is a dentilled cornice and pedimented end consoles. The windows are sashes in architraves with aprons, and, in the middle floor, with ornamental friezes and pediments. 57 Low Pavement The shop, which has an earlier core, has a façade in red brick with stone dressings, sill bands, and a stepped and corbelled brick eaves cornice, above which is a stone cornice and a brick blocking course. There are three storeys, and in the ground floor is a 19th-century shop front with pilasters and a cornice, over which is a fascia board. The upper floors contain sash windows, four in the middle floor and five in the top floor, all divided by pilasters. Gates, piers and railings, Queen's Park centre The gates, the piers flanking the pedestrian and carriageway entrances, and the railings are in cast iron. The gates have wrought iron scrolls, and central medallions with the arms of the town. The railings have spear head finials. Stephenson Memorial Hall centre 1879 The hall was extended in 1898, and later the original part has been used as a museum, and the extension as a theatre. The building is in red brick with stone dressings and a slate roof, and is in Gothic style. It is mainly in two storeys, and has an irregular style with a tower in the northwest angle. The tower has a short spire and a corbelled parapet that is gabled on each front. 47 and 47A Low Pavement centre 1885 A shop in red brick, with dressings in stone and terracotta, flanking pilasters surmounted by ball finials, a moulded eaves cornice, and a panelled blocking course. In the centre is an ornate, shaped pediment containing a date plaque, and with a ball finial. There are three storeys and three bays. In the ground floor is a modern shop front. The upper floors contain sash windows, paired in the central bay of the upper floor, and below them is an oriel window in a wide segmental arch. 38 Glumangate centre 1887 A red brick building with a stuccoed sill band and a dentilled eaves cornice. There are two storeys and a symmetrical front of five bays. The doorway has a fanlight and a keystone, the windows are sashes, and all have segmental heads. Former National Union of Miners Offices centre 1893 The office building, later used for other purposes, is in red brick with sandstone dressings, and a Welsh slate roof with coped gables. There are two storeys and an L-shaped plan, with a front of seven bays, the right five bays symmetrical. The middle of these bays has a crow-stepped gable, and contains a round-arched doorway with pilasters. To the left is a gabled bay containing a two-storey canted bay window, and the left bay contains a doorway. The ground floor windows have segmental heads, and those in the upper floor have flat heads and are set in semicircular arches. Social Services Department building centre 1895 The building is in red brick with stone dressings, a string course, an eaves band, a cornice, and a slate roof with coped gables. There are two storeys, and a symmetrical front with a central block of five bays, and pedimented outer wings. The central doorway has a massive elaborate surround with a round-arched entrance, an ornamental entablature, and ball finials. All the ground floor windows have segmental heads and keystones, and those in the upper floor of the central block have round-arched heads, moulded archivolts, and an impost band. The outer wings are flanked by rusticated pilasters. In the upper floor are three windows, the middle light with a round arch, and a circular window above the outer lights. There is also a circular window in each tympanum. St Bartholomew's Church centre 1896 The church, which replaced an earlier church on the site, is in gritstone with freestone dressings and a slate roof, and is in Decorated style. It consists of a nave with a clerestory, north and south aisles, a chancel with a south organ chamber and a northeast steeple. The steeple has a tower with three stages, buttresses, a south doorway, and a broach spire. Lamp post outside 35 Low Pavement The lamp post is in cast iron, and has a circular base with an inset medallion and a fluted plinth. On this is a foliate bulb and a tall, slender column with a decorative collar and a ladder rest. It has a tulip-design baluster top, and a half-circle bracket decorated with scrolls and a cast flower. On the top is s replacement lantern. Outbuilding at rear of 11 Beetwell Street The building, which encloses a courtyard, is in red brick with a slate roof. There are two storeys and an external staircase. The building contains a central carriageway arch and sash windows. Lamp standard outside 2 Central Pavement centre The lamp standard is in cast iron. It has a round fluted plinth with a medallion, on which is a tall round shaft that has a bulbous foot with foliate moulding. At the top is a scrolled swan neck lamp bracket. Lamp standard outside 63 Low Pavement centre he lamp standard is in cast iron. It has a round fluted plinth with a medallion, on which is a tall round shaft that has a bulbous foot with foliate moulding. At the top is a scrolled swan neck lamp bracket. The Homestead 1903 The house was designed by Raymond Unwin, and is in rusticated gritstone, with full height corner buttresses, wide bracketed eaves at the sides and rear, and a hipped tile roof. There are two storeys with attics, and two full height bow windows. The other windows are mullioned with small panes, and there is a four-light dormer window. The doorways have hood moulds. Former Offices of the Markham Company centre The building is in red brick with stone dressings, on a plinth, with quoins, sill bands, an eaves band, a modillion cornice, and a slate roof with coped gables. There are two storeys and seven bays, and over the middle three bays is a pediment with a rosette in the tympanum, under which is a frieze with the name of the company. In the centre is a doorway with pilasters, a round-headed fanlight, a modillion cornice on consoles and a frieze. The windows are sashes, the window over the doorway has a segmental pediment, and is flanked by round windows. The other windows in the upper floor have architraves, cornices, and friezes, and in the ground floor they have architraves, and cornices on consoles. Former Williams and Glyn's Bank centre 1907 The bank, on a curved corner site, is in stone with a high basement, on a plinth, with a frieze, a modillion cornice, and a parapet with an open balustrade. The curved part has eleven bays, between which are giant engaged Ionic columns. The further three bays at the rear of both sides are rusticated. The windows have moulded architraves, those in the ground floor with triple keystones. The doorway has a round-arched fanlight and a segmental pediment on consoles, and above it is a plaque containing arms and flanked by eagles. Saint Helena School centre 1911 The school was designed by George H. Widdows and has since become part of the University of Derby. It is in red brick with stone dressings and a tile roof. The school has a central polygonal block with a cupola, with wings radiating from the corners, giving an X-shaped plan, and an additional wing stretches towards the road. This wing has two storeys and an attic, and five bays, the three inner bays projecting and gabled. In the centre is a canted stone porch, over which is a canted bay window with a parapet. The radial wings have two storeys, a double modillion cornice and hipped roofs. Statue of Willam Edwin Harvey 1915 The statue, by Joseph Whitehead, depicts William Edwin Harvey, a Member of parliament and one of the founders of the Derbyshire Miners' Association. It is in white stone on a rough hewn plinth, and also includes a Davy lamp, a pick, and leaves. On the plinth is an inscription. Statue of James Haslam 1915 The statue, by Joseph Whitehead, depicts James Haslam, a Member of parliament and one of the founders of the Derbyshire Miners' Association. It is in white stone on a rough hewn plinth, and also includes a Davy lamp, a pick, and leaves. On the plinth is an inscription. Whittington War Memorial centre The war memorial stands in a trianglular area at a road junction. It is in stone, and consists of a square shaft with wreaths, on a vermiculated plinth on a stepped base. On the top is a cap, and a finial with a plain stone cross on each face. Bandstand, Queen's Park centre 1922 The bandstand has an octagonal plan, a rusticated stone plinth, and slim cast iron columns. These have foliate moulding, and composite capitals. They carry a pagoda roof with a finial and wide eaves. There is a cast iron balustrade with round arches and ball finials. Hasland War Memorial centre 1922 The war memorial stands at the entrance to Eastwood Park. It is in white marble, and consists of a statue depicting an infantryman with a rifle, wearing a cap. This stands on a square pedestal with a two-stage moulded cap, on a sandstone base of two steps. On the pedestal is an inscription and the names of those lost in the First World War. A marble stone on the upper step of the base has an inscription and the names of those lost in the Second World War. War memorial, Church of St Mary and All Saints centre The war memorial in the churchyard is in white stone, and consists of a crucifix on a tapering shaft. This stands on an octagonal plinth on four octagonal steps. There is lettering on the bottom step, and carving on the plinth. Winding Wheel centre 1922–23 The first part was built as a cinema, and a ballroom block was added to the left in about 1930. They are steel-framed, and have external applied timber framing and render. The right block has two storeys and nine bays, with gables over the middle three bays. The middle three bays contain an entrance with an acanthus cornice, and is flanked by shop fronts. In the upper floor the windows are mullioned and transomed, and in the middle is an oriel window. The left block has five bays, with an entrance in each outer bay and a shop front between in Art Deco style. Above are mullioned and transomed windows, and an oriel window in the left bay. Conservatory, Queen's Park centre 1930 The conservatory has a base of red brick on a plinth, with moulded window frames, and a cruciform plan. There is a dentilled cornice, a hipped roof with ball finials, and a central domed cupola with a finial. The entrance on the north side has double doors, and a pediment with a finial. War memorial and steps centre 1933–38 The steps are in front of Chesterfield Town Hall, the war memorial was added in 1954, and they are in Portland stone. The steps rise to a terrace with a semicircular front and a balustrade. The steps also have a balustrade, ending in piers with planting urns. The war memorial consists of a chest tomb on the top balustrade with bronze flaming torches. Chesterfield Town Hall centre 1937–38 The town hall is in orange brick with Portland stone dressings, a moulded eaves cornice, a brick parapet with sections of stone balustrading, and hipped tile roofs. There are two storeys, a rusticated basement and a sub- basement, and a front of 23 bays. In the centre is a portico with six giant Corinthian columns, and a pediment with an oval window. In the other bays are sash windows, the windows in the lower floor of the end bays surrounded by columns and curved pediments. The sides have seven bays, the middle three bays recessed behind giant Corinthian columns, and at the rear is a central projecting bow. Curved Reclining Form (Rosewall) centre 1960–62 A statue by Barbara Hepworth, it is in hard limestone on a rectangular plinth in a shallow tiled pool alongside Future Walk. It is in the form of two interlocking curved forms, with twin apertures, roughly oval in shape. Chesterfield Courthouse centre 1963–65 The magistrates' court house, which has been converted for other purposes, is in reinforced concrete, with decorative stone cladding, and timber roofs clad with copper sheeting. There are three storeys, and the plan is of a double fan. Many of the bays are gabled. Gate piers, Tapton Manor, Grange and Grove centre Undated The gate piers at the entrance to the drive are in stone, they are rusticated, and have pyramidal caps. ==References== ===Citations=== ===Sources=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Lists of listed buildings in Derbyshire Listed |
Victor Zsasz ( or or ), also known as Mr. Zsasz or simply Zsasz, is a supervillain appearing in comic books published by DC Comics.Batman: Shadow of the Bat #1. The character first appeared in Batman: Shadow of the Bat #1 (June 1992). He is a sadomasochistic and psychopathic serial killer who carves a tally mark onto himself for each of his victims. A recurring adversary of the superhero Batman, Zsasz belongs to the collective of enemies that make up Batman's rogues gallery. The character has been featured in various forms of non-comics media. Most notably, Danny Jacobs has voiced Zsasz in the Batman: Arkham video game franchise, and he has been portrayed in live-action by Anthony Carrigan in the television series Gotham, Alex Morf in the Arrowverse series Batwoman, Tim Booth in the film Batman Begins (2005), and Chris Messina in the DC Extended Universe film Birds of Prey (2020). ==Publication history== Zsasz first appeared in Batman: Shadow of the Bat #1 (June 1992), as part of the "Batman: The Last Arkham" four-part story arc, and his origin story was told in The Batman Chronicles #3 (December 1996); both stories were written by Alan Grant and drawn by Norm Breyfogle. As revealed in the foreword to the trade paperback of "Batman: The Last Arkham", Zsasz's name is derived from that of psychiatrist Thomas Szasz; Grant saw the name while visiting a library.Breyfogle, N. & Grant, A. (1996). Batman: The Last Arkham. DC Comics. . ==Fictional character biography== ===Origin story=== In Batman Chronicles #3, told by Zsasz himself, it is learned that Victor Zsasz was the head of his own international company and had amassed a large personal fortune in addition to his family's wealth. At the age of 25, his parents died in a boating accident, sending him into a deep depression. He turned to gambling, losing money in competitions around the world. One night, he ended up in a Gotham City casino known as the Iceberg Lounge, where he gambled everything he owned and ended up losing it all to the Penguin; afterwards he saw that his life was empty, driven by desire, and there was no point to his existence. While Zsasz was attempting to commit suicide by jumping from Gotham Bridge, a homeless man tried to assault him with a knife after Zsasz refused to give him money. Instinctively grabbing the knife, Zsasz saw in the man's eyes that all life is meaningless and that nothing and no one matters. He then proceeded to stab the man to death as a "gift" for saving his life. From then on, he dedicated himself to "liberating" others from their pointless existence (Zsasz often refers to his victims as "zombies"). He usually preys on young women, but has no qualms over whom he murders. He slits his victims' throats and leaves them in lifelike poses, adding a tally mark to himself each time. He has been declared insane and is regularly incarcerated in Arkham Asylum courtesy of Batman, breaking out on occasion to carry on his killing. ===Later story arcs=== During his debut appearance in Batman: Shadow of the Bat's opening story arc, Batman: The Last Arkham, Zsasz bribes a contractor to include a secret passage leading out from his cell during the asylum's reconstruction under its new head, Jeremiah Arkham, who inherited the asylum from his uncle, Amadeus Arkham. Although Zsasz is restrained during the daytime when he is being treated personally by Jeremiah Arkham, he is brought back to his cell at night where he would leave the asylum through the secret passage, unbeknownst to the night guards. After murders fitting his modus operandi begin surfacing, Batman and Commissioner James Gordon fake Batman's insanity to get him inside the asylum and investigate Zsasz. Jeremiah Arkham is exceptionally brutal towards Batman, who had supposedly murdered a police officer; over the course of the "treatment", Zsasz had warped Jeremiah's mind and turned him into a mere henchman. Due to these continuous conversations with Jeremiah Arkham, Zsasz realises Batman is a plant and subsequently murders both the contractor and another inmate at Arkham who knows of Zsasz's ploy. Both Nightwing and Batman catch up to Zsasz when he tries to escape for the final time and put him back in Arkham. Zsasz later appears in Parts 3 and 4 of the Knightfall saga. In Part 3 of Knightfall, Zsasz takes an all-girls boarding school hostage and holds the students at knifepoint until Batman arrives, briefly leaving to kill two police officers who were sent to arrest him. Though weakened both physically and mentally due to the strain of pushing himself for so long to capture the escaped inmates, Batman fights with Zsasz and tries to ignore the lunatic's mockery. He finally snaps, after Zsasz says that they are really one and the same, and administers a savage beating.Batman #492. DC Comics.Batman #493 In Part 4, Zsasz's appearance is a mere cameo, depicting him being led out of the boarding school by police and Harvey Bullock personally threatening him. During the No Man's Land storyline, Zsasz is a patient in Dr. Leslie Thompkins' field hospital for a brief while, proving to be eminently deadly even when unconscious and strapped to a stretcher when he manages to open one of the arteries of a field orderly with his fingernails. Once he wakes up, he is confronted by Dr. Thompkins, whose utter selfless charity sharply contrasts with his total emptiness; she briefly gives him pause, but is finally repelled by his profound evil.The Batman Chronicles #18 (Winter 1999). DC Comics Zsasz later appears in Detective Comics #796, where he fights Stephanie Brown in her role as Robin. He attempts to slit her throat, but is distracted by her unexpected ferocity and falls back, where he attacks and attempts to kill Batman. However, Stephanie eventually defeats him. Zsasz makes a brief appearance in Infinite Crisis #7. He is part of the Secret Society of Super Villains and is one of the many of their members sent to attack the city of Metropolis. The Society loses. Zsasz is not seen in any major villainous role again until Detective Comics #815, released in March 2006, entitled "Victims". Before a quarterly psychiatric review, Zsasz kills his guards with metal poles attached to his neck bracket and escapes to kill again. Batman hunts for Zsasz, which proves unsuccessful until Zsasz gains access to a charity event (attended by Bruce Wayne) and stabs Wayne's beloved butler, Alfred Pennyworth, in the stomach. Wayne drives Alfred to the hospital, saving his life. To lure Zsasz to him, Wayne holds a press conference in which he announces that Alfred is still alive. Having already made a scar for Alfred, Zsasz realises that his tally is off by one (Zsasz remarks: "My skin...it's crawling...every inch of it feels...wrong.") During the second part of "Victims" (Detective Comics #816), after a fight with Batman, Zsasz proceeds to the hospital to finish off Alfred. Batman catches him off-guard and knocks him unconscious, thus saving Alfred's life and sending Zsasz back to Arkham. Throughout this appearance, Cliff Chiang's artwork portrays Zsasz with visual elements commonly associated with the skinhead subculture, including work boots resembling Doc Martens, tight jeans, a white tank top, suspenders or "braces" and a close-cropped hairstyle. Additionally, Chiang's portrayal of Zsasz is more outwardly physically imposing than the gaunt, wiry physique created by Breyfogle and favored by most subsequent artists. No dialogue in the story arc references Zsasz being a skinhead nor does it explain his increased musculature and it is likely these visual elements were the decision of the artist. Zsasz is later seen again in the Gotham Underground story arc where, in issue #3, he appears in a disguised Batman's cell at Blackgate Prison and attempts to kill him with a knife. He ends up cutting Batman's arm just as he was waking up and the resulting fight ends with Zsasz being knocked unconscious and Batman being rushed to the hospital. A naked, desperate and totally deranged Zsasz appeared in the first issue of Batman: Cacophony (2008), written by film director Kevin Smith, killing a young couple and threatening their children before Batman subdues him. His thoughts move so quickly that there are no spaces between the words. In the issue, Batman says that of all the criminals he fights, he hates Zsasz the most. In the Battle For The Cowl storyline, Zsasz is recruited by a new Black Mask into a group of villains aiming to take over Gotham. This arrangement is explained further in a continuous story arc through the Streets of Gotham series, with Black Mask hiring Zsasz after he saved the former's life following a confrontation with former employee the Firefly. Black Mask presents Zsasz with a briefcase filled with cash and advises him to finally live out his dream, knowing full well any 'dream' of Zsasz's would culminate in mass murder. Apprehensive at first on how to go about this, he eventually decides to take Black Mask up on his offer, dressing in Armani suits (appearing near exactly the image of Woody Harrelson's character in Natural Born Killers) and purchasing a warehouse as his base of operations. During an investigation into the discovery of several children murdered by Humpty Dumpty, Damian Wayne is 'captured' by a man soliciting runaway kids with the promise of a free meal and a place to stay. Damian discovers the man to be a close associate of Victor Zsasz and that Zsasz has been slowly building a financial empire using runaway children and kidnapped orphans in a 'fight to the death' arena where people bet on the winners. The winning child faces a new contestant, and so on, until the last child left fights Zsasz one-on-one, with the promise of freedom for winning (with it clearly evident none have won thus far). Having seen the horrors that Zsasz has left, as well as a haunting memory of seeing the dead bodies of the children he killed, Damian questions why Bruce or Dick have allowed a man like Zsasz to be left alive, despite their moral code against murder. Damian manages to subdue Victor and attack him viciously with a sword, after which he falls into Gotham Harbor. Not wanting to defy his mentor and late father's beliefs, he promises Dick that the blow was not fatal since he "missed Zsasz's spine", but indicated that his chances of survival were slim. Zsasz is later seen in captivity in Detective Comics #865, after Black Mask's (Jeremiah Arkham) apprehension, in Arkham Asylum. While no reference is made to Zsasz's injury (nor does he appear to be injured), his presence in Arkham alongside Jeremiah strongly suggests the events of this issue take place subsequent to the injury, meaning he did survive the attack.Detective Comics #865 (July 2010), DC Comics. ===The New 52=== Zsasz has appeared various times in The New 52 (a 2011 reboot of the DC Comics universe) as an inmate of Arkham,Batman (vol. 2) #1 and he is later seen attacking Batgirl in the Narrows, while on Venom.Batman: The Dark Knight (vol. 2) #2. DC Comics. Zsasz next appears in Detective Comics (vol. 2) #18 written by John Layman. He is released from Arkham Asylum by the Joker prior to the events of Death of the Family. Later, he is hired by Ignatius Ogilvy, the Emperor Penguin, to "leave [his] mark on Gotham City"; he is given a knife with the Emperor Penguin's insignia on it.Detective Comics (vol. 2) #18 (May 2013). DC Comics. Zsasz is later instructed to put the Man-Bat serum on the knife, as part of the Emperor Penguin's plan to turn the population of Gotham City into Man-Bats through an airborne virus. Zsasz is temporarily transformed into one.Detective Comics (vol. 2) #19 (June 2013). DC Comics. During the Forever Evil storyline, Nightwing had just retrieved Victor Zsasz from Chicago and was bringing him back to Arkham Asylum. Victor Zsasz was then abducted by Superwoman and Owlman.Forever Evil #1. DC Comics. ===DC Rebirth=== In the DC Rebirth reboot, Batman and Duke Thomas investigate a series of murders linked to Zsasz.All-Star Batman #1–5 Flashbacks to the 2017 story arc The War of Jokes and Riddles reveals that Zsasz sided with the Riddler in a war against the JokerBatman (vol. 3) #26. DC Comics. He briefly joins a gang of villains assembled by Killer Moth.Detective Comics #969 In the Watchmen sequel Doomsday Clock, Victor Zsasz was at Arkham Asylum when Rorschach was incarcerated there by Batman.Doomsday Clock #4 (March 2018). DC Comics. ==Powers and abilities== In addition to his wiry-yet-tall physique, Zsasz is extremely agile and flexible, able to go toe-to-toe with even Batman for brief bouts. Though he favors slitting his victims' throats with knives, he has no reservations about tossing blades at opponents if the occasion calls for it, and even carries several spare knives for this purpose. Though he personally dislikes guns, considering them "unreliable", Zsasz is known to occasionally carry firearms to coerce his selected victims. Even barehanded, Zsasz is a formidable opponent; as he is locked away in an enormous steel containment unit for 16 hours a day, he has made a habit of practicing isometrics in the cramped space to strengthen his body. Zsasz is incredibly intelligent and is described as having "a brilliant criminal mind".The DC Comics Encyclopedia He is constantly thinking quickly both while incarcerated and active, and some of his escapes have been a result of his cunning schemes. Zsasz is completely unpredictable, having no qualms about who he kills, when and where. Thus, he is almost impossible to track, even if signs of his modus operandi appear evident, as there is no motive or clue trail to follow. Such unpredictability also renders him a danger to anyone and everyone who may encounter him. During the Streets of Gotham story arc, it is learned that Zsasz sees the world as bathed in red, and everyone in it as a victim he has murdered. He envisions both friend (Black Mask) and foe (Dick Grayson) as having died at his hand with their throats slashed. During his battle with Damian, Zsasz begins to lose his composure when he begins to see him as a living human being rather than as a dead body. ==Other versions== ===Crimson Mist=== In Batman: Crimson Mist, Zsasz is one of the inmates of Arkham Asylum whom the vampiric Batman slaughters. Batman tears Zsasz's chest open with his talons to mark the scar which will represent Zsasz's own life; he then drinks Zsasz's blood and cuts off his head.Batman: Crimson Mist. DC Comics. ===Flashpoint=== In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Victor Zsasz is imprisoned in the military Doom prison.Flashpoint: Legion of Doom #1 (June 2011) During the prison break, Zsasz is killed by the arsonist Heat Wave. ===Batman: Arkham City=== In the Batman: Arkham City prequel comic book, Zsasz was briefly mentioned by Hugo Strange as an inmate he intentionally, but anonymously released so that the Tyger forces could recapture him to boost Arkham City's credit as a safe prison. Upon admittance, Zsasz quickly became well known as the "Payphone Killer" in Arkham City, hooking up all the old phone lines with the help of the Broker, tracking and murdering anyone unlucky enough to answer one of his calls after being briefly imprisoned by the Penguin in his museum. He briefly appeared in Two-Face's trial against the Joker as a juror, and also agreed to condemn the Joker to death. ===Injustice: Gods Among Us=== Zsasz appears in the Injustice: Gods Among Us comic book series, interrupting an argument between Superman and Batman, taunting Superman and asking him if he felt the 'release' from taking a life. Wonder Woman then has Cyborg open Zsasz's cell door, much to Batman's horror and Zsasz's delight, only for the insane killer to be quickly swept away by the Flash to the secure location Superman has created for the Arkham patients. Zsasz later appears in Year Five where he is sent by Superman to interrogate Alfred Pennyworth on the whereabouts of the ever-elusive Batman. Alfred is able to put up a fight before Zsasz kills him, not finding out where Batman is, however, as Alfred was both unaware and unwilling to help. This brings Batman out of hiding and he soon after corners Zsasz, beating him into submission. Zsasz refuses to confirm whether Superman sent him and sadistically reveals where he has placed Alfred's tally mark. Damian Wayne shows up and orders Batman to kill Zsasz, or he will do it instead. Zsasz is put back into prison, but Damian sneaks into his cell and kills Zsasz in revenge. Before dying Zsasz stated that the scar representing Alfred's death was his favorite one. In the game's sequel Injustice 2, the timeline where he was killed by Damian in Year Five has been retconned, and was instead killed earlier by Damian in Year One, in the same time Damian defects to join Superman's side. ==In other media== ===Television=== * Victor Zsasz makes his live-action television debut in the Fox series Gotham, portrayed by Anthony Carrigan. This version regularly serves as a hitman of crime lord Carmine Falcone, and is often accompanied by leather-wearing female contract killers. Gotham ep. 7 "Penguin's Umbrella" Directed by Rob Bailey. Written by Bruno Heller. November 3, 2014 When Falcone eventually retires and leaves Gotham City, Zsasz's allegiances shift to gangster Oswald Cobblepot. Throughout the series, Zsasz has been hired to carry out hits on members of the Gotham City Police Department (including James Gordon and Commissioner Loeb) and other mobsters (such as Fish Mooney and Butch Gilzean). * Victor Zsasz makes brief appearances in the Harley Quinn episodes "There's No Place to Go But Down" and "The Runaway Bridesmaid," voiced by Brad Morris. In the former, he is seen as an inmate at Bane's rehabilitation center, the Pit, while in the latter, he is seen as a guest at Poison Ivy and Kite Man's wedding. * Victor Zsasz appeared in the second season of the live action series Batwoman, portrayed by Alex Morf. This version is a hitman who sells his services to whoever can pay him and has had a previous encounter with Ryan Wilder. After Batwoman's disastrous fight with Zsasz, Ryan goes as herself where she engages in a conversation with Zsasz with a hidden device provided by Luke Fox to hack into Zsasz' cellphone. Luke was able to use the information he obtained to discover that Safiyah Sohail hired him to kill his latest targets. After hearing from Alice about Hamilton Dynamics using a serum that had Mary's Desert Rose-affected blood in it, Safiyah contacts Zsasz to target Mary Hamilton. Before Zsasz can finish off Mary, he is attacked by Batwoman in her new Batsuit, where she manages to defeat him. ===Films=== * Victor Zsasz briefly appears in the 2005 film Batman Begins, portrayed by Tim Booth. An enforcer of mobster Carmine Falcone, Zsasz is put on trial for multiple murders by Assistant District Attorney Rachel Dawes. He is ultimately sent to Arkham Asylum after being deemed psychologically insane by the hospital's administrator Dr. Jonathan Crane, who secretly works for Falcone. Zsasz later escapes from Arkham during Ra's al Ghul's attack on Gotham City, and proceeds to attack Rachel alongside the other inmates before being subdued by Batman. A promotional website for The Dark Knight reveals that Zsasz is still at large. * Victor Zsasz makes a small appearance in the direct-to-video animated film Batman: Assault on Arkham, voiced by Christian Lanz. He takes a woman hostage in an alley, where he is surrounded by several police officers before Batman arrives and subdues him. * Victor Zsasz made his DCEU debut in the film Birds of Prey, portrayed by Chris Messina. This version works for Roman Sionis / Black Mask, and takes it upon himself to keep tabs on his employer's newly-appointed driver, Dinah Lance, eventually figuring out that she has been tipping off the police. He is killed by Helena Bertinelli, as it is revealed that he was one of the hitmen who slaughtered her family. * Victor Zsasz appears in the animated film Injustice, voiced by Reid Scott. ===Video games=== ====Lego Batman==== * Victor Zsasz appears in the Nintendo DS version of Lego Batman: The Video Game as an enemy bounty in the "Villain Hunt" minigame. * Victor Zsasz appears as a mini boss in the Nintendo DS version of Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes. ====Batman Arkham==== Victor Zsasz appears as one of the villains in the Batman: Arkham franchise, voiced by Danny Jacobs. * In the beginning of Batman: Arkham Asylum, during the initial stages of the Joker's takeover, Zsasz manages to escape confinement and take a guard hostage in Pacification, strapping him to an electric chair. Batman manages to sneak behind Zsasz and render him unconscious. However, Zsasz later manages to get free, killing guards in their break room and in the garden. The Joker found him there and recruited him to torture Dr. Young for the TITAN formula; Batman manages to render Zsasz unconscious again, but Dr. Young's rescue is short-lived as a bomb takes her life shortly after. He is later seen in the Scarecrow's final hallucinations as one of the villains escorting Batman into Arkham, similar to the guards who brought the Joker into Arkham Asylum at the start of the game. Later in the hand-to-hand combat challenge modes, Zsasz appears as an NPC that Batman must fight along with regular thugs. He carries two knives, and must be stunned to attack. * In the sequel Batman: Arkham City, Batman must track him down and foil his murders in a side mission, with Zsasz calling him on various payphones and instructing Batman to find another phone within a time limit before Victor Zsasz starts killing hostages. He explains his backstory over the course of the mission via phoning the player, including him losing his money gambling against the Penguin (who cheats) in the Iceberg Lounge, eventually revealing he feels his only purpose in life is killing. Batman eventually tracks him down to his hideout by tracking the series of communication towers he uses to bounce his telephone signal and stops him before he kills two hostages. However, Detective Mode—a visual mode that highlights elements of interest on-screen—reveals a body in the water, suggesting a hostage unsuccessfully tried escaping or committed suicide, or Zsasz simply grew tired of waiting and killed him. Batman then puts Zsasz in a cage where he kept his prisoners. It is mentioned by the Penguin that Victor Zsasz has murdered over 100 men, women and children. It is also made apparent that he was captured by the Penguin and put on display at one point, before escaping. * In Batman: Arkham Knight, Victor Zsasz makes a cameo appearance when Batman reviews Oracle's clocktower footage after she is kidnapped. It is also revealed through a Gotham City story that Zsasz has been active in Gotham and has resumed his killings, with Batman having the option of coming across three of his victims posed under a bridge near Wayne Tower. Several missions related to Zsasz were originally planned to be included in the game, as dialogue from him still exists in the games files, however he was cut because his missions were too similar to the missions of Professor Pyg, and the developers wanted to use a new villain. ====Other games==== * Zsasz appears as a boss in Batman: Dark Tomorrow, voiced by Scott Sowers. * Tim Booth reprises his role as Zsasz in the Batman Begins video game, in his original incarnation, rather than "the hitman" he is described as in the film. He first appears when Flass is attempting to interrogate him for information about Falcone's new 'partner', Batman releasing him from his chain to scare Flass into departing Zsasz's cell so that Batman can question Flass, using Zsasz as a threat. Zsasz later makes a brief appearance during the riots where he attempts to terrify Rachel Dawes, but she takes him out with her taser while Zsasz is distracted by Batman's arrival. * Zsasz appears as a summonable character in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure. * Victor Zsasz appears in Batman: The Telltale Series, voiced by Kiff VandenHeuvel. He is an inmate at Arkham Asylum and can interact with Bruce Wayne during the latter's commitment to the mental hospital. As part of a scheme to get the billionaire released, "John Doe" manipulates Zsasz into creating a riot, causing him to lash out at another inmate. Depending on whether Bruce chooses to intervene or use the opportunity to arrange his release, he will either attack the billionaire or kill an orderly. Zsasz is also part of the riot at Arkham Asylum created by Lady Arkham, during which he attacks Batman. He is quickly subdued by the vigilante, though the circumstances change depending on a choice from the previous episode. * Victor Zsasz briefly appears in the story mode of Injustice 2, voiced by Steve Blum. He is killed by Robin during Superman's siege of Arkham Asylum. ===Books=== The tie-in book for Batman Begins featuring the development art, and the visual guide to the film, also feature a shot of Booth in costume, referring to Zsasz as a serial killer. In the credits and script for the film, as well as all the books and the graphic novelization, his name is spelled "Zsaz". The novelization of Batman Begins by Dennis O'Neil refers to him as "Victor Zsasz", as does the video game. ==See also== * List of Batman family enemies ==References== ==External links== * Victor Zsasz at DC Comics' official website Category:Batman characters Category:Characters created by Norm Breyfogle Category:Comics characters introduced in 1992 Category:DC Comics film characters Category:DC Comics television characters Category:Fictional attempted suicides Category:Fictional assassins in comics Category:Fictional business executives Category:Fictional characters with disfigurements Category:Fictional gamblers Category:Fictional knife-fighters Category:Fictional mass murderers Category:Fictional nihilists Category:Fictional serial killers Category:DC Comics male supervillains Category:Male film villains Category:Male characters in television Category:Male characters in film Category:Self-harm in fiction Category:Video game bosses |
Rugby union was first introduced into Lebanon both by the mandated French forces, and subsequently by the Lebanese returning from the diaspora. Introduced into many other parts of the Middle East, by the British military in the mid 20th Century, rugby has begun to develop across the Arabian peninsula with the establishment of many national rugby federations and the development of the Dubai Sevens, which has helped generate interest in the sport in Arabic-speaking nations. Formally, rugby union in Lebanon has been played since the inception of the Beirut Phoenicians Rugby Union Club in 1995 at the request of the British Consulate. The club was formed in order to play visiting teams from British War ships. The Beirut Phoenicians Rugby Union Club represented Lebanon as the only rugby union club in both locally played matches and International tournaments for a number of years. In 2009, the Lebanese Rugby Union Federation was established with the intention of developing the game at a local level and representing Lebanon on the international rugby scene. The Federation was formed by representatives of the Beirut Phoenicians, Ahed/Reay, Jamhour Black Lions and Grey Wolves Rugby Clubs. In 2013, the Jounieh Rugby Club was formed and applied to join the LRUF. During this period the Lebanese Rugby Union Federation was recognised as a member of the Asian Rugby Federation Union. In recent seasons the Senior Lebanese National Rugby Union team, the "Phoenix" has demonstrated its improving development through successful tournament victories in 2012–2013 international season winning the Asian Five Nations Division 4 tournament to advance in 2013 to the 3rd Division of the Asian Five Nations Competition. ==The Current State of Lebanese Rugby Union== The Lebanese Rugby Union Federation at the present time is made up of five teams, which play in domestic tournaments including, * The Blue Stars * The Beirut Phoenicians * The Jamhour Black Lions * The Jounieh Dragons * The Froggies Beyrouth It is from these clubs that players are selected to play for the Lebanese National team, which is often supplemented by expatriate Lebanese players from nations with large Lebanese expatriate communities with an interest in Rugby such as England and Australia. The Lebanese National team competes in the Asian Rugby Federation Union competition and is very competitive regionally. The Lebanese National team, the "Phoenix" recently won a Middle Eastern 7s tournament in Dubai and the Asian Five Nations Division 4 tournament against Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Laos to advance to the 3rd Division in the 2013 – 2014 season. While the fortunes of the Lebanese Rugby Union Federation have been on the rise in recent seasons the Federation continues to receive very little in the way of funding and relies heavily on intermittent sponsorship. The Lebanese Ministry of Youth and Sport provides the Lebanese Rugby Union Federation with a minimal amount of funding yet this pales in comparison with the generous allowances provided annually by other Arab nations to their Rugby Union Federations. There is a great deal of potential for rugby union to be successful both in Lebanon and internationally. In order to achieve this potential there needs to be an expansion of the current domestic club competition and a greater emphasis on the development of the game at a junior and schools level. Rugby union promises to be an excellent way to provide opportunities for Lebanese youth to focus their energies on positive life affirming team activities. Yet with the limited playing pitches and funding, rugby union in Lebanon will remain a limited sport and will take many years if not decades to develop. ==Domestically== ===Lebanese Club Championship=== Domestically, the Lebanese Rugby Union Federation is in the process of expanding the reach and popularity of Rugby in Lebanon through the incorporation of more teams to expand the Lebanese Club Championship. The Lebanese Rugby Union Federation's representative side, "Phoenix Select XV" regularly competes in rugby matches against visiting United Nations Interim Force troop teams including teams from the French, Irish and Fijian battalions stationed in Southern Lebanon. The Lebanese Rugby Union Federation also has begun the development of junior rugby programs and junior tournaments to encourage the playing of rugby in schools. In 2018 five school's teams competed in the LRUF Student's Cup including College Notre Dame Jamhour, Lycée, American Community School and International College and two teams from to independent junior academies the Froggies Academy and the Blue Stars Academy. 2018 has also seen the rise in women's domestic rugby with senior and junior teams from the Blue Stars, Beirut Aconites, International College and American Community School participating in the LRUF's Women's Rugby competition. ===Internationally=== The Lebanese National Rugby Union Team, the "Phoenix" has participated in a number of international tournaments and test matches since the inception of the Federation in 2009. The Phoenix have played international matches against Qatar, Jordan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and the UAE in the XV's version of the game. They have also played against the UAE, Afghanistan and Iran in the West Asian 7's Tournament. The Phoenix will participate in the "Asian Five Nations" Division 3 West tournament commencing on 19 June 2014 in Lahore, Pakistan. The Phoenix will compete against national teams from host nation Pakistan, India and Uzbekistan. The winners of this tournament should advance to A5N Division 2 in the 2015 season. The Phoenix are also scheduled to participate in the 2014 Asian Games to be held in Inchon, Korea in October. ===Lebanese Expatriate Rugby Participation=== Internationally, the Lebanese expatriate community has had a profound impact upon the game of Rugby Union. Many Lebanese expatriates and people of Lebanese descent have played at an international level and have contributed to the advancement of Rugby Union both on and off the field. Rugby Union is described as 'the game that is played in heaven' as such it is fitting that those early settlers and their descendants who hail from the land of the 'Cedars of God' would come to thrive at such a game. The Australian Lebanese community has had a long and proud association with the game of rugby union commencing within a short period of time after the establishment of the Syrian (Lebanese) colony in Australia. In 1888, George P Barbour was selected to represent the New South Wales Waratahs against QueenslandHSBC Waratahs Representatives: All Time Players List: http://www.waratahs.com.au/Waratahs/Team/Statistics/AllTimePlayerList.aspx. © 2012 NSW Rugby. Accessed 07/09/2013 @ 9.00 pm and from 1894 to 1897 All (Alf) Hanna played 16 Caps for the Waratahs. Undoubtedly, the most distinguished of all rugby players of Australian Lebanese descent is former Australian Wallabies Captain and President of the Australian Rugby Football Union (ARU), Sir Nicholas Shehadie AC. OBE. Sir Nicholas began playing at the age of 15 and played more than 175 club games for the famous 'Galloping Greens', the Randwick Rugby Club. His career eventually spanned almost five decades representing the Waratahs with 37 caps and by age 20, Sir Nicholas was selected to represent Australia against the New Zealand All Blacks in the Second Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1947.Sir Nicholas Shehadie AC OBE. http://www.rugby.com.au/wallabies/TheTeam/WallabyHallofFame/SirNicholasShehadieACOBE.aspx. Accessed 20 August 2013 @ 2.43pm Sir Nicholas recalls with great irony that his selection in the test against the All Blacks was the first test match he had ever witnessed. While not being able to definitively single out a greatest career highlight, Sir Nicholas remembers with great fondness his selection in the nine-month tour of the United Kingdom, France and North America in 1947/48. Eventually playing more than 100 games for the Wallabies, Sir Nicholas captained Australia three times. The Australian Rugby Union still considers him to be "one of the world's best props, Sir Nicholas Shehadie set a new Australian record for being the most capped Wallaby, with 30 Tests to his name between 1947 and 1958." One of his most memorable experiences on tour with the Australian Wallabies was the reception that he and his Wallaby teammates received from the Lebanese community while touring South Africa in 1953. The community lovingly adopted the Wallabies as their team and in very Lebanese fashion sought to inquire with the tour manager as to Sir Nicholas' marital status. Sir Nicholas laughingly recalls that when he became Captain of the Wallabies it seemed that he suddenly had many more relatives in the Australian Lebanese community. Sir Nicholas was selected to tour Europe with the Wallabies in 1958, ten years after his previous tour. At the end of the tour, he was selected to represent the prestigious Barbarian Football Club against his beloved Wallabies. Neither feat had ever been accomplished by any other player. His illustrious rugby career did not end with his playing retirement. He went on to become the President of the Australian Rugby Football Union from 1980 to 1986 and was instrumental in establishing the inaugural Rugby World Cup, which is now the third largest sporting event after the Olympics and the Football World Cup. Sir Nicholas was inducted into the ARU Hall of Fame in 2006 and the International Rugby Board's Hall of Fame in 2011. During Sir Nicholas' era there were a number of Australians of Lebanese descent playing rugby union at grade or state level. Nick Aboud played 1 cap for the Waratahs in 1935 and Sir Nicholas' brother, George Shehadie played for the Eastern Suburbs Rugby Club. George went on to be selected for the Waratahs for 3 caps in 1960. While Manager of the 1981 Australian Wallabies tour of the United Kingdom, Sir Nicholas had the regrettable honour of having to farewell Wallabies' Hooker, Bruce Malouf who unfortunately broke his ankle at a training session four days after arriving in the UK.The Wallabies Farwell Malouf: The Sydney Morning Herald. 22 October 1981. https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat;=19811022&id;=9UtkAAAAIBAJ&sjid;=GucDAAAAIBAJ&pg;=2650,8005230. Accessed 08/09/2013 @ 1.56pm Bruce, an Australian Schoolboy representative and 9 cap member of the Waratahs squad from 1980 to 1983, eventually played one Test match for the Wallabies against the New Zealand All blacks in August 1982. Current New South Wales Waratahs Head Coach, Michael Cheika played more than 300 games for the Randwick Rugby Club, captaining Randwick from 1997 to 1999 winning seven Shute Shield Premierships. He represented Australia in the Under 20s and played three games for the Waratahs in 1997. Michael made a successful transition into coaching winning the European Championship with Leinster Rugby Union Club. Michael Cheika played for Randwick against the World Champion All Blacks at Coogee Oval in 1988, the only domestic Australian Club to play an international team in the 20th century. Yet it is not just the New South Welshmen of Lebanese descent who have represented at the highest levels of rugby union. Queenslanders have a fierce reputation for being hard- hitting and powerful rugby players with Brendon Nasser being no exception. Playing in the position of flanker, Brendon had an illustrious rugby career with Queensland from 1986 to 1992 before being selected to represent Australia as a Wallaby in 1989/90. Brendon played eight Test matches for the Wallabies and was a member of the 1991 World Cup winning squad. In 1992, his final year of international representative rugby, Brendon was selected to play in a World XV against New Zealand to celebrate the All Blacks' Centenary of Rugby.Brave and Game: The Online Home to Terrace Rugby http://www.braveandgame.com.au/Article.aspx?id=66. Gregory Terrace. Accessed 08/09/2013 @ 11.43pm Many younger players of Lebanese descent have represented Australia at an international Schoolboy level including David Azar, Nicholas Ghattas, David Basha, Robert Shehadie and Anthony Nehme.The Nurseries of Australian Schoolboys' Rugby. www.braveandgame.com.au. © Brave and Game 2010. Accessed 04/09/2013 @ 8.23pm In recognition of the contribution of Australians of Lebanese descent to the game of rugby union, a new rugby union club known as the Australian Lebanese Hawkers has been formed. The team is named in honour of the early Lebanese settlers who traditionally worked as hawkers throughout the Australian countryside. The team is scheduled to play an inaugural charity exhibition match against the Lebanese Senior National Rugby Union team and will be vying for the 'Sir Nicholas Shehadie Trophy.' Other players of Lebanese origin that have played at an international level of Rugby include New Zealand All Black, Joe Karam. An extremely hard trainer at a club level, Karam was named as an All Black for the 1972–73 tour of the British Isles and France. He played 10 test matches for the All Blacks between 1972 and 1975.New Zealand national rugby union team Joe Karam was inducted into the Lebanese Rugby Union Federation's Hall of Fame in a ceremony in 2013 for his contribution to international rugby. Omar Hasan, who is Lebanese, phase been voted as the best tighthead prop by world rugby ==See also== *Lebanon national rugby union team *Rugby union in Syria, neighbouring country in a similar situation. ==References== ==External links== * * * http://www.asian5nations.com/ARFU *"Islam and Rugby" on the Rugby Readers review |
The Old Yishuv (, haYishuv haYashan) were the Jewish communities of the region of Palestine during the Ottoman period,Destruction and Reconstruction – the Jewish Quarter. For the 400 years of Ottoman rule in Jerusalem there was a Jewish community living inside the walls of the Old City. The community, which we call the “Old Yishuv,” was not a single, cohesive unit. Until the early 19th century the community consisted mainly of Sephardic Jews, descendants of the exiles from Spain with Ashkenazi (Hassidic and Mitnagdim) and Mizrahi Jews in the minority. Beginning in the mid-18th century Ashkenazi Jews begin to settle in the city, but not for extended periods. up to the onset of Zionist aliyah and the consolidation of the New Yishuv by the end of World War I. In the late 19th century, the Old Yishuv comprised 0.3% of the world's Jews, representing 2–5% of the population of the Palestine region.The estimated 24,000 Jews in Palestine in 1882 represented just 0.3% of the world's Jewish population: see On, Raphael R. Bar. "ISRAEL'S NEXT CENSUS OF POPULATION AS A SOURCE OF DATA ON JEWS." Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies / דברי הקונגרס העולמי למדעי היהדות ה (1969): 31*-41*. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23524099. As opposed to the later Zionist aliyah and the New Yishuv, which began with the First Aliyah (of 1882) and was more based on a socialist and/or secular ideology emphasizing labor and self- sufficiency, many Jews of the Old Yishuv, whose members had continuously resided in or had come to the Southern Levant in the earlier centuries, were largely religious Jews, who depended on external donations (halukka) for financial support. The Old Yishuv developed after a period of severe decline in Jewish communities of the Southern Levant during the early Middle Ages, and was composed of three clusters. The oldest group consisted of the Ladino- speaking Sephardic Jewish communities who settled in Ottoman Palestine in the late Mamluk and early Ottoman periods and the Arabic-speaking (Musta'arabi) communities who had already been living there since before the coming of Islam and had been culturally and linguistically Arabized. A second group was composed of Ashkenazi Hasidic Jews who had emigrated from Europe in the 18th and early 19th centuries. A third wave consisted of Yishuv members who arrived in the late 19th century.Gudrun Krämer, A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel, Princeton University Press, 2008 p.104 The Old Yishuv was thus generally divided into two independent communities—the Sephardim (including Musta'arabim), mainly consisting of the remains of Jewish communities of Galilee and the four Jewish holy cities, which had flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries; and the Ashkenazim, whose immigration from Europe was primarily since the 18th century.Abraham P. Bloch, One a day: an anthology of Jewish historical anniversaries for every day of the year, KTAV Publishing House, 1987, , M1 Google Print, p. 278. The "Old Yishuv" term was coined by members of the "New Yishuv" in the late 19th century to distinguish themselves from the economically dependent and generally earlier Jewish communities, who mainly resided in the four holy cities of Judaism, and unlike the New Yishuv, had not embraced land ownership and agriculture. Apart from the Old Yishuv centres in the four holy cities of Judaism, namely Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias and Safed, smaller communities also existed in Jaffa, Haifa, Peki'in, Acre, Nablus and Shfaram. Petah Tikva, although established in 1878 by the Old Yishuv, nevertheless was also supported by the arriving Zionists. Rishon LeZion, the first settlement founded by the Hovevei Zion in 1882, could be considered the true beginning of the "New Yishuv". ==Background== While a vibrant Jewish center had continued to exist in the Galilee following the Jewish–Roman wars, its importance was reduced with increased Byzantine persecutions and the abolition of the Sanhedrin in the early 5th century. Jewish communities of the southern Levant under Byzantine rule fell into a final decline in the early 7th century, and with the Jewish revolt against Heraclius and Muslim conquest of Syria, the Jewish population had greatly reduced in numbers. In early Middle Ages, the Jewish communities of southern Bilad al-Sham (Southern Syria), living under Muslim protection status, were dispersed among the key cities of the military districts of Jund Filastin and Jund al-Urdunn, with a number of poor Jewish villages existing in the Galilee and Judea. Despite temporary revival, the Arab Muslim civil wars of the 8th and 9th centuries drove many non-Muslims out of the country, with no evidence of mass conversions, except for Samaritans. The Crusader period marked the most serious decline, lasting through the 12th century. Maimonides traveled from Spain to Morocco and Egypt, and stayed in the Holy Land, probably sometime between 1165 and 1167, before settling in Egypt.Herbert Alan Davidson, Moses Maimonides: The Man and His Works, Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 28–30. He had then become a personal physician of Saladin, escorting him throughout his war campaigns against the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Following the Crusaders' defeat and the conquest of Jerusalem, he urged Saladin to allow the resettlement of the Jews in the city, and several hundred of the long-existing Jewish community of Ashkelon resettled Jerusalem. Small Jewish communities were also existent at the time in Gaza and in desolate villages throughout upper and lower Galilee. The immigration of a group of 300 Jews headed by the Tosafists from England and France in 1211 struggled very hard upon arrival in Eretz Israel, as they had no financial support and no prospect of making a living. The vast majority of the settlers were wiped out by the Crusaders, who arrived in 1219, and the few survivors were allowed to live only in Acre. Their descendants blended with the original Jewish residents, called Mustarabim or Maghrebim, but more precisely Mashriqes (Murishkes).A description of the Murishkes is cited in וזה שער השמים from שאלי שלום ירושלים, whose author participated in the "Hasid's" Aliyah. Rabbi Shlomo Suzen, from the times of the Beth Yoseph, was known as a descendant of the Murishkes. The Mamluk period (1260-1517) saw an increase in the Jewish population, especially in the Galilee, but the Black Death epidemics had cut the country's demographics by at least one-third. In 1260, Rabbi Yechiel of Paris arrived in Eretz Israel, at the time part of Mamluk Empire, along with his son and a large group of followers, settling in Acre.Jafi education There he established the Talmudic academy Midrash haGadol d'Paris. He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268, and is buried near Haifa, at Mount Carmel. Nahmanides arrived in 1267 and settled in Acre as well. In 1488, when Rabbi Ovadiya from Bertinoro arrived in the Mamluk domain of Syria and sent back letters regularly to his father in Italy, many in the diaspora came to regard living in Mamluk Syria as feasible. ==History== ===Revival=== In 1492 and again in 1498, when the Sephardic Jews were expelled from Spain and Portugal respectively, some took it as a call from heaven to migrate to Eretz Yisrael, which later changed hands between Mamluks and Ottomans. Don Joseph Nasi, with the financial backing and influence of his aunt, Doña Gracia Mendes, succeeded in resettling Tiberias and Safed in 1561 with Sephardic Jews, many of them former Anusim. By the late 16th century, Safed had become a center of Kabbalah, inhabited by important rabbis and scholars. Among them were Rabbis Yakov bi Rav, Moses ben Jacob Cordovero, Yosef Karo, Abraham ben Eliezer Halevi and Isaac Luria. At this time there was a small community in Jerusalem headed by Rabbi Levi ibn Haviv also known as the Mahralbach. In 1620 Rabbi Yeshaye Horowitz, the Shelah Hakadosh, arrived from Prague. Galilee, which had become the most important Jewish center, didn't last. By the early 17th century, the Ma'an Druzes initiated a power struggle, which led to serious instability in Mount Lebanon and the Galilee, eroding the Jewish communities. Economic shifts also led to negative demographic movement, and the Galilee Jewish population greatly declined. Finally, in 1660, the cities of Tiberias and Safed were laid in ruins by the Druze warlords, and the remaining Jews fled as far as Jerusalem. Though Jews returned to Safed in 1662, it became a majority Muslim center of the Ottoman Sanjak of Safed. ===Rabbi Yehuda he-Hasid=== In 1700, a group of over 1,500 Ashkenazi Jews made aliyah and settled in Jerusalem.Some sources claim that only 300 arrived: The Churva, by Dovid Rossoff At that time, the Jewish population of the Old City was primarily Sephardi: 200 Ashkenazi Jews compared with a Sephardi community of 1,000. These Ashkenazi immigrants heeded the call of Rabbi Yehuda he-Hasid, a Maggid of Shedlitz, Poland who went from town to town advocating a return to Eretz Yisrael to redeem its soil. Almost a third of the group died of hardship and illness during the long journey. Upon their arrival in the Holy Land, they immediately went to Jerusalem. Within days, their leader, Rabbi Yehuda he- Hasid, died. They borrowed money from local Arabs for the construction of a synagogue but soon ran out of funds and borrowed more money at very high rates of interest [disputed]. In 1720, when they were unable to repay their debts, Arab creditors broke into the synagogue, set it on fire, and destroyed their homes. The Jews fled the city and over the next century, any Jew dressed in Ashkenazi garb was a target of attack. Some of the Ashkenazi Jews who remained began to dress like Sephardi Jews. One known example is Rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kitov. ===Hasidim and Perushim=== In the 18th century, groups of Hasidim and Perushim settled in Eretz Israel, Ottoman Southern Syria at the time. In 1764 Rabbi Nachman of Horodenka, a disciple and mechutan of the Baal Shem Tov settled in Tiberias. According to "Aliyos to Eretz Yisrael," he was already in Southern Syria in 1750. In 1777, the Hasidic leaders Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk and Rabbi Avraham of Kaliski, disciples of the Maggid of Mezeritch, settled in the area. Mitnagdim began arriving in 1780. Most of them settled in Safed or Tiberias, but a few established an Ashkenazi Jewish community in Jerusalem, rebuilding the ruins of the Hurvat Yehudah He-Hasid (the destroyed synagogue of Judah He-Hasid). Starting in 1830, about twenty disciples of the Chasam Sofer (Moses Schreiber) settled in Southern Syria, almost all of them in Jerusalem.Talmidei Chatham Sofer beEretz Hakodesh, Jerusalem, 1945 ===Ibrahim Pasha's rule=== From 1831 to 1840, Syria fell under the rule of the Egyptian viceroi Muhammad Ali of Egypt and his son Ibrahim Pasha, who effectively extended the Egyptian domination to Damascus, driving the Ottomans north. Throughout the period a series of events greatly disturbed the demographic composition of the country, being the stage for the 1834 Syrian Peasant revolts and the 1838 Druze Revolt, which caused a great impact upon the Old Yishuv. The greatest damage in lives and property was extended upon the Jewish communities of Safed and Hebron. In addition, the Galilee earthquake of 1837 destroyed Safed, killed thousands of its residents, and contributed to the reconstitution of Jerusalem as the main center of the Old Yishuv. Generally tolerant to the minorities, Ibrahim Pasha promoted the Jewish and Christian communities of Southern Syria, but overall his turbulent period of rule is considered probably the worst stage for the development of the Old Yishuv. ===Restored Ottoman rule=== thumb|Funeral services for a Rabbi, Jerusalem, 1903 With the restoration of the Ottoman rule in 1840 with British and French intervention, the region began experiencing a serious rise in the population, rising from just 250,000 in 1840 to 600,000 by the end of the 19th century. Though most of the increase was Muslim, also the Jewish community gradually rose in numbers. A number of new Jewish communities were established in the late 19th century, including Mishkenot Sha'ananim, which was built by British Jewish banker and philanthropist Sir Moses Montefiore in 1860 as an almshouse, paid for by the estate of an American Jewish businessman from New Orleans, Judah Touro;Street People, Helga Dudman, Jerusalem Post/Carta, 1982, pp. 21–22 and Petah Tikva, established in 1878. ==Economy== ===Halukka=== Many of the religious Jews that immigrated to the Old Yishuv at this time were elderly and immigrated to die in the Holy Land, whereas most Orthodox Jews in the Old Yishuv had lived for centuries in the four Holy cities—Safed, Hebron, Jerusalem and Tiberias. These devoutly religious Jews were devoted to prayer, and the study of Torah, Talmud, or Kabbalah, and likewise had no independent source of living. As those Jews fulfilled the Talmudic commandment of God that the Jewish people must live in the land of Eretz Yisrael to incite the coming of the Messiah, and, in part as they prayed for the welfare of Diaspora Jewry (Jews that live outside of Eretz Israel), as a result, a worldwide communal support system developed; or the system of Jewish charity called Halukka (lit. "distribution"). By virtue of a living Jewish population in Eretz Israel, the religious Jews of the Old Yishuv helped the Diaspora maintain a stronger, deeper connection to their roots there and enhanced the Diaspora's general, as well as Jewish identities. In exchange, the Diaspora provided communities with financial support which was the economic succor of the residents of the Old Yishuv. Jews in the Diaspora observed Jewish religious traditions of Mitzvot (good deeds) and Tzedakah ("charity" or "justice"). Many of the arrivals were noted Torah scholars whose communities felt honored to be represented in Eretz Yisrael and sent them ma'amodos (stipends) on a regular basis. The kollel network that was established many years prior in Jewish communities around the globe, to financially and charitably take care of one another while under the civic authority and care of the foreign governments of the countries in which Jews lived, also facilitated the use of halukkah charity and allowed religious Jews to study Torah without having to work for a living. Money for this purpose was raised in Jewish communities around the world for distribution among the various kollelim that were correspondingly established (by country or community of origin) in the Old Yishuv, especially in Jerusalem. From the 13th through the turn-of-the 20th century, Jewish communities living in the Old Yishuv dispatched travelling emissaries (shlihim or meshullahim) to raise money in the diaspora for sustenance. The funds they raised were known as chalukah, also spelled halukka, and were collected around the world by these envoys of the religious community, who subsequently assisted in the transference of Diaspora funds to Eretz Yisrael under the larger umbrella of welfare and financial aid. The halukka system, which promoted dependence on charity, was harshly criticized in later years as being ineffectual, especially during the time when Zionism arose in Europe (1830s–1880s), and increasing Jewish ideals towards fostering productivity among the existing Jewish community of the Old Yishuv, as well as for themselves. This period saw a shift from traditional forms of charity towards efforts of "self-help" and productivity. ===Etrog export=== The export of etrogs cultivated in Eretz Yisrael was also a source of income for the Old Yishuv. This predated the Hovevei Zion idea of the return to the land and Jewish farming, prior to which citrons for use on the Sukkot holiday were cultivated exclusively by Arab peasants and then merchandized by the Jews. According to Jacob Saphir,Ha- Levanon 14 no 2 page 4 the etrog business was monopolized by the Sephardic kollel even before 1835. They had contracted with the Arabic growers of Umm al-Fahm for their entire progeny of Balady citron. In the 1840s they were also the instrumental in the introduction of the Greek citron which was already cultivated in Jewish owned farms.Ha-Levanon 14 no 14 – page 4 In the 1870s the Sephardim switched to the Greek variety, and the Ashkenazi Salant partners took over the Balady business. After a little while, controversy erupted regarding its kashrut status.ibid & Kuntres Pri Etz Hadar (Jerusalem תרל"ח) Rabbi Chaim Elozor Wax, president of Kupat Rabbi Meir Baal HaNes Kollel Polen of Warsaw, was instrumental in making the Israeli-grown etrogim saleable in Ashkenazi Jewish communities in Europe. He planted thousands of trees in a donated orchard near Tiberias, and turned the proceeds over to the Warsaw Kollel. ===Agricultural settlement=== Generally the Old Yishuv did not participate in the creation of agricultural communities, which was begun in earnest by the immigrants that arrived from Eastern Europe beginning in the 1870s and 1880s, "Mandate for Palestine – Interim report of the Mandatory to the League of Nations/Balfour Declaration text (30 July 1921)" largely associated with the Hovevei Zion. Towards this end, Hovevei Zion members, including the philanthropist Isaac Leib Goldberg, purchased land from the Ottoman government and local inhabitants. Although there was some earlier support from religious Jews in Europe such as Rabbi Zvi Hirsh Kalischer of Thorn—who published his views in Drishat ZionHa-Levanon 8 – no 21—Hovevei Zion encountered significant opposition from the religious community, which for example insisted on the adoption of ancient and ineffective Biblical farming rules. ===Food=== In the Jewish communities of the Old Yishuv, bread was baked at home. People would buy flour in bulk or take their own wheat to be milled into the flour to bake bread in brick or mud ovens. Small commercial bakeries were set up in the mid-19th century.Gur, Jana, The Book of New Israeli Food: A Culinary Journey, Schocken (2008) pp. 158–160 Wheat flour was used to make and biscuits, ordinary bread and cooking. Because of its scarcity, bread that had dried was made into a pudding known as .Cooper, John, Eat and Be Satisfied: A Social History of Jewish Food, New Jersey, Jason Aronson Inc., 1993, pp. 124–128 Milk was usually reserved for pregnant women or the sick. Almond milk was often used as a substitute. or sour milk was sometimes purchased from Arab peasants. Sephardim kept soft cheese in tins of salt water to preserve it. In the 1870s, meat was rare and eaten on Shabbat and festivals, but became more available towards the end of the 19th century; however, chicken remained a luxury item. Meat was primarily beef, but goat and lamb were eaten, particularly in the spring. Almost every part of the animal was used. Fresh fish was a rare and expensive food in Jerusalem, particularly in the winter. Salted cod was soaked and then prepared for both weekdays and Sabbath meals. Sephardim also had a preference for fish called and for sardines. Another fish that was available was (grey mullet. Even until the end of the 19th century, both Ashkenazim and Sephardim in Jerusalem stored large quantities of foodstuffs for the winter. In Sephardi households, these included rice, flour, lentils, beans, olives and cheese. Ashkenazim stored wine, spirits, olives, sesame oil and wheat. At the end of the summer, large quantities of eggs were packed in slaked lime for the winter. Most Sephardic and Ashkenazi families would also buy large quantities of grapes to make wine. Olives were also pickled and Sephardim pickled eggplants, too. ==See also== *History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel *History of Zionism *Palestinian Jews *Mea Shearim *Yemin Moshe *Mishkenot Sha'ananim *Edah HaChareidis *Yehoshua Leib Diskin *Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld *Jacob Israël de Haan *Monsohn Family of Jerusalem ==References== ==Bibliography== *Parfitt, Tudor (1987) The Jews in Palestine, 1800–1882. Royal Historical Society studies in history (52). Woodbridge: Published for the Royal Historical Society by Boydell. *Blau, Moshe, Al Chomothecha Yerushalaim על חומותיך ירושלים, Hebrew, Bnei Brak (1968) *Rabbi Gedalya, Shaali Shelom Yerushalaim, Hebrew, Berlin (1726)- memoir of a participant in the Aliyah of Rabbi Yehuda Hasid *Rossoff, Dovid Where Heaven Touches Earth: Jewish Life in Jerusalem from Medieval Times to the Present, Guardian Press, Jerusalem, 6th Ed., (2004) *Sofer, Yoseph Moshe, Moro DeAroh Yisroel מרא דארעא ישראל, Hebrew, Jerusalem (2003) *Szold, Henrietta, Recent Jewish Progress in Palestine in American Jewish Year Book (1915–16) *Yehoshua, Yakov, Ha’bayit ve Ha’rechov b’Yerushalayim Ha’yeshana (Home and Street in Old Jerusalem), Hebrew, Jerusalem, Rubin Mass (1961) *Ha-Levanon Vol. 11 no 42, Hebrew, Mainz, 1875 *Ha-Levanon Vol. 11 no 43, Hebrew, Mainz, 1875 ==External links== *Old Yishuv Court Museum. *Conflict in Zion, by: Michael Toben, Dr. Dov Goldflam *The Contribution of the Old Yishuv to the Revival of the Hebrew Language *Israeli Judaism *Herzog Hospital & the Rivlin family Category:History of Zionism * * |
Georgy Noevich Reviya (, , born 3 April 1999) is a Russian-Georgian ice dancer who competes for Georgia. With his skating partner Maria Kazakova, he is the 2021 CS Nebelhorn Trophy and 2019 CS Asian Open bronze medalist. On the junior level, he is the 2020 World Junior silver medalist, the 2019 Junior Grand Prix Final champion, the 2019 JGP Croatia champion, the 2018 Toruń Cup champion, the 2019 NRW Trophy champion and the 2018 Volvo Open Cup champion. == Personal life == Reviya was born on 3 April 1999 in Odintsovo, Russia. He is of Georgian heritage and holds dual Russian and Georgian citizenship. Reviya currently studies business management at university and hopes to open a skating school in Georgia one day. == Career == === Early years === Reviya began learning to skate in 2003 at the age of four. He previously competed with Eva Khachaturian for Georgia and Ksenia Konkina for Russia. === 2017–2018 season === In 2017, Reviya teamed up with Maria Kazakova to compete for Georgia. During the 2017–2018 season, the team appeared at four international events – the Toruń Cup, the Golden Spin of Zagreb, the Santa Claus Cup, and the Tallinn Trophy. In March, they placed ninth at the 2018 World Junior Championships in Sofia, Bulgaria. === 2018–2019 season === Kazakova/Reviya made their ISU Junior Grand Prix (JGP) debut in September at the 2018 JGP Czech Republic. They finished second in both the rhythm dance and the free dance to earn the silver medal overall behind Russian gold medalists Elizaveta Khudaiberdieva / Nikita Nazarov and ahead of Russian bronze medalists Davis/Smolkin. At their next Junior Grand Prix event, in Armenia, Kazakova/Reviya placed second in both segments, behind Russia's Ushakova/Nekrasov, and received another silver medal. They set a new personal best score of 65.42 in the rhythm dance. They became the first ice dancers representing Georgia to qualify to a Junior Grand Prix Final, where they finished sixth. Kazakova/Reviya concluded the season at the 2019 World Junior Championships, where they placed sixth. Reviya called their performance there "not our season’s best, but the best skate of the season. There were some technical mistakes, and we’ll work on them, but I’m happy my partner and I are moving in the right direction." === 2019–2020 season: Senior debut and World Junior silver medalists === Kazakova/Reviya began their season in early September at the 2019 JGP Latvia. Though they won the free dance at this event by a little under two points, they placed second overall behind the Russian team and training mates Khudaiberdieva/ Filatov by about 0.3 points after being at a deficit after the rhythm dance. Despite missing gold, the team set new personal bests in the free dance and overall at the event. At their second assignment, 2019 JGP Croatia, Kazakova/Reviya earned their first Junior Grand Prix title, taking first place by a 15-point margin over Russian silver medalists Tyutyunina/Shustitskiy. The team set new personal bests in both the rhythm dance and the free dance as well as overall, and with their win qualified for the Junior Grand Prix Final for the second season in a row. Kazakova/Reviya made their senior international debut in early November 2019 at the 2019 CS Asian Open Figure Skating Trophy. The team placed third in the rhythm dance and second in the free dance to finish third overall behind the American team Carreira/Ponomarenko and Russian team (including Reviya's former partner) Konkina/Drozd. The pair also set new personal bests in all three segments at the event. Days later, Kazakova/Reviya competed in the senior category again at the 2019 Volvo Open Cup in Riga, Latvia. They placed second in both the rhythm dance and the free dance behind the Russian team Shevchenko/Eremenko to win the silver medal overall. In December 2019, Kazakova/Reviya returned to the junior level to compete at the 2019–20 Junior Grand Prix Final in Torino, Italy. The team took the lead in the rhythm dance by just a 0.04 point margin over the American team Nguyen/Kolesnik and again set a new personal best (68.76). After their performance, Reviya remarked, "It wasn't easy today. We are very happy with our marks, but not so happy with the skate," citing a few minor technical errors that the team will look to work on moving forward. On splitting their season between the junior and senior circuit, Reviya further added, "It's hard, so hard! But the free dance in juniors is easier after skating in seniors." During the following day of competition, Kazakova/Reviya continued their momentum from the rhythm dance by placing first in the free dance by a 0.12 point margin over the Americans to capture their first Junior Grand Prix Final title. Their win marks the first Junior Grand Prix Final victory by an entrant from Georgia in any discipline. After their win, Kazakova stated, "It's a great pleasure for us just to skate and especially to skate for Georgia." In January 2020, Kazakova/Reviya competed at the 2020 European Championships, their first senior ISU championship. The team placed twelfth in the rhythm dance, scoring just shy of their personal best score and qualifying for the free dance. The couple fell to fourteenth place in the free dance and ultimately ranked fourteenth overall. Kazakova/Reviya next competed in early March 2020 at the 2020 World Junior Figure Skating Championships in Tallinn, Estonia. The team set a new personal best in the rhythm dance and finished second in the segment behind Russian team Shanaeva/Naryzhnyy and ahead of American rivals Nguyen/Kolesnik. In the free dance, Kazakova/Reviya outscored Shanaeva/Naryzhnyy, but were overtaken by Nguyen/Kolesnik, leaving the team once again in second in the segment and second overall. Their silver medal marks Georgia's first ISU championship medal in ice dance. They had been assigned to make their senior World Championship debut in Montreal, but these were cancelled as a result of the coronavirus pandemic. === 2020–2021 season === Kazakova/Reviya were assigned to make their Grand Prix debut at the 2020 Rostelecom Cup, but withdrew. Later in the season, the team was assigned to the 2021 World Championships, but withdrew prior to the publication of the entry list due to health issues. === 2021–2022 season: Beijing Olympics === Kazakova/Reviya returned to competition after a season away due to injury at the 2021 CS Nebelhorn Trophy, attempting to qualify a berth for Georgia in ice dance at the 2022 Winter Olympics. They placed fifth in the rhythm dance due primarily to a mistake made by Reviya on their third set of twizzles but were able to remain in contention for Olympic qualification. In the free dance, Kazakova/Reviya came back with a stronger performance to finish second in the segment, scoring just shy of their personal best and finishing third overall to successfully qualify for a spot in their discipline for Georgia at the Olympic Games. At their next assignment, the 2021 Mezzaluna Cup, Kazakova/Reviya placed first in both segments of competition to take the title by a 15-point margin over Australian silver medalists Kerry/Dodds. They were scheduled to compete at the 2021 CS Cup of Austria, the 2021 CS Warsaw Cup, and the 2021 Rostelecom Cup, but withdrew from all three events due to injury. Due to equipment issues, the team also skipped the 2022 European Championships] in January. Kazakova/Reviya began the 2022 Winter Olympics as the Georgian entries to the rhythm dance segment of the Olympic team event. They placed eighth in the segment, taking three points for the Georgian team. Ultimately the team did not advance to the second phase of the competition and finished sixth. In the dance event, Kazakova/Reviya were eighteenth in the rhythm dance, qualifying for the free dance. Nineteenth in the free dance, they finished nineteenth overall. The team concluded the season at the 2022 World Championships, held in Montpellier with Russian dance teams absent due to the International Skating Union banning all Russian athletes due to their country's invasion of Ukraine. They finished fifteenth. === 2022–2023 season === Before the start of the 2022–23 season, Kazakova and Reviya left Russia and long-time coaches Denis Samokhin and Maria Borovikova and relocated to Egna, Italy to train under Matteo Zanni and Barbora Řezníčková. They said that training outside Russia would be beneficial in light of the ongoing war in Ukraine. Kazakova broke her hand in the preseason, resulting in them missing two months of training and having to withdraw from two early events. Kazakova/Reviya opened their season by making their ISU Grand Prix debut at the 2022 Grand Prix de France in November. They placed sixth in both the rhythm and free dance to finish sixth overall. They were sixth as well at the 2022 MK John Wilson Trophy the following weekend. In their second appearance at the European Championships, Kazakova/Reviya finished eighth. They came thirteenth at the 2023 World Championships. == Programs == === With Kazakova === Season Rhythm dance Free dance Exhibition 2022–2023 * Squid Samba * Hello * 1 to 8 * Mad World * Dream 2021–2022 * Chosen One * Yeah! * Dummy * Texas Gypsy Massacre * Mephisto's Lullaby * In the End 2020–2021 Did not compete this season Did not compete this season Did not compete this season 2019–2020 * Take Good Care of My Baby * Dream a Little Dream of Me * Overture * In the End * Gandagan (Georgian Folk Dance) 2018–2019 * Building the Bullet * Assassin's Tango * Carmina Burana * Vocalise * Gandagan (Georgian Folk Dance) Short dance 2017–2018 * Unchain My Heart * Abrázame * A Time For Us * Aimer * === With Khachaturian === Season Short dance Free dance Exhibition 2016–2017 * N'oubliez jamais * Show Me How You Burlesque * Spente le Stelle * Requiem for a Tower * === With Konkina === Season Short dance Free dance 2015–2016 * Ein Wiener Walzer * Ein Wiener Walzer * Moonlight (Beethoven cover) == Records and achievements == === Junior world record scores === Kazakova/Reviya are the former junior world record holders for the free dance and total scores. Junior ice dance combined total records Junior ice dance combined total records Junior ice dance combined total records Junior ice dance combined total records Date Score Event Note 7 March 2020 176.19 2020 World Junior Championships Surpassed by Avonley Nguyen / Vadym Kolesnik on 7 March 2020. Junior ice dance free dance Junior ice dance free dance Junior ice dance free dance Junior ice dance free dance Date Score Event Note 7 December 2019 106.14 2019–20 Junior Grand Prix Final Surpassed on 7 March 2020. 7 March 2020 106.21 2020 World Junior Championships Surpassed by Avonley Nguyen / Vadym Kolesnik on 7 March 2020. == Competitive highlights == CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix === With Kazakova for Georgia=== International International International International International International International Event 17–18 18–19 19–20 20–21 21–22 22–23 Olympics 19th Worlds C WD 15th 13th Europeans 14th WD 8th France 6th Wilson Trophy 6th Asian Open 3rd Finlandia WD Golden Spin WD 5th Nebelhorn 3rd Warsaw Cup WD Cup of Nice WD Mezzaluna Cup 1st NRW Trophy 1st Volvo Open Cup 2nd International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior Junior Worlds 9th 6th 2nd Final 6th 1st Armenia 2nd Croatia 1st Czech Republic 2nd Latvia 2nd Golden Spin 2nd NRW Trophy 1st Santa Claus Cup 3rd Tallinn Trophy 5th Toruń Cup 1st Volvo Open Cup 1st J Team events Olympics 6th T 8th P TBD = Assigned; WD = Withdrew; C = Event cancelled TBD = Assigned; WD = Withdrew; C = Event cancelled TBD = Assigned; WD = Withdrew; C = Event cancelled TBD = Assigned; WD = Withdrew; C = Event cancelled TBD = Assigned; WD = Withdrew; C = Event cancelled TBD = Assigned; WD = Withdrew; C = Event cancelled TBD = Assigned; WD = Withdrew; C = Event cancelled === With Khachaturian for Georgia=== International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior Event 16–17 Junior Worlds 18th Santa Claus Cup 6th === With Konkina for Russia=== International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior Event 2015–16 U.S. 4th Lake Placid IDI 3rd Tallinn Trophy 2nd National National National Russian Junior Champ. WD == Detailed results == Small medals for short and free programs awarded only at ISU Championships. With Kazakova === Senior results === 2022–2023 season 2022–2023 season 2022–2023 season 2022–2023 season 2022–2023 season 2022–2023 season Date Event RD FD Total March 22–26, 2023 2023 World Championships 14 69.43 12 111.79 13 181.22 January 25–29, 2023 2023 European Championships 8 68.55 8 107.27 8 175.82 December 7–10, 2022 2022 CS Golden Spin of Zagreb 5 68.84 5 104.59 5 173.43 November 24–27, 2022 NRW Trophy 1 74.73 1 113.65 1 188.38 November 11–13, 2022 2022 MK John Wilson Trophy 6 70.71 5 106.00 6 176.71 November 4–6, 2022 2022 Grand Prix de France 6 68.84 7 104.21 6 173.05 2021–2022 season 2021–2022 season 2021–2022 season 2021–2022 season 2021–2022 season 2021–2022 season Date Event RD FD Total March 21–27, 2022 2022 World Championships 17 66.76 15 98.62 15 165.38 February 12–14, 2022 2022 Winter Olympics 18 67.08 19 97.25 19 164.33 February 4–7, 2022 2022 Winter Olympics – Team event 8 64.60 — 6T October 15–17, 2021 2021 Mezzaluna Cup 1 74.98 1 111.80 1 186.78 September 22–25, 2021 2021 CS Nebelhorn Trophy 5 66.95 2 106.25 3 173.20 === Junior results === 2019–2020 season 2019–2020 season 2019–2020 season 2019–2020 season 2019–2020 season 2019–2020 season Date Event Level RD FD Total 2–8 March 2020 2020 World Junior Championships Junior 2 69.98 2 106.21 2 176.19 20–26 January 2020 2020 European Championships Senior 12 67.49 14 99.73 14 167.22 5–8 December 2019 2019–20 Junior Grand Prix Final Junior 1 68.76 1 106.14 1 174.90 5–10 November 2019 2019 Volvo Open Cup Senior 2 69.95 2 112.48 2 182.43 30 Oct. – 3 Nov. 2019 2019 CS Asian Open Trophy Senior 3 67.68 2 106.95 3 174.63 25–28 September 2019 2019 JGP Croatia Junior 1 65.97 1 103.25 1 169.22 4–7 September 2019 2019 JGP Latvia Junior 2 63.25 1 102.01 2 165.26 9–11 August 2019 2019 NRW Summer Trophy Junior 1 59.13 1 93.95 1 153.08 2018–2019 season 2018–2019 season 2018–2019 season 2018–2019 season 2018–2019 season 2018–2019 season Date Event Level RD FD Total 18–24 March 2019 2019 World Junior Championships Junior 6 60.08 6 95.32 6 155.40 6–9 December 2018 2018–19 Junior Grand Prix Final Junior 6 57.51 6 91.25 6 148.76 7–11 November 2018 2018 Volvo Open Cup Junior 1 67.04 1 100.26 1 167.30 10–13 October 2018 2018 JGP Armenia Junior 2 65.42 2 99.23 2 164.65 26–29 September 2018 2018 JGP Czech Republic Junior 2 59.77 2 94.40 2 154.17 2017–2018 season 2017–2018 season 2017–2018 season 2017–2018 season 2017–2018 season 2017–2018 season Date Event Level SD FD Total 5–11 March 2018 2018 World Junior Championships Junior 11 54.95 8 78.12 9 133.07 30 Jan. – 4 Feb. 2018 2018 Toruń Cup Junior 1 56.44 1 75.63 1 132.07 6–9 December 2017 2017 Golden Spin of Zagreb Junior 2 58.70 2 79.02 2 137.72 4–10 December 2017 2017 Santa Claus Cup Junior 4 52.44 3 75.15 3 127.59 20–26 November 2017 2017 Tallinn Trophy Junior 4 54.86 8 70.10 5 124.96 == References == == External links == * * * * ! colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #78FF78;" |World Junior Record Holders Category:1999 births Category:Living people Category:Russian male ice dancers Category:Male ice dancers from Georgia (country) Category:Figure skaters from Moscow Category:World Junior Figure Skating Championships medalists Category:Russian sportspeople of Georgian descent Category:Figure skaters at the 2022 Winter Olympics Category:Olympic figure skaters for Georgia (country) |
thumb|right|550px|November 10, 1967: The first color photo of Earth's entire disk is made The following events occurred in November 1967: ==November 1, 1967 (Wednesday)== *Arvid Pardo, the United Nations ambassador from Malta, delivered a historic speech before the General Assembly, describing Earth's oceans and seabed as "the common heritage of all mankind". Pardo, acknowledging that his small nation of Mediterranean islands was one of the smallest members of the U.N., stated that "We are, naturally, vitally interested in the sea which surrounds us," and noted that the Maltese people were concerned about "the truly incalculable dangers for mankind as a whole were the sea-bed and ocean floor beyond present national jurisdiction to be progressively and appropriated, exploited and used for military purposes by those who possess the required technology." Pardo's speech would be the beginning of the process of getting the world's nations to agree upon what would become the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. *In India, the state of Kerala became the first in the nation to sell tickets for a state lottery, with each of the one rupee tickets (worth about 13 cents American) being eligible for the grand prize of 50,000 Indian rupees (equivalent to $6,700 U.S. dollars at the time) to be drawn on January 26, 1968. *King Hussein of Jordan rejected a public proposal by Israel's Prime Minister Levi Eshkol for the leaders of the two neighboring nations to meet in person to begin peace talks. The statement came during a live interview in London on David Frost's talk show. *President Houari Boumedienne of Algeria announced that, starting in 1968, compulsory military service would begin for all young men in the north African nation, a program that would give Algeria one of the largest standing armies on the continent. *Nur Ahmad Etemadi became the new Prime Minister of Afghanistan after Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal resigned due to health reasons. Etemadi would serve until 1971, and would later be executed in 1979 for conspiring to overthrow the Afghan government. *U.S. Secretary of Defense, Robert S. McNamara presented President Johnson with a rather gloomy projection for the next 15 months in the Vietnam War. *In Trento, a group of leftist Catholic students occupied university buildings, at the beginning of a violent wave of protests in the Italian campuses that would last for at least a decade. Many of Trento's protesters would play a primary role in the Italian New Left (Marco Boato, Mauro Rostagno) or in the Red Brigades (Renato Curcio, Mara Cagol). *Born: Tina Arena, Australian singer and stage actress; as Filippina Lydia Arena in Keilor East, Victoria *Died: Benita Hume, 60, English actress, bone cancer ==November 2, 1967 (Thursday)== *The Scottish National Party, an advocate for Scotland's independence from the United Kingdom, won a seat in the House of Commons for only the second time in its history, when Winifred Ewing defeated both the Labour Party and Conservative Party candidates in a by-election to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Labour Party MP Tom Fraser. The SNP would win seats in the House of Commons in all general elections afterward. *U.S. President Johnson held a secret meeting at the White House with a group of "former officials whose advice he trusted" and asked them to suggest ways to unite the American people behind the war effort. The panel, referred to in later histories as "the Wise Men", included Dean Acheson, McGeorge Bundy, Clark Clifford, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. and Maxwell Taylor, who urged the President to continue the war effort and to give the American people more optimistic reports on the war's progress, based on their conclusion that the U.S. was winning the war effort. *A ceasefire was negotiated between two warring organizations in the Guangdong Province of China, both created during the Cultural Revolution. The radical "Red Flag Faction" and the more conservative "East Wind Faction" of the Red Guards had been fighting since January. *In Portland, Oregon, African-American members of the International Longshore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) brought their first charges of racial discrimination against the union, asserting before the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission that the ILWU's referral system deliberately excluded black dockworkers from better jobs within the industry. It would take ten years for the case to come to trial, but in 1977, a federal court would find in favor of the Portland workers and would order the ILWU to eliminate its discriminatory practices. *A total eclipse of the sun took place, primarily over southern Africa and portions of Antarctica. *President Johnson addressed 1,000 delegates at "Consumer Assembly '67", and told them that the American people should urge Congress to increase taxes in order to stop price inflation. *In Nuoro, at a checkpoint, the fugitive bandit Nino Cherchi killed traffic officer Giovanni Maria Tamponi with a machine gun burst. Six months before, on the same road, two policemen had been killed in a shooting with Graziano Mesina's gang. Tamponi was the sixth police victim of Sardinian gangsterism since the beginning of the year. *Born: Akira Ishida, Japanese voice actor, in Nisshin ==November 3, 1967 (Friday)== *The Battle of Dak To began about 280 miles north of Saigon and near South Vietnam's border with Cambodia. The largest concentration, up to that time, of North Vietnamese Army regiments had formed around the Dak To camp of the U.S. Special Forces. A defector from the north had tipped off the Americans, and General William Westmoreland ordered the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade, and divisions of the 4th Infantry and the 1st Cavalry to reinforce the 1,000 Americans already based at the camp. *U.S. Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara announced that the Soviet Union was developing a Fractional Orbital Bombardment System, a nuclear missile designed to be placed into low Earth orbit and to be brought back down on command to a selected target. The development raised the frightening prospect of a new arms race in outer space, with the weapons of the world's nuclear powers circling the globe and ready to destroy any target on short notice. *Garry Trudeau, a 19-year old sophomore at Yale University, began his career of publishing political commentary in cartoon form, with an editorial cartoon in the college newspaper, the Yale Daily News. While in college, Trudeau would later create a comic strip which, after his graduation in 1970, became the syndicated Doonesbury. *General Maxwell Taylor advised U.S. President Johnson to refute the advice of Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara given two days previously regarding conduct of the Vietnam War. Taylor's sentiments were echoed by U.S. Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas and McNamara's replacement as Secretary of Defense, Clark Clifford. *Died: Clare Hoffman, 92, United States Representative from Michigan ==November 4, 1967 (Saturday)== *Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser told former U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Robert B. Anderson that he was willing to agree to many of the requests of Israel to end the state of belligerence between the two nations following the recent Six-Day War but to do so officially would be suicide for any Arab leader. Anderson was in Cairo unofficially to meet with Nasser at the request of U.S. President Johnson. *All 37 people on Iberia Airlines Flight 062 were killed when it crashed into a hillside while making its approach for a landing at London's Heathrow Airport. The twin-engine Sud Aviation Caravelle jet had taken off from Málaga Airport in Spain, and impacted in a forest on Blackdown Hill, near Fernhurst, West Sussex, about from its destination. The plane had been cleared to descend to and, for no discernible reason, steadily continued its descent. *In the Congo, Belgian mercenaries led by Jean Schramme and Jerry Puren began a two-day withdrawal from Bukavu, over the Shangugu Bridge, to Rwanda. The four-month long mutiny had started on July 5 with an attack on Stanleyville by Schramme and 10 other mercenaries, who had soon been joined by 1,000 mutineering soldiers and rebels, and another 150 mercenary soldiers, and had claimed the lives of as many as 6,000 people. *U.S. President Johnson spoke with former U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower on the telephone regarding recent diplomatic overtures with the National Liberation Front and the recent successful free elections in South Vietnam. Eisenhower communicated his support of Johnson's handling of the unfortunate but necessary war in Vietnam. ==November 5, 1967 (Sunday)== *Forty-nine people were killed in a train accident and 78 injured when a British Rail express train derailed outside London near Hither Green. Most of the victims were on their way back from a weekend at the seaside resort in Hastings. A subsequent investigation would conclude that the piece of the rail which had broken was poorly supported and that while it had been adequate to support steam locomotives, "the smaller wheels of diesel and electric locomotives and units, combined with the high unsprung weight resulting from their axle-hung traction motors" had caused the tracks to wear out more quickly than forecast. *A bloodless coup in the Yemen Arab Republic took place shortly after midnight, while President Abdullah al-Sallal was on his way to a state visit to the Soviet Union. The Yemeni Army seized control "without firing a shot" and installed a civilian-led presidential council headed by Judge Abdul Rahman al- Iryani. Sallal had been on his way to Moscow to attend the 50th anniversary of the Russian Revolution and to seek further aid for his regime after Egypt's recent withdrawal of troops; with news of the coup, he had his plane land in Baghdad and would spend the next 14 years in exile in Iraq. *ATS-3, the third of the Applications Technology Satellite geostationary weather and communications relays, was launched into orbit from Cape Kennedy at 6:37 p.m. from Florida. It was the first satellite with the capability of sending back full color images of the Earth. Designed to function for three years, ATS-3 would continue transmitting images until its deactivation on December 1, 1978. * U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey was greeted by thousands of flag-waving locals when he arrived in Jakarta, Indonesia. The warm welcome was attributed to the hardline American policy on Communism. *Born: Duilio Forte, Italian- Swedish architect, in Milan *Died: **Joseph Kesselring, 65, American playwright who wrote Arsenic and Old Lace **Robert Nighthawk (Robert Lee McCollum), 57, African-American blues musician ==November 6, 1967 (Monday)== *The Phil Donahue Show had its first telecast, initially as a local show on WLWD in Dayton, Ohio, at 10:30 in the morning. One historian would later credit Phil Donahue with "creating a new television genre: the daytime talk show. He dispensed with the typical band and, microphone in hand, left the stage to talk to the audience and, even more radically, unable to get the rich and famous to come to Dayton, he would feature ordinary people as guests."Anne Rothe, Popular Trauma Culture: Selling the Pain of Others in the Mass Media (Rutgers University Press, 2011) p55 Donahue's very first guest was atheist activist Madalyn Murray O'Hair. Initially, the show would only be seen on the other five affiliates of WLWD's parent company, Avco Broadcasting Corporation; in 1970, it would be syndicated to non-Avco stations and would become the most popular daytime talk show in the 1980s.Jim Friedman, Images of America: Cincinnati Television (Arcadia Publishing, 2007) *Two editorials were published simultaneously in China's Communist party periodicals, People's Daily, Red Flag and People's Liberation Army Daily, calling upon a new campaign during the Cultural Revolution to begin "rectifying the class ranks". The essays, "Marching Forward on the Road Opened by the October Socialist Revolution", and "The Theory of the Continuing Revolution under the Dictatorship of the Proletariat",Jiaqi Yan and Gao Gao, Turbulent Decade: A History of the Cultural Revolution (University of Hawaii Press, 1996) p258 would lead to a new purge of people accused of being "hidden class enemies"."On the 'Historical Achievements' of the People's Daily", in China's Search for Democracy: The Students and Mass Movement of 1989: The Students and Mass Movement of 1989, ed. by Suzanne Ogden, et al. (Routledge, 2016) *TWA Flight 159 skidded off the runway at the Greater Cincinnati Airport after the pilot aborted takeoff in the belief that the Boeing 707 had collided with a Delta Air Lines jet on the side of the same runway. The jet was preparing to fly to Los Angeles, but the quick reaction of the pilot prevented a catastrophe, and although all 36 people on board were evacuated, one of them died in the hospital later."36 Escape Jet Crash, Fire", Chicago Tribune, November 7, 1967, p1 Two weeks after Flight 159's near disaster, a TWA flight arriving at Cincinnati from Los Angeles would crash while attempting to land on the same runway, killing 70 people."Aviation Accidents", by John E. Leming, Jr., in The Encyclopedia of Northern Kentucky, Paul A. Tenkotte, ed. (University Press of Kentucky, 2009) p50 *Cesare Merzagora, president of the Italian Senate since 1953, resigned his position and confirmed his departure when the assembly rejected his decision. Merzagora, an independent elected in the Christian Democratic lists, had been heavily criticized, both by the majority and by the Communist opposition, for a speech criticizing, not too subtly, the economical politic of the center-left government and the institution of the regions. After his departure, he would join the Liberal Group and come back to his old activity as a businessman. Two days later, Christian Democrat Ennio Zelioli Lanzini was elected President of the Senate. *Born: ** Pervin Buldan, Turkish-Kurdish politician, in Diyarbakir ** Rebecca Schaeffer, American television actress; in Eugene, Oregon (d. 1989) ==November 7, 1967 (Tuesday)== 150px|thumb|right|October Revolution +50 *The Soviet Union celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution that had brought the Bolsheviks to power. During the annual parade through Moscow to display the latest Soviet weaponry, the Red Army showed "a new muscle in every major category... ranging from a massive three-stage intercontinental missile to a relatively tiny anti-tank missile on a reconnaissance car." *The Supreme Court of Canada, by a 3 to 2 decision, upheld the Dominion's harsh sentencing law against homosexuality in the Criminal Code, and directed that George Klippert continue to serve "an indeterminate sentence up to life imprisonment". Klippert had been convicted of four charges of "gross indecency" for having consensual sex with other men, and the prosecutor pursued a classification under another code as "a dangerous sexual offender". *The United Nations General Assembly voted unanimously (111-0, with no abstentions) to approve the Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, a non-binding resolution that initiated a United Nations drive toward working to support the rights of women. 150px|thumb|right|Corporation for Public Broadcasting *U.S. President Johnson signed the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967 into law, establishing the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. In his speech following the signing of the bill, President Johnson used the occasion to acknowledge the growth of communication over the previous century, and to describe his vision of the future. "I believe the time has come to enlist the computer and the satellite, as well as television and radio," Johnson said, "and to enlist them in the cause of education... I think we must consider new ways to build a great network for knowledge-not just a broadcast system, but one that employs every means of sending and of storing information that the individual can rise. Think of the lives that this would change. The student in a small college could tap the resources of a great university. The country doctor getting help from a distant laboratory or a teaching hospital; A scholar in Atlanta might draw instantly on a library in New York; A famous teacher could reach with ideas and inspirations into some far-off classroom, so that no child need be neglected. Eventually, I think this electronic knowledge bank could be as valuable as the Federal Reserve Bank. And such a system could involve other nations, too. It could involve them in a partnership to share knowledge and to thus enrich all mankind. A wild and visionary idea? Not at all. Yesterday's strangest dreams are today's headlines and change is getting swifter every moment. I have already asked my advisers to begin to explore the possibility of a network for knowledge--and then to draw up a suggested blueprint for it." *Dr. William Ferguson Reid became the first African-American since the 19th century to be elected to the all-white Virginia General Assembly. *Carl B. Stokes narrowly defeated his white opponent, Seth Taft, in voting for Mayor of Cleveland, to become the first African American to be elected mayor of a major United States city. Taft was a member of Ohio's powerful Taft family, and grandson of one-time U.S. President William Howard Taft; the final vote count was 129,825 for Stokes and 127,328 for Taft. *Richard G. Hatcher was elected the first African-American mayor of Gary, Indiana, which was, at the time, a large city of 175,000 people. *Born: **David Guetta, French DJ artist, songwriter and producer; in Paris **Sharleen Spiteri, Scottish recording artist, songwriter and lead singer of the rock band Texas; in Finnieston, Glasgow, Scotland *Died: John Nance Garner, 98, 32nd Vice President of the United States (1933-1941) and former Speaker of the House (1931-1933) ==November 8, 1967 (Wednesday)== *BBC Local Radio, a network of FM radio stations owned jointly by the BBC and by the local government of the region where the transmitter was located, was inaugurated. The first of the eight commercial radio affiliates, Radio Leicester, went on the air as the first of eight local broadcasters.Asa Briggs, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, Volume V: Competition (Oxford University Press, 1995) p639 *President Johnson signed into law a bill that ended gender discrimination in the United States Armed Services for promotion to higher rank. Prior to the enactment of the law, women could not be promoted to the rank of general or admiral. The new law also eliminated previous limits on the number of female officers at each level from U.S. Navy captain and U.S. Army, Air Force and Marine colonels and lower commissioned officer ranks."Johnson Signs Bill to Allow Distaff Generals, Admirals", Chicago Tribune, November 9, 1967, p4 *Born: Courtney Thorne-Smith, American TV and film actress; in San Francisco ==November 9, 1967 (Thursday)== thumb|right|200px|USAF Captain Sijan *U.S. Air Force Captain Lance Sijan was shot down over North Vietnam, beginning an ordeal of survival that John McCain would later call "the most inspiring POW story of the war, a story of one man's peerless fidelity to our Code of Conduct". Captain Sijan had fractured his skull and left leg and suffered a brain concussion, but would evade capture until December 25. After one successful escape from a prison camp in January, he would be recaptured and tortured, finally dying of illness at the "Hanoi Hilton" camp on January 22. During his interrogations, however, he refused to reveal any information other than his name, rank and serial number. He would posthumously be awarded the Medal of Honor on March 4, 1976. thumb|right|200px|November 9, 1967: Launch of Apollo 4 *At 7:00 in the morning at Cape Kennedy in Florida, NASA successfully launched the powerful Saturn V rocket, propelling the uncrewed Apollo 4 test spacecraft into Earth orbit and resumed the Apollo program after nine months. The Saturn V, the most powerful rocket created, broke a record by lifting a payload of , the combined weight of the Apollo 4 capsule and a mockup of the Apollo Lunar Module into orbit. The uncrewed Apollo craft was sent to an altitude of and then returned to Earth safely in a successful proof of its heat shield, which endured the friction of a high speed descent through the Earth's atmosphere and was picked up near Hawaii by the aircraft carrier USS Bennington. The launch was a validation of the "all-up" decision by the director of NASA's Office of Manned Space Flight, George Mueller, to flight test all three stages of the Saturn V rocket at the same time, rather than wasting resources and time by first launching the three stages individually. The noise from the powerful rocket was so loud that it shook the Launch Control Center and caused ceiling tiles to fall in the media site three miles away. NASA would subsequently engineer sound suppression into Saturn V rockets. *Cardinal Paul-Émile Léger, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Montreal, surprised the world by announcing his resignation from leading the largest Roman Catholic diocese in the British Commonwealth, in order to perform missionary work among lepers in central Africa. Cardinal Léger told a press conference that he had made his decision during the most recent synod of bishops in Vatican City, saying, "During the discussions on faith and atheism, my future became a question of conscience to me. It became clear to me that our Lord was asking me for deeds, as well as for words." As the New York Times noted, "Vatican observers could recall no precedent for a prince of the church giving up a major archdiocese to become a pastoral pilgrim among the sufferers of one of the world's most dreaded diseases." *The first issue of Rolling Stone magazine, dated November 9, 1967, made its debut as a newspaper printed and distributed in and around San Francisco. *Died: **Charles Bickford, 76, American film actor **Baburao Pendharkar, 71, Indian film director ==November 10, 1967 (Friday)== 150px|thumb|left *The U.S. lunar probe Surveyor 6 made a soft landing on the Moon at 0101 UTC (8:01 p.m. November 9, Eastern Standard Time) and began transmitting the first of 29,952 television images back to Earth. At a press conference afterward, NASA program manager Benjamin Milwitzky said, "We have now satisfied all our obligations to explore beforehand the four equatorial sites believed safest for manned landings in the Apollo program." After touching down in the Sinus Medii, Surveyor 6 then became the first spacecraft to lift off from the Moon, briefly ascending in order to "hop" a few meters sideways, and providing the opportunity for three- dimensional (stereoscopic) images. *ATS-3 transmitted the first color picture of Earth's entire disk (nearly all of the entire Western Hemisphere), after reaching a geostationary orbit of above the Equator and its intersection with the 47th meridian west, a point within 100 miles of the Brazilian city of Belém. "However," one author would note later, "this image failed to have a major impact on the media." *Louis Washkansky, a grocery store owner in Cape Town, South Africa, had his first consultation with Dr. Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, and volunteered to become the first recipient of a heart transplant from a human donor. *Jennifer Jones, 48, upset by her friend Charles Bickford’s death, attempted suicide by barbiturate ingestion in Malibu; the evening before, she had called her private doctor, William Molley, confessing her intentions. Police, alerted by Molley, found Mrs. Jones on the beach, unconscious and about to be submerged by the rising tide. A timely gastric washout saved the actress’ life. *Died: Hulbert Taft, Jr., 60, Chairman of the Board of Taft Broadcasting Company, was killed in a freak explosion. Moments after he entered an underground fallout shelter on his estate in the Cincinnati suburb of Indian Hill, Ohio, a blast was heard. The body of Taft, the lone occupant of the by room, was recovered three hours later. ==November 11, 1967 (Saturday)== *Three American prisoners of war were released by the Viet Cong, and turned over to American antiwar activist Tom Hayden in a ceremony in Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia. Sgt. Daniel Lee Pitzer had been taken captive in South Vietnam more than four years earlier, while Master Sgt. Edward R. Johnson had been gone for three years and Staff Sgt. James E. Jackson for two. The three U.S. Army sergeants were flown by a Czechoslovakian airliner from Phnom Penh to Beirut in Lebanon, and then to Washington D.C., and then to Fort Bragg, North Carolina. It was suggested that all three POWs had been brainwashed during their period of captivity with the Viet Cong. *In Saigon, officials with General William C. Westmoreland's office told reporters that the estimated number of Communist forces in the Vietnam War had declined to 242,000 men, following the previous announced assessment of 299,000 and explained that the decrease was due to "heavy casualties and plummeting morale"; in reality, the decrease came because Westmoreland's command had decided in July that some categories of Viet Cong fighters should be dropped from the total estimate, which had been tallied at 299,000 at the beginning of 1967 in order to maintain the public position that Communist forces were less than 300,000. In 1975, a former CIA employee, Samuel A. Adams, would reveal the falsifying of numbers in testimony before the U.S. House Intelligence Committee. Adams would also reveal that his review of CIA documents indicated that the strength of the enemy had actually been 600,000 during 1967. Although the difficulties in attempting to put together an educated estimate of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese strength in South Vietnam was described in a CIA report on the subject as "we lack precise basic data on population size, rates of growth, and age distribution for both North and South Vietnam", "Our data and conclusions are therefore subject to continuing review and revision, especially since capabilities do not remain static." *Twenty-five people were killed and 25 more seriously injured in Thailand's Mae Sariang when the truck that they were riding on plunged into a ravine. The truck was reportedly "overloaded with plants, animal hides and passengers" on the way to the city of Chiang Mai. *British representative at the United Nations Lord Caradon met with his American counterpart, Arthur Goldberg, to discuss potential resolutions to be submitted to the Security Council that might be acceptable to both Israel and the Arab countries. *While on board the carrier USS Enterprise for Veterans Day, U.S. President Johnson appealed to the North Vietnamese hierarchy in Hanoi to come to the negotiation table to search for a peaceful solution to the war in Vietnam. Predictably, the Hanoi regime once again rejected the prospect of negotiations a few days later. *Born: Gil de Ferran, French-born Brazilian race car driver and 2003 Indianapolis 500 winner; in Paris ==November 12, 1967 (Sunday)== *American Airlines Flight 455 from Chicago to San Diego was damaged by "a crudely made bomb" that exploded in the baggage compartment while the Boeing 727 was over Alamosa, Colorado."Chicago Plane Hit by a Bomb", Chicago Tribune, November 13, 1967, p1 The jet, which had 81 passengers and crew on board, was able to land safely, despite the explosion, because most of the blasting caps rigged to a time bomb had failed to detonate. The FBI was able to trace the crime to Earle T. Cook, the manager of a bottling plant in Naperville, Illinois, whose wife had been one of the passengers among 78 intended victims."SEIZED IN AIR LINE BOMBING— Naperville Executive's Wife Aboard", Chicago Tribune, November 18, 1967, p1 Cook would be sentenced to 20 years in a federal prison; FBI investigators concluded that the bomb had malfunctioned because of the cavalier handling of Mrs. Cook's suitcase by one of the airline's baggage handlers, who unwittingly saved 81 lives because his "rough handling of the bomb bag at O'Hare airport caused dislodgement" of the mechanism."Rough Porter May Have Saved 81 on Jet", Chicago Tribune, February 8, 1968, p21 *The Association of African Universities was founded in Morocco by representatives of 34 higher institutions of learning at a meeting at the Mohammed V University in Rabat.World List of Universities 1977–78 (Palgrave Macmillan, 1977) p550 Fifty years later, it would have 340 members. *Born: Giovanni Tommasi Ferroni, Italian painter, in Rome ==November 13, 1967 (Monday)== *In Albania, the People's Assembly approved Decree 4337, annulling the 1950 statutes that guaranteed freedom of religion. By the end of the year, all places of worship in Albania were shut down, with the government closing 1,233 Sunni Muslim mosques; 608 Albanian Orthodox churches and monasteries; 327 Roman Catholic churches; and the nation's lone Jewish synagogue as part of Enver Hoxha's goal of making Albania "the world's first atheist state". *Jerry Harkness, a player for the Indiana Pacers of the new American Basketball Association, set a record by scoring a basket from 92 feet away. Harkness and the Pacers were in Texas for a game against the Dallas Chaparrals (now the San Antonio Spurs). John Beasley had scored on a jump shot with one second left in the game to give the Chaparrals a 118 to 116 lead. Harkness received the inbounds from teammate Ollie Darden and hurled the basketball toward the opposite end of the court. "We were running off the floor to huddle up for overtime when the official, Joe Belmont, came up to me and said, 'Jerry, it's over. That was a 3-pointer.'" The Pacers won the game, 119–118. *Four U.S. Navy sailors deserted the aircraft carrier USS Intrepid after it docked at the Yokosuka Naval Base in Japan, and fled to the Soviet Union. One week later, the four, all at the rank of U.S. Navy Airman, appeared on a Moscow television program that was transmitted throughout Eastern Europe, and said they would stay in the U.S.S.R. One of the four, Craig Anderson, said in a 1981 interview that "we were exploited by a group in Japan promoting their left wing ideology and later by the Russians". *In Ohio, Carl B. Stokes was sworn in as the Mayor of Cleveland, becoming the first African-American mayor of a major American city to have been elected to the position. Stokes took the oath of office only six days after winning the election. On September 28, Walter E. Washington had been sworn into office as Mayor of Washington, D.C. but had been appointed to the job rather than being voted into office. *The Joint Chiefs of Staff recommended to the White House that no ceasefire be instigated for the Tet holiday period in January 1968 due to "the fraudulent manner in which the enemy has treated past ceasefires." *Born: **Jimmy Kimmel, American late-night talk show host and comedian; in Brooklyn **Juhi Chawla, Indian comedienne and actress; in Ambala, Haryana state *Died: Harriet Cohen, 71, British pianist ==November 14, 1967 (Tuesday)== *Less than three months before the South Pacific island and UN Trust Territory of Nauru was scheduled to become an independent nation, the government of Australia concluded an agreement with the Nauru Local Government Council transferring all control of the island's primary industry, the mining of phosphate, to the Nauruans in return for payment of 21 million Australian dollars (roughly US$23,500,000 at the time).Commentaries on World Court Decisions: (1987 - 1996), ed. by Peter H. F. Bekker (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998) p133 *Born: **Letitia Dean, English TV soap opera actress who portrayed Sharon Watts on EastEnders; in Potters Bar **Mary Woodvine, English TV soap opera actress who portrayed Mary Harkinson on EastEnders; in Hammersmith **Max Pezzali, Italian singer in the duo 883 and later as soloist, in Pavia. **Nicola Savino, Italian DJ and TV presenter, in Lucca. *Died: U.S. Marine Corps Major General Bruno Hochmuth, 56, the commander of the 3rd Marine Division operating in the DMZ in Vietnam, was killed along with four other Marines and a South Vietnamese Army aide when the helicopter in which he was riding accidentally exploded and crashed as he was approaching the city of Huế."General Killed In Copter Crash— Chief of Marines Protecting DMZ", Pittsburgh Press, November 14, 1967, p1 ==November 15, 1967 (Wednesday)== *Former Greek Army General Georgios Grivas, commander of the Greek Cypriot National Guard, ordered an attack on the Turkish Cypriot villages of Kophinou (Geçitkale) and Ayios Theodhoros (Boğaziçi), killing 28 Turkish Cypriot civilians. The United Nations peacekeeping force was overpowered by the National Guard troops, who dismantled the UN's radio center and disarmed a force of UN soldiers who tried to intervene, triggering a crisis that almost led to a war between Turkey and Greece. *U.S. Ambassador to Saigon Ellsworth Bunker visited President Johnson in Washington to give the President a first-hand account of the current situation in Vietnam. *Born: **Pandeli Majko, Prime Minister of Albania 1998-1999 and during 2002; in Tirana **François Ozon, French film director and screenwriter; in Paris thumb|right|November 15, 1967: Firefighters survey the wreckage of Michael J. Adams' X-15 *Died: Major Michael J. Adams, 37, U.S. Air Force astronaut and test pilot, was killed while piloting the hypersonic X-15-3 rocket plane, in the only fatality of the X-15 program. The plane had been released over Nevada by a B-52 at at 10:30 in the morning. In less than three minutes, he had reached an altitude of — over 50 miles — and began having problems maintaining control. At 10:34, he reported "I'm in a spin," and 54 seconds later, the aircraft disintegrated. The X-15-3 was at an altitude of when it broke up while diving at a speed of 3,800 feet per second — — with impact in the desert near Johannesburg, California. ==November 16, 1967 (Thursday)== *Aeroflot Flight 2230 crashed shortly after taking off from Sverdlovsk on a flight to Tashkent, killing all 107 people on board. The Soviet news agency Tass announced the accident four days later, giving no details other than that the Ilyushin-18, a four-engined turboprop airplane, had crashed in the Ural Mountains. *The Canada Science and Technology Museum opened to the public, near Ottawa, in a converted warehouse. *The Grand National Assembly of Turkey voted, 432–1, to authorize the government to invade Cyprus. *Raúl Ferrero Rebagliati was named as the new Prime Minister of Peru by President Fernando Belaúnde Terry, and would serve until May 29 after being censured by the Peruvian Congress. *Aldo Aniasi was elected Mayor of Milan, serving until 1976. *Born: Lisa Bonet, American TV actress known as Denise Huxtable on The Cosby Show and as star of its spinoff, A Different World; in San Francisco ==November 17, 1967 (Friday)== thumb|right|November 17, 1967: Lyndon B. Johnson press conference *Acting on optimistic reports he had been given by General William Westmoreland and by U.S. Ambassador to South Vietnam Ellsworth Bunker, President Johnson said at a press conference that his advisers had assured him that the war in Vietnam was going well, in response to a reporter's question, and that it was a different kind of conflict. "We don't march out and have a big battle each day in a guerrilla war. It is a new kind of war for us. So it doesn't move that fast... We are making progress. We are pleased with the results that we are getting. We are inflicting greater losses than we are taking." The President received rave reviews from all that saw this press conference, many newspapers calling it "Johnson's new style" while others said this was the "real Johnson" as the President bullishly informed Hanoi that the United States was prepared to protect their ally from invasion from an aggressive neighbor. *Only 11 people survived the crash of a bus that was making its regular run from Belgrade to the suburb of Obrenovac. The bus had been carrying at least 40 passengers, most of them women, when the driver attempted to pass a gasoline truck and lost control, sending the vehicle down into the Sava River. By the end of the day, 25 bodies had been recovered. *In Milan, the students of the Catholic University, led by Mario Capanna, occupied the athenaeum to protest against a 50% increase in university taxes. *French author and intellectual Régis Debray was sentenced to 30 years imprisonment in Bolivia by a military tribunal in the city of Camiri, after being convicted of having been a part of the late Che Guevara's guerrilla force. Debray and his co-defendant, Roberto Bustos, would both be released during the Christmas holiday in 1970, after a campaign from supporters worldwide, and he would be flown by the Bolivian Air Force to the city of Iquique in Chile. In 1973, Debray would be forced to flee Chile in the aftermath of the overthrow of Marxist President Salvador Allende. ==November 18, 1967 (Saturday)== *The Viet Cong announced its willingness to honor a seven-day ceasefire during the Tet holiday celebrated as the start of the lunar new year in both North Vietnam and South Vietnam, for a period running from January 27 through February 2, 1968. The invitation, and its acceptance by the United States and South Vietnam, would be a prelude to the Tet Offensive; three days into the 1968 ceasefire, the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army would stage a massive surprise attack against U.S. and South Vietnamese forces and their allies. *In Bern, the Italy national football team, with the newcomer Roberto Boninsegna, and the Swiss one drew 2–2 in a match for the UEFA Euro 1968 qualifying (goals by the Swiss René-Pierre Quentin and Fritz Künzli and by the Italian Gigi Riva). Italy then headed Group 6 with a huge advantage. *The British pound was devalued by 14.3% to six-sevenths of its previous value, from an exchange rate of $2.80 USD to $2.40. James Callaghan, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, made the announcement in a statement released to the press, explaining that the devaluation, and other economic measures, had been prompted by the requirements of the International Monetary Fund for loans and credits to the United Kingdom of three billion U.S. dollars (£1.25 billion under the new exchange rate). The move came after a report showed that the trade deficit for October had reached a record high of £107 million. MP Robert Sheldon asked Callaghan to confirm that a one billion pound loan had been negotiated with foreign banks and when devaluation. Ireland and Denmark announced that they would soon cut the value of their currencies as well. The decision would trigger an economic crisis worldwide. Israel, Spain and Hong Kong would join in devaluation; New Zealand would devalue by 20% and Iceland by 24.6%;M.A.G. van Meerhaeghe, International Economic Institutions (Springer, 2012) p51 the U.S. Federal Reserve Board, though not devaluing its dollar, increased the discount rate to 4½% the next day, and would see a growth in inflation in 1968. *During meetings held in Washington, D.C., and Huntsville, an alternative configurational approach (the basis for the dry Workshop) for meeting Apollo Applications Program (AAP) objectives was proposed by Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) as one method of overcoming certain problems that had been identified during the past several months. Following the discussions, it was decided to proceed as programmed. ==November 19, 1967 (Sunday)== *Forty- two paratroopers of Company C of the U.S. Army's 173rd Airborne division were killed, and 45 injured, when an American F-100 flew in the wrong direction and dropped two bombs into the command outpost.Robert H. Scales, Jr., Firepower in Limited War (National Defense University Press, 1990) p146 The incident of "friendly fire" accounted for most of the American casualties that day during the fight for Hill 175 in the Battle of Dak To, with 72 total dead and 85 wounded."40 GIs Die on Dak To Hill", Chicago Tribune, November 20, 1967, p1"72 GIs Killed in One Day of Hill 875 Fight", Chicago Tribune, November 21, 1967, p2 *U.S. President Johnson wrote to Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin, urging him to ensure Soviet support of the British resolution that potentially would be appearing before the United Nations Security Council in the next couple of days to start the peace process in the Middle East following the Six Day War. *Newly elected South Vietnamese leader Nguyễn Văn Thiệu wrote to his North Vietnamese counterpart Ho Chi Minh to request secret talks to start a dialogue between the two countries to start the peace process. *Died: **Casimir Funk, 83, Polish-born American biochemist who synthesized the first synthetic vitamins **U.S. Army Major Charles J. Watters, 40, American chaplain, was killed by friendly fire while he was attempting to rescue wounded soldiers during the Battle of Dak To; he would posthumously be awarded the Medal of Honor ==November 20, 1967 (Monday)== *At 11:04:15 in the morning Washington, D.C. time, the "population clock" of the United States Census Bureau recorded the U.S. population at 200 million people. At the time, the clock, located in the lobby of the U.S. Department of Commerce, registered "a net gain of one person every 14½ seconds based on one birth every 8½ seconds, one death every 17 seconds, an immigrant every 60 seconds and an emigrant every 23 minutes". *TWA Flight 128 from Los Angeles to Boston crashed as it was making a stop at the Greater Cincinnati Airport in northern Kentucky, killing 70 of the 82 people on board. Shortly before 10:00 in the evening, and with a light snow falling, the Convair 880 jet had been cleared for a landing on the airport's Runway 18, which had no functioning runway approach lights, middle marker beacon or instrument landing system glide path system because of construction work. Coming in roughly to the right of the path toward the runway, the jet struck trees about from its destination, skidded, and then disintegrated on impact.Safety Network *Singapore issued its own coins for the first time, in denominations of one, five, ten, twenty and fifty cents and one Singapore dollar. After independence, Singapore had relied upon the Malaya and British Borneo dollar that had been the common currency during its membership in the Malaysian Federation. *Three days before U.S. Secret Service protection was to expire for the widow and two children of the late U.S. President John F. Kennedy (after the end of the four-year mandatory protection for an American president and his family after the president leaves office), President Johnson signed a bill extending the protection (which cost $210,000 per year) for another 15 months, until March 1, 1969. ==November 21, 1967 (Tuesday)== *Proclaiming that the United States had reached a turning point in Vietnam, U.S. Army General William Westmoreland told the National Press Club in Washington, "I am absolutely certain that whereas in 1965 the enemy was winning, today he is certainly losing." Westmoreland, commander of U.S. forces in the Vietnam War, said that "we have reached an important point... when the end begins to come into view", and forecast that a third phase of the war, when the U.S. would turn over control of the war effort to the South Vietnamese army, would start at the beginning of 1968. Daniel Ellsberg would write later about Westmoreland's statement, "Misleading as it was, I think he believed it; certainly he knew it was the message Johnson desperately wanted him to deliver. It was also the message many people desperately wanted to hear. Unfortunately for Westmoreland, it was to be refuted only two months later in a spectacular fashion— not by a skeptical press but by the actions of the Vietcong themselves when they launched a sweeping offensive on January 29, 1968, the start of Tet, the lunar new year celebration that was Vietnam's major holiday." The Viet Cong TET offensive, which saw the Viet Cong break an agreed ceasefire, ultimately ended in military defeat for the Communists. *U.S. President Johnson signed the Air Quality Act into law, giving federal government jurisdiction over regulation of air pollution throughout the United States, but without requiring the same standards throughout the nation. The U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare was authorized to consult with state and local officials to designate "air quality control regions" (AQCRs) based on atmospheric conditions, and setting standards for quality within each AQCR. *After 17 ministers of his United Front Party switched allegiance, Ajoy Mukherjee was dismissed as Chief Minister of India's state of West Bengal. Governor Dharma Vira appointed P.C. Gosch to replace Mukherjee. Political upheaval would continue and the state of West Bengal would be placed under President's rule on February 20, 1968. *Born: Ken Block, American rally driver and co-founder of DC Shoes; in Long Beach, California *Died: **C. M. Eddy Jr., 71, American horror story author **Bruno Leoni, 54, Italian economist who introduced the ideas of the Austrian School of economic thought to Italy, was killed by Osvaldo Queri, whom he had entrusted in the management of a building. Leoni had confronted Queri about administrative irregularities. After clumsy attempts to hide Leoni's body, Queri was discovered. He would be sentenced to 24 years in jail. **Florence Reed, 84, American stage and film actress ==November 22, 1967 (Wednesday)== *UN Security Council Resolution 242 was adopted, establishing a set of principles aimed at guiding negotiations for an Arab–Israeli peace settlement including the return of captured territories in return for the Arab nations' acknowledgment of Israel's right to exist as a nation."Peace Envoy to Mid-East OK'd by U.N.— Israel Directed to Withdraw", Chicago Tribune, November 23, 1967, p. 1 The wording of the resolution had been negotiated through the efforts of the United Kingdom's Ambassador to the United Nations, Lord CaradonFrank Brenchley, Britain, the Six-Day War and Its Aftermath (I.B.Tauris, 2005) p. 93 The resolution called upon Israel to withdraw from the territories that it had captured during the Six-Day War, and for the Arab nations to recognize Israel's right to exist; Egypt and Jordan accepted the resolution on the condition that Israel withdraw, Israel accepted provided that the Arab states negotiate directly with it and finalize a comprehensive peace treaty, and Syria rejected it altogether."United Nations, Role of", by Richard M. Edwards, in Arab–Israeli Conflict: The Essential Reference Guide, ed. by Priscilla Roberts (ABC-CLIO, 2014) p. 224 *The state of Haryana in India was placed under President's rule after 44 of its state legislators defected from the ruling United Front party to other parties.N.R. Madhava Menon, ed., Criminal Justice India Series: Haryana, 2002 (Allied Publishers, 2002) p21 *General Westmoreland said at a press conference that the Battle of Dak To was "the beginning of a great defeat" for the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. "The enemy had planned to win a cheap war of so-called national liberation. But now the war has become enormously expensive for him. He has nothing to show for his investment. He has not won a significant battle in the south in the last one and a half years.""Calls Dak To Start of Big Red Setback", Chicago Tribune, November 23, 1967, p. 3 *In Italy, the Constitution was amended by Article 135. The terms of the Constitutional Court's judges were reduced from 12 to 9 years and their reelection was forbidden. *Born: **Boris Becker, German tennis star who won six Grand Slam singles titles, as well as WCT, ATP and ITF titles; in Leimen, West Germany **Mark Ruffalo, American film actor and social activist; in Kenosha, Wisconsin **Bart Veldkamp, Netherlands and Belgium speed skater and 1992 Winter Olympic gold medalist in the 10,000 meter race; in The Hague ==November 23, 1967 (Thursday)== thumb|right|November 23, 1967: Assault on Hill 875 *After a five-day fight, American troops captured Hill 875 overlooking Dak To, in a one-hour charge on Thanksgiving Day to end the Battle of Dak To, one of the deadliest engagements of the Vietnam War. In all, 361 Americans were killed, 15 missing in action, and 1,441 had been wounded. The South Vietnamese Army suffered 73 deaths. The North Vietnamese and Viet Cong lost more than 1,200 troops, with an indeterminate number of wounded, indicating, as one historian would note, that "A loss rate of 4 to 1" was "clearly acceptable to the North Vietnamese leadership." ==November 24, 1967 (Friday)== *The Chick-fil-A chain of shopping mall chicken restaurants was inaugurated by S. Truett Cathy, with the opening of a location inside the Greenbriar Mall to sell Truett's chicken fillet sandwiches. "The history of Chick-fil-A: From small diner to fast-food giant closed on Sunday", by Kelly Hayes, Fox 5 News (New York), June 6, 2022 For its first 19 years, the chain would be limited to indoor shopping malls until inaugurating its first stand- alone location in 1986. *Plans to build a second deck for the famous Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco were rejected permanently by a vote of 9 to 4 at a meeting of the directors of the bridge and highway district's governing board. For years, James Adam, the General Manager of the six-county district, had lobbied for turning the landmark into a double-decker highway bridge in order to relieve traffic congestion between the city and neighboring Marin County until board member Stephen C. Leonoudakis led the campaign to end the project and to seek expansion of mass transit and ferry services. *In the aftermath of the devaluation of the British pound, frightened investors broke records for the second day in a row in the purchase of gold, and gold dealers in London reported that buying orders were "arriving in 'near panic' proportions from all over the world". In Paris, where the daily sales had averaged 2,460,000 U.S. dollars (12.3 million francs) before the devaluation, the sale on Friday was $12,560,000 (Fr 62,800,000); the trading in Johannesburg's gold exchange was "near pandemonium". ==November 25, 1967 (Saturday)== *Iran's first nuclear reactor, the Tehran Research Reactor, was inaugurated at the Amir Abad campus of the University of Tehran. Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi had sought the reactor and construction of the structure had commenced in 1958. *In Rimini, the first important meeting of the so-called "dissenting Catholics" was held, organized by the Marian Circle, about "The end of the Catholics' political unity, the social-democracy at the power and the perspectives of the Italian left". Present were Wladimiro Dorigo, Luigi Anderlini and Achille Occhetto. *A heavy downpour that would lead to the deaths of 462 people began in Portugal at 6:00 in the evening. Falling on the area in and around Lisbon, of rain came down in the next six hours, and another inch after midnight, causing the Tagus River and its tributaries to overflow. In the Lisbon suburb of Odivelas, 64 people were killed and 90 died in the village of Quintas, but most of the deaths came in Lisbon's slums, where three million of its nine million people lived. *Hundreds of people in the city of Chiquinquirá, in Colombia, were poisoned, and 81 died, after eating bread that had been made with flour that had been contaminated with parathion, a liquid insecticide. All but ten of the deaths were children; the deaths would later be attributed to an accident that happened when the flour and the parathion were being transported in the same delivery truck. When the truck driver made a sharp turn, three of the containers of parathion shattered and spilled into the bags of flour, which was then delivered to the bakery. Murder charges would later be filed against a Bogotá truck driver who had delivered the flour and the owner of the bakery that had baked and sold the bread to local residents. *Born: Anthony Nesty, Trinidadian-born swimmer who won an Olympic gold medal competing for Suriname in the 100m butterfly ==November 26, 1967 (Sunday)== *In a meeting in Frankfurt, representatives of the central banks of the United States and six European nations joined to protect the price of gold from a worldwide buying rush and to preserve the worldwide price of $35 an ounce. The U.S. Federal Reserve Board, the Bank of England, West Germany's Deutsche Bundesbank, the Banca d’Italia, the De Nederlandsche Bank, the Swiss National Bank and the National Bank of Belgium worked together on a commitment to sustain the United Kingdom's collapsing currency and that of other economies. France, which had pulled out of the "gold pool" five months earlier and was blamed for trying to profit from the crisis, did not participate."Gold Pool Acts to Stem Buying Rush", Chicago Tribune, November 27, 1967, p1 Over the next four months, the banks would strive to keep the fixed price of gold at 35 U.S. dollars per ounce, but demand would rise "to panic proportions" in the spring of 1968 and the London gold market would temporarily close on March 15 to stop a further drain on its monetary reserves.Annual Report of the Executive Directors for the Fiscal Year Ended April 30, 1968 (International Monetary Fund, 1968) *On the Moon at Sinus Medii, the American Surveyor 6 lunar probe received commands from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California on Earth, to power down for hibernation during the 15 day "lunar night" when the surface around the landing site was not illuminated by the Sun. It would be reactivated on December 14 and operate briefly. *Died: Albert Warner (born Abraham Wonsal), 83, Polish-born American film executive and co-founder of Warner Bros. ==November 27, 1967 (Monday)== *France's President Charles de Gaulle announced at a press conference in Paris that he would again veto the application by the United Kingdom to join the six-member European Economic Community, referred to in the press as the "Common Market". Citing the UK's balance of payments deficit and its problems with the pound sterling, de Gaulle said that British entry to the EEC "would obviously mean the breaking up of a Community which has been built and which functions according to rules which would not bear such a monumental exception." The first denial had taken place in 1961; the formal veto of the British application (and those of Denmark, Ireland, and Norway) would take place on December 19. The UK, Denmark and Ireland would become EEC members in 1973. *Students at the University of Turin in Italy began a shutdown of the campus and triggered a protest movement that, in the spring of 1968, would see the student takeover of nearly all of the Italian universities. The issue at Turin had been an opposition to the university's authoritarian power over the students, and the protesters demanded that student assemblies be given "nothing less than full control over the curriculum, classrooms, and life of the university." The occupation of Campana Palace marked the spread of the Italian Protest movement, born in the Catholic universities of Trento and Milan, to the state universities. By May, similar student protests would be taking place around the world. *For the first time in public opinion polls, New York U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy was favored by more people surveyed than incumbent U.S. President Johnson, in the Harris poll of likely Democrat voters of who they wanted to receive the 1968 Democratic Party nomination for President of the United States. More than half of the people surveyed, 52 percent, said that they preferred Kennedy, while 32 percent wanted to see Johnson renominated, and another 16 percent were undecided. However, the Harris poll was contradicted by the Gallup Poll, which showed Johnson's popularity rising, with most of Robert Kennedy's support coming from young people and women. *The Beatles released their album Magical Mystery Tour in the United States, with the addition of new songs to those on the album's release (as a single EP) in the United Kingdom. Added to the U.S. release were "All You Need Is Love", "Penny Lane", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Baby, You're a Rich Man" and "Hello, Goodbye". The double EP would go on sale in the UK on December 8. * The 303 Committee of the CIA proposed that the U.S. Ambassador to South Vietnam, Ellsworth Bunker, be allocated funds to be distributed throughout the South Vietnamese political structure to enhance the emerging parties as the country's fledgling democracy developed. * The Joint Chiefs of Staff presented Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara with their proposed plans for the next four months in the Vietnam War. The recommendations included not agreeing to a truce period during the upcoming Tet celebrations, a truce which the Viet Cong would famously go on to violate. * Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol requested through the U.S. Ambassador to Israel, Walworth Barbour, that the U.S. supply Israel with 77 fighter jets to counteract those supplied to Egypt by the Soviet Union. * Cambodian Head of State Norodom Sihanouk reacted to U.S. press reports that the Viet Cong were using bases in Cambodia as sanctuaries by expelling all foreign journalists from the country. ==November 28, 1967 (Tuesday)== *Confirmation of the discovery of the first pulsar to be detected by Earth observers was made by astronomers Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish. Bell had first observed the object from the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory in Britain on August 6, when aiming a radio telescope at the constellation of Vulpecula. The stellar object was designated originally as Cambridge Pulsar 1919 (because of its coordinates of right ascension) and later referred to as PSR B1919+21. *Rumors were circulating that Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara would soon be leaving the administration of U.S. President Johnson to become the President of the World Bank. It was reported that current Governor of Texas John Connally would replace McNamara. *Born: Anna Nicole Smith, American model, actress and television personality; as Vickie Lynn Hogan in Houston (died of drug overdose, 2007) *Died: Léon M'ba, 65, President of Gabon since its independence in 1960, died at the Gabonese Embassy in Paris. For the previous 16 months, M'ba had been undergoing cancer treatment in France. On December 2, M'Ba was succeeded by his vice president, Albert-Bernard Bongo (later Omar Bongo) who had been performing the executive duties during M'Ba's absence. ==November 29, 1967 (Wednesday)== * WRESAT, the Weapons Research Establishment Satellite, was launched from the Woomera Rocket Range near Woomera, South Australia at 2:18 in the afternoon local time (04:48 UTC), as the Commonwealth of Australia became the fourth nation (after the Soviet Union, the United States, and France) to put a spacecraft into orbit."All was go— and Australia's in space", by Creighton Burns, The Age (Melbourne), November 30, 1967, p1 WRESAT would transmit data during 73 orbits of the Earth and remain in outer space for six weeks until re-entering the atmosphere and burning up on January 10, 1968 "WRESAT: Australia's First Satellite" * Colonel David Morgan and the 42 Commando the Royal Marines boarded helicopters at the RAF airfield at Khormaksar as the last of the British troops to depart from Aden. Colonel Morgan, the last of the unit to leave Yemen, shouted "Good luck!" to reporters, and the Marines were flown out to , bringing an end to 129 years of British sovereignty over the protectorate in southern Yemen and to the nearly four-year-long Aden Emergency."Commandos leave Aden in silence", The Guardian (London), November 30, 1967, p1Karl Pieragostini, Britain, Aden and South Arabia: Abandoning Empire (Springer, 1991) p211 Control of the Aden Colony and the South Arabia Protectorate was turned over to Yemen's National Liberation Front at midnight, and the NLF proclaimed an independent republic. Humphrey Trevelyan, the last High Commissioner of Aden, would conclude in his report to British Foreign Secretary George Brown, "No one can be satisfied at the way in which we handed over the Colony of Aden without elections, to a party which had fought its way to power... But, given the situation in May 1967... the end might have been very much worse, and I do not believe that any action by us in the last months could have made it any better." He added "But in the end we went in peace and with dignity, and left behind a government which, however doubtful its antecedents, had relied principally on local support and has as good a chance as any South Arabian Government could have of administering the country in relative peace."East of Suez and the Commonwealth 1964-1971, ed. by S R Ashton and William Roger Louis (University of London, 2004) pp. 281-282 * The collapse of the Sempor Dam in Indonesia killed 160 people in Central Java, with water and mud sweeping over three towns, including Magelang."138 Known Dead As Dam Collapses", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 2, 1967, p1"Deaths at Dam up to 160", St. Louis Post-Dispatch, December 3, 1967, p1 * Ten days after he had made the decision to devalue the British pound, Chancellor of the Exchequer James Callaghan resigned. Home Secretary Roy Jenkins succeeded Callaghan at the financial position, and Callaghan took the position vacated by Jenkins."British Exchequer Chief Quits", Chicago Tribune, November 30, 1967, p4 * After President Johnson, under advisement from a large majority of his advisors rejected his recommendations to freeze troop levels, stop the bombing of North Vietnam, and hand over ground fighting to South Vietnam, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara announced his resignation and accepted a post as the President of the International Monetary Fund, commonly known as the World Bank."Defense Chief to Assume Bank Post in 1968", Chicago Tribune, November 30, 1967, p1 * In Italy, the first protest march against the Vietnam War, organized by Danilo Dolci, was concluded. Two columns of protesters, started from Milan and Naples on November 4, met in Rome, at the Fosse Ardeatine, and delivered a message to the Chamber of Deputies and to the United States Embassy papers, asking for the Italian government to cease its support for the war in Indochina. *Died: ** Ferenc Münnich, 81, Prime Minister of Hungary from 1958 to 1961 ** Theo Marcuse, 47, American character actor, was killed in an auto accident in Hollywood ==November 30, 1967 (Thursday)== 150px|thumb|right|North Yemen 150px|thumb|right|South Yemen *With the departure of British troops hours earlier, the leaders of Yemen's National Liberation Front (NLF) declared the People's Republic of South Yemen at 12:01 a.m., with NLF leader Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi as the Marxist nation's first President. The creation of the People's Republic brought an end not only to the Aden Protectorate, but also the 16 sultanates that had constituted the British-protected Federation of South Arabia. "Nowhere else in the colonial empire", a historian would comment later, "had the British fought a losing war up to the last days before quitting and then been succeeded by so radical, Marxist-oriented and anti-British a regime as in Aden." The nation of South Yemen would exist until May 22, 1990, when it would merge with the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) to create the Republic of Yemen. *Pro-Soviet communists in the Philippines established the Malayang Pagkakaisa ng Kabataan Pilipino (MPKP) as the Philippine Communist Party's new youth wing. *At a convention in Lahore, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto founded the Pakistan People's Party, commonly known as the PPP, and became its first chairman. *An earthquake along the border of Albania and Yugoslavia's Macedonian republic leveled most of the Yugoslavian city of Debar (now part of the Republic of Macedonia) and destroyed 2,000 buildings in the Albanian district of Dibër. *U.S. Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota announced his candidacy for the 1968 Democratic Party presidential nomination, in a direct challenge to the renomination of President Johnson. McCarthy said that he would enter the presidential primaries in Wisconsin, Nebraska, Oregon and California, and that he would probably declare for New Hampshire and Massachusetts as well. Although McCarthy, ultimately, would not win the nomination, President Johnson would only narrowly defeat McCarthy in the March 12 New Hampshire primary (by a margin of only 230 votes) and would announce at the end of that month that he would not seek re-election. *The NASA Directors of the Apollo and Apollo Applications Programs Samuel C. Phillips and Charles W. Mathews, in a letter to their MSC counterparts, George M. Low and Robert F. Thompson, said: "Within the scope of the AAP program, it is desirable that an in-depth evaluation of a recovered CM be made as early as possible to fully determine the technical feasibility and economy of refurbishment and reuse of recovered Apollo Command Modules." They added that as a prerequisite to test and evaluation for refurbishment potential, saltwater corrosive effects must be minimized on recovered spacecraft. This would involve some postflight operations to be performed aboard the recovery ship: dropping the aft heat shield, flushing the pressure shell, and drying and packaging for subsequent test and evaluation. Low and Thompson were requested to coordinate and jointly establish postflight handling and test requirements for spacecraft 020 in a manner ensuring no impact on the Apollo 6 schedule or the postflight evaluation of the recovered spacecraft. *Died: Allan T. Waterman, 75, American physicist and the first director of the National Science Foundation ==References== 1967 *1967-11 *1967-11 |
No. 84 Squadron of the Royal Air Force is at present a Search and Rescue Squadron based at RAF Akrotiri, using the Puma HC Mk.2 helicopter. The squadron transitioned from the previously operated Bell Griffin HAR.2 to the Puma HC Mk.2 in 2023. , 84 Squadron is the only serving RAF squadron never to have been based in the United Kingdom. It is currently one of the two operational parts of the RAF Search and Rescue Force left in service (the other being the RAF Mountain Rescue Service) after the stand-down of the UK effort on 5 October 2015. ==History== ===World War I=== No. 84 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) was formed on 16 February 1917 at East Boldre (Beaulieu) under the command of Major Hazelton Nicholl. It was equipped with a variety of types for training purposes, including Avro 504Ks, a Curtiss JN, Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s, Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.12s, Nieuport 12s and Sopwith 1½ Strutters. The squadron started to receive its intended operational equipment, the Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a single-seat fighter, in July 1917, although at first its SE.5as suffered engine problems, delaying the squadron's work up. On 8 August, Nicholl was replaced as commanding officer by the experienced major Sholto Douglas, who had already commanded 43 Squadron. The squadron moved to France for service over the Western front in September 1917, equipped with SE.5as. Initial operations were patrols and escort duties over Flanders, and when the Battle of Cambrai took place in November–December that year, the squadron flew top cover for aircraft carrying out ground attack and artillery spotting duties, while countering German attempts to attack British troops. From December 1917, the squadron joined the 5th Brigade of the Royal Flying Corps, operating in support of the British Fifth Army. In January 1918, it added ground-attack operations to its normal fighter duties, with the squadron heavily committed to ground-attack duties during the German spring offensive from March 1918. One speciality of the squadron was the destruction of German observation balloons, with one of the squadron's pilots, Andrew Beauchamp-Proctor, claiming 16 destroyed as well as 22 enemy aeroplanes. Beauchamp-Proctor was awarded the Victoria Cross for his efforts. In total the squadron had claimed 129 German aeroplanes and 50 balloons destroyed by the end of the war on 11 November 1918. The squadron deployed to Germany as part of the British occupation forces until August 1919 when discarded its SE.5as and returned to the United Kingdom as a Cadre in August 1919. It was disbanded on 30 January 1920. The squadron's aces during the First World War included Andrew Beauchamp-Proctor, Hugh Saunders and Walter A. Southey. ===Between the wars=== The squadron was reformed on 13 August 1920 at Baghdad in Iraq, moving to Shaibah in September, where it remained for the next 20 years. Its initial equipment was DH.9As (until January 1929) and these were replaced by Wapitis (beginning July 1928), Vincents (December 1935) and Blenheims Mk.Is (February 1939). One of the squadron's artefacts is a pair of pink frilly knickers known as 'Jane's Panties'. These were presented to the squadron in 1936 by Jane Newman (a debutante from Australia) who was rescued by 84 squadron when her aircraft crashed in the Western Desert. This story may more accurately relate to the location and rescue by Vickers Vincent aircraft of 84 Squadron of Imperial Airways Handley Page H.P. 42E G-AAUC Horsa which forced landed on 29 August 1936, in the Arabian Desert south of Salwa Wells in Qatar, having overflown Bahrain airport. Miss Jane Wallace Smith, an American novelist is named as the presenter of the undergarments to the squadron. ===World War II=== The squadron flew its first combat operation of the war on 15 August 1940, when six 84 Squadron Blenheims, which were being ferried from Iraq to Aden to reinforce the Blenheim squadrons based there, encountered an Italian Savoia- Marchetti SM.81 near Kamaran Island and shot it down. It moved to Heliopolis in Egypt in September 1940, operating from forward bases at Fuka and Qotaifiya for operations against the Germans from October 1940. The Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940 resulted in Britain diverting much of its aerial strength to support the Greeks, and 84 Squadron was moved to Greece in November 1940. The squadron operated from Menidi near Athens, initially bombing Italian forces on the Albanian front, but as the Italian offensive stalled in December 1940, switched to attacks against the port of Valona and the airfield at Berat, both in Italian-occupied Albania. In April 1941 German forces invaded Greece, quickly over-running the Greek and British defences, and the few surviving Blenheims were evacuated via Crete on 21 April. The squadron moved to RAF Aqir in Palestine on 27 April as a result of tensions between Britain and Iraq. When hostilities broke out on 2 May, with Iraqi forces threatening the RAF base at Habbaniya, west of Baghdad, 84 Squadron supported the forces sent to relieve Habbaniya, and when Germany and Italy sent air reinforcements to Iraq via airfields in Vichy-French Syria, carried out attacks on these airfields. Operations against Iraqi forces continued until 31 May when the pro-German Iraqi Prime-Minister, Rashid Ali fled and an armistice was signed. The squadron then took part in the invasion of Syria and Lebanon, taking part in attacks on Vichy French airfields and reconnaissance missions. In 25–28 August 1941, the squadron took part in the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran. By November, it had returned to Egypt and operations over the Western Desert. The Japanese invasion of Malaya resulted in 84 Squadron being one of a number of squadrons ordered to reinforce British and Commonwealth forces in the Far East, with the squadron arriving in Sumatra in late January 1942. The squadron evacuated to Java in February 1942 following the Japanese Invasion of Sumatra, but lost its remaining Blenheims and twenty of its personnel during the Battle of Kalijati when Japanese troops attacked and captured the base of the RAF's bombers in Java. In March 1942, eleven members of 84 Squadron commandeered a lifeboat and sailed away from Java to escape the advancing Japanese forces. They made land 47 days later in north- western Australia. The lifeboat was named 'Scorpion' in honour of the Squadron Badge. The squadron reformed at Karachi on 17 March 1942, moving to Drigh Road airfield on 1 April, equipping with more Blenheims and moving to Quetta in June, where it discarded its Blenheims. In December 1942, the squadron, now based at Vizagapatam on the East coast of India (now known as Visakhapatnam), received its planned operational equipment, the Vultee Vengeance dive bomber. Training was delayed by slow deliveries of Vengeances, and while other squadrons began operations in March, 84 Squadron moved to Ceylon in April, to guard the island against potential Japanese attack. The squadron relieved 45 Squadron based at Kumbhirgram in Assam on 10 February and flew its first operational mission with the Vengeance on 16 February. It flew its Vengeances in support of the second Chindit operation behind Japanese lines and against the Japanese offensive against Imphal and Kohima. After the Japanese retreat from Imphal and Kohima, it was decided to withdraw the Vengeance from operational service in Burma, as more versatile fighter bombers were becoming available in increasing numbers and the Vengeance would not be able to carry out its normal dive-bombing attacks once the monsoon season was underway. 84 Squadron flew its last bombing raid with the Vengeance on 16 July. After withdrawal from the front line, the squadron discarded its Vengeances, and used Airspeed Oxfords to train its aircrews on twin-engined aircraft in preparation for operating De Havilland Mosquitos, but it did not receive Mosquitos until February 1945. It was still training when the Second World War ended in September 1945. ===Postwar=== The squadron moved to Singapore in September 1945, but in November a detachment was sent to Java in response to the Indonesian war of independence, flying reconnaissance and bombing missions against Indonesian republican forces. The rest of the squadron moved to Java in January 1946, remaining there until May, when it moved to Kuala Lumpur in Malaya. By this time the squadron's Mosquitos were suffering structural problems caused by gluing failures, and in November 1946 the squadron re- equipped with the Bristol Beaufighter which it flew until March 1949, re- equipping with Bristol Brigands at RAF Habbaniya in Iraq, becoming the first squadron equipped with Brigands. In February 1950, four Brigands were detached to Mogadishu, joining a detachment from 8 Squadron flying support for the British withdrawal from Somalia. In April 1950, the squadron was transferred to RAF Tengah on Singapore to take part in Operation Firedog, the RAFs response to the Malayan Emergency. The Brigands were employed on strikes against insurgent strongholds with guns, rockets and bombs. Operations were affected by a number of problems with the Brigand, including the loss of several aircraft due to cannon explosions, which resulted in the aircraft being prohibited from firing their guns for several months, problems with the aircraft's propellers, which again caused the loss of several aircraft, and the development of skin cracks, which caused the Brigand's bombload to be restricted. In January 1953, following the crash of a Brigand after one of its wings had failed during a dive, the squadron's Brigands were permanently grounded. The squadron was disbanded on 20 February 1953, but on the same day, 204 Squadron, a transport squadron equipped with Vickers Valettas based at RAF Fayid in Egypt, was renumbered to No. 84 Squadron. The squadron was used mainly for routine transport flights around the Middle East, until British forces left Egypt in March 1956, with the squadron moving to RAF Nicosia in Cyprus. The squadron took part in Operation Musketeer, the Anglo-French invasion of Egypt during the Suez Crisis, in November 1956, its Valettas carrying out paratroop drops. The squadron moved to RAF Khormaksar, Aden in January 1956, carrying out transport operations around the Arabian peninsular, and in particular, supporting the British Army in the Aden Protectorate. In June 1958 it received a flight of four-engined Blackburn Beverley heavy transports to supplement its Valettas, and in August 1960 the squadron's Valetta flight was detached to become No. 233 Squadron RAF. In late 1967, the Beverley was replaced by the Hawker Siddeley Andover, and when UK forces left Aden the squadron moved to RAF Sharjah, then in the Trucial States (now the United Arab Emirates). The squadron was disbanded at Muharraq on 31 October 1971. === Cyprus === The squadron was reformed on 17 January 1972 from 1563 Flight and a detachment from 230 Squadron with Westland Whirlwind HAR.10s assigned to British Forces Cyprus at RAF Akrotiri, with a detachment at Nicosia International Airport. Duties included support of United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) operations and search and rescue duties for the whole of southern Cyprus. To meet this dual role, the squadron was divided into two flights, with "A" flight, based at Akrotiri for search and rescue duties, with its helicopters painted in overall yellow, and "B" flight for UN support at Nicosia with camouflaged helicopters marked with pale blue bands matching the blue berets of UN peacekeepers, but with no RAF roundels or titles displayed on the B Flight helicopters. After the 1975 Defence Review resulted in the withdrawal of the RAF's fixed-wing squadrons from the Mediterranean, 84 Squadron was the only RAF squadron permamently based on Cyprus, sharing Akrotiri with RAF fighter squadrons visiting the island to attend Armament Practice Camps. The squadron later (December 1981) replaced the Whirlwind with the Westland Wessex HC.2 and later still (June 1984) with the Westland Wessex HU.5C. It was the last squadron to use the Westland Wessex. The two flights were combined when the squadron shrunk in size to five helicopters after re-equipment with the Wessex, but its helicopters retain aircraft the light blue band around their tail. No. 84 Squadron was the first RAF contingent into Beirut in the Lebanese Crisis of 1983. This resulted in the evacuation of the peace-keeping element from the city. The responsibility for civil search and rescue duties was eventually transferred to the Cyprus Police Aviation Unit. In January 2003 the squadron discarded its Wessexes, replacing them with four contractor owned but military flown Bell Griffin HAR.2 helicopters, with the main duties being search and rescue in support of British forces on Cyprus, also carrying out transport operations for British army units based on the island. On 31 March 2023, the squadron replaced its Griffins with Aérospatiale Puma HC Mk.2s. ==Symbols== The squadron's badge, approved by George VI in December 1936 is the scorpion, and its motto is Scorpiones pungunt, Latin for "Scorpions sting". ==Aircraft operated== According to Jefford, the following is a comprehensive list of aircraft operated by 84 Squadron. * 1917 Royal Aircraft Factory BE12 & BE12a * 1917 Royal Aircraft Factory BE2 & BE2c * 1917 Nieuport 12 * 1917 Curtiss JN4 * 1917 Avro 504K * 1917 Sopwith 1½ Strutter * 1917–1919 SE5a * 1920–1929 Airco DH.9A * 1928–1935 Westland Wapiti * 1934–1939 Vickers Vincent * 1939–1941 Bristol Blenheim I * 1941–1942 Bristol Blenheim IV * 1942–1945 Vultee Vengeance I, IA, II and III * 1945–1946 de Havilland Mosquito VI & Mosquito PR34 * 1946–1948 Bristol Beaufighter X * 1949–1953 Bristol Brigand B1 * 1953–1960 Vickers Valetta C1 * 1956–1957 Bristol Sycamore HR14 * 1956–1957 Percival Pembroke C1 * 1958–1967 Blackburn Beverley C1 * 1967–1970 Hawker Siddeley Andover C1 * 1972–1982 Westland Whirlwind HAR10 * 1982–2003 Westland Wessex HC2, HU5C, then HAR2 * 2003–2023 Bell Griffin HAR2 * 2023-present Puma HC Mk.2 ==Notable squadron members== * William Sholto Douglas, World War I ace * Andrew Beauchamp-Proctor, VC, World War I ace * George Augustus Vaughn, Jr., World War I ace * Walter Southey, World War I ace * Carl Frederick Falkenberg, World War I ace * Robert Grosvenor, World War I ace * Sidney Highwood, World War I ace * Hugh Saunders, World War I ace * John Victor Sorsoleil, World War I ace * Edwin A. Clear, World War I ace * Norman Mawle, World War I ace * Roy Manzer, World War I ace * John S. Ralston, World War I ace * Frederick Elliott Brown, World War I ace * William Henry Brown, World War I ace * Kenneth Leask, World War I ace * Percy Hobson, World War I ace * Cecil Thompson, World War I ace * Air Marshal George Owen Johnson, World War I ace * John McCudden, World War I ace * James Martin Child, World War I ace ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * * Bowyer, Chaz. Mosquito Squadrons of the Royal Air Force. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1984. . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * 84 Squadron on RAF website * 84 Squadron Association * Squadron histories for Nos. 81–85 squadron on RAFweb * Helicopter History site unit section for 84 Squadron * A personal account of flying the Bristol Brigand aircraft during the Malayan Emergency with No 84 Squadron at RAF Tengah – Terry Stringer Category:Military units and formations established in 1917 084 Squadron Category:1917 establishments in the United Kingdom 084 Squadron Category:Military units and formations in Mandatory Palestine in World War II R Category:Military of Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia |
thumb|right|250px|A Pro Staff 6.0. Note the lead taping placed at 3 and 9 o'clock to further increase weight and stability, as well as at 12 for added swingweight. This racquet has been strung with polyester strings. At the bottom of the stringbed is a Pete Sampras vibration dampener. The Wilson Pro Staff Original, first introduced in 1984 is most known for being the model of racket used by Pete Sampras. For this reason, it is known as a “Sampo”.http://www.tennis.com/gear/2012/06/tennis-radar-modern-classics/38583/ ==History== Originally manufactured in Chicago, Illinois and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the Pro Staff line was Wilson's answer to the Prince Graphite, Yonex Rex series, and the Dunlop Max 200G. The original graphite Pro Staff was 110 square inches; the 85, 95, and 125 sizes were developed from it. Pete Sampras, who used the racquet for his entire professional career, established the reputation of the Pro Staff 85 (graphite/Kevlar) as a legendary racquet more than any other player. Other first-rate players who have used the Pro Staff 85 Kevlar during their professional careers include Jimmy Connors, Jim Courier, Stefan Edberg, Chris Evert, Roger Federer, and Manuela Maleeva. The first Pro Staff was the high-end Jack Kramer standard wooden model. It was stiffer than the extremely popular Jack Kramer Autograph model and favored by professional players for that reason. This racquet established the "Pro Staff" branding as being Wilson's finest product. However, as Wilson transitioned away from wood, steel, and aluminum, the company's first graphite models were not given this name. Instead, early Wilson models were the 1980 Ultra, the 1981 Javelin, the 1982 Sting, and the graphite/boron Ultra II. As with the earlier Sting and Ultra II, the first graphite/Kevlar Pro Staff model was a "large head" 110 square-inch oversize. The Pro Staff design combined the braided construction of the earlier Ultra line with the most of the shape of the Sting (that was produced without a throat bar). The Pro Staff models also were of medium stiffness, again reflecting a design philosophy that blended the Ultra II, which was very stiff, and the Sting, which was flexible. Contrary to popular belief, the stiffer and heavier Ultra II, not a member of the Pro Staff line, was Wilson's most expensive racquet until the 1987 Profile debuted. Wilson produced many lesser-known models with the Pro Staff mold, including the Jack Kramer Pro Staff 85 (80% graphite and 20% fiberglass), the Matrix, the Graphite Cruncher, the Graphite Aggressor, the Ceramic, and several others. These variants were less stiff than the well-known graphite/Kevlar model. Chris Evert used the Jack Kramer model to reach the final of the 1984 French Open, in which she was defeated in straight sets by Martina Navratilova, who was using the Yonex R-27, a graphite/boron design similar to the Ultra II. She defeated Navratilova in 1985 with the graphite/Kevlar Pro Staff 85. Navratilova, meanwhile, had switched back to the less stiff R-22, a graphite/fiberglass model. ==Naming Issue== The name "ProStaff Original 6.0" is not what the racquet was known by for many years. Only for later productions did Wilson add "6.0" to the paint job. In fact, there is nothing "original" about this model, as it is not the first Wilson graphite racquet by any means, and the 110 square inch model was the original in the line, not the longer-lived 85 square inch variant. A similarly misapplied "original" refers to the very famous Prince Graphite oversize. In the case of the Prince, the name is more apt, but even that racquet went through a number of major revisions, including the addition of grommets and a change of hoop shape. The "Original" in the ProStaff name is likely due to the multitude of Wilson releases using the ProStaff title. Wilson has arguably overused the ProStaff brand to the point of watering down its prestige. The first composite version associated with Tour success will always date back to the composite racquet used by the first ProStaff-using number one ranked tennis professionals, Chris Evert & Stefan Edberg. Theirs were the first composite ProStaff and thus, the "Original" (composite) ProStaff. ==Specifications== While the Pro Staff Original was a true midsize racket at 85 square inches in head size, it is however significantly smaller, heavier and thinner than almost all modern pro-level rackets, which tend to range around 95+ square inches in head size and 21+ mm in beam, and down toward the lower 300s in weight in grams for men and high 200s for women. The Pro Staff 6.0 version was manufactured in four head sizes: 85, 95, 110, and 125 square inches. The 85 is unforgiving for the currently popular semi-western topspin style with its 12.6 ounce (357 g) weight and low power. The 95 is more forgiving of off-center shots with an overall weight of and a lower swingweight (317 as opposed to the 85's 326). However, it has a higher flexibility, particularly in the upper hoop, due to its larger head size, which has been described as undesirably "whippy". Both have a 16x18 string pattern making the frame more open and easier to generate spin albeit the user must generate much of the spin's power with timing and wrist pronation. The Prostaff 6.0 also performs admirably well with flatter hitters (as evidenced by the success of Pete Sampras, Chris Evert, and Mary Pierce) as a result of its considerable heft and control. A flat hitting power-oriented game will therefore benefit considerably from the inherent control and stability of the frame. The small headsize of the 85 and Perimeter Weighting System also minimize the torque on off-centre hits, further enhancing control at impact. Of particular interest is the frame composition of 80% graphite and 20% kevlar. The high percentage of graphite allows for a 'softer' feel, while the kevlar provides more strength in the frame. Also unique is that the graphite in the Pro Staff Original is braided. While more modern racquets consist of many pieces of graphite spliced to the framework of the racquet, the braided graphite construction of the Pro Staff Original was such that only a single, long piece of graphite is used, which is then 'braided' around the frame. This created more strength and stability in the racquet, while increasing the weight of the frame. ==Pete Sampras== While many top professionals receive custom-designed frames which differ from the stock version, Pete Sampras used production frames from the St Vincent factory, which he chose for their slightly greater stiffness. However, the handles were custom-built and lead was also added during balancing and weight work by his personal stringer, bringing the mass of the racket to just under 400g. Sampras used natural gut, the norm for top professionals at that time, but the frames were strung at around 75 lb tension, well above the frame's stock recommended range of 50-60 lb. Sampras also had all frames re-strung daily during tournaments, whether used or not - a consistency which, along with his choice of just one racket model and those from just one factory, illustrate his preference for his rackets to be as familiar, and therefore as predictable, as possible. Only upon returning to play exhibition, World Team Tennis and Senior Tour matches post retirement from the ATP, did Sampras switch rackets (to a similar model as that used by Roger Federer at the time) before Wilson produced a new model especially for Sampras, the K Pro Staff 88. ==Successor== Wilson has since produced numerous Pro Staff models, including some based closely on the design of the Original. The "descendants" of the Pro Staff 6.0 usually bear the moniker 6.1 in the frame title and have incorporated larger head sizes (90–95 sq in) and more modern graphite composites in their manufacturing, including the production of curved beam rackets instead of the traditional box beam design used in the original Pro Staffs. Most professionals using these rackets choose the head size, with the notable exception of Roger Federer. In recent years, Wilson has phased out the box beam for a more modern curved beam on most of the 6.1 rackets with the exception of the Tour/90 model, which retained the box beam design. However, in 2012 Wilson rereleased the box beam design by separating the 6.1 rackets into two categories, 6.1 ProStaff (which retained the box beam design), and 6.1 (which kept the curved beam design). They further clarified the division in 2014, removing the "6.1" label and releasing the ProStaff as a stand-alone racket series. In the 1990s, Wilson produced a range of lighter Pro Staff models called "Pro Staff Classic Lite." They featured larger head sizes (95 and 110 sq in) and a more flexible frame than either the 6.0 or the 6.1. The series produced Steffi Graf's racquets of choice in the 1990s as she signed an endorsement deal with Wilson in 1994 after having played with Dunlop since the beginning of her career. Graf first played with the 7.0 model, then switched to the 7.5 model in 1996 and finally to the 7.1 model in 1998, which she played until her retirement the following year. Wilson produced the throwback [K]Pro Staff 88 1 in 2008, a Pete Sampras signature model, produced for Sampras post-retirement and which he has used in the Senior Tour and other events since its introduction. This model retained the thin 17 mm beam throughout its length but has increased weight from strung, is slightly less head-light (six points rather than eight), with an head size, up from 85 in the Pro Staff Original (the Pro Staff 6.0 was produced in a number of sizes) and with 19 rather than 18 crosses in the string pattern (retaining the 16 mains). The material composition utilized nanotechnology to bond new molecules that fill spaces between the racket's graphite fibers (branded [K]arophite Black) to the graphite itself, rather than the unbonded fill used in Wilson's prior N-Code racket series. Most published reviews of this racket feel that the heavy weight and relatively small head size are ill-suited to modern stroke production techniques. In 2012, Wilson reintroduced the Prostaff line with their Amplifeel series of rackets. Among the new rackets were 3 "Pro Staff" branded models: a 90, 95, and 100 square inch headsize. There has been a noticeable difference in swing- weight in these rackets, with the 90 having a 327 swing-weight, the 95 having a 306 swing-weight, and the 100 having a 304 swing-weight. The more modern Pro Staffs have also a reduction in weight; the 95 and 100 boast 11.5 and 11.3 oz strung weight, respectively. In comparison, the original Pro Staffs were very heavy, at 12+ oz. The frames of the latest 2014 Pro Staff models feature graduated lines at 3 and 9 o'clock, prompting players to customize the rather low stock racquet weight with lead tapes. Federer has since switched to a larger, 97 sq inch headsize racket for the 2014 season, and such the ProStaff line is expecting a major update in the design of the racket. Federer's new Prostaff removes the box beam in favor of a modern, angular beam. However, Wilson claims the same production and materials have been used in this racket line, blending the iconic Prostaff's graphite and kevlar blend with a modern design process. The new line of Prostaff is expected to be released fall 2014. ==Rerelease== Wilson reintroduced the ProStaff Original 6.0 85 in May 2011 via an exclusive arrangement with Tennis Warehouse in the USA. The main differences on the new release are: # The gold BLX butt cap in place of the original white & red butt cap. # Stiffness RA rating lowered from the original stiffer 67 to a flexier 62 as listed on Tennis Warehouse web site. The ProStaff Original 6.0 85 maintains a large enough following to continue as one of their best selling racquets as of December 2013. ==Significance== Besides being used by many pros and club players in its heyday, the Pro Staff Original continues to have a cult-like following. The racket has brought on many variations such as the 6.1 models and the ROK models, both of which are still favoured in the tennis world. The St. Vincent factory products, used by Sampras to the exclusion of all other versions, has become the collector's choice of preference. Since the St. Vincent factory closed down, demand for the iconic St. Vincent Pro Staff Original continues to raise its value. ==References== *http://www.wilson.com/wilson/racquet/products.jsp?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673997475&FOLDER;%3C%3Efolder_id=2534374302756111 *http://www.tennis- warehouse.com/Wilson_K_Factor_KPro_Staff_88/descpageRCWILSON-KPS88.html *http://www.tennis-warehouse.com/Reviews/60/60Review.html *http://av.warehousesports.com/tw/Features/9908NateFerguson.html *http://www.allabouttennis.com/Wilson-Pro-Staff- Original-6-0-85-L3-4-3-8-p/t5799.htm *http://www.tennisexpress.com/category.cfm/tennis/wilson-tennis-racquets *http://www.tennis-warehouse.com/Reviews/W6085/W6085Review.html *http://www.tennis-warehouse.com/Reviews/W6085/ProstaffOrigins.html ==External links== * Pro Staff Original Racquet Reviews Category:Tennis equipment |
Species richness, or biodiversity, increases from the poles to the tropics for a wide variety of terrestrial and marine organisms, often referred to as the latitudinal diversity gradient. The latitudinal diversity gradient is one of the most widely recognized patterns in ecology. It has been observed to varying degrees in Earth's past. A parallel trend has been found with elevation (elevational diversity gradient), though this is less well-studied. Explaining the latitudinal diversity gradient has been called one of the great contemporary challenges of biogeography and macroecology (Willig et al. 2003, Pimm and Brown 2004, Cardillo et al. 2005). The question "What determines patterns of species diversity?" was among the 25 key research themes for the future identified in 125th Anniversary issue of Science (July 2005). There is a lack of consensus among ecologists about the mechanisms underlying the pattern, and many hypotheses have been proposed and debated. A recent review noted that among the many conundrums associated with the latitudinal diversity gradient (or latitudinal biodiversity gradient) the causal relationship between rates of molecular evolution and speciation has yet to be demonstrated. Understanding the global distribution of biodiversity is one of the most significant objectives for ecologists and biogeographers. Beyond purely scientific goals and satisfying curiosity, this understanding is essential for applied issues of major concern to humankind, such as the spread of invasive species, the control of diseases and their vectors, and the likely effects of global climate change on the maintenance of biodiversity (Gaston 2000). Tropical areas play prominent roles in the understanding of the distribution of biodiversity, as their rates of habitat degradation and biodiversity loss are exceptionally high. ==Patterns in the past== The latitudinal diversity gradient is a noticeable pattern among modern organisms that has been described qualitatively and quantitatively. It has been studied at various taxonomic levels, through different time periods and across many geographic regions (Crame 2001). The latitudinal diversity gradient has been observed to varying degrees in Earth's past, possibly due to differences in climate during various phases of Earth's history. Some studies indicate that the gradient was strong, particularly among marine taxa, while other studies of terrestrial taxa indicate it had little effect on the distribution of animals. ==Hypotheses for pattern== Although many of the hypotheses exploring the latitudinal diversity gradient are closely related and interdependent, most of the major hypotheses can be split into three general hypotheses. ===Spatial/Area hypotheses=== There are five major hypotheses that depend solely on the spatial and areal characteristics of the tropics. ====Mid-domain effect==== Using computer simulations, Cowell and Hurt (1994) and Willing and Lyons (1998) first pointed out that if species’ latitudinal ranges were randomly shuffled within the geometric constraints of a bounded biogeographical domain (e.g. the continents of the New World, for terrestrial species), species' ranges would tend to overlap more toward the center of the domain than towards its limits, forcing a mid-domain peak in species richness. Colwell and Lees (2000) called this stochastic phenomenon the mid-domain effect (MDE), presented several alternative analytical formulations for one- dimensional MDE (expanded by Connolly 2005), and suggested the hypothesis that MDE might contribute to the latitudinal gradient in species richness, together with other explanatory factors considered here, including climatic and historical ones. Because "pure" mid-domain models attempt to exclude any direct environmental or evolutionary influences on species richness, they have been claimed to be null models (Cowell et al. 2004, 2005). On this view, if latitudinal gradients of species richness were determined solely by MDE, observed richness patterns at the biogeographic level would not be distinguishable from patterns produced by random placement of observed ranges called dinosures(Colwell and Lees 2000). Others object that MDE models so far fail to exclude the role of the environment at the population level and in setting domain boundaries, and therefore cannot be considered null models (Hawkins and Diniz-Filho 2002; Hawkins et al. 2005; Zapata et al. 2003, 2005). Mid-domain effects have proven controversial (e.g. Jetz and Rahbek 2001, Koleff and Gaston 2001, Lees and Colwell, 2007, Romdal et al. 2005, Rahbek et al. 2007, Storch et al. 2006; Bokma and Monkkonen 2001, Diniz-Filho et al. 2002, Hawkins and Diniz-Filho 2002, Kerr et al. 2006, Currie and Kerr, 2007). While some studies have found evidence of a potential role for MDE in latitudinal gradients of species richness, particularly for wide-ranging species (e.g. Jetz and Rahbek 2001, Koleff and Gaston 2001, Lees and Colwell, 2007, Romdal et al. 2005, Rahbek et al. 2007, Storch et al. 2006; Dunn et al. 2007) others report little correspondence between predicted and observed latitudinal diversity patterns (Bokma and Monkkonen 2001, Currie and Kerr, 2007, Diniz-Filho et al. 2002, Hawkins and Diniz-Filho 2002, Kerr et al. 2006). ====Geographical area hypothesis==== Another spatial hypothesis is the geographical area hypothesis (Terborgh 1973). It asserts that the tropics are the largest biome and that large tropical areas can support more species. More area in the tropics allows species to have larger ranges and consequently larger population sizes. Thus, species with larger ranges are likely to have lower extinction rates (Rosenzweig 2003). Additionally, species with larger ranges may be more likely to undergo allopatric speciation, which would increase rates of speciation (Rosenzweig 2003). The combination of lower extinction rates and high rates of speciation leads to the high levels of species richness in the tropics. A critique of the geographical area hypothesis is that even if the tropics is the most extensive of the biomes, successive biomes north of the tropics all have about the same area. Thus, if the geographical area hypothesis is correct these regions should all have approximately the same species richness, which is not true, as is referenced by the fact that polar regions contain fewer species than temperate regions (Gaston and Blackburn 2000). To explain this, Rosenzweig (1992) suggested that if species with partly tropical distributions were excluded, the richness gradient north of the tropics should disappear. Blackburn and Gaston 1997 tested the effect of removing tropical species on latitudinal patterns in avian species richness in the New World and found there is indeed a relationship between the land area and the species richness of a biome once predominantly tropical species are excluded. Perhaps a more serious flaw in this hypothesis is some biogeographers suggest that the terrestrial tropics are not, in fact, the largest biome, and thus this hypothesis is not a valid explanation for the latitudinal species diversity gradient (Rohde 1997, Hawkins and Porter 2001). In any event, it would be difficult to defend the tropics as a "biome" rather than the geographically diverse and disjunct regions that they truly include. The effect of area on biodiversity patterns has been shown to be scale-dependent, having the strongest effect among species with small geographical ranges compared to those species with large ranges who are affected more so by other factors such as the mid-domain and/or temperature. ====Species-energy hypothesis==== The species energy hypothesis suggests the amount of available energy sets limits to the richness of the system. Thus, increased solar energy (with an abundance of water) at low latitudes causes increased net primary productivity (or photosynthesis). This hypothesis proposes the higher the net primary productivity the more individuals can be supported, and the more species there will be in an area. Put another way, this hypothesis suggests that extinction rates are reduced towards the equator as a result of the higher populations sustainable by the greater amount of available energy in the tropics. Lower extinction rates lead to more species in the tropics. One critique of this hypothesis has been that increased species richness over broad spatial scales is not necessarily linked to an increased number of individuals, which in turn is not necessarily related to increased productivity. Additionally, the observed changes in the number of individuals in an area with latitude or productivity are either too small (or in the wrong direction) to account for the observed changes in species richness. The potential mechanisms underlying the species-energy hypothesis, their unique predictions and empirical support have been assessed in a major review by Currie et al. (2004). The effect of energy has been supported by several studies in terrestrial and marine taxa. ====Climate harshness hypothesis==== Another climate-related hypothesis is the climate harshness hypothesis, which states the latitudinal diversity gradient may exist simply because fewer species can physiologically tolerate conditions at higher latitudes than at low latitudes because higher latitudes are often colder and drier than tropical latitudes. Currie et al. (2004) found fault with this hypothesis by stating that, although it is clear that climatic tolerance can limit species distributions, it appears that species are often absent from areas whose climate they can tolerate. ====Climate stability hypothesis==== Similarly to the climate harshness hypothesis, climate stability is suggested to be the reason for the latitudinal diversity gradient. The mechanism for this hypothesis is that while a fluctuating environment may increase the extinction rate or preclude specialization, a constant environment can allow species to specialize on predictable resources, allowing them to have narrower niches and facilitating speciation. The fact that temperate regions are more variable both seasonally and over geological timescales (discussed in more detail below) suggests that temperate regions are thus expected to have less species diversity than the tropics. Critiques for this hypothesis include the fact that there are many exceptions to the assumption that climate stability means higher species diversity. For example, low species diversity is known to occur often in stable environments such as tropical mountaintops. Additionally, many habitats with high species diversity do experience seasonal climates, including many tropical regions that have highly seasonal rainfall (Brown and Lomolino 1998). ===Historical/Evolutionary hypotheses=== There are four main hypotheses that are related to historical and evolutionary explanations for the increase of species diversity towards the equator. ====The historical perturbation hypothesis==== The historical perturbation hypothesis proposes the low species richness of higher latitudes is a consequence of an insufficient time period available for species to colonize or recolonize areas because of historical perturbations such as glaciation (Brown and Lomolino 1998, Gaston and Blackburn 2000). This hypothesis suggests that diversity in the temperate regions has not yet reached equilibrium and that the number of species in temperate areas will continue to increase until saturated (Clarke and Crame 2003). However, in the marine environment, where there is also a latitudinal diversity gradient, there is no evidence of a latitudinal gradient in perturbation. ====The evolutionary speed hypothesis==== The evolutionary speed hypothesis argues higher evolutionary rates due to shorter generation times in the tropics have caused higher speciation rates and thus increased diversity at low latitudes. Higher evolutionary rates in the tropics have been attributed to higher ambient temperatures, higher mutation rates, shorter generation time and/or faster physiological processes, and increased selection pressure from other species that are themselves evolving. Faster rates of microevolution in warm climates (i.e. low latitudes and altitudes) have been shown for plants, mammals, birds, fish and amphibians. Bumblebee species inhabiting lower, warmer elevations have faster rates of both nuclear and mitochondrial genome- wide evolution. Based on the expectation that faster rates of microevolution result in faster rates of speciation, these results suggest that faster evolutionary rates in warm climates almost certainly have a strong influence on the latitudinal diversity gradient. However, recent evidence from marine fish and flowering plants have shown that rates of speciation actually decrease from the poles towards the equator at a global scale. Understanding whether extinction rate varies with latitude will also be important to whether or not this hypothesis is supported. ====The hypothesis of effective evolutionary time==== The hypothesis of effective evolutionary time assumes that diversity is determined by the evolutionary time under which ecosystems have existed under relatively unchanged conditions, and by evolutionary speed directly determined by effects of environmental energy (temperature) on mutation rates, generation times, and speed of selection. It differs from most other hypotheses in not postulating an upper limit to species richness set by various abiotic and biotic factors, i.e., it is a nonequilibrium hypothesis assuming a largely non-saturated niche space. It does accept that many other factors may play a role in causing latitudinal gradients in species richness as well. The hypothesis is supported by much recent evidence, in particular, the studies of Allen et al. and Wright et al. ==== The integrated evolutionary speed hypothesis ==== The integrated evolutionary speed hypothesis argues that species diversity increases due to faster rates of genetic evolution and speciation at lower latitudes where ecosystem productivity is generally greater. It differs from the effective evolutionary time hypothesis by recognizing that species richness generally increases with increasing ecosystem productivity and declines where high environmental energy (temperature) causes water deficits. It also proposes that evolutionary rate increases with population size, abiotic environmental heterogeneity, environmental change and via positive feedback with biotic heterogeneity. There is considerable support for faster rates of genetic evolution in warmer environments, some support for a slower rate among plant species where water availability is limited and for a slower rate among bird species with small population sizes. Many aspects of the hypothesis, however, remain untested. ===Biotic hypotheses=== Biotic hypotheses claim ecological species interactions such as competition, predation, mutualism, and parasitism are stronger in the tropics and these interactions promote species coexistence and specialization of species, leading to greater speciation in the tropics. These hypotheses are problematic because they cannot be the ultimate cause of the latitudinal diversity gradient as they fail to explain why species interactions might be stronger in the tropics. An example of one such hypothesis is the greater intensity of predation and more specialized predators in the tropics has contributed to the increase of diversity in the tropics (Pianka 1966). This intense predation could reduce the importance of competition (see competitive exclusion) and permit greater niche overlap and promote higher richness of prey. Some recent large-scale experiments suggest predation may indeed be more intense in the tropics, although this cannot be the ultimate cause of high tropical diversity because it fails to explain what gives rise to the richness of the predators in the tropics. Interestingly, the largest test of whether biotic interactions are strongest in the tropics, which focused on predation exerted by large fish predators in the world's open oceans, found predation to peak at mid-latitudes. Moreover, this test further revealed a negative association of predation intensity and species richness, thus contrasting the idea that strong predation near the equator drives or maintains high diversity. Other studies have failed to observe consistent changes in ecological interactions with latitude altogether (Lambers et al. 2002), suggesting that the intensity of species interactions is not correlated with the change in species richness with latitude. Overall, these results highlight the need for more studies on the importance of species interactions in driving global patterns of diversity. ==Synthesis and conclusions== There are many other hypotheses related to the latitudinal diversity gradient, but the above hypotheses are a good overview of the major ones still cited today. It is important to note that many of these hypotheses are similar to and dependent on one another. For example, the evolutionary hypotheses are closely dependent on the historical climate characteristics of the tropics. ===The generality of the latitudinal diversity gradient=== An extensive meta-analysis of nearly 600 latitudinal gradients from published literature tested the generality of the latitudinal diversity gradient across different organismal, habitat and regional characteristics. The results showed that the latitudinal gradient occurs in marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems, in both hemispheres. The gradient is steeper and more pronounced in richer taxa (i.e. taxa with more species), larger organisms, in marine and terrestrial versus freshwater ecosystems, and at regional versus local scales. The gradient steepness (the amount of change in species richness with latitude) is not influenced by dispersal, animal physiology (homeothermic or ectothermic) trophic level, hemisphere, or the latitudinal range of study. The study could not directly falsify or support any of the above hypotheses, however, results do suggest a combination of energy/climate and area processes likely contribute to the latitudinal species gradient. Notable exceptions to the trend include the ichneumonidae, shorebirds, penguins, and freshwater zooplankton. ===Data robustness=== One of the main assumptions about latitudinal diversity gradients and patterns in species richness is that the underlying data (i.e., the lists of species at specific locations) are complete. However, this assumption is not met in most cases. For instance, diversity patterns for blood parasites of birds suggest higher diversity in tropical regions, however, the data may be skewed by undersampling in rich faunal areas such as Southeast Asia and South America. For marine fishes, which are among the most studied taxonomic groups, current lists of species are considerably incomplete for most of the world's oceans. At a 3° (about 350 km2) spatial resolution, less than 1.8% of the world's oceans have above 80% of their fish fauna currently described. ===Conclusion=== The fundamental macroecological question that the latitudinal diversity gradient depends on is "What causes patterns in species richness?". Species richness ultimately depends on whatever proximate factors are found to affect processes of speciation, extinction, immigration, and emigration. While some ecologists continue to search for the ultimate primary mechanism that causes the latitudinal richness gradient, many ecologists suggest instead this ecological pattern is likely to be generated by several contributory mechanisms (Gaston and Blackburn 2000, Willig et al. 2003, Rahbek et al. 2007). For now, the debate over the cause of the latitudinal diversity gradient will continue until a groundbreaking study provides conclusive evidence, or there is general consensus that multiple factors contribute to the pattern. ==See also== * Asynchrony of Seasons Hypothesis * Biodiversity * Biomass (ecology) * Biomes * Effective evolutionary time * Evolution * Extinction * Latitude * Primary production * Speciation * Species richness * Tropics * Lists of organisms by population ==References== ;References ;Bibliography * * * * Brown, J. H., and M. V. Lomolino. 1998. Biogeography. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland. * * Clarke, A., and J. A. Crame. 2003. The importance of historical processes in global patterns of diversity. Pages 130-151 in T. M. Blackburn and K. J. Gaston, editors. Macroecology Concepts and Consequences. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford. * * * * * * * * * * * * Gaston, K. J., and T. M. Blackburn. 2000. Pattern and processes in macroecology. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Rosenzweig, M. L. 2003. How to reject the area hypothesis of latitudinal gradients. Pages 87–106 in T. M. Blackburn and K. J. Gaston, editors. Macroecology: Concepts and Consequences. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. * * * * * * * * Category:Biodiversity Category:Ecology |
Lists of state leaders by century: ;*List of state leaders in the 12th century ;*List of state leaders in the 13th century ;*List of state leaders in the 15th century ;*List of state leaders in the 16th century See also: ;*List of state leaders in the 14th-century Holy Roman Empire This is a list of state leaders in the 14th century (1301–1400) AD, except for the many leaders within the Holy Roman Empire. ==Africa== ===Africa: Central=== Angola *Kingdom of Kongo: Kilukeni (complete list) – :*Lukeni lua Nimi, Manikongo (1390s) Cameroon *Kingdom of Bamum (complete list) – :*Nchare Yen, Mfon (1394–1418) Chad *Kanem Empire (Kanem–Bornu)Dates calculated on the basis of Lange, Diwan, 65-77; id., Kingdoms, 552. (complete list) – :*Ibrahim I, Mai (1290–1310) :*Abdullah II, Mai (1310–1328) :*Salmama II, Mai (1328–1332) :*Kuri I, Mai (1332–1333) :*Kuri II, Mai (1334–1335) :*Muhammad I, Mai (1334–1335) :*Idris I, Mai (1335–1359) :*Dawud, Mai (1359–1369) :*Othman I, Mai (1369–1373) :*Othman II, Mai (1373–1375) :*Abu Bakr Liyatu, Mai (1375–1376) :*Omar I, Mai (1376–1381) ::To the Bornu Empire in West Africa ===Africa: East=== Great Lakes area :Uganda *Buganda (complete list) – :*Kato Kintu, Kabaka (early 14th century) :*Chwa I, Kabaka (mid-14th century) :*Kimera, Kabaka (c.1374–c.1404) Horn of Africa area :Ethiopia *Ethiopian Empire: Solomonic dynasty (complete list) – :*Wedem Arad, Emperor (1299–1314) :*Amda Seyon I, Emperor (1314–1344) :*Newaya Krestos, Emperor (1344–1372) :*Newaya Maryam, Emperor (1372–1382) :*Dawit I, Emperor (1382–1413) *Kingdom of Kaffa (complete list)C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford, Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593–1646 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1954), p. lvi. Amnon Orent, "Refocusing on the History of Kafa prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes" in African Historical Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2. (1970), p. 268. – :*Minjo, King (c.1390) :Somalia *Sultanate of Ifat: Walashma dynasty (complete list) – :*Zubēr Abūd, Sultan (13th–14th century) :*Layla Abūd, Māti (14th century) :*Haqq ad-Din I, Sultan (?–1328) :*Sabr ad-Din I, Sultan (1328–1332) :*Jamal ad-Din I, Sultan (1332–?) :*NasradDīn Naḥwi, Sultan (14th century) :*Ali ibn Sabr ad-Din, Sultan (14th century) :*Ahmad ibn Ali, Sultan (14th century) :*Haqq ad-Din II, Sultan (?–1374) :*Sa'ad ad-Din II, Sultan (1374–1403) *Warsangali Sultanate – :*Garaad Dhidhin, Sultan (1298–1311) :*Garaad Hamar Gale, Sultan (1311–1328) :*Garaad Ibrahim, Sultan (1328–1340) :*Garaad Omer, Sultan (1340–1355) :*Garaad Mohamud I, Sultan (1355–1375) :*Garaad Ciise I, Sultan (1375–1392) :*Garaad Siciid, Sultan (1392–1409) ===Africa: Northeast=== Egypt *Abbasid Caliphate, Cairo (complete list) – :*al-Hakim I, Caliph (1262–1302) :*al- Mustakfi I, Caliph (1303–1340) :*al-Wathiq I, Caliph (1340–1341) :*al-Hakim II, Caliph (1341–1352) :*al-Mu'tadid I, Caliph (1352–1362) :*al-Mutawakkil I, Caliph (1362–1377, 1377–1383, 1389–1406) :*al-Musta'sim, Caliph (1377, 1386–1389) :*al-Wathiq II, Caliph (1383–1386) *Mamluk Sultanate (complete list) – ::Bahri dynasty :*Al-Nasir Muhammad, Sultan (1299–1309) :*Baibars II, Sultan (1309–1310) :*Al-Nasir Muhammad, Sultan (1310–1341) :*Al-Mansur Abu Bakr, Sultan (1341) :*Al-Ashraf Kujuk, Sultan (1341–1342) :*An-Nasir Ahmad, Sultan (1342) :*As-Salih Ismail, Sultan (1342–1345) :*Al-Kamil Sha'ban, Sultan (1345–1346) :*Al-Muzaffar Hajji, Sultan (1346–1347) :*An-Nasir Hasan, Sultan (1347–1351) :*As-Salih Salih, Sultan (1351–1354) :*An-Nasir Hasan, Sultan (1354–1361) :*Al-Mansur Muhammad, Sultan (1361–1363) :*Al-Ashraf Sha'ban, Sultan (1363–1377) :*Al-Mansur Ali II, Sultan (1377–1381) :*As-Salih Hajji, Sultan (1381–1382) ::Burji dynasty :*Barquq, Sultan (1382–1389) :*As-Salih Hajji, Sultan (1389–1390) :*Barquq, Sultan (1390–1399) :*An-Nasir Faraj, Sultan (1399–1405) Sudan *Makuria (complete list) – :*Ayay, King (c.1304/5) :*Kernabes, King (1311–1316) :*Barschanbu, King (1316–1317) :*Kanz ed-Dawla, King (c.1317) :*Kernabes, King (1323–1324) :*Banu Kanz, King (c.1324) :*al- Amir Abi Abdallah Kanz el-Dawla, King (1333) ===Africa: Northcentral=== Tunisia *Hafsid dynasty (complete list) – :*Muhammad I, Khalif (1295–1309) :*Abu Bakr I, Khalif (1309) :*Aba al-Baqa Khalid an-Nasir, Khalif (1309–1311) :*Aba Yahya Zakariya al-Lihyani, Khalif (1311–1317) :*Muhammad II, Khalif (1317–1318) :*Abu Bakr II, Khalif (1318–1346) :*Abu Hafs Umar II, Khalif (1346–1349) :*Ahmad I, Khalif (1349) :*Ishaq II, Khalif (1350–1369) :*Abu al- Baqa Khalid, Khalif (1369–1371) :*Ahmad II, Khalif (1371–1394) :*Abd al-Aziz II, Khalif (1394–1434) ===Africa: Northwest=== Morocco *Marinid dynasty of Morocco (complete list) – :*Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr, Sultan (1286–1307) :*Abu Thabit Amir, Sultan (1307–1308) :*Abu al-Rabi Sulayman, Sultan (1308–1310) :*Abu Sa'id Uthman II, Sultan (1310–1331) :*Abu al-Hassan Ali, Sultan (1331–1351) :*Abu Inan Faris, Sultan (1348–1358) :*Muhammad ibn Faris, Sultan (1358, 1362–1366) :*Abu Bakr ibn Faris, Sultan (1358–1359) :*Ibrahim ibn Ali, Sultan (1359–1361) :*Tashfin ibn Ali, Sultan (1361–1362) :*Muhammad ibn Faris, Sultan (1358, 1362–1366) :*Abu Faris Abdul Aziz I, Sultan (1366–1372) :*Muhammad III ibn Abd al-Aziz, Sultan (1372–1374) :*Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad al- Mustansir, Sultan (1374–1384, 1387–1393) :*Musa ibn Faris al-Mutawakkil, Sultan (1384–1386) :*Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Wathiq, Sultan (1386–1387) :*Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad al-Mustansir, Sultan (1374–1384, 1387–1393) :*Abd al-Aziz II ibn Ahmad II, Sultan (1393–1396) :*Abdallah ibn Ahmad II, Sultan (1396–1398) :*Abu Said Uthman III, Sultan (1398–1420) ===Africa: South=== Angola *Kingdom of Ndongo (complete list) – :as BaKongo tributary :*a-Nzinga, Ngola (c.1358) ===Africa: West=== Benin *Kingdom of Benin (complete list) – :*Udagbedo, Oba (1292–1329) :*Ohen, Oba (1329–1366) :*Egbeka, Oba (1366–1397) :*Orobiru, Oba (1397–1434) Burkina Faso *Mossi Kingdom of Nungu (complete list) – :*Untani, Nunbado (1292–1336) :*Banydoba, Nunbado (1336–1380) :*Labi Diebo, Nunbado (1380–1395) :*Tenin, Nunbado (1395–1425) Mali *Mali Empire: Keita dynasty (complete list) – :*Gao, Mansa (1300–1305) :*Mohammed ibn Gao, Mansa (1305–1310) :*Abu Bakr II, Mansa (1310–1312) :*Musa I, Mansa (1312–1337) :*Maghan I, Mansa (1337–1341) :*Suleyman, Mansa (1341–1360) :*Kassa, Mansa (1360) :*Mari Djata II of Mali, Mansa (1360–1374) :*Musa II of Mali, Mansa (1374–1387) :*Maghan II, Mansa (1387–1389) :*Sandaki, Mansa (1389–1390) :*Maghan III, Mansa (1390–1400) :*Musa III, Mansa (1400–c.1440) Nigeria *Bornu Empire (Kanem–Bornu) (complete list) – ::From the Kanem Empire in Central Africa :*Said, Mai (1381–1382)Dates calculated on the basis of Lange, Diwan, 77-94; id., Kingdoms, 552. :*Kaday II, Mai (1382–1383) :*Bir III, Mai (1383–1415) *Oyo Empire (complete list) – :*Oranyan, Alaafin (c.1300–?) :*Ajaka, Alaafin (14th century) :*Shango, Alaafin (14th century) :*Ajaka, Alaafin (14th century) :*Aganju, Alaafin (?–c.1400) *Kingdom/Sultanate of Kano (complete list) – :*Shekarau, King (1290–1307) :*Tsamiya, King (1307–1343) :*Usmanu Zamnagawa, King (1343–1349) :*Yaji I, King/Sultan (1349–1385) :*Bugaya, Sultan (1385–1390) :*Kanejeji, Sultan (1390–1410) *Kingdom of Nri (complete list) – :*Eze Nri Jiọfọ I, King (1300–1390) :*Eze Nri Ọmalonyeso, King (1391–1464) Senegal *Jolof / Wolof Empire (complete list) – :*N'Dyadya N'Dyaye, Buur-ba (1350–1370) :*Sare N'Dyaye, Buur-ba (1370–1390) :*N'Diklam Sare, Buur-ba (1390–1420) ==Americas== ===Americas: North=== Mexico *Azcapotzalco – :*Tezozomoc I, Tlatoani (1331) :*Aculnahuacatl, Tlatoani (c.1302–c.1367) :*Tezozomoc, Tlatoani (1353/71–1426) *Cuernavaca – :*Macuilxochitl, Tlatoani (1365) :*Tezcacohuatzin / Ozomatzinteuctli, Tlatoani (1365) *Tarascan state (complete list) – :*Tariácuri, Cazonci (c.1300–c.1350) :*Hiquingaje, Cazonci (c.1350–?) *Tenochtitlan (complete list) — ::under the Tepanec suzerainty :*Acamapichtli, Tlatoani (1375–1395) :*Huitzilihuitl, Tlatoani (1395-c. 1417) *Tepanec – :*Tetzotzomoc, Tlatoani (1367–1426) *Zapotec civilization – :*Zaachila – ::*Zaachila Yoo, King (1386–1415) ===Americas: South=== Colombia *Muisca Confederation :*Zaque (complete list) – ::*Hunzahúa, Zaque (?–1470) ::*Michuá, Zaque (1470–1490) ::*Quemuenchatocha, Zaque (1490–1537) :*Zipa (complete list) – ::*Meicuchuca, Zipa (1450–1470) ::*Saguamanchica, Zipa (1470–1490) ::*Nemequene, Zipa (1490–1514) Peru *Kingdom of Cusco (complete list) – :*Mayta Cápac, Inca (c.1290–1320) :*Cápac Yupanqui, Inca (c.1320–1350) :*Roca, Inca (c.1350–1380) :*Yawar Waqaq, Inca (c.1380–1410) ==Asia== ===Asia: Central=== Kazakhstan *Chagatai Khanate (complete list) – :*Duwa, Khan (1287–1307) :*Könchek, Khan (1306–1308) :*Taliqu, Khan (1308–1309) :*Esen Buqa I, Khan (1309–c.1318) :*Kebek, Khan (1309, c.1318–1325) :*Eljigidey, Khan (1325–1329) :*Duwa Temür, Khan (1329–1330) :*Tarmashirin, Khan (1331–1334) :*Buzan, Khan (1334–1335) :*Changshi, Khan (1335–1338) :*Yesun Temur, Khan (c.1338–c.1342) :*'Ali- Sultan, Khan (1342) :*Muhammad I ibn Pulad, Khan (1342–1343) :*Qazan ibn Yasaur, Khan (1343–1346) :*Danishmendji, Khan (1346–1348) :*Tughlugh Timur, Khan of Eastern Chagatai (c.1347–1363), Khan of Western Chagatai (c.1360–1363) *Western Chagatai Khanate (complete list) – :*Bayan Qulï, Khan (1348–1358) :*Shah Temur, Khan (1358) :*Tughlugh Timur, Khan of Eastern and Western Chagatai (c.1360–1363) :*Adil-Sultan, Khan (1363) :*Khabul Shah, Khan (1364–1370) :From 1370 on, the Chagatai Khans were puppets of Timur :*Soyurghatmïsh Khan, Khan (1370–1384) :*Mahmud, Khan (1384–1402) *Moghulistan, Eastern Chagatai Khanate (complete list) – :*Tughlugh Timur, Khan (c.1347–1363) :*Ilyas Khoja, Khan (1363–1368) :*Qamar-ud-din Khan Dughlat, Khan (1368–1392) :*Khizr Khoja, Khan (1389–1399) :*Shams-i-Jahan, Khan (1399–1408) *Kara Del :*Unaširi, Khan (1380–1393) :*Engke Temür, Khan (1393–1405) Mongolia *Mongol Empire (complete list) – :*Temür, Khan / Emperor (1294–1307) Russia *Golden Horde (complete list) – :*Toqta, Khan (1291—1312) :*Uzbeg Khan, Khan (1312–1341) :*Tini Beg, Khan (1341–1342) :*Jani Beg, Khan (1342—1357) :*Berdi Beg, Khan (1357—1361) :*Qulpa, Khan (1359–1360) :*Nawruz Beg, Khan (1360–1361) :*Khidr, Khan (1361–1362) :*Timur Khwaja, Khan (1362) :*Abdallah, Khan (1362–1370) :*Murad, Khan (1362–1367) :*Aziz, Khan (1367–1369) :*Jani Beg II, Khan (1369–1370) :*Muhammad Bolak, Khan (1370–1379) :*Tulun Beg Khanum, Regent (1370–1373) :*Aig Beg, Khan (1373–1376) :*Arab Shaykh, Khan (1376–1379) :*Kagan Beg, Khan (1375–1376) :*Ilbani, Khan (1373–1376) :*Hajji Cherkes, Khan (1375–1376) :*Urus Khan, Khan (1376–1378) :*Freky Aziz Reffelruz, Khan (1378–1380) :*Tokhtamysh, Khan (1380–1395) :*Temür Qutlugh, Khan (1396–1401) :*Shadi Beg, Khan (1399–1407) *White Horde (complete list) – :*Köchü, Khan (c.1280–1302) :*Buyan (Bayan), Khan (1302–1309) :*Sasibuqa, Khan (1309–1315) :*Ilbasan, Khan (1315–1320) :*Mubarak Khwaja, Khan (1320–1344) :*Chimtay, Khan (1344–1374) :*Urus, Khan (1374–1376) :*Toqtaqiya, Khan (1376) :*Timur-Malik, Khan (1377) :*Tokhtamysh, Khan (1377–1378) :*Koiruchik, Khan (1378–1399) *Blue Horde (complete list) – :*Toqta, Khan (1291—1312) :*Öz Beg Khan, Khan (1312–1341) :*Tini Beg, Khan (1341–1342) :*Jani Beg, Khan (1342—1357) :*Berdi Beg, Khan (1357—1361) :*Qulpa, Khan (1359–1360) :*Nawruz Beg, Khan (1360–1361) :*Khidr, Khan (1361–1362) :*Timur Khwaja, Khan (1362) :*Abdallah, Khan (1362–1370) Siberia *Khanate of Sibir (complete list) – :*Khoja bin Taibugha, Khan (?) :*Tokhtamysh, Khan (1396–1406) Tibet *GugeL. Petech (1980), 'Ya-ts'e, Gu-ge, Pu-rang: A new study', The Central Asiatic Journal 24, pp. 85–111; R. Vitali (1996), The kingdoms of Gu.ge Pu.hrang. Dharamsala: Tho.ling gtsug.lag.khang. :*rNam rgyal lde, King (1396?–1424) *Phagmodrupa dynastyGiuseppe Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls. [Rome 1949; Giuseppe Tucci, Deb T'er Dmar Po Gsarma. Rome 1971; Per K. Sørensen & Guntram Hazod, Rulers on the Celestial Plain. Wien 2007; Olaf Czaja, Medieval rule in Tibet, Vol. I-II. Wien 2013. (complete list) – :*Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen, Monarch (1354–1364) :*Jamyang Shakya Gyaltsen, Monarch (1364–1373) :*Drakpa Changchub, Monarch (1374–1381) :*Sonam Drakpa, Monarch (1381–1385) :*Drakpa Gyaltsen, Monarch (1385–1432) ===Asia: East=== China: Yuan dynasty *Yuan dynasty (complete list) – :*Temür, Khan / Emperor (1294–1307) :*Külüg, Khan / Emperor (1307–1311) :*Ayurbarwada Buyantu, Khan / Emperor (1311–1320) :*Gegeen, Khan / Emperor (1320–1323) :*Yesün-Temür, Khan / Emperor (1323–1328) :*Ragibagh, Khan / Emperor (1328) :*Jayaatu Tugh Temür, Khan / Emperor (1328–1329, 1329–1332) :*Khutughtu Kusala, Khan / Emperor (1329) :*Rinchinbal, Khan / Emperor (1332) :*Toghon Temür, Khan / Emperor (1333–1368), Emperor of the Northern Yuan (1368–1370) China: Ming dynasty *Ming dynasty (complete list) – :*Hongwu, Prince (1364–1368), Emperor (1368–1398) :*Jianwen, Emperor (1398–1402) Japan: Main *Kamakura shogunate of Japan :*Emperors (complete list) – ::*Go-Fushimi, Emperor (1298–1301) ::*Go- Nijō, Emperor (1301–1308) ::*Hanazono, Emperor (1308–1318) ::*Go-Daigo, Emperor (1318–1339) :*Shōguns (complete list) – ::*Prince Hisaaki, Shōgun (1289–1308)Nussbaum, "Hisaakira Shinnō" at p. 321. ::*Prince Morikuni, Shōgun (1308–1333)Nussbaum, "Morikuni Shinnō" at p. 660. :*Regent of the shogunate (complete list) – ::*Hōjō Sadatoki, Shikken (1284–1301)Nussbaum, "Hōjō Sadatoki" at p. 340. ::*Hōjō Morotoki, Shikken (1301–1311)Nussbaum, "Hōjō Morotoki" at p. 340. ::*Hōjō Takatoki, Shikken (1316–1326)Nussbaum, "Hōjō Takatoki" at p. 340. *Kenmu Restoration (complete list) – :*Kōgon, Emperor (1331–1333) :*Kōmyō, Emperor (1336–1348) :*Sukō, Emperor (1348–1351) :*Go- Kōgon, Emperor (1352–1371) :*Go-En'yū, Emperor (1371–1382) :*Go-Komatsu, Emperor (1382–1392) *Ashikaga shogunate of Japan :*Emperors (complete list) – ::*Go-Daigo, Emperor (1318–1339) ::*Go-Murakami, Emperor (1339–1368) ::*Chōkei, Emperor (1368–1383) ::*Go-Kameyama, Emperor (1383–1392) ::*Go- Komatsu, Emperor (1392–1412) :*Shōguns – ::*Takauji, Shōgun (1338–1358) ::*Yoshiakira, Shōgun (1358–1367) ::*Yoshimitsu, Shōgun (1367–1395) ::*Yoshimochi, Shōgun (1395–1423) Japan: Ryukyu Kingdoms *Ryukyu Kingdom: Eiso Dynasty – :*Taisei, Chief (1300–1308) :*Eiji, Chief (1309–1313) :*Tamagusuku, Chief (1314–1336) :*Seii, Chief (1337–1354) *Chūzan: Ryukyu Kingdoms of the Sanzan period – :Tributary state of the Ming dynasty :*Satto, Chief (1355–1397) :*Bunei, Chief (1398–1406) *Nanzan: Ryukyu Kingdoms of the Sanzan period – :Tributary state of the Ming dynasty :*Ofusato, Chief (1337–1396) :*Oueishi, Chief (1388–1402) *Hokuzan: Ryukyu Kingdoms of the Sanzan period – :Tributary state of the Ming dynasty :*Haniji, Chief (1322–1395) :*Min, Chief (1396–1400) Korea *Goryeo (complete list) – :*Chungnyeol, King (1274–1298, 1298–1308) :*Chungseon, King (1298, 1308–1313) :*Chungsuk, King (1313–1330, 1332–1339) :*Chunghye, King (1330–1332, 1339–1344) :*Chungmok, King (1344–1348) :*Chungjeong, King (1348–1351) :*Gongmin, King (1351–1374) :*U, King (1374–1388) :*Chang, King (1388–1389) :*Gongyang, King (1389–1392) *Joseon (complete list) – :*Taejo, King (1392–1398) :*Jeongjong, King (1398–1400) :*Taejong, King (1400–1418) Mongolia *Alliance of the Four Oirat (complete list) – :*Mönkhtömör, leader (c. 1368–1390s) :*Örüg Temür Khan, leader (c. 1399) :*Batula, leader (1399–1408) *Northern Yuan dynasty (complete list) – :*Toghon Temür, Khan / Emperor (1333–1368), Emperor of the Northern Yuan (1368–1370) :*Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara, Emperor (1370–1378) :*Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür, Emperor (1378–1388) :*Jorightu Khan Yesüder, Khan (1388–c.1392) :*Engke, Khan (?–1392) :*Elbeg Nigülesügchi, Khan (1392–1399) :*Gün Temür, Khan (1400–1402) ===Asia: Southeast=== Brunei *Bruneian Empire (complete list) – :*Muhammad Shah, Sultan (1368–1402) Cambodia *Khmer Empire (complete list) – :*Indravarman III, King (1295–1307) :*Indrajayavarman, King (1307–1327) :*Jayavarman IX, King (1327–1336) :*Trosok Peam, King (1336–1340) :*Nippean Bat, King (1340–1346) :*Lompong Racha, King (1346–1351) :*Soryavong, King (1357–1363) :*Borom Reachea I, King (1363–1373) :*Thomma Saok, King (1373–1393) :*Intharacha, King (1394–c.1421) Indonesia :Indonesia: Java *Sunda Kingdom (complete list) – :*Rakeyan Saunggalah, Maharaja (1297–1303) :*Prabu Citraganda, Maharaja (1303–1311) :*Prabu Lingga Dewata, Maharaja (1311–1333) :*Prabu Ajigunawisesa, Maharaja (1333–1340) :*Prabu Maharaja Lingga Buana, Maharaja (1340–1357) :*Mangkubumi Suradipati, Maharaja (1357–1371) :*Prabu Raja Wastu, Maharaja (1371–1475) *Majapahit: Rajasa dynasty (complete list) – :*Raden Wijaya, King (1294–1309) :*Jayanagara, King (1309–1328) :*Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi, King (1328–1350) :*Hayam Wuruk, King (1350–1389), :*Wikramawardhana, King (1389–1429) :Indonesia: Sumatra *Dharmasraya/ Pagaruyung Kingdom: Mauli dynasty (complete list) – :*Akarendrawarman, King (c.1300) :*Adityawarman, King (c.1347–1375) :*Ananggawarman, King (c.1375) :*Bijayendrawarman ruler (14th century) *Samudera Pasai Sultanate (complete list) – :*Al-Malik azh-Zhahir I, Sultan (1297–1326) :*Ahmad I, Sultan (1326–1330s) :*Al-Malik azh-Zhahir II, Sultan (1330s–1349) :*Zainal Abidin I, Sultan (1349–1406) :Indonesia: Kalimantan (Borneo) *Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate – :*Aji Batara Agung Dewa Sakti, Sultan (c.1300–1325) *Negara Daha – :*Raden Sekarsungsang, ruler (c.1400–15th century) :Indonesia: Sulawesi *Gowa- Tallo – :*Tumanurung Baine, Queen (mid 14th century) :*Tumassalangga Baraya, King (late 14th century) :*I Puang Lowe Lembang, King (14th/15th century) *Bone state – :*ManurungngE Rimatajang, King (1330-?) *Luwu – :*Anakaji, Datu (1293–1330) :*Tampa Balusu, Datu (1330–1365) :*Tanra Balusu, Datu (1365–1402) :Indonesia: Lesser Sunda Islands *Bali Kingdom (complete list) – :Jaya dynasty :*Mahaguru Dharmottungga Warmadewa, King (before 1324–1328) :*Walajayakertaningrat, King (1328-?) :*Śri Astasura Ratna Bumi Banten, King (fl.1332–1337) :Samprangan :*Sri Aji Kresna Kepakisan, King (14th century) :*Dalem Samprangan, King (14th/15th century) :Indonesia: Maluku Islands *Sultanate of Tidore (complete list) – :*Sele, King (1334–1372)Katoppo, Elvianus (1957) Nuku, Sulthan Sadul Djehad Muhammad el Mabus Amirudin Sjah, Kaitjili Paparangan, Sulthan Tidore. Kilatmadju Bina Budhaja; Widjojo, Muridan (2009) The revolt of Prince Nuku: Cross-cultural alliance-making in Maluku, c. 1780–1810. Leiden: Brill. The exact genealogy of the rulers before the mid-17th century is not known by the local historical tradition; for the known details, see Clercq, F.S.A. de (1890) Bijdragen tot de kennis der Residentie Ternate. Leiden: Brill. :*Matagena, King (1372–1405) *Sultanate of Ternate (complete list) – :*Bakuku/ Kalabata, King (1298–1304) :*Ngara Malamo/ Komala, King (1304–1317) :*Patsaranga Malamo/ Aitsi, King (1317–1322) :*Cili Aiya/ Sidang Arif Malamo, King (1322–1331) :*Panji Malamo/ A'ali, King (1331–1332) :*Shah Alam, King (1332–1343) :*Tulu Malamo/ Fulu, King (1343–1347) :*Kie Mabiji/ Buhayati I, King (1347–1350) :*Ngolo-ma-Kaya/ Muhammad Shah, King (1350–1357) :*Mamoli/ Momole, King (1357–1359) :*Gapi Malamo I/ Muhammad Bakar, King (1359–1372) :*Gapi Baguna I, King (1372–1377) :*Komala Pulu/ Bessi Muhammad Hassan, King (1377–1432) Laos *Lan Xang (complete list) – :*Fa Ngum, King (1353–1373) :*Samsenethai, King (1373–1416) Malaysia: Peninsular *Old Pahang Kingdom – :*Tajau, Maharaja (c.1378) *Kedah Sultanate (complete list) – :*Mahmud Shah I, Sultan (1280–1321) :*Ibrahim Shah, Sultan (1321–1373) :*Sulaiman Shah I, Sultan (1373–1423) *Kelantan Sultanate: Jambi dynasty (complete list) – :*Sang Tawal, Raja (1267–1339) :*Mahmud ibnu 'Abdu'llah, Sultan (1339–1362) :*Baki Shah, Sultan (1362–1418) *Malacca Sultanate (complete list) – :*Parameswara, Raja of Singapura (1389–1398), Sultan of Malacca (1400–1414) Myanmar / Burma *Myinsaing Kingdom (complete list) – :*Athinkhaya, Co-Regent (1297–1310) :*Yazathingyan, Co-Regent (1297–1313) :*Thihathu, Co-Regent of Myinsaing (1297–1313), King of Myinsaing–Pinya (1313–1325) *Pinya Kingdom (complete list) – :*Thihathu, Co-Regent of Myinsaing (1297–1313), King of Myinsaing–Pinya (1313–1325) :*Uzana I, King (1325–1340) :*Sithu, Regent (1340–1344) :*Kyawswa I, King (1344–1350) :*Kyawswa II, King (1350–1359) :*Narathu, King (1359–1364) :*Uzana II, King (1364) :*Thado Minbya, King of Pinya & Sagaing (1364–1365), King of Ava (1365–1367) *Sagaing Kingdom (complete list) – :*Saw Yun, King (1315–1327) :*Tarabya I, King (1327–1335/36) :*Shwetaungtet, King (1335/36–1339) :*Kyaswa, King (1339–1349) :*Nawrahta Minye, King (1349) :*Tarabya II, King (1349–1352) :*Minbyauk Thihapate, King (1352–1364) :*Thado Minbya, King of Pinya & Sagaing (1364–1365), King of Ava (1365–1367) *Kingdom of Ava (complete list) – :*Thado Minbya, King of Pinya & Sagaing (1364–1365), King of Ava (1365–1367) :*Swa Saw Ke, King (1367–1400) :*Tarabya, King (1400) :*Minkhaung I, King (1400–1421) *Hanthawaddy Kingdom (complete list) – :*Wareru, King (1287–1307) :*Hkun Law, King (1307–1311) :*Saw O, King (1311–1323) :*Saw Zein, King (1323–1330) :*Zein Pun, King (1330) :*Saw E, King (1330) :*Binnya E Law, King (1330–1348) :*Binnya U, King (1348–1384) :*Maha Dewi, Regent (1383–1384) :*Razadarit, King (1384–1421) Philippines *Tondo (complete list) – :*Gambang, Rajah (c.1390–1417) *Madja-as (complete list) – :*Paiburong, Datu (13th/14th century) :*Balengkaka, Datu (14th century) :*Kalantiaw, Datu (1365–1437) *Rajahnate of Cebu – :*Alho, Rajah (c.14th century) :*Ukob, Rajah (c.14th century) Singapore *Kingdom of Singapura – :*Sang Nila Utama, Raja (1299–1347) :*Sri Wikrama Wira, Raja (1347–1362) :*Sri Rana Wikrama, Raja (1362–1375) :*Sri Maharaja, Raja (1375–1389) :*Parameswara, Raja of Singapura (1389–1398), Sultan of Malacca (1400–1414) Thailand *Sukhothai Kingdom (complete list) – :*Loe Thai, King (1298–1323) :*Ngua Nam Thum, King (1323–1347) :*Maha Thammaracha I, King (1347–1368) :*Maha Thammaracha II, King (1368–1399) :*Maha Thammaracha III, King (1400–1419) *Lan Na (complete list) – :*Mangrai, King of Ngoenyang (1261–1292), King of Lan Na (1292–1311) :*Chaiyasongkhram, King (1311–1325) :*Saenphu, King (1325–1334) :*Khamfu, King (1334–1336) :*Phayu, King (1336–1355) :*Kue Na, King (1355–1385)History :*Saenmueangma, King (1385–1401) *Ayutthaya Kingdom (complete list) – :Uthong dynasty :*Uthong, King (1351–1369) :*Ramesuan, King (1369–1370) :*Ramrachathirat, King (1370–1388) :Suphannaphum dynasty :*Borommarachathirat I, King (1370–1388) :*Thong Lan, King (1388) :Uthong dynasty :*Ramesuan, King (1388–1395) :*Ramrachathirat, King (1395–1409) Vietnam *Champa (complete list) – :*Chế Mân, King (1288–1307) :*Chế Chi, King (1307–1312) :*Chế Nang, Vassal King (to the Trần dynasty, 1312–1318) :*Chế Anan, King (1318–1342) :*Tra Hoa Bo Dê, King (1342–1360) :*Po Binasuor, King (1360–1390) :*Ko Cheng, King (1390–1400) :*Jaya Simhavarman V, King (1400–1441) *Đại Việt: Trần dynasty (complete list) – :*Trần Anh Tông, Emperor (1293–1314) :*Trần Minh Tông, Emperor (1314–1329) :*Trần Hiến Tông, Emperor (1329–1341) :*Trần Dụ Tông, Emperor (1341–1369) :*Hôn Đức Công, Emperor (1369–1370) :*Trần Nghệ Tông, Emperor (1370–1372) :*Trần Duệ Tông, Emperor (1372–1377) :*Trần Phế Đế, Emperor (1377–1388) :*Trần Thuận Tông, Emperor (1388–1398) :*Trần Thiếu Đế, Emperor (1398–1400) *Đại Việt: Hồ dynasty (complete list) – :*Hồ Quý Ly, Emperor (1400–1401) ===Asia: South=== Bengal and Northwest India *Bengal Sultanate: Sonargaon (complete list) – :*Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, Sultan (1338–1349) :*Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah, Sultan (1349–1352) :*Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, Sultan (1339–1342) :*Alauddin Ali Shah, Sultan (1339–1342) :*Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, Sultan (1342–1352) *Bengal Sultanate: Ilyas Shahi dynasty (complete list) – :*Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, Sultan (1352–1358) :*Sikandar Shah, Sultan (1358–1390) :*Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah, Sultan (1390–1411) *Bengal Sultanate: Balban dynasty (complete list) – :*Nasiruddin Bughra Khan, Governor (1281–1287), Sultan (1287–1291) :*Rukunuddin Kaikaus, Sultan (1291–1300) :*Shamsuddin Firoz Shah, Sultan (1300–1322) *Chutia Kingdom (complete list) – :*Vikramadhwajpal, King (1278–1302) :*Gauradhwajpal, King (1302–1322) :*Sankhadhwajpal, King (1322–1343) :*Mayuradhwajpal, King (1343–1361) :*Jayadhwajpal, King (1361–1383) :*Karmadhwajpal, King (1383–1401) *Mallabhum (complete list) – :*Prithwi Malla, King (1295–1319) :*Dinabandhu Malla, King (1334–1345) :*Shiv Singh Malla, King (1370–1407) India *Ahmadnagar Sultanate of the Deccan (complete list) – :*Ahmad Nizam Shah I, Sultan (1490–1510)Michell, George & Mark Zebrowski. Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, , p.274 *Alirajpur (complete list) – :*Anand Deo, Rana (1437–1440) :*Pratap Deo, Rana (1440–?) :*Chanchal Deo, Rana (?) *Bahmani Sultanate (complete list) – :*Ala-ud-Din Bahman Mohamed bin Laden Shah, Sultan (1347–1358) :*Muhammad Shah I, Sultan (1358–1375) :*Ala ud din Mujahid Shah, Sultan (1375–1378) :*Daud Shah I, Sultan (1378) :*Muhammad Shah II, Sultan (1378–1397) :*Ghiyas ud din Tahmatan Shah, Sultan (1397) :*Shams ud din Daud Shah II, Sultan (1397) :*Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah, Sultan (1397–1422) *Chera/Perumals of Makotai (complete list) – :*Ravi Varma, King (1299–1313) :*Vira Udaya Martanda Varma, King (1313–1333) :*Aditya Varma Tiruvadi, King (1333–1335) :*Vira Rama Udaya Martanda Varma Tiruvadi, King (1335–1342) :*Vira Kerala Varma Tiruvadi, King (1342–1363) :*Vira Martanda Varma III, King (1363–1366) :*Vira Rama Martanda Varma, King (1366–1382) :*Vira Ravi Varma, King (1383–1416) *Delhi sultanate: Tughlaq dynasty (complete list) – :*Ghiyasu-Din Tughluq I, Sultan (1321–1325) :*Muhammad Shah Tughuluq I, Sultan (1325–1351) :*Firuz Shah Tughluq, Sultan (1351–1388) :*Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II, Sultan (1388–1389) :*Abu Bakr Shah, Sultan (1389–1390) :*Muhammad Shah Tughluq III, Sultan (1390–1394) :*Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah Tughluq, Sultan (1394) :*Muhammad Shah Tughuluq IV, Sultan (1394–1413) *Farooqui dynasty (complete list) – :*Nasir Khan, Sultan (1399–1437) *Eastern Ganga dynasty (complete list) – :*Narasimha Deva II, King (1279–1306) :*Bhanu Deva II, King (1306–1328) :*Narasimha Deva III, King (1328–1352) :*Bhanu Deva III, King (1352–1378) :*Narasimha Deva IV, King (1379–1424) *Gujarat Sultanate (complete list) – :*Muzaffar Shah I, Sultan (1391–1403, 1404–1411) *Hoysala Empire (complete list) – :*Veera Ballala III, King (1292–1343) *Jaunpur Sultanate (complete list) – :*Malik Sarwar, Sultan (1394–1399) :*Malik Qaranfal, Sultan (1399–1402) *Jawhar (complete list) – :*Jaydeorao Mukne, Raja (?–1400) :*Nemshah I, Raja (1400–1422) *Kakatiya dynasty (complete list) – :*Prataparudra-deva, King (c.1289–1323) *Madurai Sultanate (complete list) – :*Ahsan Khan, Sultan (1335–1339) :*Udauji, Sultan (1339) :*Feroze Khan, Sultan (1339–1340) :*Muhammad Damghani, Sultan (1340–1344) :*Mahmud Damghani, Sultan (1344–1345) :*Adil Khan, Sultan (1356–1358) :*Mubarak Khan, Sultan (1358–1368) :*Sikandar Khan, Sultan (1368–1378) *Musunuri Nayakas (complete list) – :*Musunuri Prolaya Nayudu, King (1323–1333) :*Musunuri Kapaya Nayak, King (1333–1368) *Pandyan dynasty (complete list) – :*Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, King (1268–1308) :*Sundara Pandyan IV, King (1309–1327) :*Vira Pandyan IV, King (1309–1345) *Paramara dynasty of Malwa (complete list) – :*Mahlakadeva, King (?–1305) *Rajpipla (complete list) – :*Arjunsinhji, Maharana (c.1340–?) :*Bhansinhji, Maharana (14th–15th century) *Reddi Kingdom (complete list) – :*Prolaya Vema Reddi, King (1325–1353) :*Anavota Reddi, King (1353–1364) :*Anavema Reddi, King (1364–1386) :*Kumaragiri Reddi, King (1386–1402) :*Kataya Vema Reddi, King (1395–1414) *Seuna (Yadava) dynasty (complete list) – :*Ramachandra, King (c.1271–1308) *Sisodia (complete list) – :*Samar Singh, Rajput (1273–1301) :*Ratan Singh, Rajput (1301–1303) :*Hammir Singh, Rajput (1326–1364) :*Kshetra Singh, Rajput (1364–1382) :*Lakha Singh, Rajput (1382–1421) *Udaipur (complete list) – :*Hammir Singh, Maharana (1326–1364) :*Kheta, Maharana (1364–1382) :*Lakha, Maharana (1382–1421) *Vijayanagara Empire: Sangama dynasty (complete list) – :*Harihara I, King (1336–1356) :*Bukka Raya I, King (1356–1377) :*Harihara Raya II, King (1377–1404) Maldives *Sultanate of the Maldives (complete list) – :Theemuge dynasty :*Davud, Sultan (1302–1307) :*Omar I, Sultan (1307–1341) :*Ahmed Shihabuddine, Sultan (1341–1347) :*Khadijah, Sultana (1347–1363) :*Mohamed el-Jameel, Sultan (1363–1364) :*Khadijah, Sultana (1364–1374) :*Abdullah I, Sultan (1374–1376) :*Khadijah, Sultana (1376–1380) :*Raadhafathi, Sultana (1380) :*Mohamed I, Sultan (1380–1385) :*Dhaain, Sultana (1385–1388) :*Abdullah II, Sultan (1388) :*Osman I, Sultan (1388) :Hilaalee dynasty :*Hassan I, Sultan (1388–1398) :*Ibrahim I, Sultan (1398) :*Hussain I, Sultan (1398–1409) Nepal *Khasa kingdom :*Ri'u sMal (Ripumalla), King (fl.1312–1314) :*San gha sMal (Sangramamalla), King (early 14th century) :*Ajitamalla, King (1321–1328) :*Kalyanamalla, King (14th century) :*Pratapamalla, King (14th century) :*Pu ni sMal (Punyamalla), King (fl.1336–1339) :*sPri ti sMal (Prthivimalla), King (fl.1354–1358) *Malla (complete list) – :*Ananta Malla, Raja (c.1274–1310) :*Jayananada Deva, Raja (c.1310–1320) :*Jayari Malla, Raja (c.1320–1344) :*Jayarudra Malla, Raja (c.1320–1326) :*Jayaraja Deva, Raja (c.1347–1361) :*Jayarjuna Malla, Raja (c.1361–1382) :*Jayasthiti Malla, Raja (c.1382–1395) :*Jayajyotir Malla, Raja (c.1395–1428) :*Jayakiti Malla, Raja (c.1395–1403) :*Jayadharma Malla, Raja (c.1395–1408) Pakistan *Samma dynasty (complete list) – :*Unar, Jam (1336–1339) :*Junan, Jam (1339–1352) :*Banhabina, Jam (1352–1367) :*Tamachi, Jam (1367–1379) :*Salahuddin, Jam (1379–1389) :*Nizamuddin I, Jam (1389–1391) :*Ali Sher, Jam (1391–1398) :*Karn, Jam (1398) :*Fath Khan, Jam (1398–1414) Sri Lanka *Kingdom of Dambadeniya (complete list) – :*Parakkamabahu III, King (1302–1310) :*Bhuvanaikabahu II, King (1310–1325/6) :*Parakkamabahu IV, King (1325/6–1325/6) :*Bhuvanaikabahu III, King (1325/6–1325/6) :*Vijayabahu V, King (1325/6–1344/5) *Kingdom of Gampola (complete list) – :*Bhuvanaikabahu IV, King (1344/5–1353/4) :*Parakkamabahu V, King (1344/5–1359) :*Vikramabahu III, King (1357–1374) :*Bhuvanaikabahu V, King (1372/3–1391/2) :*Vira Bahu II, King (1391/2–1397) :*unnamed son of Vira Bahu II, King (1397) :*unnamed son of Vira Bahu II, King (1397) :*Vira Alakesvara, King (1397–1409) *Jaffna Kingdom (complete list) – :*Vickrama Cinkaiariyan, King (1292–1302) :*Varodaya Cinkaiariyan, King (1302–1325) :*Martanda Cinkaiariyan, King (1325–1347) :*Gunabhooshana Cinkaiariyan, King (1347–1371) :*Virodaya Cinkaiariyan, King (1371–1380) :*Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan, King (1380–1410) ===Asia: West=== Turkey *Ottoman Empire (complete list) – :*Osman I, Sultan (c.1299–1326) :*Orhan, Sultan (1323/4–1362) :*Murad I, Sultan (1362–1389) :*Bayezid I, Sultan (1389–1402) Yemen *Kathiri State of Seiyun – :*Badr as-Sahab ibn al-Habrali Bu Tuwairik, Sultan (1395–1430) *Yemeni Zaidi State (complete list) – :*al-Mahdi Muhammad bin al-Mutahhar, Imam (1301–1328) :*al-Mu'ayyad Yahya, Imam (1328–1346) :*an- Nasir Ali bin Salah, Imam (1328–1329) :*Ahmad bin Ali al-Fathi, Imam (1329–1349) :*al-Wathiq al-Mutahhar, Imam (1349) :*al-Mahdi Ali bin Muhammad, Imam (1349–1372) :*al-Nasir Muhammad Salah al-Din, Imam (1372–1391) :*al- Mansur Ali bin Salah ad-Din, Imam (1391–1436) :*al-Hadi Ali, Imam (1393–1432) ==Europe== ===Europe: Balkans=== Achaea *Principality of Achaea (complete list) – :*Isabella, Princess (1289–1307) :*Philip I, Prince (1301–1307) :*Philip II, Prince (1307–1313) :*Matilda, Princess (1313–1322) and Louis I, Prince (1313–1316) :*John, Prince (1322–1332) :*Robert, Prince (1332–1364) :*Philip III, Prince (1364–1373) :*Joan I, Princess (1373–1381) :*James, Prince (1380–1383) :*Charles III, Prince (1383–1386) :*Pedro de San Superano, Prince (1396–1402) Archipelago *Duchy of the Archipelago (complete list) – :*Marco II, Duke (1262–1303) :*Guglielmo I, Duke (1303–1323) :*Niccolò I, Duke (1323–1341) :*Giovanni I, Duke (1341–1362) :*Florence Sanudo, Duchess (1362–1371) :*Nicholas II, Duke (1364–1371) :*Nicholas III dalle Carceri, Duke (1371–1383) :*Francesco I, Duke (1383–1397) :*Giacomo I, Duke (1397–1418) Bulgaria *Second Bulgarian Empire (complete list) – :*Theodore Svetoslav, Emperor (1300–1322) :*George Terter II, Emperor (1322–1323) :*Michael Shishman, Emperor (1323–1330) :*Ivan Stephen, Emperor (1330–1331) :*Ivan Alexander, Emperor (1331–1371) :*Ivan Sratsimir, co-Emperor (1356–1396) :*Ivan Shishman, co-Emperor (1371–1395) Byzantium *Byzantine Empire (complete list) – :*Michael IX Palaiologos, co-Emperor (1294–1320) :*Andronikos III Palaiologos, Emperor (1321–1341) :*John V Palaiologos, Emperor (1341–1376, 1379–1390, 1390–1391) :*John VI Kantakouzenos, co-Emperor (1347–1353) :*Matthew Kantakouzenos, co-Emperor (1353–1357) :*Andronikos IV Palaiologos, Emperor (1376–1379) :*John VII Palaiologos, Emperor (1390) :*Manuel II Palaiologos, Emperor (1391–1425) Croatia *Republic of Ragusa (complete list) – :*Nicola Sorgo, Rector (1358–?) :*Marco Bobali three time Rector, Rector (1370–1390) Morea *Despotate of the Morea (complete list) – :*Manuel Kantakouzenos, Despot (1349–1380) :*Matthew Kantakouzenos, Despot (1380–1383) :*Demetrios I Kantakouzenos, Despot (1383) :*Theodore I Palaiologos, Despot (1383–1407) Serbia *Kingdom of Serbia / Serbian Empire (complete list) – :*Stefan Milutin, King (1282–1321) :*Stefan Konstantin, King (1321–1322) :*Stefan Dečanski, King (1322–1331) :*Stefan Dušan, King (1331–1346), Emperor (1346–1355) :*Stefan Uroš V King (1346–1355), Emperor (1355–1371) :*Vukašin King (1365–1371) *Kingdom of Syrmia (complete list) – :*Stefan Dragutin, King of Serbia (1276–1282), King of Syrmia (1282–1316) :*Vladislav, King (1316–1325) *Moravian Serbia (complete list) – :*Lazar, Prince (1374–1379) :*Stefan Lazarević, Prince (1389–1402), Despot (1402–1427) Rhodes *Hospitaller Rhodes: Knights Hospitaller (complete list) – :*Foulques de Villaret, Grand Master (1305–1319) :*Maurice de Pagnac, unrecognized Grand Master (1317–1319) :*Hélion de Villeneuve, Grand Master (1319–1346) :*Dieudonné de Gozon, Grand Master (1346–1353) :*Pierre de Corneillan, Grand Master (1353–1355) :*Roger de Pins, Grand Master (1355–1365) :*Raymond Berengar, Grand Master (1365–1374) :*Robert de Juilly, Grand Master (1374–1376) :*Juan Fernández de Heredia, Grand Master (1376–1396) :*Riccardo Caracciolo, Grand Master (1383–1395) :*Philibert de Naillac, Grand Master (1396–1421) ===Europe: British Isles=== Scotland *Kingdom of Scotland (complete list) – :*Robert I, King (1306–1329) :*David II, King (1329–1371) :*Robert II, King (1371–1390) :*Robert III, King (1390–1406) England and Ireland *Kingdom of England and Lordship of Ireland (complete list) – :*Edward I, King and Lord (1272–1307) :*Edward II, King and Lord (1307–1327) :*Edward III, King and Lord (1327–1377) :*Richard II, King and Lord (1377–1399) :*Henry IV, King and Lord (1399–1413) Ireland *Airgíalla (complete list) – :*Brian mac Eochada, King (1283–1311) :*Ralph/Roolb mac Eochada, King (1311–1314) :*Mael Sechlainn mac Eochada, King (1314–?) :*Murchad Mór mac Briain, King (?–1331) :*Seoan mac Maoilsheachlainn, King (1331–1342) :*Aodh mac Roolb, King (1342–1344) :*Murchadh Óg mac Murchada, King (1344–1344) :*Maghnus mac Eochadha, King (1344–1357) :*Pilib mac Rooilbh, King (1357–1362) :*Brian Mór mac Aodh, King (1362–1365) :*Niall mac Murchadha, King (1365–1368) :*Brian Mór mac Aodh, King (1368–1371) :*Pilib Ruadh mac Briain, King (1371–1403) *East Breifne (complete list) – :*Gilla-Isa Ruaid O'Raigillig, ruler (1327/30) :*Matha son of Gilla-Isa O'Raigillig, ruler (1304) :*Mael Sechlainn O'Raigillig, ruler (1328) :*Richard [Risderd] O'Reilly, ruler (1349–1346/49) :*Cu Chonnacht O'Reilly, ruler (1362/65) :*Philip O'Reilly, ruler (1365–1366/69) :*Magnus O'Reilly, ruler (1366/69–1366/69) :*Philip O'Reilly, ruler (1366/69–1384) :*Thomas, King (1384–1390) :*John, ruler (1390–1400) :*Gilla-Isa, ruler (1400) *West Breifne (complete list) – :*Amlaib Ó Ruairc, King (c.1275–1307) :*Domnall Carrach Ó Ruairc, King (1307–1311) :*Ualgarg Mór Ó Ruairc, King (1316–1346) :*Flaithbheartach Ó Ruairc, King (1346–1349) :*Aodh Bán Ó Ruairc, King (1349–1352) :*Flaithbheartach Ó Ruairc, King (1352–1352) :*Tadgh na gcoar O'Rourke, King (1352–1376) :*Gilla Crist Ó Ruairc, Lord (?–1378) :*Tigernán mór Ó Ruairc, King (1376–1418) *Connachta (complete list) – :*Aedh Ó Conchobair, King (1293–1309) *Leinster (complete list) – :*Muiris mac Muirchertach mac Murchada Caomhánach, King (1282–1314) :*Art mac Murchada Caomhánach, King (1314–1323) :*Domhnall mac Art mac Murchada Caomhánach, King (1323–1338) :*Domhnall mac Domhnall mac Murchada Caomhánach, King (1338–1347) :*Muirchertach mac Muiris mac Murchada Caomhánach, King (1347–1354) :*Art Mór mac Murchada Caomhánach, King (1354–1362) :*Diarmait mac Murchada Caomhánach, King (1362–1369) :*Donnchadh mac Muirchertach mac Murchada Caomhánach, King (1369–1375) :*Art Mór mac Murchadha Caomhánach, King (1369–1375) :*Art Óg mac Murchadha Caomhánach, King (1375–1417) *Magh Luirg (complete list) – :*Maelruanaidh mac Diarmata, King (1294–1331) :*Tomaltach gCear mac Diarmata, King (1331–1336) :*Conchobhair mac Diarmata, King (1336–1343) :*Ferghal mac Diarmata, King (1343–1368) :*Aedh mac Diarmata, King (1368–1393) :*Maelruanaidh mac Diarmata, King (1393–1398) :*Conchobair Óg mac Diarmata, King (1398–1404) *Síol Anmchadha (complete list) – :*Murchadh Ó Madadhan, Lord (1286–1327) :*Eoghan Ó Madadhan, Lord (1327–1347) :*Murchadh Ó Madadhain, Lord (1347–1371) :*Eoghan Mór Ó Madadhan, Lord (1371–1410) ===Europe: Central=== :See also List of state leaders in the 14th-century Holy Roman Empire *Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of Germany (complete list, complete list) – :*Albert I, King (1298–1308) :*Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor (1312–1313), King (1308–1313) :*Frederick the Fair, King (1314–1330) :*Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor (1328–1347), King (1314–1347) :*Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (1355–1378), King (1346–1378) :*Wenceslaus, King (1376–1400) :*Rupert, King (1400–1410) Hungary *Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526) (complete list) – :*Andrew III, King (1290–1301) :*Wenceslaus, King (1301–1305) :*Otto, King (1305–1307) :*Charles I, King (1308–1342) :*Louis I, King (1342–1382) :*Mary I, Queen (1382–1385, 1386–1395) :*Charles II, King (1385–1386) :*Sigismund, King (1387–1437) Poland *Kingdom of Poland (complete list) – :*Przemysł II, High Duke (1290–1291), King (1295–1296) :*Wenceslaus II, High Duke (1291–1300), King (1300–1305) :*Wenceslaus III, King (1305–1306) :*Władysław I the Elbow-high, King (1320–1333) :*Casimir III the Great, King (1333–1370) :*Louis I the Hungarian, King (1370–1382) :*Jadwiga, Queen (1384–1399) :*Władysław II Jagiełło, King (1386–1434) *Duchy of Opole (complete list) – :*Bolko I, Duke (1281–1313) :*Albert, co-Duke (1313–1323) :*Bolko II, Duke (1313–1356) :*Henry, co-Duke (1356–1365) :*Bolko III co-Duke (1356–1370) :*Władysław II, Duke (1356–1401) :*Bernard, co-Duke (1396–1400) :*Bolko IV, Duke (1396–1437) *Duchy of Masovia (complete list) – :*Bolesław II, Duke of Płock (1275–1294), Duke of Masovia (1294–1313) :*Siemowit III, co-Duke of Warsaw (1341–1349), of Rawa (1345–1349), Duke of Warsaw (1349–1355), of Masovia (1355–1381) *Duchy of Masovia: Warsaw (complete list) – :*Trojden I, Duke of Czersk (1310–1313), Duke of Warsaw (1313–1341) :*Casimir I, co-Duke of Warsaw (1341–1349), co-Duke of Rawa (1345–1349), Duke of Rawa (1349–1355) :*Siemowit III, co-Duke of Warsaw (1341–1349), of Rawa (1345–1349), Duke of Warsaw (1349–1355), of Masovia (1355–1381) :*Janusz I the Elder, Duke (1381–1429) *Duchy of Masovia: Płock (complete list) – :*Wenceslaus I, Duke (1313–1336) :*Siemowit II, Regent (1336–1340) :*Trojden I, Regent (1336–1340) :*Bolesław III, Duke (1336–1351) :*Siemowit IV the Younger, Duke of Płock and Rawa (1381–1426) *Duchy of Masovia: Rawa (complete list) – :*Siemowit II, Duke of Rawa (1313–1345) :*Casimir I, co-Duke of Warsaw (1341–1349), co-Duke of Rawa (1345–1349), Duke of Rawa (1349–1355) :*Siemowit III, co-Duke of Warsaw (1341–1349), co-Duke of Rawa (1345–1349), Duke of Warsaw (1349–1355), Duke of Masovia (1355–1381) :*Siemowit IV the Younger, Duke of Płock and Rawa (1381–1426) *State of the Teutonic Order (complete list) – :*Gottfried von Hohenlohe, Grand Master (1297–1303) :*Siegfried von Feuchtwangen, Grand Master (1303–1311) :*Karl von Trier, Grand Master (1311–1324) :*Werner von Orseln, Grand Master (1324–1330) :*Luther von Braunschweig (Lothar), Grand Master (1331–1335) :*Dietrich von Altenburg, Grand Master (1335–1341) :*Ludolf König von Wattzau, Grand Master (1342–1345) :*Heinrich Dusemer, Grand Master (1345–1351)Andrzej Nowakowski (1994). Arms and armour in the medieval Teutonic Order's state in Prussia. Volume 2 of Studies on the history of ancient and medieval art of warfare. Łódź: Oficyna Naukowa MS. . p. 33.Hans Koeppen (1969). Heinrich Dusemer (in German). Neue Deutsche Biographie, volume 8. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. . p. 378. :*Winrich von Kniprode, Grand Master (1351–1382) :*Konrad Zöllner von Rotenstein, Grand Master (1382–1390) :*Konrad von Wallenrode, Grand Master (1391–1393) :*Konrad von Jungingen, Grand Master (1393–1407) ===Europe: East=== *Blue Horde (complete list) – :*Köchü, Khan (1280–1302) :*Buyan, Khan (1302–1309) :*Sasibuqa, Khan (1309/1310–1315) :*Ilbasan, Khan (1310/15–1320) :*Mubarak Khwaja, Khan (1320–1344) :*Chimtay, Khan (1344–1360) :*Urus, Khan (1372–1374) :*Toqtaqiya, Khan (1377) :*Timur-Malik, Khan (1377–1378) *Moldavia (complete list) – :*Dragoș, Voivode (c.1347–c.1354) :*Sas, Voivode (c.1354–c.1363) :*Balc of Moldavia, Voivode (1359/64) :*Bogdan I the Founder, Voivode (c.1359–1367) :*Petru I, Voivode (1367–1368) :*Lațcu, Voivode (1368–1375) :*Petru II Mușat, Voivode (1375–1391) :*Roman I, Voivode (1391–1394) :*Ștefan I, Voivode (1394–1399) :*Iuga, Voivode (1399–1400) :*Alexandru I the Good, Voivode (1400–1432) *Grand Duchy of Moscow (complete list) – :*Daniel of Moscow, Grand prince (1283–1303) :*Yury, Grand prince (1303–1325) :*Ivan I, Grand prince (1332–1340) :*Simeon the Proud, Grand prince (1340–1353) :*Ivan II, Grand prince (1353–1359) :*Dmitry Donskoy, Grand prince (1359–1389) :*Vasily I, Grand prince (1389–1425) *Vladimir-Suzdal (complete list) – :*Andrey III, Grand Duke (1281–1283, 1293–1304) :*Michael of Tver, Grand Duke (1304–1318) :*Yuri (III) of Moscow, Grand Duke (1318–1322) :*Dmitry I, Grand Duke (1322–1326) :*Alexander of Tver, Grand Duke (1326–1327) :*Alexander III, Grand Duke (1328–1331) :*Ivan I of Moscow, Grand Duke (1332–1340) *Principality of Wallachia (complete list) – :*Radu Negru, Prince (c.1290–1310) :*Basarab I the Founder, Prince (c.1310–1352) :*Nicolae Alexandru, Prince (1352–1364) :*Vladislav I, Prince (c.1364–1377) :*Radu I, Prince (c.1377–1383) :*Dan I, Prince (c.1383–1386) :*Mircea I the Elder, Prince (1386–1394, 1397–1418) :*Vlad I the Usurper, Prince (1394–1397) ===Europe: Nordic=== Denmark *Denmark (complete list) – :*Eric VI, King (1286–1319) :*Christopher II, King (?) / Eric Christoffersen, King (?) :*Valdemar III, King (?) :*Valdemar IV, King (?) :Personal union of Denmark and Norway :*Olaf II of Denmark, Olaf IV of Norway, King (1380–1387) *Duchy of Schleswig (complete list) – :*Valdemar IV, Duke of Schleswig, Duke (1283–1312) :*Eric II, Duke of Schleswig, Duke (1312–1325) :*Valdemar III of Denmark, Duke (1325–1326, 1330–1364) :*Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg, Duke (1326–1330) :*Henry, Duke of Schleswig, Duke (1364–1375) :*Henry II, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg, Duke (1375–1381/1384) :*Nicholas, Count of Holstein- Rendsburg, Duke (1375–1386) :*Gerhard VI, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg, Duke (1386–1404) Norway *Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) (complete list) – :*Haakon V, King (1299–1319) :*Magnus IV of Sweden, Magnus VII of Norway, King (1319–1343) :*Haakon VI, King (1343–1380) :Personal union of Denmark and Norway :*Olaf II of Denmark, Olaf IV of Norway, King (1380–1387) Sweden *Sweden (800–1521) (complete list) – :*Birger, King (1290–1318) :*Ingeborg of Norway, Regent (1318–1319) :*Magnus IV, King (1318–1364) :*Eric XII, King (1356–1359) :*Haakon, King (1362–1364) :*Albert, King (1364–1389) Kalmar Union *Kalmar Union of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway (complete list, complete list, complete list) – :*Margaret I, Queen Regent of Denmark (1387–1412), of Norway (1388–1412), of Sweden (1389–1412) :*Eric of Pomerania, King (1389–1442) ===Europe: Southcentral=== :See also List of state leaders in the 14th-century Holy Roman Empire#Italy *Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire) (complete list) – :*Henry VII, King (1311–1313) :*Louis IV, King (1327–1347) :*Charles IV, King (1355–1378) *Margraviate of Modena, Reggio, and Ferrara (complete list) – :*Azzo VIII, Marquis of Reggio (1293–1306), of Ferrara (1293–1308) :*Aldobrandino II, Marquis of Modena (1293–1308), of Ferrara (1308–1326) :*Fresco, Marquis of Ferrara (1308) :*Rinaldo, Marquis of Ferrara (1317–1335) :*Niccolò I, Marquis of Ferrara (1317–1344), of Modena (1336–1344) :*Obizzo III, Marquis of Ferrara (1317–1352), of Modena (1336–1352) :*Azzo IX, Marquis of Ferrara (1317–1318) :*Bertoldo I, Marquis of Ferrara (1317–1343) :*Aldobrandino III, Marquis of Ferrara (1352–1361) :*Niccolò II the Lame, Marquis of Modena (1352–1388), of Ferrara (1361–1388) :*Alberto V, Marquis of Ferrara (1361–1393), of Modena (1388–1393) :*Niccolò III, Marquis of Ferrara and Modena (1393–1441), of Reggio (1405–1441) *March of Montferrat (complete list) – :*John I, Marquis (1292–1305) :*Theodore I, Marquis (1306–1338) :*John II, Marquis (1338–1372) :*Secondotto (Otto III), Marquis (1372–1378) :*John III, Marquis (1378–1381) :*Theodore II,Secondotto, John III and Theodore, who were the sons of Elisabeth, daughter of James III of Majorca, and of John II of Montferrat, have been called dukes. Historiae et Urbium Regionum Italiae rariores, Volume 114, Cronica del Montferrato, Benvenuto Sangiorgio, Arnaldo Forni Editore 1780. Marquis (1381–1418) *Papal States (complete list) – :*Boniface VIII, Pope (1294–1303) :*Benedict XI, Pope (1303–1304) :*Clement V, Pope (1305–1314) :*John XXII, Pope (1316–1334) :*Benedict XII, Pope (1334–1342) :*Clement VI, Pope (1342–1352) :*Innocent VI, Pope (1352–1362) :*Urban V, Pope (1362–1370) :*Gregory XI, Pope (1370–1378) :*Urban VI, Pope (1378–1389) :*Boniface IX, Pope (1389–1404) ::From 1309 to 1376 the Papacy was based at Avignon, not Rome. *San Marino :*Captains Regent (1243–1500) – ::*Giovanni di Causetta Giannini, Captain Regent (1302) ::*Arimino Baracone, Simone da Sterpeto, Captains Regent (1303) ::*Venturuccio di Giannuccio, Captain Regent (1321) ::*Giovanni di Causetta Giannini, Ugolino Fornaro, Captains Regent (1323) ::*Ser Bonanni Notaio, Mule Acatolli di Piandavello, Captains Regent (1325) ::*Ugucciolo da Valdragone, Captain Regent (1331) ::*Venturuzzo di Franceschino, Muzolo da Bauti, Captains Regent (1336) ::*Bentivegna da Valle, Foschino di Novello, Captains Regent (1337–1338) ::*Denaro Madroni, Fosco Raffanelli, Captains Regent (1338–1339) ::*Ricevuto, Gioagnolo di Acaptolo, Captains Regent (1339) ::*Bentivegna, Zanutino, Captains Regent (1341) ::*Ricevuto di Ughetto, Foschino di Filipuccio, Captains Regent (1342–1343) ::*Franzolino di Chillo, Cecco di Chillo, Captains Regent (1343) ::*Foschino Calcigni, Captain Regent (1347) ::*Francesco Pistorj, Ciapetta di Novello, Captains Regent (1351) ::*Giovanni di Guiduccio, Nino di Simonino, Captains Regent (1353) ::*Gioagnolo di Acaptolo, Paolo di Ceccolo, Captains Regent (1356) ::*Giovanni di Guiduccio, Foschino Calcigni, Captains Regent (1357) ::*Giovanni di Bianco, Captain Regent (1357) ::*Giovanni di Guiduccio, Corbello di Vita, Captains Regent (1359–1360) ::*Ciapetta di Novello, Nino di Simonino, Captains Regent (1360) ::*Foschino Calcigni, Giovanni di Bianco, Captains Regent (1360) ::*Guidino di Giovanni, Giovanni di Guiduccio, Captains Regent (1362–1363) ::*Giovanni di Bianco, Nino di Simonino, Captains Regent (1363) ::*Guidino di Giovanni, Cecco di Chillo, Captains Regent (1364) ::*Foschino Calcigni, Corbello Giannini, Captains Regent (1364) ::*Gioagnolo di Acaptolo, Ugolino di Giovanni Vanioli, Captains Regent (1365–1366) ::*Nicolino di Ariminuccio, Vanne di Nomaiolo, Captains Regent (1366) ::*Bartolino di Giovanni di Bianco, Nino di Simonino, Captains Regent (1366–1367) ::*Guidino di Giovanni, Paolo di Ceccolo, Captains Regent (1367) ::*Gioagnolo di Ugolinuccio, Ghino Fabbro, Captains Regent (1367–1368) ::*Muciolino di Ciolo, Giovanni di Riguccio, Captains Regent (1368) ::*Orbello di Vita Giannini, Ugolino di Giovanni Vanioli, Captains Regent (1368–1369) ::*Mignone Bauto, Lunardino di Bernardo Fabbro, Captains Regent (1369) ::*Gioagnolo di Ugolinuccio, Giovanni di Riguccio, Captains Regent (1369–1370) ::*Ciappetta di Novello, Ugolino di Giovanni, Captains Regent (1370) ::*Guidino di Giovanni, Paolo di Ceccolo, Captains Regent (1370–1371) ::*Nino di Simonino, Maxio di Tonso Alberghetti, Captains Regent (1371) ::*Mucciolino di Ciolo, Bartolino di Giovanni di Bianco, Captains Regent (1371–1372) ::*Corbello di Vita Giannini, Mignone Bauto, Captains Regent (1372) ::*Giovanni di Riguccio, Martino di Guerolo Pistorj, Captains Regent (1372–1373) ::*Ugolino di Giovanni, Lunardino di Bernardo, Captains Regent (1373) ::*Paolo di Ceccolo, Antonio di Mula, Captains Regent (1373–1374) ::*Andrea di Nanne, Guidino di Giovanni, Captains Regent (1374) ::*Giovanni di Riguccio, Gozio di Mucciolino, Captains Regent (1374–1375) ::*Ugolino di Giovanni, Paolino di Giovanni di Bianco, Captains Regent (1375) ::*Lunardino di Bernardo, Simone di Belluzzo, Captains Regent (1378) ::*Gozio di Mucciolino, Ondedeo di Tonso, Captains Regent (1378–1379) ::*Paolo di Ceccolo, Bartolino di Antonio, Captains Regent (1380–1381) ::*Lunardino di Bernardo, Samperino di Giovanni, Captains Regent (1381) ::*Maxio di Tonso, Niccolò di Giove, Captains Regent (1381–1382) ::*Ugolino di Giovanni, Giovanni di Andrea, Captains Regent (1382) ::*Giangio di Ceccolo, Bernardo di Guerolo, Captains Regent (1382–1383) ::*Paolino di Giovanni di Bianco, Guidino di Foschino, Captains Regent (1383) ::*Lunardino di Bernardo, Giannino di Cavalluccio, Captains Regent (1383–1384) ::*Samperino di Giovanni, Martino di Guerolo de' Pistorj, Captains Regent (1384) ::*Paolo di Ceccolo, Benetino di Fosco, Captains Regent (1384–1385) ::*Giovanni di Francesco, Gozio di Mucciolino, Captains Regent (1386) ::*Gozio di Mucciolino, Bartolino di Antonio, Captains Regent (1390–1391) ::*Giovanni di Francesco, Menguccio di Simonino, Captains Regent (1391) ::*Maxio di Tonso, Lunardino di Bernardo, Captains Regent (1391–1392) ::*Paolo di Ceccolo, Simone di Belluzzo, Captains Regent (1392) ::*Samperino di Giovanni, Giannino di Cavalluccio, Captains Regent (1392–1393) ::*Gozio di Mucciolino, Antonio Tegna, Captains Regent (1393) ::*Bartolino di Antonio, Nicolò di Giove, Captains Regent (1393–1394) ::*Lunardino di Bernardo, Martino di Guerolo de' Pistorj, Captains Regent (1394) ::*Ugolino di Giovanni, Cecco di Alessandro, Captains Regent (1394–1395) ::*Vita di Corbello, Giovanni di Andrea, Captains Regent (1395) ::*Simone di Belluzzo, Rigone di Giovanni, Captains Regent (1395–1396) ::*Samperino di Giovanni, Giovanni di Francesco, Captains Regent (1396) ::*Paolino di Giovanni di Bianco, Giovanni di Pasino, Captains Regent (1396–1397) ::*Bartolino di Antonio, Giacomino di Paolo, Captains Regent (1397) ::*Nicolò di Giove, Marino di Ghino Fabbro, Captains Regent (1397–1398) ::*Marino di Fosco, Giovanni di Andrea, Captains Regent (1398) ::*Gozio di Mucciolino, Rigone di Giovanni, Captains Regent (1398–1399) ::*Giovanni di Guidino, Simone di Belluzzo, Captains Regent (1399) ::*Martino di Guerolo de' Pistorj, Antonio di Tegna, Captains Regent (1399–1400) ::*Paolino di Giovanni di Bianco, Francesco di Corbello, Captains Regent (1400) ::*Ugolino di Giovanni, Betto di Guerolo, Captains Regent (1400–1401) *Republic of Venice (complete list) – :*Pietro Gradenigo, Doge (1289–1311) :*Marino Zorzi, Doge (1311–1312) :*Giovanni Soranzo, Doge (1312–1328) :*Francesco Dandolo, Doge (1328–1339) :*Bartolomeo Gradenigo, Doge (1339–1342) :*Andrea Dandolo, Doge (1342–1354) :*Marino Faliero, Doge (1354–1355) :*Giovanni Gradenigo, Doge (1355–1356) :*Giovanni Dolfin, Doge (1356–1361) :*Lorenzo Celsi, Doge (1361–1365) :*Marco Cornaro, Doge (1365–1367) :*Andrea Contarini, Doge (1367–1382) :*Michele Morosini, Doge (1382–1382) :*Antonio Venier, Doge (1382–1400) :*Michele Steno, Doge (1400–1413) Southern Italy *Kingdom of Naples (complete list) – :*Charles II the Lame, King (1285–1309) :*Robert I the Wise, King (1309–1343) :*Joanna I, Queen (1343–1382) :*Louis I, King (1348–1362) :*Charles III the Short, King (1382–1386) :*Ladislaus I the Magnanimous, King (1386–1390) :*Louis I of Anjou, King (1382–1384) :*Louis II, King (1389–1399) *Kingdom of Trinacria: Sicily (complete list) – :*Frederick II, King (1295–1337) :*Peter II, King (1337–1342) :*Louis, King (1342–1355) :*Frederick III, King (1355–1377) :*Maria, Queen (1377–1401) *Principality of Taranto (complete list) – :*Philip I, Prince (1294–1331) :*Robert, Prince (1331–1346) :*Louis, Prince (1346–1364) :*Philip II, Prince (1364–1374) :*Philip III, Prince (1356–?) :*James of Baux, Prince (1374–1383) :*Otto, Prince (1383–1393) :*Raimondo del Balzo Orsini, Prince (1393–1406) ===Europe: Southwest=== Iberian Peninsula: Christian *Crown of Aragon (complete list) – :*James II, King (1291–1327) :*Alfonso IV, King (1327–1336) :*Peter IV, King (1336–1387) :*John I, King (1387–1396) :*Martin, King (1396–1410) *Crown of Castile (complete list) – :*Ferdinand IV the Summoned, King (1295–1312) :*Alfonso XI the Just, King (1312–1350) :*Peter the Cruel, King (1350–1369) :*Henry II the Bastard, King (1369–1379) :*John I, King (1379–1390) :*Henry III the Infirm, King (1390–1406) *County of Barcelona (complete list) – :*James II, Count (1291–1327) :*Alphonse III, Count (1327–1336) :*Peter III, Count (1336–1387) :*John I, Count (1387–1396) :*Martin the Humanist, Count (1396–1410) *Kingdom of Navarre (complete list) – :*Joan I, Queen (1274–1305) :*Philip I, King (1284–1305) :*Louis I, King (1305–1316) :*John I, King (1316) :*Philip II, King (1316–1322) :*Charles I, King (1322–1328) :*Joan II, Queen (1328–1349) :*Philip III, King (1328–1343) :*Charles II, King (1349–1387) :*Charles III, King (1387–1425) *Kingdom of Portugal (complete list) – :*Denis I, King (1279–1325) :*Afonso IV, King (1325–1357) :*Peter I, King (1357–1367) :*Ferdinand I, King (1367–1383) :*John I, King (1385–1433) *County of Ribagorza (complete list) – :*Peter, Count (1322–1381) :*Alfonso I, Count (1365–1412) Marca Hispanica *Andorra :*Episcopal Co-Princes (complete list) – ::*Guillem de Montcada, Episcopal Co- Prince (1295–1308) ::*Ramon Trebaylla, Episcopal Co-Prince (1308–1326) ::*Arnau de Llordat, Episcopal Co-Prince (1326–1341) ::*Pere de Narbona, Episcopal Co-Prince (1341–1348) ::*Niccoló Capocci, Episcopal Co-Prince (1348–1351) ::*Hug Desbac, Episcopal Co-Prince (1351–1361) ::*Guillem Arnau i Palau, Episcopal Co-Prince (1361–1364) ::*Pedro Martínez Luna, Episcopal Co- Prince (1364–1370) ::*Berenguer d'Erill i de Pallars, Episcopal Co-Prince (1370–1387) ::*Galcerand de Vilanova, Episcopal Co-Prince (1387–1415) :*French Co-Princes (complete list) – ::*Roger-Bernard III, French Co-Prince (1278–1302) ::*Gaston I, French Co-Prince (1302–1315) ::*Gaston II, French Co- Prince (1315–1343) ::*Gaston III Phoebus, French Co-Prince (1343–1391) ::*Matthew, French Co-Prince (1391–1398) ::*Isabella, French Co-Princess (1398–1413) *County of Osona (complete list) – :*Bernard III of Cabrera, Count (1356–1364) *County of Cerdanya (complete list) – :*James II, Count (1276–1311) :*Sancho II, Count (1311–1324) :*James III, Count (1324–1349) :*James IV, Count (1349–1375) :*Isabella, Count (1375–1403) *County of Urgell (complete list) – :*Ermengol X, Count (1268–1314) :*Alfonso IV of Aragon, Count (1314–1327) :*James I of Urgell, Count (1327–1347) :*Peter II of Urgell, Count (1347–1408) ===Europe: West=== France *Kingdom of France (complete list) – :*Philip IV, King (1285–1314) :*Louis X the Quarreller, King (1314–1316) :*John I the Posthumous, King (1316–1316) :*Philip V the Tall, King (1316–1322) :*Charles IV the Fair, King (1322–1328) :*Philip VI, King (1328–1350) :*John II the Good, King (1350–1364) :*Charles V the Wise, King (1364–1380) :*Charles VI, King (1380–1422) *Anjou (complete list) – :*Philip, Count (1293–1328) :*John, Count (1332–1350) :*Louis I, Duke (1339–1383) :*Louis II, Duke (1377–1417) *Duchy of Aquitaine (complete list) – :*Edward I Longshanks, Duke (1272–1307) :*Edward II, Duke (1307–1325) :*Edward III, Duke (1325–1362) *County of Artois (complete list) – :*Robert II, Count (1250–1302) :*Matilda, Countess (1302–1329) :*Robert III, contested Count (1302–1329) :*Joan I, Countess (1329–1330) :*Joan II, Countess, and Odo, Count (1330–1347) :*Philip I, Duke of Burgundy, Count (1347–1361) :*Margaret I, Countess (1361–1382) :*Louis III, Count (1382–1383) :*Margaret II, Countess (1383–1405) *Auvergne (complete list) – :*Robert VI, count of Auvergne, Count (1279–1317) :*Robert VII, count of Auvergne, Count (1317–1325) :*William XII of Auvergne, Count (1325–1332) :*Joan I, Countess of Auvergne, Countess (1332–1360) :*Philip of Burgundy, Count (1338–1346) :*John II of France, Count (1350–1360) :*Philip I, Count (1360–1361) :*John I, count of Auvergne, Count (1361–1386) :*John II, count of Auvergne, Count (1386–1394) :*Joan II, Countess of Auvergne, Countess (1394–1422) :*John, Duke of Berry, Count (1394–1416) *Avignon Papacy – :*Clement V, Pope (1305–1314) :*John XXII, Pope (1316–1334) :*Benedict XII, Pope (1334–1342) :*Clement VI, Pope (1342–1352) :*Innocent VI, Pope (1352–1362) :*Urban V, Pope (1362–1370) :*Gregory XI, Pope (1370–1378) :*Clement VII, Antipope (1378–1394) :*Benedict XIII, Antipope (1394–1423; expelled from Avignon in 1403) *County of Boulogne (complete list) – :*Robert II, Count (1277–1314) :*Robert III, Count (1314–1325) :*William II, Count (1325–1332) :*Joanna I, Countess (1332–1360) :*Philip II, Count (1338–1346) :*Philip III, Count (1360–1361) :*John II, Count (1361–1386) :*John III, Count (1386–1404) *Bourbonnais (complete list) – :*, Lady (1287–1310) *Duchy of Brittany (complete list) – :*John II, Duke (1286–1305) :*Arthur II, Duke (1305–1312) :*John III, Duke (1312–1341) :*Joan, Duchess (1341–1364) :*Charles I, Duke (1341–1364) :*John of Montfort, co-Duke (1341–1345) :*John IV, disputed Duke (1345–1365), Duke (1345–1399) :*John V, Duke (1399–1442) *Duchy of Burgundy (complete list) – :*Robert II, Duke (1271–1306) :*Hugh V, Duke (1306–1315) :*Odo IV, Duke (1315–1350) :*Philip I, Duke (1350–1361) :*Philip II the Bold, Duke (1363–1404) *County of Maine (complete list) – :*Charles II, Count (1285–1325) :*Louis I, Count (1339–1384) :*Louis II, Count (1384–1417) *Monaco (complete list) – :*Rainier I, Lord (1297–1301) :*Charles I, Lord (1331–1357) :*Rainier II, Lord (1352–1357) :*Louis, Lord (1395–1395, 1397–1402) :*Jean I, Lord (1395–1395, 1419–1454) *County of Nevers (complete list) – :*Louis I, Count (1280–1322) :*Louis II, Count (1322–1346) :*Louis III, Count (1346–1384) :*Margaret, Countess (1384) :*Philip I, Count (1384) :*John I, Count (1384–1404) *County of Poitou (complete list) – :*Philip I, Count (1293–1322) :*John I, Count (1319–1364) :*John II, Count (1340–1416) Low Countries *County of Artois (complete list) – :*Margaret II, Countess (1383–1405) *County of Flanders (complete list) – :*Guy I, Count (1251–1305) :*Robert III, Count (1305–1322) :*Louis I, Count (1322–1346) :*Louis II, Count (1346–1384) :*Margaret III, Countess, and Philip II, Count (1384–1405) ===Eurasia: Caucasus=== *Gazikumukh Khanate (complete list) – :*Badr I, Shamkhal (1295–1304) :*Akhsuvar I, Shamkhal (14th century) *Kingdom of Georgia (complete list) – :*George V, King (1299–1302, 1314–1346) :*David IX, King (1346–1360) :*Bagrat V, King (1360–1393) :*George VII, King (1393–1407) *Eastern Georgia (complete list) – :*David VIII, King (1292–1302, 1308–1311) :*Vakhtang III, King (1302–1308) :*George VI, King (1311–1313) :*George V, King (1299–1302, 1314–1346) *Kingdom of Imereti (complete list) – :*Constantine I, King (1293–1326) :*Michael, King (1326–1329) :*Bagrat I, King (1329–1330) :*Alexandre I, King (1387–1389) :*George I, King (1389–1396) :*Constantine II, King (1396–1401) ==Oceania== Chile: Easter Island *Easter Island (complete list) – :*Te Tuhunga Hanui, King (?) :*Te Tuhunga Haroa, King (?) :*Te Tuhunga "Mare Kapeau", King (?) :*Toati Rangi Hahe, King (?) :*Tangaroa Tatarara, King (?) :*Havini(vini) Koro (or Hariui Koro), King (c.1400) Tonga *Tuʻi Tonga Empire (complete list) – :*Tuʻitonga Puipui, King (?) :*Havea I, King (?) :*Tatafuʻeikimeimuʻa, King (?) :*Lomiʻaetupuʻa, King (?) United States: Hawaii *Island of Hawaiʻi (complete list) – :*Kahaʻimaoeleʻa, supreme high chief (1285–1315) :*Kalaunuiohua, supreme high chief (1315–1345) :*Kūʻaiwa, supreme high chief (1345–1375) :*Kahoukapu, supreme high chief (1375–1405) ==See also== * List of state leaders in the 14th-century Holy Roman Empire == References == 14th century - |
"What Is the Best Work of American Fiction of the Last 25 Years?" is an informal opinion poll conducted in 2006 by the New York Times Book Review (NYTBR) to determine "the single best work of American fiction published in the last 25 years." Eligible works were those written by an American author and published during the quarter-century period from 1980 through 2005. The poll was conducted by NYTBR editor Sam Tanenhaus, who sent letters to literary figures requesting their participation and received 124 responses. The results were published on May 21, 2006, in the Sunday edition of the New York Times. An essay by A. O. Scott, titled "In Search of the Best", reflected on the results and the premise of the "Great American Novel". Toni Morrison's 1987 novel Beloved received the most votes, a result that had been anticipated by Tanenhaus, Scott, and several poll participants. The runners-up were the novels Underworld (1997) by Don DeLillo; a tie for third place between Blood Meridian (1985) by Cormac McCarthy and Rabbit Angstrom: A Tetralogy (1995) by John Updike; and American Pastoral (1997) by Philip Roth. The full list featured another 17 works that garnered at least two votes; some books with only one vote were later identified in other sources. Works by Roth received more total votes than those by any other author. The poll spurred vigorous debate and a wide range of commentary on the status of an American literary canon. Critics of the poll found its results to be unrepresentative of the breadth of contemporary American literature, noting apparent biases against—for example—women's writing, regionalist literature, or genre fiction. Taking inspiration from the exercise, The Observer conducted its own poll for the best novel published during the same timespan by a writer from Britain, Ireland, or the Commonwealth, with J. M. Coetzee's Disgrace (1999) emerging as the winner. == Poll == === Results === In early 2006, Tanenhaus sent a letter "to a couple of hundred prominent writers, critics, editors and other literary sages" requesting participating in the poll. Participants were invited to submit their single choice for the best work of American fiction from 1980 to 2005; submissions with more than one selection or ranked lists were not accepted. The NYTBR offered poll respondents "confidentiality, though not anonymity", in that it would publish the names of those who participated in the poll while maintaining the secrecy of ballots. The poll results were announced on May 18, 2006, ahead of the BookExpo America trade fair in Washington, D.C., before appearing in print on May 21. That week's edition of the NYTBR was exclusively devoted to fiction works, and the magazine's cover illustration features the cover art of 22 books from the poll results. The published results included the winner, four runners-up, and 17 works of literature that received at least two votes. Beloved by Toni Morrison received the most votes. The list as published did not reveal who voted for any given work, nor did it provide the number of votes received by a given work. However, Scott's accompanying essay provided the tallies of votes received by the top five works, as well as noting that works by Philip Roth had received more total votes than those by any other author, with 21 votes overall spread across seven novels (six of which received multiple votes). File:Toni Morrison.jpg|Toni Morrison (1931–2019) File:Don DeLillo, author.jpg|Don DeLillo (1936–) File:Cormac McCarthy (Child of God author portrait - high- res).jpg|Cormac McCarthy (1933–2023) File:John Updike, author at PEN Congress, cropped.jpg|John Updike (1932–2009) File:Philip Roth - 1973.jpg|Philip Roth (1933–2018) After the poll results were published, the National Book Critics Circle (NBCC) contacted poll respondents and were able to identify some works receiving a single vote. The list below includes the results published in the NYTBR plus any works known to have received only a single vote. "What Is the Best Work of American Fiction of the Last 25 Years?" results ! scope="col" | Rank ! scope="col" | Votes ! scope="col" | Title ! scope="col" | Year ! scope="col" | Author ! scope="col" | Rank Votes Title Year Author 1 15 Beloved 1987 2 11 Underworld 1997 3 8 Blood Meridian 1985 1995 5 7 American Pastoral 1997 6 1988 White Noise 1985 Libra 1988 Independence Day 1995 Winter's Tale 1983 Jesus' Son 1992 2003 1999 1990 Housekeeping 1980 1986 Operation Shylock 1993 Sabbath's Theater 1995 2000 2004 Mating 1991 1980 23 1 Sixty Stories 1981 Wonder Boys 1995 2000 Little, Big 1981 1998 2001 Carpenter's Gothic 1985 1985 Ironweed 1983 1994 On Glory's Course 1984 I Married a Communist 1998 (Library of America, Nos. 149–151) 2004 Aberration of Starlight 1980 Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant 1982 === Participants === The names of 124 poll respondents were printed in the NYTBR. Although the NYTBR did not reveal any voter's selection, several respondents chose to publicly disclose the title of the work for which they cast their vote after the list was published. If known, a participant's poll response is provided below in a footnote. * Kurt Andersen * Roger Angell * A. Manette Ansay * James Atlas * Russell Banks * John Banville * Julian Barnes * Andrea Barrett * Rick Bass * Ann Beattie * Madison Smartt Bell * Aimee Bender * Paul Berman * Sven Birkerts * Harold Bloom * Bill Buford * Ethan Canin * Philip Caputo * Michael Chabon * Susan Choi * Mark Costello * Michael Cunningham * Edwidge Danticat * Don DeLillo * Pete Dexter * Junot Diaz * Morris Dickstein * Andre Dubus III * Tony Earley * Richard Eder * Jennifer Egan * Dave Eggers * Lucy Ellmann * Nathan Englander * Louise Erdrich * Anne Fadiman * Henry Finder * Jonathan Safran Foer * Paula Fox * Nell Freudenberger * Carlos Fuentes * David Gates * Henry Louis Gates Jr. * Julia Glass * Nadine Gordimer * Mary Gordon * Robert Gottlieb * Philip Gourevitch * Elizabeth Graver * Andrew Sean Greer * Allan Gurganus * Jim Harrison * Kathryn Harrison * Alice Hoffman * A. M. Homes * Maureen Howard * John Irving * Ha Jin * Thom Jones * Heidi Julavits * Ward Just * Mary Karr * William Kennedy * Frank Kermode * Stephen King * Maxine Hong Kingston * Walter Kirn * Benjamin Kunkel * David Leavitt * Chang-Rae Lee * Brad Leithauser * Frank Lentricchia * John Leonard * Jonathan Lethem * Alan Lightman * David Lodge * Ralph Lombreglia * Phillip Lopate * Janet Malcolm * Thomas Mallon * Ben Marcus * Peter Matthiessen * Ian McEwan * David Means * Daphne Merkin * Stephen Metcalf * Rick Moody * Lorrie Moore * Geoffrey O'Brien * Chris Offutt * Stewart O'Nan * David Orr * Cynthia Ozick * Ann Patchett * Tom Perrotta * Richard Gid Powers * William Pritchard * Francine Prose * Terrence Rafferty * Marilynne Robinson * Roxana Robinson * Norman Rush * Richard Russo * George Saunders * Liesl Schillinger * Joanna Scott * Jim Shepard * Karen Shepard * David Shields * Gary Shteyngart * Lee Siegel * Curtis Sittenfeld * Jane Smiley * Wole Soyinka * Scott Spencer * William Styron * Studs Terkel * Deborah Treisman * Anne Tyler * Mario Vargas Llosa * William T. Vollmann * Edmund White * Tom Wolfe * Tobias Wolff The following people were among those who had been invited to participate in the poll, but ultimately declined to respond: * Laura Miller * Meghan O'Rourke == Response == The eventual victory of Beloved did not come as a shock to Times staffers who were involved with the project. "It's a very controversial book and a controversial choice," Tanenhaus said in an interview with Book TV, "although not altogether surprising. And in fact, we heard from a few voters who predicted Beloved would win—even as they cast votes for other books." In his essay accompanying the poll, titled "In Search of the Best", A. O. Scott wrote, results—in some respects quite surprising, in others not at all—provide a rich, if partial and unscientific, picture of the state of American literature, a kind of composite self-portrait as interesting perhaps for its blind spots and distortions as for its details." Of the poll winner, Beloved, Scott said: A year after the poll's publication, Lawrence Buell remarked that it had "occasioned an amazing amount of comment" on the topic of the Great American Novel. Sara Nelson, then editor-in-chief of Publishers Weekly, wrote of the poll: "There's no doubt about it: I envy Tanenhaus this publicity—and perhaps advertising-generating vehicle, even if he does say that the winning publishers have not been alerted in advance, à la Oprah, and therefore are unlikely to buy extra ads in the issue. Cash investment or no, to be named the New York Times Book Reviews best fiction of the last 25 years has to be a brand-builder for both the winner and its bestower." The poll has been cited as a prominent example of the influence of the media on the construction of literary canons, alongside other institutional influences such as academia, governmental agencies, nonprofit organizations, libraries, and publishing companies. On May 22, 2006, the public radio show Open Source, hosted by Christopher Lydon, invited literary critics James Wood, Mark Greif, Ruth Franklin, and Dennis Loy Johnson to discuss and analyze the poll results. The 2010 conference of the American Literature Association (ALA) hosted a panel discussion on the poll results, with one panelist representing the literary society of each of the top five authors in the poll as follows: Marni Gauthier (of the DeLillo Society), Steven Frye (of the McCarthy Society), Yvonne Atkinson (of the Morrison Society), David Brauner (of the Roth Society), and Marshall Boswell (of the Updike Society). Taking inspiration from the NYTBR poll, British newspaper The Observer conducted its own poll of 150 "literary luminaries" seeking their choice of the "best British, Irish or Commonwealth novel" published between 1980 and 2005. Disgrace, the 1999 novel by South African–Australian author J. M. Coetzee, received the most votes in The Observers poll. Comparing Disgrace and Beloved in an article for the Journal of Narrative Theory, Molly Abel Travis wrote: "What these two novels have in common, besides being profound and beautifully written narratives by Nobel laureates, is that they confront historical traumas and foreground the contested relationship between empathy and ethics through narrative distancing." ===Criticism and analysis=== Laura Miller declined to participate in the poll, citing her dislike for the trend of hierarchically ranking "classic books". In a piece for Salon.com, Miller wrote: Most critiques of the poll addressed its perceived failures to represent the full diversity of American fiction, based on criteria such as authorial identity, literary genre, or geographic origin. Lev Grossman of Time magazine called the poll results "aggressively boring" and said "it's a very staid, predictable, old, white (except for Morrison and Jones), and male (except for Morrison and Marilynne Robinson's Housekeeping) bunch. No surprise extra-canonical incursions. (No William Gibson? No Watchmen?)" Poet and critic Ron Silliman criticized the list for its narrow selection of authors, and particularly its gender inequality, with only two works written by women receiving more than one vote. Silliman asked, "Do we really think that more than one fourth of all the important novels over the past quarter century were written by one man? If so, do we honestly think they were written by Philip Roth? I'd poke my eyes out before I'd live on that planet." Silliman suggested that Tanenhaus and the poll respondents "should both get out more, venturing further north than Connecticut, further west than Riverside Drive, further south than Gramercy Park. It wouldn't hurt to meet women." Susan Straight lodged a similar complaint in the Los Angeles Times, in which she criticized the poll's evident bias toward authors from the East Coast, particularly New York, to the detriment of writers from the Western United States and the geographically diverse traditions of American literary regionalism. The victory of Beloved attracted criticism from British journalist Harry Mount in an article for The Daily Telegraph quoting two pundits, who judged the novel to be undeserving of such acclaim on the merits and accused the respondents of politicizing the poll. Melik Kaylan, then a journalist for The Wall Street Journal, said he was "flabbergasted" at the number-one ranking of Beloved and said it "shows a political process at work, both in terms of who writers feel they ought to vote for because of political correctness, but also who they wouldn't want voted above them." Conservative commentator Roger Kimball called Morrison "the perfect New York Times poster girl ... Someone whose opinions and skin colour immunise her from criticism and whose cliché-riddled, melodramatic prose impart a hungry urgency to the tired Left-liberal yearnings of the paper's cultural commissars. Pathetic, but wholly typical." Following Morrison's death in 2019, Tessa Roynon of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation referenced Mount's article as a "depressingly predictable" instance of backlash to Morrison's fiction. Other assessments of the poll from a political lens were less negative. Benjamin Nugent observed that the overwhelming majority of authors represented in the poll were broadly aligned with political liberalism: Mark Helprin stood as the only outspoken conservative to make the list (alongside Cormac McCarthy, whose political attitudes were more closely guarded and ambiguous). However, Nugent's observation was not a criticism per se, given that the ideological composition of the poll reflected the conspicuous scarcity of openly conservative authors within the American literary fiction community overall. Bryan M. Santin used the poll to compare the critical fortunes of Beloved and another 1987 novel, Tom Wolfe's The Bonfire of the Vanities; the former had generally been celebrated by liberals, while the latter was more often championed by conservatives. For Santin, the Times poll—which did not register a single vote for Bonfire—served as evidence "that Beloved had become a canonical text and Bonfire had not," thwarting conservative predictions that the prestige of Wolfe's book would endure in the long term. ===Reactions from authors named in the poll results=== John Updike encountered the poll results shortly after their announcement at BookExpo America, where he was promoting his latest novel, Terrorist. His reaction to the list was observed in real time by Patti Thorn of Rocky Mountain News, who reported he "breathed a sigh of relief" when he saw his name on the list at third place. "Sometime later," he told Thorn, "you wonder why these other books came first." He continued, "I feel awkward about any award. [These polls turn] literature into a kind of track meet, where you can judge first, second and third ... I wonder if the discontent it breeds doesn't offset the joy of the winners." Michael Cunningham—a participant in the poll himself, whose own novel The Hours also received a single vote from a fellow author—praised the poll's top five novels for capturing a sense of the zeitgeist when taken as an aggregate whole. Cunningham then emphasized the difference between the criteria to name a greatest book of its time versus the personal criteria to name a favorite book. For example, he said he regarded Nicholson Baker's 1988 novel The Mezzanine as not just a personal favorite, but a book he would recommend to an English-literate extraterrestrial lifeform to "convey a sense of American life right now"; nevertheless, he deemed The Mezzanine too unusual, too experimental, and too radical in its modernist style to qualify, in his view, as a definitive "best" book representing its era. == Notes == == References == == Sources == * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * == External links == * "What Is the Best Work of American Fiction of the Last 25 Years?" at NYTimes.com * "In Search of the Best" – accompanying essay by A. O. Scott Category:2006 documents Category:1980s in literature Category:1990s in literature Category:2000s in literature Category:20th-century American literature Category:21st-century American literature Category:American literature-related lists Category:Literary criticism Category:Literary debates Category:Lists of American books Category:Top book lists Category:Works originally published in The New York Times |
Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin (UFH), is a medication and naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan. Since heparins depend on the activity of antithrombin, they are considered anticoagulants. Specifically it is also used in the treatment of heart attacks and unstable angina. It is given intravenously or by injection under the skin. Other uses for its anticoagulant properties include inside blood specimen test tubes and kidney dialysis machines. Common side effects include bleeding, pain at the injection site, and low blood platelets. Serious side effects include heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Greater care is needed in those with poor kidney function. Heparin is contraindicated for suspected cases of vaccine-induced pro- thrombotic immune thrombocytopenia (VIPIT) secondary to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, as heparin may further increase the risk of bleeding in an anti- PF4/heparin complex autoimmune manner, in favor of alternative anticoagulant medications (such as argatroban or danaparoid). Heparin appears to be relatively safe for use during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Heparin is produced by basophils and mast cells in all mammals. The discovery of heparin was announced in 1916. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. A fractionated version of heparin, known as low molecular weight heparin, is also available. ==History== Heparin was discovered by Jay McLean and William Henry Howell in 1916, although it did not enter clinical trials until 1935. It was originally isolated from dog liver cells, hence its name (ἧπαρ hēpar is Greek for 'liver'; hepar + -in). McLean was a second-year medical student at Johns Hopkins University, and was working under the guidance of Howell investigating pro-coagulant preparations, when he isolated a fat-soluble phosphatide anticoagulant in canine liver tissue. In 1918, Howell coined the term 'heparin' for this type of fat-soluble anticoagulant. In the early 1920s, Howell isolated a water-soluble polysaccharide anticoagulant, which he also termed 'heparin', although it was different from the previously discovered phosphatide preparations. McLean's work as a surgeon probably changed the focus of the Howell group to look for anticoagulants, which eventually led to the polysaccharide discovery. In the 1930s, several researchers were investigating heparin. Erik Jorpes at Karolinska Institutet published his research on the structure of heparin in 1935, which made it possible for the Swedish company Vitrum AB to launch the first heparin product for intravenous use in 1936. Between 1933 and 1936, Connaught Medical Research Laboratories, then a part of the University of Toronto, perfected a technique for producing safe, nontoxic heparin that could be administered to patients, in a saline solution. The first human trials of heparin began in May 1935, and, by 1937, it was clear that Connaught's heparin was safe, easily available, and effective as a blood anticoagulant. Prior to 1933, heparin was available in small amounts, was extremely expensive and toxic, and, as a consequence, of no medical value. Heparin production experienced a break in the 1990s. Until then, heparin was mainly obtained from cattle tissue, which was a by-product of the meat industry, especially in North America. With the rapid spread of BSE, more and more manufacturers abandoned this source of supply. As a result, global heparin production became increasingly concentrated in China, where the substance was now procured from the expanding industry of breeding and slaughtering hog. The dependence of medical care on the meat industry assumed threatening proportions in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2020, several studies demonstrated the efficacy of heparin in mitigating severe disease progression, as its anticoagulant effect counteracted the formation of immunothrombosis. However, the availability of heparin on the world market was decreased, because concurrently a renewed swine flu epidemic had reduced significant portions of the Chinese hog population. The situation was further exacerbated by the fact that mass slaughterhouses around the world became corona hotspots themselves and were forced to close temporarily. In less affluent countries, the resulting heparin shortage also led to worsened health care beyond the treatment of covid, for example through the cancellation of cardiac surgeries. ==Medical use== thumb|A vial of heparin sodium for injection Heparin acts as an anticoagulant, preventing the formation of clots and extension of existing clots within the blood. While heparin itself does not break down clots that have already formed (unlike tissue plasminogen activator), it allows the body's natural clot lysis mechanisms to work normally to break down clots that have formed. Heparin is generally used for anticoagulation for the following conditions: * Acute coronary syndrome, e.g., NSTEMI * Atrial fibrillation * Deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism (both prevention and treatment) * Other thrombotic states and conditions * Cardiopulmonary bypass for heart surgery * ECMO circuit for extracorporeal life support * Hemofiltration * Indwelling central or peripheral venous catheters Heparin and its low-molecular-weight derivatives (e.g., enoxaparin, dalteparin, tinzaparin) are effective in preventing deep vein thromboses and pulmonary emboli in people at risk, but no evidence indicates any one is more effective than the other in preventing mortality. In angiography, 2 to 5 units/mL of unfractionated heparin saline flush is used to prevent the clotting of blood in guidewires, sheaths, and catheters, thus preventing thrombus from dislodging from these devices into the circulatory system . Unfractionated heparin is used in hemodialysis. Comparing to low-molecular-weight heparin, unfractionated heparin does not have prolonged anticoagulation action after dialysis, and low cost. However, the short duration of action for heparin would require it to maintain continuous infusion to maintain its action. Meanwhile, unfractionated heparin has higher risk of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. ==Adverse effects== A serious side-effect of heparin is heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), caused by an immunological reaction that makes platelets a target of immunological response, resulting in the degradation of platelets, which causes thrombocytopenia. This condition is usually reversed on discontinuation, and in general can be avoided with the use of synthetic heparins. Not all patients with heparin antibodies will develop thrombocytopenia. Also, a benign form of thrombocytopenia is associated with early heparin use, which resolves without stopping heparin. Approximately one- third of patients with diagnosed heparin-induced thrombocytopenia will ultimately develop thrombotic complications. Two non-hemorrhagic side-effects of heparin treatment are known. The first is elevation of serum aminotransferase levels, which has been reported in as many as 80% of patients receiving heparin. This abnormality is not associated with liver dysfunction, and it disappears after the drug is discontinued. The other complication is hyperkalemia, which occurs in 5 to 10% of patients receiving heparin, and is the result of heparin-induced aldosterone suppression. The hyperkalemia can appear within a few days after the onset of heparin therapy. More rarely, the side-effects alopecia and osteoporosis can occur with chronic use. As with many drugs, overdoses of heparin can be fatal. In September 2006, heparin received worldwide publicity when three prematurely born infants died after they were mistakenly given overdoses of heparin at an Indianapolis hospital. ===Contraindications=== Heparin is contraindicated in those with risk of bleeding (especially in people with uncontrolled blood pressure, liver disease, and stroke), severe liver disease, or severe hypertension. ===Antidote to heparin=== Protamine sulfate has been given to counteract the anticoagulant effect of heparin (1 mg per 100 units of heparin that had been given over the past 6 hours).Internal medicine, Jay H. Stein, p. 635 It may be used in those who overdose on heparin or to reverse heparin's effect when it is no longer needed. ==Physiological function== Heparin's normal role in the body is unclear. Heparin is usually stored within the secretory granules of mast cells and released only into the vasculature at sites of tissue injury. It has been proposed that, rather than anticoagulation, the main purpose of heparin is defense at such sites against invading bacteria and other foreign materials. In addition, it is observed across a number of widely different species, including some invertebrates that do not have a similar blood coagulation system. It is a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan. It has the highest negative charge density of any known biological molecule. ===Evolutionary conservation=== In addition to the bovine and porcine tissue from which pharmaceutical-grade heparin is commonly extracted, it has also been extracted and characterized from: # Turkey # Whale # Dromedary camel # Mouse # Humans # Lobster # Fresh water mussel # Clam # Shrimp # Mangrove crab # Sand dollar # Atlantic salmon # Zebra fish The biological activity of heparin within species 6–11 is unclear and further supports the idea that the main physiological role of heparin is not anticoagulation. These species do not possess any blood coagulation system similar to that present within the species listed 1–5. The above list also demonstrates how heparin has been highly evolutionarily conserved, with molecules of a similar structure being produced by a broad range of organisms belonging to many different phyla. == Pharmacology == In nature, heparin is a polymer of varying chain size. Unfractionated heparin (UFH) as a pharmaceutical is heparin that has not been fractionated to sequester the fraction of molecules with low molecular weight. In contrast, low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) has undergone fractionation for the purpose of making its pharmacodynamics more predictable. Often either UFH or LMWH can be used; in some situations one or the other is preferable. ===Mechanism of action=== Heparin binds to the enzyme inhibitor antithrombin III (AT), causing a conformational change that results in its activation through an increase in the flexibility of its reactive site loop. The activated AT then inactivates thrombin, factor Xa and other proteases. The rate of inactivation of these proteases by AT can increase by up to 1000-fold due to the binding of heparin. Heparin binds to AT via a specific pentasaccharide sulfation sequence contained within the heparin polymer: : GlcNAc/NS(6S)-GlcA-GlcNS(3S,6S)-IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S) The conformational change in AT on heparin-binding mediates its inhibition of factor Xa. For thrombin inhibition, however, thrombin must also bind to the heparin polymer at a site proximal to the pentasaccharide. The highly negative charge density of heparin contributes to its very strong electrostatic interaction with thrombin. The formation of a ternary complex between AT, thrombin, and heparin results in the inactivation of thrombin. For this reason, heparin's activity against thrombin is size-dependent, with the ternary complex requiring at least 18 saccharide units for efficient formation. In contrast, antifactor Xa activity via AT requires only the pentasaccharide-binding site. This size difference has led to the development of low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWHs) and fondaparinux as anticoagulants. Fondaparinux targets anti-factor Xa activity rather than inhibiting thrombin activity, with the aim of facilitating a more subtle regulation of coagulation and an improved therapeutic index. It is a synthetic pentasaccharide, whose chemical structure is almost identical to the AT binding pentasaccharide sequence that can be found within polymeric heparin and heparan sulfate. With LMWH and fondaparinux, the risk of osteoporosis and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is reduced. Monitoring of the activated partial thromboplastin time is also not required and does not reflect the anticoagulant effect, as APTT is insensitive to alterations in factor Xa. Danaparoid, a mixture of heparan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and chondroitin sulfate can be used as an anticoagulant in patients having developed HIT. Because danaparoid does not contain heparin or heparin fragments, cross- reactivity of danaparoid with heparin-induced antibodies is reported as less than 10%.Shalansky, Karen. DANAPAROID (Orgaran) for Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia. Vancouver Hospital & Health Sciences Centre, February 1998 Drug & Therapeutics Newsletter. Retrieved on 8 January 2007. The effects of heparin are measured in the lab by the partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), one of the measures of the time it takes the blood plasma to clot. Partial thromboplastin time should not be confused with prothrombin time, or PT, which measures blood clotting time through a different pathway of the coagulation cascade. ===Administration=== thumb|right|Heparin vial for subcutaneous injection Heparin is given parenterally because it is not absorbed from the gut, due to its high negative charge and large size. It can be injected intravenously or subcutaneously (under the skin); intramuscular injections (into muscle) are avoided because of the potential for forming hematomas. Because of its short biologic half-life of about one hour, heparin must be given frequently or as a continuous infusion. Unfractionated heparin has a half-life of about one to two hours after infusion, whereas LMWH has a half- life of four to five hours. The use of LMWH has allowed once-daily dosing, thus not requiring a continuous infusion of the drug. If long-term anticoagulation is required, heparin is often used only to commence anticoagulation therapy until an oral anticoagulant e.g. warfarin takes effect. The American College of Chest Physicians publishes clinical guidelines on heparin dosing. ===Natural degradation or clearance=== Unfractionated heparin has a half-life of about one to two hours after infusion, whereas low- molecular-weight heparin's half-life is about four times longer. Lower doses of heparin have a much shorter half-life than larger ones. Heparin binding to macrophage cells is internalized and depolymerized by the macrophages. It also rapidly binds to endothelial cells, which precludes the binding to antithrombin that results in anticoagulant action. For higher doses of heparin, endothelial cell binding will be saturated, such that clearance of heparin from the bloodstream by the kidneys will be a slower process. == Chemistry == === Heparin structure === Native heparin is a polymer with a molecular weight ranging from 3 to 30 kDa, although the average molecular weight of most commercial heparin preparations is in the range of 12 to 15 kDa. Heparin is a member of the glycosaminoglycan family of carbohydrates (which includes the closely related molecule heparan sulfate) and consists of a variably sulfated repeating disaccharide unit. The main disaccharide units that occur in heparin are shown below. The most common disaccharide unit* (see below) is composed of a 2-O-sulfated iduronic acid and 6-O-sulfated, N-sulfated glucosamine, IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S). For example, this makes up 85% of heparins from beef lung and about 75% of those from porcine intestinal mucosa. Not shown below are the rare disaccharides containing a 3-O-sulfated glucosamine (GlcNS(3S,6S)) or a free amine group (GlcNH3+). Under physiological conditions, the ester and amide sulfate groups are deprotonated and attract positively charged counterions to form a heparin salt. Heparin is usually administered in this form as an anticoagulant. File:IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S).png| File:IdoA(2S)-GlcNS.png| File:IdoA-GlcNS(6S).png| File:GlcA-GlcNAc.png| File:GlcA-GlcNS.png| File:IdoA-GlcNS.png| GlcA = β-- glucuronic acid, IdoA = α--iduronic acid, IdoA(2S) = 2-O-sulfo-α--iduronic acid, GlcNAc = 2-deoxy-2-acetamido-α--glucopyranosyl, GlcNS = 2-deoxy-2-sulfamido-α--glucopyranosyl, GlcNS(6S) = 2-deoxy-2-sulfamido-α-- glucopyranosyl-6-O-sulfate One unit of heparin (the "Howell unit") is an amount approximately equivalent to 0.002 mg of pure heparin, which is the quantity required to keep 1 ml of cat's blood fluid for 24 hours at 0 °C. ====Three-dimensional structure==== The three-dimensional structure of heparin is complicated because iduronic acid may be present in either of two low- energy conformations when internally positioned within an oligosaccharide. The conformational equilibrium is influenced by sulfation state of adjacent glucosamine sugars. Nevertheless, the solution structure of a heparin dodecasaccharide composed solely of six GlcNS(6S)-IdoA(2S) repeat units has been determined using a combination of NMR spectroscopy and molecular modeling techniques. Two models were constructed, one in which all IdoA(2S) were in the 2S0 conformation (A and B below), and one in which they are in the 1C4 conformation (C and D below). However, no evidence suggests that changes between these conformations occur in a concerted fashion. These models correspond to the protein data bank code 1HPN. In the image above: * A = 1HPN (all IdoA(2S) residues in 2S0 conformation) Jmol viewer * B = van der Waals radius space filling model of A * C = 1HPN (all IdoA(2S) residues in 1C4 conformation) Jmol viewer * D = van der Waals radius space filling model of C In these models, heparin adopts a helical conformation, the rotation of which places clusters of sulfate groups at regular intervals of about 17 angstroms (1.7 nm) on either side of the helical axis. ===Depolymerization techniques=== Either chemical or enzymatic depolymerization techniques or a combination of the two underlie the vast majority of analyses carried out on the structure and function of heparin and heparan sulfate (HS). ====Enzymatic==== The enzymes traditionally used to digest heparin or HS are naturally produced by the soil bacterium Pedobacter heparinus (formerly named Flavobacterium heparinum). This bacterium is capable of using either heparin or HS as its sole carbon and nitrogen source. To do so, it produces a range of enzymes such as lyases, glucuronidases, sulfoesterases, and sulfamidases. The lyases have mainly been used in heparin/HS studies. The bacterium produces three lyases, heparinases I (), II (no EC number assigned) and III () and each has distinct substrate specificities as detailed below. Heparinase enzyme Substrate specificity Heparinase I GlcNS(±6S)-IdoA(2S) Heparinase II GlcNS/Ac(±6S)-IdoA(±2S) GlcNS/Ac(±6S)-GlcA Heparinase III GlcNS/Ac(±6S)-GlcA/IdoA (with a preference for GlcA) thumb|300px|right|UA(2S)-GlcNS(6S) The lyases cleave heparin/HS by a beta elimination mechanism. This action generates an unsaturated double bond between C4 and C5 of the uronate residue. The C4-C5 unsaturated uronate is termed ΔUA or UA. It is a sensitive UV chromophore (max absorption at 232 nm) and allows the rate of an enzyme digest to be followed, as well as providing a convenient method for detecting the fragments produced by enzyme digestion. ====Chemical==== Nitrous acid can be used to chemically depolymerize heparin/HS. Nitrous acid can be used at pH 1.5 or at a higher pH of 4. Under both conditions, nitrous acid effects deaminative cleavage of the chain. thumb|right|IdoA(2S)-aMan: The anhydromannose can be reduced to an anhydromannitol At both 'high' (4) and 'low' (1.5) pH, deaminative cleavage occurs between GlcNS-GlcA and GlcNS-IdoA, albeit at a slower rate at the higher pH. The deamination reaction, and therefore chain cleavage, is regardless of O-sulfation carried by either monosaccharide unit. At low pH, deaminative cleavage results in the release of inorganic SO4, and the conversion of GlcNS into anhydromannose (aMan). Low-pH nitrous acid treatment is an excellent method to distinguish N-sulfated polysaccharides such as heparin and HS from non N-sulfated polysaccharides such as chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate not being susceptible to nitrous acid cleavage. ===Detection in body fluids=== Current clinical laboratory assays for heparin rely on an indirect measurement of the effect of the drug, rather than on a direct measure of its chemical presence. These include activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and antifactor Xa activity. The specimen of choice is usually fresh, nonhemolyzed plasma from blood that has been anticoagulated with citrate, fluoride, or oxalate. ==Other functions== * Blood specimen test tubes, vacutainers, and capillary tubes that use the lithium salt of heparin (lithium heparin) as an anticoagulant are usually marked with green stickers and green tops. Heparin has the advantage over EDTA of not affecting levels of most ions. However, the concentration of ionized calcium may be decreased if the concentration of heparin in the blood specimen is too high. Heparin can interfere with some immunoassays, however. As lithium heparin is usually used, a person's lithium levels cannot be obtained from these tubes; for this purpose, royal-blue-topped (and dark green-topped) vacutainers containing sodium heparin are used. * Heparin-coated blood oxygenators are available for use in heart-lung machines. Among other things, these specialized oxygenators are thought to improve overall biocompatibility and host homeostasis by providing characteristics similar to those of native endothelium. * The DNA binding sites on RNA polymerase can be occupied by heparin, preventing the polymerase from binding to promoter DNA. This property is exploited in a range of molecular biological assays. * Common diagnostic procedures require PCR amplification of a patient's DNA, which is easily extracted from white blood cells treated with heparin. This poses a potential problem, since heparin may be extracted along with the DNA, and it has been found to interfere with the PCR reaction at levels as low as 0.002 U in a 50 μL reaction mixture. * Heparin has been used as a chromatography resin, acting as both an affinity ligand and an ion exchanger. Its polyanionic structure can mimic nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, making it useful for purification of nucleic acid-binding proteins including DNA and RNA polymerases and transcription factors. Heparin's specific affinity for VSV-G, a viral envelope glycoprotein often used to pseudotype retroviral and lentiviral vectors for gene therapy, allows it to be used for downstream purification of viral vectors. * Heparin is being trialed in a nasal spray form as prophylaxis against COVID-19 infection. Furthermore, its reported from trials that due to anti-viral, anti-inflammatory and its anti-clotting effects its inhalation could improve at a 70% rate on patients that were actively struck by a COVID-19 infection. ==Society and culture== ===Contamination recalls=== Considering the animal source of pharmaceutical heparin, the numbers of potential impurities are relatively large compared with a wholly synthetic therapeutic agent. The range of possible biological contaminants includes viruses, bacterial endotoxins, transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) agents, lipids, proteins, and DNA. During the preparation of pharmaceutical-grade heparin from animal tissues, impurities such as solvents, heavy metals, and extraneous cations can be introduced. However, the methods employed to minimize the occurrence and to identify and/or eliminate these contaminants are well established and listed in guidelines and pharmacopoeias. The major challenge in the analysis of heparin impurities is the detection and identification of structurally related impurities. The most prevalent impurity in heparin is dermatan sulfate (DS), also known as chondroitin sulfate B. The building-block of DS is a disaccharide composed of 1,3-linked N-acetyl galactosamine (GalN) and a uronic acid residue, connected via 1,4 linkages to form the polymer. DS is composed of three possible uronic acid (GlcA, IdoA or IdoA2S) and four possible hexosamine (GalNAc, Gal- NAc4S, GalNAc6S, or GalNAc4S6S) building-blocks. The presence of iduronic acid in DS distinguishes it from chrondroitin sulfate A and C and likens it to heparin and HS. DS has a lower negative charge density overall compared to heparin. A common natural contaminant, DS is present at levels of 1–7% in heparin API, but has no proven biological activity that influences the anticoagulation effect of heparin. In December 2007, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recalled a shipment of heparin because of bacterial growth (Serratia marcescens) in several unopened syringes of this product. S. marcescens can lead to life-threatening injuries and/or death. ====2008 recall due to adulteration in drug from China==== In March 2008, major recalls of heparin were announced by the FDA due to contamination of the raw heparin stock imported from China. According to the FDA, the adulterated heparin killed nearly 80 people in the United States. The adulterant was identified as an "over-sulphated" derivative of chondroitin sulfate, a popular shellfish- derived supplement often used for arthritis, which was intended to substitute for actual heparin in potency tests. According to the New York Times: "Problems with heparin reported to the agency include difficulty breathing, nausea, vomiting, excessive sweating and rapidly falling blood pressure that in some cases led to life-threatening shock". ===Use in homicide=== In 2006, Petr Zelenka, a nurse in the Czech Republic, deliberately administered large doses to patients, killing seven, and attempting to kill ten others. ===Overdose issues=== In 2007, a nurse at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center mistakenly gave the 12-day-old twins of actor Dennis Quaid a dose of heparin that was 1,000 times the recommended dose for infants. The overdose allegedly arose because the labeling and design of the adult and infant versions of the product were similar. The Quaid family subsequently sued the manufacturer, Baxter Healthcare Corp., and settled with the hospital for $750,000. Prior to the Quaid accident, six newborn babies at Methodist Hospital in Indianapolis, Indiana, were given an overdose. Three of the babies died after the mistake. In July 2008, another set of twins born at Christus Spohn Hospital South, in Corpus Christi, Texas, died after an accidentally administered overdose of the drug. The overdose was due to a mixing error at the hospital pharmacy and was unrelated to the product's packaging or labeling.Statement by Dr. Richard Davis, Chief Medical Officer, CHRISTUS Spohn Health System, July 10, 2008 , the exact cause of the twins' death was under investigation. In March 2010, a two-year-old transplant patient from Texas was given a lethal dose of heparin at the University of Nebraska Medical Center. The exact circumstances surrounding her death are still under investigation. ===Production=== Pharmaceutical-grade heparin is derived from mucosal tissues of slaughtered meat animals such as porcine (pig) intestines or bovine (cattle) lungs. Advances to produce heparin synthetically have been made in 2003 and 2008. In 2011, a chemoenzymatic process of synthesizing low molecular weight heparins from simple disaccharides was reported. ===Research=== As detailed in the table below, the potential is great for the development of heparin-like structures as drugs to treat a wide range of diseases, in addition to their current use as anticoagulants. Disease states sensitive to heparin Heparin's effect in experimental models Clinical status Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Reduces the ability of human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 to adsorb to cultured T4 cells. – Adult respiratory distress syndrome Reduces cell activation and accumulation in airways, neutralizes mediators and cytotoxic cell products, and improves lung function in animal models Controlled clinical trials Allergic encephalomyelitis Effective in animal models – Allergic rhinitis Effects as for adult respiratory distress syndrome, although no specific nasal model has been tested Controlled clinical trial Arthritis Inhibits cell accumulation, collagen destruction and angiogenesis Anecdotal report Asthma As for adult respiratory distress syndrome, however, it has also been shown to improve lung function in experimental models Controlled clinical trials Cancer Inhibits tumour growth, metastasis and angiogenesis, and increases survival time in animal models Several anecdotal reports Delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions Effective in animal models – Inflammatory bowel disease Inhibits inflammatory cell transport in general, no specific model tested Controlled clinical trials Interstitial cystitis Effective in a human experimental model of interstitial cystitis Related molecule now used clinically Transplant rejection Prolongs allograft survival in animal models – : – indicates that no information is available As a result of heparin's effect on such a wide variety of disease states, a number of drugs are indeed in development whose molecular structures are identical or similar to those found within parts of the polymeric heparin chain. Drug molecule Effect of new drug compared to heparin Biological activities Heparin tetrasaccharide Nonanticoagulant, nonimmunogenic, orally active Antiallergic Pentosan polysulfate Plant derived, little anticoagulant activity, anti- inflammatory, orally active Anti-inflammatory, antiadhesive, antimetastatic Phosphomannopentanose sulfate Potent inhibitor of heparanase activity Antimetastatic, antiangiogenic, anti-inflammatory Selectively chemically O-desulphated heparin Lacks anticoagulant activity Anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antiadhesive == References == == Further reading == * * == External links == * * History of heparin Category:Chemical substances for emergency medicine Category:Glycosaminoglycans Category:Heparins Category:World Health Organization essential medicines Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Aldols Category:Ophthalmology drugs |
Christopher William Brandon (born 7 April 1976) is an English professional footballer who last played in Thailand for BEC Tero Sasana. He is a midfielder who has played more than 300 games during his professional career, which did not start until he was aged 23. After he was released by Bradford City's youth academy as a youngster he followed a non-league career with Bradford Park Avenue, Farsley Celtic and Stafford Rangers. He became a professional in 1999 with Division Three side Torquay United. Torquay were aiming for promotion during Brandon's first season with the club, but they finished two places outside the Division Three play-offs. He only played two games the following season because of a stomach tear, and upon his return Torquay were instead battling against relegation from The Football League, and Brandon left after three seasons with the club. He moved up a division and played for two years with Chesterfield, where he picked up a number of individual awards but spent two seasons fighting against relegation. In 2004, he joined Huddersfield Town where he twice narrowly missed out on promotion. He had a short spell on loan with Blackpool, helping them to the promotion play-offs. However, after a permanent move failed to materialise he returned to Huddersfield for a fourth season. When he was released by new manager Stan Ternent after four years with the club, he rejoined Bradford City, but had two injury-hit seasons before being released early from his contract. At the start of the following year, he moved to Thailand to join BEC Tero Sasana. ==Early life== Brandon was born in Bradford, West Yorkshire, England, on 7 April 1976. He attended Yorkshire Martyrs Collegiate School in Bradford and supported the city's Football League team Bradford City. ==Career== ===Early career=== Brandon started his football career as a trainee for Bradford City, but he was dropped by their academy and joined non-league side Bradford Park Avenue. He later played for Farsley Celtic before joining Stafford Rangers. He played 32 times for Rangers over two seasons before returning to play for Bradford Park Avenue. In his two spells with Park Avenue, Brandon played a total of 107 games. ===Torquay United=== In March 1999, he played as a trialist in a reserve match for Lincoln City, but failed to win a contract. Five months later, he was signed by Division Three side Torquay United. He made his debut in the opening fixture of the 1999–2000 season as Torquay defeated Shrewsbury Town at Gay Meadow. He established himself as a first-team regular and played 50 games in all competitions, scoring a total of five goals, the first of which came in a 2–1 victory against Peterborough United on 19 October 1999. Torquay finished in ninth place in Division Three, just three points outside the play-off places. In July 2000, he signed a new two-year deal with Torquay. However, only two games into the following season, he picked up a stomach tear, which kept him out for the rest of the season. Without Brandon, Torquay could not match their high league position of the previous season, and finished 21st, four points above Barnet who were relegated out of The Football League. He returned from injury in time for the start of the 2001–02 season and once again he became an established member of the team during the start of the campaign. He was dropped from the side for a period of time following an FA Cup defeat to Northampton Town in November 2001, during which he missed an open goal. He returned to the first team in January 2002 and scored on his second game back in the starting eleven as Torquay defeated Bristol Rovers. Two months later, he scored a vital goal in a 2–0 victory over Lincoln City, which helped Torquay to only their second home victory in four months and move them 13 points clear of the relegation zone. Torquay finished the season only two places higher than their previous campaign, but 15 points above relegated Halifax Town. During his disrupted three seasons with Torquay, Brandon amassed 83 appearances with ten goals to his credit, before he moved to Chesterfield in July 2002 on a free transfer. ===Chesterfield=== Brandon signed a two-year contract with Division Two side Chesterfield, and made his debut against Queens Park Rangers on the first day of the 2002–03 season. Chesterfield lost the game at Loftus Road 3–1. Brandon's first goal for Chesterfield came a week later when he scored a 12-yard overhead kick to give them a late 2–1 victory over Port Vale. He scored again just ten days later as Chesterfield defeated Northampton Town 4–0. His third goal was another volley during a 1–0 victory over Stockport County. However, he was substituted at half-time, and he did not play for another two weeks because of suspension, until he scored again in a League Cup game against West Ham United live on television, which Chesterfield lost on penalties. He scored in both the first and second rounds of the Football League Trophy, but Chesterfield were defeated on penalties by Port Vale in the second round. He finished the season with ten goals but also 11 yellow cards. However, he played only one game during the final month, with his last game coming on 21 April 2003, when Chesterfield finished with just nine players because of serious injuries to Brandon and striker Caleb Folan. Chesterfield picked up four points in their final two games without Brandon, and avoided relegation by just one position, finishing two points above Cheltenham Town. Brandon's ten goals meant he finished as Chesterfield's top goalscorer and also helped Brandon win three awards at the club's end of season awards, as well as reported interest from nearby Nottingham Forest, who had missed out on promotion to the Premier League. Brandon overcame his hamstring problems to return before the start of the following season, at the start of which he maintained his goalscoring form, scoring twice within the space of three days, as Chesterfield drew 3–3 with Wycombe Wanderers, then 1–1 with Plymouth Argyle. He only managed another four goals all season, but they included two against Lincoln City in a Football League Trophy defeat and one goal to help Chesterfield's fight to avoid relegation in a 3–1 victory over local rivals Sheffield Wednesday. He finished the season with six goals, which took his tally for Chesterfield to 16 goals from 88 games. Chesterfield again finished just one place above the relegation zone, and Brandon left in July 2004 to sign for Huddersfield Town under manager Peter Jackson on a free transfer. ===Huddersfield Town=== Huddersfield had been one of the teams relegated below Chesterfield in 2002–03, but had been immediately promoted back to League One.The Football League Second Division became Football League One for the 2004–05 season. Brandon made his debut for Huddersfield on the opening day of the 2004–05 season in a 3–2 victory over Stockport County. Chesterfield goalkeeper Carl Muggleton twice denied him a goal in his first home game three days later, but Brandon only had to wait until the following month when he scored in a 4–0 victory against Hull City. Brandon scored a total of six goals in his first season with Huddersfield, but also received the first red card of his professional career in a 1–0 win over Blackpool for a professional foul. Two of Brandon's goals came as Huddersfield pushed for a play-off place with a run of five successive victories, but they could only finish ninth, just one point behind Hartlepool United in the final play-off spot. Jackson praised Brandon for his "workrate and skill" and offered him and captain Jon Worthington each new two-year deals. Huddersfield started the 2005–06 season in the same form. Brandon scored his first goal of the season during a 2–1 win over Doncaster Rovers on 29 August 2008, which gave them their fifth win from seven games during the month. In mid-November, Brandon signed the two-year contract extension, which kept him at Huddersfield until June 2008, and instantly targeted promotion. The following month Brandon scored the only goal of a 1–0 win over non-league Worcester City in the FA Cup second round to earn Huddersfield a tie with Premiership champions Chelsea at Stamford Bridge. Two days later, Brandon received another red card, as both he and David Mirfin were sent off in the final minute of a 2–2 draw with Milton Keynes Dons. Brandon returned to the side following his suspension and helped Huddersfield to win a place in the play-offs. He was an unused substitute in the first leg 1–0 victory over Barnsley, and he played just eight minutes of the second leg, as Huddersfield lost 3–1 to again miss out on promotion. The following season was interrupted by an achilles injury for Brandon. It was not until February 2007, that Brandon scored his first goal of the 2006–07 season, during Huddersfield Town's 2–1 defeat to Crewe Alexandra. He only played one more game for Huddersfield that season, before he joined fellow League One side Blackpool on loan on 21 March 2007, joining another Town teammate, goalkeeper Paul Rachubka. Blackpool were searching for promotion and Brandon helped when he scored two goals during a 4–1 defeat of Northampton Town. However, he was sent off on 28 April 2007 in Blackpool's win at home to Scunthorpe United, which resulted in his missing the Seasiders' play-off games, and therefore not being considered for their successful final at Wembley against Yeovil Town. Brandon played in five games during his loan spell, all of which Blackpool won. It seemed certain that manager Simon Grayson was going to purchase Brandon, but instead Grayson bought Brandon's teammate Gary Taylor-Fletcher. Brandon returned to Huddersfield and was back in first team. However, after he was substituted on 14 October 2007 against Doncaster Rovers, he did not feature again until the New Year. On 5 January 2008, his second game back in the Huddersfield side, Brandon scored another FA Cup winning goal to knock Premier League side Birmingham City out of the competition in a 2–1 defeat at the Galpharm Stadium. He scored his second goal of the season, in the following game against Gillingham, but was sent off in the final minute of a 1–1 draw with Brighton & Hove Albion the next week. Brandon's red card meant he was suspended for Huddersfield's fourth round FA Cup tie with Oldham Athletic, but following a 1–0 victory, he returned in time for their visit to Chelsea in the fifth round, which Chelsea won 3–1. Brandon scored just one more goal during the rest of the season, with his last game coming on 15 April 2008 in the Yorkshire derby with Leeds United. With his contract due to expire in the summer, it turned out to be his final game for Huddersfield after 135 league appearances, during which time he scored 12 goals, and a total of 148 games. ===Bradford City=== After being one of eight players to be released by new Huddersfield manager Stan Ternent in early May 2008, Brandon turned down the chance to join another League One side and instead dropped down a division for the first time in six years to sign a two- year deal at Bradford City on 30 May 2008. Although Bradford were a League Two side, Brandon said it would be the highlight of his career to play for his hometown club. An ankle injury, which Brandon picked up in a pre-season tour game against Scottish side Motherwell kept Brandon out of the side at the start of the 2008–09 season. This included a League Cup game against his old side Huddersfield Town on 12 August 2008, for which he was a spectator as Bradford lost 4–0. When he attempted to make a comeback, he injured his other ankle in a reserve game with Scunthorpe United and was forced to undergo the first operation of his career which kept him out until January 2009. Once he returned to training in January, his first team debut was again delayed after a shoulder injury suffered at home. He returned to action for the reserves against Doncaster Rovers in February, before making his long-awaited debut on 7 March 2009 against Aldershot Town with City three goals ahead in a game which finally finished 5–0. He finished the season playing seven games. However, City missed out on promotion and Brandon's future was cast into doubt because of the size of his contract and budget cuts at the club. Brandon, however, remained at Bradford for the 2009–10 season and he scored his first goal for his hometown club with a late goal in a 2–0 victory against his former side Torquay United in late August. The following month, his second goal for the club again came against one of Brandon's former teams, as he once again came off the substitutes' bench to score in a 3–0 victory over Chesterfield. However, he continued to struggle to hold down a regular first- team place and when new manager Peter Taylor took over, Brandon was one of a number of players released early from his contract. He had played just 31 games during his two seasons with City, scoring three goals. ===BEC Tero Sasana=== After his release from Bradford, Brandon spent a period of time training with Scottish-side Dundee United, although that was because he was visiting his friend and former teammate Danny Cadamarteri and would not be offered a contract, before he was offered a trial with Port Vale in July 2010. It proved to be an unsuccessful trial, with Brandon spending time away from the game. He later held talks with Conference North side Guiseley, a non- league team from near Bradford. At the start of 2011, he signed for Thai Premier League side BEC Tero Sasana. ==Style of play== Brandon is principally a midfielder who plays anywhere in the midfield, but has also been used just behind a pair of strikers or in attack. At Chesterfield, his ability to take on opposition defenders, create openings for teammates and score "wonder goals" helped him to win a number of awards. His former manager, Peter Jackson has also praised Brandon's "workrate and skill". ==Career statistics== Club Division Season League FA Cup League Cup OtherIncludes Football League Trophy and play-offs Total Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Torquay United Third Division 1999–2000 42 5 4 1 2 0 2 0 50 6 2000–01 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2001–02 27 3 1 0 2 1 1 0 31 4 Total 71 8 5 1 4 1 3 0 83 10 Chesterfield Second Division 2002–03 36 7 1 0 2 1 2 2 41 10 2003–04 43 4 1 0 1 0 2 2 47 6 Total 79 11 2 0 3 1 4 4 88 16 Huddersfield Town League One 2004–05 44 6 1 0 1 0 0 0 46 6 2005–06 40 3 3 1 2 0 1 0 46 4 2006–07 23 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 24 1 2007–08 28 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 32 3 Total 135 12 6 2 4 0 3 0 148 14 Blackpool (loan) League One 2006–07 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 2 Bradford City League Two 2008–09 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 2009–10 20 2 0 0 0 0 4 1 24 3 Total 27 2 0 0 0 0 4 1 31 3 BEC Tero Sasana Thai Premier League 2011 14 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Career total 317 35 13 3 11 2 14 5 355 45 ==Honours== Chesterfield *Player of the season: 2002–03 ==References== ==External links== * Category:1976 births Category:Living people Category:English footballers Category:Men's association football wingers Category:Bradford City A.F.C. players Category:Bradford (Park Avenue) A.F.C. players Category:Farsley Celtic F.C. players Category:Stafford Rangers F.C. players Category:Torquay United F.C. players Category:Chesterfield F.C. players Category:Huddersfield Town A.F.C. players Category:Blackpool F.C. players Category:English Football League players Category:Expatriate footballers in Thailand Category:Footballers from Bradford Category:English expatriate footballers Category:English expatriate sportspeople in Thailand |
Culex pipiens, commonly referred to as the common house mosquito, is a species of mosquito. House mosquitoes are some of the most common mosquitoes. More specifically, Culex pipiens is considered as the northern house mosquito, as it is the most common mosquito to the northern regions of the US. North of the 39th parallel north in the US, only C. pipiens are present, whereas south of the 36th parallel north, only C. quinquefasciatus (commonly known as the southern house mosquito) are present. Additionally, they can be found in both urban and suburban temperate and tropical regions across the world. Culex pipiens diet typically consists of vertebrate blood, as they consume human blood, but prefer bird blood of species that are nearly linked to human interaction, such as doves and pigeons. Furthermore, at the end of the summer and the start of the fall season before it is time for them to overwinter, C. pipiens subsist on nectar and other sugary food sources in order to store fat. In California populations, it was shown that most females of Culex pipiens do not enter reproductive diapause during the winter, which differs from other mosquito species, such as Culex stigmatosoma or Culex tarsalis. Most of them overwinter in a stage of host-seeking arrest. The practice of overwintering tends to vary based on location, and in effect temperature and the period of time per day an organism receives sunlight, also known as the photoperiod. Parous females may overwinter together with nulliparous. Overwintering mosquitoes are considered as hibernating by mosquito scientists. Typically, mosquitoes copulate when temperatures are the most temperate, and many species begin breeding when temperatures reach . Because of this temperature condition, mosquito breeding seasons vary by region and climate characteristics of a given area. == Description == In general, Culex pipiens take on a pale-to-light brown color, and are adorned with lighter stripes on the abdomen. In regards to size, these organisms can range between three and seven millimeters long. C. pipiens can be distinguished by the presence of pale colored bands located on the insect's abdomen. Another distinguishing feature of the species’ appearance is its brown or grey-brown color. C. pipiens can also be characterized by the presence of their proboscis, or the elongated mouthpart that is used for sucking up fluids. This feature, in addition to their wings, are also brown in color, matching the remainder of their body.thumb|Anatomy of the common mosquito. == Distribution == C. pipiens can be found in both urban and sub-urban temperate and tropical regions across the world. It is prevalent on most continents, including North and South America, Europe, and some areas of Asia and Northern Africa. == Habitat == The Culex genus, and a large number of other mosquito species, thrive in mostly wet, humid, and temperate climates. In California population, it was shown that most females of Culex pipiens do not enter reproductive diapause during the winter, which differs from other mosquito species, such as Culex stigmatosoma or Culex tarsalis. Most of them overwinters in a stage of host- seeking arrest. During the winter season, they survive by living in areas where they are sheltered from the elements, such as basements or sheds. Some members of this species also spend the winter season living in caves. The practice of overwintering tends to vary based on location, temperature and the period of time per day an organism receives sunlight, also known as the photoperiod. Parous females may overwinter together with nulliparous females. === Larval habitats === The habitats of C. pipiens larval habitats can be divided into two categories: natural, and artificial. Natural habitats include marshes, pools, manure piles, streams, and shallow ponds. Some artificial larval habitats are barrels, sewage ditches, and intermittent puddles. Many physical and chemical components of the materials that make up these habitats are critical to larval survival. Stable pH values, salt content in water, and the temperature of the habitat's environment, are all factors that can either positively or negatively influence larval survival rates. The presence of organic materials typically results in positive survival outcomes for C. pipiens. Ideal environments for C. pipiens contain significant amounts of organic matter. === Ecology === C. pipiens is a pollinator of Silene otites, Tanacetum vulgare, and Achillea millefolium. It can see in the ultraviolet range and uses UV cues on flowers to locate them. Lab studies have measured values related to the survival rates of C. pipiens in relation to pH levels, levels of organic material present in their habitats, temperature, and salinity levels. These studies showed that C. pipiens are capable of surviving all of these metrics in extreme values, demonstrating their eurytopic nature. Eurytopicity describes an organism's ability to tolerate a large range of habitat or ecological conditions. According to V.V. Tarabrin and M.M. Orlov, the development from larva to imago occurs within 20-25 days.The optimal air temperature for reproduction is 26-29 °C, relative humidity is ≈ 80%, water temperature is not less than 16-17 °C.Method of Culex pipiens mosquito cultivation in laboratory conditionsMethod of Culex pipiens mosquito cultivation in laboratory conditionsMETHOD FOR CULEX PIPIENS MOSQUITO CULTIVATION UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS == Life history == As all mosquito larvae live in the water, they are often referred to as “wigglers,” since they can be characterized by a wiggling type movement in the water. The development period of larvae can range anywhere between seven and ten days, which is when they reach the pupal stage. In the pupal stage, the organisms spend less time feeding, and invest more time toward the surface of the water, taking in air from the exposed surface. After about one to three days in the pupal stage, the mosquito adult breaks through. The growth rates of larvae are dependent on factors including temperature, food and water provisions, larval density and characteristics of the breeding season they are born into. == Complex == thumb|183x183px|Magnified image of the C. pipiens body. The C. pipiens species complex consists of: * C. pipiens ** C. p. pallens - human-biting (Northeast Asia) ** C. p. pipiens (Global, temperate) *** C. p. p. f. pipiens - "bird- biting" *** C. p. p. f. molestus - London Underground mosquito * C. quinquefasciatus (Global, tropical) * C. australicus (Australia) * C. globocoxitus (Australia) * C. juppi - proposed (South Africa) The C. pipiens complex is characterized by its ability to thrive in mainly water-based habitats that contain high amounts of organic material. Furthermore, measured rates of success of the complex has been associated with consumption of “food” found in standing water sources that have been developed by humans and livestock. Some interspecific hybrids are widespread. As vector borne pathogen transmission is highly influenced by the ecology of the vector, it is evident that C. pipiens’ ability to adapt to “human-altered environments” led to its global distribution as a vector. With these environmental adaptations, the species' interactions with humans and other organisms (especially birds), has also led to an increase in the number of avian pathogens that humans around the world are exposed to. == Physiology == In C. pipiens, there is a strong correlation between the digestion of blood and ovary development. The cycle of blood digestion leading to ovarian developments is known as the gonotrophic cycle. It occurs in three stages: finding a blood source, digesting blood, and laying eggs. Laying eggs is also referred to as oviposition. The number of cycles a female C.pipiens goes through depends on a variety of environmental factors. Each one of the gonotrophic cycles results in morphological changes in the female's reproductive organs, stomach, and throat. Temperature is one environmental factor in particular that affects the rate of blood consumption and its correlation to ovary development. == Diet == right|thumb|Culex pipiens pipiens feeding on a human host. Culex pipiens prefer the blood of bird species that are closely linked to human interaction such as doves and pigeons; however, they do consume human blood. At the end of the summer and the start of the fall season before it is time for them to overwinter, C. pipiens subsist on nectar and other sugary food sources in order to store fat. Therefore, C. pipiens consume both vertebrate blood (including human blood) as well as sugar-heavy energy sources like nectar. Only females feed on blood, while male C. pipiens consume on these carbohydrate food sources. The time of day is also a factor that influences C. pipiens’ eating behaviors. C. pipiens feed the most frequently during the early hours of sunset. Feeding on carbohydrate sources, rather than blood, helps with fat storage. This is why this specific feeding behavior is seen before the winter season. === Food sources === C. pipiens feed on a variety of different food sources. Sugar is one important source of food that provides C. pipiens with similar amounts of energy as blood does. Both males and females obtain sugar through feeding on plant sugar, floral nectar, and honeydew, which are found via olfactory and visual cues. Female C. pipiens differ from males in the way that they consume both blood and sugar as sources of food, whereas males only rely on these sugar sources for energy. C. pipiens obtain blood hosts such as birds, humans, cattle, etc. for feeding. Searching for sources of blood requires a complex of behavioral responses that influence C. pipiens sensory mechanisms that help them to locate hosts.[1] Females contain 1,300 sensory organs, while males have 1,350. Garvin et al 2018 find C. pipiens to be more attracted to adult birds than nestlings, by differentiating between uropygial gland secretions of different ages (tested in Passer domesticus). === Food procurement === There are many stages that make up C. pipiens feeding activity. These stages are known as activation, orientation, landing, and probing. Locating a host requires both visual and chemical cues from the environment to allow C. pipiens to sense where the host is. == Mating == Typically, mosquitoes copulate when temperatures are the most temperate, and many species begin breeding when temperatures reach . Because of this temperature condition, mosquito breeding seasons vary by region and climate characteristics of a given area. Sexual activity in C. pipiens first begins within the first 2–3 days of emergence from the larval development stage. Antennal fibrillae play an important role in C. pipiens mating practices. The erection of these fibrillae is considered to be the first stage in reproduction. These fibrillae serve different functions across the sexes. As antennal fibrillae are used by female C. pipiens to locate hosts to feed on, male C. pipiens utilize them to locate female mates. === Fertilization === Temperature has a direct impact on the outcome of fertilization in C. pipiens. Studies have demonstrated that female insemination relies on higher temperatures to produce successful outcomes, as colder temperatures increase the number of underdeveloped C. pipiens eggs. Another factor that affects fertilization outcomes is the age of the C. pipiens females. In 1972, Lea and Evans performed a study that yielded results showing that the number of inseminated females drastically increased with age. Specifically, only females older than 18–24 hours can be successfully inseminated by a male mate. Furthermore, C. pipiens is believed to be a monogamous species, mating only once (and with one partner) throughout the duration of its life. === Female rejection kicks === Courting C. pipiens males have the chance to be directly accepted by a mating female. However, there is evidence for a mating behavior performed by female C. pipiens in which females utilize rejection kicks to deter courting males away. Despite this behavior, there is evidence that courting males can still be accepted by females after these rejection kicks. According to a study done to observe this mating behavior found in C. pipiens, pursuing males are accepted by the female upon first genital contact at a rate of 38.95%, and are accepted at a rate of 17.89% after some rejection kicks from the female, demonstrating that there is a chance of successful mating between male and female C.pipiens even if this rejection mechanism is performed by the female. Furthermore, the recorded success of females performing this behavior with their right limbs is higher than those who used their left. This courting behavior illustrates a behavioral mechanism for females to dismiss certain males from mating with them, and demonstrate an overall functional advantage that is associated with the use of right hind limbs over left ones. === Breeding site characteristics === C. pipiens reproduce in bodies of water—specifically in flood-prone areas and in standing water. Other breeding sites include: natural marshes, cesspits, gutters, and other unkempt artificial water structures. Furthermore, the presence of organic material in C. pipiens breeding grounds are essential for the larval developmental stage. All mosquito species produce larvae that live in the water. According to Daniel Markowski from the Vector Disease Control International, “Culex pipiens larvae specifically thrive in such stagnant water with the most organic material pollution". The number of larvae present in one breeding site also impacts the success rates of offspring survival. A 1973 study done by Skierska analyzed the effects that larval density had on survival rates. The study showed that the highest larval survival occurred when the larvae density ranged between 20-50 organisms. Within this population range, development periods of the larvae were also the fastest compared to larvae densities that existed above this range. Increased larval densities also affected how many eggs were produced among females that survived within the original experimental population. When densities were higher, less eggs were produced by these surviving females. thumb|Magnified image of the tail end and the head of C. pipiens during the larval stage of development. ==== Swarming patterns ==== Swarming is not essential to mating for C.pipiens, as lab experiments have demonstrated that successful mating can occur in laboratory settings, where swarming patterns are unattainable. C. pipiens mating can occur as a female is resting. However, there has been evidence found linked to how swarming patterns do operate, when present in certain C. pipiens populations. The position of the sun has an effect on C. pipiens swarming patterns. Light patterns associated with both sunset and sunrise can cause swarming to develop. Swarms develop usually to a distinct marker, in which C. pipiens use as a common metric to denote where swarming should occur. Within these swarm formations, C. pipiens have been observed to move around in elliptical loop patterns. === Autogeny === Autogeny describes C.pipiens’ ability to lay eggs without prior consumption of blood. This trait varies across the C. pipiens complex, and could limit transmission of pathogens since females do not risk food contamination in order to lay eggs.thumb|An image of C. pipiens larvae occupying a water-submerged environment. They come closer to the water's surface as the larval development period comes closer to an end. By (Image: James Gathany, CDC) - A New Model for Predicting Outbreaks of West Nile Virus. Gross L, PLoS Biology Vol. 4/4/2006, e101. https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040101. See also: Kilpatrick AM, Kramer LD, Jones MJ, Marra PP, Daszak P (2006) West Nile Virus Epidemics in North America Are Driven by Shifts in Mosquito Feeding Behavior. PLoS Biol 4(4): e82 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040082, CC BY 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1441809 == Disease vectors == Mosquito-borne diseases are widespread throughout the globe. According to the World Health Organization, these diseases affected nearly 350 million people worldwide in 2017. Culex pipiens is one of the many members of the mosquito family that is a carrier of disease. Specifically, C. pipiens are well known carriers of West Nile virus, Saint Louis encephalitis viruses, avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum), and filarial worms. Cu. pipiens is not a vector of P. homocircumflexum, a parasite of unknown vector which is only known to be unable to get beyond the oocyst stage in this and several other mosquitoes. === Mosquito bites === Mosquito bites can affect warm, uncovered areas of the body, and reactions to the bites vary in severity. Once a host is bitten by a mosquito, the mosquito uses its proboscis to take in blood. In the process of digesting blood, mosquitoes inject saliva instantly after the proboscis enters the host. Many humans display an allergic reaction to the saliva. === Arbovirus diseases === Arboviruses are diseases that are transmitted to vertebrates by arthropods, including insects. C. pipiens carries many arbovirus diseases across many regions of the globe. Cases of Rift Valley fever have been present in Africa, Japan encephalitis has been prevalent in East Asian countries, and West Nile virus has been seen all over the globe. == Global impact == In February 2019, a theoretical modelling study was reported regarding the potential role of Culex pipiens in transmitting West Nile Virus in the UK. Empirical data were taken from a study conducted during 2015 in Southern England in order to obtain a better understanding of the seasonal abundance patterns, thereby helping to identify the season(s) when the species thrives best and is the most populous. == See also == * List of Culex species * Oviparity * Vector ==References== pipiens Category:Flies described in 1758 Category:Nematoceran flies of Europe Category:Diptera of Asia Category:Insects of Africa Category:Diptera of North America Category:Diptera of South America Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus |
Lynn Alton de Silva (16 June 1919 – 22 May 1982) was a Sri Lankan theologian and Methodist minister. He was the founder and editor of one of the first theological journals on Buddhist-Christian encounter called Dialogue (1961–1981),Fr. Aloysius Peiris S.J. became co-editor when the journal started its New Series in 1974. chief translator for the revision of the Old Testament of the Sinhalese Bible published as New Sinhala Bible (1973–1982), and director of the Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue (EISD)formerly called the Study Center for Religion and Society in Sri Lanka (1962–1982). Lynn de Silva is widely regarded as one of the foremost Christian practitioners of Buddhist-Christian dialogue in Sri Lanka, and also as one of the pioneers in this dialogue.There are numerous references to Lynn de Silva as such a pioneer. Some examples are the following: [1] ; [2] ; [3] ; [4] ; [5] ; [6] ; [7] ; [8] ; [9] ; [10] ; [11] ; [12] ; [13] ; [14] ; [15] . Lynn de Silva's book titled Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices in Sri Lanka was mentioned in two journals in the early 1980s as being unparalleled as an introduction to Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Possibly his most notable contribution to theology is the book titled The Problem of the Self in Buddhism and Christianity , in which he points out an age-old misconception held by Buddhists and Christians that the notion of an immortal soul is a biblical teaching. This book is considered by Schmidt-Leukel to be one of the classics in Buddhist-Christian dialogue, and one which has become well known among those actively involved in this dialogue. The book was also included in John Hick's Library of Philosophy and Religion series. Lynn de Silva's father and three of his brothers were Methodist ministers. According to Walter Small, Lynn de Silva and his brothers Fred and Denzil were among the most significant Methodist writers during the period 1931-1964 in Sri Lanka.The most significant Methodist writer during this period, according to , is Rev. D.T. Niles. Some others include Rev. C.H. S. Ward and Rev. J. Simon de Silva. The following quote from describes the works by Fred and Denzil: "Fred, who was for over 10 years Editor of "Methodist Witness" (Sinhalese) as well as of the Church Record, has had two books published by the C.l.S., "Christhiani Wivahaya" and "Vishudi Kamaya" and one by Gunasena’s, "Why to People Suffer?", as well as a number of pamphlets, including "Trouble in God’s world". Denzil has written "Sohon Ethara"". After entering active service in the Methodist ministry in 1946, de Silva pursued his tertiary education, obtaining qualifications including a Bachelor of Divinity degree, two Master's degrees, and a Doctor of Theology degree. In addition to serving in the ministry, de Silva participated for twenty years in the dialogical and ecumenical activities of the World Council of Churches, and he was Executive President of the Presidium of the National Council for Religion and Peace in Sri Lanka (1979-1980). He died shortly after this role while addressing an audience at a conference, having continued to work until the end. In 1999, the Study Center building of the EISD was dedicated to the memory of Lynn de Silva and Rev. G. B. Jackson, the first director of the EISD. ==Family, education and career== Lynn Alton de Silva was born to a Methodist family on 16 June 1919, in the town of Kurana in Katunayake, Sri Lanka. His father, John Simon de Silva (1868-1940), was a Methodist minister, and his mother, Clara de Silva, was a housewife. Lynn de Silva was the second youngest out of one sister: Pearl (?-1999), and five brothers: Frederick Stanley (1904-1980), Roy, George Denzil (?-1996), Eric and Hugh. Little is known about de Silva's childhood, except that he had a Christian upbringing, growing up under the influence of pious parents. Lynn de Silva and three of his brothers—Fred, Denzil, and Roy—grew up to become Methodist ministers. Hugh de Silva died whilst studying to be ordained. ===Education=== Before being accepted as a candidate for the ministry, de Silva was a teacher from 1938 to 1942. In 1942, he trained for the ministry at the United Theological College in Bangalore, and entered active service in the Methodist ministry in 1946. He served as a minister in stations including Kollupitiya, Wellawatte, Kandy, Badulla, Galle, Kalahe, Mutwal and Seeduwa; he served a total of two years at the first two stations, half a year at Kandy, two years at Kalahe, three years at Mutuwal, and three and half years at Seeduwa. In September 1950, de Silva was ordained as a Methodist minister. thumb|left| Lynn and Lakshmi in the early 1950s A few months after being ordained, Lynn de Silva married Lakshmi Mendis, on 3 February 1951, at the Colpetty Methodist Church in Colombo. Toward the end of the year, on 16 November 1951, Lynn and Lakshmi had their first son, Lahan Jayalath de Silva. Starting from the 1950s, de Silva pursued his tertiary education. He obtained a Bachelor of Divinity (B.D.) degree from United Theological College under Senate of Serampore College (University) in India; a Master of Sacred Theology (S.T.M.) degree from the Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York; a Diploma in Buddhism, with a specialisation in Theravada Buddhism, from the Vidyalankara University in Sri Lanka; a Master of Arts (M.A.) degree from University of Birmingham in England; and a Doctor of Theology (Th.D.) degree from Senate of Serampore College. He also took a study course in Mahayana Buddhism at the Vidyodaya University in Sri Lanka. During his studies, Lynn and Lakshmi had their second son, Lalith Chrishantha de Silva, on 16 September 1954. ===Career and activities=== Lynn de Silva's pioneering work in Buddhist-Christian dialogue, and his work in Bible translation, began in the early 1960s after he had completed his service at Seeduwa. In 1962, de Silva was appointed to serve the National Christian Council at the Study Centre for Religion and Society in Wellawatte, which later became the Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue—an important center for Buddhist studies. It was shortly before starting work at the Study Center that Lynn and Lakshmi had their third child, Shiromi Priyala de Silva (later Rodrigo), on 3 September 1961. Whilst managing the Study Center, de Silva was appointed co-translator of the Sinhala Bible Revision Committee in 1964. The committee consisted of around forty scholars, including Protestant and Roman Catholic clergy, Buddhist monks, and academics. From 1964 to 1973, the committee focused on translating the Greek version of the New Testament of the Bible into Sinhalese. In the same year in which de Silva started working with the translation committee, Lynn and Lakshmi had their last child and third son, Shantha Asiri de Silva, on 6 March 1964. thumb|upright=1.35|right| Lynn de Silva with his family in 1977, at his eldest son's wedding. (Left to right) Shantha, Lakshmi, Lahan, Peace, Lynn, Lalith and Shiromi Around the age of fifty, in the late 1960s, de Silva experienced a severe heart attack. During his recovery, Lakshmi managed the home, watched over his health, and moderated his appointments. Furthermore, she guided the work at the Study Center by handling most of the administrative duties, organisation of conferences, and publication related tasks. She continued to take these responsibilities even after de Silva's recovery, so that he could focus on his research, writing and travel. From 1970 to 1971, de Silva lived in England with Lakshmi while he served the World Churches as William Paton Lecturer at Selly Oak Colleges in Birmingham. While in England, de Silva was also a Visiting Lecturer in Asian Religions at University of Bristol. After his return to Sri Lanka, de Silva continued with Bible translation work, and he was appointed chief translator of the Old Testament into Sinhala in 1973. Fr. Aloysius Peiris S.J. states the following in relation to de Silva's new position as chief translator: Lakshmi de Silva also played an important role in the Bible translation work. After three months of training, she was appointed secretary of the translation committee. Her role in the committee involved technical work such as proofreading, and clerical work such as typing and dealing with the press. She possessed sufficient knowledge in Greek and Hebrew to be able to check the accuracy and consistency of the Bible translation, which she continued at a full-time capacity even after she had fallen ill toward the latter part of her life. With the experience she had gained, Lakshmi compiled valuable material for use in future bible translations. Although she possessed the skills necessary to become a scholar in her own right, she was content to take a back seat to support her husband's work. She died in 1980, just over a year before the Sinhala Bible translation was completed. thumb|upright=1.35|right| Lynn de Silva in the early 1980s with some family and extended family Lynn de Silva's ecumenical responsibilities included membership in the Committees of the World Council of Churches (WCC) that focused on the Christian approach to other faiths. In particular, he was a WCC committee member (Paris 1962, Geneva 1967 and 1973); a member of the working group of the Division of World Mission and Evangelism (Mexico 1963, Zurich 1966 and Cantebury 1969); and member of the working group on Dialogue with Faiths and Ideologies (DFI) since 1969. Some of his other significant ecumenical activities were visits to Buddhist study centres in Germany, England and the USA, and study tours of Buddhism in Burma, Thailand, Singapore, Hong Kong and Japan. Lynn de Silva's quest for unity stretched beyond his dialogue with Buddhists. He was among a group of people that led the movement for the "contextualisation and inculturation of the Gospel," and also among those who "advocated and struggled for Church Union in Sri Lanka." After interracial riots in 1977 between the Sinhalese and Tamils, de Silva became deeply involved in issues of unity and reconciliation between the two cultures. He led a team of Sinhalese leaders for dialogue with the Tamils in Jaffna, and wrote articles on the history of the conflict as well as his analysis of it, in an effort to promote interracial understanding. In 1979, de Silva was appointed to the Presidium of the National Council for Religion and Peace in Sri Lanka, where he was Executive President for one year. Some of his other non-ecumenical activities included serving as editor of the Methodist Witness and Suba Hasun Sinhalese journals. Lynn de Silva's interests included writing Sinhalese short stories (e.g., Premaoushadaya and Premaye Rahasa ) and painting. One of his paintings had appeared at an exhibit held at the Lionel Wendt Gallery in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In addition to his proficiency in English and Sinhalese, de Silva was familiar with Greek and Hebrew, and literate in Pali. ==History of Buddhist-Christian relations in Sri Lanka== Ever since the 16th century, during colonisations of Sri Lanka by the Portuguese, Dutch and English, Christian missionaries had attempted to convert the Buddhist population into Christianity, with the general belief during this period being that there was nothing worthy of study in non-Christian religions.Buddhism in Sri Lanka In the early 19th century, this view started to change, into the conviction that every evangelist should have sound knowledge in Buddhism. The most prominent Christian scholars supporting this conviction were Daniel John Gogerly, C. H. S. Ward, and Robert Spence Hardy. Despite their belief that knowledge in Buddhism was essential, their attitude toward Buddhism was still negative. Through their polemical writings, they revealed their negative attitudes and beliefs that Buddhism was in error and that Christianity should replace Buddhism. This antagonised the Buddhists, and eventually led to a national Buddhist movement, starting from controversies held at Baddegama (1865), Udanwita (1866) and Gampola (1871).Panadura#The historic Panadura Debate .27Panadura Vadaya.27 The last and most popular of these controversies was the historic debate Panadura Vadaya, held in Panadura (1873), between Rev. David de Silva and Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera. One of the rules of the debate was that Christians should try to prove that Buddhism is false, and vice versa. Gradually, this negative attitude between Buddhists and Christians started to change. The main influences responsible for the change included (1) more accurate knowledge of Buddhism than was available in the past; (2) interest in and appreciation for Buddhism shown by Western scholars such as Arthur Schopenhauer, whose philosophy was similar to that of the Buddha; (3) the book by Edwin Arnold titled The Light of Asia, which created a popular interest in Buddhism; (4) the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910, which set the tone for a new Christian ecumenical movement; (5) missionary activities of Buddhists such as Anagarika Dharmapala in the West; and (6) the Tambaram Missionary Conference in 1938, where one of the main themes for discussion was Christian message in a non-Christian world. Perhaps the first Methodist missionary to practice this more positive attitude toward Buddhism was Rev. Stanley Bishop, who made his attitude evident in a book titled Gautama or Jesus (1907). In the introductory chapter, Bishop states: Another significant step toward dialogue between Christians and Buddhists was by Daniel T. Niles, in his book Eternal Life Now (1946). The purpose of this book is twofold: (1) to convey the Christian message in the Buddhist context, by using terms such as anicca, dukkha, samsara, sarana, anatta, sila, samadhi, panna, and arahant; and (2) to convey Buddhist truths within the context of Christianity. With the resurgence of Buddhism after Sri Lankan independence, the conviction grew even stronger for the need to consider Christianity in the light of a culture and heritage that is predominantly Buddhist, which led to an increased need for dialogue between the two religions. Consequently, the Study Center for Religion and Society, which was later renamed to Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue (EISD), was established in Colombo in 1951. The center was initially managed by Rev. G. B. Jackson, and later directed by Lynn de Silva, whose focus was on Buddhist studies. ===Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue=== thumb|right| The new Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue building erected after Lynn de Silva's death, with funds that he had collected Lynn de Silva was the director of the Study Center for Religion and Society from 1962. The center was organised into two divisions: Division of Buddhist Studies, and Division of Frontier Studies. The purpose of the former division was to promote study and research in Buddhism, while the purpose of the latter division was to explore the theological and social implications of the Christian faith in Sri Lanka. The center was involved in successfully organising a number of dialogues, meetings, and seminaries, and it became an internationally recognised center for dialogue with Buddhism and other ecumenical concerns. Furthermore, the center was recognised in the 1970s and 1980s as one of the most active of all similar study centres worldwide. In 1977, the center was renamed to Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue (EISD), and set up as an autonomous body separate from the control of religious bodies and institutions. Although the primary focus was maintained on Buddhist-Christian studies and dialogue, a third additional division called Division of Studies of other Faiths and Ideologies was established to initiate studies in other religions. In addition to publishing books and papers on dialogue between Christianity and other religions, the EISD published the Dialogue journal on a quarterly basis, which was founded and initially edited by Lynn de Silva. ===World Council of Churches assembly at Nairobi=== The assembly at Nairobi in 1975 of the World Council of Churches was an important milestone in the history of inter-religious dialogue. For the first time, representatives from five different faiths were present at the gathering, and the discussions were centred around the topic of inter-religious dialogue. At a session that emphasised "seeking community" with people of other faiths, cultures and ideologies, the presentations were driven by, as the former director of the WCC sub-unit Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies (DFI) – S. J. Samartha – put it: "fear of losing the 'uniqueness' of Christ, fear of weakening the sense of 'mission', and the persistent fear of 'syncretism'." Presentations at this session were marked by conflicting opinions between a group of European theologians and a group of Asian and African theologians, which resulted from the conflicting viewpoints between the theologies practised by the two groups. While the Europeans voiced their fear of inter-religious dialogue, the African and Asian participants called for a more definite endorsement of dialogue. According to Sperber and de Alwis, de Silva was, in this debate, one of the leading voices in the Asian viewpoint. S. J. Samartha notes de Silva's contribution as "one of the most powerful interventions in the Assembly in support of dialogue," and Carl Hallencreutz describes it as "the personal witness of an experienced theologian from Sri Lanka." In his speech to the general assembly at Nairobi, de Silva asserted that his concern was to alleviate the fear voiced by Europeans about dialogue which, he claimed, arises in people who have not lived among people of other faiths. He argued that the spirituality of others can be shared without diminishing one's loyalty to one's own faith. Further, he argued that dialogue is a safeguard against syncretism, not a temptation to syncretism, and that Asian Christians should overcome the obstacles that separate one religion from another, and seek to express the Christian faith in the thought-forms and life-forms of Asia. In a publication titled Freedom from Teutonic Captivity (Dialogue, New Series, Vol. 3, No. 1), de Silva shared his thoughts on the Nairobi debate, and he presented the significance of the debate as follows: ==The Asian theology of Lynn de Silva== Lynn de Silva gained an interest in Buddhism and its culture at an early stage in his ministry. He believed that the credibility of Christianity depended on its ability to relate to Buddhism, which was the faith of the majority of the Sri Lankan population. His objective was to develop a richer appreciation of the similarities between Buddhism and Christianity, in particular, to communicate the Christian message in a manner that the Sri Lankan culture understood, and to construct a theology that is focused towards the Buddhist cultural environment. To this end, he used Buddhist concepts to communicate Christian beliefs in a language understood from the Buddhist context, and he aimed at extending Christian theology with Buddhist concepts to gain a more thorough understanding of Christianity. To obtain the necessary background in Sri Lankan Buddhist practices, de Silva consulted reputed Buddhist monks and scholars, visited Buddhist places of worship, and consulted written sources on Sri Lankan Buddhism. Although most of his studies were completed in English, he took a special effort to master Sinhalese and the Sri Lankan culture. Furthermore, he became proficient in Pali, the language of the Buddhist scriptures. His findings eventually led to the book titled Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices in Sri Lanka , which is widely cited in religious literature (e.g.,). According to two journals, this book was unparalleled as an introduction to Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the early 1980s, and it was also the most complete, thorough and sensitive book on Buddhism in Sri Lanka, resulting in it generally being recommended by professors and monks as a standard book on Buddhist practices in Sri Lanka. ===Anattā-Pneuma=== In 1979 de Silva released a book titled The Problem of the Self in Buddhism and Christianity , which has since been cited extensively (e.g.,) and attracted reviews from international journals (e.g., ). This book was also considered by Aloysius Pieris to be de Silva's most outstanding contribution to Theology, and by Perry Schmidt-Leukel to be one of the classics in Buddhist-Christian dialogue, and one that has become well known among those actively involved in this dialogue. Furthermore, this book was included in John Hick's Library of Philosophy and Religion series. In this book, de Silva compares the biblical notion of "the soul" (pneuma) or "the self," with the Buddhist doctrine of "no soul" (anattā) or "no self." Contrary to popular belief, de Silva shows that modern Christian scholarship does not support the notion of a soul as an immortal entity separate from the body. He argues that such a misconception arose as a consequence of the translation of the Bible into Greek. Based on his observation, de Silva shows how the Buddhist doctrine of anattā is complementary to the Christian notion of personal identity – pneuma. He distinguishes that, while pneuma focuses on man as a relational entity, anattā focuses on man as an isolated entity. Furthermore, de Silva infers that if we do consider anattā to be real in Buddhism or Christianity, pneuma must also be real for Nibbāna or the Kingdom of God to be a positive ideal. In his review of de Silva's book, Joseph Kitagawa argues that de Silva is too narrow in his analysis of the anatta doctrine; he claims that a better analysis would have been for de Silva to take into consideration the broader implication of the anattā doctrine, and to challenge the very basis of Greek philosophy which had influenced much of Christian theology. Furthermore, Kitagawa argues that de Silva could have entertained the possibility that Theravada Buddhism might look for Ultimate Reality more readily in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, rather than turning towards Christianity. In Donald Mitchell's analysis of the same book by de Silva, he states that a better framework for dialogue with Hindu traditions could be allowed if de Silva considered an expanded hermeneutical circle that includes a more positive notion of soul that is compatible with the biblical understanding of man. By doing so, Mitchell argues, de Silva would be able to "include inherently valuable insights from the Christian tradition on the nature of man." From the evangelical theologians, Tissa Weerasinghe believed that de Silva needs to put more emphasis on the "glaring disharmony" between Christianity and Buddhism that their differing views on the biblical notion of soul suggest. In relation to de Silva's treatment of this notion, Dyrness states that insights into the biblical picture of human life apart from God cannot be found by a dialogue with Buddhism, but by Christian Asians carefully considering the Scriptures and their own Asian setting. A similar perspective is taken by Lim et al., who insist that de Silva should communicate the Christian message to the Buddhists, instead of giving Buddhist meanings to Christian concepts and harmonising in a syncretistic way the concepts belonging to the two religions. In a publication that aims at an evangelical approach to religions and cultures, Yung interprets de Silva's contribution as not so much an able exercise in dialogue, but, rather, a brilliant Christian apologetic, addressed to Theravada Buddhists. ===Salvation=== With an inclusivistic view on religion in the early stages of his career, Lynn de Silva believed that salvation does not only apply to Christians, but also to other religions. He maintained that while Christians can use Christ as their means for salvation, other religions can use their own means for salvation. Later in his life, de Silva developed more of a pluralistic view on religion, believing that neither of the two religions is superior to the other. Perry Schmidt-Leukel notes how this change of view is evident in de Silva's posthumous article Buddhism and Christianity Relativised, in volume 9 of the Dialogue journal. In her PhD thesis containing a chapter on de Silva's work, Damayanthi Niles claims that there is a problem with de Silva's argument in relation to salvation, in that it "reconciles the exclusive Christ-event and the inclusive vision of God's salvific plan purely on Christian terms," and that it does not take the "religious visions and commitments of other faiths seriously." Furthermore, she argues that de Silva's understanding of salvation, as found in his paper Non-Christian Religions and God's Plan of Salvation , borrows a religious idea from other religions and uses the idea to make Christianity more palatable to other religions and to Christians sensitive to pluralism. ===Thanatology=== In the last few years before his death, de Silva focused his study towards the study of human death, namely, the field of Thanatology. His quest was motivated mainly by the death of his wife Lakshmi in December 1980, but also by his curiosity about the meaning of resurrection. With this frame of mind, de Silva studied the beliefs and practices of people with respect to death, such as the phenomenon of mediums, with help from Buddhist exponents of reincarnation. Although traces of his findings can be seen in his last writings, de Silva died before completing his study. His last findings were published posthumously by his friend and colleague, Fr. Aloysius Pieris S.J., in the paper Buddhism and Christianity Relativised, which appeared in volume 9 of the Dialogue journal. In this paper, de Silva talks about "Life Beyond Death," and writes that theologians should not ignore data from Parapsychology. He urges that evidence about the paranormal is compelling, and that it is a field that merits careful study. Regarding Purgatory, de Silva states in this paper that the Hindu/Buddhist view, where Ultimate Reality is reached through a process of purification through liberation from self and elevation to stages of spiritual development, is more acceptable than the belief in a single life on earth and an everlasting hell or heaven after death. Furthermore, he insists that the Hindu/Buddhist view conforms to modern theological as well as psychical research. In agreement with the Hindu/Buddhist view, de Silva, in this paper, regards Purgatory to be a place of cleansing, which ultimately makes a person ready for eternal life in Heaven. Tissa de Alwis, in his Th.D. thesis studying the works of Lynn de Silva, argues that "de Silva's attempt to harmonise Rebirth, Purgatory, and an intermediate state, which is a kind of a continuum in which one passes from a near state of annihilation to the closest union with God, is inconsistent with the radical picture of Biblical anatta"; furthermore, de Alwis states that de Silva "fails to define lostness in the final sense and slides into an unrestricted universalism." ==Death and legacy== thumb|right|A plaque dedicating the Study Center to the memory of Rev. G. B. Jackson and Lynn de Silva On 22 May 1982, while addressing the audience at a conference, Lynn de Silva succumbed to cardiac arrest. The conference was organised by the National Christian Council on the theme "Jesus Christ, Life of the World." Being the third and final speaker, he completed his discourse on 2 Timothy 3: 15–17 and he stood up again to answer a question from the audience, but he was barely able to formulate a reply and sat back in his chair. He died soon afterward, having continued to work until the end. After Lynn de Silva's death, the EISD was directed by Rev. Kenneth Fernando, and currently (as of 2008) directed by Marshal Fernando. Fr. Aloysius Pieris S. J., who had been collaborating with de Silva since 1968, and who in partnership with de Silva had officially been responsible for editing the New Series of Dialogue, continued to work as editor of the journal after de Silva's death. A sister-in law of Lynn de Silva, Langanee Mendis, who was trained by de Silva as his secretary after the death of his wife Lakshmi, continues to work (as of 2008) as the Administrative Secretary at the institute. Mrs. Mendis is credited as being the main person responsible for the uninterrupted functioning of the institute after Lynn de Silva's death. Furthermore, she was considered by Pieris in 2003 to be "a tower of strength [for the Ecumenical Institute] for well over 20 years." In March 1999, the Study Center building of the EISD was dedicated to the memory of Rev. G. B. Jackson and Lynn de Silva, by Rt. Rev. Andrew Oliver Kumarage (Bishop of Kurunegala). This building is used by a number of institutions and church- related organisations to provide accommodation for participants involved in study programs at the EISD. On 17 November 2009, an article in the Daily News newspaper promoting World Philosophy Day featured a picture and short description of Lynn de Silva, alongside other Sri Lankan philosophers such as K. N. Jayatilleke and Ananda Coomaraswamy. ==Publications== ===Selected books and papers=== * * * * * * * * * * ===Lynn de Silva as subject=== * * * * * ==See also== * Stanley Jedidiah Samartha * Joshua Russell Chandran * Paul David Devanandan * Leonard Swidler * John Hick * D. S. Amalorpavadass * Roger Corless * Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue ==References== Category:1919 births Category:1982 deaths Category:20th-century philosophers Category:20th-century Protestant theologians Category:20th-century Sri Lankan writers Category:Alumni of the University of Birmingham Category:Buddhist and Christian interfaith dialogue Category:Methodist theologians Category:People in interfaith dialogue Category:Philosophers of religion Category:Senate of Serampore College (University) alumni Category:Sinhalese priests Category:Sri Lankan Methodists Category:Sri Lankan philosophers |
Jonas Erik Altberg (; born 22 December 1984), known professionally as Basshunter, is a Swedish singer, record producer, songwriter and DJ. As indicated by his stage name, Basshunter is known for bass-heavy eurodance, trance, and electronic pop music. Born and raised in Halmstad he moved to Malmö in 2006. As a young teen, Basshunter sang in a choir his mother ran. He started producing music at the age of 17, and later he started performing in local venues in his early career. In 2006, he self-released "Boten Anna" for free download a few months before he signed with labels Extensive Music and Warner Music Sweden and began commercial releases. His 2007 song "Now You're Gone" featuring Bazzheadz is based on Bazzheadz's "Now You're Gone" which uses the melody of "Boten Anna" with entirely different lyrics. Basshunter has recorded five studio albums: The Bassmachine (2004), LOL (2006), Now You're Gone – The Album (2008), Bass Generation (2009), and Calling Time (2013). In addition to his own music, he has written for El Capon, Mange Makers, and Lana Scolaro. He has taken part in the seventh series of the British reality television show Celebrity Big Brother, episodes of the Swedish game show Fångarna på fortet, and an episode of the British television quiz show Weakest Link. His accolades include a European Border Breakers Award, a Musikförläggarnas pris, a Telia Award, and nominations for a BT Digital Music Award, two Grammis, an MTV Europe Music Award, and a Rockbjörnen. According to Svenska Dagbladet figures published in 2009, he has sold more than 3 million records. == Early life == Jonas Erik Altberg was born on 22 December 1984 in Halmstad to Gunhild Elisabet (died 2016), a teacher and school principal as well as union representative for the Swedish Teachers' Union and Karl Göran Altberg, who worked for a construction company. He has a younger brother, Joakim; the family lived near Tylösand. In his mid-teens he started singing in a choir his mother ran. He also sang for two years in a rock band, where he became acquainted with experimental music. He attended secondary school with a technical specialization, but moved after two years to , a secondary school in Halmstad with a music specialization. In the unarchived version, access to the article is possible by paid subscription. Click on "Klicka för att läsa vidare". In the unarchived version, access to the article is possible after purchase or by paid subscription. He finished secondary school in 2005, after which he attended college, but did not complete his education. ==Career== === 2001–2006: Beginnings === Altberg began producing music at the age of 17 after six months of using the software program FruityLoops (FL Studio). He chose the stage name "Basshunter" in a reference to his musical style, and described the name as commercial and powerful. In 2004, Basshunter was chosen in an online poll and performed live for the first time at a rave party in Älmhult. Alex Music released Basshunter's first studio album, The Bassmachine, on 25 August 2004. In 2005, a remastered version of this album with improved sound quality was released. In 2006, Basshunter re-released The Bassmachine as The Bass Machine and also released his first compilation album The Old Shit through his own website.Release of The Old Shit: * * Requires Adobe Flash Player software. * Basshunter's interest in music deepened as time went by. He recorded a YouTube video, entitled Basshunter Tutorial, showing his recording process in FL Studio. The track from the video was covered over 200 times. Basshunter published his music mainly through the Internet for free download on platforms such as chat channels and gaming websites. He was registered on online communities like Efterfest, LunarStorm, Nattstad, Porrigt, Playahead, Skunk and Trance.nu. For several years he was a DJ in Swedish clubs. === 2006–2008: LOL === In March 2006, Basshunter published his song "Boten Anna" online and within twenty-four hours, it had been downloaded 37,000 times. Basshunter's single "Welcome to Rainbow" was released on 1 April 2006; it included the track "Boten Anna". With this success, Basshunter received several proposals from managers and music labels. Swedish DJ and party organizer Joakim Jarny contacted Basshunter via Internet Relay Chat and Jarny was soon overwhelmed by hundreds of requests from club owners in Sweden, Norway and Denmark who wanted Basshunter to perform at their clubs. Jarny contacted his friend Henrik Uhlmann at Extensive Music and in April 2006, Basshunter signed with Extensive Music and Warner Music Sweden. On 9 May 2006, "Boten Anna" was officially released as a single. By 8 June 2006, the song had been downloaded over one million times. In that year, he moved to Malmö, where the headquarters of Extensive Music are located. "Boten Anna" peaked at number one on the Swedish singles chart and reached number 13 on the Swedish Best of All Time list, and was certified platinum. It also reached number one on the Danish singles chart, staying there for 14 weeks, and was certified triple platinum for selling 61,000 copies. It was also certified gold in Austria. "Boten Anna" was covered twice by Dutch duo Gebroeders Ko, whose bootleg charted at number three in the Netherlands, right after Basshunter's version. The next cover called reached number two. An official German-language version was released in 2007. Basshunter's second studio album LOL was released on 28 August 2006. He worked on the album for three-and-a-half weeks, during which Ali Payami helped him with three songs. Basshunter described it as a connection of vocal music with hard dance and hard trance music; Basshunter's use of vocals is a significant departure from his earlier works. An American version of LOL was released on 1 January 2008, with the same Swedish songs as the original album but with lyrics and some titles translated into English. The new release also included new tracks, including "Now You're Gone", "Russia Privjet", "The Beat", "Jingle Bells", "Beer in the Bar" and "DotA (Club Mix)". A special version of this album was released in 2008, and includes the German version of "Boten Anna" and three music videos. LOL peaked at number five in Sweden, number four on the Finnish chart and number three on the Danish albums chart, and was certified double platinum in Denmark. The second single from LOL, "Vi sitter i Ventrilo och spelar DotA", was released on 13 September of the same year. The single peaked at number two in Finland, number six in Sweden, and number seven in Norway and Denmark. It was certified gold in Denmark. His song "Hallå där" charted at number 51 on Swedish singles chart. The album's third single, a remake of the Christmas song "Jingle Bells", was released on 13 November and peaked at number nine in Norway, and number 13 in Sweden. The single also made it onto the Dutch and United Kingdom charts. The single "Vifta med händerna", which features the duo Patrik & Lillen, peaked on the Finnish charts at number seven and on the Sweden charts at number 25. On 5 November 2007, a new version of the "Vi sitter i Ventrilo och spelar DotA" was released under the title "DotA"; it charted on Germany's singles chart. This is different from the 2008 version from Now You're Gone – The Album. ===2007–2009: Now You're Gone – The Album=== On 29 December 2007, an English- language version of "Boten Anna" entitled "Now You're Gone" was released. A year earlier, in 2006, DJ Mental Theo (under the alias Bazzheadz) had created a bootleg English version called using the melody of "Boten Anna" with entirely different lyrics. Initially, Basshunter tried to translate "Boten Anna" into English but found it difficult to keep the "hock" and the story so he recorded his own version of "Now You're Gone" with DJ Mental Theo's lyrics. It was the initial release for Hard2Beat Records label (later Dance Nation). The single charted at number one in the United Kingdom, where it peaked at number one for five weeks. It was the first Swedish song to reach number one in the United Kingdom since "Dancing Queen" by ABBA. "Now You're Gone" sold in excess of 667,000 copies in the United Kingdom and was certified platinum there. It also charted on the UK Top 100 Songs of the Decade list. "Now You're Gone" also stayed at the top for five weeks in Ireland, made it to number two on the Swedish chart, and number three in New Zealand, where the single was certified platinum. On the French singles chart, "Now You're Gone" peaked at number six. "Now You're Gone" also charted at number four on the European Hot 100 Singles chart. The next single "Please Don't Go", a cover of the KC and the Sunshine Band 1979 song, was released on 19 May 2008 and reached number six on the Swedish singles chart. The third single "All I Ever Wanted" was released on 29 June 2008 and peaked at number 2 in the United Kingdom, where it sold about 400,000 copies and was certified gold. It reached number one on the Irish singles chart. The single "All I Ever Wanted" was certified gold in New Zealand and charted at number 10 on the European Hot 100 Singles chart. Basshunter worked on Now You're Gone – The Album for two-and-a-half weeks before releasing it on 14 July 2008. The album entered the UK Albums Chart at number one Select "Albums" tab. sold 376,017 copies in the United Kingdom, and was certified platinum there. It also topped the album chart in New Zealand and was certified platinum there. Now You're Gone – The Album charted at number two in Ireland and reached number six on the European Top 100 Albums chart. The song "Angel in the Night" was released as a single on 8 September 2008; it charted at number 10 in Ireland and number 14 in the United Kingdom. It also charted in Sweden. In 2008 Basshunter became the 11th-best-selling singles songwriter in the United Kingdom according to eight months of data compiled by Official Charts Company. The album's fifth single "I Miss You" is a dance cover of a Westlife song and was released on 14 December 2008. The single appeared on the United Kingdom, Swedish, and German charts. On 5 April 2009, the single "Walk on Water" was released, as was a deluxe edition of the album that includes all of the original album together with remixes of singles; "I Can Walk on Water" was replaced with the single version and renamed "Walk on Water". === 2009: Bass Generation === On 25 September 2009, Basshunter's fourth studio album Bass Generation, was released. The Double Album Version includes remixes of some of his singles, and the tracks "Without Stars" and the Swedish version of "Camilla". In early September 2009, prior to the album's release, the track "Numbers" was released as a free download via Basshunter's official Bebo account. Bass Generation reached number two in New Zealand, and number 16 in the United Kingdom and Irish album charts. It sold more than 60,000 copies and was certified silver in the United Kingdom. The track "Every Morning" was released as a single on 18 September 2009; it reached number 13 on Swedish singles chart and number 14 in New Zealand. It peaked at number 17 in the United Kingdom and Ireland. "I Promised Myself", a cover of a Nick Kamen hit, was released on 29 November 2009. === 2010–2013: Calling Time and The Early Bedroom Sessions === The single "Saturday" was released on 5 July 2010; it reached number 14 on the New Zealand chart and was certified gold there. It also charted in the United Kingdom and Ireland. On 20 April 2011, the next Basshunter single "Fest i hela huset", which was recorded during his time in the Swedish Big Brother series, was released. The single charted at number five on the Swedish singles chart. His following single "Northern Light" was released on 14 May 2012 and the next single "Dream on the Dancefloor" was released on 18 November that year. Basshunter's compilation album The Early Bedroom Sessions, which consists of tracks from albums The Bassmachine and The Old Shit, other early releases and unreleased tracks, was released on 3 December 2012. In 2012, Basshunter moved to Dubai and he also lived in Mallorca for six months. Extensive Music also moved to Dubai. On 13 May 2013, Basshunter's fifth album Calling Time was released. In the version released in Ireland and in the United Kingdom, the track "Saturday" was replaced with "Open Your Eyes". Basshunter recorded more than 30 tracks for Calling Time and selected the final fifteen; he said he "tried to grow as an artist" with an album that has "classic Basshunter sounds" and previously unreleased music. The album charted at number 25 on the US Dance/Electronic Albums chart. On 20 June 2013, the single "Crash & Burn" was released; it charted on the Russian airplay chart. The last single from the album was "Calling Time", which was released on 27 September. === 2013–present: Singles === On 26 July 2013 Basshunter announced he was retiring from singing to focus on DJing, producing, and songwriting. He met new artists and invited them to sing on his songs. He made the decision after four exhaustive performances in four days. On 20 November 2013, the single "Elinor" was released. In 2014, Basshunter announced a new album was in work. In 2016, Basshunter returned to recording; he said he would not release a new studio album but would focus on recording singles in accordance with prevailing trends in music industry. Almost after five years since his last single, on 19 October 2018, the single "Masterpiece" was released; it did not appear on major national charts. Since then, he has released four more singles: "Home" (2019), "Angels Ain't Listening" (2020) and "Life Speaks to Me" (2021); a tribute to Avicii. His 2022 "End the Lies" is a collaboration with Italian duo . In 2023 he collaborated with Victor Leksell on "Ingen kan slå (Boten Anna)". It debuted at number ten on the Swedish singles chart. == Artistry == === Musical style === Basshunter defines his music as eurodance. He says it is cheerful, full of energy and very melodic, stating it does not sound like other types of music, and that producers and artists display their own identities in their works. He is passionate about basslines and uses them in his music. Basshunter likes to create songs in minor scales. He has at least five unknown pseudonyms under which he produces music in secret. He always takes his laptop on concert tours so he can spontaneously record ideas and return to them when he is back in his main studio. Basshunter composes music and writes lyrics himself, though sometimes his agent helps with the lyrics to find the right English words. PDF version . He likes to write lyrics that audiences can identify with. In 2018 Basshunter said that the music industry changed in previous years and it is harder now more than ever to stand out from other artists because it is easier to produce music. He added that it is more important than ever to adapt and an artist has to create something that people haven't heard before and described it as a holy grail. In 2020 Basshunter described himself as quite an emotional producer after a few years break from producing music. As influences, he mentions listening to and , and bands Warp Brothers and Snap!. He also listened to many underground tracks that had never been released or are not widely known by the general public, as well as German and Dutch techno music, trance, reggae, funk and blues music; particularly the music of Ray Charles. He considers Ali Payami as one of the best music producers, songwriters and DJ's. The first music release he bought is a single "The Way" by Fastball in the 1990s. He is fan of Robbie Williams. Basshunter's work has influenced Avicii, Bladee, DCPA, Earmake and Thaiboy Digital. CMAT, Johan Gunterberg from De Vet Du, , , Access to the article is possible by paid subscription. Surf Mesa and Linda Thelenius like Basshunter's music. Stefán Finnbogason from Sykur PDF version . and listen to Basshunter's music. The first computer Basshunter used was the Atari ST. After achieving commercial success, he bought software to produce his music. Around 95% of his music is created with software, including digital audio workstations such as FL Studio, Logic Pro, Logic Studio, Pro Tools, Cubase, and Virtual Studio Technology plugins. He also plays guitar. He said stores buy an album for about 100 Swedish krona, of which he gets paid 12-13 percent. He said people think he listens to techno in his headphones all the time but he rarely listen to the music he produces, which gives him a wider perspective. Basshunter considers his fan base to be very important for his career and knows many of his non- Scandinavian fans actually prefer his songs to be in Swedish. Writing in English may be an advantage for reaching international audiences but he has also said he likes the challenge of writing songs in English. === Live performances === Basshunter tries to plan the shows but actually presents his live performances as improvisations. In 2006, he performed seven times in one day, when he performed at shopping centres in Gothenburg and Malmö, and five nightclubs. He believes around 10% of Scandinavians or Swedes attend his concerts outside Sweden. Basshunter has performed at many festivals including Elämä lapselle (2006 and 2008), Hity Na Czasie twice in 2007 and 2009, T4 on the Beach (2010), Youth Beatz (2011), Allsång på Skansen (2012), Hull Pride (2012), Nottinghamshire Pride (2012), Emmabodafestivalen (2014 and 2017), The Gathering (2019) and Lundakarnevalen (2022). In 2006, Basshunter performed during the Norway Cup. In 2009, he performed at the New Year's Eve party for the president of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev and his family. He appeared on BBC Switch Live (2008) and in 2014 performed on Sochi Medals Plaza during the awards ceremony of Winter Olympic Games. Basshunter has performed on many tours, including New Zealand Tour (2009), Dance Nation Tour (2009 and 2010) and Australian Tour (2016). === Production, songwriting and remixes=== Basshunter has remixed songs for a number of artists. In 2007 he released some remixes of singles; "Dancing Lasha Tumbai" by Verka Serduchka finished second in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007. "Du hast den schönsten Arsch der Welt" by Alex C. (featuring Y-ass) charted at number one in Austria and Germany. "Ieva's polka (Ievan polkka)" by Loituma also charted in Germany. He also released remix of "Calcutta 2008" for Dr. Bombay's compilation album The Hits. In 2008, Basshunter remixed Alina's song "When You Leave (Numa Numa)". In 2014, Basshunter remixed by Arash (featuring T-Pain), which charted in Austria and Germany, and was released on Arash's album Superman. In 2015, he wrote "Mange kommer hem till dig" for the band Mange Makers. The single charted at number three on the Swedish Heatseeker chart. In 2020 he wrote "Shut Up Chicken" for El Capon and "Charlie" for Lana Scolaro. "Shut Up Chicken" appeared on the Russian and Polish airplay charts. === Music videos === Music videos for "Now You're Gone", "All I Ever Wanted", "Angel in the Night", "I Miss You", "Every Morning", "I Promised Myself", "Saturday" and "Northern Light" were directed by Alex Herron.Music videos directed by Alex Herron: * "Now You're Gone": * "All I Ever Wanted": * "Angel in the Night": * "I Miss You": * "Every Morning": * "I Promised Myself": * "Saturday": * "Northern Light": His series of music videos with Aylar Lie received media attention. Media attention to music videos with Aylar Lie: * * * "Now You're Gone" became the most-viewed YouTube video in the United Kingdom in 2008 and the third-most-viewed YouTube video of 2009 with 65 million views. The music video for "Saturday" charted at number one in Poland. == Other activities == ===Philanthropy=== In 2008 and 2010, Basshunter appeared at the charity event Cash for Kids. He also appeared at the charity event Musikhjälpen in 2008. In February 2012, Norton Hill School's Quantock House organized a 20-hour charity sleep-over with Basshunter's song "Now You're Gone" playing non-stop, collecting more than £2,000 in the event to raise funds for the charities Time is Precious and Cancer Research UK. The event was repeated in 2015 with the same results. ===Television and media=== In 2009, Basshunter was a guest of television shows Red Bull Rivals and Never Mind the Buzzcocks. Starting in 2010, Basshunter took part in the seventh series of British Channel 4's Celebrity Big Brother as a housemate and finished in fourth place. He also appeared in the Swedish television game show Fångarna på fortet and in the British quiz show Weakest Link in 2010. In 2011 Basshunter's profile on Facebook was the most followed page among Swedish musicians with over 1,7 million followers. In 2015 his profile dropped to 4th place with over 2.9 million followers. In a 2017 Twitter poll, 92% of 57,814 voters said they would like Basshunter to become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; 8% supported Theresa May. === Video games and films=== Basshunter finished second place in a Swedish StarCraft tournament. He played Counter-Strike at semi- professional level and his clan won two tournaments in Sweden. He appeared during the Danmarks Bedste Gamer in 2008 and during The Gathering in 2019. After achieving commercial success, he could not publish songs as free downloads and started producing vlogs for YouTube. He initially planned to release a continuation of LOL album titled either ROFL or KTHXBYE for free but was unable to after signing with a record label. In 2011, Basshunter appeared in the film Playing with Arnold, in which he invites people to play the video game Mortal Online. Basshunter appeared in Arash's music video for "Melody". In 2021, he appeared in a promotional video, titled Basshunter Dota Revival for the Netflix series Dota: Dragon's Blood, performing "DotA" whilst playing Dota 2. ==Legal issues== On 10 December 2010, Scotland's Fife Constabulary charged Basshunter over a sexual assault allegation made by two female fans during a party at a nightclub in Kirkcaldy. He was released on bail. His manager said the allegations were "totally untrue". Basshunter pleaded not guilty to two charges of sexual assault against the two women at a hearing at the town's court on 12 January 2011. On 14 June 2011, he was found not guilty, with the sheriff describing his accusers as "neither credible nor reliable" and their testimony as "riddled with inconsistencies and improbabilities". == Personal life == During their time together on the British reality television show Celebrity Big Brother in 2010, Basshunter and Kazakhstani-born Russian model Ekaterina Ivanova began an intimate relationship. In the unarchived version, access to the article is possible by paid subscription. He began dating Tina Makhia Khayatsadeh in 2014, and they were married on 19 January 2017 at the Dubai Polo & Equestrian Club in the presence of his brother Joakim, his manager Henrik Uhlmann, Iranian-Swedish singer Arash, Polish singer Margaret, Swedish diplomat Jan Thesleff, Warner Music Sweden chief executive officer Jonas Siljemark. The couple divorced after a year. He has stated he did not enjoy life as a married man and described the need to numb his emotions with work and alcohol. Basshunter has Tourette syndrome and has described himself as a spontaneous person, though he has also said he has a sensitive side. ==Awards and nominations== During his career, Basshunter has won several awards including Musikförläggarnas pris (2006) and NRJ Radio Award (2007). His debut album LOL was nominated for Emma, Grammis and won the European Border Breakers Award. Single "Boten Anna" was nominated for Rockbjörnen and won Eurodanceweb Award and Telia awards. Basshunter's song "Now You're Gone" won an Eska Music Award and was nominated for an MTV Europe Music Award. "Every Morning" was nominated for International Dance Music Award. ==Discography== * The Bassmachine (2004) * LOL (2006) * Now You're Gone – The Album (2008) * Bass Generation (2009) * Calling Time (2013) ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * Category:1984 births Category:Living people Category:Musicians from Halmstad Category:Singers from Halmstad Category:Songwriters from Halmstad Category:Swedish electronic musicians Category:Eurodance musicians Category:Electro musicians Category:Swedish trance musicians Category:Swedish pop musicians Category:Swedish male singers Category:Swedish record producers Category:Swedish songwriters Category:Swedish DJs Category:Swedish Internet celebrities Category:Extensive Music artists Category:Warner Music Sweden artists Category:Ultra Records artists Category:Dance Nations artists Category:3 Beat Records artists Category:Musikförläggarnas pris winners Category:World Music Awards winners Category:Swedish-language singers Category:English-language singers from Sweden Category:Electronic dance music DJs Category:People with Tourette syndrome Category:Swedish expatriates in the United Arab Emirates Category:FL Studio users |
Matthew Martin Rosendale Sr. (born July 7, 1960) is an American politician and businessman from Montana. A member of the Republican Party, he is the U.S. representative for Montana's 2nd congressional district. He was first elected to the at-large district in 2020. Before his election to Congress, Rosendale was the Montana state auditor. He was also a member of the Montana Legislature from 2011 to 2017, in both houses. ==Early life and career== Rosendale was born and raised in Maryland. He spent his career working in real estate, real estate development and land management. He grew his family real estate business from a single, five-agent office into a full-service firm with 65 agents and four offices. In 2002, Rosendale and his family moved to Glendive, Montana. He was twice elected chairman of the Glendive Agri-Trade Expo committee, a local group that puts on an agriculture exposition showcasing agri-business in eastern Montana. Rosendale also served as head of his local Catholic parish council. ==Montana State Legislature== Rosendale says his friends and neighbors in Glendive urged him to run for the state legislature to reduce spending and regulations, defend their gun and property rights, and protect the sanctity of life. He served one two-year term in the Montana House of Representatives and one four-year term in the Montana Senate, during which he served as majority leader. === 2010 Montana House of Representatives election === Rosendale announced he would run for the Montana House of Representatives to represent House District 38, which covers Wibaux and part of Dawson County. Also seeking the Republican nomination were Edward Hilbert and Alan Doane. Rosendale prevailed, receiving 48.4% of the vote to Doane's 41.3% and Hilbert's 10.4%. Rosendale defeated Democratic incumbent State Representative Dennis Getz in the general election, with 52.7% of the vote to Getz's 47.3%. === 2011 state legislative session === During the 2011 legislative session, Rosendale served on several committees, including the Business and Labor Committee, the Transportation Committee, and the Local Government Committee. === 2012 Montana Senate election === In 2012, with State Senator Donald Steinbeisser ineligible for reelection due to term limits, Rosendale announced he would run for the Montana Senate to represent Senate District 19, a heavily Republican district in eastern Montana. After running unopposed in the Republican primary, Rosendale defeated Democratic nominee Fred Lake in the general election, with 67.6% of the vote to Lake's 32.4%. === 2013 Senate session === During the 2013 legislative session, Rosendale served as vice chair of the Natural Resources and Transportation Committee. He also served on the Finance and Claims Committee, the Highways and Transportation Committee and the Natural Resources Committee. During this legislative session, Rosendale was the primary sponsor of a resolution urging Congress to submit a balanced budget amendment to states. He also was the primary sponsor of a bill that became law to prevent law enforcement from using drones for surveillance purposes. Based on Rosendale's voting record in the 2013 legislative session, he earned a 100% on the Montana Family Foundation's scorecard and was also named a "Champion of Business" by the Montana Chamber of Commerce. === 2015 Senate session and Majority Leader tenure === Due to state redistricting in 2014, Rosendale represented Senate District 18 for the rest of his tenure, starting in 2015. At the beginning of the 2015 legislative session, Rosendale's colleagues in the State Senate elected him to serve as majority leader. He also chaired the Rules Committee and was a member of the Finance and Claims Committee and Natural Resources and Transportation Committee. Rosendale was the primary sponsor of a bill to authorize direct primary care provider plans that passed the legislature before being vetoed by Governor Steve Bullock. Rosendale's voting record in the 2015 session earned him 100% scores from several organizations, including the Montana Family Foundation. He received the American Conservative Union's Award for Conservative Excellence and was again named a "Champion of Business" by the Montana Chamber of Commerce. == Montana state auditor == === Elections === ==== 2016 ==== With State Auditor Monica Lindeen ineligible for reelection due to term limits, Rosendale ran for the position. Rosendale ran unopposed in the Republican primary. In the general election, he faced Jesse Laslovich, who was Lindeen's chief legal counsel and widely considered one of Montana's rising political stars. Despite being outspent 4:1, Rosendale defeated Laslovich with 53.6% of the vote to Laslovich's 46.4%. At the time, this was the most expensive State Auditor's race in Montana state history. ==== 2018 U.S. Senate election ==== In 2017, Rosendale announced he would seek the Republican nomination to challenge two-term incumbent Democratic Senator Jon Tester. In a competitive four-way primary, Rosendale faced District Judge Russell Fagg, State Senator Al Olszewski, and combat veteran Troy Downing. Rosendale won the Republican primary with 33.8% of the vote to Fagg's 28.3%, Downing's 19.1% and Olszewski's 18.7%. After the primary, Rosendale was endorsed by President Donald Trump and Vice President Mike Pence. Trump visited the state to campaign for Rosendale four times, with Pence visiting three times. Polls showed the race in a statistical tie going into election day, in what was the most expensive election in Montana history, with more than $70 million spent between the two sides. Tester's campaign had a huge cash advantage, raising and spending $21 million to Rosendale's $6 million. In the general election, Tester won 50.3% of the vote to Rosendale's 46.8%, with Libertarian candidate Rick Breckenridge taking 2.9%. === Tenure=== As State Auditor, Rosendale approved direct primary care agreements and authorized Medi-Share to operate in Montana. Medi-Share, a health care sharing ministry which asks members of a religious faith to pool money together to cover their health care costs, had previously been banned from operating in Montana after the company refused to cover a member’s medical bills. In authorizing Medi-Share to operate in Montana, Rosendale determined that the company did not qualify as an insurer and had no obligation to pay subscribers’ bills. He refused to accept a pay raise every year taking an annual salary of $92,236. As State Auditor, Rosendale was also one of five members of the Montana State Land Board, which oversees the 5.2 million acres in the state trust land. As a member of the Montana State Land Board, Rosendale voted to expand access to over of public land. In 2017, Rosendale proposed legislation that would create a reinsurance program so that individuals with preexisting conditions could access affordable health coverage. This legislation passed both houses of the legislature before being vetoed by Governor Steve Bullock. Rosendale condemned Bullock's veto, saying, "the governor has sacrificed good, bipartisan policy in favor of bad, partisan politics." Rosendale then worked with a bipartisan group of Montana officials to create a reinsurance program and were granted a waiver to do so by the federal government. The program is now operational. In 2019, Rosendale proposed legislation targeting pharmacy benefits managers and a practice known as spread pricing. The legislation passed both houses of the legislature before being vetoed by Bullock. Rosendale again condemned Bullock, saying his veto "is a gift to the pharmaceutical and insurance industries and it's a slap in the face to consumers." ==U.S. House of Representatives == === Elections === ==== 2014 ==== In 2013, incumbent Representative Steve Daines announced that he would not seek reelection and would instead run for the United States Senate. Rosendale then announced his candidacy to succeed Daines in the U.S. House of Representatives. In addition to Rosendale, the Republican field included former State Senators Ryan Zinke and Corey Stapleton, State Representative Elsie Arntzen, and real estate investor Drew Turiano. Rosendale came in third place with 28.8% of the vote, behind Zinke's 33.3% and Stapleton's 29.3%. Arntzen and Turiano received 6.9% and 1.7%, respectively. ==== 2020 ==== In June 2019, Representative Greg Gianforte announced that he would not seek reelection and would instead run for governor to replace term- limited Governor Steve Bullock. Days later, Rosendale announced he would run for the open seat. Rosendale received the early endorsement of President Trump. He also received early endorsements from elected officials around the country, including Senator Ted Cruz, Senator Rand Paul, House Republican Leader Kevin McCarthy, House Republican Whip Steve Scalise and Representative Jim Jordan, as well as the endorsement of the Crow Tribe of Montana. He won the six-way Republican primary with 48.3% of the vote, carrying every county. Rosendale defeated Democratic nominee Kathleen Williams in the general election in November, with 56.4% of the vote to her 43.6%. ==== 2022 ==== As a result of the 2020 census and redistricting cycle, Montana regained a congressional district after having had a single at-large district since 1993. Rosendale ran for reelection in the reconstituted second district, which covers the eastern two-thirds of the state and includes Billings, Great Falls, Helena and his home in Glendive. Rosendale again received Trump's endorsement and won the Republican primary with 75.7% of the vote. He won the general election with 56.6% of the vote, to Independent Gary Buchanan's 22.0% and Democrat Penny Ronning's 20.1%. === Tenure === Along with all other Senate and House Republicans, Rosendale voted against the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021. In June 2021, Rosendale was among 21 House Republicans to vote against a resolution to give the Congressional Gold Medal to police officers who defended the U.S. Capitol on January 6. Also in June 2021, he was among 14 House Republicans to vote against passing legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. Rosendale supports a ban on members of Congress trading stocks.Andrew Stanton. (24 January 2022). "Here Are 27 Congress Members Urging Nancy Pelosi, McCarthy to Ban Stock Trading in House". Newsweek website Retrieved 11 May 2023.Karl Evers-Hillstrom. (11 May 2023). "Lawmakers call for markup on stock trading ban before August recess". The Hill website Retrieved 11 May 2023. Rosendale was among the 71 Republicans who voted against final passage of the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023 in the House. ====Foreign and defense policy==== In June 2021, Rosendale was one of 49 House Republicans to vote to repeal the AUMF against Iraq.https://clerk.house.gov/evs/2021/roll172.xml Rosendale was one of 15 representatives to vote against H.R. 567: Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership Program Act of 2021, which would establish an interagency program to assist countries in North and West Africa to improve immediate and long- term capabilities to counter terrorist threats, and for other purposes. In September 2021, Rosendale was among 75 House Republicans to vote against the National Defense Authorization Act of 2022, which contains a provision that would require women to be drafted. He was among 19 House Republicans to vote against the final passage of the 2022 National Defense Authorization Act. In November 2021, Rosendale was one of six House Republicans to vote against the RENACER Act, which extended U.S. sanctions against Nicaragua and granted the president several ways to address acts of corruption and human rights violations by the Daniel Ortega administration, including the power to exclude Nicaragua from the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) and to obstruct multilateral loans to the country. Rosendale issued a statement in opposition to intervention in Ukraine during the 2021–22 Russo- Ukrainian crisis. Later, he sponsored the Secure America’s Border First Act, which would prohibit the expenditure or obligation of military and security assistance to Kyiv over the U.S. border with Mexico. On March 2, 2022, Rosendale was one of only three House members to vote against a resolution supporting the sovereignty of Ukraine in the face of the Russian invasion. In 2022, Rosendale voted against a bill that would provide approximately $14 billion to the government of Ukraine. In July 2022, Rosendale was one of 18 Republicans to vote against ratifying Sweden's and Finland's applications for NATO membership. In 2023, Rosendale was among 47 Republicans to vote in favor of H.Con.Res. 21 which directed President Joe Biden to remove U.S. troops from Syria within 180 days. ====Immigration==== In July 2021, Rosendale voted against the bipartisan ALLIES Act, which would increase by 8,000 the number of special immigrant visas for Afghan allies of the U.S. military during its invasion of Afghanistan, while also reducing some application requirements that caused long application backlogs; the bill passed in the House 407–16. Rosendale sponsored Representative Brian Babin's bill, H.R.140 - Birthright Citizenship Act of 2021, which would eliminate birthright citizenship. === Committee assignments === * Committee on Veterans Affairs ** Subcommittee on Health ** Subcommittee on Technology Modernization (Ranking Member) * Committee on Natural Resources ** Subcommittee on National Parks, Forests and Public Lands ** Subcommittee on Indigenous Peoples of the United States === Caucus memberships === * Freedom Caucus * Republican Study Committee ==Personal life== Rosendale and his wife Jean reside on a ranch north of Glendive. They have three adult children. Their son Adam served briefly in the Montana Legislature in 2017. Rosendale is a Roman Catholic.https://www.pewforum.org/wp- content/uploads/sites/7/2021/01/01.04.21_faith_on_the_hill_detailed.table_.update.pdf == Controversy == On March 1, 2023, Rosendale took a photo in front of the United States Capitol with Ryan Sanchez, a former member of the white supremacist gang Rise Above Movement and Greyson Arnold, a Nazi sympathizer and podcaster who was at the January 6 Capitol attack. In an email, Rosendale stated "I absolutely condemn and have zero tolerance for hate groups, hate speech, and violence. I did not take a meeting with these individuals...I was asked for a photo while walking between hearings, accommodating as I do for all photo requests, and was not aware of the individuals' identity or affiliation with these hate groups that stand in stark contrast to my personal beliefs." During his 2018 campaign, Rosendale faced criticism for repeatedly presenting himself as a “rancher” in interviews and campaign materials despite owning no cattle or a cattle brand according to public records. Critics labelled Rosendale “all hat, no cattle.” Rosendale, who bought a $2 million ranch near Glendive when he moved to Montana in 2002, said he leased his land and helps run cattle on it. Rosendale later removed the “rancher” label from bios on his website and social media accounts. ==Electoral history== ===2010 === ===2012=== ===2014=== ===2016=== ===2018=== ===2020=== === 2022 === ==References== == External links == * Representative Matt Rosendale official U.S. House website * Matt Rosendale for Congress * * |- |- |- |- Category:1960 births Category:21st-century American politicians Category:Candidates in the 2018 United States Senate elections Category:American nationalists Category:American Roman Catholics Category:Catholic politicians from Montana Category:Living people Category:Republican Party members of the Montana House of Representatives Category:Republican Party Montana state senators Category:People from Glendive, Montana Category:Businesspeople from Montana Category:Businesspeople from Baltimore Category:Politicians from Baltimore Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Montana Category:State insurance commissioners of the United States |
The praenomen (; plural: praenomina) was a personal name chosen by the parents of a Roman child. It was first bestowed on the dies lustricus (day of lustration), the eighth day after the birth of a girl, or the ninth day after the birth of a boy. The praenomen would then be formally conferred a second time when girls married, or when boys assumed the toga virilis upon reaching manhood. Although it was the oldest of the tria nomina commonly used in Roman naming conventions, by the late republic, most praenomina were so common that most people were called by their praenomina only by family or close friends. For this reason, although they continued to be used, praenomina gradually disappeared from public records during imperial times. Although both men and women received praenomina, women's praenomina were frequently ignored, and they were gradually abandoned by many Roman families, though they continued to be used in some families and in the countryside. ==Background== The tria nomina, consisting of praenomen, nomen and cognomen, which are today regarded as a distinguishing feature of Roman culture, first developed and spread throughout Italy in pre-Roman times. Most of the people of Italy spoke languages belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family; the three major groups within the Italian Peninsula were the Latino-Faliscan languages, including the tribes of the Latini, or Latins, who formed the core of the early Roman populace, and their neighbors, the Falisci and Hernici; the Oscan languages, including the Sabines, who also contributed to early Roman culture, as well as the Samnites, and many other peoples of central and southern Italy; and the Umbrian languages, spoken by the Umbri of the Central Apennines, the rustic Picentes of the Adriatic coast, and the Volsci. In addition to the Italic peoples was the Etruscan civilization, whose language was unrelated to Indo-European, but who exerted a strong cultural influence throughout much of Italy, including early Rome.Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed. (1970) The Italic nomenclature system cannot clearly be attributed to any one of these cultures, but seems to have developed simultaneously amongst each of them, perhaps due to constant contact between them. It first appears in urban centers and thence gradually spread to the countryside. In the earliest period, each person was known by a single name, or nomen. These nomina were monothematic; that is, they expressed a single concept or idea. As populations grew, many individuals might be known by the same name. Unlike the other cultures of Europe, which dealt with this problem by adopting dithematic names (names expressing two ideas), the peoples of Italy developed the first true surnames, or cognomina.Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft At first these were generally personal names, and might refer to any number of things, including a person's occupation, town of origin, the name of his or her father, or some physical feature or characteristic. But gradually an increasing number of them became hereditary, until they could be used to distinguish whole families from one generation to another. As this happened, the word nomen came to be applied to these surnames, and the original personal name came to be called the praenomen, or "forename", as it was usually recited first. Cognomen came to refer to any other personal or hereditary surnames coming after the family name, and used to distinguish individuals or branches of large families from one another.William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities As the tria nomina developed throughout Italy, the importance of the praenomen in everyday life declined considerably, together with the number of praenomina in common use. By the 1st century CE they were occasionally omitted from public records, and by the middle of the 4th century CE they were seldom recorded. As the Roman Empire expanded, much of the populace came from cultures with different naming conventions, and the formal structure of the tria nomina became neglected. Various names that were originally nomina or cognomina came to be treated as praenomina, and some individuals used several of them at once. However, some vestiges of the original system survived, and many of the original praenomina have continued into modern times.Dictionary of Greek & Roman Biography & MythologyT. R. S. Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Republic (1952) Most common praenomina were regularly abbreviated in writing (in speech the full name would always be used). Although some names could be abbreviated multiple ways, the following tables include only the most usual abbreviation, if any, for each name. These abbreviations continue to be used by classical scholars. ==Latin praenomina== Each of the Italic peoples had its own distinctive group of praenomina. A few names were shared between cultures, and the Etruscans in particular borrowed many praenomina from Latin and Oscan. It is disputed whether some of the praenomina used by the Romans themselves were of distinctly Etruscan or Oscan origin. However, these names were in general use at Rome and other Latin towns, and were used by families that were certainly of Latin origin. Thus, irrespective of their actual etymology, these names may be regarded as Latin. ===Masculine names=== In the early centuries of the Roman Republic, about three dozen praenomina seem to have been in general use at Rome, of which about half were common. This number gradually dwindled to about eighteen praenomina by the 1st century BCE, of which perhaps a dozen were common. * Agrippa (Agr.) * Appius (Ap.) * Aulus (A.) * Caeso (K.) * Decimus (D.) * Faustus (F.) * Gaius (C.) * Gnaeus (Cn.) * Hostus * Lucius (L.) * Mamercus (Mam.) * Manius (ꟿ. or M'.) * Maximus * Marcus (M.) * Mettius * Nonus * Numerius (N.) * Octavius (Oct.) * Opiter (Opet.) * Paullus * Postumus (Post.) * Proculus (Pro.) * Publius (P.) * Quintus (Q.) * Septimus * Sertor (Sert.) * Servius (Ser.) * Sextus (Sex.) * Spurius (S.) * Statius (St.) * Tiberius (Ti.) * Titus (T.) * Tullus * Vibius (V.) * Volesus (Vol.) * Vopiscus (Vop.) Notes: * Caeso is frequently (especially in older records) spelled Kaeso. The abbreviation K. was retained to distinguish the name from Gaius, abbreviated "C." * Gaius and Gnaeus are abbreviated with C. and Cn., respectively, because the practice of abbreviating them was already established at the time the letter G, a modified C, was introduced to the Latin alphabet. Although the archaic spellings Caius and Cnaeus also appear in later records, Gaius and Gnaeus represent the actual pronunciation of these names. * Manius was originally abbreviated with an archaic five-stroke M (ꟿ), borrowed from the Etruscan alphabet (from which the Latin alphabet was derived) but not otherwise used in Latin. The apostrophe is used as a substitute for this letter. * Octavius (with an i) seems to be the only form of this name found as a praenomen, although the form Octavus would be consistent with the adjective from which the name is derived. * Volero, a praenomen used by the Publilii, is believed to be a variant of Volesus. Some of the praenomina in this list are known from only a few examples. However, the overall sample from which they have been taken represents only a small fraction of the entire Roman populace. The Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft mentions about ten thousand individuals whose praenomina are known from surviving works of history, literature, and various inscriptions. These individuals are spread over a period of over twelve centuries, with the smallest sample coming from the early Republic, when the greatest variety of praenomina was in use. During that same period, the sample consists almost entirely of Roman men belonging to the leading patrician families. Many of the names which were uncommon amongst the patricians appear to have been more widespread amongst the plebeians, and the appearance of rare names in Latin inscriptions outside of Rome suggests that many names which were uncommon at Rome were much more common in other parts of Latium. ===Feminine names=== In the earliest period, both men and women used praenomina. However, with the adoption of hereditary surnames, the praenomen lost much of its original importance. The number of praenomina in general use declined steadily throughout Roman history, and as most families used the same praenomina from one generation to the next, the praenomen became less useful for distinguishing between individuals. Women's praenomina gradually fell into disuse, and by the first century the majority of Roman women either did not have or did not use praenomina. A similar process occurred throughout Italy, except amongst the Etruscans, for whom feminine praenomina were the rule., Roman Female Praenomina: Studies in the Nomenclature of Roman Women (1994) The abandonment of women's praenomina over time was more the result of practical usage than a deliberate process. Because Latin names had both masculine and feminine forms, the nomen itself was sufficient to distinguish a Roman woman from her father and brothers. Roman women did not change their names when they married, so a Roman wife usually did not share her nomen with any other members of her family. Diminutives, nicknames, and personal cognomina could be used to differentiate between sisters. When there were two sisters, they were frequently referred to as Major and Minor, with these terms appearing after the nomen or cognomen; if there were more than two, the eldest might be called Maxima, and the younger sisters assigned numerical cognomina. Many of the cognomina used by women originated as praenomina, and for much of Roman history there seems to have been a fashion for "inverting" women's praenomina and cognomina; names that were traditionally regarded as praenomina were often placed after a woman's nomen or cognomen, as if a surname, even though they were used as praenomina. The reverse was also common, especially in imperial times; a personal cognomen would be placed before a woman's nomen, in the place of a praenomen. In both cases, the name was functionally a praenomen, irrespective of its position in the name. For this reason, it is often impossible to distinguish between women's praenomina and personal cognomina. In imperial times, Roman women were more likely to have praenomina if they had several older sisters. A daughter who had been called simply by her nomen for several years was less likely to receive a praenomen than her younger sisters, and because it was usually easy to distinguish between two daughters without using praenomina, the need for traditional personal names did not become acute until there were at least three sisters in a family. Tertia and Quarta were common praenomina, while Secunda was less common, and Prima rarer still. Maxima, Maio, and Mino were also used as praenomina, although it may be debated whether they represent true personal names. Paulla was probably given to younger daughters, and was one of the most common praenomina. Most other women's praenomina were simply the feminine forms of familiar masculine praenomina. Examples are known of all common praenomina, as well as a number of less-common ones. Only in the case of praenomina which had irregular masculine forms is there some uncertainty; but these probably became feminine by taking diminutive forms. Caesula or Caesilla appears to have been the feminine form of Caeso, and the personal cognomen Agrippina probably represents the feminine form of Agrippa. Two notable exceptions to the usual formation are Marcia and Titia, both of which regularly formed as "i-stem" nouns, instead of the expected Marca and Tita (although those forms are also found). Feminine praenomina were usually abbreviated in the same manner as their masculine counterparts, but were often written in full. One notable exception occurs in the filiations of liberti, where the abbreviation "C." for Gaia was frequently reversed to indicate a woman. Here the name "Gaia" seems to have been used generically to represent any woman, although in some instances an inverted "M." for Marcia seems to have been used as well. The following list includes feminine praenomina which are known or reasonably certain from extant sources and inscriptions, and which were clearly used as praenomina, rather than nicknames or inverted cognomina. Several variations are known for some praenomina, of which only the most regular are given in this table. The abbreviations are usually the same as for the corresponding masculine praenomina; where variation exists, only the most common abbreviation has been provided. A few of these names were normally written in full, or have not been found with regular abbreviations. * Appia (Ap.) * Aula (A.) * Caesula * Decima (D.) * Fausta (F.) * Gaia (C.) * Gnaea (Cn.) * Hosta (H.) * Lucia (L.) * Maio (Mai.) * Mamerca (Mam.) * Mania (M'.) * Marcia (M.) * Maxima * Mettia * Mino (Min.) * Nona * Numeria (N.) * Octavia (Oct.) * Paulla * Postuma (Post.) * Prima * Procula (Pro.) * Publia (P.) * Quarta * Quinta (Q.) * Secunda (Seq.) * Septima * Servia (Ser.) * Sexta (Sex.) * Spuria (Sp.) * Statia (St.) * Tertia * Titia (T.) * Tiberia (Ti.) * Tulla * Vibia (V.) * Volusa (Vol.) * Vopisca (Vop.) Notes: * Maio and Mino are the forms usually found as praenomina, although Major and Minor are also found. As cognomina, Major and Minor seem to have been preferred. * Secunda was usually abbreviated Seq., although Sec. is also common. In archaic Latin, C was used primarily before E and I, while Q appeared before O and U, and K before A. In a few instances the name is written Sequnda. === The meaning of praenomina === Philologists have debated the origin and meaning of these names since classical antiquity. However, many of the meanings popularly assigned to various praenomina appear to have been no more than "folk etymology". The names derived from numbers are the most certain. The masculine names Quintus, Sextus, Septimus, Octavius and Decimus, and the feminine names Prima, Secunda, Tertia, Quarta, Quinta, Sexta, Septima, Octavia, Nona and Decima are all based on ordinal numbers. There may also have been a praenomen Nonus, as there was a gens with the apparently patronymic name of Nonius, although no examples of its use as a praenomen have survived. It is generally held that these names originally referred to the order of a child's birth, although some scholars believe that they might also have referred to the month of the Roman calendar in which a child was born. Like the masculine praenomina, the months of the old Roman Calendar had names based on the numbers five through ten: Quintilis (July), Sextilis (August), September, October, November, and December. However, this hypothesis does not account for the feminine praenomina Prima, Secunda, Tertia, and Quarta, nor does it explain why Septimus, Octavius, and perhaps Nonus were rarely used. Several other praenomina were believed to refer to the circumstances of a child's birth; for instance, Agrippa was said to refer to a child who was born feet-first; Caeso to a child born by the operation known today as a Caesarean section; Lucius to one born at dawn; Manius to one born in the morning; Numerius to one born easily; Opiter to one whose father had died, leaving his grandfather as head of the family; Postumus to a last-born child (whether or not the father was dead); Proculus to one whose father was far away; Vopiscus to the survivor of twins, the other of whom was born dead. Most of these are not based on credible etymology, although the meanings assigned to Lucius, Manius, and Postumus are probably reasonable. Amongst other credible meanings assigned to praenomina, Faustus certainly means "fortunate" in Latin; Gaius is thought to derive from the same root as gaudere, "to rejoice"; Gnaeus refers to a birthmark; Marcus and Mamercus refer to the gods Mars and Mamers (perhaps an Oscan manifestation of Mars); Paullus means "small"; Servius appears to be derived from the same root as servare, to save or "to keep safe"; Volusus (also found as Volesus and Volero) seems to come from valere, "to be strong". One popular etymology that is certainly not correct belongs to Spurius, a praenomen that was amongst the most common, and favored by many leading patrician and plebeian families during the early Republic. It was later said that it was a contraction of the phrase, sine pater filius, "son without a father", and thus used for children born out of wedlock. This belief may have led to the gradual disappearance of the name during the 1st century AD. Appius is sometimes said to be of Oscan origin, since it is known chiefly from the descendants of Appius Claudius, a Sabine from the town of Cures, who came to Rome in the early years of the Republic, and was admitted to the Patriciate. His original name was said to be Attius Clausus, which he then Romanized. However, the praenomen Appius is known from other Latin sources, and may simply represent the Latin name closest in sound to Attius. Aulus, Publius, Spurius, and Tiberius are sometimes attributed to Etruscan, in which language they are all common, although these names were also typical of praenomina used in families of indisputably Latin origin, such as the Postumii or the Cornelii. In this instance, it cannot be determined with any certainty whether these were Latin names which were borrowed by the Etruscans, or vice versa. The best case may be for Tiberius being an Etruscan name, since that praenomen was always connected with the sacred river on the boundary of Etruria and Latium, and the Etruscan name for the Tiber was Thebris. However, it still may be that the Romans knew the river by this name when the praenomen came into existence.Jacques Heurgon, Daily Life of the Etruscans (1964) === Historical trends === Many families, particularly amongst the great patrician houses, limited themselves to a small number of praenomina, probably as a means of distinguishing themselves from one another and from the plebeians, who used a wider variety of names. For example, the Cornelii used Aulus, Gnaeus, Lucius, Marcus, Publius, Servius, and Tiberius; the Julii limited themselves to Lucius, Gaius, Sextus, and Vopiscus; the Claudii were fond of Appius, Gaius, and Publius; the Postumii favored Aulus, Gaius, Lucius, Publius, and Spurius; and so on. The most prominent plebeian families also tended to limit the names of which they made regular use, although amongst both social classes, there must have been exceptions whenever a family had a large number of sons. Many families avoided certain names, although the reasons varied. According to legend, the Junii avoided the names Titus and Tiberius because they were the names of two sons of Lucius Junius Brutus, the founder of the Republic, who were executed on the grounds that they had plotted to restore the king to power. Another legend relates that after Marcus Manlius Capitolinus was condemned for treason, the Roman Senate decreed that no member of gens Manlia should bear the praenomen Marcus, a tradition that seems to have been followed until the 1st century A.D. However, normally such matters were left to the discretion of the family. In most instances, the reason why certain praenomina were preferred and others avoided probably arose from the desire to pass on family names. Several names were used by only a few patrician families, although they were more widespread amongst the plebeians. For example: Appius was used only by the Claudii, Caeso by the Fabii and the Quinctii, Agrippa by the Furii and the Menenii, Numerius by the Fabii, Mamercus by the Aemilii and the Pinarii, Vopiscus only by the Julii, and Decimus was not used by any patrician family (unless the Junii were, as is sometimes believed, originally patrician), although it was widely used amongst the plebeians. Throughout Roman history, the most common praenomen was Lucius, followed by Gaius, with Marcus in third place. During the most conservative periods, these three names could account for as much as fifty percent of the adult male population. At some distance were Publius and Quintus, only about half as common as Lucius, distantly followed by Titus. Aulus, Gnaeus, Spurius, Sextus, and Servius were less common, followed by Manius, Tiberius, Caeso, Numerius, and Decimus, which were decidedly uncommon (at least amongst the patricians) during the Republic. Throughout Republican times, the number of praenomina in general use declined, but older names were occasionally revived by noble families, and occasionally anomalous names such as Ancus, Iulus, or Kanus were given. Some of these may have been ancient praenomina that had already passed out of common use by the early Republic. As they vanished from use as personal names, many older praenomina, such as Agrippa, Faustus, Mamercus, Paullus, Postumus, Proculus, and Vopiscus were revived as cognomina. Other examples of names that may once have been praenomina include Fusus, an early cognomen of gens Furia, and Cossus, a cognomen of gens Cornelia. By the 1st century B.C., the praenomina remaining in general use at Rome were: Appius, Aulus, Caeso, Decimus, Gaius, Gnaeus, Lucius, Mamercus, Manius, Marcus, Numerius, Publius, Quintus, Servius, Sextus, Spurius, Titus, and Tiberius. However, older names continued to be revived from time to time, especially in noble families, and they probably continued to be used outside Rome. By the 2nd century A.D., several of these names had also passed out of general use at Rome, leaving Aulus, Decimus, Gaius, Gnaeus, Lucius, Manius, Marcus, Numerius, Publius, Quintus, Sextus, Titus, and Tiberius. Under the empire, confusion seems to have developed as to precisely what constituted a praenomen and how it should be used. A number of emperors considered Imperator as a praenomen, and thus part of their names. As a larger percentage of the Roman populace came from backgrounds that had never used traditional Roman names, the praenomen was frequently omitted, or at least ignored. In its place, an increasing number of magistrates and officials placed common nomina, frequently with praenomen-like abbreviations. The most common of these were Flavius (Fl.), Claudius (Cl.), Julius, Junius, Valerius (Val.), and Aurelius. These names appear almost arbitrarily, much like praenomina, and probably were intended to imply nobility, although ultimately they became so common as to lose any real significance. == Oscan and Umbrian praenomina == Many Oscan praenomina appear throughout Roman history, as the Romans encountered both friendly and hostile tribes, and slowly absorbed the peoples of Italy into their sphere of influence. Umbrian praenomina are less well-known, but appear to have been similar to those of the Oscans. Although it is widely believed that the Latin praenomen Mamercus was of Oscan origin, since Mamers was a Sabine form of Mars, it is not clear to what extent the two cultures (which sprang from the same origin) borrowed praenomina from one another, and to what extent they shared names based on roots common to each language. It is impossible to provide a complete list of Oscan praenomina, but these names are clearly identifiable in extant histories and inscriptions. Abbreviations do exist for some of them, but they were less regular, and less regularly employed, than the Latin abbreviations. * Ancus * Attius * Decius * Herius * Marius * Mettius * Minatus * Minius * Nerius * Novius * Numa * Numerius * Ovius * Paccius * Pompo * Salvius * Seppius * Statius * Taurus * Trebius * Vibius * Vettius Notes: * The -ius ending found in Latin sources is frequently found as -is or -iis in Oscan inscriptions. * Ancus is known from only two sources: Ancus Marcius, the fourth King of Rome, who was of Sabine ancestry, and Ancus Publicius, an early member of a plebeian gens. * Attius may be the Oscan equivalent of the Latin praenomen Appius, since the Sabine Attius Clausus took the name Appius Claudius upon settling at Rome; however, it could also simply have been the closest praenomen in sound. * Decius, Pompo (and variations thereof), and Seppius are the Oscan equivalents of the Latin praenomina Decimus, Quintus, and Septimus. A 'P' in Oscan frequently corresponded to a 'Q' in Latin. * Nerius, or Nero, a praenomen common to Oscan and Umbrian, was said to mean fortis ac strenuus, that is, "strong" or "vigorous". == Etruscan praenomina == The Etruscan language was unrelated to the other languages spoken in Italy, and accordingly it contains many names which have no equivalents in the Latin or Oscan languages. The Etruscan civilization, the most advanced of its time in that region, was a strong influence on the other peoples of Italy. The Etruscan alphabet (itself based on an early version of the Western or "Red" Greek alphabet) was the source for later Italian alphabets, including the modern Latin alphabet. However, the cultural interchange was not all one-way. With respect to personal names, the Etruscans borrowed a large number of praenomina from Latin and Oscan, adding them to their own unique names. The Etruscan language is still imperfectly known, and the number of inscriptions are limited, so this list of Etruscan praenomina encompasses what has been discovered to this point. Included are names that are certainly praenomina, no matter their linguistic origin. Names that might be nomina or cognomina have not been included. ===Masculine names=== * Arruns (Ar.) * Aule (A.) * Cae (C.) * Caeles * Cneve (Cn.) * Karcuna * Lar * Larce * Laris (Lr.) * Larth (La., Lth.) * Lucie (L.) * Mamarce (Mam.) * Marce (M.) * Maximus * Metie * Pavle * Puplie (P.) * Sethre (Se.) * Spurie (S.) * Thefarie * Tite (T.) * Uchtave * Vel (Vl.) * Velthur (Vth.) * Vipie (V.) Notes: * The Romans rendered Lar, Larce, Laris, and Larth all as Lars. * Aule, Cae, Cneve, Lucie, Mamarce, Marce, Metie, Pavle, Puplie, Spurie, Tite, Thefarie, Uchtave, and Vipie may be recognized as the Latin praenomina Aulus, Gaius, Gnaeus, Lucius, Mamercus, Marcus, Mettius, Paullus, Publius, Spurius, Titus, Tiberius, Octavius, and Vibius. There is no agreement on whether any of these were borrowed from Etruscan, or whether all were originally Latin. * The Etruscans used a number of diminutives for both masculine and feminine names, including the masculine names Arnza (from Arruns), Venel, and Venox (from Vel). ===Feminine names=== * Fasti (F.) * Hasti (H.) * Larthi * Lethi * Ramtha (R.) * Ravnthu * Tanaquil (Thx.) * Thana (Th.) * Titia (T.) * Vela Notes: * Fasti may be borrowed from the Latin praenomen Fausta. Hasti may be a variant of the same name. * An example of a diminutive of a feminine praenomen is Ravntzu (from Ranvthu). == See also == *List of Roman praenomina *Agnomen *Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum == References == Category:Roman naming conventions |
: For the main article see Dally M Medal. The Dally M Medal is awarded annually to the player voted for as the 'best and fairest' over the entire National Rugby League (NRL) regular season. The award has existed since 1979, but has only been adopted as the official award for the Player of the Year in the NRL since 1998. As well as honouring the player of the year, who received the Dally M Medal, awards are also given to the premier player in each position, the best coach, the best captain, representative player of the year and the most outstanding rookie of the season. The awards are named in honour of Australian former rugby league great Herbert Henry "Dally" Messenger. __NOTOC__ Contents 1979 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 1982 1992 2002 2012 2022 1983 1993 2003 2013 1984 1994 2004 2014 1985 1995 2005 2015 1986 1996 2006 2016 1987 1997 2007 2017 1988 1998 2008 2018 1989 1999 2009 2019 ==1979== *Player of the Year: Steve Morris (St George Dragons) ==1980== *Player of the Year: Robert Laurie (South Sydney) *Fullback: Brian Johnson (St George) *Winger: John Ribot (Western Suburbs) *Centre: Michael Cronin (Parramatta) *Five-eighth: Robert Laurie (South Sydney) *Halfback: Kevin Hastings (Eastern Suburbs) *Lock: Jim Leis (Western Suburbs) *Second row: Nathan Gibbs (South Sydney) *Prop: Craig Young (St George) *Hooker: John Lang (Eastern Suburbs) *Coach: Roy Masters (Western Suburbs) *Top pointscorer: Steve Gearin (Canterbury) ==1981== *Player of the Year: Steve Rogers (Cronulla) *Fullback: Greg Brentnall (Canterbury) *Winger: Terry Fahey (Eastern Suburbs) *Centre: Michael Cronin (Parramatta) *Five-eighth: Mick Pattison (South Sydney) *Halfback: Kevin Hastings (Eastern Suburbs) *Lock: Steve Rogers (Cronulla) *Second row: Mark Graham (North Sydney) *Prop: Dane Sorensen (Cronulla) *Hooker: Jeff Masterman (Eastern Suburbs) *Coach: Bob Fulton (Eastern Suburbs) *Rookie: Jeff Masterman (Eastern Suburbs) ==1982== *Player of the Year: Ray Price (Parramatta) *Fullback: Greg Brentnall (Canterbury) *Winger: John Ribot (Manly-Warringah) *Centre: Michael Cronin (Parramatta) *Five-eighth: Mitchell Cox (North Sydney) *Halfback: Kevin Hastings (Eastern Suburbs) *Lock: Ray Price (Parramatta) *Second row: Mark Graham (North Sydney) *Prop: Don McKinnon (North Sydney) *Hooker: John Gray (North Sydney) *Coach: Jack Gibson (Parramatta) *Top pointscorer: Michael Cronin (Parramatta) ==1983== *Player of the Year: Terry Lamb (Western Suburbs) *Fullback: Graham Eadie (Manly-Warringah) *Winger: Kerry Boustead (Manly- Warringah) *Centre: Michael Cronin (Parramatta) *Five-eighth: Terry Lamb (Western Suburbs) *Halfback: Peter Sterling (Parramatta) *Lock: Ray Price (Parramatta) *Second row: Paul Vautin (Manly-Warringah) *Prop: Dave Brown (Manly-Warringah) *Hooker: Billy Johnstone (Canterbury) *Coach: Bob Fulton (Manly-Warringah) *Top tryscorer: Phil Blake (Manly-Warringah) *Top pointscorer: Mike Eden (Eastern Suburbs) ==1984== *Player of the Year: Michael Potter (Canterbury) *Fullback: Michael Potter (Canterbury) *Winger: Steve Morris (St George) *Centre: Steve Ella (Parramatta) *Five-eighth: Terry Lamb (Canterbury) *Halfback: Peter Sterling (Parramatta) *Lock: Ray Price (Parramatta) *Second row: Noel Cleal (Manly-Warringah) *Prop: Steve Roach (Balmain) *Hooker: Royce Simmons (Penrith) *Coach: Tim Sheens (Penrith) ==1985== *Player of the Year: Greg Alexander (Penrith) *Fullback: Garry Jack (Balmain) *Winger: John Ferguson (Eastern Suburbs) *Centre: Steve Ella (Parramatta) *Five-eighth: Neil Baker (Souths) *Halfback: Greg Alexander (Penrith) *Lock: Ray Price (Parramatta) *Second row: Peter Wynn (Parramatta) *Prop: Craig Young (St George) *Hooker: Ben Elias (Balmain) *Coach: Roy Masters (St George) *Rookie: Steve Linnane (St George) ==1986== *Player of the Year: Peter Sterling (Parramatta) *Fullback: Garry Jack (Balmain) *Winger: Les Kiss (North Sydney) *Centre: Michael O'Connor (St George) *Five-eighth: Terry Lamb (Canterbury) *Halfback: Peter Sterling (Parramatta) *Lock: Ray Price (Parramatta) *Second row: Noel Cleal (Manly-Warringah) *Prop: Steve Roach (Balmain) *Hooker: Mal Cochrane (Manly-Warringah) *Coach: George Piggins (South Sydney) *Rookie: Paul Sironen (Balmain Tigers) ==1987== *Player of the Year: Peter Sterling (Parramatta) *Fullback: Gary Belcher (Canberra) *Winger: Steve Morris (Eastern Suburbs) *Centre: Michael O'Connor (Manly-Warringah) *Five-eighth: Terry Lamb (Canterbury) *Halfback: Peter Sterling (Parramatta) *Lock: Wayne Pearce (Balmain) *Second row: Hugh McGahan (Eastern Suburbs) *Prop: Ian Roberts (South Sydney) *Hooker: Mal Cochrane (Manly-Warringah) *Coach: Wayne Bennett and Don Furner (Canberra) ==1988== *Player of the Year: Gavin Miller (Cronulla) *Fullback: Garry Jack (Balmain) *Winger: John Ferguson (Canberra) *Centre: Michael O’Connor (Manly-Warringah) *Five-eighth: Wally Lewis (Brisbane) *Halfback: Allan Langer (Brisbane) *Lock: Wayne Pearce (Balmain) *Second row: Gavin Miller (Cronulla) *Prop: Sam Backo (Canberra) *Hooker: Ben Elias (Balmain) *Coach: Phil Gould (Canterbury) *Top tryscorer: John Ferguson (Canberra) *Top pointscorer: Gary Belcher (Canberra) ==1989== *Player of the Year: Gavin Miller (Cronulla) *Fullback: Gary Belcher (Canberra) *Winger: Michael Hancock (Brisbane) *Centre: Tony Currie (Brisbane) *Five-eighth: Phil Blake (South Sydney) *Halfback: Greg Alexander (Penrith) *Lock: Bradley Clyde (Canberra) *Second row: Gavin Miller (Cronulla) *Prop: Steve Roach (Balmain) *Hooker: Kerrod Walters (Brisbane) *Coach: George Piggins (South Sydney) ==1990== *Player of the Year: Cliff Lyons (Manly- Warringah) *Fullback: Gary Belcher (Canberra) *Winger: Ashley Gordon (Newcastle) *Centre: Mal Meninga (Canberra) *Five-eighth: Cliff Lyons (Manly- Warringah) *Halfback: Ricky Stuart (Canberra) *Lock: Bradley Clyde (Canberra) *Second row: Paul Sironen (Balmain) *Prop: Martin Bella (Manly-Warringah) *Hooker: Kerrod Walters (Brisbane) *Captain: Gene Miles (Brisbane) *Coach: Tim Sheens (Canberra) ==1991== *Player of the Year: Michael Potter (St George) *Fullback: Michael Potter (St George) *Winger: Rod Wishart (Illawarra) *Centre: Mal Meninga (Canberra) *Five-eighth: Terry Lamb (Canterbury) *Halfback: Greg Alexander (Penrith) *Lock: Des Hasler (Manly-Warringah) *Second row: John Cartwright (Penrith) *Prop: Craig Salvatori (Eastern Suburbs) *Hooker: Steve Walters (Canberra) *Coach: Warren Ryan (Western Suburbs) ==1992== *Player of the Year: Gary Freeman (Eastern Suburbs) *Fullback: Michael Potter (St George) *Winger: Willie Carne (Brisbane) *Centre: Brad Fittler (Penrith) *Five-eighth: Terry Lamb (Canterbury) *Halfback: Gary Freeman (Eastern Suburbs) *Lock: Ian Russell (Illawarra) *Second row: John Cartwright (Penrith) *Prop: Glenn Lazarus (Brisbane) *Hooker: Ben Elias (Balmain) *Captain: Michael Beattie (St George) *Coach: Graham Murray (Illawarra) *Rookie: Matthew Rodwell (Newcastle) ==1993== *Player of the Year: Ricky Stuart (Canberra) *Silver Dally M: Ian Roberts (Manly-Warringah) *Bronze Dally M: Mitch Healey (Cronulla) *Fullback: Rod Silva (Eastern Suburbs) *Wing: Noa Nadruku (Canberra) *Centre: Brad Fittler (Penrith) *Five-eighth: Terry Lamb (Canterbury) *Halfback: Ricky Stuart (Canberra) *Prop: Ian Roberts (Manly-Warringah) *Hooker: Steve Walters (Canberra) *Second row: Bob Lindner (Illawarra) *Lock: Jim Dymock (Canterbury) *Captain: Michael Potter (St George) *Coach: Chris Anderson (Canterbury) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Ricky Stuart (Canberra) *Rookie: Jack Elsegood (Manly-Warringah) *Representative player: Paul Sironen (City Origin, NSW and Australia) *Top tryscorer: Noa Nadruku (Canberra) *Top pointscorer: Daryl Halligan (North Sydney) *Junior Dally M: Kris Flint (St Gregory's College, Campbelltown) ==1994== *Player of the Year: Cliff Lyons (Manly- Warringah) *Silver Dally M: Jim Serdaris (Western Suburbs) *Bronze Dally M: Allan Langer (Brisbane) *Fullback: Brett Mullins (Canberra) *Wing: Daryl Halligan (Canterbury) *Centre: Andrew Ettingshausen (Cronulla) *Five-eighth: Cliff Lyons (Manly-Warringah) *Halfback: Allan Langer (Brisbane) *Prop: Ian Roberts (Manly-Warringah) *Hooker: Jim Serdaris (Western Suburbs) *Second row: Steve Menzies (Manly-Warringah) *Lock: Brad Fittler (Penrith) *Captain: Mal Meninga (Canberra) *Coach: Peter Louis (North Sydney) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Bradley Clyde (Canberra) *Rookie: Steve Menzies (Manly- Warringah) *Representative player: Ben Elias (NSW) *Top tryscorer: Steve Renouf (Brisbane) *Top pointscorer: Daryl Halligan (Canterbury) *Junior Dally M: Michael Withers (John Paul II, Marayong) ==1995== *Player of the Year: Paul Green (Cronulla) *Silver Dally M: Cliff Lyons (Manly-Warringah) *Bronze Dally M: Andrew Johns (Newcastle) *Fullback: Matthew Ridge (Manly-Warringah) *Winger: Sean Hoppe (Auckland) *Centre: Jamie Ainscough (Newcastle) *Five- eighth: Laurie Daley (Canberra) *Halfback: Paul Green (Cronulla) *Lock: Jim Dymock (Canterbury) *Second row: Steven Menzies (Manly-Warringah) *Prop: Danny Lee (Cronulla) *Hooker: Steve Walters (Canberra) *Captain: Paul Langmack (Western Suburbs) *Coach: John Lang (Cronulla) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Terry Lamb (Canterbury) *Rookie: Mat Rogers (Cronulla) *Top tryscorer: Steven Menzies (Manly-Warringah) *Top pointscorer: Matthew Ridge (Manly-Warringah) *Junior Dally M: Nathan Cayless (Parramatta Marist Brothers) ==1996== *Player of the Year: Allan Langer (Brisbane) *Silver Dally M: Laurie Daley (Canberra) *Bronze Dally M: Jim Dymock (Parramatta) *Fullback: Tim Brasher (Balmain) *Winger: Noa Nadruku (Canberra) *Centre: Andrew Ettingshausen (Cronulla) *Five-eighth: Laurie Daley (Canberra) *Halfback: Allan Langer (Brisbane) *Lock: Jim Dymock (Parramatta) *Second row: David Fairleigh (North Sydney) *Prop: Paul Harragon (Newcastle) *Hooker: Jim Serdaris (Manly-Warringah) *Captain: Laurie Daley (Canberra) *Coach: David Waite (St George) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Laurie Daley (Canberra) *Rookie: Glenn Morrison (Balmain) *Top tryscorer: Noa Nadruku (Canberra) *Top pointscorer: Jason Taylor (North Sydney) *Junior Dally M: Chris Smith (John Paul II Marayong) ==1997== Not awarded *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Brad Fittler (Sydney Roosters) ==1998== *Player of the Year: Andrew Johns (Newcastle) *Fullback: Darren Lockyer (Brisbane) *Winger: Marcus Bai (Melbourne) *Centre: Darren Smith (Brisbane) *Five-eighth: Brad Fittler (Sydney Roosters) *Halfback: Andrew Johns (Newcastle) *Lock: Tawera Nikau (Melbourne) *Second row: Steven Menzies (Manly-Warringah) *Prop: Dean Pay (Parramatta) *Hooker: Jason Hetherington (Canterbury) *Coach: Chris Anderson (Melbourne) *Rookie: Mark McLinden (Canberra) *Top pointscorer: Ivan Cleary (Sydney Roosters) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Andrew Johns (Newcastle) ==1999== *Player of the Year: Andrew Johns (Newcastle) *Fullback: David Peachey (Cronulla) *Winger: Nathan Blacklock (St George Illawarra) *Centre: Ryan Girdler (Penrith) *Five-eighth: Brad Fittler (Sydney Roosters) *Halfback: Andrew Johns (Newcastle) *Lock: Jason Smith (Parramatta) *Second row: Gorden Tallis (Brisbane) *Prop: Matt Parsons (South Sydney) *Hooker: Geoff Toovey (Manly-Warringah) *Coach: John Lang (Cronulla) *Rookie: Michael Vella (Parramatta) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Andrew Johns (Newcastle) ==2000== *Player of the Year: Trent Barrett (St George Illawarra) *Fullback: David Peachey (Cronulla) *Winger: Nathan Blacklock (St George Illawarra) *Centre: Ryan Girdler (Penrith) *Five-eighth: Trent Barrett (St George Illawarra) *Halfback: Brett Kimmorley (Melbourne) *Lock: Jason Croker (Canberra) *Second row: Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Prop: Shane Webcke (Brisbane) *Hooker: Craig Gower (Penrith) *Coach: Wayne Bennett (Brisbane) *Rookie: Tasesa Lavea (Melbourne) *Top tryscorer: Nathan Blacklock (St George Illawarra) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Andrew Johns (Newcastle) ==2001== *Player of the Year: Preston Campbell (Cronulla) *Fullback: Darren Lockyer (Brisbane) *Winger: Nathan Blacklock (St George Illawarra) *Centre: Nigel Vagana (Canterbury) *Five-eighth: Adam Dykes (Cronulla) *Halfback: Preston Campbell (Cronulla) *Lock: Daniel Wagon (Parramatta) *Second row: Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Prop: Shane Webcke (Brisbane) *Hooker: Brad Drew (Parramatta) *Captain: David Peachey (Cronulla) *Coach: Brian Smith (Parramatta) *Rookie: Braith Anasta (Canterbury) *Representative Player: Darren Lockyer (Queensland & Australia) *Top tryscorer: Nathan Blacklock (St George Illawarra) *Top pointscorer: Ben Walker (Northern Eagles) *Provan- Summons Medal (People's Choice): Andrew Johns (Newcastle) ==2002== *Player of the Year: Andrew Johns (Newcastle) *Fullback: Darren Lockyer (Brisbane) *Winger: Lote Tuqiri (Brisbane) *Centre: Nigel Vagana (Canterbury) *Five- eighth: Brad Fittler (Sydney Roosters) *Halfback: Andrew Johns (Newcastle) *Lock: Steve Menzies (Northern Eagles) *Second row: Ali Lauiti'iti (Warriors) *Prop: Shane Webcke (Brisbane) *Hooker: Danny Buderus (Newcastle) *Captain: Steve Price (Canterbury) *Coach: Daniel Anderson (Warriors) *Rookie: Matt Utai (Canterbury) *Representative Player: Danny Buderus (NSW & Australia) *Top pointscorer: Hazem El Masri (Canterbury) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Andrew Johns (Newcastle) ==2003== Not Awarded *Top tryscorer: Rhys Wesser (Penrith) *Top pointscorer: Hazem El Masri (Canterbury) *Rookie: Billy Slater (Melbourne) ==2004== *Player: Danny Buderus (Newcastle) *Fullback: Anthony Minichiello (Sydney Roosters) *Winger: Amos Roberts (Penrith) *Centre: Willie Tonga (Canterbury) *Five-eighth: Darren Lockyer (Brisbane) *Halfback: Brett Finch (Sydney Roosters) *Lock: Shaun Timmins (St George Illawarra) *Second row: Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Prop: Paul Rauhihi (North Queensland) *Hooker: Danny Buderus (Newcastle) *Captain: Steve Price (Canterbury) *Coach: Steve Folkes (Canterbury) *Rookie: Karmichael Hunt (Brisbane) *Representative Player: Craig Fitzgibbon (NSW & Australia) *Top pointscorer: Hazem El Masri (Canterbury) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Darren Lockyer (Brisbane) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Billy Slater (Melbourne Storm) ==2005== *Player of the Year: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Fullback: Brett Hodgson (Wests Tigers) *Winger: Eric Grothe (Parramatta) *Centre: Mark Gasnier (St George Illawarra) *Five-eighth: Braith Anasta (Canterbury) *Halfback: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Lock: Ben Kennedy (Manly-Warringah) *Second row: Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Prop: Luke Bailey (St George Illawarra) *Hooker: Danny Buderus (Newcastle) *Captain: Scott Prince (Wests Tigers) *Coach: Tim Sheens (Wests Tigers) *Rookie: Tim Smith (Parramatta) *Representative Player: Andrew Johns (NSW & Australia) *Top tryscorer: Billy Slater (Melbourne); Shaun Berrigan (Brisbane) *Top pointscorer: Brett Hodgson (Wests Tigers) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Andrew Johns (NSW) ==2006== *Player of the Year: Cameron Smith (Melbourne) *Fullback: Clinton Schifcofske (Canberra) *Winger: Brian Carney (Newcastle) *Centre: Mark Gasnier (St George Illawarra) *Five-eighth: Darren Lockyer (Brisbane) *Halfback: Cooper Cronk (Melbourne) *Lock: Ben Kennedy (Manly-Warringah) *Second row: Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Prop: Roy Asotasi (Canterbury) *Hooker: Cameron Smith (Melbourne) *Captain: Ben Kennedy (Manly-Warringah) *Coach: Craig Bellamy (Melbourne) *Rookie: Jarryd Hayne (Parramatta) *Representative Player: Darren Lockyer (Queensland & Australia) *Top tryscorer: Nathan Merritt (South Sydney) *Top pointscorer: Hazem El Masri (Canterbury) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Brett Finch (NSW) ==2007== *Player of the Year: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Fullback: Matt Bowen (North Queensland) *Winger: Jarryd Hayne (Parramatta) *Centre: Justin Hodges (Brisbane) *Five-eighth: Darren Lockyer (Brisbane) *Halfback: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Lock: Dallas Johnson (Melbourne) *Second row: Anthony Watmough (Manly-Warringah) *Prop: Steve Price (Warriors) *Hooker: Robbie Farah (Wests Tigers) *Captain: Steve Price (Warriors) *Coach: Craig Bellamy (Melbourne) *Representative player: Cameron Smith (Queensland and Australia) *Top tryscorer: Matt Bowen (North Queensland) and Israel Folau (Melbourne) *Top pointscorer: Hazem El Masri (Canterbury) *Rookie: Israel Folau (Melbourne) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Braith Anasta (Sydney Roosters) ==2008== *Player of the Year: Matt Orford (Manly-Warringah) *Fullback: Billy Slater (Melbourne) *Winger: Colin Best (Canberra) *Centre: Israel Folau (Melbourne) *Five-eighth: Greg Inglis (Melbourne) *Halfback: Matt Orford (Manly-Warringah) *Lock: Alan Tongue (Canberra) *Second row: Glenn Stewart (Manly-Warringah) *Prop: Petero Civoniceva (Penrith) *Hooker: Cameron Smith (Melbourne) *Captain: Alan Tongue (Canberra) *Coach: Neil Henry (Canberra) *Rookie: Chris Sandow (South Sydney) *Representative player: Greg Inglis (Queensland and Australia) *Top tryscorer: Brett Stewart (Manly-Warringah) *Top pointscorer: Luke Covell (Cronulla) *Toyota Cup Player of the Year: Ben Hunt (Brisbane) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Greg Inglis (Australia) ==2009== *Player of the Year: Jarryd Hayne (Parramatta) *Fullback: Jarryd Hayne (Parramatta) *Winger: Taniela Tuiaki (Wests Tigers) *Centre: Josh Morris (Canterbury) *Five-eighth: Jamie Soward (St George Illawarra) *Halfback: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Lock: David Stagg (Canterbury) *Second row: Anthony Watmough (Manly-Warringah) *Prop: Ben Hannant (Canterbury) *Hooker: Michael Ennis (Canterbury) *Captain: Andrew Ryan (Canterbury) *Coach: Kevin Moore (Canterbury) *Rookie: Jamal Idris (Canterbury) *Representative player: Greg Inglis (Queensland and Australia) *Top tryscorer: Brett Morris (St George Illawarra) *Top pointscorer: Hazem El Masri (Canterbury) *Toyota Cup Player of the Year: Beau Henry (St George Illawarra) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Jamie Soward (St George Illawarra) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Nathan Merritt (South Sydney) ==2010== *Player of the Year: Todd Carney (Sydney Roosters) *Fullback: Darius Boyd (St George Illawarra) *Winger: Akuila Uate (Newcastle) *Centre: Jamie Lyon (Manly-Warringah) *Five- eighth: Todd Carney (Sydney Roosters) *Halfback: Scott Prince (Gold Coast) *Lock: Luke Lewis (Penrith) *Second row: Sam Thaiday (Brisbane) *Prop: David Shillington (Canberra) *Hooker: Robbie Farah (Wests Tigers) *Captain: Braith Anasta (Sydney Roosters) *Coach: Brian Smith (Sydney Roosters) *Rookie: Matt Gillett (Brisbane) *Representative player: Billy Slater (Queensland and Australia) *Top tryscorer: Akuila Uate (Newcastle) *Top pointscorer: Michael Gordon (Penrith) *Toyota Cup Player of the Year: Tariq Sims (Brisbane) *Provan-Summons Medal (People's Choice): Todd Carney (Sydney Roosters) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Melbourne Storm Salary Cap Breach ==2011== *Player of the Year: Billy Slater (Melbourne) *Fullback: Billy Slater (Melbourne) *Winger: Akuila Uate (Newcastle) *Centre: Jamie Lyon (Manly-Warringah) *Five- eighth: Benji Marshall (Wests Tigers) *Halfback: Cooper Cronk (Melbourne) *Lock: Paul Gallen (Sharks) *Second row: Sam Thaiday (Brisbane) *Prop: Matt Scott (North Queensland) *Hooker: Cameron Smith (Melbourne) *Captain: Cameron Smith (Melbourne) *Coach: Craig Bellamy (Melbourne) *Rookie: Daly Cherry-Evans (Manly-Warringah) *Representative player: Cameron Smith (Queensland and Australia) *Top tryscorer: Ben Barba (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) and Nathan Merritt (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Top pointscorer: Chris Sandow (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Toyota Cup Player of the Year: Jack De Belin (St George Illawarra) *Provan-Summons Medal Nathan Hindmarsh (Parramatta) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Paul Gallen (Cronulla Sharks and NSW) ==2012== *Player of the Year: Ben Barba (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) *Fullback: Ben Barba (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) *Winger: Akuila Uate (Newcastle) *Centre: Josh Morris (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) *Five-eighth: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Halfback: Cooper Cronk (Melbourne) *Lock: Paul Gallen (Sharks) *Second row: Nate Myles (Gold Coast Titans) *Prop: Sam Kasiano (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) *Hooker: Cameron Smith (Melbourne) *Captain: Jamie Lyon and Jason King (Manly-Warringah) *Coach: Des Hasler (Canterbury- Bankstown Bulldogs) *Rookie: Adam Reynolds (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Representative player: Nate Myles (Queensland *Top tryscorer: Ben Barba (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) and Ashley Graham (North Queensland) *Top pointscorer: Jarrod Croker (Canberra Raiders) *Toyota Cup Player of the Year: David Klemmer (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) *Provan-Summons Medal Ben Barba (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Ben Barba (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) ==2013== *Player of the Year: Cooper Cronk (Melbourne Storm) *Fullback: Greg Inglis (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Winger: Roger Tuivasa-Sheck (Sydney Roosters) *Centre: Jamie Lyon (Manly-Warringah) *Five-eighth: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) and Todd Carney (Cronulla Sharks) *Halfback: Cooper Cronk (Melbourne) *Lock: Corey Parker (Brisbane) *Second row: Boyd Cordner (Sydney Roosters) *Prop: Andrew Fifita (Cronulla Sharks) *Hooker: Cameron Smith (Melbourne) *Captain: Cameron Smith *Coach: Trent Robinson (Sydney Roosters) *Rookie: George Burgess (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Representative player: Cameron Smith *Top tryscorer: David Williams (Manly-Warringah) and James McManus (Newcastle) and David Simmons (Penrith) *Top pointscorer: James Maloney (Sydney Roosters) *Holden Cup Player of the Year: Bryce Cartwright (Penrith) *Provan-Summons Medal: Greg Inglis *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: The four Burgess brothers (Sam, Luke, Thomas and George) playing together for the first time for South Sydney v Wests Tigers ==2014== *Player of the Year: Jarryd Hayne (Parramatta Eels) and Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Fullback: Jarryd Hayne (Parramatta Eels) *Winger: Semi Radradra (Parramatta Eels) *Centre: Jamie Lyon (Manly- Warringah) *Five-eighth: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Halfback: Daly Cherry-Evans (Manly-Warringah) *Lock: Sam Burgess (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Second row: Beau Scott (Newcastle Knights) *Prop: James Graham (Canterbury- Bankstown Bulldogs) *Hooker: James Segeyaro (Penrith Panthers) *Captain: Jamie Lyon (Manly-Warringah) *Coach: Ivan Cleary (Penrith Panthers) *Rookie: Luke Brooks (Wests Tigers) *Representative player: Jarryd Hayne (NSW & Australia) *Top tryscorer: Jarryd Hayne (Parramatta Eels) *Top pointscorer: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Holden Cup Player of the Year: Kane Elgey (Gold Coast Titans) *Provan-Summons Medal: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: NSW Blues win Origin after nine years ==2015== *Player of the Year: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Fullback: Roger Tuivasa-Sheck (Sydney Roosters) *Winger: Semi Radradra (Parramatta Eels) *Centre: James Roberts (Gold Coast Titans) *Five-eighth: Blake Austin (Canberra Raiders) *Halfback: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Lock: Jason Taumalolo (North Queensland) *Second row: Josh Jackson (Canterbury- Bankstown Bulldogs) *Prop: Aaron Woods (Wests Tigers) *Hooker: Michael Ennis (Cronulla Sharks) *Captain: Johnathan Thurston and Matt Scott (North Queensland) *Coach: Wayne Bennett (Brisbane Broncos) *Rookie: Jack Bird (Cronulla Sharks) *Representative player: Corey Parker (QLD & Australia) *Top tryscorer: Semi Radradra (Parramatta Eels) *Top pointscorer: Jarrod Croker (Canberra Raiders) *Holden Cup Player of the Year: Ashley Taylor (Brisbane Broncos) *Provan-Summons Medal: Johnathan Thurston (North Queensland) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Nathan Friend (New Zealand Warriors) *Female Player of the Year: Jenni Sue-Hoepper (Jillaroos) ==2016== *Player of the Year: Cooper Cronk (Melbourne Storm); Jason Taumalolo (North Queensland Cowboys) *Fullback: James Tedesco (Wests Tigers) *Winger: Josh Mansour (Penrith Panthers) *Centre: Joey Leilua (Canberra Raiders) *Five-eighth: James Maloney (Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks) *Halfback: Cooper Cronk (Melbourne Storm) *Lock: Jason Taumalolo (North Queensland Cowboys) *Second row: Matt Gillett (Brisbane Broncos) *Prop: Jesse Bromwich (Melbourne Storm) *Hooker: Cameron Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Captain: Jarrod Croker (Canberra Raiders) *Coach: Ricky Stuart (Canberra Raiders) *Rookie: Ashley Taylor (Gold Coast Titans) *Representative player: Cameron Smith QLD & Australia) *Top tryscorer: Suliasi Vunivalu (Melbourne Storm) *Top pointscorer: Jarrod Croker (Canberra Raiders) *Holden Cup Player of the Year: Jayden Brailey (Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks) *Provan-Summons Medal: Jarrod Croker (Canberra Raiders) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Anthony Milford (Brisbane Broncos) *Female Player of the Year: Kezie Apps (Jillaroos) ==2017== *Player of the Year: Cameron Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Fullback: Billy Slater (Melbourne Storm) *Winger: Jordan Rapana (Canberra Raiders) *Centre: Dylan Walker (Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles) *Five- eighth: Gareth Widdop (St George Illawarra Dragons) *Halfback: Michael Morgan (North Queensland Cowboys) *Lock: Paul Gallen (Cronulla Sharks) *Second row: Matt Gillett (Brisbane Broncos) *Prop: Aaron Woods (Wests Tigers) *Hooker: Cameron Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Interchange: Reagan Campbell-Gillard (Penrith Panthers) *Captain: Cameron Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Coach: Craig Bellamy (Melbourne Storm) *Rookie: Nick Cotric (Canberra Raiders) *Representative player: Not awarded *Top tryscorer: Suliasi Vunivalu (Melbourne Storm) *Top pointscorer: Nathan Cleary (Penrith Panthers) *Holden Cup Player of the Year: Jake Clifford (North Queensland Cowboys) *Provan-Summons Medal: Clint Gutherson (Parramatta Eels) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Mitchell Pearce (Sydney Roosters) *Female Player of the Year: Simaima Taufa (Jillaroos) ==2018== *Player of the Year: Roger Tuivasa-Sheck (New Zealand Warriors) *Fullback: Roger Tuivasa-Sheck (New Zealand Warriors) *Winger: Blake Ferguson (Sydney Roosters) *Centre: Joseph Leilua (Canberra Raiders) *Five-eighth: Cameron Munster (Melbourne Storm) *Halfback: Luke Brooks (Wests Tigers) *Lock: Jason Taumalolo (North Queensland Cowboys) *Second row: Josh Jackson (Canterbury Bulldogs) *Prop: Andrew Fifita (Cronulla Sharks) *Hooker: Damien Cook (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Interchange: Jazz Tevaga (New Zealand Warriors) *Captain: Cameron Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Coach: Anthony Seibold (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Rookie: Jamayne Isaako (Brisbane Broncos) *Top tryscorer: David Fusitua (New Zealand Warriors) *Top pointscorer: Jamayne Isaako (Brisbane Broncos) *Provan-Summons Medal: Damien Cook (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Ken Stephen Medal: Ryan James (Gold Coast Titans) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: The inaugural Women's State of Origin *Female Player of the Year: Brittany Breayley (Brisbane Broncos) == 2019 == *Player of the Year: James Tedesco (Sydney Roosters) *Fullback: James Tedesco (Sydney Roosters) *Winger: Ken Maumalo (New Zealand Warriors) *Centre: Latrell Mitchell (Sydney Roosters) *Five-eighth: Cameron Munster (Melbourne Storm) *Halfback: Mitchell Moses (Parramatta Eels) *Lock: Cameron Murray (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Second row: John Bateman (Canberra Raiders) *Prop: Payne Haas (Brisbane Broncos) *Hooker: Cameron Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Interchange: Brandon Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Captain: Cameron Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Coach: Craig Bellamy (Melbourne Storm) *Rookie: Payne Haas (Brisbane Broncos) *Top tryscorer: Maika Sivo (Parramatta Eels) *Top pointscorer: Latrell Mitchell (Sydney Roosters) *Provan-Summons Medal: Josh Jackson (Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs) *Ken Stephen Medal: Iosia Soliola (Canberra Raiders) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: James Tedesco's State of Origin series winning try *Female Player of the Year: Jessica Sergis (St. George Illawarra Dragons) == 2020 == *Player of the Year: Jack Wighton (Canberra Raiders) *Fullback: Clint Gutherson (Parramatta Eels) *Wingers: David Nofoaluma (Wests Tigers) & Josh Addo-Carr (Melbourne Storm) *Centres: Kotoni Staggs (Brisbane Broncos) & Stephen Crichton (Penrith Panthers) *Five-eighth: Jack Wighton (Canberra Raiders) *Halfback: Nathan Cleary (Penrith Panthers) *Lock: Isaah Yeo (Penrith Panthers) *Second rows: Viliame Kikau (Penrith Panthers) & Tohu Harris (New Zealand Warriors) *Props: Josh Papalii (Canberra Raiders) & James Fisher- Harris (Penrith Panthers) *Hooker: Cameron Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Captain: Roger Tuivasa-Sheck (New Zealand Warriors) *Coach: Ivan Cleary (Penrith Panthers) *Rookie: Harry Grant (Wests Tigers) *Top tryscorer: Alex Johnston (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Top pointscorer: Adam Reynolds (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Provan-Summons Medal: (New Zealand Warriors) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: "Project Apollo", the NRL's restart project, succeeding *Female Player of the Year: Ali Brigginshaw (Brisbane Broncos) == 2021 == *Player of the Year: Tom Trbojevic (Manly Warringah Sea Eagles) *Fullback: Tom Trbojevic (Manly Warringah Sea Eagles) *Wingers: Reuben Garrick (Manly Warringah Sea Eagles) & Brian To'o (Penrith Panthers) *Centres: Justin Olam (Melbourne Storm) & Matt Burton (Penrith Panthers) *Five-eighth: Cody Walker (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Halfback: Nathan Cleary (Penrith Panthers) *Lock: Isaah Yeo (Penrith Panthers) *Second rows: Viliame Kikau (Penrith Panthers) & Isaiah Papali'i (Parramatta Eels) *Props: James Fisher-Harris (Penrith Panthers) & Payne Haas (Brisbane Broncos) *Hooker: Brandon Smith (Melbourne Storm) *Captain: James Tedesco (Sydney Roosters) *Coach: Craig Bellamy (Melbourne Storm) *Rookie: Sam Walker (Sydney Roosters) *Top tryscorer: Alex Johnston (South Sydney Rabbitohs) *Top pointscorer: Reuben Garrick (Manly Warringah Sea Eagles) *Provan-Summons Medal: Josh Morris (Sydney Roosters) *Peter Frilingos Memorial Award: Melbourne Storm winning 19 matches in a row == 2022 == ==See also== *Dally M Awards *Dally M Medal ==References== ==External links== *List Category:National Rugby League lists Category:Australian rugby league lists Category:Rugby league trophies and awards Category:Australian sports trophies and awards Category:Awards established in 1980 Category:Lists of sports awards |
George Stuart Benson (September 26, 1898—December 15, 1991) was an American missionary, college administrator, and conservative political activist. After fleeing communist uprisings in China as a missionary, Benson became an anticommunist and conservative activist, taking stances against the New Deal, and later, racial integration. Benson served for many years as the president of Harding College, and oversaw a large propaganda network through his National Education Program, which sponsored short cartoons, "Freedom Forums" (gatherings of business people to promote the American way), and lecture tours for Benson. == Early life and education == Benson grew up on a Dewey County, Oklahoma homestead. His parents, Stuart and Emma, were devout Christians, never missing the meetings in the Taloga schoolhouse church held by the various itinerant preachers who passed through. They instilled early the values of hard work and self-reliance, so that by age eight he worked full days on the farm. George completed eight grades in nearby Bonto and a year of high school each in Seiling and in Claremore, where his janitor job paid the rent for the shack he lived in. The year away from home in Claremore was foundational in his resolve to serve God "above all else" and "regardless of where it might lead". After three years working on the family farm and teaching in nearby schools, George completed high school in Kingfisher. Benson attended church-of-Christ affiliated Harper Junior College in Kansas, where J.N. Armstrong was then president. He went on to earn a B.A. from Harding College in 1925, a B.S. from Oklahoma A&M; University, and an M.A. in history with an emphasis in Oriental studies from the University of Chicago in 1931. He received several honorary doctorates including those from Harding University, 1932; Knox College (Illinois), 1948;Knox College, Honorary Degrees (retrieved 2010 July 22). and Oklahoma Christian University, 1968. ==Missionary career== George S. Benson started his career as a missionary to China for eleven years, 1925-1936. After only 6 months in Kwei Hsien, Communist propagandists arrived and "insisted that these intruders should be either killed or driven out". The Bensons had difficulty finding a boat to take them to Hong Kong because of threats against those who carried foreigners. After a year in Hong Kong, George Pepperdine offered them support to work in the Philippines. George pitched a tent in Pinamalayan and started preaching, making converts and establishing a congregation. Sixty days later, he left for Paglasan and then Baguio, where he followed a similar procedure. While passing through 30 years later, Benson "found the church at Baguio still continuing faithful to the Lord". The Bensons returned to China in 1929, having heard that the situation there was improving. George taught English for a year at Sun Yat-sen University in Canton. Through this experience, he decided that "the most effective way to reach the Chinese people was through teaching English". Following masters studies that improved his understanding of Chinese history and culture, the Bensons returned to Canton in April 1932. Together with a growing team, they opened the Canton English Finishing School opened in February 1933, which grew to over 100 students by year-end. In 1933, the intensive Bible training short courses that had been conducted several times in 1932 were expanded and formalized as the Canton Bible School, starting with 14 full-time students. The three-year program included Chinese reading and writing in addition to the primary Bible instruction. As the students matured, they participated in evangelism work in the country, taught children's Bible classes, and taught children to read and write at a new "school for the poor" they had suggested. The English and Bible schools continued to operate until 1949. Another significant effort in Guangzhou was translating and publishing literature in the Chinese language, including an award winning publication of J.W. McGarvey's Commentary on Acts. Families that had joined the work in Canton included the Oldham, Davis, Whitfield, Leung, So, Ko, and Bernard families. Lowell Davis and Roy Whitfield had been in a missionary methods class at Harding that George taught winter 1931-1932 while on furlough. When Benson received Armstrong's invitation to the Harding presidency in March 1936, he was inclined to turn it down. But as the now- experienced team contemplated the quantity of missionaries that would be needed to "take the Christian message to the other great cities of China", they urged him to accept this role where he could "influence the recruitment and preparation of future missionaries for China". After their first year in China, Sally wrote a short book, "Chats About China" to share their "first impressions" of the people in the "small part of South China" they had observed so the reader might "know something about the people on this side of the world" and "be interested in their soul salvation". Towards the end of his career, George wrote "Missionary Experiences". He discusses preparation and attitude for effectively sharing the Gospel, drawing on his and others' experiences in China, the Philippines, Korea, and Zambia as well as his "preparatory years" growing up in Oklahoma and in college. ==Administrative career== === Harding College === Benson left China in 1936, at the invitation of J.N. Armstrong, to succeed him as president of Harding College. The college had not yet repaid any of its debt from the 1934 Searcy campus purchase, so its prospects were bleak. Like Western, Cordell, and Harper colleges that Armstrong had led before it, Harding was becoming insolvent. Finances were further challenged by a controversy that isolated the school from potential donors in the Churches of Christ: In 1935, President Armstrong was accused of being sympathetic to Premillennialism in the Gospel Advocate and Gospel Guardian, which may have led to his resignation. Upon assuming the presidency, Benson was pressured to fire Armstrong from the Bible faculty, and then criticized in publications such as The Bible Banner when he would not. Benson traveled around the country raising money to pay the $70,000 debt and on Thanksgiving Day of 1939, Armstrong was able to toss the cancelled mortgage into a fire. In 1940, Benson announced the next major goal would be accreditation by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools (NCA). This would aid Harding students seeking admission to graduate schools. From 1941-1948 he "significantly strengthened faculty qualifications, increased the institution's financial resources and endowments, and undertook a costly building program." He hired retired NCA Review Board members to evaluate the school and make recommendations. The 1953 NCA reviewers recognized "a top quality faculty", fully satisfactory physical plant, "one of the most stable financial situations among small colleges", and high quality graduates. However, there was strong opposition to Benson's work with the National Education Program on the NCA Review Board,. The NCA rejected Harding's applications four times from 1948-1953. Continuing to engage with knowledgeable contacts, Benson learned that he could win over most of the Review Board by separating the NEP from the college. This was done in early 1954 and that March the NCA granted accreditation. Another primary goal for Benson was increasing faculty salaries and "to retain this dedicated faculty, with its deep spiritual commitment to cultivating genuinely Christian character in students." One of the first things he did upon assuming the presidency was to establish a firm salary schedule that would be paid each month rather than paying "whatever the school could afford". In 1937, Harding began holding "Distinguished Speaker" lectures on campus with speakers such as James L. Kraft and Charles F. Kettering. In 1943, Benson started and directed Camp Tahkodah, purchasing it himself after the board refused his suggestion that the college buy it. In 1958, the Harding Graduate School of Bible and Religion began operating on the King Estate in Memphis that had been purchased. Benson's proposal two years earlier to establish it on the Searcy campus had been rejected by a faculty vote over concerns it would lead to faculty members in other disciplines no longer being allowed to also teach Bible classes. During Benson's 29-year presidency, Harding grew from 324 to 1228 students and 15 buildings were erected, increasing the campus value from $600,000 to $25 million. Following his 1965 retirement, he continued to assist in the development of several other Church of Christ-related institutions, including Oklahoma Christian University, Lubbock Christian College, Alabama Christian College (Now Faulkner University), and George Pepperdine College. ====Desegregation==== Benson resisted a 1957 effort by students and faculty to desegregate Harding, but faced with the prospect of losing federal funds, in the fall of 1963 three black students were admitted to the Searcy campus. Benson's stated reasons for opposing desegregation in 1956 were that the "community is not yet ready" and that time was required for the South to absorb the "great shock" of the Supreme Court decision. He claimed that integrating immediately would cause white students to leave Harding, and that equal educational opportunities were available for all without integration, stating "The Little Rock Nine left a far better building and their own teachers to go to Central." In a 1958 chapel speech, Benson claimed that few blacks desired to attend Harding, and that he personally provided funds to attend all-black colleges to those few that applied. Losing financial support was likely also a concern. But he especially feared that interracial marriage would follow integration, and warned of "increased destruction to properties, increased gonorrhea and syphilis, and increased pregnancies." He expressed his belief that segregation was the natural order of creation, stating "the blackbirds and bluebirds, the blue jays and mockingbirds, they don't mix and mingle together, young people!" In a 1966 sermon he maintained that "Before God, all men are equal, but in like manner there is no reason to think the Lord wants a mixing of the races and the creating of just one mongrel race. Benson also believed that black people were under the Curse of Ham, a biblical reference that was often used to cast Black people as inferior and provide theological justification for slavery and segregation. While Benson's interest in global humanitarianism and worldwide evangelism indicate that he did not harbor stringent racial animosities, his positions were used by followers who believed that their faith in God and scripture mandated segregation in order to fulfill God's will. In 1963, Benson directed Harding to grant an honorary doctorate to Senator John McClellan for his work opposing the integration of Central High School in Little Rock. In 1957, student body president Bill Floyd circulated a "statement of attitude" that affirmed that the signers were ready to accept black students. Upon hearing of it, Benson announced in the required daily chapel that students should not sign it, yet over 85 percent of the student body and almost one hundred faculty and staff did so. Nevertheless, Benson dismissed the statement as "not an accurate expression of student feeling" and explained "they didn't understand what they were signing". The following day, students posted an ironic "whites only" sign in the lily pool, a decorative pond that serves as the central gathering place on the Searcy campus. Harding's graduate school in Memphis admitted four black students in 1962. Integration proceeded slowly at Harding, with blacks comprising less than 2% of the student body in 1970, and challenges in areas like roommate assignments, dating and athletics continued beyond Benson's presidency. =====Impact of 1964 Civil Rights Legislation===== In 2012, Mike D. Brown wrote that Harding's 1963 decision to begin admitting black students was motivated by expectation that the coming Civil Rights Act would require "Harding to desegregate to continue receiving federal funds". Key concurs, noting that "Congress was already considering what would become the Civil Rights act of 1964", and cites the "similarly pragmatic" Seventh-day Adventist decision to desegregate in 1965, as well as observing that the Freed–Hardeman University president attributed his own school's 1964 policy change "to the mistake of accepting federal funds". Key acknowledges that "extant records do not precisely indicate" the reasoning at Harding. Hicks viewed Harding's action as "voluntary", citing a September 1963 Arkansas Gazette article: "as a private institution [Harding] faced no legal threat". The Gazette further reported that Harding was the first private college in Arkansas to integrate and editorialized "they and Dr. Benson deserve an ovation...for the grace with which they have undertaken this social change". More recently, the Arkansas Times has reported that Harding was actually second. The student newspaper article about the announcement stated: "Benson's leadership in the movement for equal opportunity makes us proud, even boastful". Brown notes two examples that suggest Benson was not dedicated to preserving segregation: He had "turned down a lucrative offer" to start a strictly segregated college in Mississippi, and he personally raised support for the students who broke the color barrier at Harding. Brown's summary cautions against oversimplification: Benson "was marked by the segregated society in which he was raised", "feared the loss of conservative donations that would have followed early desegregation", dreaded interracial marriage, and it is unclear if he ever "acknowledged his mistakes and racial myopia". Yet, "on some level, Benson too believed that 'God was no respecter of persons.'" ===Oklahoma Christian College (1956-67)=== In early 1955, Central Christian College president Baird met with Benson and expressed that the school's situation in Bartlesville, OK was hopeless. He asked for Benson's help with moving the school to Tulsa or Oklahoma City. After a year of Benson "leading and guiding the moving program", the board named him Chancellor so he could represent the college on a more authoritative basis, and asked Harding to release Benson for approximately a third of his time. Benson primarily focused on fund raising, delegating day-to-day operations to President Baird. When the college sought accreditation, the North Central Examining Committee's December 1965 report was critical of the college's dual leadership, so Benson made plans to retire. Benson connected the college with major donors such as the Gaylords and Davissons. To avoid confusion with the nearby Central State College following the move to Oklahoma City, Benson recommended changing the name to Oklahoma Christian College. ===Zambia Christian Schools (1964-84)=== In 1964, the newly independent Zambian government offered land to Church of Christ missionary J.D. Merritt if he would build a secondary school on it. Merritt asked Benson to help raise funds for that purpose. Namwianga Christian Secondary School opened in 1966 and Kabanga Christian Secondary School several years later. In 1989, George Benson Christian College opened as a teacher training college on the Namwianga Mission site. Benson served a Chairman of the Board of Zambian Christian Schools until 1984. He was "heavily involved" because "he wanted a multitude of Zambians to receive an education where they would get to know Christ as their personal savior." ===Alabama Christian College (1975-83)=== Benson was appointed as chancellor of Alabama Christian College in 1975. He served as interim president and chief executive in 1981. During his years as chancellor, debt was reduced from $3.5 million to $1 million and college operations were strengthened. ===National Education Program=== At both Harper College and Oklahoma A&M;, Benson displayed an interest in the mistakes that had felled great civilizations of past, taking as his debate theme "The Seventh Nation" in which America was compared with Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, Syria, Greece and Rome. Abroad, Benson observed much lower standards of living despite comparable natural resources. He concluded key differences were the stability of America's constitutional government along with innovation from its private enterprise economic system. Benson believed that only when the government is stable will individuals venture the capital that creates jobs. He also saw America's economic success as dependent on personal integrity, with that being grounded in faith in God. Benson viewed the federal government's role as "umpire" rather than "guarantor of security" that would take individual freedom to deliver that security. As he embarked for China, Benson thought of Americans as "alert, ambitious, and hopeful", "self-reliant and "independent". Upon returning in 1936, however, he saw a "paralyzing change. Millions were on relief and their children were growing up without knowledge of any other way of life". The National Education Association had recently announced educational plans to "support President Roosevelt in taking [basic industries and utilities] over and operating them at full capacity as a unified national system". America seemed to be trending towards "the public tendency to live off the national pay roll" that had brought down the Greek and Roman democracies. Benson "promised himself that he'd do something in his small way". Upon assuming the Harding presidency, Benson had quickly become a regular regional speaker as he raised funds. But he gained national prominence through a 1941 speech to the Congressional Ways and Means Committee. He was the 147th speaker at public hearings about how to fund the Lend Lease Act, anticipated to require a 44% increase in the federal budget. Previous speakers had urged "economy", but Benson was specific in recommending shuttering the "make-work" Civilian Conservation Corps and National Youth Administration because many jobs were available as defense industries ramped up. He also recommended a 50% cut to the Works Progress Administration, granting that relief measures were still needed for those who were not employable. Together, these cuts amounted to one third of what Treasury had requested. His speech was well-received by the Committee and nationally, with 2 million reprints requested. Congress proceeded to pass the a tax increase without any of his recommended spending cuts, but by the end of 1943 all three agencies had been abolished. In 1945 and 1948, Benson spoke to congressional committees opposing federal funding for state and local education. While acknowledging educational deficiencies, he argued that the real need was for local school districts to "set our own house in order, rather than asking for Federal aid to keep a disorderly house supplied with unnecessary funds". He characterized Federal "aid" to states as merely a return of taxes paid by those states and "weighted with a group of bureaucrats and political hangers-on", and that such "aid" would lead to increased federal government control. In 1946 Benson debated Dr. Ralph Norton of Columbia University on the topic of federal aid to education. The National Education Program (NEP) was set up as a Harding's Department of National Education in 1941 and formally separated from the college in 1954. The NEP produced a variety of materials intended to advance "the facts about our economic system, our constitutional government, and our spiritual heritage". In 1954 these included the weekly "Looking Ahead" and "Listen, Americans" columns carried by 4,000 weekly newspapers and trade newspapers, a monthly bulletin mailed to 47,000 people, a weekly radio broadcast carried by 387 stations, and MGM-distributed films estimated to have been viewed by 35 million people. These animated films were produced by John Sutherland, a former Disney executive and funded by The Sloan Foundation and included "Make Mine Freedom", "Going Places", "Meet King Joe", "Why Play Leapfrog", "Albert in Blunderland", "Adventures in Economics". These cartoons became "the most popular short subjects ever distributed by MGM. The 1965 NEP film "The Truth About Communism" was narrated by Ronald Reagan at Benson's invitation. In 1949, the NEP conducted its first "Freedom Forum" to help reach Americans with "the facts about our economic system, our constitutional government, and our spiritual heritage". Forums were a mixture of lecture and workshop and organized around a theme, such as "Collectivism - History's Greatest Failure". Enrollment at the first forum was limited to 160, intended for "thought leaders" who could then educate their organization, often businesses. Speakers included Robert Andrews Millikan, Herbert Philbrick, and Fred Schwarz. Initially the forums focused on affirming "faith in God, constitutional government, and free private enterprise", but as the Cold War intensified the focus shifted to anti-communism. In 1955, Youth Forums on Americanism were added for high school students. Hicks assessed the NEP's effectiveness, concluding that Reagan's 1980 victory can be attributed in part to "the grassroots activism carefully nurtured by men such as George Benson with his NEP". In a message for his 80th birthday, Reagan said "Dr. Benson, more than most, recognized the parallel between that other great civilization, now lost in the dustbin of history, and what could happen to this country, and he began trying to warn all of us before any were willing to accept the warning.". Eisenhower commented "I only wish that other colleges and universities were doing what Harding College is doing for our American way of life." Benson's work with the NEP placed him "at the nexus of the 'Radical Right'", playing a role in "the right's transformation from marginalization in the 1930s to its resurrection by the 1980s". As the NEP grew in influence, it attracted increasing criticism. Its 1960 video "Communism on the Map" was attacked as "mingling fact and falsehood" and "misleading propaganda". 1961 articles in the New York Times, Newsweek, and Arkansas Gazette labelled the NEP as "far right" and linked it to the widely discredited John Birch society. That June, Arkansas senator J. William Fulbright sent a memo to Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara raising concerns about use of NEP materials in the armed forces, which resulted in immediate restrictions on its use. These attacks were "permanently and seriously damaging", and the NEP saw it's revenues fall by half from 1961/62 to 1962/63. In 1964, the Anti-Defamation League book "Danger on the Right" stated that the NEP was "the largest producer of radical right propaganda in the country". Harding's faculty became critical, with James Atteberry shifting from praising the NEP in a 1966 book to expressing concern in 1967 that Harding's "national image is currently political rather than Christian". Benson and the NEP viewed much of the criticism as communist subversion, becoming "somewhat less focused" on promoting free market ideology. At the NEP, Benson worked closely with James D. Bales, Clifton L. Ganus Jr., and Glenn A. "Bud" Green. Benson helped to establish Americanism programs at several other colleges, including Kings College, George Pepperdine College, Columbia Christian College, Lubbock Christian College, Alabama Christian College and Abilene Christian College. Influential anti-communist author John Stormer credited Benson with awakening him to the dangers of liberalism. == Honors and legacy == Benson was a recipient of the Tax Foundation's Distinguished Service Award in 1941. Dr. Benson was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1972 and to the Oklahoma State University Hall of Fame in 1976. Benson was the Arkansas Democrat "Outstanding Arkansan" of the year in 1954, and received a Freedoms Foundation George Washington Medal from General Eisenhower in 1949. Buildings are named in his honor at Harding University, Freed Hardeman University, and Faulkner University. There was formerly a building named for Benson at Oklahoma Christian University, where a student-led civil rights event in 1969 ultimately led to 18 students being arrested and expelled. In 2020, Oklahoma Christian removed Benson's name from the building because of his segregationist views. ==Personal life== He married Sally Ellis Hockaday in 1925, and within a week they left for China. Two daughters, Mary Ruth and Lois were born in Hong Kong. Sally Ellis died December 17, 1981. On February 22, 1983, George married his long-time secretary Marguerite O'Banion. ==Bibliography== * * * * ==References== ==External links== * The War We Are In, Part 2 - Televised speech by Dr. Benson * Burial site George S. Benson Category:1898 births Category:1991 deaths Category:American members of the Churches of Christ Category:Congregationalist missionaries in China Category:Harding University alumni Category:Knox College (Illinois) alumni Category:Ministers of the Churches of Christ Category:Oklahoma Christian University alumni Category:Oklahoma State University alumni Category:University of Chicago alumni Category:New Right (United States) Category:American Congregationalist missionaries Category:American expatriates in China Category:American anti- communists Category:Activists from Arkansas |
The Royal Air Force Special Duties (SD) Service was a secret air service created to provide air transport to support the resistance movement in Axis controlled territories. The service helped develop and support the resistance by bringing in agents, wireless operators and supplies. Parachute drop was the primary method by which the Special Duties units delivered supplies and most of the agents to the occupied countries. They also developed an air taxi service to pick up agents, political leaders and special communications from occupied Europe and bring them to England. On the outward flight the air taxi service also delivered agents and high value packages to France. Special Duties flights flew to target fields in Vichy France, Occupied France, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Greece. By the end of the war Special Duties units were also operating in the Far East. The air units were controlled by the Royal Air Force, and worked closely with the SOE and the SIS. ==Formation== thumbnail|Hugh Dalton, right, Minister of Economic Warfare, and Colin Gubbins, chief of SOE, talking to a Czech officer during a visit to Czech troops near Leamington Spa, Warwickshire After the end of the Battle of France in June 1940, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, advocated the development of a resistance movement in Europe. His aim was two-fold: to develop a spirit of resistance in the Nazi occupied countries, and to develop a fifth column of resistance fighters who would be able to assist in the liberation of their countries when the British returned. To support these aims a method of communication and supply to the resistance needed to be developed. To this purpose a highly secret organisation separate from MI5 was formed which had no official existence. Formed on 22 July 1940 under Hugh Dalton, the Minister of Economic Warfare, it was called the Special Operations Executive (SOE). Known only among the highest levels of the cabinet, extensive efforts were taken to keep its existence secret. The SOE cloaked itself by interacting with other agencies under seemingly unrelated names. Traditional armed service organisations might deal with the Inter- Services Research Bureau, the Joint Technical Board, or the Special Training Schools Headquarters. At the Admiralty the naval service dealt with the NID (Q), at the War Office the MO I(SP), while at the Air Ministry the operative entity was known as the AI IO. Most never gained an insight that these entities were the same organisation, nor did they penetrate the nature and extent of it To support the movement forming in Europe a clandestine air service was necessary. Foreign Office officials approached the Air Ministry to ask if agents could be parachuted or flown into France and the Low Countries. They received a frosty reception. Air marshal Charles Portal, commander-in- chief of RAF Bomber Command, baulked at using aircraft just to ferry spies. His Air vice-marshal, Arthur Harris, did not want to divert aircraft and pilots needed elsewhere "to carry ragamuffins to distant spots". Others, notably Churchill, disagreed. The SOE got its support and the Special Duties service units were created. Harris was told by the Air Ministry to provide the air services support, which he did, though he continued to argue that it was taking resources away from the main task. The air units created and the missions they were performing were kept secret. This sometimes proved a challenge. In one instance in 1942 poor weather resulted in a Whitley flight having to return without dropping its agents. On the return trip the plane crashed along the English coast, killing all aboard. Among the dead were five SOE agents dressed as civilians. It was explained to the public that they were members of the press along to observe the results of a bombing raid. When a local newspaper pressed further, asking why so many press members were aboard the flight, the Army Special Investigation Branch made a visit to the paper and the story was suppressed. Said a pilot after the war: "Even when high ranking officers who were not in the know asked about the work we were doing we had to lie like old Harry. It was court martial if we breathed a word about the job. Not even the mechanics knew about the passenger flights". For the special duties aircrews, who they were and what they did remained a secret until the war had been over for over 30 years. Initially a flight of aircraft was formed on 21 August 1940 by 11 Group Fighter Command and set aside to support the effort. Control was transferred to 3 Group on 2 October 1940. The needs of the SOE grew, as did those of the air units supporting them. Eventually two "Special Duties" squadrons were created by the RAF as a link with the underground movements in the occupied countries. A third was added in 1943 to work in the Mediterranean theater. In the last year of the war a fourth was added for the Far East. The squadrons worked in support of SOE and the SIS, though with SOE organising, arming and supplying a civilian army, it required the lion's share of the air transport services. The peak effort was reached just around the time of the Allied invasion of occupied Europe in June 1944. ==Training== The first task of the RAF was to deliver agents to France trained in the selection of fields suitable for their aircraft to land and take off again. These agents had to be fluent in French to blend in. Once the agent was in place and had selected a number of potential locations for landings he was ready to receive an operation. ===Operator training=== French nationals trained as agents were presented to the RAF to be specially trained as 'operators', known in French as the chef de terrain. Training initially was done at 'F' section in London at Tempsford's Station 61, the so-called "Joe School." The training was completed at RAF Tempsford, with the aid of the special duties pilots from 161 Squadron. This was done during the dark of the moon, the pilot's off periods. Commented one pilot after the war: "We had to have decent fields, so we brought back men of the resistance movement to teach them the sort of places to select and what to do to help us to land."Stuart, James RAF Fly-by Nights Beat Gestapo Evening Standard, 16 June 1945 The operators learned what to look for in selecting a field: a clear path without trees or telephone wires, with at least 600 yards of clearing. The ground had to be firm. They were to avoid mud at all costs. The agents trained were either of French heritage, were French expatriates living in exile in England, or were resistance members picked up from France and brought back to England for training. Some of them had been pilots in the French Armée de l'Air. Agents were trained at the false airfield at "RAF Somersham" in signaling aircraft in Morse code and in laying out a flare path. Supply drop flare paths were made with 5 flashlights forming an "X". For a Lysander landing the skeleton flare path was made with 3 flashlights that formed an inverted "L". To avoid problems the RAF strongly preferred to land on fields handled by operators they had trained. If an operator started to pick out less than desirable landing fields he would be recalled to Tempsford for remedial training. Following a mission in April 1942 that almost resulted in an aircraft and pilot being lost on a boggy field the RAF insisted they would only land aircraft on fields handled by an operator that 161 Squadron had trained. If the agent failed the training he would not be allowed to manage landings. Operators who passed their training were said to be qualified to "lay on an operation". ===Pilot training=== The special duties squadrons had to recruit and train pilots for their command. Being a secret organisation, recruitment was a problem. Some pilots were drawn to the SD squadrons by personal contacts, others by the pilot's own experience in escaping from the continent. All of them had an "Above Average" pilot rating. Many had also qualified as navigators. Self-reliance in navigation was an important quality for the SD pilots. Many judged it a more essential skill for a successful SD pilot than piloting the aircraft itself. A pilot had to fly in the dark of night over enemy occupied territory, frequently in weather that grounded other squadrons, and navigate by himself to a small dark field in the middle of France. Pilots had to be self-reliant, capable of thinking and acting on their own. Hugh Verity wrote a set of instructions for the Lysander pilots in A Flight of 161 Squadron. These were guides offered from an experienced Lysander pilot to the novitiate, but were more helpful tips rather than a set of hard fast rules. 161 Squadron did not have rigid rules they followed, as conditions and obstacles such as bad weather, low cloud and fog, boggy landing fields, or possible enemy action were too variable. As 161 Squadron commander Charles Pickard often remarked: "There's always bloody something!" thumb|left|A low flying SD modified Lysander over England It took about a month for a pilot to complete the training and for the commanding officer to determine if the pilot would be able to do the job. Training required the pilot to be extremely comfortable with the layout of the aircraft's controls. He had to learn how to work out a course to his target and back. The course set was made up of a string of pinpoints, navigational terrain features which were identifiable and whose location was sure. The course was a -wide corridor designed to avoid German flak emplacements. On his trip the pilot flew from pinpoint to pinpoint, staying in the corridor until he reached the target area. He would practice this by flying by navigation alone over England by day, without making use of the radio to ask for a homing bearing, flying from navigation point to navigation point. The flights would be repeated at night. Next they practised night time landings and take-offs from a grass field. This training was done at "RAF Somersham", a "dummy" airfield near RAF Tempsford initially used as a decoy during the Blitz. It was later put to use by the RAF and the SOE for training of agent operators and Lysander pilots, as the rough field approximated a typical landing ground in occupied France. The final test for a Lysander pilot was to navigate over the continent through a corridor free of flak to a pinpoint target in France south of Saumur. The target was described to the pilot as a light. When the pilot arrived over the target he found a brilliantly lit rectangle. It was in fact a prison camp, whose bright lighting of the fence wire made it a "pinpoint" of uniquely brilliant quality. When the pilot returned and reported on this astonishing target he confirmed he had made it there and was made operational. ==Operations== ===Parachute drops of supplies=== thumb|Jean Garcin and some of his maquis resistance fighters in 1944 Supply delivery was the primary undertaking of the Special Duties squadrons. To support the burgeoning resistance forces a great deal of material was needed, and the needs increased as numbers in the resistance increased. In May 1941 an Air Ministry staff officer estimated that to supply 45,000 resistance fighters in the field would require 2,000 sorties a year. Supplies delivered included arms, ammunition, plastic explosives, radio sets, bicycles for transportation, bicycle tires, food, clothing and medical supplies. Specialty supplies included radio crystals, printer's ink, and for the Norwegians, skis and sleds. The bulk of supplies to the resistance in France were transported to them by 138 Squadron, with the B Flight of 161 Squadron doing agent and supply drops as well. Both squadrons depended on moonlight for visibility over the landing fields and drop zones. To receive the supplies the operator on the ground would wait at a designated field. When the aircraft was heard overhead the operator would flash a prearranged Morse code letter. The supply aircraft would flash a corresponding letter using its "downward identification light". The team on the ground would light the field, using five lights placed in an "X" pattern to mark the drop target. The aircraft came over the field at very low altitude, 400 to 500 feet, and reduced speed to just above stalling to minimize scatter and damage to the cargo. The operator would have arranged means to move the supplies off to places of concealment. Stores were usually parachuted in using cylindrical containers to protect the loads. C-type metal containers were 6 feet long and could weigh up to 250 pounds. This container could be used to carry longer loads such as rifles. The "H" type had been developed by the Poles. It was the same size overall, but could be broken down into five smaller sections to make it easier to carry away and conceal. Packages delivered, on the other hand, seldom weighed more than 100 pounds. Some materials such as boots and blankets were "free-dropped" by simply throwing them bundled together out of the aircraft, often to the hazard of any receiving committee on the ground. 20% of the drop missions were aborted, either because the reception committee was not there or the weather was too poor to find the drop field. High value items, such as forged documents and money, were often transported in with an agent, often by Lysander. thumb|left|A Stirling at dusk, December 1943 Harris did not approve of the use of aircraft for these purposes, and in particular complained that they did nothing for 2 weeks at a time during the dark period. This was not entirely true, as the long flights of their operations had a high maintenance requirement, and they did perform training work. Nevertheless, it seemed prudent to assist, and during the dark period some of 138s aircraft contributed in the bombing campaign over Germany. With target drop zones as far away as Poland and Yugoslavia, the missions flown tended to expose the crews to a great deal of time over enemy occupied territory. Due to this their first tour was completed with 250 hours of operational flight, if that were accumulated before the 30 sorties that was the normal for marking the completion of a first tour for Bomber Command crews. The needs for supplies increased as the circuits being supported grew larger and the time of the invasion approached. 138 Squadron's lift capacity was improved with the loan of Short Stirling bombers in December 1943. The loan became permanent in 1944 when the Stirlings were retired from Bomber Command and 138 Squadron converted from Halifaxes to Stirlings. ===Parachute drops of agents=== The majority of agents arrived in France by parachute drop. This was not a gentle daytime float from altitude. They were dropped at night over a reception field at , just high enough for the parachute to open a few seconds before the agent hit the ground. Some 1,500 agents were dropped into France, and many of these did several drops. The aircrews generically called the agents "Joes" and for the most part did not get to know them. If the aircraft was a little too low it made for a rough landing, and a number of agents were injured. Over the course of the war six agents were killed from failed drops, the result of either the aircraft being too low or the chute failing to open. Agent drop operations almost always went off during the moon period, though occasionally "blind drops" were completed to empty fields in the dark period. Said 161 Squadron's B Flight commander Bob Hodges ===Pick-up flights=== Pick-up operations were initially handled by the Lysander flight in 138 Squadron. After the split to form 161 Squadron the pick-ups were handled by 161's A Flight. Each planned pick-up operation was given an operational name, and the name was used until the mission had been completed. If the pick-up failed on the first attempt due to weather, subsequent efforts to make the same pick-up were put on under the same operational name. By 1942 a routine had developed for putting together an operation. A resistance group would request a pick-up, choose a landing ground and provide a detailed description and map reference to London. The field would be photographed by the RAF's Photographic Reconnaissance Unit to allow the pilot to study the appearance of the proposed field. The pilot would then make up a route map to the target field by cutting a map of France into small folding sections that could be easily held in the pilot's hand. The route chosen was made up of a series of navigation pinpoints. The best navigational pinpoints were bodies of water, such as lakes, bends in a river, and so forth. Water reflected silver in the moonlight against the dark gray of the land, and made for the easiest terrain features to identify. During the flight the pilot would hold his folding map in one hand and the stick in the other. Over the course of the trip the pilot could ensure his progress by going folded section by section, point by point. The river Loire was a frequent guide. At a point along its course just east of Blois the river takes a sharp bend and two small islands are present. This easily identifiable terrain feature became a primary navigational pinpoint for operations deep into France. Upon leaving England a pilot would drop down to over the channel to get under German radar. Crossing the French coastline was one of the more dangerous aspects of the trip, as German forces and anti-aircraft guns were present over much of the coastline opposite England. Cabourg was the favored spot to cross into the continent, as it avoided heavy anti-aircraft guns to the northeast at Le Havre and German army forces to the southwest at Caen. From Tangmere to Cabourg was about an hour's flight in a Lysander. Flying the single engine airplane over the cold waters of the English Channel at night was a test itself. Mechanical failure and a forced ditching in the sea was unlikely to end well. The ground crews knew this, and their Lysanders never suffered an engine failure. As the pilot approached the French coastline he would climb to to get above the light flak found there, then drop down to while flying across France for ease in reading the landmarks. If the sky was clear some pilots preferred to transit at to avoid flak and conserve fuel, but the locations of flak were known, so this was less an issue after the coastline had been crossed. Once across the French coast the pilot would hold his map on his knee and fly the aircraft with his other hand, checking off his pinpoints as he moved inland. When the pilot got close to the target there would be a near pinpoint. Identifying it, he could make a calculation based on course direction and time of flight for when he would be over the field. As the aircraft approached, the field agent laying on the operation would signal a prearranged code letter in Morse. thumb|A group of 161 pilots stand before Verity's Lysander in 1943 (Jimmy McCairns, Hugh Verity, Charles Pickard, Peter Vaughan-Fowler, and Bunny Rymills) Operating his signal key, the pilot would flash back the agreed to Morse letter response via the plane's downward light. With the correct exchange of signals the operator and his men would light the flare path. The flare path was simply three flashlights staked out to poles. The operator and waiting passengers would be to the left of the "A" lamp at the base of the landing ground; beyond it and into the wind was the "B" light. to the right of the "B" lamp was the "C" lamp. The three lights formed an inverted "L". With the correct code letters exchanged the pilot would fly a circuit over the field and then bring the aircraft down to land. The Lysander's landing lights would be switched on just before landing so the pilot might be able to see obstructions. The pilot tried to touch down at the “A” lamp, and by applying hard brake usually had the aircraft stopped by the time it reached the B lamp. He would turn around at the "C" lamp, and then taxi back to the "A" lamp for the exchange. The incoming passengers would clamber down the fixed ladder to the ground. The last passenger to disembark would hand off the luggage and take aboard the outgoing luggage before he climbed down the ladder himself. Then the outgoing passengers would climb aboard. The change over of passengers and load was completed in under three minutes. Often the operator would climb up to greet the pilot. There was a quick exchange of greetings and gifts, then full power with brake on until the tail lifted. With that it was off brake and airborne again in less than . Though a brazenly bold undertaking, on occasion landings were made at abandoned French aerodromes that the Germans were not making use of. The Lysander pilots faced a number of dangers, including flak, German night fighters, Allied night fighters, the Gestapo, poor weather and mud. Of these, the most dangerous were poor weather and mud caked fields. German flak was concentrated along the coast, over towns and over German operated airfields. However, these locations were known to the pilots, so if a pilot plotted his course carefully and did not stray from it while flying the mission he should be able to avoid most if not all flak. German night fighters posed a threat, and there were interceptions. The night fighters were concentrated to the north over Belgium and in Germany, and presented a threat more to Halifax pilots flying to Poland then to Lysander pilots flying to Vichy France. A number of pilots and their passengers were lost in this way. In the early years Gestapo efforts to capture the fliers resulted a number of close calls. Being caught on the ground and subjected to interrogations by the Gestapo was always on the minds of the pilots as they orbited over a field and touched down. If an aircraft became stuck the plane had to be destroyed, and the pilot had to look for other means to get home. Usually this meant a long trek through the escape lines to southern France, over the Pyrenees and into Spain with hopes of reaching the British consulate and a flight home. When Robin Hooper's Lysander became trapped in mud in mid-November 1943, a Lysander recovery flight was launched during the next moon period to pick him up. This was carried out on 17 December 1943 by Squadron Leader Bob Hodges. Hodges knew the forecast over England for the night was poor, and purposed an early flight to get back and down before the home airfields became shrouded in fog. An hour later thick ground fog resulted in the loss of two Lysanders and three Halifaxes in the worst night of losses in the history of the Special Duties squadrons. thumb|A Hudson at Gibraltar To minimize the risk of capture while the plane was on the ground the job of dis-embarking and boarding passengers was choreographed and practised, so that the time the Lysander was on the ground was kept to a minimum. The goal was to complete turnover in 3 minutes. Most pilots flew with a pistol as a personal sidearm, though the pistol was rarely put to use. Pilots also carried an escape kit, in case. The worst fear of the pilots was a muddy field that would cause their aircraft to become stuck, trapping them on the ground in occupied France. This occurred to pilots a number of times. Their options were to try to get their aircraft unstuck, or to burn the plane and try to escape out of France on foot. Freeing up a plane stuck on the ground was a battle against time, for the pilot needed to get up in the air and out of France before daylight and the inevitable Luftwaffe morning patrols. If the flight was delayed too long an alternative route home was worked out by RAF Tempsford's CO, Mouse Fielden, who when he found himself delayed in the south of France took his Hudson out over the Mediterranean to the British airfield in Algiers at Maison Blanche. From there on the next day he flew to Gibraltar and then back to England. Flights at night to make pick- ups have largely been viewed as the more glamorous duty of the Special Duties squadrons, though at the time the pilots were rarely acknowledged publicly. The Lysanders they flew had been relegated to towing targets for firing practice or performing scouting flights as part of air/sea rescue operations. Thus if a pilot was seen by a fellow aviator climbing into a Lysander they tended to get a look of slight regard. Clearly they did not appear to be on the sharp end of the war effort. Regardless of public snubbing, morale among Lysander pilots was high, and they had a great deal of satisfaction for pulling agents out of Europe right under the nose of the Gestapo. After the D-Day landings in June 1944 the favored entry point was changed from Cabourg to south of the Cotentin peninsula to avoid Allied anti-aircraft fire and night fighters. Poor weather of either cloud or fog were the most prominent reasons for failing to complete a mission. The pilot might carry on and attempt to reach the objective, calculating his position from a last known navigational point. Using the aircraft's speed, time and direction, he might estimate when he would be over the general area of the target field by dead reckoning. However he would still need a break over the target field in order to see the reception committee light and the flare path for the landing. ==Formations== ===Flight 419 and Flight 1419=== The first RAF special duties formation was Flight 419, officially formed 21 August 1940 and operating out of the fighter base at RAF North Weald. Flight Lt. Wallace Farley was the commanding officer of the flight, which comprised two Lysanders. Prior to Flight Lt. Wallace and immediately before the Flight was officially formed Acting Flight Lt John Coghlan was appointed to command it. He was lost whilst flying an agent into Belgium on the night of the 17/18 August and he was then replaced by Flight Lt Wallace three days later. The first commander of this, as yet, unnamed flight was John Coghlan. By September three Whitleys and another Lysander had been added to the flight. While Flight 419 was working up the first clandestine flight was flown by Wing Commander Andrew Geddes, who took an SIS agent to a field near Tours France on the night of 3 September 1940, flying a Lysander. This Lysander was part of an Army Cooperation unit. ====First mission==== thumb|left|An early Lysander in flight Flight 419's first mission was undertaken the night of 19/20 October 1940 when Flight Lt. Farley set out to pick-up SIS agent Philip Schneidau. Schneidau had parachuted into France ten days earlier on the night of October 9. Before he left Schneidau and Farley had worked out how he would be retrieved. As no small wireless sets were available at that time, he had brought along 10 messenger pigeons as the means to communicate back to England. The two had worked out a 3 light flare path pattern to guide the Lysander on its landing. The simple flare path remained in use for Lysander landings without modification throughout the rest of the war. Schneidau had also made a number of modifications to the Lysander, including the welding of a ladder to the side of the fuselage to make it easier for him to climb in, which was helpful, and the removal of the aircraft's rear canopy for the same reason, which was not. The plan was for Schneidau to be retrieved on the night of the 19th. On the night of his planned pick-up, heavy wind and rain resulted in all RAF operations being cancelled. Knowing Schneidau would be waiting for him, Farley convinced his CO to let him give it a try. Though taking off in a storm, the weather cleared some over France. Farley located Schneidau's field, landed and made the pick-up. On the way out a German sentry put a bullet into Farley's airplane, which entered the cockpit, passed between Farley's legs and struck the compass, destroying it. As the two men began their flight back the storm worked up into a southwesterly gale, pushing them north and east. With rain and wind pouring into the open rear cockpit, the wireless set became inoperable. Schneidau was soon soaked through and became increasingly cold. Making their way north through the storm, the two had no reference points to guide them. They soon had no idea if they had made it over England, were still over the North Sea or had been blown back over northern Germany. The pair flew on through the night, hoping for a break in the sky. Six hours later they were running out of fuel, still with no idea of where they were. At last a break in the cloud gave them a glimpse of a small plateau at the top of the steep cliffs of a rugged coastline. With no other option available, they dropped down to make a landing and crashed through a number of anti-glider posts. They had crashed six miles north of RAF Oban in Scotland, 600 miles north of Farley's home airfield. The two men were spotted by a pair of Scottish guardsmen, whose English they could not understand. They were brought in to the senior officer at the RAF coastal command base at Oban as suspected spies. The station commander inquired who they were and what they were doing there. Farley limited his answer to his name and service number. Schneidau said they had been doing a special recce over the Atlantic, but he was unable to give his name. Finding these answers entirely unsatisfactory, the base commander confined them. Meanwhile, Farley's commanding officer had been searching for them, looking for signs of a wreck along the cliffs of the coast of England. He was informed that a Lysander had crashed in northern Scotland, but dismissed the wreck as being too far away. When he was told the pilot's name was Farley, he realized his man had made it back. Thus began the covert activities of the RAF Special Duties squadrons. ====Administration==== The special duties service required its own administrative support. Ordinary administrative procedures useful in the arming and targeting of large numbers of aircraft for bombing raids as practised by the RAF were unsuitable for the work of secretly moving agents, arms, supplies and special funds by solitary flights to isolated fields in France. The formation was initially under the administrative control of No. 11 Group RAF. In September 419 Flight was bombed out of North Weald and moved to Stradishall. Administrative control switched to 3 Group, which provided administrative support to all Special Duties squadrons until the end of the war. Two Whitleys were added to the flight in September. Many of the early Whitley missions were flown to Poland. In February 1941 Flight 419 had its designation changed to No. 1419 Flight RAF to eliminate the confusion that had developed with No. 419 Squadron RAF. The flight was moved to Newmarket on 22 May 1941, and in September to Stapleford Tawney until October, when it was moved back to Stradishall. ===No. 138 (Special Duties) Squadron=== thumb|Insignia of 138 Squadron On 25 August 1941 Flight 1419 was expanded with the addition of 5 Whitleys and became 138 (Special Duties) Squadron. Throughout the conflict 138 Squadron did the bulk of the heavy lifting of supplies and agents to France and the other occupied countries in Europe. The squadron comprised 2 Lysanders, 10 Whitleys, 3 Halifaxes and a Martin Maryland. The Squadron operated during the moon periods, flying to remote fields where they did their drops. They had no special navigational aides. The aircraft observed strict wireless silence over hostile territory, and reached their target fields by navigation alone. The aircraft flew over the continent at about 2,000 feet to navigate to the target field, but would drop down to 400 to 500 feet as the aircraft approached the drop point and reduced air speed to just above stalling to minimize scatter and damage to the cargo. The drops had to be accurate to ensure the waiting resistance agents would be able to get the materials dropped and hide them away. Agents were dropped at 600 feet, barely enough time for the parachute to open and slow the fall of the agent. If the aircraft was a little too low it made for a very hard landing, and a number of agents were injured from hard landings. The Lysanders did the pick-up operations and made up their own B Flight in 138. In February 1942 the squadron split, with its Lysanders and a number of its Whitleys and Halifaxes combining with the King's Flight to form 161 Squadron. After the split the majority of supply drops and agent drops were still handled by 138 Squadron. 161 Squadron did all of the pick-ups of personnel, and also would land agents who lacked the training to parachute in or were physically unable to do so. A month later, in March 1942, the squadron was moved to the secret airfield at Tempsford, where it remained until the end of the war. A number of Polish pilots operated in 138 Squadron. In July 1943 the Polish pilots in 138 were formed into their own unit, Flight 301. By the end of the war 138 Squadron had flown more than 2,500 sorties, dropped 29,000 containers, 10,000 packages and 995 "Joes" into occupied Europe, while losing 70 aircraft. Over half of these missions were in Handley Page Halifax bombers, modified to provide a parachute hatch called the "Joe hole." As the war was coming to a close 138 Squadron was converted into a regular line unit on 9 March 1945. The squadron's insignia was of a sword cutting through a rope bind, with the motto "For Freedom".Michie, Allan A. The "Scarlet Pimpernels" of the air Bedfordshire Times, November 1945 ===No. 161 (Special Duties) Squadron=== thumb|Insignia of 161 Squadron thumb|Captain John Giannaris, a Greek speaking US Army officer wounded leading a team of Greek resistance fighters, arrives from the field on a 148 (SD) Lysander. He survived. 161 (Special Duties) Squadron was formed at RAF Newmarket on 15 February 1942 from 138's Lysander flight and a flight of Whitleys and Wellingtons. These were combined with pilots and aircraft from the King's Flight to create the second SD squadron. The unit was commanded by Edward Fielden, an experienced pilot who had been the CO of the King's Flight. He inherited two very experienced officers in Guy Lockhart and “Sticky” Murphy from 138. 161's A Flight was made up of 6 Lysanders, with Guy Lockhart as its commanding officer. A Flight undertook the pick-up operations. The squadron's B Flight flew two-engine Whitleys and Wellingtons, and did agent parachute drops and supply drop missions. In November 1942 the B Flight's Whitleys were replaced with the four-engine Halifax. The squadron moved to RAF Tempsford in April 1942, which remained its home base for the duration of the war. When on operations during the full moon period the A Flight would move forward to RAF Tangmere. Tangmere is on the coast, 100 miles south of Tempsford. The move extended the reach of A Flight's Lysanders into Europe.Orchard, Adrian Group Captain Percy Charles “Pick” Pickard DSO**, DFC 1915 - 1944 February 2006 161 Squadron would deliver SOE agents, wireless operators, wireless equipment and weapons to assist the resistance. Out of France they transported French political leaders, leaders of the resistance, and agents whose cover had been blown. Occasionally they gave a lift out to evading Allied airmen. They had the goal of making their pick-up operations as reliable as a London taxi service. The squadron also had the responsibility for operator training. Following a poorly directed and unnecessary pick-up in April 1942 the RAF insisted on tighter control of pick- up operations, and refused to perform pick-ups except with operators that 161's pilots had trained. The squadron's insignia was of a released shackle, with the motto "Liberate". ===No. 148 (Special Duties) Squadron: Mediterranean=== In 1943 a special duties squadron was created for operations in the Mediterranean. The unit was formed with the conversion of 148 Squadron to 148 (Special Duties) Squadron. The squadron was sent to Algiers to support an SOE unit, which was known as Interservice Signals Unit 6, codenamed 'Massingham'. The unit's Halifaxes dropped supplies to partisans in southern France, Italy and the Balkans. In February Peter Vaughan-Fowler was selected to command a flight of Lysanders to do agent pick-up operations to Greece, Yugoslavia and southern France. The unit participated in the Warsaw airlift, where it suffered heavy losses. 148 (SD) Squadron continued its work through the end of the war. ===No. 357 (Special Duties) Squadron: Far East=== In 1944 No. 357 (Special Duties) Squadron began operations in the Far East, flying Liberators, Dakotas, Lysanders and Catalina Flying Boats in support of SOE's Force 136 in Burma and other resistance groups in Thailand and Malaya. 357 (Special Duties) Squadron dropped more supplies by unit weight in the Far East than any other RAF unit dropped in weight of bombs. ==Airfields== ===RAF Tempsford=== thumb|Hangars and temporary huts in the southeast corner of RAF Tempsford, 1943 Tempsford was in a relatively remote part of the Bedfordshire countryside. It was built on the land of the Gibraltar Farm, which was situated across a low bog. The airfield was developed in 1940 under the specifications of an "A" class airfield, though it was kept clandestine. The locals knew there was an RAF station down a little side-road marked “This road is closed to the public”, but they knew little else. Since the flights were all undertaken at night, the local farmers saw very little of the aircraft that operated out of Tempsford. Built over a bog, this became telling later when fog proved a recurring significant hazard to landing aircraft. The airfield lay largely dormant until the arrival of the SD squadrons in 1942. 138 Squadron moved to Tempsford 11 March 1942. 161 Squadron followed 10 April 1942. The first covert supply mission flown from Tempsford was carried out by 138 Squadron in the March moon period to a drop zone in northern France, 18 March 1942. Underdeveloped, Tempsford was not a typical RAF airfield. It did have the standard three runways laid out at 60 degree angles to each other in a triangular pattern, and a perimeter track which circled the field's dispersals. Hugh Verity, the former commanding officer of 161 Squadron's A Flight, described it as "not much of an RAF station." RAF Tempsford was designed to look like an ordinary working farm. SOE agents were lodged in a local hotel before being brought to Tempsford's farm buildings. No one was allowed to see, let alone speak to, the agents being ferried to France. One of the buildings was brick built, but had wood siding framed around the structure to disguise it. This structure was commonly referred to as the Gibraltar Farm. It was very unusual for any structure to be standing within the perimeter track of an RAF airfield, but at Tempsford the Gibraltar Farm and a number of other farm buildings were located there. After final briefings and checks at the farm, the agents were issued firearms in the barn, and then boarded onto an awaiting aircraft flown by one of a team of pilots. Though keen to discover the source of the SD flights, the Germans were never able to determine where the Special squadrons were based, though twice a German agent was picked up lurking about near the airfield. ===RAF Tangmere=== thumb|left|A Spitfire stands amidst the midday rain and fog of RAF Tangmere, winter 1940 RAF Tangmere was 100 miles south of RAF Tempsford, on the south coast of England. It was primarily a fighter squadron base, but during the moon periods the Lysanders and their ground crews would come down to Tangmere. This placed them closer to the target field and allowed the Lysanders to extend their range over France. For much of its wartime life two Spitfire squadrons were based at Tangmere. As such Tangmere airfield attracted the attention of the Luftwaffe. After Flight 419's second successful pick-up operation Gordon Scotter returned to Tangmere to find the airfield under attack. He was obliged to orbit about while the attack was in progress, and received the ire of the base commander when he brought his Lysander in without lights after the German attack was over. When at Tangmere the Lysanders were parked off by themselves. The pilots were billeted and did their flight planning at a local home known as the Tangmere Cottage. The cottage was partially hidden from view by large hedges that had been allowed to grow up. Located opposite the main entrance to the base, Tangmere Cottage was also used by the SOE to do final checks on the outgoing agents, and to give returning agents a meal prior to taking them to London for debriefing. During the day the Lysander pilots would cross the field and take meals at the normal RAF officer's mess. The 161 pilots would fly out to Tangmere two weeks at a time during the "moon period", which was a week before and a week after the full moon. The cover story for the Lysanders given to the RAF squadrons stationed at Tangmere was that the planes were used to do "photographic reconnaissance by night, using special flash flares". The torpedo like extra fuel cylinder slung in-between the wheels of the undercarriage was said to contain special nighttime cameras. Jimmy McCairns, a Lysander pilot with 161, had accepted this story without a thought earlier in his career when he was stationed at Tangmere while flying Spitfires with Douglas Bader's 601 Squadron. Fog over England was a major hazard when attempting to locate and set down on their return flights. More special duties aircrew people died from aircraft accidents due to fog over England than to any other reason. On the night of 16/17 December 1943 poor weather caused five of the Tempsford SD aircraft to be lost. 138 Squadron lost three of its Halifaxes. One was lost over the sea, one crash landed along the coast, and the crew of the third, unable to land their plane, bailed out. On the same night fog claimed two of 161 Squadron's Lysanders. Though Lysander pilots had parachutes, the passengers they were carrying did not. If they were carrying passengers the pilots were committed to trying to land the aircraft. One crashed short of the field while trying to set down at RAF Tangmere. The pilot was trapped in the aircraft when it started to burn, but his two passengers were able to get free and survived. The other had been diverted from Tangmere to nearby RAF Ford, but the pilot had become disoriented in the fog and crashed into a hillside. There were no survivors from this flight. ==Aircraft== ===Armstrong Whitworth Whitley=== thumb|A Whitley warms its engines prior to a mission The Whitley was the work horse aircraft used on special duties missions for the first two years of their operations. The two- engine bomber was introduced to the service in 1937. It had a crew of five and a lift capacity of 7,000 pounds. From its conception the Whitley was intended for night operations. For special duties work the aircraft was modified by having a drop hatch, or “Joe hole”, cut into the bottom of the fuselage to allow for easy disembarkation. The Whitley was famous for carrying the paratroopers who pulled off the Bruneval raid. Though an older design, over 1,000 Whitleys were produced after the start of the war. Whitleys were used as cargo carriers and agent drop aircraft in 138 Squadron and the B Flight of 161 Squadron. 138 Squadron operated the Whitley until November 1942 when they were replaced by the four-engined Halifax bomber. ===Westland Lysander=== thumb|Westland Lysander Mk III (SD) Throughout the war the Lysander was the principal aircraft used for pick-ups. The Lysander had been developed as an Army co-operation aircraft, intended to act as a spotter aircraft for artillery and to shuttle personnel as a liaison aircraft. In daylight service in France 1940 Lysanders were lost at an alarming rate. Their slow speed resulted in very low survive-ability in contested air space. Of the 178 Lysanders sent to France 118 were destroyed, and the type was soon retired from this role. However, the aircraft's exceptional short-field performance made it the ideal aircraft for covert ops and it was soon put to use in this role. The Lysander was ideal for landing on small, unimproved airstrips behind enemy lines. It was equipped with automatic slats which extended down when the aircraft was at low speeds to increase lift and lower its stall speed. The aircraft was modified for its SD missions. The small standard bomb racks and forward firing machine guns, mounted to each wheel fairing, were removed. The rear firing machine gun for the observer/spotter was also removed. The aircraft's range was extended by adding a 150-gallon auxiliary fuel tank underneath the fuselage, which increased its round trip range from 600 miles to 1,150 miles. The rather large service radio was replaced with a much smaller one, and a rearward facing bench for 2 passengers was installed in the observer compartment with a stowage locker underneath. At the rear of the aircraft a shelf was built which also served as an additional seat, and a ladder was affixed to the left side of the fuselage. The peak year of activity for the Lysanders was 1943, when the Moon Squadrons made 125 landings in France. ===Lockheed Hudson=== thumb|A Hudson in flight When the number of people needed to be picked up was more than three 161 Squadron would send two Lysanders in missions they called "a double." The two aircraft were to coordinate their landings to minimize time on the ground and the risk of German intervention. This was difficult to do, as an aircraft in the dark of night was very hard to find, and radio transmissions brought their own risks. Consideration was given to making use of a larger aircraft. Sticky Murphy had already done a pick up using an Anson borrowed from a training unit, but the type was deemed underpowered and inappropriate for pick-ups. The squadron also had available a Lockheed Hudson brought over from the King's Flight. This proved to be an effective aircraft. The twin-engined aircraft had a range greater than the Lysander, and was faster. Its three-man crew included a navigator and a wireless operator, taking the burden of navigation off the shoulders of the pilot. Most importantly, it had the capacity to carry ten passengers, instead of the Lysander's three. On the down side the Hudson's greater weight and higher stall speed required a longer field to land on. The use of the Hudson for pick-up missions was developed by Charles Pickard and Hugh Verity. By trial flights Pickard learned that the Hudson's stall speed was actually some 20 mph slower than what was stated in the plane's manual. Pickard showed Verity how to land a Hudson short, and together they worked out the operating procedures that enabled this twin-engined aircraft to operate to fields in occupied France. This gave the squadron the ability to carry in and bring out groups of as many as ten people in one mission using a single aircraft. The Hudson was three times the weight of the Lysander, and required three times the length to land. To accommodate this, the flare path was extended to 450 yards by adding two lamps. The 5 lights were spaced out, with the A, B, C and D lamps 150 yards from each other, and with the E lamp 50 yards to the right of D. The first Hudson operation was completed the night of 13/14 February by Wing Commander Pickard, flying five agents into a field near the River Loire. ===Handley Page Halifax=== thumb|Halifax in daylight flight, 1942 The Halifax was a four engine bomber with a lifting load capacity of 13,000 lb, nearly twice the capacity of the Whitley. The Halifax replaced the Whitley in the special duties squadrons in late 1942. Used for parachuting supplies and agents, the Halifax had a much better range than the Whitley and was at a distinct advantage in long missions to Poland and the Balkans. The SD Halifaxes were modified to carry metal supply containers. The C-type metal containers were 6 feet long and weighed 250 pounds. Halifaxes could carry 15 of the C-type metal containers, whereas the Whitleys they replaced were limited to 12. The Halifax worked as the primary supply transport aircraft of the SD squadrons from late 1942 to mid 1944, when they were superseded by the Stirling. ===Short Stirling=== thumb|left|An enormous Stirling is loaded with bombs prior to its use with the SD squadrons By mid 1943 the Short Stirling became available on loan from Bomber Command for service with the Special Duties squadrons. The Stirling was a large aircraft, designed in the late 1930s as the heavy bomber by which Bomber Command would conduct strategic bombing. From conception it was designed as a 4 engine bomber, and was huge. It had the capacity to lift 14,000 pounds. Though heavy and relatively underpowered, Stirlings had excellent low and medium altitude performance, were extremely manoeuvrable for a large plane and had a range of 3,000 miles. The Stirlings could carry 20 C-type metal supply containers, 33% more than the Halifax. This aircraft became available for full-time use with the special duties squadrons in May 1944 and they began re-equipping with them. By the end of the year it had replaced the Halifax. ===Douglas Dakota=== The SOE used the American-supplied Douglas Dakota late in the war. It was often landed in southern France and at airfields in territory held by partisans in the Balkans. ==Summation== thumb|RAF SD Dakotas over the Adriatic The SD pilots and aircrew received little recognition for the work they did, and certainly not at the time they were doing it. But the men that made up the special duties air units were a breed apart. As pilots they tended to be self- sufficient, able to problem solve and act on their own. Though excellent pilots and natural navigators, Hugh Verity offered that many would not have been as well suited to regular RAF officer duties. The pilots had to possess a certain intangible quality. The life of the special operations airman was that of the lone wolf. By the end of 1941 138 Squadron had moved 37 agents to France while picking up 5. 55% of their missions failed due to either bad weather or failure to make contact with the reception operator. Over the course of 1942 the two SD squadrons, 138 Squadron and 161 Squadron, had ferried to France 23 tons of supplies and 155 agents, while picking up 19. 1943 saw the SD squadrons fly 625 sorties, deliver 589 tons of supplies and carry 102 agents to France while taking out 223. By the time the SD squadrons disbanded they had flown over 13,500 sorties and brought in over 10,000 tons of supplies, 60% of these supplies delivered after the invasion at Normandy. They had parachuted in 1,800 agents and brought another 324 in by Lysander or Hudson. They had also picked up 593 politicos, French resistance agents, family members, and the odd evading RAF or USAAF airman, and brought them back to England. As for the SOE itself, the organisation was dissolved six months after the end of the war, 15 January 1946. An example of the effort given by the special duties units is the pick-up operation undertaken the night of 26/27 January 1943. René Massigli was a valued French political leader attempting to reach Charles de Gaulle in England. He had been held up by poor weather since November. It was for this reason that 161 Squadron commander Charles Pickard took up the mission himself. Taking one agent out with him in foul wintry weather, he traveled over a cloud covered France guided largely by dead reckoning and reached the target field area. Pickard was a doggedly determined aviator. Unable to see the reception committee's light, he continued to circle for two hours as his fuel level approached critical for his return flight. Finally a small break in the cloud gave him a glimpse of the signal light. He dropped through the cloud and quickly set down. Gauging his chances, Pickard gambled on a return flight to the nearest British airfield, RAF Predannack. As he made his way back he cleared France and most of the Channel, but as he approached the airfield at 3,000 feet his luck and his fuel ran out. Without power, he brought the Hudson in on a dead-stick landing, delivering his charges safely. In three weeks Pickard would fly the pick-up operation that would earn him his third DSO. A year after that he died leading the Amien's prison raid. Learning of his death, Massigli offered this tribute to Pickard and the special duties units he was a part of: > "As one of the many Frenchman whom the RAF pilots helped to escape from > France in the recent years of affliction, may I be allowed to pay to Group > Captain Pickard my tribute of admiration, gratitude and regret? The time has > not yet come when it will be possible to reveal to the full what British > airmen did in helping Resisting France. So much courage was demanded of > them, so much ability and endurance when, on a moonlit night, they had to > discover, somewhere in the French countryside, the field or glade that was > ‘Target for tonight’. Among these admirable men, Group Captain Pickard was > one of the greatest. Yesterday, as I was reading the thrilling story of the > flight to Amiens, where he had a rendezvous with death, I was vividly > reminded of the steady bravery, of the indomitable energy, of the boundless > devotion to duty of the pilot who, although petrol was running low, tried > with so much dogged obstinacy on a certain night of January 1943, to > discover the field where he was briefed to drop a Frenchman and pick up > another. That night the homeward bound passenger was Pierre Brosselette, who > a few months later was to fall into the hands of the Gestapo and commit > suicide rather than let out any of the secrets in his possession. Among the > brave country folk who had escorted me to a field there was one, probably > the best and the youngest, who was to lose his life last August on a maquis > battlefield. The men of the French Resistance will never forget that Group > Captain Pickard, after giving them so much help in so many ways, at last > gave up his life to rescue some of their fellow fighters." René Massigli ==References== Notes Citations Bibliography * * * * * * * * ==Further reading== * Armstrong, David At Close Quarters: SOE Close Combat Pistol Instructor Colonel Hector Grant-Taylor (2013) * Nesbitt-Dufort, John Black Lysander Sedlescombe: Whydown (2002) 2001. * O'Connor, Bernard RAF Tempsford: Churchill's Most Secret Airfield (2010) * Pitchfork, Graham Shot down and on the run: the RCAF and Commonwealth aircrews who got home from behind enemy lines, 1940–1945, Toronto: Dundurn Press, (2008). Category:Joint military units and formations of the United Kingdom France Category:French home front during World War II Category:United Kingdom home front during World War II Category:Military history of France during World War II Category:Vichy France World War II occupied territories * Category:Military units and formations established in 1940 |
The news media phone hacking scandal is a controversy over illegal acquisition of confidential information by news media organizations that reportedly occurred in the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia between 1995 and 2011. This article includes reference lists for various topics relating to that scandal. ==Overview and topics== These lists are organized according to the topics shown below in blue type. By 2002, the practice of publications using private investigators to acquire confidential information was widespread, with some individuals using illegal methods. Victims of these illegal methods included celebrities, politicians, law enforcement officials, solicitors, and ordinary citizens. As this illegal activity became apparent, arrests were made and some convictions achieved. Upon learning their privacy had been violated, some victims retained solicitors and filed suit against news media companies and their agents, in some cases receiving financial payments for violation of privacy. Successful suits and publicity from investigative news articles led to further disclosures, including the names of more victims, more documentary evidence of wrongdoing, admissions of wrongdoing, and potentially related payments. Allegations were made of poor judgement and cover up by news media executives and law enforcement officials. As a result, new investigations were initiated and several senior executives and police officials resigned. There were also significant commercial consequences of the scandal. Individuals included on these lists are reportedly involved as victims, perpetrators, investigators, solicitors, or responsible oversight officials in the phone hacking scandal. Illegal acquisition of information was allegedly accomplished by accessing private voicemail accounts, hacking into computers, making false statements to officials to obtain confidential information, entrapment, blackmail, burglaries, theft of mobile phones and making payments to officials in exchange for confidential information. The kind of information acquired illegally may have include private communication, physical location of individuals, bank account records, medical records, phone bills, tax files, and organizational strategies. There is evidence that illegal acquisition of confidential information continued at least into 2010. Solicitors representing victims were targeted for surveillance by news organizations being sued as recently as 2011. For narrative regarding the background and status of this scandal, see also: :News media phone hacking scandal :News International phone hacking scandal :News Corporation scandal ==Victims== For narrative on some of the individuals included on the list of victims below, see their Wikipedia pages and: :List of alleged victims of the News International phone hacking scandal :News International phone hacking scandal - victims, apologies, compensation, arrests ==Surveillance targets== These are lists of individuals who were targeted for surveillance beyond simple phone hacking by news media organizations. Some were targeted simply to acquire information for developing a story but others were vocal critics of news media companies and may have been targeted to obtain information with which to influence criminal investigations, civil suits, and Parliamentary hearings. ===Critics of news media organizations=== This list includes a serving police officer, two solicitors with clients suing News International, and a Member of Parliament. Dates in parenthesis indicate the approximate date that surveillance was initiated. # Cook, David; (June 2002) While investigating Jonathan Rees and Sid Fillery in connection with the 1987 murder of Daniel Morgan, Metropolitan Police detective chief superintendent Cook reportedly became a surveillance target of Glenn Mulcaire, who was working for News of the World. Fillery reportedly used his relationship with Alex Marunchak at News of the World to arrange for Mulcaire to obtain Cook's home address, his internal payroll number at the Metropolitan police, his date of birth and figures for the amount that he and his wife were paying for their mortgage. Surveillance of Cook is also reported to have involved physically following him and his young children, attempts to access his voicemail and that of his wife, and possibly attempts to send a "Trojan horse" email in an attempt to steal information from his computer. Documents reportedly in the possession of the Scotland Yard shows that "Mulcaire did this on the instructions of Greg Miskiw, the paper's assistant editor and a close friend of Marunchak." Attempts also appear to have been made to open letters which had been left in Cook's external postbox, indicating a "possible attempt to pervert the course of justice." Rebekah Brooks, then editor for News of the World, was aware of the surveillance. # Watson, Tom; (September 2009) Watson had been at odds with News International since 2006, when he quit as Government Minister and signed a letter demanding that Tony Blair resign as Prime Minister. Rebekah Brooks, then editor of News International's The Sun, reportedly stated she would not forgive him for this and that she would pursue Watson for the rest of his life. Watson found himself targeted, with strangers going through his rubbish and harassing his family. As a member of the Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee, he confronted News International executives with critical observations and probing questions. While the Committee was holding hearings leading to a formal report on phone hacking, three as yet unnamed News International executives arranged for Watson to be put under surveillance by private investigator and former policeman, Derek Webb. # Lewis, Mark; (May 2010) While Lewis was representing claimants against News of the World for phone hacking, its parent company, News International, hired Derek Webb to put Lewis and his family under surveillance. This was reportedly part of an attempt to gather evidence for false smears about his private life and thereby interfere with his ability to represent clients. The attempt to discredit the solicitors may also have been intended to protect the reputation of Andy Coulson, formerly editor of News of the World who subsequently became head of communications for the Conservative Party and senior media adviser to Prime Minister David Cameron. A dossier including video taken of his ex-wife and daughter was given to Tom Crone, the senior legal manager at News International. James Murdoch was executive chairman of the company at the time. Lewis told the Leveson Inquiry that "News International sought to destroy my life, and very nearly succeeded." # Harris, Charlotte; (January 2011) Like Mark Lewis, Harris also came under surveillance by an agent of News International while representing clients suing the company in relation to phone hacking by News of the World." Her pursuit of evidence for her clients led to disclosure of information that reportedly resulted in the firing of Ian Edmondson from News of the World and the resignation of the prime minister's media adviser, Andy Coulson. Also like Lewis, both she and her family were followed and video-taped, with a dossier given to News International's Tom Crone. The private investigator, Derek Webb, was asked to establish that Harris was having an affair with someone it turned out that she had never met. Over the years, News International had engaged Webb to target more than 90 people. ===Other surveillance targets=== In November 2011, Channel 4 News disclosed a list of 153 people upon whom private investigator Derek Webb was reportedly asked by the News of the World to carry out surveillance between 2003 and 2011. Listed below are celebrities, politicians and other public figures. Excluded from the list are those who seem to be ordinary members of the public. * Ainsley Harriott * Alan Johnson MP * Alan Shearer * Alan Titchmarsh * Alex Ferguson * Amie Buck * Andy Gray * Angelina Jolie * Anna Fazackerley * Ashley Cole * Ben Freeman * Benjamin Mwarawairi * Beverley Turner * Bob Crow * Boris Johnson * Charles Clarke MP * Charles Kennedy MP * Charlotte Harris * Chelsy Davy * Chris Coleman * Chris Huhne * Chris Tarrant * Clare Short * Connie Fisher * Daniel Radcliffe and his parents * Danny Cipriani * David Beckham * David Blunkett * David Miliband * Delia Smith * Derek Draper * Dirk Kuyt * Duke of Westminster * Earl Spencer * Elle Macpherson * Eric Joyce MP * Fernando Torres * Frank Bruno * Frank Lampard * Gabby Logan * Gary Glitter * Gary Lineker * Geoff Hoon * George Michael * Gloria De Piero * Gordon Ramsay * Gordon Taylor * Grace Ononiwu * Grant Bovey * Harriet Harman * Heather Mills * Hilary Perrin * Ian Wright * Jackiey Budden * James Cracknell * Jane Goldman * Jessie Wallace * Joanne Armstrong * John Motson * John Terry * Johnny Vaughan * José Mourinho * Justine Greening * Kevin Pietersen * Kimberley Fortier * Lee Chapman * Leslie Grantham * Lord Coe * Lord Goldsmith * Lord Irvine * Lord Macdonald * Lulu * Mark Bosnich * Maxine Carr * Michelle Lineker * Mike Hancock * Ms. Dynamite * Nigella Lawson * Paul Burrell * Paul McCartney * Paul Ross * Peaches Geldof * Peter Andre * Peter Kenyon * Phil Woolas * Phillip Schofield * Pollyanna Woodward * Prince Harry * Prince William * Richard Hammond * Richard Madeley * Rik Mayall * Rio Ferdinand * Ronan Keating * Rosie Reid * Shabana Mahmood * Shahid Malik * Shalimar Wimble * Sienna Miller * Simon Cowell * Simon Hoggart * Simon Jordan * Sophie Anderton * Stephen Twigg * Steve Arnold * Steve McFadden * Sue Cleaver * Ted Terry * Tom Watson MP * Tony Pulis * Tony Richardson * Trevor McDonald * Vanya Seager * Zoe Williams ==Solicitors== This is an alphabetical list of solicitors involved in the phone hacking scandal. ===Alleged victims of phone hacking=== The list of alleged victims of phone hacking includes some solicitors. The Law Society noted that it would be a serious offence if this hacking was done with the intention of affecting judicial outcomes. # Kirsty Brimelow; prominent criminal barrister who has represented clients in rape and murder trials. # Harris, Charlotte; solicitor representing alleged victims of phone hacking # Lewis, Mark; solicitor representing as many as 70 alleged victims of phone hacking including Milly Dowler's family # Stephens, Mark; solicitor whose clients have included James Hewitt, who allegedly had an affair with Princess Diana, and WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange. # Winskell, Robin; sports attorney who has represented prominent footballers in disciplinary trials, FIFA arbritrations, and libel cases. ===Representing victims of illegal acquisition of confidential information=== # Tamsin Allen; # Charlotte Harris; Partner at the London law firm Mishcon de Reya who represented Max Clifford, who received £400,000 from News of the World. misrepresented as advanced payment for stories. They also paid Harris's costs. Harris has gone on to act for numerous individuals with hacking claims. #Steven Heffer, Partner and Head of Media & Privacy at London law firm Collyer Bristow LLP, who acted for about 80 victims. # Mark Lewis; As solicitor for the Professional Footballers' Association in 2005, Lewis realized that News of the World was using phone hacking as the basis for a story concerning Gordon Taylor. In 2008, Lewis became the first solicitor to bring a claim for a client relating to phone hacking and went on to win a settlement from the newspaper for phone hacking. Taylor received £700,000. While represent clients against News International, the company hired a private investigator to put Lewis and his family under surveillance. Lewis lost his position at George Davies Solicitors L.L.P because the firm did not want to be involved in his suits. In 2011 Lewis acted for the family of Milly Dowler achieving a record £3 million deal. He joined Taylor Hampton Solicitors in London. Lewis has represented about 100 claimants against the News of the World and other newspapers and has explored filing phone hacking suits in the US. # Gerald Shamash; # David Sherborne; # Mark Stephens; partner at the London law firm Finers Stephens Innocent representing 11 tranche 1 claimants, all of which settled pre-trial. He is reportedly representing a dozen claimants in tranche 2. # Mark Thomson; among others, represented Siobhain McDonagh MP in relation to invasion of privacy allegedly associated with attempts by agents of The Sun to break codes necessary to access information on her stolen mobile phone. # Hugh Tomlinson; QC Barrister, advised the high court around September 2012 that 395 people had applied for disclosure of phone-hacking evidence from the Met, that 124 phone-hacking claims had been accepted by the News International compensation fund, and that something under 300 new claims would be forthcoming. # Chris Waters, Head of Dispute Resolution at London Law Firm Malletts represents Former Boxing World Champion Chris Eubank and ex-wife Karron Stephen-Martin in News International Hacking Claims. Waters also acts for numerous other victims in claims against News International. In 2011 a group was formed for the Claimant's solicitors. In addition to Harris and Lewis, several solicitors brought claims including Tamsin Allen, Mark Thomson and Gerald Shamash. Allen was the Claimant Group's first co-ordinator, Thomson took over after Allen settled her claims. There were several other solicitors involved in the group, including Mark Stephens. ===Otherwise involved in phone hacking scandal=== # Lawrence Abramson; As solicitor at Harbottle & Lewis, Abramson sent a letter 29 May 2007 stating H&L;'s review of emails provided by News International did not indicate involvement in phone hacking by other than Clive Goodman. This letter was subsequently used by News International executives to maintain that Goodman was a single "rogue reporter." When Lord Kenneth Macdonald reviewed the emails again in July 2011, he reported "evidence of serious criminal offences" including payments to police. # Pike, Julian; Partner at Farrer & Co; represented the News Group Newspapers subsidiary of News International during the 2008 settlement negotiations leading to payment of £425,000 plus costs to Gordon Taylor. Pike told the Culture, Media and Sport Committee on 19 October 2011 that he had informed News International of evidence suggesting "a powerful case" could be made that three News of the World journalists had illegally accessed confidential information. News International maintained through 2009 that only Clive Goodman had been involved. Pike also told the Committee that Colin Myler met with James Murdoch on 27 May 2008, after Pike had received a copy of the new evidence which had been emailed by Tom Crone to Myler. This meeting was in addition to Myler's meeting with Murdoch and Crone 10 June 2008. Pike had not reported earlier that senior News International personnel had misled Parliament because of professional obligations to his client. Farrer & Co. also represents Queen Elizabeth II. In 2011, Pike advised News International that Mark Lewis and Charlotte Harris should be put under surveillance while they were representing clients suing the company. As a result, both of them and their families were followed and video-taped. Pike continued to characterize this apparent attempt to find information with which to discredit opposing solicitors as "unusual" but "justified" and "would do it again tomorrow," even after News International acknowledged that it was "deeply inappropriate." Farrer & Co. also wrote to Lewis threatening to enjoin him from accepting more clients that wanted to sue News of the World over phone hacking. Pike also discussed the possibility with News International's legal affairs manager, Tom Crone, of making charges of professional misconduct against Lewis and Harris. Lewis told the Leveson Inquiry that "News International sought to destroy my life, and very nearly succeeded." ==Payments== ==Publications mentioned in the ICO report== This is a list of newspapers and magazines listed in the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) report of May 2006 titled What Price Privacy?. The publications are listed in order of the number of pieces of data each paid a private investigator for. This report presented what had been learned from the ICO investigation named Operation Motorman, which was begun in 2002. "Information Commissioner Richard Thomas ... revealed that hundreds of journalists may have illegally bought private information and named a list of newspapers and magazines using one particular information agency... Numerous invoices [were found] addressed to newspapers and magazines which detailed prices for providing the journalists with personal information ... Here is the table listing the [name of the publication] followed by number of pieces of data paid for and the number of journalists involved." ===Publications=== # Daily Mail: 952; 58 . # Sunday People: 802; 50. # Daily Mirror: 681; 45. # Mail on Sunday: 266; 33. # News of the World: 182; 19. # Sunday Mirror: 143; 25. # Best Magazine: 134; 20. # Evening Standard: 130 ; 1. # The Observer: 103; 4 . # Daily Sport: 62; 4. # Sunday Times: 52; 7. # The People: 37; 19. # Daily Express: 36; 7. # Weekend Magazine (Daily Mail): 30; 4. # Sunday Express: 29 ; 8. # The Sun: 24; 4. # Closer Magazine: 22; 5. # Sunday Sport'15; 1. # Night and Day (Mail on Sunday): 9; 2. # Sunday Business News: 8; 1. # Daily Record: 7; 2. # Saturday Express: 7; 1. # Sunday Mirror Magazine: 6; 1. # Real Magazine: 4 ; 1. # Woman's Own: 4; 2. # Daily Mirror Magazine: 3; 2 . # Mail in Ireland: 3, 1. # Daily Star: 2; 4. # Marie Claire: 2; 1. # Personal Magazine: 1; 1. ===Publishers=== # Associated Newspapers; publisher of the Daily Mail # Express Newspapers; publisher of the Daily Star and Daily Express # Guardian News & Media; publisher of The Guardian and The Observer # Mirror Group Newspapers (MGN); publisher of the Daily Mirror and the Sunday Mirror # News International; publisher of The Sun, The Times and the News of the World # Telegraph Media Group; publisher of the Telegraph and Sunday Telegraph ==Individuals acknowledging that confidential information was acquired illegally== This is a chronological list of individuals that acknowledged acquiring confidential information illegally themselves or, from first-hand experience, alleged the practice was widespread by news media companies. Dates in parentheses indicates approximately when each individual made the admission. As of 15 December 2010, The Guardian reported that more than 20 journalists who worked for News of the World had told The Guardian, The New York Times or Channel 4's Dispatches that "illegal activity assisted by private investigators was commonplace and well known to executives, including Andy Coulson." Coulson has denied having knowledge of phone hacking while he was editor at News of the World. ;Individuals acknowledging that they illegally acquired confidential information # Steve Whittamore; (April 2005) private investigator # John Boyael; (April 2005) private investigator # Alan King; (April 2005) retired police officer civilian communications officer # Paul Marshall; (April 2005) # Leigh, David; (2006) assistant editor for The Guardian # Clive Goodman; (2007) royal correspondent for News of the World # Glenn Mulcaire; (2007) private investigator # Sean Hoare; (September 2010) entertainment journalist for The Sun and for News of the World # Paul McMullan; (September 2010) senior journalist for News of the World ;Individuals alleging that illegal acquisition of confidential information was widespread # Piers Morgan; (2007) former editor of the Daily Mirror, former editor of the News of the World, and former show business editor of the Sun stated that "loads of newspaper journalists were doing it. Clive Goodman, the News of the World reporter, has been made the scapegoat for a widespread practice." # David Brown; (2007) former reporter for The People who alleged that "reporters on the publisher's Sunday newspaper regularly used phone hacking to get information in the first half of the last decade." The Trinity Mirror which publishes the Mirror and Sunday Mirror, called the claims unsubstantiated allegations of a disgruntled, dismissed employee. # Andrew Neil; former editor of The Sunday Times and former writer for the Daily Mail; Claimed that phone hacking "was systemic throughout the News of the World, and to a lesser extent The Sun." # Sharon Marshall; (2010) entertainment journalist, formerly TV editor for News of the World and contributor to The Sun. "Author of the book 'Tabloid Girl' said hacking was widespread at News of the World and other tabloids." "Sharon Marshall is named as having witnessed hacking when working under Coulson from 2002-04. "It was an industry-wide thing," she said." # James Hipwell; (18 July 2011) former business journalist at the Daily Mirror # [unnamed Sunday Mirror sources]; (23 July 2011) claims "techniques were routine, and that they were being used at the news desk, and by designated reporters, virtually every day." # [unnamed New York Times sources]; "A dozen former reporters said in interviews that hacking was pervasive at News of the World. “Everyone knew,” one longtime reporter said. 'The office cat knew'...Andy Coulson talked freely with colleagues about the dark arts, including hacking. 'I’ve been to dozens if not hundreds of meetings with Andy' when the subject came up, said [a] former editor... When Coulson would ask where a story came from, editors would reply, 'We’ve pulled the phone records' or 'I’ve listened to the phone messages.' ==Individuals who worked for both News International and the police== This is an alphabetical list of individuals who at various times worked for both News International and the Metropolitan Police Service. # Andy Hayman was with the Essex Police from 1978 until 1998, when he transferred to the Metropolitan Police Service. He became Chief Constable for the Norfolk Constabulary in 2002 but returned to the Met in February 2005. Hayman was in charge of the Royal Household/Goodman Inquiry in 2006. He resigned from the Met in December 2007 during an investigation of reportedly lavish entertainment expenditures for "long lunches and dinners with News of the World journalists at a time when the newspaper was under investigation for phone hacking." Two months later he was hired by News International, where he wrote an article for The Times defending the police investigation he led, maintaining that there were “perhaps a handful” of hacking victims. # Alex Marunchak worked as a freelance Ukrainian language interpreter for the Metropolitan Police Service between 1980 and 2000 while he was also an executive for News of the World, where he worked from 1981 to 2006. He provide "interpretation and translation services for victims, witnesses and suspects of crime who do not speak English." Marunchak was a regular customer of private investigator Jonathan Rees, who was reportedly purchasing information from improper sources. No evidence became public that Marunchak or other journalists had committed criminal offences or that they were aware of how Rees acquired the information. Marunchak reportedly arranged for Glenn Mulcaire, then doing work for News of the World, to conduct surveillance on the detective investigating Rees and his partner,Sid Fillery, for murder. # John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington was Met commissioner from 2000 to 2005. He has been credited with reopening communication between the news media and the police after his predecessor, Sir Paul Condon had all but closed it down in the mid-1990s with his anti- corruption drive at Scotland Yard. After retiring, he wrote a column for the News of the World. In his autobiography, he stated that he had "worked hard to foster good relations with newspapers and had made himself 'available' to editors including Rebekah Brooks (then Wade) at The Sun and Andy Coulson, then at the News of the World." His diary, which may record meetings between him and News International executives between February 2000 to January 2005, went missing but was found in October 2011 at New Scotland Yard. In March 2011, he was chairman of security firm Axiom International. # Neil Wallis worked for News International from 1987 to 1998 and again from 2003 to 2009. He then started his own public relations firm, Chamy Media, which provided "strategic communication advice and support" to the Met on a part-time basis from October 2009 to September 2010. Wallis's firm was paid £24,000 by the Met at the same time Wallis received more than £25,000 from News International for providing “crime exclusives” using details of Met investigations. Wallis was arrested in July 2011 on suspicion of conspiring to intercept communications Also in July, the Independent Police Complaints Commission began an Inquiry into "whether John Yates used his position to help get Wallis's daughter a job at Scotland Yard. ==Investigations== For narrative regarding some of the investigations on this list, see also articles for specific Metropolitan Police operations and: :Metropolitan police role in phone hacking scandal :News of the World phone hacking scandal investigations :News International phone hacking scandal- UK investigations :News International phone hacking scandal- Renewed investigations ==Attempted suicides== On 6 March 2012, Reuters reported that two senior journalists working for The Sun, a newspaper owned by News International, appeared to have attempted suicide in the face of ongoing investigations relating to the phone hacking scandal. At that time, eleven current and former staff members of The Sun had been arrested on suspicion of bribing police or civil servants for information. ==Commercial consequences== ==Arrests== thumb|Renewed Investigations by Scotland Yard in 2011 led to dozens of arrests for activities related to the phone hacking scandal. For additional narrative regarding some of the arrests on this list, see also: :News International phone hacking scandal- Further arrests ==Charged with crimes== ==Convictions== ==Key evidentiary documents== ==Key newspaper articles== ==Press releases== ==Media coverage== ==See also== *Leveson Inquiry *List of people related to the News International phone hacking scandal *Metropolitan Police role in the News International phone hacking scandal *News Corporation scandal *News International phone hacking scandal *News media phone hacking scandal *News of the World phone hacking scandal investigations *News of the World royal phone hacking scandal *Operation Elveden *Operation Kalmyk *Operation Motorman (ICO investigation) *Operation Rubicon *Operation Tuleta *Operation Weeting ===Wikipedia articles with timelines=== # Metropolitan police role in phone hacking scandal - Timeline # News International phone hacking scandal - Timeline # Timeline of the News Corporation scandal ==References== Category:2007 in law Category:2007 in the United Kingdom Category:2011 in law Category:2011 in the United Kingdom Category:Hacking (computer security) Category:Journalistic scandals Reference lists Category:Police misconduct in the United Kingdom Category:Political scandals in the United Kingdom Category:Telephone tapping ar:قضية تجسس نيوز أوف ذه ورلد على الهواتف ca:Escàndol d'intervencions telefòniques de News International de:News-International-Skandal fr:Scandale du piratage téléphonique par News International id:Skandal peretasan telepon News International ms:Skandal akhbar News of the World godam telefon nl:Afluisterschandaal van News of the World ru:Дело News International ta:நியூசு இண்டர்நேசனல் தொலைபேசி ஒட்டுக்கேட்பு விவகாரம் th:การดักรับข้อมูลทางโทรศัพท์ของนิวส์ออฟเดอะเวิลด์ vi:Bê bối nghe lén của News International zh:世界新闻报电话窃听丑闻 |
Strikes can be offensive moves in professional wrestling, that can sometimes be used to set up an opponent for a hold or for a throw. There are a wide variety of strikes in pro wrestling, and many are known by several different names. Professional wrestlers frequently give their finishers new names. Occasionally, these names become popular and are used regardless of the wrestler performing the technique. Professional wrestling contains a variety of punches and kicks found in martial arts and other fighting sports; the moves listed below are more specific to wrestling itself. Many of the moves below can also be performed from a raised platform (the top rope, the ring apron, etc.); these are called aerial variations. Moves are listed under general categories whenever possible. ==Body press== A maneuver that involves a wrestler attacking with the core of the body. It is executed from an upright, running position using momentum and weight to run over the opponent. ===Body avalanche=== The wrestler takes a short charge into an opponent in the corner of the ring without leaving the feet as they open both arms just before reaching the opponent, resulting in hitting with the chest and abdominal area while throwing both arms inwards as in a bearhug, crushing the opponent into the turnbuckle. This is normally used by bigger, heavier wrestlers. ====Stinger splash==== A variation innovated by, popularized by, and named after Sting. It involves the wrestler trapping the opponent in a corner. Then the wrestler charges at the opponent, usually from the opposite corner, launching themselves and sandwiching the opponent between them and the turnbuckle while grabbing hold of the top rope. ===Thesz press=== This move, originally called a flying body scissors, was innovated by, popularized and subsequently named after Lou Thesz, sees the attacking wrestler jumping towards a standing opponent, knocking them over their back, sitting on their waist and pinning them in a body scissors. It was initially developed by Thesz as a legitimate move and has since been seen in modern submission grappling contests. A variation, popularized by Stone Cold Steve Austin, is done in reverse; the attacking wrestler performs the Thesz press on a charging wrestler from a standing position, then instead of pinning them, they attack them with mounted punches. ===Vertical press=== Also known as vertical splash body press, this variation is made by a charging wrestler (usually standing on the second or top rope) against a standing opponent, landing on their chest and shoulders while remaining upright. The wrestler employs the momentum to bring their opponent down to the mat into a seated senton. ==Chop== A chop is a strike to the opponent's neck, shoulders or chest with the edge of a hand. ===Backhand chop=== Also known as knife edge chop or back-hand slice, is the act of a wrestler slice-chopping the chest of the opponent using an upwards backhand swing. Many wrestlers use this attack, and the crowd commonly responds with a "Woooo!" noise in honor of Ric Flair, who popularized the move. ====Cross chop==== A double variation of the aforementioned chop, the wrestler lunges forward or jumps forward in a pressing fashion while crossing arms forming an "X", hitting both sides of the opponent's neck. ====Spinning knife edge chop==== This variation sets the wrestler spinning 180 or full 360° striking the opponent's chest with a backhand chop. ===Kesagiri chop=== A downward diagonal attack to the side of the opponent's neck or shoulder. The words kesa and giri in Japanese mean "monk's sash" and "cut" respectively, and it is based on a legitimate defensive cut in traditional Japanese swordsmanship. ====Mongolian chop==== The act of chopping both the opponent's shoulders or sides of the neck in a downward swinging motion at the same time. ===Overhead chop=== The wrestler draws a hand back and hits the opponent vertically, usually hitting the top of the head. This move is primarily used by very tall, large wrestlers such as The Great Khali and Andre the Giant. This move is also known as the Tomahawk Chop, due to it being performed similar to how one throws a Tomahawk. This move was used as a finisher by Wahoo McDaniel, Chief Jay Strongbow, and Tatanka. ===Throat thrust=== Also known as throat strike or sword stab. Similar to a conventional wrestling uppercut, the wrestler strikes the opponent's throat upwards with the tips of all five stiffed fingers of a supine hand. Abdullah the Butcher and Sgt. Slaughter were professional wrestlers known for its use as signature move. ===Thumb to the throat=== A simple maneuver derived from the thumb chokehold having a wrestler drawing back a hand and striking the windpipe with only the thumb, sometimes while holding the opponent by the nape. Performed by wrestlers like Ernie Ladd, Umaga and Solo Sikoa, with the latter named Samoan Spike. Bad Luck Fale uses a variation, what is preceded by a choke-lift, called Grenade Terry Gordy used this as a move alongside the Thumb choke hold which he dubbed the Oriental Spike. ==Clothesline== A move in which one wrestler runs towards another extending their arm out from the side of the body and parallel to the ground, hitting the opponent in the neck or chest, knocking them over. This move is often confused with a lariat.Foley, Mick. Have A Nice Day: A Tale of Blood and Sweatsocks (p.189) thumb|175px|Josh Rogen clotheslines Eric Cairnie over the top rope and out of the ring. ===Cactus clothesline=== Popularized by Mick Foley and named after his "Cactus Jack" gimmick.Foley, Mick. Have A Nice Day: A Tale of Blood and Sweatsocks (p.4) The attacking wrestler charges at an opponent against the ring ropes and clotheslines them, the charge's force and momentum knocks both the wrestler and the opponent over the top rope outside the ring. ===Corner clothesline=== An attack used by a wrestler where instead of knocking down a standing opponent, aims to squash them against the turnbuckle. ===Double clothesline=== Any variant where instead of aiming at just one opponent, the attacking wrestler knocks down two opponents at once. ===Leaping clothesline=== Also known as a jumping clothesline or a flying clothesline, this move involves the attacking wrestler running towards an opponent, then leaping into the air before connecting with a clothesline. This variant's use is commonly associated with The Undertaker, The Rock, and Roman Reigns. Another version sees an attacking wrestler leap up into the air and connecting with a clothesline onto an opponent leaning against the corner turnbuckle. The Rock also used a lesser variant of this move which saw him jump into the air at exact the moment the clothesline connected. ===Rebound clothesline=== As the opponent runs to the ropes on one side of the ring and rebounds against them, the attacker also runs to the same ropes and rebounds ensuring to be behind them and performs the clothesline as the opponent turns to face them. ===Short-arm clothesline=== This snapping variation is set up by a short-arm, then the wrestler pulls the opponent back and clotheslines them with the free arm. ===Three-point stance clothesline=== In this attack a wrestler uses a three-point stance, then runs and clotheslines the opponent. Famously used by performers with known football background, such as "Hacksaw" Jim Duggan or "Mongo" McMichael. ==Double axe handle== Also known as a double sledge or polish hammer after its most noted user, Ivan Putski. It sets an attacking wrestler clutching both hands together, swinging them downwards hitting usually the opponent's back, face, or top of the head. The many names of this move come from the attack mimicking the motion seen when people swing a sledgehammer or axe. There is also a top rope variation. ===Discus double axe handle=== The Wrestler performs a discus before clutching the hands together and delivering the double axe handle. It was used by Manabu Nakanishi as Yaijin Hammer. ==Drops== Attacks in which an attacking wrestler jumps and falls down onto an opponent on the floor, striking with a specific part of the body. ===Chop drop=== The wrestler either falls forward, or jumps up and drops down, hitting a lying opponent with a kesagiri chop on the way down, usually landing in a kneeling position. Scotty 2 Hotty is best known for performing the chop drop which is always preceded by a routine that involves him hopping on one leg four times (as the crowd chants W-O-R-M), doing worm dance moves towards the opponent and swinging his arms just before hitting the chop drop, while his opponent lies face up and motionless on the mat. ===Elbow drop=== A move in which a wrestler jumps or falls down on an opponent driving their elbow into anywhere on the opponent's body. A common elbow drop sees a wrestler raise one elbow before falling to one side and striking it across an opponent. The Rock popularized the high impact elbow drop and called it The People's Elbow. Another common elbow drop is the pointed elbow drop, that sees a wrestler raise both elbows up and drop directly forward dropping one, or both elbows onto the opponent. ====Corkscrew elbow drop==== This variation sees the wrestler raise one elbow before falling and simultaneously twisting around as falls to one side, striking the opponent with the elbow anywhere on the body. Sometimes, the wrestler will swing one leg around before the fall, gaining momentum for the corkscrew twist, first invented by "Nature Boy" Buddy Landel in 1984. ====Spinning headlock elbow drop==== This is any elbow drop which is performed after applying a headlock, the most widely known variation is the inverted facelock elbow drop, in which a wrestler puts the opponent into an inverted facelock, and then turns 180°, dropping the elbow across the opponent's chest, driving them down to the mat. This was used by The Hurricane as the Eye of The Hurricane. Another variation of this move sees the executor use the whole arm as a lariat instead of just the elbow, a side headlock from a jumping position variant can also be executed and twisted around into a sitout lariat. An inverted variation of this move sees the wrestler applying a front facelock before executing an elbow or a lariat to the back of the opponent's head causing them to land on the mat or into a facebreaker where the wrestler places their knee in front of the opponent whilst when executing the move. ===Fist drop=== A wrestler performs a series of theatrics before jumping or falling down, driving a fist usually to the opponent's forehead. Utilized by wrestlers including Jerry Lawler, Ted DiBiase, The Honky Tonk Man and John Cena. There is a snapping variation called karate fist drop that can be performed in a series, setting the wrestler besides a fallen opponent in a front stance known as Zenkutsu dachi. Then the wrestler drops to their rear leg's knee delivering the fist at the opponent's stomach, to rise up back again. ===Forearm drop=== A move similar to a sliding forearm smash in which a wrestler jumps down on an opponent driving their forearm into anywhere on the opponent's body. ===Headbutt drop=== A move setting an attacking wrestler jumping or falling down on an opponent, driving their head usually at the opponent's face or midsection. The most common variation sets the attacking wrestler standing at the fallen opponent's feet, taking them by the ankles to spread their legs. Then the attacker releases the grip as they jump or fall down, delivering the forehead to the opponent's groin. ===Knee drop=== A move in which a wrestler jumps/falls down on an opponent, driving their knee into anywhere on the opponent's body. It is often sold as more powerful if the wrestler bounces off the ropes first. Ric Flair, Randy Orton and Samoa Joe are examples of wrestlers who use this move. A variation sets the wrestler kneeling besides a fallen opponent, then performing a handstand to drive their knee to the opponent's midsection. ===Leg drop=== A whole number of attacks in which a wrestler will jump/fall and land the back of their leg across an opponent's chest, throat, or face. The running variation is used by Hulk Hogan as his finisher. Former WWE wrestler Nia Jax also uses the running variation as one of her signature moves. ==Elbow== An elbow attack sees the wrestler using front or back elbow to connect it in any part of the opponent's body. ===Back elbow=== Also known as reverse elbow, sees the wrestler giving the back with to a standing or running opponent, and then striking with the back of the elbow to the opponent's face, neck or chest. Chris Jericho used this move he called the Judas Effect. ====Corner back elbow==== The wrestler strikes a back elbow to a cornered opponent, lying (facing inwards or outwards the ring) against the corner. This is usually struck from a running wrestler. ====Discus back elbow==== The wrestler faces away from the opponent, spins around to face away from the opponent and strikes the opponent's face with a back elbow. ====Swinging back elbow==== The wrestler faces towards the opponent, who is kneeling and facing away, and strikes the back of the head with a full swinging back elbow. This is commonly used by Will Ospreay as a finisher, which he names the Hidden Blade. ===Bionic elbow=== This move is a strike that is brought from a high position and travels vertically toward the floor, dropping the point of the elbow directly on the target. Often this will set an attacking wrestler bending an opponent over to deliver the elbow at the back of the opponent. This type of "12-6 elbow" is illegal in the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. This move was made famous by WWE Legend and Hall of Famer "The American Dream" Dusty Rhodes ====Mounted elbow drop==== The wrestler approaches to a cornered opponent and climbs the second or top rope beside the opponent with a leg on each side. The wrestler then jumps down off the ropes, delivering a bionic elbow to the opponent's head, neck (if the opponent's neck is bent-down or sideways) or the shoulder. ===Elbow smash=== The wrestler makes a punching motion, but tucks their hand towards the chest so the elbow and forearm make contact. These can be used in place of punches, for striking with a clenched fist is illegal in most wrestling matches. A high impact version is used by Wade Barrett as his finishing move, the Bull Hammer. ====Rolling elbow==== In this move, invented by Mitsuharu Misawa, the wrestler facing away from the opponent, spins 180° from the stood direction striking with an elbow. Another variation sees the wrestler first facing the opponent, spinning a full 360° to face the opponent again while hitting them. ==== Crucifix elbows ==== In this move, the wrestler puts their opponent into a Crucifix hold and repeats elbow smashes to the head and neck. This was invented by Bryan Danielson and used by Jay White. ====Short-arm elbow smash==== This variation is set up by a wrestler performing an Irish whip but keeping the opponent's wrist held, then the wrestler pulls the opponent back and hits using the other arm's elbow. ===Side elbow=== Having the opponent behind the wrestler, the later takes a sidestep and thrusts an elbow into the opponent's ribcage. This is more often seen as a defensive maneuver and is the most common counter for a sleeper hold. ==Facewash== A maneuver aiming to hurt and/or humiliate an opponent, usually having them sitting or leaning the back of the head against the bottom corner turnbuckle, while the attacking wrestler repeatedly rubs their boot's sole across their face. Once the maneuver is finished, the attacking wrestler can execute either a running kick, knee, drop or many other strikes that first sees them running towards or rebounding off the opposing ropes and charging at the fallen opponent. ===Boot lace eye- rake=== A variation that sees the attacking wrestler placing their shin or instep over the opponent's face, and either pushing the opponent's head or their own leg down, raking the opponent's eyes across the laces of their boot. ===Double boot scrape=== With the opponent lying back on the mat, the wrestler stands at the opponent's top of the head and leaps to rake both points of the boots over the opponent's face, while falling back on their feet. ===Spinning boot scrape=== In the same sense, and as performed by Eddie Guerrero, this move sees a wrestler putting one foot over the face of an opponent lying on the mat. While stepping, they spin around the point of their foot, rubbing the fallen opponent's face. === Stink Face === This move sees a wrestler sitting while rubbing/smothering their (often exposed) buttocks in the face of an opponent lying in the corner of the ring, humiliating the opponent. This move is not meant to cause any real harm or injury, though it may be more difficult to breathe if applied for too long. The move was first popularized by Rikishi. ==Forearm== In the same sense of an elbow or a knee, the attacking wrestler strikes the opponent using one or both forearms. ===European uppercut=== A forearm thrown in an uppercutting fashion, often the wrestler does a quick grapple first to bring the spare arm up inside, hitting the opponent under the chin. Popularized by Cesaro. ===Forearm chops=== The wrestler clenches both fists and rises both arms, striking the sides of a cornered opponent's head in a stabbing motion one forearm at a time. Popularized by Big Van Vader as the Vader Hammer. ===Forearm club=== An attacking wrestler uses one hand to take hold of an opponent by the nape or hair and leans them forward while extending the other arm in a raised position, clenching the fist before throwing the forearm forward down onto the opponent, clubbing the opponent across the back of the head/neck. This will often send the opponent to the mat front-first. ====Inverted forearm club==== A variation that sees the attacking wrestler take hold of an opponent and lean them backwards to expose the chest, allowing the attacking wrestler to club the opponent and send them to the mat back- first. Another variation sets the opponent into an inverted facelock by the attacking wrestler as they repeatedly club the opponent's chest with their forearm. ===Forearm smash=== An attacking wrestler tucks an arm in, then hits the opponent in the head or ribcage upwards and/or sideways with a forearm to force them back and down to the mat. ====Flying forearm smash==== While running towards an opponent (usually after bouncing off the ropes), an attacking wrestler would leap up into the air, before connecting the forearm smash. This move was popularized by A.J. Styles called Phenomenal Forearm. Will Ospreay uses it as Pip Pip Cheerio. Tito Santana also used the running Flying Forearm Smash as a finisher as well. ====Running Forearm smash==== A wrestler charges rising an arm, driving the forearm to the opponent's head or shoulder in a swinging motion, usually falling as the strike connects face first to the canvas. Often used as a finisher by strong, muscular wrestlers as its innovator Larry Hennig and Lex Luger. ====Sliding forearm smash==== While running towards an opponent (usually after bouncing off the ropes), the attacking wrestler extends the forearm forward and does a slide across the mat before connecting. ===Pistol whipping=== A lesser used version that sees the wrestler standing over a crawling opponent on all fours, delivering the forearm inwards and sideways onto the opponent's temple repeatedly in a swinging motion. This move is named after the way some police officers used to submit a suspect to torture or in cases involving forced confession. Kurt Angle used to perform this maneuver as a means to set an opponent up for a submission hold. ==Headbutt== An attack where a wrestler uses the head to strike a part of the opponent's body, usually the forehead or chin (unlike a legitimate headbutt), to daze the target, counting on the superior hardness of the wrestler's head and the momentum delivered to hurt the opponent without hurting the wrestler. Many wrestlers deliver a headbutt to an opponent's head by holding the opponent's head and delivering the headbutt to their own intervening hand instead, relying on it to cushion the blow. ===Battering ram=== The wrestler stands facing an upright opponent, lowers the head and then jumps or charges forwards, driving the top of the head into the abdomen of the opponent. There is also a double-team version of the move. ====Reverse battering ram==== The attacking wrestler performs an Irish whip to the opponent and runs to bounce against the ropes front or side first at the other side of the ring, then jumps and turns mid-air to deliver a headbutt against the opponent's head. A popular move in Lucha libre, often associated with Rayo de Jalisco Jr. There is another variation where after bouncing, the attacker jumps arching the back, plunging the top of the head into the opponent's chest. ===Crawling headbutts=== Having the opponent rising up after lying in the mat, the wrestler crawls on all fours, bashing their head against the opponent's forehead, shoulder, or mid-section (often repeatedly). Also known as doggie headbutts, for they were popularized by Junkyard Dog. ===Trapping headbutts=== The wrestler holds both the opponent's arms under their own and delivers a series of headbutts to the opponent, who is unable to counter. ==Knee strike== An attack where a wrestler strikes an opponent using the knee. Using knees as offensive weapons is popular throughout British wrestling. ===Bomaye === An attack where the wrestler stands behind or in front of the opponent and smashes their knee into the opponent's back or head. It is also referred to as the Running Knee Smash. It was used by Shinsuke Nakamura as the Bomaye and Kinshasa. Kota Ibushi uses the Bomaye as a tribute to Nakamura. ===Double knee=== An attack where a charging wrestler jumps, striking both knees simultaneously into the head, chest, or back of the opponent. Harashima uses it as a finishing maneuver called Somato. ===Go 2 Sleep=== Sometimes abbreviated to GTS, this move sees a wrestler place an opponent in a fireman's carry to drop the opponent in front of them. While the opponent is falling, the wrestler quickly lifts the left knee up towards the opponent's face. Kenta, the innovator of the maneuver, also uses an inverted variation in which he lifts his opponent into an Argentine backbreaker rack, throwing the opponent forward and striking his knee in the back of the opponent's head, called Ura Go 2 Sleep (Ura means inverted). There is also a variant of this move in which a wrestler holds up their opponent in an Argentine Backbreaker Rack and then pop them up like an inverted fireman's carry takeover but then does a knee lift to their opponent. This variation is used by Sammy Guevara and Dijak. AEW wrestler CM Punk popularized the regular variant. Matt Riddle uses this move, calling it Bro to Sleep. A modified version sees the wrestler performing the GTS but, rather than dropping the opponent to execute the move, throwing the legs of the opponent out backwards to rotate them 180°, before performing the knee lift to the opponent's face or lowering to a kneeling on a far knee to drop the opponent on whichever near knee. This version is best known as the TopSpin Facebuster used and named by Shane Helms. ===High knee=== thumb|right|300px|A high knee An attack in which a wrestler charges towards the opponent, then jumps up and raises a knee to hit the opponent, usually into the side of the head. This move has been closely associated with Harley Race, often being referred to as a "Harley Race High-Knee". It has later been popularized as a signature move by WWE Superstars Triple H and CM Punk. ====Running single leg high knee==== This variation, more akin to a running single leg dropkick, sees the attacking wrestler running and leaping towards the opponent while throwing one knee forwards to strike the opponent's face. This move was made popular in Japan by Kenta and later adopted by Daniel Bryan. Wrestlers Kenny Omega, Buddy Matthews, and Matt Riddle use a bicycle variant of the knee strike. ===Kitchen sink=== A standing wrestler waits for a charging opponent, more often than not after an Irish whip, a short-arm, or a rope rebound. The wrestler raises a knee laterally after taking a sidestep, striking the opponent's stomach and often flipping them over. Invented by Riki Choshu. ===Knee lift=== An attack in which a wrestler brings the knee up to hit the opponent under the chin as if performing an uppercut. This can either be performed in mid clinch or with the attacking wrestler charging at a kneeling or bent over opponent, lifting the knee upwards to strike underneath the jaw or the side of the head. A double variation sets a wrestler standing in front of the opponent, then while performing the mid clinch, leaping to throw both knees upwards to strike the opponent's chin, then releasing the hold to fall back on their feet. ===Shining wizard=== A strike invented by The Great Muta delivered to an opponent down on one knee. After stepping off the opponent's raised knee with one foot, the wrestler swings the other leg and strikes the opponent's head with either the side of the knee or shin. A slight variation known as shining apprentice sees the wrestler use a running enzuigiri to the kneeling opponent's head without the use of the opponent's knee for leverage. Many other "shining" attacks exist, including big boots and dropkicks. The shining wizard can be applied to a standing opponent as well; this would be likely applied by stepping off the opponent's chest and then delivering a knee smash to the opponent's face. AJ Lee uses this move as her finisher in her time in WWE. Tegan Nox uses this move as her finisher called Shiniest Wizard. Adam Cole uses a version of this move, called The Boom (formerly known as The Last Shot), where he strikes his opponent at the back of their head and neck. ===Spinning knee=== Also known as a discus knee or rolling knee, the wrestler advances towards a sitting or bent over opponent, performs a 360° spin and uses the momentum to deliver a jumping knee strike to the opponent's head. ==Kick== A kick in wrestling is an attack using any part of the foot or lower leg to strike the opponent's body or head. ===Back kick=== Involves the attacker beginning by facing their opponent, then turning 180° and bending the rear leg at the knee or extending it backwards in full, exploiting the turning momentum to strike the opponent in the chest or stomach. Also known as reverse side kick or heel kick. It is a very popular attack in Mexico, known by its original name La Filomena, for it was innovated and named by Murciélago Velázquez. A jumping back kick is a variation that involves the attacker conducting the turning motion while jumping. Even though several other kicks may be confused with a back kick, it must be considered that these attacks are distinctively applied heel/calf-first. ====Calf kick==== This kick starts with a standing wrestler jumping to either side, connecting the side of their lead leg's calf-heel cord area to the opponent's face or chest. =====Leg lariat===== Also referred to as jumping leg lariat or running calf kick, it sees an attacking wrestler charging towards an opponent, then taking a sidestep, the attacker jumps and wraps their lead leg's kneepit around the opponent's head or neck, knocking them to the ground. A variation has the attacking wrestler standing on the top turnbuckle or springboarding from the top rope to get the required height to execute it. Matt Cardona used this move, calling it the "Rough Ryder" during his time in WWE as Zack Ryder before renaming it the "Radio Silence" in AEW and Impact Wrestling. Booker T also used this move throughout his WCW, WWF/E, and TNA career in which he stands in front of his opponent and then takes a few steps forward doing a Leg Lariat, he used this as a signature move, dubbing it the Harlem/Houston Sidekick. =====Spin kick===== Also known as reverse roundhouse kick, it sees the attacking wrestler spinning 360° on their rear foot gaining power and momentum from spinning in place, then connecting their lead foot's heel/calf to a charging opponent's face. It is common to see this move executed after an opponent is Irish whipped off the ropes. A short-arm variation is also possible. Aleister Black uses this move he calls it "Black Mass". Mickie James currently uses it and dubs it "Mick Kick". =====Spinning heel kick===== A jumping version of the spin kick that usually involves the wrestler spinning 360° so their body is somewhat horizontal before hitting the opponent with the back of their leg(s) or heel(s) on the opponent's face or chest. ====Dragon whip==== This attack is performed after an opponent catches the leg of a wrestler who has attempted a kick of some sort (performing a maneuver known in wrestling as "Leg-feed"), then while the opponent throws the leg out away from themself, the wrestler continues spinning all the way out with their leg still extended to connect the kick. ====Rolling wheel kick==== Properly named Ajisegiri, and also known as rolling koppu kick or rolling liger kick, it sets the wrestler rolling towards a standing opponent, extending a leg which connects with the back, chest, or head of the opponent. ====Scissors kick==== Also known as jumping axe kick, this is a standing version of a leg drop performed on a bent over opponent usually in the middle of the ring. The wrestler bounces off the ropes, jumps, driving one leg into the back of the head / neck of the opponent, similar to a pair of scissors. Popularized by Booker T. Alicia Fox uses this move. ====Superkick==== Often referred to as side kick or crescent kick, it sees the wrestler delivering a kick with the lead foot to the opponent's face, chin, neck or breastbone, usually preceded by a sidestep. "Gentleman" Chris Adams is credited for its innovation. It is famously the finisher of Shawn Michaels, who calls it Sweet Chin Music and usually adds theatrics before using the move. The Young Bucks also perform a simultaneous double superkick variation, which they call Superkicks in Stereo. A slight variation of the superkick where the wrestler performs the attack on an opponent who is on a lowered position, as in a seated or kneeling position, is sometimes referred to as Low Superkick. ===Sole kick=== A thrust where the wrestler turns the torso away lifting one leg horizontally and extending it towards the opponent, striking in the torso with the sole of their foot. A spin kick variation sees the wrestler spin around and then performing the kick with the outer leg, which is known as rolling sole butt in Japan. There is also jumping variation where the wrestler jumps straight up, spins in the air, and then delivers the sole butt with the outer leg targeting the head of the opponent. A sole kick can be differentiated from any other because it is always applied with the ball/core of the foot in a thrusting fashion. ====Big boot==== This attack is usually done with the opponent charging towards the wrestler, using the opponent's momentum to deliver the wrestler's sole to the upper-body or head. This move is commonly performed by tall wrestlers to enhance its view as a strong attack even though the wrestler themselves are not moving and the opponent is running into the foot, and because of that their height makes it easy for their legs to reach the head of normal-sized wrestlers. There is also an arched variation of this move. Sami Zayn uses this move calling it the Helluva Kick onto the cornered opponent. Billie Kay also uses this move calling it the Shades of Kay. Masahiro Chono uses a running variation on a seated opponent, called the Yakuza Kick. Charlotte Flair calls this move the Queen's Boot. ====Bicycle kick==== An attacking wrestler jumps up and kicks forward with one foot after the other in a pedalling motion, with the foot that gets lifted second being extended fully to catch a charging opponent directly in the face. Another variation sees the attacking wrestler charge at a standing opponent before delivering the attack. Similar in effect to the big boot. This move is used by Sheamus as a finisher, the Brogue Kick. ====Dropkick==== An attack where the wrestler jumps up and kicks the opponent with the soles of both feet, this usually sees the wrestler twist as they jump so that when the feet connect with the opponent one foot is raised higher that the other (depending on which way they twist) and the wrestlers fall back to the mat on their side or front. This is commonly employed by light and nimble wrestlers who can take advantage of their agility. ====Kangaroo Kick==== This attack sees a wrestler lying back on the mat or leaning at the turnbuckle, resting both arms on the top rope, waiting for the opponent's charge, the wrestler then throws both feet forward driving them to the opponent's stomach or face. Popularized by Bruno Sammartino. ====Legsweep==== The wrestler drops to one knee and extends the other leg to knock away the opponent's legs, then quickly pivots their body around. ====Mule kick==== While facing away from a charging opponent, the wrestler bends down and pushes out one foot, striking the opponent with the bottom of it. A double mule kick variation is usually done with the wrestler facing away from the opponent, bending over and making a handstand. If acrobatically inclined, the wrestler can then roll forward, back into a standing position. Sometimes done in a corner, the wrestler takes hold on the top rope and kicks backwards with both legs to the opponent, hitting with both soles. ====Savate kick==== The most commonly used savate kick in wrestling is the Chassé jambe arriére, a piston-action kick to an opponent's head or chin. This kick is often confused with the Superkick, but it can be differentiated for it is performed from an upright stance with the rear foot, instead of the lead foot. Miro used a jumping version as a finishing move, calling it the Machka Kick. ===Toe kick=== This kick, used by almost all wrestlers, is appealed just for show or as a setup for a hold or throw. The most common way to perform this attack is known as snap kick and sees the wrestler striking the opponent upwards in the midsection or stomach to bend the opponent over. Another variation sees the wrestler holding back their own foot with one hand, taking it up their side or lower back and releasing it, striking a bent over opponent in the back of the head. This maneuver can be differentiated from any other kick noting that it is always performed striking with the point of the foot-instep-shin area. ====Backflip kick==== Also known as the Péle kick after the association football player, the attacker performs a standing back flip while having their back to the opponent. The attacker then hits the opponent in the head with one or both legs, with the wrestler usually landing on hands and feet facing downward. Popularized by AJ Styles. There are many variations of this maneuver since it can be performed from a backroll, a corkscrew, a handspring or a handstand. =====Corner backflip kick===== This variation, also known as tiger wall flip and popularized by Satoru Sayama, sees an opponent propped up in the corner as an attacking wrestler charges towards them, running up the ropes (beside the opponent), or in some cases, up the opponent, and, as they reach the top, kicking off the opponent's chest to perform a backflip so the wrestler lands on their hands and feet. ====Cartwheel kick==== The wrestler performs a cartwheel towards the opponent, hitting them in the head with the rear leg's shin as it comes up in the air. Popularized by Ernest "The Cat" Miller. ====Crane kick==== The wrestler first performs a crane stance by standing on one leg with the other knee raised and arms extended in a crane position. The wrestler then strikes the opponent's head or face with either the standing or raised leg. ====Enzuigiri==== The term enzui is the Japanese word for medulla oblongata and giri means "to chop". Thus, an enzuigiri (often misspelled 'ensuigiri' and mispronounced as 'enziguri') is any attack that strikes the back of the head. It is usually associated with lighter weight class wrestlers, as well as wrestlers who have a martial arts background or gimmick. It is often used as a countermove after a kick is blocked and the leg caught, or the initial kick is a feint to set up the real attack. A common variation of the enzuigiri sees the wrestler stepping up the opponent's midsection and hitting the back of the opponent's head with the other foot. Invented by Antonio Inoki. This move was also the finisher of the late WWF Superstar Bad News Brown dubbed the Ghetto Blaster. =====Jumping high kick===== Properly called Gamengiri (from the original Japanese Gamen / "face" and Giri / "Cut"), it is a variation of an enzuigiri where the wrestler jumps up, not taking a step or hold with the lead foot and kicks the opponent in the side of the head/face. Sonya Deville uses this move. ====Overhead kick==== In this version, the wrestler either starts by lying down or dropping down on the mat while the opponent stands near to their head. The wrestler then throws a leg and kicks up over their waist and chest, hitting the opponent with the point of the foot, usually in the head. It can be used as a counter to an attack from behind. For example, an opponent attempts a full nelson, the wrestler breaks the opponent's lock by raising both arms, falling to the canvas back- first and kicking the opponent in the head with one foot. This was used by Finn Balor. ====Shoot kick==== A kickboxing-style kick with the shin (generally protected by a shin guard) striking an opponent's face, chest or thighs. This move is used in shoot-style environments and by many Japanese wrestlers. In WWE, Daniel Bryan popularized the shoot kicks as the Yes! Kicks while the crowd would respond with a chant of "Yes!" every time a kick connected. =====Football kick===== Sometimes also referred to as soccer kick. The wrestler strikes an opponent sitting on the mat with the foot extended downwards vertically from the base of the spine to the back's midsection. Used by Katsuyori Shibata as the P.K. (penalty kick). =====Punt===== Based on the field goal kick but named for the punt kick used in American football, sees the wrestler taking a run up to a kneeling opponent and strike them in the head with the point of the foot. It is similar to the soccer kick in MMA. WWE wrestler Randy Orton performed this move as his finisher maneuver to cause storyline concussions. =====Roundhouse kick===== Properly speaking, a roundhouse kick in wrestling is a variation of a shoot kick with a slight difference. While in the latter (a proper roundhouse kick in execution) the attack stops after connecting with the opponent, in a roundhouse kick the wrestler will keep spinning well past a sitting/kneeling opponent's head or a standing opponent's ribcage, giving a 180° or even a full 360° turn. ====Tiger feint kick==== A move in which a wrestler jumps through the second and top rope while holding on to the ropes, using the momentum to swing back around into the ring. Originally performed as a fake dive to make opponents and fans think that the wrestler was about to dive through the ropes to opponents outside of the ring, later modified to become a kick to the head of an opponent who is hung on the second rope. This move requires high agility and is mainly used by smaller wrestlers in Japan and Mexico. Popularized internationally by Rey Mysterio, who called the move 619 (after the area code for Mysterio's hometown). ==Lariat== In wrestling, a lariat is performed when an attacking wrestler runs towards an opponent and wraps an arm around the opponent's upper chest or neck, forcing them to the ground. This move is similar to a clothesline, the difference being that in a clothesline the wrestler's arm is kept straight to their side during the move, while in the lariat the wrestler strikes the opponent with their arm often in a swinging motion and sometimes dropping face first besides the opponent. Typically, a lariat is used as a finishing move while the clothesline is simply a basic strike attack. The main difference aside from the mechanics of the movement is the stiffness: a lariat is essentially a very stiff, swinging clothesline. ===Crooked arm lariat=== Performed when an attacking wrestler runs towards an opponent with the arm bent upward at the elbow 60–90 degrees and wraps the arm around the opponent's neck, forcing them to the ground. Hulk Hogan is often credited with being its innovator, popularizing it as Axe Bomber. ===Flying lariat=== The attacking wrestler first uses the ropes to build up speed, then leaps forward and wraps their arm around the opponent's neck, knocking down the opponent. ===Lariat takedown=== The wrestler runs towards their opponent, wraps an arm around the opponent's upper chest and neck, and swings both legs forward, using this momentum to pull the opponent down with them to the mat back-first. Popularized by "Macho Man" Randy Savage. ===Leg Drag=== Also known as low-angle discus lariat or dragon screw sets the attacking wrestler waiting for a charging opponent, the wrestler then takes a sidestep, extends an arm and lowers the upper body all at once in a swinging motion, turning up to 180 degrees, hooking the back of the opponent's nearest knee to trip them down to the mat back first. It was one of the many Bob Backlund's signature moves. ===Northern lariat=== Also called enzui lariat, it sets the attacking wrestler charging against the opponent's back, driving them to the mat face first. ===Pendulum lariat=== A wrestler performs a tilting sequence, similar to that of an actual pendulum, in between the ring ropes (usually near a ringpost) in order to gain momentum to perform an attack or a counterattack before striking the opponent hard. Nigel McGuiness is known for utilize it as the Jawbreaker Lariat and Jon Moxley as the Lunatic Lariat. ===Short-arm lariat=== A variation where the wrestler grabs one of the opponent's wrists with a hand and pulls the opponent closer, striking with their other arm. This was popularized by Kazuchika Okada as the Rainmaker. This can also be used in combination with a hammerlock as in the case of Ariya Daivari. ===Western lariat=== This maneuver is performed when the wrestler does not run, but simply strikes the opponent while standing next to them or waiting for a charging opponent. Popularized by Stan Hansen. The wrestler can also hold the opponent's head up before performing the lariat with their other arm. Kenta Kobashi uses this variation as one of his finishing moves, calling it the Burning Lariat. Shingo Takagi uses this move as one of his finishing moves, calling it the Pumping Bomber. Go Shiozaki uses this move as his finishing move and calls it Gowan Lariat. ==Palm strike== This move sees the wrestler delivering an open-handed strike with arm movement akin to a cross, usually to the opponent's chin, face or chest. This is a legitimate offensive-defensive maneuver in karate known as Shotei uchi and is often performed by wrestlers with known martial arts background, particularly in Japan where is often associated to former sekitori. Several of these attacks can also be performed with the opponent in a side headlock. Io Shirai uses this move. Juice Robinson, formerly known as CJ Parker during his tenure in FCW and NXT, used this move as a signature move. CJ Parker accidentally broke Kevin Owens' nose performing a palm strike when Kevin Owens made his NXT debut. ===Forehand chop=== Sometimes referred to as a frying pan or an open-hand chop. Despite the name, it refers to a slap properly and not a chop. The wrestler strikes downwards the chest, nape or back of an opponent, using the open palm of the hand. ====Double open hand chop==== Also called blazing chop, this variation sees a standing wrestler striking the chest of a charging opponent with both palms sideways, shoving them down to the mat back first. ===Slap=== The wrestler delivers an overpowering open-hand slap crossing the opponent's face, ears, or nape. This simple strike is more often performed by female wrestlers or villains. A variation associated to Dusty Rhodes and his family involves a charging wrestler attacking with a slap as if performing a clothesline. ====Double slap==== Also known as a bell clap, the wrestler slaps both ears of an opponent simultaneously with the palms of both hands, disorienting their balance. It is often used as a counter for a bear hug. ===Uppercut=== Properly speaking, an uppercut is a punch used in boxing that usually aims at the opponent's chin. It is, along with the hook and the overhand, one of the main punches that count in statistics as a "Power punch", while in wrestling, any close-fisted punch is considered an illegal attack. Therefore, it is an upward variant of a palm strike in execution. Usually seen performed by tall, heavy wrestlers like Kane and Goldust. Nevertheless, a close-fisted uppercut has been seen in wrestling from time to time usually meant as a "cheap shot". Extensively used by "Rowdy" Roddy Piper in that same matter. ==Punch== An illegal attack using a simple close-fisted punch, normally to the stomach, lower back, or head of the opponent. Unlike most illegal attacks, punches almost never result in disqualification. Instead, the referee simply admonishes the wrestler to stop, usually to no effect. Punches are often used by both heels and faces alike. However, when heels perform the strike either while the opponent is not expecting it, or while the referee is in some way distracted, it seems more devastating. Several boxing punches can be found in wrestling, such as jabs, straights, hooks and overhands. ===Back fist=== Often aimed at a kneeling opponent or one sat on the top turnbuckle. In this variation of a simple close-fisted punch, the wrestler strikes the opponent with the back of the fist in the head or chest, often repeatedly. ====Spinning back fist==== The wrestler holds an arm out horizontally and executes a back fist whilst turning the body swiftly, hitting the opponent on rotation. Used by Aja Kong as Uraken, Vader and Awesome Kong. ===Discus punch=== Also named spinning punch or tornado punch. The attacker performs a 180 or 360 degree turn similar to a discus motion and hits the opponent in the head with a swinging hook. ===Flapjack punch=== The attacker lifts a charging opponent up in the air as if performing a back body drop, but instead of tossing them over their head, the attacker pushes the opponent upward, performing a flapjack. As the opponent falls to the mat face-first, the attacker hits the opponent with a liver shot. Popularized by Ludvig Borga. ===Heart punch=== The wrestler raises the opponent's left arm up over their head, sometimes folding it back behind the neck as well, then delivers a strong straight into the side of the ribcage. The move is alleged to rely on "Oriental pressure points" to strike a nerve causing the opponent's heart to momentarily stop, rendering them unconscious. Stan "The Man" Stasiak, Ox Baker and Big John Studd are professional wrestlers well known for their use of the heart punch as a wrestling maneuver. ===Mounted punches=== This attack involves a wrestler standing on the middle or top ropes and delivering repeated crosses to the face while the opponent is backed up against the turnbuckles. A variation sees the wrestler striking a fallen opponent, either mounting in front of them or kneeling beside, and having the opponent in a side headlock. The crowd tends to count the punches, which typically end at ten, provided they're not interrupted by the opponent pushing the wrestler off or by the referee admonishing the attacking wrestler. ===Superman punch=== Similar to the Muay Thai version, this attack sees a wrestler leap into the air, snapping the rear leg back before striking with a swinging overhand to the opponent's head. Popularized by Roman Reigns. ===Wind-up punch=== A theatrical variation in which the wrestler rotates the attacking arm in a "winding-up" motion before striking the opponent, making the punch appear more effective in the same way as a bolo punch in boxing. ==Senton== In the same sense of a press or a splash, the wrestler jumps over an opponent, but in this case the attacker falls lower-back first or into a sitting position. In Spanish, the word senton (Properly spelled as Sentón) refers to landing on the lower back or buttocks after taking a fall, either on purpose (as for comedic effect) or accidentally. ===Body guillotine=== Having a fallen opponent lying next to the apron, the attacking wrestler grabs the opponent's head, torso, or leg and places it on the bottom rope. Taking hold of the top rope, the wrestler proceeds to jump and sit repeatedly on the opponent's neck, chest, or leg as they stomp hard, to hurt or incapacitate the opponent. ====Leapfrog body guillotine==== thumb|right|150px|Tyler Tirva (left) performs a leapfrog body guillotine on Andrew Davis. This move sees the opponent's chest resting on the second rope, facing out of the ring. The attacker runs from behind, performs a leapfrog, and lands on their opponent's back, neck, or head, sliding through the ropes out of the ring as they force the opponent's chest against the second rope. ===Bronco buster=== With an opponent seated in the corner of the ring, the attacking wrestler jumps in the corner, straddling on the opponent's midsection, bouncing up and down. Often treated as having comic or sexual connotations rather than as a legitimately painful move, due to the move's resemblance to a teabag. Popularized by Sean Waltman. ====Koronco buster==== Similar to a bronco buster, the attacking wrestler jumps onto a standing opponent in the corner, straddling and sitting on the opponent's chest, while resting feet on the second rope. The attacking wrestler then follows with mounted punches. ===Hip attack=== Also named rear view or butt thump, is usually performed with a running start, then the attacking wrestler jumps into the air, spinning around, and thrusting the pelvis backwards, thus hitting the opponent's face or chest with hip or buttocks. A standing variation called butt-butt is performed by a wrestler turning the back to a charging opponent and then just bending over so the opponent bumps their stomach against the wrestler's hip. Another variation called reverse body avalanche sees large, heavy wrestlers giving the back to a cornered opponent as they take hold on the top rope, thrusting the pelvis repeatedly against the opponent's midsection as if performing turnbuckle thrusts. ===Seated senton=== Also known as vertical splash or butt drop, is the most common form to perform this maneuver. A wrestler jumps down to a sitting position across the chest or stomach of a fallen opponent. This particular move is usually executed one of two ways. One sees the wrestler stand over the opponent and drop to either a seated position (like Rikishi) or a kneeling position (like Bastion Booger's Trip to the Batcave). The other is performed with the opponent lying near one of the turnbuckles, with the wrestler climbing to the middle rope and bouncing on it before performing the senton (Yokozuna's Banzai Drop). A variation of the seated senton was performed by Earthquake, whose Earthquake Splash would see him run off the ropes to gain momentum for the senton and then jump onto the opponent while running. It is also an obvious and often-used counter to the sunset flip. ===Somersault senton=== Another slight variation on a standard senton sees the attacking wrestler jump and flip forward 180° so that the lower back impacts on the opponent's chest or head. ====Cannonball==== A somersault senton performed to an opponent sitting in a corner to be sandwiched between the turnbuckle and the wrestler's lower back. ==Shoulder block== A maneuver that sees a standing wrestler strike usually ramming with a shoulder, by keeping an arm down by the side into a charging opponent's chest or abdomen. However, often this will see a larger wrestler displaying superior size and strength by challenging an opponent to attack, standing still slightly to one side and having the opponent charging towards trying to execute a strike, only to get knocked down (often several times) and see any attempt of the hapless opponent having no effect. A slight variation called body block, sees an opponent run at the large wrestler who would simply engulf the charging opponent by swinging their arms round and forcing the opponent to impact the wrestler's entire body. ===Chop block=== This variation, based on the illegal American football block, sees the wrestler performing this attack coming from behind an opponent and dropping down to connect with their shoulder into the back of one of the opponent's knees. This is often used to weaken the leg for submission holds, as noted by Ric Flair's extensive use of the move as a set-up for his Figure Four Leglock. AJ Styles and Cash Wheeler use this move as set-up for the Calf Crusher and Indian Deathlock, respectively. ===Pounce=== The attacking wrestler runs the ropes to gain momentum before leaping at the opponent with a high shoulder block. This variation is usually either preceded by an Irish Whip to an adjacent side of the ring or used to cut-off an opponent already running the ropes, further increasing the move' s impact. It was popularized by Monty Brown and named for his Alpha Male gimmick. The move is also used by Mojo Rawley, Keith Lee, Lance Archer and Nyla Rose. ===Short-arm shoulder block=== A variation where the wrestler grasps one of the opponent's wrists firmly with both hands and pulls the opponent's arm towards them. From this point on, the attack can be executed one of two ways. In one, the wrestler rams their shoulder repeatedly against the opponent's own to incapacitate or hurt the arm, setting it up for a submission or as a mean of punishment. Popularized by Diamond Dallas Page and Batista. In the other, the wrestler strikes lunging their shoulder against the opponent's chest or chin, then releasing the hold to leave the opponent fall to the mat. This maneuver was performed extensively by Beth Phoenix. ===Spear=== This sets an attacking wrestler charging towards a standing opponent, bringing the body parallel to the ground and driving one shoulder into the opponent's midsection, pulling on their legs, as in a double leg takedown, and forcing them back-first into the mat. This simple, but powerful- looking move has been used by many famous wrestlers as a signature and finisher. Goldberg is the wrestler who is credited to have invented the spear and is most commonly associated with the move as he is considered the best at executing the move, using it as a set-up for his Jackhammer slam. Other wrestlers including Edge, Batista, Bobby Lashley, Roman Reigns, Moose, and Christian Cage have made the spear their finishing move. ====Striking spear==== In this variation, the wrestler does not pull on the opponent's legs in a double leg takedown, relying only on the strike's momentum to force the opponent down. Rhyno uses this variation as his finisher, calling it Gore. ====Spear with multiple punches==== This variation of spear is laying the opponent down with a spear and punching them with Thesz press punches. ===Turnbuckle thrust=== This move is performed to an opponent set up resting back first against the turnbuckle. Then the wrestler takes hold of the second rope with both hands, opens their arms, and strikes, driving the attacking shoulder into the opponent's midsection, often repeatedly, as the attacker swings their legs back and forth to gain momentum. A variation sees smaller wrestlers using the tops of their heads instead of the shoulder or running from the center of the ring. ==Splash== A splash is an attack very similar to a body press in function but not in execution. The difference lies in that it is executed from a falling position. Most of the times the attack is performed horizontally, and most variations can seamlessly transition into a pin. ===Big splash=== This maneuver involves a wrestler jumping forward and landing stomach-first across an opponent lying on the ground below. On some occasions a wrestler has a short running start before executing the move. This was the finisher of many super heavyweight superstars back in the 80s and 90s, used by superstars such as the One Man Gang, Kamala, Tugboat, Tyrus, Mark Henry, Haystacks Calhoun, Bam Bam Bigelow, Vader, Viscera, Big Boss Man, King Kong Bundy, Rikishi, and many other super heavyweights throughout the years. It is also even used by some non-superheavyweights, such as The Ultimate Warrior and Big E. ===Cartwheel splash=== The attacking wrestler performs a cartwheel before landing stomach-first across an opponent lying on the mat. Usually performed by small, nimble wrestlers. ===Crossbody=== Also known as crossbody block, a wrestler jumps onto their opponent and lands horizontally across the opponent's torso, forcing the opponent to the mat and usually resulting in a pinfall attempt. There is also an aerial variation, known as a diving crossbody, where a wrestler leaps from an elevated position towards the opponent. This attack is known as a Plancha in Lucha libre. ====Tilt-a-whirl crossbody==== An uncommon variation of the move which sees the wrestler being held and spun into a tilt-a-whirl by the opponent. When the wrestler reaches a point where they are horizontally positioned against the opponent's torso, they fall down, pushing the opponent onto their back against the canvas. This move is better described as a counter for a tilt-a-whirl backbreaker, or for a tilt-a-whirl mat slam. ==Stomp== Also known as foot stomp, this attack sees a wrestler stamping a foot on any part of a fallen opponent. One variation performed by large, heavy wrestlers implies simply to step on the opponent's stomach as they walk, often referred to as a big walk. This variation, when performed by a villain, aims to the head of the opponent but in a crudest, vicious way. ===Curb stomp=== This devastating move is where a wrestler grabs the opponent's legs lying on the floor before wrapping them in a standing inverted Indian deathlock position and then pulling their arms in a standing surfboard before stomping the back of the opponent's head. This was invented by Super Dragon. Naomichi Marufuji innovated a facebuster version of this move which sees him perform a running jumping stomp to the back of the head of an opponent who's bent-over or on all fours, forcing the opponent face-first into the ground. WWE wrestler Seth Rollins currently uses this move as a finisher. ===Double foot stomp=== When a wrestler jumps and stamps both feet on any part of an opponent. Also known as double stomp. This can be performed from an elevated position as a diving double foot stomp. Large, heavy wrestlers often perform this move by simply standing over a defenseless opponent next to the apron both feet and grabbing a hold on the top rope, squashing the fallen body. ===Garvin stomp=== A wrestler performs a series of stomps all over the body of a fallen opponent in the order of left arm, left chest, left stomach, left upper leg, left lower leg, right lower leg, right upper leg, right stomach, right chest, right arm, and finally the jaw. Innovated by and named after the former NWA World Heavyweight Champion Ron Garvin in the late 1980s. It was later popularized by Randy Orton. ==== Moonsault double foot stomp ==== This variation sees the wrestler perform a moonsault, but instead of landing on a fallen opponent in the splash position, the wrestler continues the rotation driving both feet into the opponent. Sonjay Dutt uses this as an occasional finishing move named Moonstomp. ==Transition moves== Some moves are meant neither to pin an opponent, nor weaken them or force them to submit, but are intended to set up the opponent for another attack. ===Discus=== This is a move in which a wrestler will spin in place before hitting an attack, like the discus clothesline, discus punch, or the discus forearm. The move is usually used instead of charging towards an opponent to build up momentum for an attack, often the discus spin is used to evade incoming attacks. ===Handspring=== The wrestler runs towards the ropes and performs a handstand right next to them, using their momentum to throw their legs against the ropes, springing backwards onto their feet, and using the momentum still to leap backwards, usually to deliver an attack. A back elbow strike variation is the most common. Another common variation of the handspring transition sees the attacking wrestler Irish-whip their opponent onto a turnbuckle from an adjacent corner. Once the opponent crashes with their back onto the turnbuckle, the wrestler immediately performs a handspring combo towards the opponent across the ring. The acrobatic combination usually consists of a cartwheel followed by one or two back-tucks, leaving the wrestler's back facing the opponent. When the wrestler is in close range of the opponent, they are free to use the momentum of the handspring combination to leap backwards and strike with a back-elbow, a back-thump, a dropkick, or any other convenient attack. ===High impact=== Sometimes abbreviated to "Hi-impact", this term defines any attack performed by a charging wrestler with enough speed and momentum that once started it cannot be stopped. The opponents receiving such attacks can be against the ropes/turnbuckle, lying on the mat or even trying to perform an attack against the charging wrestler themselves. ===Leapfrog=== Named after the children's game, an evasion maneuver that sees a wrestler standing in front of an incoming opponent as they leap upwards, performing a split, so the opponent's onrush misses. It can also be employed to set up an attack. In WWE, this move is commonly used by Bobby Lashley. ===Matrix=== This is an evasion performed by bending over backwards into a bridging position to counter any clothesline, punch, etc. This is named after The Matrix film series, as it is performed similarly to when Neo, in the movies, avoids a string of bullets. ===Pendulum=== This is a move in which a wrestler performs a tilting sequence, similar to that of an actual pendulum, in between the ring ropes (usually near a ringpost) in order to gain momentum to perform an attack or a counterattack. The usual move was the clothesline or a lariat. ===Rolling Thunder=== A rolling thunder refers to the action of a forward roll towards an opponent using the complete rotation to spring up onto their feet and into the air and perform an attack. The most popular version of this ends it with a jumping somersault senton. Rob Van Dam popularized this move. ===Short-arm=== This transitioning maneuver is a set up for a short ranged attack, performed by Irish-whipping the opponent, but holding onto the wrist. When the held arm is completely extended, the wrestler pulls the opponent back and strikes them with the free arm. Alternatively, the Irish whip is used instead of or replaced by an arm wrench or a wrist lock, or by simply grabbing a hold of one of the opponent's wrists with one of the wrestler's hands, pulling it towards themselves and striking with their spare arm or going for a hold or sweep. ====Ripcord==== A variation of the short- arm, this transitioning maneuver begins with the attacking wrestler behind the opponent as they grab one of their wrists with their opposite hand (grabbing the opponent's right wrist with their left hand, and vice versa). They then spin the opponent around while still maintaining their grip on the opponent, so that both wrestlers are facing one another. From there, the attacking wrestler pulls the opponent towards them and strikes as in a normal short-arm. ===Skin the cat=== This defensive maneuver is used when a wrestler is thrown over the top rope. While being thrown over, the wrestler grabs the top rope with both hands and holds on so that they end up dangling from the top rope but not landing on the apron or floor. The wrestler then proceeds to lift their legs over their head and rotates their body back towards the ring to go back over the top rope and into the ring, landing in the ring on their feet. The wrestler can also perform a head scissor hold or a type of kick to strike an opponent on the inside to throw them over. A wrestler may deploy this tactic in a Royal Rumble or Battle Royal match to save themself from being eliminated, or to set up another springboard maneuver or a top rope maneuver in a normal match. This move was made famous by Ricky "The Dragon" Steamboat and Shawn Michaels. ==Illegal attacks== In kayfabe, any attack meant to incapacitate or disable an opponent is theoretically an offense punishable by disqualification in regular singles or team matches. Typically performed when the referee is disabled or otherwise distracted. However, most of these attacks are legal in hardcore or no-disqualification matches. ===Cheap shots=== Mainly used by heels. Often, wrestlers will perform these strikes while the referee is in some way distracted. In Lucha libre, this is referred to as a "fault" or "foul". The most well-known illegal moves are those that attack the groin of a male wrestler. ====Back rake==== The attacking wrestler drags both hands' stiff fingers down the opponent's back to cause pain with his fingernails. ====Biting==== The wrestler seizes a body part of the opponent and bites down with their teeth. Biting is often used when a wrestler is "trapped", either in a corner of the ring or in a submission hold, as a desperation move. ====Eye poke==== Also called a thumb to the eye. When a wrestler pokes their thumb or finger(s) into an opponent's eye(s). ====Eye rake==== When a wrestler moves their hand down past an opponent's eye(s), making it appear that the wrestler has dragged their fingers across the opponent's eye(s), to cause pain and visual problems. ====Hair pull==== As the name implies, this move sees one wrestler take advantage of another's long hair by pulling it. In modern mainstream wrestling, it is more commonly used by female wrestlers. Similarly to a submission hold in the ropes, or a choke, the wrestler is given a five count to stop, before being disqualified. ====Hangman==== Seen when a wrestler who is on the opposite side of the ring ropes from an opponent (on the 'apron') grabs the opponent by the head and drops down, forcing the opponent's throat across the ropes. This is an illegal attack because of its use of the rope. A common variation sees the wrestler perform a catapult to the opponent while the opponent is lying down in between the bottom and second ropes. =====Reverse hangman===== Similar to the normal hangman, which sees the wrestler standing outside the ring or on the apron, grabs the back of the opponent's head or neck (who is lying against the set of ropes, facing to the inside of the ring) into the ropes. The move can be alternatively called a "reverse" hotshot. ====Low blow==== thumb|Anthony Darko (kneeling) delivering a low blow to K.C. Andrews A direct shot to the groin of an opponent; otherwise known as a groin attack, utilized by heel wrestlers such as Ric Flair and Jerry Lawler. It is an offense punishable by disqualification. This illegal attack is mainly used by heel superstars or valets to gain the upper hand on their male opponents. Although kicking an opponent in the groin is the most obvious method, the most popular version sees an attacking wrestler drop to their knees and raise their arm up between the opponent's legs, striking the groin with the inside of their elbow-joint. Shinsuke Nakamura, Seth Rollins, Toru Yano and Daniel Bryan are other wrestlers who use the move. ===Foreign objects=== Many items are used as weapons in professional wrestling. Some of the more common weapons used include chairs, guitars, folding tables, lifting belts, title belts, "kendo sticks", trash cans and bells. While picking up the upper half of the ring steps for use as a weapon is illegal, slamming an opponent into the ring steps is not considered illegal, though it is frowned upon. ====Asian mist==== The illegal maneuver of spitting a colored liquid into the face of an opponent in professional wrestling. After doing so, the opponent will (in storyline) be blinded and experience intense stinging in the eyes. Asian mist can come in almost any color, but the most common one used is green. This was invented by The Great Kabuki and popularized by The Great Muta, Tajiri, Bushi and El Desperado.The Great Muta Returns and is Double Crossed! (July 24, 2014) ====Chair shot==== A wrestler hits the opponent with a chair. In modern wrestling, folding chairs are used with the strike being performed with the flat face of the chair to slow the swing and distribute the impact, to prevent injury. Although chair shots to the body are legal in the WWE, chair shots to the head were banned in March 2010, due to high risk of concussion and long- term brain damage. AEW wrestler Shawn Spears executed a chair shot to the head of Cody at Fyter Fest in 2019, causing AEW to ban the move as well. =====Chair thrust===== This chair shot variation sees the wrestler placing the top of a folded chair under the opponent's chin or by the Adam's Apple, and then while holding the chair with one hand and the back of the opponent's head with another, the wrestler hits the mat with the legs of the folded chair while still placed under the opponent's chin and simultaneously forcing the opponent's head down, thus highly damaging that part of the opponent. The move can be alternatively called a guillotine shot. =====Con-chair-to===== This particular attack was popularized by Edge and Christian and involved two wrestlers sandwiching an opponent's head between two chairs with a simultaneous chair shot from both sides. The "One Man Con-chair-to" involves a wrestler placing their opponent so that they are horizontal with their head resting on a chair, then hitting their head from above with a second chair, squashing the head of the opponent between both. ====Fireball==== The wrestler (using a concealed lighter) lights a piece of flash paper or a firecracker and throws it at the opponent, giving the impression of a supernatural ball of fire emerging from their hand. Other variation sets a wrestler spitting a flammable substance (e.g., alcohol) onto a lighter or torch.James Storm and the Great Sanada vs. Austin Aries and Tajiri (with James Storm's Beer Mist, Sept 10, 2014) The move was used by Karrion Kross and Scarlett Bordeaux during their run in NXT. It is used by Chris Jericho during his run with the Jericho Appreciation Society in All Elite Wrestling. ====Guitar shot==== Simply involves breaking a guitar over an opponent's head or against their back. Also known as the El Kabong, a reference to Quick Draw McGraw who would say this phrase prior to hitting someone with a guitar. This was used by The Honky Tonk Man, Jeff Jarrett, and most recently, Elias (Samson). ==See also== *Professional wrestling holds *Professional wrestling throws *Professional wrestling aerial techniques *Professional wrestling double-team maneuvers ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * ==External links== Category:Professional wrestling moves sv:Wrestlingtekniker#Spear |
This is a list of Confederate monuments and memorials in Alabama that were established as public displays and symbols of the Confederate States of America (CSA), Confederate leaders, or Confederate soldiers of the American Civil War. Part of the commemoration of the American Civil War, these symbols include monuments and statues, flags, holidays and other observances, and the names of schools, roads, parks, bridges, counties, cities, lakes, dams, military bases, and other public works. This list does not include items which are largely historic in nature such as historic markers or battlefield parks if they were not established to honor the Confederacy. Nor does it include figures connected with the origins of the Civil War or white supremacy, but not with the Confederacy. == Monuments and memorials == , there are at least 122 public spaces with Confederate monuments in Alabama. The 2017 Alabama Memorial Preservation Act was passed to require local governments to obtain state permission before removing Confederate monuments and memorials. ===State capitol=== * Confederate Memorial Monument, also known as the "Monument to Confederate Soldiers and Sailors" (1898).Alabama Confederate Monument. , Conservation Solutions Inc., accessed April 24, 2010 On June 24, 2015, in the wake of the Charleston church shooting on June 17, 2015, on the order of Governor Robert J. Bentley, the four Confederate flags, and their poles, were removed. * Jefferson Davis Presidential Star, marble portico (1897).Jefferson Davis Star-Montgomery, Alabama. Waymarking.com. Accessed August 16, 2017 "Placed by the Sophie Bibb Chapter Daughters of the Confederacy on the Spot where Jefferson Davis Stood when Inaugurated President of the C.S.A. Feb. 18, 1861" * Jefferson Davis (1940), by UDCJefferson Davis – Montgomery, Alabama. Waymarking.com. Accessed August 16, 2017 * John Allan Wyeth – M.D., L.L.D., marker. Fought in Confederate Army. ===State symbols=== thumb|right|Flag of the Governor since 1939 * Alabama Coat of Arms (1923) and the State Seal include the Confederate Battle Flag. * Alabama State Flag (1895) The Alabama Department of Archives and History found in 1915 that the flag was meant to "preserve in permanent form some of the more distinctive features of the Confederate battle flag, particularly the St. Andrew's cross." According to historian John M. Coski, the adoption of Alabama's flag coincided with the rise of Jim Crow laws and segregation, as other former Confederate slave states, such as Mississippi and Florida, also adopted new state flags based on Confederate designs around the same time when those states instituted Jim Crow segregation laws themselves: * The Governor's version of the State Flag includes St Andrew's Cross plus the State Coat of Arms with the Confederate Battle Flag inclusion and the military crest on the bottom. ===State holidays=== * Robert E. Lee Day, celebrated together with Martin Luther King Jr. Day on the third Monday in January * Confederate Memorial Day, celebrated the fourth Monday in April * Jefferson Davis Day, Celebrated the first Monday in June ===Buildings=== * Montgomery: First White House of the Confederacy ===Monuments=== ====Courthouse monuments==== thumb|Pickens County War Memorial in Carrollton thumb|right|upright|Confederate Monument, Clayton (circa 1910) thumb|upright|Confederate Monument in Jasper, Alabama, showing cavalryman and infantryman * Ashville: Confederate Soldiers of Ashville Monument, St. Clair County Courthouse (1923) by United Daughters of the Confederacy, (UDC) Ashville Chapter. * Athens: Limestone County Confederate Soldiers Memorial, Limestone County Courthouse (1922) by United Confederate Veterans (UCV) and UDC.Davis, Michael. In Remembrance: Confederate Funerary Monuments in Alabama and Resistance to Reconciliation, 1884–1923. Master's thesis, Auburn University. Accessed August 15, 2017 * Butler: Confederate Monument, Choctaw County Courthouse (1936) by UDC, Choctaw Ruffin Dragoon Chapter. * Carrollton: Confederate War Memorial, Pickens County Courthouse (1927). * Centre: Confederate Memorial, Cherokee County Courthouse (1988) by SCV, Emma Sansom Camp No. 27.Confederate Veterans Memorial – Centre, AL Waymarking.com. Accessed August 18, 2017 * Centreville: Confederate Monument, Bibb County Courthouse (1910) by UDC, Leonard Calloway Pratt Chapter No. 1056. * Clayton: Confederate Monument (1909); UDC monument at Barbour County Courthouse Square. * Decatur: Confederate Monument, near Morgan County Courthouse (1922) by UDC, Joe Wheeler Chapter No. 291. * Fayette: Confederate Monument, Fayette County Courthouse (1929) by UDC, Fayette Chapter.Where are Alabama's Confederate Monuments? Markers, many at courthouses, exist across Alabama. Accessed August 15, 2017. * Florence: Confederate Monument, Lauderdale County Courthouse (1903) Ladies Memorial Association. * Greensboro: Confederate Monument, Hale County Courthouse (1904) Ladies Memorial Association of Greensboro. * Jasper: Confederate Monument, Walker County Courthouse (1907) Jasper County Chapter 925 by UDC.Shumate, Joyce Nunn. The Confederate monument in Jasper, Alabama on the national register of historic places. Accessed August 15, 2017 * Livingston: Confederate Monument, Sumter County Courthouse (1908) by UDC, Sumter Chapter.Confederate Monument. Our Southern Home (May 6, 1908). Accessed August 16, 2017 * Marion: UDC Monument at Marion Courthouse Square to Nicola Marschall, designer of the original Confederate flag and Confederate uniform. In Marion there is also a pre-Civil War monument to the faithful slave. * Moulton: Confederate Monument, Lawrence County Courthouse (2006) by SCV, Lt. J. K. McBride Camp No. 241 and the Alabama Division.Lawrence County Confederate Veterans Memorial – Moulton, AL. Waymarking.com. Accessed August 18, 2017 * Tuscumbia: Confederate Veterans Monument, Colbert County Courthouse (1911) by UDC, Tuscumbia Chapter.Colbert County Confederate Veterans Memorial – Tuscumbia, AL Waymarking.com Accessed August 16, 2017 ====Other public monuments==== thumb|right|Calhoun County Confederate Memorial in Ohatchee, Alabama * Anniston: Major John Pelham Monument, Quintard Avenue (1905) through the efforts of Clarence J. Owens, president of Anniston College for Young Ladies.Major John Pelham – Anniston, AL Waymarking.com. Accessed October 6, 2017 Removed in 2020. * Athens: Limestone County Confederate Soldiers Memorial, Athens City Cemetery (1909) by UDC, Joseph E. Johnston Chapter * Blakeley: UDC monument (2010) at Historic Blakeley State Park dedicated to Confederate soldiers and sailors who served at Fort Blakeley * Demopolis: ** Confederate Monument (1910). The statue was toppled on July 16, 2016 when a policeman accidentally crashed his patrol car into the monument; the statue fell from its pedestal and was heavily damaged. In 2017, the Demopolis city council voted 3–2 to move the damaged Confederate statue to a local museum and to install a new obelisk memorial that honors both the Union and the Confederate soldiers. ** Breastworks Confederate Memorial (1941) ** Confederate Square, as it was named in 1923 at the request of the UDC, remains the official name of the Demopolis Town Square. * Eufaula: Confederate Monument (1905) by UDC, Barbour County Chapter * Fort Mitchell: Inscription on the horse mounting stone of CSA General James Cantey, at Fort Mitchell National Cemetery * Fort Payne: Confederate Monument (1913) by UDC and SCV of DeKalb County, AlabamaGraham, Kelsey (August 2, 2013). Fort Payne celebrates Confederate Monument. Times Free Press. Accessed August 15, 2017 * Gadsden: ** Emma Sansom and Nathan Bedford Forrest Monument (1907) by UDC, Gadsden Chapter.Crownover, Danny (April 1, 2016) The Vagabond – 109 Years Ago Unveiling of the Emma Sansom Statue. Gadsden Messenger. Accessed August 15, 2017 ** Turkey Town Monument (1992) by SCV, Turkey Town Valley Camp #1512Crownover, Danny (June 27, 2014). The Vagabond: A decision in Gadsden. Gadsden Messenger. Accessed August 16, 2017 * Greenville: Butler County Confederate Memorial, "Our Confederate Dead", at Confederate Park (1903) by UDC of Butler County, Alabama, Father Ryan ChapterHistoric Downtown Greenville, Alabama. Brochure. Greenville-alabama.com. Accessed August 16, 2017 * Hamilton: Confederate Veterans Bicentennial Memorial (1977) * Hayneville: Soldiers of Lowndes County Who Died in Service, Hayneville Town Square * Headland: Henry County Confederate Memorial (1936) by UDC, Headland Chapter No. 1673Henry County Confederate Memorial. Hmdb.org Accessed August 16, 2017 * Huntsville: Confederate Soldier Memorial, erected near the Madison County Courthouse (1905) by UDC. Moved to Maple Hill Cemetery in 2020. * Jacksonville: Confederate Monument, Jacksonville Town Square (1909). Bears a quote from Jefferson Davis: "Let none of the survivors of these men offer in their behalf the penitential plea, 'They believed they were right.' Be it ours to transmit to posterity our unequivocal confidence in the righteousness of the cause for which these men died." * Lowndesboro: Our Confederate Soldiers Monument (1929) by the Lowndesboro Chapter of UDC of Lowndes County, Alabama. * Midway: ** Granite boulder marker at Hwy 82 & 51 erected to commemorate the Jefferson Davis Highway and Soldiers of the Confederacy ** Confederate Memorial Marker at corner of Hwy 82 and Main Street in honour of Midway Guards prior drill grounds erected by UDC (1960) * Millbrook: Robinson Springs Camp Confederate Monument (1913) by UCV Camp No. 396, Elmore County, AlabamaNorth American Preservation of Monuments. Alabama. Napom.org. Accessed August 16, 2017 * Mobile: ** Statue of Admiral Raphael Semmes, on Government Street near the Bankhead Tunnel (1900) by SCV, Raphael Semmes Camp 11Sons of Confederate Veterans: Raphael Semmes Camp 11. Statue of Admiral Semmes Overlooking Bankhead Tunnel in Downtown Mobile. Scvsemmes.org. Accessed August 16, 2017 Removed June 5, 2020. ** Confederate Fortification Monument (1940), Mobile National Cemetery * Montgomery: ** State Capitol. See above. ** UDC monument (1942) on Dexter Avenue: "Along this street moved the inaugural parade of Jefferson Davis when he took the oath of office as President of the Confederate States of America February 18, 1861. Dixie was played as a band arrangement for the first time on this occasion." ** Robert E. Lee statue, Robert E. Lee High School (1908) * Munford: A. J. Buttram Monument (1914) by UDC, John Tyler Morgan ChapterMiller, Rex, Croxton's Raid, p.82 * Opelika: Confederate Monument (1911) by UDC, Robert E. Lee Chapter"Monument at Opelika, Ala." Confederate Veteran 19, no. 5 (May 1911): 250–51 * Newton: Monument dedicated to the Confederate victory in the Battle of Newton * Ohatchee: Calhoun County Confederate Memorial (2003) at Janney Furnace Park, "the world's largest black granite Confederate Memorial" * Ozark: Dale County Confederate Soldiers Monument (1910) Stonewall Jackson Chapter by UDC No. 667 of Dale County, Alabama * Prattville: ** Confederate Monument, City Hall Square (1908) by UDC"Committee Work of Confederation: Complete Record of Monuments and Memorials." Bulletin (Sons of Confederate Veterans) 1, no. 6 (June 1910): 180 ** UDC monument (1916) to Prattville Dragoons, on grounds of Prattville Primary School * Rogersville: CSA Gen. Joseph Wheeler Monument, Joe Wheeler State Park (2006) by SCV, Freeman's Battery Forrest's Artillery Camp No. 1939Historical Marker Database. General Joseph Wheeler. Hmdb.com Accessed August 18, 2017 thumb|right|Bust of Nathan Bedford Forrest in Old Live Oak Cemetery. * Selma: ** The Edmund Pettus Bridge (1940), on US Route 80, is named for Edmund Pettus, Confederate General and Alabama Grand Dragon of the KKK. This is the beginning of the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail (1996), commemorating the Selma to Montgomery civil rights marches of 1965. ** Defense of Selma Memorial (1907) by UDC ** Memorial boulder marking The Selma Ordnance and Naval Foundry "destroyed by the Federals 1865," placed "in honor of the memory of hundreds of faithful men who made these great works a base for war material for the entire Confederate Army and Navy." (1917) Alabama Division United Daughters of Confederacy. ** "Arsenal Place" memorial (1931), marking the site of the Confederate ordnance works "destroyed by the Union Army April 6, 1865" ** A memorial arch on the grounds of the Federal Building honors Confederate Generals and Senators John Tyler Morgan and Edmund Pettus ** Old Live Oak Cemetery, a Selma city-owned property, incorporates various features including: *** Jefferson Davis Memorial Chair – an inscribed stone chair *** Confederate Memorial Circle (1878) Confederate Memorial Association *** The Nathan Bedford Forrest Bust Monument (2000). Built partly with city funds, sponsored by Friends of Forrest and UDC. It was first located at the Vaughan-Smitherman Museum, but during protest over Forrest's KKK links trash was dumped on it and it was damaged during an apparent attempt to remove the bust from its foundation. It was then moved to the Cemetery's Confederate Circle. The bust was then stolen in 2012 and has not been recovered, despite a $20,000 reward; the present bust is a replacement.Evans, Daniel (May 23, 2015). "Forrest bust back at Old Live Oak." Selma-Times Journal. Accessed August 16, 2017 The base is inscribed, under a Confederate flag: "Defender of Selma, Wizard of the Saddle, untutored genius, the first with the most. This monument stands as testament of our perpetual devotion and respect to Lt. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest, C.S.A., 1821-1877, one of the South's finest heroes. In honor of Gen. Forrest's unwavering defense of Selma, the great state of Alabama, and the Confederacy, this memorial is dedicated. Deo vindice." *** A Confederate Soldier Monument (pre-1881) with cannons protecting it *** Graves and memorials to four CSA generals: John Tyler Morgan, Edmund Winston Pettus, Nathaniel H. R. Dawson, William J. Hardee and Confederate Navy Commander Catesby ap Roger Jones *** A building historically used for concerts and Confederate Memorial Day celebrations *** Elodie Todd Dawson Monument (sister- in-law to President Lincoln, strong advocate for the Confederacy)Elodie Todd Dawson Monument in Selma's Old Live Oak Cemetery. Ruralswalabama.org. Accessed August 16, 2017 * Tallassee ** Confederate Armory. When Richmond was threatened by Union troops, the Confederacy moved its armory to Tallassee. It is the only Confederate armory to survive the war. Only the brick shell of the large building survives. There is a historical marker. ** Confederate Officers' Quarters, 301, 303 (demolished), 305, and 307 King Street. Made necessary by the relocation of the armory. After the Civil War, Confederate Brigadier-General Birkett Davenport Fry lived at 301 King Street until 1880. The building is currently used as a law firm office, but there is a historical marker. ** * Troy: "Comrades" Confederate Monument (1908) Pike Monumental Association, UCV, and UDC of Pike County, AlabamaHistorical Marker Database. Confederate Memorial. Hmdb.org Accessed August 16, 2017 * Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Civil War Memorial, South entrance of the University of Alabama's Amelia Gayle Gorgas Library (1914) by UDC, Alabama DivisionLatitude 34 North. Historic Markers Across Alabama. Lat34north.com Accessed August 16, 2017 * Tuscaloosa County: UDC monument (1977) at Tannehill Ironworks, where Confederate munitions and iron were manufactured ====Private monuments==== * Auburn: Auburn Guard Monument, Pine Hill Cemetery (1893) Ladies Memorial Association, forerunner of UDC * Birmingham: Confederate Monument, Elmwood Cemetery (1906), UCV, Camp Hardee * Boligee: Confederate Monument, Bethsalem Cemetery (1896) Ladies Memorial AssociationConfederated Southern Memorial Association, History of the Confederated Memorial Associations of the South (New Orleans: Graham Press, 1904), pp. 48–49 * Calera: Shelby Springs Memorial * Camden: Confederate Monument (1880) Ladies Memorial and Wilcox Monumental Associations, Wilcox County, Alabama * Crenshaw County, near Brantley: In August, 2017, the new Unknown Alabama Confederate Soldiers Monument was installed in Confederate Veterans Memorial Park on Route 331, 3 miles north of Brantley. The park, established in 2015, is privately owned. * Eutaw: Confederate monument in Mesopotamia Cemetery. * Gainesville: ** Confederate Dead Monument, Gainesville Cemetery (1876) Ladies Memorial Association of Gainesville ** Forrest Confederate Monument (1923) by UDC * Jacksonville: The Gallant Pelham Statue, Jacksonville City Cemetery (1905) by UDC, John H. Forney Chapter * Mobile: Confederate Rest and Monument, Magnolia Cemetery (1874) * Plattville: marker in front of Mulbry Grove Cottage, the "meeting place where the Prattville Dragoons, a Civil War unit, was organized in 1861. * Talladega: Confederate Memorial. Oak Hill Cemetery * Tuscaloosa: Confederate Monument, Greenwood Cemetery (1880) by the Ladies Memorial Association * Tuskegee: Tuskegee Confederate Monument, erected October 6, 1906 by UDC of Macon County, Alabama. The UDC owns both the monument and the town park it is located in. There have been several unsuccessful attempts to tear it down or have it removed legally. As of 2018, the UDC has stopped removing spray- painted defacement, "because it would only be repeated". * Union Springs: Confederate Monument, Old City Cemetery (The Confederate Cemetery) (1893) Ladies Memorial Associationiconions (Dec 12, 2012). Confederate Soldiers Memorial – Union Springs, AL Waymarking.com Accessed September 26, 2017 * Wetumpka: Wetumpka Light Guards Memorial ===Inhabited places=== * Bullock County (1866) named for secessionist politician and CSA Col. Edward Bullock * Chilton County (1868) named for William Parish Chilton, judge and member of the Confederate Provisional Congress * City of Clanton (1866) seat of Chilton County named for CSA Brig. Gen. James H. Clanton * Cleburne County (1866) named for CSA Maj. Gen. Patrick Cleburne * Hale County (1867) named for CSA Lt. Col. Stephen F. Hale; also a member of the Provisional Confederate States Congress * Lee County (1866) named for Robert E. Lee. * Beauregard, Alabama (unincorporated) in Lee County named for CSA Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard * Wheeler, Alabama (unincorporated), location of the National Register of Historic Places-listed Joseph Wheeler Plantation, both named for the Confederate General Joseph Wheeler. ===Parks, water features and dams=== * Brantley: Confederate Veterans Memorial Park, privately owned * Demopolis: Confederate Park is the town square named so in 1923 at the request of UDC. * Florence: McFarland Park and Recreation Area, named for Confederate Maj. Robert McFarland * Greenville: Confederate Park (1910) * Marbury: Confederate Memorial Park. The site operated as the Old Soldiers Home for Confederate Veterans from 1902 to 1939. In 1964, the Alabama State Legislature established the memorial park, which now hosts a museum and archivesAlabama Historical Commission, State Historic Preservation Office. History of Confederate Memorial Park. Accessed August 15, 2017 * Miami: Robert E. Lee Park * Mountain Creek: Confederate Memorial Park and Alabama Confederate Soldiers Home * Rogersville: Joe Wheeler State Park (1949) beside Wheeler Lake and Wheeler Dam all named for Confederate General and U.S. Congressman Joseph Wheeler ===Roads=== * Anniston: Quintard Avenue * Dauphin Island: Beauregard Street * Fair Hope: Jeff Davis Street * Gardendale: Robert E. Lee Drive * Hodges: Robert E. Lee Drive * Leeds: Robert E. Lee Street * Livingston: ** Forrest Drive ** Hood Street, named for CSA Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood ** Jefferson Davis Drive ** Lee Street ** Longstreet Drive, named for CSA Gen. James Longstreet. ** Morgan Drive, named for CSA Gen. John Hunt Morgan ** Stonewall Street * McCalla: Confederate Parkway * Millbrook: Robert E. Lee Drive * Mobile: ** Beauregard Street ** Forrest Street ** Johnston Street, named for CSA Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston ** Polk Street, named for CSA Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk ** Robert E. Lee Street ** Van Dorn Street, named for CSA Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn * Montgomery: ** Beauregard Street ** Early Street ** Jefferson Davis Avenue * Ozark: ** Jeb Stuart Court ** Stonewall Circle * Selma: ** Forrest Avenue * Trussville: Robert Lee Street ===Schools=== * Huntsville: Lee High School (1957), home to the Lee Generals * Montgomery: ** Jefferson Davis High School (1968) ** Sidney Lanier High School (1910) * Opelika: ** Beauregard Elementary School (2001) new campus on Lee County Rd 300 constructed, previously shared location with high school ** Beauregard High School (1923) * Satsuma: Robert E. Lee Elementary School * Selma: ** John Tyler Morgan Academy, a segregation academy founded in 1965 * Vestavia Hills City Schools, home of the Rebels. Until 2017, the school mascot was the Rebel Man, a Confederate Flag-waving Civil War rebel and plantation owner ===City symbols=== * Mobile: city flag includes the city seal which incorporates a small Confederate Battle Flag along with other flags. * Montgomery: ** The red and gray city flag includes a strip of stars from the Confederate Battle Flag. 150px 100px 150px ==Notes== == References == Confederate Monuments and memorials in Alabama Alabama Confederate monuments and memorials in Alabama |
The featherbed frame was a motorcycle frame invented by the McCandless brothers and offered to the British Norton motorcycle company to improve the performance of their racing motorcycles in 1950. It was considered revolutionary at the time,"As opposition companies strove to develop completely new machines with multi-cylinder engines, far more powerful than the Norton single, Bracebridge Street was content to find new speed in 1950 with a revolutionary new frame which steered and handled so superbly that it immediately earned the now forever-famous tag Featherbed". Sixty Years of Speed, 1967 a Motorcycle News publication, pp.41-42 Accessed 26 January 2018Motorcycle handling and chassis design: the art and science by Tony Foale. 2006 and the best handling frame that a racer could have."Introduced in 1950, the featherbed Norton frame, designed by Rex McCandless, of Belfast, became, and still is, the standard by which handling and steering of all racing machines is judged". Sixty Years of Speed, 1967 a Motorcycle News publication, p.41 Accessed 26 January 2018The Café Racer Phenomenon by A Walker. 2009 Later adopted for Norton production motorcycles,Motorcycle Mechanics, August 1966, pp.36-37 Featherbed stripdown. "Developed from the one-time, world-beating Manx Norton, the Dominator 'featherbed' frame is still regarded as the ultimate in steering, handling and roadholding." Accessed 8 February 2018 it was also widely used by builders of custom hybrids such as the Triton, becoming legendary and remaining influential to this day.Motor Cycle, 23 April 1964, pp.494-497 Norton Featherbed Twins by John Ebrell. "The famous featherbed frame, beloved of specials builders. Its absolute rigidity makes a big contribution to the legendary Norton roadholding". Accessed and added 4 February 2018Do not mourn the Featherbed! Motorcycle Sport, August 1978, p.218 "The Featherbed Nortons were some of the all time greats, but to ascribe to the shape of the frame some magic properties is to detract from the design of the whole bicycle, its weight distribution and geometry and to give to the frame's progenitors some of the credit due to the likes of Ken Sprayson, who knows a thing or three about its development." Accessed 10 January 2018 The Featherbed inspired other frame builders who based their own products on similar principles, including the 1960s heavyweight Münch Mammut,Motor Cycle, 3 February 1966, pp.142-143 On the Four Winds by 'Nitor'. "Engine is from the NSU Prinz car and may be specified in 43 or 52 bhp trim. In my picture you can see how well it fits into a featherbed-style frame". Accessed and added 2014-09-28. Re-accessed and quotation added 8 September 2018 a lightweight version for a 250 cc BSA C15 engine,Motor Cycle, 24 November 1963, pp.696-699 All the rage by John Ebrell. " ...Ilford's CeeR-Speedshop. For £29 they'll supply the C15 rider with a featherbed-type duplex frame". Accessed and added 2014-09-28 and the 1970-conceived Dresda frame. The Featherbed was replaced by the Norton Isolastic frame in 1967 for the then newly-developed Norton Commando which used a rubber-mounted engine and gearbox,Norton By Mick Woollett. 2004. although Norton continued to offer the Mercury with a Featherbed frame until production ceased by 1970. Replicas of the frame continue to be produced by specialist companies.Classic Bike, October 1989, p.80 Barber Engineering advert (Norfolk, England). Replica frame builder. G50/7R, Featherbed and Seeley Mk3. Other frames to pattern." Accessed 10 January 2018Andover Norton Frames and Auxiliaries made to factory drawings Retrieved 2014-09-28 thumb|"Triton." A Triumph 650 cc pre-unit engine and gearbox in a wideline Norton Featherbed frame ==Origins== In 1949 brothers Rex and Cromie McCandless offered Norton a new frame to support their successful 500cc race single. Rex McCandless was a self-taught Belfast motorcycle engineer and raced competitively with his brother on a Triumph Tiger 100. He had made several improvements to the Triumph, notably an innovative new frame with a swinging arm fitted with vertical hydraulic shock absorbers from a Citroen car. BSA bought several of his converted motorcycles but Norton saw the real opportunity and contracted him to work exclusively for them from 1949. The Norton Motorcycle Company were concerned at the reliability of their plunger (or "Garden Gate") frame, as several had broken through the stress of racing. Norton engineer Joe Craig solved the problems by making the frames heavier but handling suffered as a consequence. Norton commissioned the McCandless brothers to design a complete frame, incorporating a swinging arm. McCandless' finished design was expensive, as it required over forty feet of the best Reynolds steel tubing. It was a welded twin loop with a swinging arm fitted with their own design of shock absorbers, with a heavily braced cross- over headstock. In two months a prototype motorcycle with the new frame was on the test track and it was tested on the Isle of Man in the winter of 1949. It performed well and Norton decided that the Norton works team would have motorcycles with the new frames. The Norton works was not well equipped so the sif-bronze welding was undertaken by the McCandless brothers who produced the eight frames for the racing team by hand. Production featherbed frames were made under Ken Sprayson's direction at Reynolds, who became known as 'The Frame man'Do not mourn the Featherbed! Motorcycle Sport, August 1978, p.218 "No one would argue that there was a better roadholding bike in the 50s than the Norton. That it was capable of taking more power than the Dommie engine could give was proved not only on the race track by the Manx version and the Domiracer but also on the road by those who put Triumph engines in them." Accessed 10 January 2018 ===The patent=== Norton applied for a patent for the design on 13 October 1949 and it was granted as reference 664,667 but the completed specification was not published until 9 January 1952. The Featherbed frame was simply constructed: > This invention relates to a new or improved frame for a motorcycle which > comprises two substantially parallel rectangular loops each formed from a > single length of tubing, and the ends of the tube forming each loop cross > and are welded to each other at the top front corner of the loop, the free > ends of the tube which extend beyond the crossing point being welded to the > side of an inclined head tube adjacent to the top and bottom thereof. The > assembled frame is extremely strong for its weight and designed to provide > the maximum resistance to any stresses applied to the frame by road shocks > or by the driving torque of the power unit. ===The Featherbed name=== Harold Daniell was a successful Isle of Man TT racer with three victories and several placings in the Tourist Trophy races and the Manx Grand Prix.IOMTT.com Harold Daniell results database (retrieved 5 November 2006) After testing the new Norton frame in 1950 he declared that it was like "riding on a featherbed" compared with riding the "garden gateGarden gate is a reference to the plunger frame Nortons of this era"—and it has been called the featherbed frame ever since. The term feather bed was used in the 1933 to 1938 Brough Superior catalogues in their press section. As printed in the 1933 Brough Superior catalog: > The "Brough Superior" Rear Spring Frame, to quote "Castor" of "Motor > Cycling," renders "pitching or wobble non-existent, impossible. A feather > bed could scarcely be safer"—and this in relating his experience on a > Special "Brough Superior" S.S. 100, on which he did 106 m.p.h. in second > gear on the road ! ===Racing success=== Further testing took place at Montlhery race track with four motorcycles running flat-out for two days. The new frame stood up well to tests and saw its UK launch at Blandford Camp in Dorset in April 1950. thumb|An unrelated and irrelevant Triumph-BSA off-roader Geoff Duke had won the Senior Clubmans TT and the Senior Manx Grand Prix in 1949 on the earlier type Nortons, so was a clear choice for Norton to really put the new Featherbed-framed race bikes to the test. Duke won the race on the new design and several racing successes followed with Norton winning first three places in the 1950 Senior and Junior TT's. In the Friday Senior TT Duke set a new lap record of 93.33 mph and also broke the overall race record, finishing in two hours, 51 minutes and 45 seconds; he had previously finished second to Artie Bell (Norton) in Monday's Junior TT. (Harold Daniell's Norton was third.) When it came to the bends on the twisting Island course the new frame gave the Nortons a distinct advantage. Featherbed frames were also successfully modified for use in off road racing or motorcycle scrambling.Off-Road Giants!: Heroes of 1960s Motorcycle Sport by Andy Westlake In the 1950s, Ron Hankin designed a featherbed-inspired Moto Cross frame for Les Archer junior, having curved downtubes to allow for greater front suspension movement without fouling the wheel on the frame, and with heavy bracing around the steering head tube. The frame was used with Manx Norton engines prepared by tuner Ray Petty, and also with a 500 cc Norton Dominator engine.That was the year... ...Les Archer became European MX champion Classic Dirt Bike, 7 April 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2018 ==Featherbed variants== ===Manx racer in Reynolds 531=== Weight and strength were key factors in the design of the featherbed frame for the Norton racing team's Manx. 16-gauge Reynolds 531, a high-tensile manganese-molybdenum steel alloy, was used as it allowed the frame tubes to be made thinner for the same strength, as well as making for a more responsive frame. All the joints were Sifbronze welded, – a relatively low-temperature flame-braze – except for the sub frame which was initially bolted-on but welded in later versions. ===Norton International=== In 1953 the Norton International was relaunched with a new version of the Featherbed frame made from grade A mild steel. ===Domiracer 'Lowboy'=== In 1956, Norton development engineer Doug Hele was tasked with creating a 500 cc overhead valve road-based racing machine to challenge the larger-displacement side valve 750 Harley Davidsons run in the same class at AMA-organised Daytona 200 races. Initially unsuccessful, the project was turned into creating a road-based race engine as a replacement for the ageing Manx Norton racer engine. Hele designed a lighter-weight, lower frame with slightly shorter wheelbase, based on Featherbed principles having slightly altered frame runs and shortened telescopic front forks which became known as Lowboy. The project was named Domiracer, and one was successfully raced to third-place by Tom Phillis in the 1961 Senior TT race."Undoubtedly a successful experiment but it did not go into production. In 1961 Norton prepared a special 500 ohv twin based on the Dominator roadster and Australian Tom Phillis raced it into 3rd place at 98.78 mph with a fastest lap of 100.36 mph. The frame was a lower-built version of the famous featherbed". Machines of the TT, Sixty Years of Speed, 1967 a Motorcycle News publication, p.42 Accessed 1 February 2018Story of the Domiracer, Classic Racer, Autumn 1988, pp.52-57 Accessed 4 February 2018 In 1962 the factory developed a Lowboy with a 350 cc Manx Norton single-cylinder engine and a 650 cc version using the Dominator 650SS engine but with a full- height Manx frame, both as tried by Derek Minter. In 1962 the race shop closed and was sold to Paul Dunstall, who had already developed his own Norton Dominator-engined race machine campaigned by Fred Neville (deceased 1961) and Dave Downer (deceased 1963). Dunstall successfully developed 500, 650 and 750 versions, later producing a Lowboy frame kits sold to the general public. After the Dunstall organisation closed in the early 1980s, other specialists offered the Lowboy frame.The Minter Line Motor Cycle, 4 October 1962 pp.406-409. Accessed 28 January 2018Dunstall Lowboy frame kit, part number 1060, undated catalogue "The Dunstall Lowboy racing frame assembly allows you to build your own compact light and competitive racing 750. The kit is designed to accept the 750 Norton engine, but the 650 or 500 will fit just as easily." Accessed 28 January 2018Classic Racer, Summer 1989, p.11 Mick Hemmings advert, Accessed 28 January 2018. "Domiracer Lowboy Frame Kit. As used by Tom Phillis and designed by Doug Hele. Will take Manx or Twin engines c/w wide tubular singing arm, taper rollers." ===Single and Twin cylinder roadsters in Featherbeds=== Having earlier installed the Dominator twin- cylinder engine of 500 cc and 600 cc, in 1959 Norton put the old single cylinder Model 50 (350 cc) and the ES2 (500 cc) into the Featherbed frame to rationalise production. Using grade A mild steel, the size of this engine determined the space between the top and bottom rails of the full duplex cradle. In 1960 the top rails were installed at the rear of the tank. Riders complained that these wideline Featherbed frames were uncomfortably wide at but it was not until 1960 that the top runs of the frame were narrowed towards the front of the seat, with corresponding overall styling changes including tank and seat to create the slimline frame. The slimline was used until the last of the vertical twin cylinder models in the late 1960s, the Norton Mercury, a limited-production run of single carburettor 650 cc machines based on the Dominator;Motorcycle Mechanics, May 1969, p.63 SHOWTIME. Show scene '69. "Last of the traditional Nortons is the 647 cc Mercury. This machine has the Commando type cylinder head and single carburettor, producing 47 bhp. A rev counter and stainless steel mudguards are available as extras". Accessed 3 January 2016Real Classic Norton Mercury Retrieved 2014-09-28 the Norton Commando with its new frame design and angled-forward engine having been launched at the Earls Court show in 1967 took over as the 750 cc range-topper, later enlarged to 830 cc, but badged as '850'. ===Dresda=== Dave Degens created his first hybrid motorcycle of a Triumph engine/Norton rolling chassis in 1961 when working for former racer and motorcycle race shop owner Geoff Monty, using a racing Manx Norton with a blown engine. The bike was sold before it was finished, and realising there was a potential business, in 1963 Degens bought into Dresda Autos, a small scooter shop in South London together with business partner Richard 'Dickie' Boon, keeping the existing name. Degens created what he termed as Dresda Triton from 1963, with the Motorcycle Mechanics' road test of June 1964 stating "The firm has sold well over fifty to date ...", naming two mechanics/bike builders in addition to Degens, who was a regular short-circuit road racer, having ridden for Monty and Paul Dunstall on his ex-works 500 cc Norton Domiracer with lowboy frame designed by Doug Hele in the 1963 and 1964 Manx Grands Prix.Motorcycle Mechanics, June 1964, pp.28-29, and 58 "MM's fastest road test! The fabulous 126 mph Dresda Triton". Accessed 16 January 2018Motorcycle Sport, Manx Grand Prix 1964 October 1964, pp.371-373, 378-379 and 380-384 Accessed 16 January 2018Dave Degens' results , Manx Grand Prix, IoM TT Database. Retrieved 16 January 2018 In 1970, racer and bike shop owner Dave Degens produced his first bespoke Dresda frame, after his business name Dresda Autos. Based on the geometry of the smaller-capacity (250 cc/350 cc) Aermacchis he had previously raced, the new frame had tube runs and layout based on the Featherbed, but with upscaled proportions to allow for the use of taller, heavier, more-powerful 650 cc parallel twin cylinder engines, similar to his 1965 Barcelona 24-hour endurance race-winning Dresda Triton. The new bike used Degens' later development of a unit construction race-prepared Triumph engine, unlike the earlier models having a separate engine and gearbox. The new configuration won the 1970 Barcelona 24-hour race, reprising Degens' 1965 win. After this success, French motorcycle dealer Japauto commissioned Degens to build a bespoke race-frame for the still-new Honda CB750 four-cylinder engine that had been specially enlarged for racing to 900 cc. This machine won the 1972 Bol d'Or 24-hour endurance race.Motorcycle Mechanics, November 1973, p.26 Dresda advert, "Dresda frame kit for 500 and 750 Honda, as used on the winning machine at the 1972 Bol d'Or". Accessed 16 January 2018 Degens subsequently offered frame kits for self-builders using Triumph and Honda engines, and also produced complete machines for road-use, named Dresda Triumph and Dresda Honda.Motorcycle Mechanics, October 1970, pp.48-50. The Resurrection Man. Accessed and added 9 November 2017Bike, December 1984, pp.48-51. Accessed and added 9 November 2017Motorcycle Mechanics, July 1973, p.25 Dresda Autos advert (London, England). All motorcycle builders. Dresda are now established in a new factory and can offer the specialised service that YOU want. If you are building a new bike we can offer Dresda race-proven frames to suit most engines and give 25 per cent weight reduction on overall machines." Accessed January 2018 ===Special hybrids=== In addition to the better-known Triumph- Norton and Vincent-Norton,Motorcycle Mechanics, July 1964, p.13 Next Month: What's coming in the August issue. Build a Triton. "We get hundreds of requests for information on how to build a Triumph/Norton hybrid. So next month we'll tell you how—...". Accessed 8 February 2018Motorcycle Mechanics, December 1964, pp.34-35, Vin–Nor sprinter. "John Willers of Mitcham started building his Vincent/Norton special several years ago. He aimed to make it a dual–purpose machine that would see off anything else on the road and also acquit itself creditably on the sprint strips". Accessed 7 February 2018 a small number of other hybrid motorcycles,A hybrid motorcycle consists of one manufacturer's major part(s) conjoined with other manufacturers' major components, in this case a Norton Featherbed frame basis, powered by a Triumph engine (Triton) or Vincent engine (Norvin) or other more-obscure engines, including two-strokes sourced from boats or Saab carsMotor Cycle, Special Equipment supplement 1 June 1967, p.735 Triton. "THIS hybrid with Norton frame and Triumph engine is no mere Metropolitan toy". Accessed 9 March 2018 sometimes known as 'specials', have been created using the featherbed frame, mostly with associated Norton-sourced, matching running gear: * Noriel – Norton featherbed frame with Ariel Square Four engine.Motor Cycle, 5 November 1964, pp.792-793 Featherbed Four – Dick Wright's four-pipe model, by David Dixon. "No disrespect to Ariels, but there have always been enthusiastic Square Four owners who yearned for race-bred steering and roadholding. If only the 997 cc four-cylinder unit could be shoehorned into a Norton Featherbed frame...". Accessed and added 7 February 2018Motor Cycle, 17 February 1966, Classified advertising, p.12 (supplement iv) Specials – "1965 Noriel 1,000cc 4...£245". E.S. Longstaff Ltd., 68 New Rd., Edmonton, London, N.9. Accessed and added 18 February 2018 * NorBSA – Norton featherbed frame with BSA 500 or 650 twin cylinder engine, or Gold Star 350 or 500 single cylinder engine.Motorcycle Mechanics, July 1964, p.17 "Can We Help You? Q. Is it possible to fit a BSA 650cc Super Rocket engine into my 1958 Norton Dominator 88 frame?...A. ...We would suggest you do not go ahead with a conversion such as this unless you have engineering experience and first-class workshop facilities. ...". Accessed 8 February 2018 * Norley – Norton featherbed frame with Harley Davidson V-twin engine.Mecum to Auction Norley Cafe Racer Motorcycle at Original Spring Classic Event Motorcyclist online, 4 May 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2018 ==Notes== ==References== ==Further reading== *40 Years of the Featherbed Norton, Peter Kneale, 1990 Isle of Man TT Official Souvenir Programme, pp. 15–17 ==External links== * Picture of Rex McCandless * Pictures of unpainted Norton featherbed frame * Story of the development of the featherbed frame Category:Norton motorcycles Category:Motorcycle frames |
Patrick Treacy is a Visiting Professor of Dermatology, Honorary Fellow in Cosmetic Surgery and general practitioner with special interests in dermatology and aesthetic medicine, who is based in Dublin, Ireland. He is recognised as one of the first pioneers of the field of Aesthetic Medicine. He is Visiting Professor of Medicine at Isra University, Pakistan, and received an Honorary Fellowship in Cosmetic Surgery (2022) from the Australian College of Cosmetic Surgery and Medicine. Treacy founded the Ailesbury Clinic and practices in Dublin and Cork, and is Irish Regional Representative to the British Association of Cosmetic Doctors. He was the lead cosmetic doctor for Michael Jackson's dermatology and aesthetic treatments during the period he lived in Ireland, and was listed as the 'Top Aesthetic Practitioner in the World (Las Vegas) 2019' as well as 'Top Aesthetic Medical Aesthetic Practitioner (UK) 2019', earning himself a spot in the Aesthetic Medicine Hall of Fame. He was also given a special MyFaceMyBody Award recognition in 2018 for his scientific contribution to Aesthetic Medicine and cited amongst their 'Ultimate 100 Global Aesthetic Leaders' both in 2019, 2018 and 2017. He is recognised to be among the first doctors worldwide to use hyaluronidase during vascular filler occlusion and to establish protocols for its use. He was also shortlisted for an 2022 Irish HealthCare Award for advocating the use of Methotrexate in the resolution of non-responsive post COVID-19 vaccine dermal filler nodules. The objective was to evaluate the efficacy of using the immunosuppressant methotrexate to treat nodules unresponsive to other treatments Treacy has also been a contributor to television and radio shows such as RTÉ Television, BBC and Dr. Drew on CNN. In March 2022, he gave an inspirational Ted Talk about changing obstructions into opportunity at Cork University, Ireland in a lecture entitled 'Never Give Up on Your Dreams'. In June 2022, the Irish Daily Mirror said Dr Treacy is set to shake up reality TV appearing on two Virgin Media shows in the coming weeks. These were 'Lucy's Tribes' and 'Eating with the Enemy']. A portrait photograph of Dr. Treacy was featured in an exhibit of 50 ‘Paddy Portraits’ which opened in New York City ahead of St. Patrick’s Day. The aim was to showcase the diversity of the contemporary Irish male, and to challenge the global stereotype of the ‘Irish Paddy’ through a stunning collection of portrait photographs. ==Early life and education== Treacy was born in Garrison, Fermanagh, Northern Ireland where his parents ran a shop, garage, and filing station. In 1978, he completed an honours degree in biochemistry at Queens University in Belfast during the height of The Troubles. Due to the conflict in Northern Ireland, he transferred to the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland in Dublin to study medicine. He states that he took a break during his education and travelled for a period with David Bowie's Serious Moonlight in Europe. In 1986, Treacy graduated and became a practicing doctor in Dublin. In 1987, he was accidentally jabbed in the leg with a needle used on an HIV patient while working in a Dublin hospital. This resulted in him having to cut out an area of his leg as this was before protease inhibitor treatments for AIDS existed and consequently he never developed the illness. In his first memoir, Behind the Mask: The Extraordinary Story of the Irishman who became Michael Jackson's Doctor he states that this incident led to being involved in humanitarian work in Africa and later to pioneer new aesthetic treatment surgeries to help people with AIDS and HIV. In his later novel ‘The Needle and The Damage Done’, he explains how this terrifying moment could have cost him his life. After that incident he moved to New Zealand in 1988 to work as a respiratory and cardiology registrar with Dunedin Hospital. In 1990, he became a staff health doctor at Ibn 'al Bitar Hospital in Baghdad during Saddam Hussein's reign and that he was arrested near Erbil by the Iraqi Army while traveling through Kurdistan, and jailed for five days while sourcing material for an article for the Fermanagh Herald about the gassing of the Kurds in Halabja. He was ship's surgeon with Carnival Cruise Line in California from 1993 through 1994, and later in Florida. In the late 1990s, Treacy worked as a flying doctor in Broken Hill N.S.W. with Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia and later treated skin cancers in Toowoomba Australia . ==Career and bibliography== In 2000, he founded the Ailesbury Clinic in Dublin and another Ailesbury Clinic in Cork in 2005. The clinics were very successful and expanded internationally. In 2003, Treacy won the "Professional Media Journalist of the Year" category at the GlaxoSmithKline Medical Media Awards for articles concerning the impact of HIV on the African continent that he had written in Irish Medical Times. In his memoir, Behind the Mask he details how the Irish recession affected his international business, and that of many of his patients. In April 2016, at the height of the Irish recession,Treacy made a €137,897 settlement with the Irish Revenue as a result of unpaid taxes, interest and penalties. In December 2019, he pleaded guilty to charges of engaging in drunk behaviour at an Irish hotel. In April 2021 he released a book called The Needle and the Damage Done, an autobiographical memoir covering the period 2012–2021. De Mode Magazine included it as No3 in 'Unputdownable books for 2023 -a list of page turners'. The book also gives background on innovations that contributed to his being lauded as Top Aesthetic Practitioner in the World (USA) in 2019, and Top Aesthetic Medical Aesthetic Practitioner in the UK in 2019. It also describes Treacy's research on the influence of botulinum toxin on the brain, including chronic migraines, and how he developed new protocols by using hyaluronidase to reverse the damage being done to patient's faces because of complications with dermal fillers. In 2012, he proposed using the supraorbital foramen technique to reverse dermal filler blindness rather than the more difficult retrobulbar method favoured by ophthalmologists and this method is now widely accepted. In 2021, Dr Treacy founded the International Medical Aesthetics Complications Conference (IMACC), which will take place at both the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, and University College Dublin (UCD), on 14–16 July 2022. In April 2022 he released a book called The Evolution of Aesthetic Medicine, an autobiographical memoir covering 2012–2021.In the book, Dr Treacy provides a historical narrative of how botulinum toxin, dermal fillers and laser technologies made their way into the field of aesthetic medicine, detailing the evolution of these procedures. In July 2022, he authored a book called Prevention and Management of Aesthetic Complications , which featured contributions from more than twenty world-leading experts in Aesthetic Medicine concerning the management and prevention of aesthetic complications in dermal fillers, botulinum, chemical peels and lasers. In January 2023 he released another book about his personal experiences, entitled Aesthetic Complications and Other Interesting Cases. According to publisher Austin Macauley, the book contains many aesthetic complication cases encountered by Dr Treacy since he first established a hyaluronidase protocol for dermal fillers in 2005. In 2023, he released another book, The Living History of Medicine. It largely focused on medical eponyms and the doctors who over the past few centuries often faced great personal hardships in to bring us the information we now use to treat the disorders they discovered. ===Affiliation with Michael Jackson=== Michael Jackson sought him for cosmetic treatment after reading about his experience with HLA fillers and his charitable work working with HIV patients in Africa. He was Jackson's personal dermatologist and developed a friendship with the singer. Treacy and Jackson worked on humanitarian projects together. In 2011, Treacy became an ambassador for the Michael Jackson Legacy foundation, and in 2012 opened Everland Children's Orphanage in Liberia and orphanages in Haiti in 2013. In 2009, Treacy was on the special witness list for the trial of Conrad Murray, however, he was not called to testify. He released a memoir entitled Behind the Mask: The Extraordinary Story of the Irishman who became Michael Jackson's Doctor in 2015. In The Sunday Times in 2021, Treacy recalled an incident in which he mistook Nelson Mandela for a South Africa concert promoter arranging a humanitarian concert in Cape Town after Michael Jackson handed the phone during a vitiligo treatment. ===Humanitarian work=== The 1987 needlestick incident eventually led to Treacy's humanitarian work in Africa and his developing an empathy to people who suffered from HIV/AIDS and were marginalised or discriminated against as a consequence. Treacy pioneered new aesthetic and surgical treatments to help people with LD-HIV, a condition characterized by loss of subcutaneous fat associated with infection with HIV. In 1993, he visited HIV orphanages in Zimbabwe and South Africa, and some of his later medical articles about these experiences won him Irish professional media awards. In 2001, Treacy challenged 'traditional' views on treating AIDS at a medical conference in South Africa, where he had done a placement as a young doctor. Treacy openly challenged Thabo Mbeki for his stance on AIDS when he advocated that the correlation between poverty and the AIDS rate in Africa was a challenge to the viral theory of AIDS. In 2002, he wrote an article for the Irish Medical Times entitled "A Tragedy That Has Resulted in Countless Needless Deaths in Africa". Mbeki's ban of antiretroviral drugs in public hospitals is estimated to be responsible for the premature deaths of between 330,000 and 365,000 people. In 2011, Treacy became an ambassador for the Michael Jackson Legacy foundation (a charitable organisation dedicated to continuing Jackson's humanitarian legacy), which helped HIV children and built orphanages for abandoned orphans. In 2012, he opened the Everland Children's Orphanage in Monrovia Liberia, which was funded by Jackson's fans through MJL. In 2013, he opened a second Everland Children's orphanage high in the mountains and fifty miles away from the earthquake epicentre in Mireblais, Haiti. This was on the same site where Digicel also built a new school to replace the devastated Miracle Restoration Centre in Tabare. ==Accolades== He was awarded best non-surgical treatment at the inaugural "My Face My Body Awards" in London in 2012. Treacy received an AMEC Aesthetic Award for novel techniques in facial rejuvenation in Paris in 2014 and the 20th World Congress in Aesthetic medicine Lecture Award in Miami in 2015. In 2016 he was Highly Commended in the 'Doctor of the Year' Award at the Safety in Beauty Awards in London. Treacy also won lecturing awards regarding reversal of dermal necrosis post filler vascular occlusion in Tbilisi, Georgia and Cairo, Egypt in this period He was also awarded a special medal for contributions to the field of Aesthetic Medicine at CCME in Cuernavaca, Mexico 2016 as well as being presented with an award for medical excellence at the same conference. He also won the MyFaceMyBody Award (London 2016) and the Irish Healthcare Award (Dublin 2017) for further medical research related to the use of hyalase in dermal filler vascular occlusion and establishing re-epithelialisation of skin by use of hyperbaric oxygen, platelet growth factors and phototherapy accelerating wound healing. He won the 'Quality & Research Award' British College of Aesthetic Medicine (London) in September 2017, recognised for his innovative approach to aesthetic medicine and developing techniques and procedures that have been adopted by other practitioners around the world. The first ever Abu Dhabi International Conference in Dermatology & Aesthetics (AIDA 2017) AIDA Award was presented to Treacy in October 2017 for his contributions to wound healing and for the "HELPIR Technique: Treating Vascular Complications of Dermal Fillers". He was made also the first laureate of the 2017 'Art of Beauty Trophy' by the members of AAAMC Organizing Committee in Baku, Azerbaijan for his contributions to the development of the field of aesthetic medicine, especially writing the protocols for the use of hyalase. He was also awarded a specialist Azerbaijani Laureate Diploma in Aesthetic Medicine in 2017. Ailesbury Dublin won the John Bannon Award "Best Clinic in Ireland" 2017 at the Aesthetic Awards in London. Treacy was given another specialist MyFaceMyBody award in 2018 for his scientific research contribution to the aesthetic industry. Dr Treacy was awarded the 2022 AIDA Award in Abu Dhabi for Outstanding Contributions to Aesthetic Medicine. The award acknowledged his work in establishing globally recognised protocols for the use of hyaluronidase during vascular occlusion. Hyaluronidase is now used by plastic surgeons and dermatologists worldwide to reverse the injurious effects of hyaluronic acid injections, and Dr Treacy is recognised to be among the first doctors worldwide to use this compound and establish protocols for its use. In 2023, he was awarded the Tia Maria Lifetime Achievement Award for his "outstanding vision, dedication, and commitment to research, philanthropy and improving standards in Aesthetic Medicine through education and research". He was also awarded 'Top Doctor Injector in Ireland' (2023) and his clinic won 'Best Cosmetic Surgery/Procedure Clinic of the Year (2023). . Aesthetic Medicine Magazine said 'his international accolades showcase a doctor that has dedicated his life and work to helping people and creating industry standards'.” == International medical awards 2023–2018 == * Winner – Irish Healthcare Centre Award'Best Aesthetic Clinic in Ireland' (Dublin) 2023 * Winner – Tia Maria 'Lifetime Achievement Award' (Cork) 2023 * Winner – Tia Maria 'Top Aesthetic Doctor in Ireland' (Cork) 2023 * Winner – AIDA Trophy 'Outstanding Contributions to Aesthetic Medicine (Abu Dhabi) May 2022 * Winner – MyFaceMyBody 'Top Global Medical Practitioner' 2019 (Las Vegas) November 2019 * Winner – MyFaceMyBody 'Top UK & Ire Medical Practitioner' 2019 (Las Vegas) November 2019 * Winner – AMEC Anti-aging & Beauty Trophy ‘Best Global Clinical Case’ (Monaco), October 2019 * Winner – Irish Healthcare Award ‘Best Medical Aesthetic Clinic (Dublin), Sept 2019 * Winner – MyFaceMyBody Specialist Award 'Scientific Contributions to the Aesthetic Industry' (London), March 2018 == International medical awards 2017–2015 == * Winner – Irish Healthcare Award ‘Best Medical Research Award’ (Dublin), March 2017 * Winner – MyFaceMyBody Award 'Ultimate 100 Global Aesthetic Leaders' (Los Angeles), August 2017 * Second – AMEC Anti-aging & Beauty Trophy ‘Best Global Clinical Case in Laser Medicine’ (Monaco), September 2017 * Second – AMEC Anti-aging & Beauty Trophy ‘Best Global Clinical Case in Thread lifting’ (Monaco), September 2017 * Winner – British College of Aesthetic Medicine 'Quality & Research Award'(London) September 2017 * Winner – AIDA Trophy 'Best Clinical Case in Aesthetic Medicine in Dermatology & Aesthetics' (Abu Dhabi) Oct 2017 * Winner – AAAMC Trophy 'Contribution to Development of Aesthetic Medicine’ Azerbaijan Nat. Organizing Committee (Baku) Oct 2017 * Winner – John Bannon Award for the "Best Clinic in Ireland" at the Aesthetic Awards (London), December 2017 * Winner – Irish Health & Beauty Award 'Best Cosmetic Surgery Clinic in Ireland 2016' (Dublin), June 2016 * Winner – Safety in Beauty Award Aesthetic Doctor of 2016’ (Highly Commended) (London), June 2016 * Winner – AMEC Anti-aging & Beauty Trophy ‘Best Clinical Research Case in Aesthetic Medicine’ (Paris), September 2016 * Winner – CCME Mexican Congress Medal for' Excellence in Medical Aesthetics' (Mexico), November 2016 * Winner – MyFaceMyBody Award ‘Best medical research for wound healing' (London), November 2016 == Published works == Treacy has published many scientific papers, including sentinel papers about the rising incidence of cutaneous malignant melanoma in the Rochester, Minnesota population from 1950 to 1985 and protocols for the reversal of dermal filler complications. * Treacy Patrick J.; Popescu NA; Kurland LT; Cutaneous malignant melanoma in Rochester, Minnesota: trends in incidence and survivorship, 1950 through 1985, Mayo Clin Proc. 1990 Oct, 65(10):1293-302. * Treacy Patrick J.; Goldberg D; Use of a BioPolymer Filler for Facial Lipodystrophy in HIV-Positive patients undergoing treatment with Anti Retro Viral Drugs, Journal of Dermatologic Surgery, Volume 32, Number 6, June 2006, pp. 804–808(5) * Treacy Patrick J.; Goldberg D.; Use of Phosphatidylcholine for the correction of lower lid bulging due to prominent fat pads, Journal of Cosm Laser Therapy, 2 September 2006 * Treacy Patrick J.; Combining Therapies for the Aging Face – The Dublin Lift, Prime International Magazine, Vol 2 No 7 Page 20–31 1 October 2012 * Treacy Patrick J.; The paradoxical effect of Botox on the brain, Prime International Magazine, June 2013 Page 63-69 1 May 2013 * Treacy Patrick J.; The efficacy of dermal fillers in the treatment of atrophic acne scars, Prime International Magazine, Vol 3 No 2 Page 40–49, 1 March 2013 * Treacy Patrick J.; Treacy Comparative split-face study on photoaging with two different fractionalised resurfacing lasers, PRIME International Magazine, 14 October 2013 * Treacy Patrick J.; Reversal of a dermal filler induced facial artery occlusion, PRIME International Magazine, 1 September 2014 * Treacy Patrick J.; Surgical correction of semi-permanent lip filler nodules, PRIME International Magazine, 1 October 2014 * Treacy Patrick J.; Treating facial cancer-related cachexia by aesthetic medicine, PRIME International Magazine, 2 January 2015 * Treacy Patrick J.; Non-Surgical Rejuvenation of the Periorbital Area, PRIME Magazine International, 3 May 2016 * Treacy Patrick J.; Reversal of a nine-day-old vascular occlusion by using the HELPIR technique, PRIME International Magazine, November 2016 * Treacy Patrick J.; The use of methotrexate to treat non-reversible Covid-19 vaccine nodules, PRIME International Magazine, November 2022 ==Bibliography== ===Non-fiction=== * Behind The Mask Liberties Press (2015) * Needle and The Damage Done Austin Macauley Publishers (2021) * The Evolution of Aesthetic Medicine Austin Macauley Publishers (2022) * Prevention and Management of Aesthetic Complications Minerva Press Italy (2022) * Aesthetic Complications and Other Interesting Cases Austin Macauley Publishers (2023) * The Living History of Medicine Austin Macauley Publishers (2023) ==References== Category:Living people Category:Irish general practitioners Category:Medical doctors from Dublin (city) Category:Year of birth missing (living people) Category:Irish plastic surgeons |
Emily Wright Harold (, 1820–May 8, 1872) was a 19th-century American wife and mother who lived most of her life in Greeneville, Tennessee. In 1872, Harold was accused (in an anonymous letter) of engaging in an extramarital affair with her neighbor and former U.S. President Andrew Johnson, and she subsequently committed suicide by self-inflicted gunshot wound. Johnson was a candidate for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives that year; reports of the alleged affair, Mrs. Harold's suicide, and an ensuing libel trial made national headlines. Andrew Johnson's personal life is generally poorly attested in the historical record, and the tragic case of Mrs. Harold is no exception; she appears not at all in Robert W. Winston's 1928 biography of Johnson, and warrants but a scant paragraph (in which her name is misspelled) in Hans L. Trefousse's 1989 bio. In her 2011 survey of Johnson's life, Annette Gordon-Reed did not delve into the Harold story but did observe, "Throughout a good part of their near-five-decade marriage, Eliza was not a real presence in her husband's public life. There were rumors of infidelity on Andrew's part, which he denied, but they did not live together much as husband and wife." == Early life and family == Emily Wright was born about May 29, 1820 in Tennessee. According to FamilySearch.org, her parents may have been John and Martha (Powell) Wright. According to newspaper reports at the time of her death, her mother was known as Mrs. Heiskell and lived in Rhea County. Emily Wright married "Jas. W. Harrold" on November 2, 1837, in Greene County, Tennessee, when she was about 17 years old; James W. Harold was about five years her senior and had been born in Virginia. James W. Harold worked as a tailor in Greeneville in 1850, 1860, and 1870. They had four children who survived infancy: * John W. Harold (born approximately 1838, when Emily was about 18), later studied law and served in the United States Army during the American Civil War. & * Mary E. Harold (born approximately 1846, when Emily was 26) * Charles Harold (born 1856, when Emily was about 36) * Jessie Harold (born in 1863, when Emily was about 43) James W. Harold was appointed postmaster of Greeneville beginning April 1, 1869. His annual salary for this work in 1871 was $690. Mrs. Harold had been a member of the First Presbyterian Church (Greeneville, Tennessee) for more than 30 years and after her death was described by prominent citizens of Greeneville as "an earnest and consistent Christian, a chaste and faithful wife, a kind and dutiful mother, a charitable neighbor, and a true and noble woman, respected and esteemed by all in the community." She was said to have had the "entire confidence and deep love" of her husband. == Scandal == After 50 years of unremarkable provincial life in East Tennessee, Mrs. James W. Harold became nationally infamous in 1872 for accusations that she was involved in an extramarital affair with former U.S. President Andrew Johnson. Johnson had nominally retired from politics following the end of his term of office, and had returned to Greeneville, Tennessee (the place where he had begun his career, where he owned a home and other real estate, and where his wife Eliza McCardle Johnson and daughter Martha Johnson Patterson usually lived). By 1872 Johnson was said to be bored with small-town life and was attempting to re-enter politics, despite a failed United States Senate bid in 1869. In any case, according to Knoxville newspaper accounts, one Sunday in late April 1872, the Greeneville town postmaster, a merchant and tailor named James W. Harold, received an anonymous letter that asserted that his wife of 35 years had been seduced by Johnson. By one telling, Andrew Johnson and Emily Harold had "had improper intercourse with each other for some time." Their assignations were said to take place in Johnson's library, which was adjacent to his old tailor shop, which was, in turn, adjacent to the home of the Harolds. The Johnsons and the Harolds lived "for many years past, within a few steps of each other." In addition to being neighbors, Harold and Johnson had apparently had once been a business partners during Johnson's tailoring days. According to one account, "Mr. Harold and Mr. Johnson had been personal and warm friends for more than 30 years." Emily Wright Harold was also said to have been a close friend of Johnson's wife, Eliza McCardle Johnson. Per a Knoxville paper, after receiving the letter Mr. Harold caught Mrs. Harold leaving the library "late at night" with a blanket shawl covering her head and face; she then attempted to slip into their home through the back door. There was reportedly a confrontation between the couple, who exchanged "high words," and their dispute was loud enough to be overheard. Months later neighbors testified under oath that they had neither seen nor heard anything that was suggestive of infidelity. Another version told in the same newspaper account states that Mr. Harold received the letter, showed it to his church-going wife and told her he disbelieved the accusations contained therein. Mrs. Harold was nonetheless said to be "so indignant she could hardly contain herself" and "almost crazy with excitement...with a gun in her hand, declaring she intended to shoot her traducers." In all versions of the story the "idle gossips" of Greeneville, a town of about 3,000 people, both believe and spread "half a dozen or more" versions of the Harold–Johnson affair, and generally assign responsibility to Johnson, while Harold is typically described as a victim of "seduction" and/or "atrocious calumny." The most pointed and public version, published in an Indianapolis newspaper 10 days after Harold's death, was entitled "Andy Johnson as Seducer" and claimed that "Great indignation is expressed among the citizens of Greeneville at the ex-President, and many of the best citizens refuse to speak to him on the street." By the end of May the story was widespread enough that, in a letter to Johnson, one Thomas W. Dick Bullock offered his sympathy in regard to the "base and malicious slander perpetrated by some designing persons". == Suicide == As one thesis paper on Johnson's post-Presidential return to politics put it, "Whether the accusation was true or not has not been established, but its venom was so damaging that Harold committed suicide." There is some conflict about the details, but according to most accounts, Emily Harold died early in the morning of May 8, 1872, in Sweetwater, Tennessee, while visiting her sickly mother, by a gunshot fired from a pistol that belonged to her son. The son, John W. Harold, was an Army officer of "high character and excellent traits" who was on a leave of absence from the military and had been told nothing of rumors about his mother. Initial accounts had it that her family heard three gunshots, and that Emily Harold died from a shot to the heart and/or a chest wound. In these tellings, the top of her dress caught fire from proximity to the gunpowder and heat. Later accounts had it that she shot herself in the head. She was 51 years, 11 months, and nine days old at the time of her death. thumb|left|"Andy Johnson as Seducer, Suicide of His Victim". Indianapolis Journal. Vol. 1, no. 206. May 18, 1872. p. 1. According to an extensive Knoxville newspaper report about the whole saga, her mother saw Emily Harold take her son's "small pistol" from his satchel; the mother presumed she was taking it to deliver to the son. Harold then went out into a "thicket" about beyond the house, from which three shots rang out. She was found to have shot herself through the heart and left breast. She was past saving when she was found; the first shot was thought to be the fatal one and her clothes were on fire when she was discovered. She was brought into the house but died therein, without speaking any last words. The son did not know why his mother had taken her own life until, at the funeral, Rev. S. V. McCorkle "very justly and properly referred in severe language to the terrible lesson the event had afforded the idle slanderers who had brought about the trouble." The most widely distributed account of her death stated, "She was the wife of a warm friend of Johnson's and an exemplary Christian...the cruel and unfounded report of her seduction drove her to suicide in a moment of temporary insanity." This comment on the matter was printed in the New York Times, among other outlets. That the Times—noted to be a publication "hostile" to Johnson—declared it "cruel and unfounded" was considered a strong statement against the overall veracity of the infidelity accusations. Another newspaper wrote "in an hour of mental derangement with a burning consciousness of innocence and without power to resist the temptation she took her life." According to a widely republished post hoc report entitled "An Atrocious Calumny," which was devoted to absolving the parties of infidelity charges, and laying all blame on the "cold-blooded villain who invented the slander," the existence of the report had "fallen with crushing weight" on the "innocent heart" of Mrs. Harold. "Men of prominence in both political parties" in Greeneville circulated a letter "unsolicited and without consulting either of the injured families" denouncing the infidelity report as false. One of the signatories, a lawyer and judge named H. H. Ingersoll, also wrote to the Indianapolis Journal with a point-by-point denial/refutation of the "Andy Johnson as Seducer" report. The men of prominence, all said to be citizens of Greeneville: thumb|A 20th-century transcription of the Greene County marriage records shows that the Harold–Wright wedding ceremony was officiated by a McCorkle, and the marriage was recorded by Valentine Sevier, father of David Sevier * D. R. Britton, Clerk, Circuit Court * Jas. A. Galbraith, former Internal Revenue Collector * Henry Hurlbert "H.H." Ingersoll, a lawyer * Robert McCorkle * S. V. McCorkle, * Robert M. McKee, a mayor of Greeneville * Samuel Milligan, Judge U. S. Court of Claims * Augustus Herman "A.H." Pettibone, assistant U. S. District Attorney * A. M. Piper, deputy internal revenue collector * Felix A. Reeve, attorney * Elbert Clay "E.C." Reeves, editor of the Sentinel * James H. Robinson, attorney * Lewis F. Self, former Tennessee state senator * David Sevier, "twenty-seven years C. & M." [Greene County Clerk & Master] * S. E. Snapp, a mayor of Greeneville * A. W. Walker, Sheriff of Greene County An account of Harold's death in a 21st-century online magazine found three shots to be a suspicious form of suicide and outlined the complexity of firing what was likely a Colt service revolver, perhaps the Colt Army Model 1860. == State of Tennessee vs. R. C. Horn == In late July 1872, as Andrew Johnson was stumping through the state in hopes of winning a seat in the 1872–73 United States House of Representatives elections in Tennessee, Emily Harold's widower, James W. Harold, and his allies had dedicated themselves to identifying the author of the poison-pen letter that had initially triggered the crisis back in April. A man named R. C. Horn was brought before a panel of three magistrates in Greeneville and charged with libel. Horn was represented by four lawyers, who published a letter requesting a media blackout for the duration; "counsel for one party request that all publication of any matter prejudicial to the prosecution, or the defendant, or anyone implicated, be suspended till the conclusion of the trial. And then if the rights of either party should require it, a full and accurate transcript of the evidence in the case will be furnished for publication, Respectfully and truly, Felix A. Reeve, J. G. Deaderick, John Allison, Jr., A. B Wilson, Counsel for the Defendants." Nonetheless, some scraps of news about the trial emerged: each side had four lawyers, and there were roughly 40 planned witnesses. thumb|The State v. Horn trial was held at the original Greene County Courthouse building, which stood from the 1820s until 1916|left Among the three men charged with perjury was James G. Haynes, "principal witness for the defense in the effort at justification," who was committed to jail on August 2. Haynes was a 40-year-old white resident of Greeneville; circa 1870 he lived with his aged father—both men listed their occupations as house carpenters—his wife Sarah, and his three children, Josephine, Landon and Cicero. Apparently this witness began some part of his testimony with a 10-minute-long extemporaneous speech "in which he explained his position generally in regard to the parties, the case and his conduct regarding process of attachment, and hiding in the woods." The two unnamed "colored witnesses," apparently, "as soon as they were deposed and before a warrant could be executed, evaded the officers and fled toward North Carolina." On August 8, it was reported that "the witness arrested for perjury...sued his prosecutor for damages for false imprisonment. The defense have closed their testimony on justification, and are now endeavoring to shift the authorship of the libel." Horn was acquitted. Per a Nashville newspaper account, "The examination was long and exciting and to a great extent went into the merits of the case. The case was heard by three magistrates and their judgment was that the proof was not sufficient to show that Harne had written the anonymous letter. Their opinion as we understand does not reach the truth or falsity of the charges against Mrs. Harold, but simply go to the question of the author of the libel." The man accused of libel may have been Robert Cannon Horn, a preacher and defeated Confederate. Horn, who had been married in Trousdale County, Tennessee, in 1870, and worked as a minister around Hartsville, Tennessee in 1871, had moved to Texas in the second half of that year. Horn's daughter Mrs. John W. Thomas ended up living in Greeneville, Tennessee, sometime in the late 19th or early 20th century. == Aftermath == Andrew Johnson seemingly referenced Emily Harold in a speech he made in Brownsville, Tennessee, on October 17, 1872, eliding her as a Mrs. Somebody Else: "You have heard a great deal said about Mrs. Surratt, and about Mrs. Somebody else..." In this formulation, Johnson aligns her with an innkeeper who had been implicated in the plot to assassinate Abraham Lincoln and subsequently hanged, suggesting that he was unfairly accused of wronging both women. (The question of whether Johnson had unjustly condemned Mary Surratt in 1865 without reviewing the evidence against her or reasonably considering her pleas for clemency was debated for the duration of Johnson's life and career.) Johnson suffered a punishing defeat in the November 5, 1872 balloting for the state's at-large seat in the House, placing third of three behind Radical Republican Congressman Horace Maynard and Democratic candidate and former Confederate general Benjamin F. Cheatham, despite "crisscrossing Tennessee employing the stump speaking style that had catapulted him to national office many years before." As a practical matter, Johnson's candidacy—and his grandstanding speeches railing against what he claimed was an ex-Confederate-military cabal attempting to dominate the state—had weakened the Democratic position, "broke the power of the Cheatham Ring and the Bourbon Democrats," and swung the election to Maynard. Per Gordon-Reed, despite the loss he "did himself enough good that he and his supporters felt this was a real step toward eventual electoral success." In 1873, James W. Harold requested compensation from the Southern Claims Commission for 50 locustwood fence rails and 15 cords of firewood that he stated were taken from him by Gen. F. J. Woods, Hospital Division, in April 1865. He testified that he had remained loyal to the Union and voted against secession. The claim was denied by the commission. James W. Harold (born February 8, 1815) died April 20, 1873, less than a year after the death of his wife. He prepared a will the month before he died, naming his oldest son John executor, and legal guardian of his minor children, Charles Harold, age 17, and Jessie Harold, age 10. Emily Wright Harold, James W. Harold, and their daughter Mary E. Harold (who had died at about age nine in 1855), are buried together in a family plot at , Greeneville's historic Presbyterian cemetery. John W. Harold served in the U.S. Army until his death in 1879; he left a two-thirds of his personal estate to his brother Charles and one-third to his sister Jessie.John Harold in the Tennessee, U.S., Wills and Probate Records, 1779-2008 - Miscellaneous County Court Records (Greene County, Tennessee), 1851-1915; Author: Tennessee County Court (Greene County); Probate Place: Greene, Tennessee - Ancestry.com. Tennessee, U.S., Wills and Probate Records, 1779-2008 Charles Harold moved to New York City where he lived, married in 1881, worked, and died in the Bronx in 1940.M-M-1881-0003948 Name: Amelia Hoffstetter Soundex: H123 Name: Charles Harold Soundex: H643 Type: Marriage Certificate Borough: Manhattan Date: 1881-07-05 Certificate: 3948 Name: Charles Harold Soundex: H643 Age: 83 y Type: Death Certificate Borough: Bronx Date: 1940-09-08 Certificate: 8494 https://a860-historicalvitalrecords.nyc.gov/ Jessie Caldwell moved to Montana where she lived, married in 1884, and raised several children. She died in Corvallis, Oregon in 1941.Oregon State Archives; Salem, Oregon; Oregon, Death Records, 1864-1967, Ancestry.com. Oregon, U.S., State Deaths, 1864-1971 Jessie Harold Caldwell, Female, White, 77, 1863, 29 Sep 1941, Corvallis, Benton, Oregon, USA, Father: James W. Harold, Mother: Emily Harold, Spouse: W. A. Caldwell, Certificate Number 139thumb|Emily Harold's youngest child died in 1941 at age 78 (Corvallis Gazette-Times) == See also == * Suicide prevention * Suicide intervention * * Greeneville Historic District (Greeneville, Tennessee) * Bibliography of Andrew Johnson == Notes == == Citations == == Sources == * * * * * * * * Category:1820 births Category:1872 deaths Category:1872 in the United States Category:19th-century American women Category:Andrew Johnson Category:History of women in Tennessee Category:People from Greeneville, Tennessee Category:Suicides by firearm in Tennessee |
thumb|A computer-generated, simplified model of bike and rider demonstrating an uncontrolled right turn. Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics is the science of the motion of bicycles and motorcycles and their components, due to the forces acting on them. Dynamics falls under a branch of physics known as classical mechanics. Bike motions of interest include balancing, steering, braking, accelerating, suspension activation, and vibration. The study of these motions began in the late 19th century and continues today. Bicycles and motorcycles are both single-track vehicles and so their motions have many fundamental attributes in common and are fundamentally different from and more difficult to study than other wheeled vehicles such as dicycles, tricycles, and quadracycles. As with unicycles, bikes lack lateral stability when stationary, and under most circumstances can only remain upright when moving forward. Experimentation and mathematical analysis have shown that a bike stays upright when it is steered to keep its center of mass over its wheels. This steering is usually supplied by a rider, or in certain circumstances, by the bike itself. Several factors, including geometry, mass distribution, and gyroscopic effect all contribute in varying degrees to this self-stability, but long- standing hypotheses and claims that any single effect, such as gyroscopic or trail, is solely responsible for the stabilizing force have been discredited. While remaining upright may be the primary goal of beginning riders, a bike must lean in order to maintain balance in a turn: the higher the speed or smaller the turn radius, the more lean is required. This balances the roll torque about the wheel contact patches generated by centrifugal force due to the turn with that of the gravitational force. This lean is usually produced by a momentary steering in the opposite direction, called countersteering. Countersteering skill is usually acquired by motor learning and executed via procedural memory rather than by conscious thought. Unlike other wheeled vehicles, the primary control input on bikes is steering torque, not position. Although longitudinally stable when stationary, bikes often have a high enough center of mass and a short enough wheelbase to lift a wheel off the ground under sufficient acceleration or deceleration. When braking, depending on the location of the combined center of mass of the bike and rider with respect to the point where the front wheel contacts the ground, and if the front brake is applied hard enough, bikes can either: skid the front wheel which may or not result in a crash; or flip the bike and rider over the front wheel. A similar situation is possible while accelerating, but with respect to the rear wheel. ==History== The history of the study of bike dynamics is nearly as old as the bicycle itself. It includes contributions from famous scientists such as Rankine, Appell, and Whipple. In the early 19th century Karl von Drais, credited with inventing the two-wheeled vehicle variously called the laufmaschine, velocipede, draisine, and dandy horse, showed that a rider could balance his device by steering the front wheel. In 1869, Rankine published an article in The Engineer repeating von Drais's assertion that balance is maintained by steering in the direction of a lean. In 1897, the French Academy of Sciences made understanding bicycle dynamics the goal of its Prix Fourneyron competition. Thus, by the end of the 19th century, Carlo Bourlet, Emmanuel Carvallo, and Francis Whipple had showed with rigid-body dynamics that some safety bicycles could actually balance themselves if moving at the right speed. Bourlet won the Prix Fourneyron, and Whipple won the Cambridge University Smith Prize. It is not clear to whom should go the credit for tilting the steering axis from the vertical which helps make this possible. In 1970, David E. H. Jones published an article in Physics Today showing that gyroscopic effects are not necessary to balance a bicycle. Since 1971, when he identified and named the wobble, weave and capsize modes, Robin Sharp has written regularly about the behavior of motorcycles and bicycles. While at Imperial College, London, he worked with David Limebeer and Simos Evangelou. In the early 1970s, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (CAL, later Calspan Corporation in Buffalo, NY USA) was sponsored by the Schwinn Bicycle Company and others to study and simulate bicycle and motorcycle dynamics. Portions of this work have now been released to the public and scans of over 30 detailed reports have been posted at this TU Delft Bicycle Dynamics site. Since the 1990s, Cossalter, et al., have been researching motorcycle dynamics at the University of Padova. Their research, both experimental and numerical, has covered weave, wobble, chatter, simulators, vehicle modelling, tire modelling, handling, and minimum lap time maneuvering. In 2007, Meijaard, et al., published the canonical linearized equations of motion, in the Proceedings of the Royal Society A, along with verification by two different methods. These equations assumed the tires to roll without slip, that is to say, to go where they point, and the rider to be rigidly attached to the rear frame of the bicycle. In 2011, Kooijman, et al., published an article in Science showing that neither gyroscopic effects nor so-called caster effects due to trail are necessary for a bike to balance itself. They designed a two-mass-skate bicycle that the equations of motion predict is self-stable even with negative trail, the front wheel contacts the ground in front of the steering axis, and with counter-rotating wheels to cancel any gyroscopic effects. Then they constructed a physical model to validate that prediction. This may require some of the details provided below about steering geometry or stability to be re-evaluated. Bicycle dynamics was named 26 of Discovers 100 top stories of 2011. In 2013, Eddy Merckx Cycles was awarded over €150,000 with Ghent University to examine bicycle stability. thumb|External forces on a bike and rider leaning in a turn: Weight in green, drag in blue, vertical ground reaction in red, net propulsive and rolling resistance in yellow, friction in response to turn in orange, and net torques on front wheel in magenta. thumb|Spring between front fork and rear frame ==Forces== If the bike and rider are considered to be a single system, the forces that act on that system and its components can be roughly divided into two groups: internal and external. The external forces are due to gravity, inertia, contact with the ground, and contact with the atmosphere. The internal forces are caused by the rider and by interaction between components. ===External forces=== As with all masses, gravity pulls the rider and all the bike components toward the earth. At each tire contact patch there are ground reaction forces with both horizontal and vertical components. The vertical components mostly counteract the force of gravity, but also vary with braking and accelerating. For details, see the section on longitudinal stability below. The horizontal components, due to friction between the wheels and the ground, including rolling resistance, are in response to propulsive forces, braking forces, and turning forces. Aerodynamic forces due to the atmosphere are mostly in the form of drag, but can also be from crosswinds. At normal bicycling speeds on level ground, aerodynamic drag is the largest force resisting forward motion. At faster speed, aerodynamic drag becomes overwhelmingly the largest force resisting forward motion. Turning forces are generated during maneuvers for balancing in addition to just changing direction of travel. These may be interpreted as centrifugal forces in the accelerating reference frame of the bike and rider; or simply as inertia in a stationary, inertial reference frame and not forces at all. Gyroscopic forces acting on rotating parts such as wheels, engine, transmission, etc., are also due to the inertia of those rotating parts. They are discussed further in the section on gyroscopic effects below. ===Internal forces=== Internal forces, those between components of the bike and rider system, are mostly caused by the rider or by friction. In addition to pedaling, the rider can apply torques between the steering mechanism (front fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc.) and rear frame, and between the rider and the rear frame. Friction exists between any parts that move against each other: in the drive train, between the steering mechanism and the rear frame, etc. In addition to brakes, which create friction between rotating wheels and non-rotating frame parts, many bikes have front and rear suspensions. Some motorcycles and bicycles have a steering damper to dissipate undesirable kinetic energy, and some bicycles have a spring connecting the front fork to the frame to provide a progressive torque that tends to steer the bicycle straight ahead. On bikes with rear suspensions, feedback between the drive train and the suspension is an issue designers attempt to handle with various linkage configurations and dampers. ==Motions== Motions of a bike can be roughly grouped into those out of the central plane of symmetry: lateral; and those in the central plane of symmetry: longitudinal or vertical. Lateral motions include balancing, leaning, steering, and turning. Motions in the central plane of symmetry include rolling forward, of course, but also stoppies, wheelies, brake diving, and most suspension activation. Motions in these two groups are linearly decoupled, that is they do not interact with each other to the first order. An uncontrolled bike is laterally unstable when stationary and can be laterally self-stable when moving under the right conditions or when controlled by a rider. Conversely, a bike is longitudinally stable when stationary and can be longitudinally unstable when undergoing sufficient acceleration or deceleration. ==Lateral dynamics== Of the two, lateral dynamics has proven to be the more complicated, requiring three- dimensional, multibody dynamic analysis with at least two generalized coordinates to analyze. At a minimum, two coupled, second-order differential equations are required to capture the principal motions. Exact solutions are not possible, and numerical methods must be used instead. Competing theories of how bikes balance can still be found in print and online. On the other hand, as shown in later sections, much longitudinal dynamic analysis can be accomplished simply with planar kinetics and just one coordinate. ===Balance=== thumb|upright|Balancing a bicycle by keeping the wheels under the center of mass When discussing bike balance, it is necessary to distinguish carefully between "stability", "self-stability", and "controllability". Recent research suggests that "rider-controlled stability of bicycles is indeed related to their self-stability." A bike remains upright when it is steered so that the ground reaction forces exactly balance all the other internal and external forces it experiences, such as gravitational if leaning, inertial or centrifugal if in a turn, gyroscopic if being steered, and aerodynamic if in a crosswind. Steering may be supplied by a rider or, under certain circumstances, by the bike itself. This self-stability is generated by a combination of several effects that depend on the geometry, mass distribution, and forward speed of the bike. Tires, suspension, steering damping, and frame flex can also influence it, especially in motorcycles. Even when staying relatively motionless, a rider can balance a bike by the same principle. While performing a track stand, the rider can keep the line between the two contact patches under the combined center of mass by steering the front wheel to one side or the other and then moving forward and backward slightly to move the front contact patch from side to side as necessary. Forward motion can be generated simply by pedaling. Backwards motion can be generated the same way on a fixed-gear bicycle. Otherwise, the rider can take advantage of an opportune slope of the pavement or lurch the upper body backwards while the brakes are momentarily engaged. If the steering of a bike is locked, it becomes virtually impossible to balance while riding. On the other hand, if the gyroscopic effect of rotating bike wheels is cancelled by adding counter-rotating wheels, it is still easy to balance while riding. One other way that a bike can be balanced, with or without locked steering, is by applying appropriate torques between the bike and rider similar to the way a gymnast can swing up from hanging straight down on uneven parallel bars, a person can start swinging on a swing from rest by pumping their legs, or a double inverted pendulum can be controlled with an actuator only at the elbow. ====Forward speed==== The rider applies torque to the handlebars in order to turn the front wheel and so to control lean and maintain balance. At high speeds, small steering angles quickly move the ground contact points laterally; at low speeds, larger steering angles are required to achieve the same results in the same amount of time. Because of this, it is usually easier to maintain balance at high speeds. As self-stability typically occurs at speeds above a certain threshold, going faster increases the chances that a bike is contributing to its own stability. ====Center of mass location==== The farther forward (closer to front wheel) the center of mass of the combined bike and rider, the less the front wheel has to move laterally in order to maintain balance. Conversely, the farther back (closer to the rear wheel) the center of mass is located, the more front wheel lateral movement or bike forward motion is required to regain balance. This can be noticeable on long- wheelbase recumbents, choppers, and wheelie bikes. It can also be a challenge for touring bikes that carry a heavy load of gear over or even behind the rear wheel. Mass over the rear wheel can be more easily controlled if it is lower than mass over the front wheel. A bike is also an example of an inverted pendulum. Just as a broomstick is more easily balanced in the hand than a pencil, a tall bike (with a high center of mass) can be easier to balance when ridden than a low one because the tall bike's lean rate (rate at which its angle of lean increases as it begins to fall over) will be slower. However, a rider can have the opposite impression of a bike when it is stationary. A top- heavy bike can require more effort to keep upright, when stopped in traffic for example, than a bike which is just as tall but with a lower center of mass. This is an example of a vertical second-class lever. A small force at the end of the lever, the seat or handlebars at the top of the bike, more easily moves a large mass if the mass is closer to the fulcrum, where the tires touch the ground. This is why touring cyclists are advised to carry loads low on a bike, and panniers hang down on either side of front and rear racks. ====Trail==== A factor that influences how easy or difficult a bike will be to ride is trail, the distance by which the front wheel ground contact point trails behind the steering axis ground contact point. The steering axis is the axis about which the entire steering mechanism (fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc.) pivots. In traditional bike designs, with a steering axis tilted back from the vertical, positive trail tends to steer the front wheel into the direction of a lean, independent of forward speed. This can be simulated by pushing a stationary bike to one side. The front wheel will usually also steer to that side. In a lean, gravity provides this force. The dynamics of a moving bike are more complicated, however, and other factors can contribute to or detract from this effect. Trail is a function of head angle, fork offset or rake, and wheel size. Their relationship can be described by this formula: :\text{Trail} = \frac{(R_w \cos(A_h) - O_f)}{\sin(A_h)} where R_w is wheel radius, A_h is the head angle measured clock-wise from the horizontal and O_f is the fork offset or rake. Trail can be increased by increasing the wheel size, decreasing the head angle, or decreasing the fork rake. The more trail a traditional bike has, the more stable it feels, although too much trail can make a bike feel difficult to steer. Bikes with negative trail (where the contact patch is in front of where the steering axis intersects the ground), while still rideable, are reported to feel very unstable. Normally, road racing bicycles have more trail than touring bikes but less than mountain bikes. Mountain bikes are designed with less-vertical head angles than road bikes so as to have greater trail and hence improved stability for descents. Touring bikes are built with small trail to allow the rider to control a bike weighed down with baggage. As a consequence, an unloaded touring bike can feel unstable. In bicycles, fork rake, often a curve in the fork blades forward of the steering axis, is used to diminish trail. Bikes with negative trail exist, such as the Python Lowracer, and are rideable, and an experimental bike with negative trail has been shown to be self-stable. In motorcycles, rake refers to the head angle instead, and offset created by the triple tree is used to diminish trail. A small survey by Whitt and Wilson found: *touring bicycles with head angles between 72° and 73° and trail between 43 mm and 60 mm *racing bicycles with head angles between 73° and 74° and trail between 28 mm and 45 mm *track bicycles with head angles of 75° and trail between 23.5 mm and 37 mm. However, these ranges are not hard and fast. For example, LeMond Racing Cycles offers both with forks that have 45 mm of offset or rake and the same size wheels: *a 2006 Tete de Course, designed for road racing, with a head angle that varies from 71¼° to 74°, depending on frame size, and thus trail that varies from 51.5 mm to 69 mm. *a 2007 Filmore, designed for the track, with a head angle that varies from 72½° to 74°, depending on frame size, and thus trail that varies from 51.5 mm to 61 mm. The amount of trail a particular bike has may vary with time for several reasons. On bikes with front suspension, especially telescopic forks, compressing the front suspension, due to heavy braking for example, can steepen the steering axis angle and reduce trail. Trail also varies with lean angle, and steering angle, usually decreasing from a maximum when the bike is straight upright and steered straight ahead. Trail can decrease to zero with sufficiently large lean and steer angles, which can alter how stable a bike feels. Finally, even the profile of the front tire can influence how trail varies as the bike is leaned and steered. A measurement similar to trail, called either mechanical trail, normal trail, or true trail, is the perpendicular distance from the steering axis to the centroid of the front wheel contact patch. ====Wheelbase==== A factor that influences the directional stability of a bike is wheelbase, the horizontal distance between the ground contact points of the front and rear wheels. For a given displacement of the front wheel, due to some disturbance, the angle of the resulting path from the original is inversely proportional to wheelbase. Also, the radius of curvature for a given steer angle and lean angle is proportional to the wheelbase. Finally, the wheelbase increases when the bike is leaned and steered. In the extreme, when the lean angle is 90°, and the bike is steered in the direction of that lean, the wheelbase is increased by the radius of the front and rear wheels. ====Steering mechanism mass distribution==== Another factor that can also contribute to the self- stability of traditional bike designs is the distribution of mass in the steering mechanism, which includes the front wheel, the fork, and the handlebar. If the center of mass for the steering mechanism is in front of the steering axis, then the pull of gravity will also cause the front wheel to steer in the direction of a lean. This can be seen by leaning a stationary bike to one side. The front wheel will usually also steer to that side independent of any interaction with the ground. Additional parameters, such as the fore-to-aft position of the center of mass and the elevation of the center of mass also contribute to the dynamic behavior of a bike. ====Gyroscopic effects==== thumb|200px|right|Gyroscopic effect on front wheel of a bike. Applying a torque (in green) about the lean axis results in a reaction torque (in blue) about the steer axis. The role of the gyroscopic effect in most bike designs is to help steer the front wheel into the direction of a lean. This phenomenon is called precession, and the rate at which an object precesses is inversely proportional to its rate of spin. The slower a front wheel spins, the faster it will precess when the bike leans, and vice versa. The rear wheel is prevented from precessing as the front wheel does by friction of the tires on the ground, and so continues to lean as though it were not spinning at all. Hence gyroscopic forces do not provide any resistance to tipping. At low forward speeds, the precession of the front wheel is too quick, contributing to an uncontrolled bike's tendency to oversteer, start to lean the other way and eventually oscillate and fall over. At high forward speeds, the precession is usually too slow, contributing to an uncontrolled bike's tendency to understeer and eventually fall over without ever having reached the upright position. This instability is very slow, on the order of seconds, and is easy for most riders to counteract. Thus a fast bike may feel stable even though it is actually not self-stable and would fall over if it were uncontrolled. Another contribution of gyroscopic effects is a roll moment generated by the front wheel during countersteering. For example, steering left causes a moment to the right. The moment is small compared to the moment generated by the out- tracking front wheel, but begins as soon as the rider applies torque to the handlebars and so can be helpful in motorcycle racing. For more detail, see the section countersteering, below, and the countersteering article. ====Self- stability==== Between the two unstable regimes mentioned in the previous section, and influenced by all the factors described above that contribute to balance (trail, mass distribution, gyroscopic effects, etc.), there may be a range of forward speeds for a given bike design at which these effects steer an uncontrolled bike upright. It has been proven that neither gyroscopic effects nor positive trail are sufficient by themselves or necessary for self- stability, although they certainly can enhance hands-free control. However, even without self-stability a bike may be ridden by steering it to keep it over its wheels. Note that the effects mentioned above that would combine to produce self-stability may be overwhelmed by additional factors such as headset friction and stiff control cables. This video shows a riderless bicycle exhibiting self-stability. ====Longitudinal acceleration==== Longitudinal acceleration has been shown to have a large and complex effect on lateral dynamics. In one study, positive acceleration eliminates self stability, and negative acceleration (deceleration) changes the speeds of self stability. ===Turning=== thumb|Graph of bike lean angle vs forward speed, assuming unlimited friction between tires and ground. thumb|upright|Cyclist riding with no hands on the handlebars. In order for a bike to turn, that is, change its direction of forward travel, the front wheel must aim approximately in the desired direction, as with any front-wheel steered vehicle. Friction between the wheels and the ground then generates the centripetal acceleration necessary to alter the course from straight ahead as a combination of cornering force and camber thrust. The radius of the turn of an upright (not leaning) bike can be roughly approximated, for small steering angles, by: :r = \frac{w}{\delta \cos \left (\phi \right )} where r\,\\! is the approximate radius, w\,\\! is the wheelbase, \delta\,\\! is the steer angle, and \phi\,\\! is the caster angle of the steering axis. ====Leaning==== However, unlike other wheeled vehicles, bikes must also lean during a turn to balance the relevant forces: gravitational, inertial, frictional, and ground support. The angle of lean, θ, can easily be calculated using the laws of circular motion: :\theta = \arctan \left (\frac{v^2}{gr}\right ) where v is the forward speed, r is the radius of the turn and g is the acceleration of gravity. This is in the idealized case. A slight increase in the lean angle may be required on motorcycles to compensate for the width of modern tires at the same forward speed and turn radius. It can also be seen however that this simple 2-dimensional model, essentially an inverted pendulum on a turntable, predicts that the steady-state turn is unstable. If the bike is displaced slightly downwards from its equilibrium lean angle, the torque of gravity increases, that of centrifugal force decreases and the displacement gets amplified. A more-sophisticated model that allows a wheel to steer, adjust the path, and counter the torque of gravity, is necessary to capture the self-stability observed in real bikes. For example, a bike in a 10 m (33 ft) radius steady- state turn at 10 m/s (36 km/h, 22 mph) must be at an angle of 45.6°. A rider can lean with respect to the bike in order to keep either the torso or the bike more or less upright if desired. The angle that matters is the one between the horizontal plane and the plane defined by the tire contacts and the location of the center of mass of bike and rider. This lean of the bike decreases the actual radius of the turn proportionally to the cosine of the lean angle. The resulting radius can be roughly approximated (within 2% of exact value) by: :r = \frac{w\cos \left (\theta \right )}{\delta \cos \left (\phi \right )} where r\,\\! is the approximate radius, w\,\\! is the wheelbase, \theta\,\\! is the lean angle, \delta\,\\! is the steering angle, and \phi\,\\! is the caster angle of the steering axis. As a bike leans, the tires' contact patches move farther to the side causing wear. The portions at either edge of a motorcycle tire that remain unworn by leaning into turns is sometimes referred to as . The finite width of the tires alters the actual lean angle of the rear frame from the ideal lean angle described above. The actual lean angle between the frame and the vertical must increase with tire width and decrease with center of mass height. Bikes with fat tires and low center of mass must lean more than bikes with skinnier tires or higher centers of mass to negotiate the same turn at the same speed. The increase in lean angle due to a tire thickness of 2t can be calculated as :\arcsin \left ( t \frac {\sin(\phi)} {h-t} \right ) where φ is the ideal lean angle, and h is the height of the center of mass. For example, a motorcycle with a 12 inch wide rear tire will have t = 6 inches. If the combined bike and rider center of mass is at a height of 26 inches, then a 25° lean must be increased by 7.28°: a nearly 30% increase. If the tires are only 6 inches wide, then the lean angle increase is only 3.16°, just under half. It has been shown that the couple created by gravity and the ground reaction forces is necessary for a bicycle to turn at all. On a custom built bicycle with spring-loaded outriggers that exactly cancel this couple, so that the bicycle and rider may assume any lean angle when traveling in a straight line, riders find it impossible to make a turn. As soon as the wheels deviate from a straight path, the bicycle and rider begin to lean in the opposite direction, and the only way to right them is to steer back onto the straight path. ====Countersteering==== In order to initiate a turn and the necessary lean in the direction of that turn, a bike must momentarily steer in the opposite direction. This is often referred to as countersteering. With the front wheel now at a finite angle to the direction of motion, a lateral force is developed at the contact patch of the tire. This force creates a torque around the longitudinal (roll) axis of the bike, and this torque causes the bike to lean away from the initially steered direction and toward the direction of the desired turn. Where there is no external influence, such as an opportune side wind to create the force necessary to lean the bike, countersteering is necessary to initiate a rapid turn. While the initial steer torque and steer angle are both opposite the desired turn direction, this may not be the case to maintain a steady-state turn. The sustained steer angle is usually in the same direction as the turn, but may remain opposite to the direction of the turn, especially at high speeds. The sustained steer torque required to maintain that steer angle is usually opposite the turn direction. The actual magnitude and orientation of both the sustained steer angle and sustained steer torque of a particular bike in a particular turn depend on forward speed, bike geometry, tire properties, and combined bike and rider mass distribution. Once in a turn, the radius can only be changed with an appropriate change in lean angle, and this can be accomplished by additional countersteering out of the turn to increase lean and decrease radius, then into the turn to decrease lean and increase radius. To exit the turn, the bike must again countersteer, momentarily steering more into the turn in order to decrease the radius, thus increasing inertial forces, and thereby decreasing the angle of lean. ====Steady-state turning==== Once a turn is established, the torque that must be applied to the steering mechanism in order to maintain a constant radius at a constant forward speed depends on the forward speed and the geometry and mass distribution of the bike. At speeds below the capsize speed, described below in the section on Eigenvalues and also called the inversion speed, the self-stability of the bike will cause it to tend to steer into the turn, righting itself and exiting the turn, unless a torque is applied in the opposite direction of the turn. At speeds above the capsize speed, the capsize instability will cause it to tend to steer out of the turn, increasing the lean, unless a torque is applied in the direction of the turn. At the capsize speed no input steering torque is necessary to maintain the steady-state turn. ====Steering angle==== Several effects influence the steering angle, the angle at which the front assembly is rotated about the steering axis, necessary to maintain a steady-state turn. Some of these are unique to single-track vehicles, while others are also experienced by automobiles. Some of these may be mentioned elsewhere in this article, and they are repeated here, though not necessarily in order of importance, so that they may be found in one place. First, the actual kinematic steering angle, the angle projected onto the road plane to which the front assembly is rotated is a function of the steering angle and the steering axis angle: :\Delta = \delta \cos \left (\phi \right ) where \Delta\,\\! is the kinematic steering angle, \delta\,\\! is the steering angle, and \phi\,\\! is the caster angle of the steering axis. Second, the lean of the bike decreases the actual radius of the turn proportionally to the cosine of the lean angle. The resulting radius can be roughly approximated (within 2% of exact value) by: :r = \frac{w\cos \left (\theta \right )}{\delta \cos \left (\phi \right )} where r\,\\! is the approximate radius, w\,\\! is the wheelbase, \theta\,\\! is the lean angle, \delta\,\\! is the steering angle, and \phi\,\\! is the caster angle of the steering axis. Third, because the front and rear tires can have different slip angles due to weight distribution, tire properties, etc., bikes can experience understeer or oversteer. When understeering, the steering angle must be greater, and when oversteering, the steering angle must be less than it would be if the slip angles were equal to maintain a given turn radius. Some authors even use the term counter-steering to refer to the need on some bikes under some conditions to steer in the opposite direction of the turn (negative steering angle) to maintain control in response to significant rear wheel slippage. Fourth, camber thrust contributes to the centripetal force necessary to cause the bike to deviate from a straight path, along with cornering force due to the slip angle, and can be the largest contributor. Camber thrust contributes to the ability of bikes to negotiate a turn with the same radius as automobiles but with a smaller steering angle. When a bike is steered and leaned in the same direction, the camber angle of the front tire is greater than that of the rear and so can generate more camber thrust, all else being equal. ====No hands==== While countersteering is usually initiated by applying torque directly to the handlebars, on lighter vehicles such as bicycles, it can also be accomplished by shifting the rider's weight. If the rider leans to the right relative to the bike, the bike leans to the left to conserve angular momentum, and the combined center of mass remains nearly in the same vertical plane. This leftward lean of the bike, called counter lean by some authors, will cause it to steer to the left and initiate a right-hand turn as if the rider had countersteered to the left by applying a torque directly to the handlebars. This technique may be complicated by additional factors such as headset friction and stiff control cables. The combined center of mass does move slightly to the left when the rider leans to the right relative to the bike, and the bike leans to the left in response. The action, in space, would have the tires move right, but this is prevented by friction between the tires and the ground, and thus pushes the combined center of mass left. This is a small effect, however, as evidenced by the difficulty most people have in balancing a bike by this method alone. ====Gyroscopic effects==== As mentioned above in the section on balance, one effect of turning the front wheel is a roll moment caused by gyroscopic precession. The magnitude of this moment is proportional to the moment of inertia of the front wheel, its spin rate (forward motion), the rate that the rider turns the front wheel by applying a torque to the handlebars, and the cosine of the angle between the steering axis and the vertical. For a sample motorcycle moving at 22 m/s (50 mph) that has a front wheel with a moment of inertia of 0.6 kg·m2, turning the front wheel one degree in half a second generates a roll moment of 3.5 N·m. In comparison, the lateral force on the front tire as it tracks out from under the motorcycle reaches a maximum of 50 N. This, acting on the 0.6 m (2 ft) height of the center of mass, generates a roll moment of 30 N·m. While the moment from gyroscopic forces is only 12% of this, it can play a significant part because it begins to act as soon as the rider applies the torque, instead of building up more slowly as the wheel out-tracks. This can be especially helpful in motorcycle racing. ====Two-wheel steering==== Because of theoretical benefits, such as a tighter turning radius at low speed, attempts have been made to construct motorcycles with two-wheel steering. One working prototype by Ian Drysdale in Australia is reported to "work very well." Issues in the design include whether to provide active control of the rear wheel or let it swing freely. In the case of active control, the control algorithm needs to decide between steering with or in the opposite direction of the front wheel, when, and how much. One implementation of two-wheel steering, the Sideways bike, lets the rider control the steering of both wheels directly. Another, the Swing Bike, had the second steering axis in front of the seat so that it could also be controlled by the handlebars. Milton W. Raymond built a long low two-wheel steering bicycle, called "X-2", with various steering mechanisms to control the two wheels independently. Steering motions included "balance", in which both wheels move together to steer the tire contacts under the center of mass; and "true circle", in which the wheels steer equally in opposite directions and thus steering the bicycle without substantially changing the lateral position of the tire contacts relative to the center of mass. X-2 was also able to go "crabwise" with the wheels parallel but out of line with the frame, for instance with the front wheel near the roadway center line and rear wheel near the curb. "Balance" steering allowed easy balancing despite long wheelbase and low center of mass, but no self-balancing ("no hands") configuration was discovered. True circle, as expected, was essentially impossible to balance, as steering does not correct for misalignment of the tire patch and center of mass. Crabwise cycling at angles tested up to about 45° did not show a tendency to fall over, even under braking. X-2 is mentioned in passing in Whitt and Wilson's Bicycling Science 2nd edition. ====Rear-wheel steering==== Because of the theoretical benefits, especially a simplified front-wheel drive mechanism, attempts have been made to construct a rideable rear-wheel steering bike. The Bendix Company built a rear-wheel steering bicycle, and the U.S. Department of Transportation commissioned the construction of a rear-wheel steering motorcycle: both proved to be unrideable. Rainbow Trainers, Inc. in Alton, Illinois, offered US$5,000 to the first person "who can successfully ride the rear-steered bicycle, Rear Steered Bicycle I". One documented example of someone successfully riding a rear-wheel steering bicycle is that of L. H. Laiterman at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, on a specially designed recumbent bike. The difficulty is that turning left, accomplished by turning the rear wheel to the right, initially moves the center of mass to the right, and vice versa. This complicates the task of compensating for leans induced by the environment. Examination of the eigenvalues for bicycles with common geometries and mass distributions shows that when moving in reverse, so as to have rear-wheel steering, they are inherently unstable. This does not mean they are unridable, but that the effort to control them is higher. Other, purpose-built designs have been published, however, that do not suffer this problem. ====Center steering==== Between the extremes of bicycles with classical front-wheel steering and those with strictly rear-wheel steering is a class of bikes with a pivot point somewhere between the two, referred to as center-steering, and similar to articulated steering. An early implementation of the concept was the Phantom bicycle in the early 1870s promoted as a safer alternative to the penny-farthing. This design allows for simple front-wheel drive and current implementations appear to be quite stable, even rideable no-hands, as many photographs illustrate. These designs, such as the Python Lowracer, a recumbent, usually have very lax head angles (40° to 65°) and positive or even negative trail. The builder of a bike with negative trail states that steering the bike from straight ahead forces the seat (and thus the rider) to rise slightly and this offsets the destabilizing effect of the negative trail. ==== Reverse steering ==== Bicycles have been constructed, for investigation and demonstration purposes, with the steering reversed so that turning the handlebars to the left causes the front wheel to turn to the right, and vica versa. It is possible to ride such a bicycle, but it has been found that riders experienced with normal bicycles find it very difficult to learn, if they can manage it at all. ==== Tiller effect ==== Tiller effect is the expression used to describe how handlebars that extend far behind the steering axis (head tube) act like a tiller on a boat, in that one moves the bars to the right in order to turn the front wheel to the left, and vice versa. This situation is commonly found on cruiser bicycles, some recumbents, and some motorcycles. It can be troublesome when it limits the ability to steer because of interference or the limits of arm reach. ==== Tires ==== Tires have a large influence over bike handling, especially on motorcycles, but also on bicycles. Tires influence bike dynamics in two distinct ways: finite crown radius and force generation. Increase the crown radius of the front tire has been shown to decrease the size or eliminate self stability. Increasing the crown radius of the rear tire has the opposite effect, but to a lesser degree. Tires generate the lateral forces necessary for steering and balance through a combination of cornering force and camber thrust. Tire inflation pressures have also been found to be important variables in the behavior of a motorcycle at high speeds. Because the front and rear tires can have different slip angles due to weight distribution, tire properties, etc., bikes can experience understeer or oversteer. Of the two, understeer, in which the front wheel slides more than the rear wheel, is more dangerous since front wheel steering is critical for maintaining balance. Also, because real tires have a finite contact patch with the road surface that can generate a scrub torque, and when in a turn, can experience some side slipping as they roll, they can generate torques about an axis normal to the plane of the contact patch. One torque generated by a tire, called the self aligning torque, is caused by asymmetries in the side-slip along the length of the contact patch. The resultant force of this side-slip occurs behind the geometric center of the contact patch, a distance described as the pneumatic trail, and so creates a torque on the tire. Since the direction of the side-slip is towards the outside of the turn, the force on the tire is towards the center of the turn. Therefore, this torque tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the side-slip, away from the direction of the turn, and therefore tends to increase the radius of the turn. Another torque is produced by the finite width of the contact patch and the lean of the tire in a turn. The portion of the contact patch towards the outside of the turn is actually moving rearward, with respect to the wheel's hub, faster than the rest of the contact patch, because of its greater radius from the hub. By the same reasoning, the inner portion is moving rearward more slowly. So the outer and inner portions of the contact patch slip on the pavement in opposite directions, generating a torque that tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the turn, and therefore tends to decrease the turn radius. The combination of these two opposite torques creates a resulting yaw torque on the front wheel, and its direction is a function of the side-slip angle of the tire, the angle between the actual path of the tire and the direction it is pointing, and the camber angle of the tire (the angle that the tire leans from the vertical). The result of this torque is often the suppression of the inversion speed predicted by rigid wheel models described above in the section on steady-state turning. ==== High side ==== A highsider, highside, or high side is a type of bike motion which is caused by a rear wheel gaining traction when it is not facing in the direction of travel, usually after slipping sideways in a curve. This can occur under heavy braking, acceleration, a varying road surface, or suspension activation, especially due to interaction with the drive train. It can take the form of a single slip-then-flip or a series of violent oscillations. ===Maneuverability and handling=== Bike maneuverability and handling is difficult to quantify for several reasons. The geometry of a bike, especially the steering axis angle makes kinematic analysis complicated. Under many conditions, bikes are inherently unstable and must always be under rider control. Finally, the rider's skill has a large influence on the bike's performance in any maneuver. Bike designs tend to consist of a trade-off between maneuverability and stability. ====Rider control inputs==== thumb|Graphs showing the lean and steer angle response of an otherwise uncontrolled bike, traveling at a forward speed in its stable range (6 m/s), to a steer torque that begins as an impulse and then remains constant. Torque to right causes initial steer to right, lean to left, and eventually a steady-state steer, lean, and turn to left. The primary control input that the rider can make is to apply a torque directly to the steering mechanism via the handlebars. Because of the bike's own dynamics, due to steering geometry and gyroscopic effects, direct position control over steering angle has been found to be problematic. A secondary control input that the rider can make is to lean the upper torso relative to the bike. As mentioned above, the effectiveness of rider lean varies inversely with the mass of the bike. On heavy bikes, such as motorcycles, rider lean mostly alters the ground clearance requirements in a turn, improves the view of the road, and improves the bike system dynamics in a very low-frequency passive manner. In motorcycle racing, leaning the torso, moving the body, and projecting a knee to the inside of the turn relative to the bike can also cause an aerodynamic yawing moment that facilitates entering and rounding the turn. ====Differences from automobiles==== The need to keep a bike upright to avoid injury to the rider and damage to the vehicle even limits the type of maneuverability testing that is commonly performed. For example, while automobile enthusiast publications often perform and quote skidpad results, motorcycle publications do not. The need to "set up" for a turn, lean the bike to the appropriate angle, means that the rider must see further ahead than is necessary for a typical car at the same speed, and this need increases more than in proportion to the speed. ====Rating schemes==== Several schemes have been devised to rate the handling of bikes, particularly motorcycles. *The roll index is the ratio between steering torque and roll or lean angle. *The acceleration index is the ratio between steering torque and lateral or centripetal acceleration. *The steering ratio is the ratio between the theoretical turning radius based on ideal tire behavior and the actual turning radius. Values less than one, where the front wheel side slip is greater than the rear wheel side slip, are described as under-steering; equal to one as neutral steering; and greater than one as over-steering. Values less than zero, in which the front wheel must be turned opposite the direction of the curve due to much greater rear wheel side slip than front wheel have been described as counter-steering. Riders tend to prefer neutral or slight over- steering. Car drivers tend to prefer under-steering. *The Koch index is the ratio between peak steering torque and the product of peak lean rate and forward speed. Large, touring motorcycles tend to have a high Koch index, sport motorcycles tend to have a medium Koch index, and scooters tend to have a low Koch index. It is easier to maneuver light scooters than heavy motorcycles. ===Lateral motion theory=== Although its equations of motion can be linearized, a bike is a nonlinear system. The variable(s) to be solved for cannot be written as a linear sum of independent components, i.e. its behavior is not expressible as a sum of the behaviors of its descriptors. Generally, nonlinear systems are difficult to solve and are much less understandable than linear systems. In the idealized case, in which friction and any flexing is ignored, a bike is a conservative system. Damping, however, can still be demonstrated: under the right circumstances, side-to-side oscillations will decrease with time. Energy added with a sideways jolt to a bike running straight and upright (demonstrating self-stability) is converted into increased forward speed, not lost, as the oscillations die out. A bike is a nonholonomic system because its outcome is path-dependent. In order to know its exact configuration, especially location, it is necessary to know not only the configuration of its parts, but also their histories: how they have moved over time. This complicates mathematical analysis. Finally, in the language of control theory, a bike exhibits non-minimum phase behavior. It turns in the direction opposite of how it is initially steered, as described above in the section on countersteering ====Degrees of freedom==== thumb|Graphs of bike steer angle and lean angle vs turn radius. The number of degrees of freedom of a bike depends on the particular model being used. The simplest model that captures the key dynamic features, called the "Whipple model" after Francis Whipple who first developed the equations for it, has four rigid bodies with knife edge wheels rolling without slip on a flat smooth surface, and has 7 degrees of freedom (configuration variables required to completely describe the location and orientation of all 4 bodies): #x coordinate of rear wheel contact point #y coordinate of rear wheel contact point #orientation angle of rear frame (yaw) #rotation angle of rear wheel #rotation angle of front wheel #lean angle of rear frame (roll) #steering angle between rear frame and front end Adding complexity to the model, such as rider movement, suspension movement, tire compliance, or frame flex, adds degrees of freedom. While the rear frame does pitch with leaning and steering, the pitch angle is completely constrained by the requirement for both wheels to remain on the ground, and so can be calculated geometrically from the other seven variables. If the location of the bike and the rotation of the wheels are ignored, the first five degrees of freedom can also be ignored, and the bike can be described by just two variables: lean angle and steer angle. ====Equations of motion==== The equations of motion of an idealized bike, consisting of *a rigid frame, *a rigid fork, *two knife-edged, rigid wheels, *all connected with frictionless bearings and rolling without friction or slip on a smooth horizontal surface and *operating at or near the upright and straight-ahead, unstable equilibrium can be represented by a single fourth-order linearized ordinary differential equation or two coupled second-order differential equations, the lean equation : M_{\theta\theta}\ddot{\theta_r} + K_{\theta\theta}\theta_r + M_{\theta\psi}\ddot{\psi} + C_{\theta\psi}\dot{\psi} + K_{\theta\psi}\psi = M_{\theta} and the steer equation : M_{\psi\psi}\ddot{\psi} + C_{\psi\psi}\dot{\psi} + K_{\psi\psi}\psi + M_{\psi\theta}\ddot{\theta_r} + C_{\psi\theta}\dot{\theta_r} + K_{\psi\theta}\theta_r = M_{\psi}\mbox{,} where *\theta_r is the lean angle of the rear assembly, *\psi is the steer angle of the front assembly relative to the rear assembly and *M_{\theta} and M_{\psi} are the moments (torques) applied at the rear assembly and the steering axis, respectively. For the analysis of an uncontrolled bike, both are taken to be zero. These can be represented in matrix form as :M\mathbf{\ddot{q}}+C\mathbf{\dot{q}}+K\mathbf q=\mathbf f where *M is the symmetrical mass matrix which contains terms that include only the mass and geometry of the bike, *C is the so-called damping matrix, even though an idealized bike has no dissipation, which contains terms that include the forward speed v and is asymmetric, *K is the so-called stiffness matrix which contains terms that include the gravitational constant g and v^2 and is symmetric in g and asymmetric in v^2, *\mathbf q is a vector of lean angle and steer angle, and *\mathbf f is a vector of external forces, the moments mentioned above. In this idealized and linearized model, there are many geometric parameters (wheelbase, head angle, mass of each body, wheel radius, etc.), but only four significant variables: lean angle, lean rate, steer angle, and steer rate. These equations have been verified by comparison with multiple numeric models derived completely independently. The equations show that the bicycle is like an inverted pendulum with the lateral position of its support controlled by terms representing roll acceleration, roll velocity and roll displacement to steering torque feedback. The roll acceleration term is normally of the wrong sign for self-stabilization and can be expected to be important mainly in respect of wobble oscillations. The roll velocity feedback is of the correct sign, is gyroscopic in nature, being proportional to speed, and is dominated by the front wheel contribution. The roll displacement term is the most important one and is mainly controlled by trail, steering rake and the offset of the front frame mass center from the steering axis. All the terms involve complex combinations of bicycle design parameters and sometimes the speed. The limitations of the benchmark bicycle are considered and extensions to the treatments of tires, frames and riders, and their implications, are included. Optimal rider controls for stabilization and path- following control are also discussed. ====Eigenvalues==== It is possible to calculate eigenvalues, one for each of the four state variables (lean angle, lean rate, steer angle, and steer rate), from the linearized equations in order to analyze the normal modes and self-stability of a particular bike design. In the plot to the right, eigenvalues of one particular bicycle are calculated for forward speeds of 0–10 m/s (22 mph). When the real parts of all eigenvalues (shown in dark blue) are negative, the bike is self-stable. When the imaginary parts of any eigenvalues (shown in cyan) are non-zero, the bike exhibits oscillation. The eigenvalues are point symmetric about the origin and so any bike design with a self-stable region in forward speeds will not be self-stable going backwards at the same speed. There are three forward speeds that can be identified in the plot to the right at which the motion of the bike changes qualitatively: #The forward speed at which oscillations begin, at about 1 m/s (2.2 mph) in this example, sometimes called the double root speed due to there being a repeated root to the characteristic polynomial (two of the four eigenvalues have exactly the same value). Below this speed, the bike simply falls over as an inverted pendulum does. #The forward speed at which oscillations do not increase, where the weave mode eigenvalues switch from positive to negative in a Hopf bifurcation at about 5.3 m/s (12 mph) in this example, is called the weave speed. Below this speed, oscillations increase until the uncontrolled bike falls over. Above this speed, oscillations eventually die out. #The forward speed at which non-oscillatory leaning increases, where the capsize mode eigenvalues switch from negative to positive in a pitchfork bifurcation at about 8 m/s (18 mph) in this example, is called the capsize speed. Above this speed, this non-oscillating lean eventually causes the uncontrolled bike to fall over. Between these last two speeds, if they both exist, is a range of forward speeds at which the particular bike design is self-stable. In the case of the bike whose eigenvalues are shown here, the self-stable range is 5.3–8.0 m/s (12-18 mph). The fourth eigenvalue, which is usually stable (very negative), represents the castoring behavior of the front wheel, as it tends to turn towards the direction in which the bike is traveling. Note that this idealized model does not exhibit the wobble or shimmy and rear wobble instabilities described above. They are seen in models that incorporate tire interaction with the ground or other degrees of freedom. Experimentation with real bikes has so far confirmed the weave mode predicted by the eigenvalues. It was found that tire slip and frame flex are not important for the lateral dynamics of the bicycle in the speed range up to 6 m/s. The idealized bike model used to calculate the eigenvalues shown here does not incorporate any of the torques that real tires can generate, and so tire interaction with the pavement cannot prevent the capsize mode from becoming unstable at high speeds, as Wilson and Cossalter suggest happens in the real world. ====Modes==== Bikes, as complex mechanisms, have a variety of modes: fundamental ways that they can move. These modes can be stable or unstable, depending on the bike parameters and its forward speed. In this context, "stable" means that an uncontrolled bike will continue rolling forward without falling over as long as forward speed is maintained. Conversely, "unstable" means that an uncontrolled bike will eventually fall over, even if forward speed is maintained. The modes can be differentiated by the speed at which they switch stability and the relative phases of leaning and steering as the bike experiences that mode. Any bike motion consists of a combination of various amounts of the possible modes, and there are three main modes that a bike can experience: capsize, weave, and wobble. A lesser known mode is rear wobble, and it is usually stable. =====Capsize===== Capsize is the word used to describe a bike falling over without oscillation. During capsize, an uncontrolled front wheel usually steers in the direction of lean, but never enough to stop the increasing lean, until a very high lean angle is reached, at which point the steering may turn in the opposite direction. A capsize can happen very slowly if the bike is moving forward rapidly. Because the capsize instability is so slow, on the order of seconds, it is easy for the rider to control, and is actually used by the rider to initiate the lean necessary for a turn. For most bikes, depending on geometry and mass distribution, capsize is stable at low speeds, and becomes less stable as speed increases until it is no longer stable. However, on many bikes, tire interaction with the pavement is sufficient to prevent capsize from becoming unstable at high speeds. =====Weave===== Weave is the word used to describe a slow (0-4 Hz) oscillation between leaning left and steering right, and vice versa. The entire bike is affected with significant changes in steering angle, lean angle (roll), and heading angle (yaw). The steering is 180° out of phase with the heading and 90° out of phase with the leaning. This AVI movie shows weave. For most bikes, depending on geometry and mass distribution, weave is unstable at low speeds, and becomes less pronounced as speed increases until it is no longer unstable. While the amplitude may decrease, the frequency actually increases with speed. =====Wobble or shimmy===== Wobble, shimmy, tank-slapper, speed wobble, and death wobble are all words and phrases used to describe a rapid (4-10 Hz) oscillation of primarily just the front end (front wheel, fork, and handlebars). Also involved is the yawing of the rear frame which may contribute to the wobble when too flexible.Roe, G. E. and Thorpe, T. E. "A Solution of the low-speed wheel flutter instability in motorcycles" Journal Mechanical Engineering Science V 18 No. 2 1976 This instability occurs mostly at high speed and is similar to that experienced by shopping cart wheels, airplane landing gear, and automobile front wheels. While wobble or shimmy can be easily remedied by adjusting speed, position, or grip on the handlebar, it can be fatal if left uncontrolled. Wobble or shimmy begins when some otherwise minor irregularity, such as fork asymmetry, accelerates the wheel to one side. The restoring force is applied in phase with the progress of the irregularity, and the wheel turns to the other side where the process is repeated. If there is insufficient damping in the steering the oscillation will increase until system failure occurs. The oscillation frequency can be changed by changing the forward speed, making the bike stiffer or lighter, or increasing the stiffness of the steering, of which the rider is a main component. =====Rear wobble===== The term rear wobble is used to describe a mode of oscillation in which lean angle (roll) and heading angle (yaw) are almost in phase and both 180° out of phase with steer angle. The rate of this oscillation is moderate with a maximum of about 6.5 Hz. Rear wobble is heavily damped and falls off quickly as bike speed increases. =====Design criteria===== The effect that the design parameters of a bike have on these modes can be investigated by examining the eigenvalues of the linearized equations of motion. For more details on the equations of motion and eigenvalues, see the section on the equations of motion above. Some general conclusions that have been drawn are described here. The lateral and torsional stiffness of the rear frame and the wheel spindle affects wobble-mode damping substantially. Long wheelbase and trail and a flat steering-head angle have been found to increase weave-mode damping. Lateral distortion can be countered by locating the front fork torsional axis as low as possible. Cornering weave tendencies are amplified by degraded damping of the rear suspension. Cornering, camber stiffnesses and relaxation length of the rear tire make the largest contribution to weave damping. The same parameters of the front tire have a lesser effect. Rear loading also amplifies cornering weave tendencies. Rear load assemblies with appropriate stiffness and damping, however, were successful in damping out weave and wobble oscillations. One study has shown theoretically that, while a bike leaned in a turn, road undulations can excite the weave mode at high speed or the wobble mode at low speed if either of their frequencies match the vehicle speed and other parameters. Excitation of the wobble mode can be mitigated by an effective steering damper and excitation of the weave mode is worse for light riders than for heavy riders. ===Riding on treadmills and rollers=== Riding on a treadmill is theoretically identical to riding on stationary pavement, and physical testing has confirmed this. Treadmills have been developed specifically for indoor bicycle training. Riding on rollers is still under investigation. ===Other hypotheses=== Although bicycles and motorcycles can appear to be simple mechanisms with only four major moving parts (frame, fork, and two wheels), these parts are arranged in a way that makes them complicated to analyze. While it is an observable fact that bikes can be ridden even when the gyroscopic effects of their wheels are canceled out, the hypothesis that the gyroscopic effects of the wheels are what keep a bike upright is common in print and online. Examples in print: *"Angular momentum and motorcycle counter-steering: A discussion and demonstration", A. J. Cox, Am. J. Phys. 66, 1018–1021 ~1998 *"The motorcycle as a gyroscope", J. Higbie, Am. J. Phys. 42, 701–702 *The Physics of Everyday Phenomena, W. T. Griffith, McGraw–Hill, New York, 1998, pp. 149–150. *The Way Things Work., Macaulay, Houghton-Mifflin, New York, NY, 1989 ==Longitudinal dynamics== Bikes may experience a variety of longitudinal forces and motions. On most bikes, when the front wheel is turned to one side or the other, the entire rear frame pitches forward slightly, depending on the steering axis angle and the amount of trail. On bikes with suspensions, either front, rear, or both, trim is used to describe the geometric configuration of the bike, especially in response to forces of braking, accelerating, turning, drive train, and aerodynamic drag. The load borne by the two wheels varies not only with center of mass location, which in turn varies with the number of passengers, the amount of luggage, and the location of passengers and luggage, but also with acceleration and deceleration. This phenomenon is known as load transfer or weight transfer, depending on the author, and provides challenges and opportunities to both riders and designers. For example, motorcycle racers can use it to increase the friction available to the front tire when cornering, and attempts to reduce front suspension compression during heavy braking has spawned several motorcycle fork designs. The net aerodynamic drag forces may be considered to act at a single point, called the center of pressure. At high speeds, this will create a net moment about the rear driving wheel and result in a net transfer of load from the front wheel to the rear wheel. Also, depending on the shape of the bike and the shape of any fairing that might be installed, aerodynamic lift may be present that either increases or further reduces the load on the front wheel. ===Stability=== Though longitudinally stable when stationary, a bike may become longitudinally unstable under sufficient acceleration or deceleration, and Euler's second law can be used to analyze the ground reaction forces generated. For example, the normal (vertical) ground reaction forces at the wheels for a bike with a wheelbase L and a center of mass at height h and at a distance b in front of the rear wheel hub, and for simplicity, with both wheels locked, can be expressed as: :N_r = mg\left(\frac{L-b}{L} - \mu \frac{h}{L}\right) for the rear wheel and N_f = mg\left(\frac{b}{L} + \mu \frac{h}{L}\right) for the front wheel. The frictional (horizontal) forces are simply :F_r = \mu N_r \, for the rear wheel and F_f = \mu N_f \, for the front wheel, where \mu is the coefficient of friction, m is the total mass of the bike and rider, and g is the acceleration of gravity. Therefore, if :\mu \ge \frac{L-b}{h}, which occurs if the center of mass is anywhere above or in front of a line extending back from the front wheel contact patch and inclined at the angle :\theta = \tan^{-1} \left( \frac{1}{\mu} \right) \, above the horizontal, then the normal force of the rear wheel will be zero (at which point the equation no longer applies) and the bike will begin to flip or loop forward over the front wheel. On the other hand, if the center of mass height is behind or below the line, such as on most tandem bicycles or long-wheel-base recumbent bicycles, as well as cars, it is less likely that the front wheel can generate enough braking force to flip the bike. This means they can decelerate up to nearly the limit of adhesion of the tires to the road, which could reach 0.8 g if the coefficient of friction is 0.8, which is 40% more than an upright bicycle under even the best conditions. Bicycling Science author David Gordon Wilson points out that this puts upright bicyclists at particular risk of causing a rear-end collision if they tailgate cars. Similarly, powerful motorcycles can generate enough torque at the rear wheel to lift the front wheel off the ground in a maneuver called a wheelie. A line similar to the one described above to analyze braking performance can be drawn from the rear wheel contact patch to predict if a wheelie is possible given the available friction, the center of mass location, and sufficient power. This can also happen on bicycles, although there is much less power available, if the center of mass is back or up far enough or the rider lurches back when applying power to the pedals. Of course, the angle of the terrain can influence all of the calculations above. All else remaining equal, the risk of pitching over the front end is reduced when riding up hill and increased when riding down hill. The possibility of performing a wheelie increases when riding up hill, and is a major factor in motorcycle hillclimbing competitions. ===Braking according to ground conditions=== thumb|With no braking, on a bicycle m is usually approximately over the bottom bracket When braking, the rider in motion is seeking to change the speed of the combined mass m of rider plus bike. This is a negative acceleration a in the line of travel. F=ma, the acceleration a causes an inertial forward force F on mass m. The braking a is from an initial speed u to a final speed v, over a length of time t. The equation u - v = at implies that the greater the acceleration the shorter the time needed to change speed. The stopping distance s is also shortest when acceleration a is at the highest possible value compatible with road conditions: the equation s = ut + 1/2 at2 makes s low when a is high and t is low. How much braking force to apply to each wheel depends both on ground conditions and on the balance of weight on the wheels at each instant in time. The total braking force cannot exceed the gravity force on the rider and bike times the coefficient of friction μ of the tire on the ground. mgμ >= Ff + Fr. A skid occurs if the ratio of either Ff over Nf or Fr over Nr is greater than μ, with a rear wheel skid having less of a negative impact on lateral stability. When braking, the inertial force ma in the line of travel, not being co-linear with f, tends to rotate m about f. This tendency to rotate, an overturning moment, is resisted by a moment from mg. thumb|In light braking, Nr is still significant so Fr can contribute towards braking. Nr decreases as ma increases Taking moments about the front wheel contact point at an instance in time: *When there is no braking, mass m is typically above the bottom bracket, about 2/3 of the way back between the front and rear wheels, with Nr thus greater than Nf. *In constant light braking, whether because an emergency stop is not required or because poor ground conditions prevent heavy braking, much weight still rests on the rear wheel, meaning that Nr is still large and Fr can contribute towards a. *As braking a increases, Nr and Fr decrease because the moment mah increases with a. At maximum constant a, clockwise and anti-clockwise moments are equal, at which point Nr = 0. Any greater Ff initiates a stoppie. thumb|At maximum braking, Nr = 0 Other factors: *Downhill it is much easier to topple over the front wheel because the incline moves the line of mg closer to f. To try to reduce this tendency the rider can stand back on the pedals to try to keep m as far back as possible. *When braking is increasing the center of mass m may move forward relative to the front wheel, as the rider moves forward relative to the bike, and, if the bike has suspension on the front wheel, the front forks compress under load, changing the bike geometry. This all puts extra load on the front wheel. *At the end of a brake maneuver, as the rider comes to a halt, the suspension decompresses and pushes the rider back. Values for μ vary greatly depending on a number of factors: *The material that the ground or road surface is made of. *Whether the ground is wet or dry. *The smoothness or roughness of the ground. *The firmness or looseness of the ground. *The speed of the vehicle, with friction reducing above 30 mph (50 km/h). *Whether friction is rolling or sliding, with sliding friction at least 10% below peak rolling friction. ===Braking=== Most of the braking force of standard upright bikes comes from the front wheel. As the analysis above shows, if the brakes themselves are strong enough, the rear wheel is easy to skid, while the front wheel often can generate enough stopping force to flip the rider and bike over the front wheel. This is called a stoppie if the rear wheel is lifted but the bike does not flip, or an endo (abbreviated form of end-over-end) if the bike flips. On long or low bikes, however, such as cruiser motorcycles and recumbent bicycles, the front tire will skid instead, possibly causing a loss of balance. Assuming no loss of balance, it is possible to calculate optimum braking performance depending on the bike's geometry, the location of center of gravity of bike and rider, and the maximum coefficient of friction. In the case of a front suspension, especially telescoping fork tubes, the increase in downward force on the front wheel during braking may cause the suspension to compress and the front end to lower. This is known as brake diving. A riding technique that takes advantage of how braking increases the downward force on the front wheel is known as trail braking. ====Front wheel braking==== The limiting factors on the maximum deceleration in front wheel braking are: *the maximum, limiting value of static friction between the tire and the ground, often between 0.5 and 0.8 for rubber on dry asphalt, *the kinetic friction between the brake pads and the rim or disk, and *pitching or looping (of bike and rider) over the front wheel. For an upright bicycle on dry asphalt with excellent brakes, pitching will probably be the limiting factor. The combined center of mass of a typical upright bicycle and rider will be about back from the front wheel contact patch and above, allowing a maximum deceleration of 0.5 g (5 m/s2 or 16 ft/s2). If the rider modulates the brakes properly, however, pitching can be avoided. If the rider moves his weight back and down, even larger decelerations are possible. Front brakes on many inexpensive bikes are not strong enough so, on the road, they are the limiting factor. Cheap cantilever brakes, especially with "power modulators", and Raleigh-style side-pull brakes severely restrict the stopping force. In wet conditions they are even less effective. Front wheel slides are more common off-road. Mud, water, and loose stones reduce the friction between the tire and trail, although knobby tires can mitigate this effect by grabbing the surface irregularities. Front wheel slides are also common on corners, whether on road or off. Centripetal acceleration adds to the forces on the tire-ground contact, and when the friction force is exceeded the wheel slides. ====Rear-wheel braking==== The rear brake of an upright bicycle can only produce about 0.25 g (≈2.5 m/s2) deceleration at best, because of the decrease in normal force at the rear wheel as described above. All such bikes with only rear braking are subject to this limitation: for example, bikes with only a coaster brake, and fixed-gear bikes with no other braking mechanism. There are, however, situations that may warrant rear wheel braking *Slippery surfaces or bumpy surfaces. Under front wheel braking, the lower coefficient of friction may cause the front wheel to skid which often results in a loss of balance. *Front flat tire. Braking a wheel with a flat tire can cause the tire to come off the rim which greatly reduces friction and, in the case of a front wheel, result in a loss of balance. *To deliberately induce a rear wheel skid to induce oversteer and achieve a smaller turn radius on tight turns. *Front brake failure. *Recumbent bicycles. Long-wheelbase recumbents require a good rear brake as the CG is near the rear wheel. ====Braking technique==== Expert opinion varies from "use both levers equally at first" to "the fastest that you can stop any bike of normal wheelbase is to apply the front brake so hard that the rear wheel is just about to lift off the ground," depending on road conditions, rider skill level, and desired fraction of maximum possible deceleration. ==Suspension== Bikes may have only front, only rear, full suspension or no suspension that operate primarily in the central plane of symmetry; though with some consideration given to lateral compliance. The goals of a bike suspension are to reduce vibration experienced by the rider, maintain wheel contact with the ground, reduce the loss of momentum when riding over an object, reduce impact forces caused by jumps or drops and maintain vehicle trim. The primary suspension parameters are stiffness, damping, sprung and unsprung mass, and tire characteristics. Besides irregularities in the terrain, brake, acceleration, and drive-train forces can also activate the suspension as described above. Examples include bob and pedal feedback on bicycles, the shaft effect on motorcycles, and squat and brake dive on both. ==Vibration== The study of vibrations in bikes includes its causes, such as engine balance, wheel balance, ground surface, and aerodynamics; its transmission and absorption; and its effects on the bike, the rider, and safety. An important factor in any vibration analysis is a comparison of the natural frequencies of the system with the possible driving frequencies of the vibration sources. A close match means mechanical resonance that can result in large amplitudes. A challenge in vibration damping is to create compliance in certain directions (vertically) without sacrificing frame rigidity needed for power transmission and handling (torsionally). Another issue with vibration for the bike is the possibility of failure due to material fatigue Effects of vibration on riders include discomfort, loss of efficiency, Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome, a secondary form Raynaud's disease, and whole body vibration. Vibrating instruments may be inaccurate or difficult to read. ===In bicycles=== The primary cause of vibrations in a properly functioning bicycle is the surface over which it rolls. In addition to pneumatic tires and traditional bicycle suspensions, a variety of techniques have been developed to damp vibrations before they reach the rider. These include materials, such as carbon fiber, either in the whole frame or just key components such as the front fork, seatpost, or handlebars; tube shapes, such as curved seat stays;, gel handlebar grips and saddles and special inserts, such as Zertz by Specialized, and Buzzkills by Bontrager. ===In motorcycles=== In addition to the road surface, vibrations in a motorcycle can be caused by the engine and wheels, if unbalanced. Manufacturers employ a variety of technologies to reduce or damp these vibrations, such as engine balance shafts, rubber engine mounts, and tire weights. The problems that vibration causes have also spawned an industry of after-market parts and systems designed to reduce it. Add-ons include handlebar weights, isolated foot pegs, and engine counterweights. At high speeds, motorcycles and their riders may also experience aerodynamic flutter or buffeting. This can be abated by changing the air flow over key parts, such as the windshield. ==Experimentation== A variety of experiments have been performed in order to verify or disprove various hypotheses about bike dynamics. * David Jones built several bikes in a search for an unrideable configuration. * Richard Klein built several bikes to confirm Jones's findings. * Richard Klein also built a "Torque Wrench Bike" and a "Rocket Bike" to investigate steering torques and their effects. * Keith Code built a motorcycle with fixed handlebars to investigate the effects of rider motion and position on steering. * Schwab and Kooijman have performed measurements with an instrumented bike. * Hubbard and Moore have performed measurements with an instrumented bike. ==See also== *Bicycle and motorcycle geometry *Bicycle fork *Bicycle performance *Bicycle tire *Camber angle *Camber thrust *Caster angle *Cornering force *Countersteering *Highsider *Lowsider *Motorcycle fork *Parallel parking problem *Slip angle *Speed wobble *Stoppie *Trail braking *Wheelie *Outline of motorcycles and motorcycling ==References== ==Further reading== *'An Introduction to Bicycle Geometry and Handling', Karl Anderson *'What keeps the bicycle upright?' by Jobst Brandt *'Report on Stability of the Dahon Bicycle' by John Forester ==External links== Videos: *Video of riderless bicycle demonstrating self-stability *Why bicycles do not fall: Arend Schwab at TEDx Delft 2012 *Wobble movie (AVI) *Weave movie (AVI) *Wobble Crash (Flash) *Video on Science Friday Research centers: *Bicycle Dynamics at Delft University of Technology *Bicycle Mechanics at Cornell University *Bicycle Science at the University of Illinois *Motorcycle Dynamics at the University of Padova *Control and Power Research Group at Imperial College *Bicycle dynamics, control and handling at UC Davis *Bicycle and Motorcycle Engineering Research Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Conferences: *Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics 2010: Symposium on Dynamics and Control of Single Track Vehicles, Delft University of Technology, Oct 20–22, 2010 *Single Track Vehicle Dynamics at DSCC 2012: two sessions at the ASME Dynamic Systems and Control Conference in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, October 17–19, 2012 * Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics 2013: Symposium on Dynamics and Control of Single Track Vehicles, Nihon University, Nov 11–13, 2013 * Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics 2016: Symposium on Dynamics and Control of Single Track Vehicles, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Sept 21–23, 2016 * Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics 2019: Symposium on Dynamics and Control of Single Track Vehicles, University of Padova, Sept, 9–11, 2019 * Bicycle and Motorcycle Dynamics Conference: Summary page Category:Control theory Category:Cycling Category:Dynamics (mechanics) |
Gideon Algernon Mantell MRCS FRS (3 February 1790 – 10 November 1852) was a British obstetrician, geologist and palaeontologist. His attempts to reconstruct the structure and life of Iguanodon began the scientific study of dinosaurs: in 1822 he was responsible for the discovery (and the eventual identification) of the first fossil teeth, and later much of the skeleton, of Iguanodon. Mantell's work on the Cretaceous of southern England was also important. == Early life and medical career == thumb|left|upright|Gideon Mantell – Early portrait Mantell was born in Lewes, Sussex as the fifth-born child of Thomas Mantell, a shoemaker,Cadbury, p. 38. and Sarah Austen.Dean, p. 7. He was raised in a small cottage in St. Mary's Lane with his two sisters and four brothers. As a youth, he showed a particular interest in the field of geology. He explored pits and quarries in the surrounding areas, discovering ammonites, shells of sea urchins, fish bones, coral, and worn-out remains of dead animals.Cadbury, p. 34. The Mantell children could not study at local grammar schools because the elder Mantell was a follower of the Methodist church and the 12 free schools were reserved for children who had been brought up in the Anglican faith. As a result, Gideon was educated at a dame school in St. Mary's Lane, and learned basic reading and writing from an old woman. After the death of his teacher, Mantell was schooled by John Button, a philosophically radical Whig who shared similar political beliefs with Mantell's father.Cadbury, p. 36. Mantell spent two years with Button, before being sent to his uncle, a Baptist minister, in Swindon, for a period of private study. Mantell returned to Lewes at age 15. With the help of a local Whig party leader, Mantell secured an apprenticeship with a local surgeon named James Moore.Cadbury, pp. 36–37. He served as an apprentice to Moore in Lewes for a period of five years, in which he took care of Mantell's dining, lodging and medical issues. Mantell's early apprenticeship duties included cleaning vials, as well as separating and arranging drugs. Soon, he learned how to make pills and other pharmaceutical products. He delivered Moore's medicines, kept his accounts, wrote out bills and extracted teeth from his patients.Dean, p. 14. On 11 July 1807, Thomas Mantell died at the age of 57.Dean, p. 13. He left his son some money for his future studies.Cadbury, p. 37. As his time in apprenticeship began to wind down, he began to anticipate his medical education. He began to teach himself human anatomy, and he ultimately detailed his new-found knowledge in a volume entitled The Anatomy of the Bones, and the Circulation of Blood, which contained dozens of detailed drawings of fetal and adult skeletal features. Soon, Mantell began his formal medical education in London. He received his diploma as a Member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1811.Dean, pp. 16–17. Four days later, he received a certificate from the Lying-in Charity for Married Women at Their Own Habitations that allowed him to act in midwifery duties. He returned to Lewes, and immediately formed a partnership with his former master, James Moore. In the wake of the cholera, typhoid and smallpox epidemics, Mantell found himself quite busy attending to more than 50 patients a day and delivering between 200 and 300 babies a year.Cadbury, p. 41. As he later recalled, he would have to stay up for "six or seven nights in succession" due to his overwhelming doctoral duties. He was also able to increase his practice's profits from £250 to £750 a year.Dean, p. 17. Although mainly occupied with running his busy country medical practice, he spent his little free time pursuing his passion, geology, often working into the early hours of the morning, identifying fossil specimens he found at the marl pits in Hamsey.Cadbury, p. 42. In 1813, Mantell began to correspond with James Sowerby. Sowerby, a naturalist and illustrator who catalogued fossil shells, received from Mantell many fossilised specimens. In appreciation for the specimens Mantell had provided, Sowerby named one of the species Ammonites mantelli.Dean, p. 28. On 7 December, Mantell was elected as a fellow of the Linnean Society of London. Two years later, he published his first paper, on the characteristics of the fossils found in the Lewes area.Dean, p. 31. In 1816, he married Mary Ann Woodhouse, the 20-year-old daughter of one of his former patients who had died three years earlier. Since she was not 21 and still technically a minor under English law, she had to obtain permission from her mother and a special licence to marry Mantell. After obtaining consent and the licence, she married Mantell on 4 May at St. Marylebone Church. That year, he purchased his own medical practice and took up an appointment at the Royal Artillery Hospital, at Ringmer, Lewes. ==Geological research== thumb|left|upright|Sketch of Tilgate Quarry with Gideon Mantell overseeing the uncovering of fossils Inspired by Mary Anning's sensational discovery of a fossilised animal resembling a huge crocodile (later identified as an ichthyosaur) at Lyme Regis in Dorset, Mantell became passionately interested in the study of the fossilised animals and plants found in his area. The fossils he had collected from the region, near The Weald in Sussex, were from the chalk downlands covering the county. The chalk is part of the Upper Cretaceous System and the fossils it contains are marine in origin. But by 1819, Mantell had begun acquiring fossils from a quarry, at Whitemans Green, near Cuckfield. These included the remains of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, at a time when all the known fossil remains from Cretaceous England, hitherto, were marine in origin. He named the new strata the Strata of Tilgate Forest, after an historical wooded area and it was later shown to belong to the Lower Cretaceous. By 1820, he had started to find very large bones at Cuckfield, even larger than those discovered by William Buckland, at Stonesfield in Oxfordshire. Then, in 1822, shortly before finishing his first book (The Fossils of South Downs), his wife found several large teeth (although some historians contend that they were in fact discovered by himself), the origin of which he could not ascertain. In 1821 Mantell planned his next book on the geology of Sussex. It was an immediate success with two hundred subscribers including a letter from King George IV at Carlton House Palace which read "His majesty is pleased to command that his name should be placed at the head of the subscription list for four copies." How the king heard of Mantell is unknown, but Mantell's response is. Galvanised and encouraged, Mantell showed the teeth to other scientists but they were dismissed as belonging to a fish or mammal and from a more recent rock layer than the other Tilgate Forest fossils. The eminent French anatomist, Georges Cuvier, identified the teeth as those of a rhinoceros. Although according to Charles Lyell, Cuvier made this statement after a late party and apparently had some doubts when reconsidering the matter when he awoke, fresh in the morning. "The next morning he told me that he was confident that it was something quite different." Strangely, this change of opinion did not make it back to Britain where Mantell was mocked for his error. Mantell was still convinced that the teeth had come from the Mesozoic strata and finally recognised that they resembled those of the iguana, but were twenty times larger. He surmised that the owner of the remains must have been at least 60 feet (18 metres) in length. == Recognition == He tried in vain to convince his peers that the fossils were from Mesozoic strata, by carefully studying rock layers. William Buckland famously disputed Mantell's assertion, by claiming that the teeth were of fish. When it was proved Mantell was correct in 1825, the only question was what to call his new reptile. His original name was "Iguana-saurus" but he then received a letter from William Daniel Conybeare, "Your discovery of the analogy between the Iguana and the fossil teeth is very interesting but the name you propose will hardly do, because it is equally applicable to the recent iguana. Iguanoides or Iguanodon would be better." Mantell took this advice to heart and called his creature Iguanodon. Years later, Mantell had acquired enough fossil evidence to show that the dinosaur's forelimbs were much shorter than its hind legs, therefore proving they were not built like a mammal as claimed by Sir Richard Owen. Mantell went on to demonstrate that fossil vertebrae, which Owen had attributed to a variety of different species, all belonged to Iguanodon. He also named a new genus of dinosaur called Hylaeosaurus and as a result became an authority on prehistoric reptiles. == Later years == In 1833, Mantell relocated to Brighton but his medical practice suffered. He was almost rendered destitute, but for the town's council, which promptly transformed his house into a museum. There he gave a series of lectures that were published in 1838 with the title The wonders of geology, or, A familiar exposition of geological phenomena: being the substance of a course of lectures delivered at Brighton.The wonders of geology, or, A familiar exposition of geological phenomena: being the substance of a course of lectures delivered at Brighton, Volume II, on Google books The museum in Brighton ultimately failed as a result of Mantell's habit of waiving the entrance fee. Financially destitute, Mantell offered to sell the entire collection to the British Museum in 1838 for £5,000, accepting the counter-offer of £4,000. He moved to Clapham Common in South London, where he continued his work as a doctor. Mary Mantell left her husband in 1839. That same year, Gideon's son Walter emigrated to New Zealand. Walter later sent his father some important fossils from New Zealand. Gideon's daughter, Hannah, died in 1840. In 1841 he began to suffer from what would eventually be diagnosed as scoliosis, possibly precipitated by a carriage accident.Fairbank Despite being bent, crippled and in constant pain, he continued to work with fossilised reptiles and published a number of scientific books and papers until his death in November the 10th 1852. He moved to [Pimlico] in 1844 and began to take [opium], as a painkiller, in 1845. == Death and legacy== On 10 November 1852, Mantell took an overdose of opium and later lapsed into a coma. He died that afternoon. His post-mortem showed that he had been suffering from scoliosis. A section of Mantell's spine was removed, preserved and stored on a shelf at the Royal College of Surgeons of England. It remained there until 1969 when it was destroyed due to lack of space.Fairbank Mantell's surgery, on the south side of Clapham Common, is now a dental surgery. At the time of his death Mantell was credited with discovering 4 of the 5 genera of dinosaurs then known. In 2000, in commemoration of Mantell's discovery and his contribution to the science of palaeontology, the Mantell Monument was unveiled at Whiteman's Green, Cuckfield. The monument has been confirmed as the location of the Iguanodon fossils that Mantell first described in 1822. He is buried at West Norwood Cemetery within a sarcophagus attributed to Amon Henry Wilds that replicates the sanctuary of Natakamani's Temple of Amun. (The name ammonite is, coincidentally, derived from Amun.) == Works by Mantell == Sixty-seven books and memoirs appear in Agassiz and Strickland's Bibliographia Zoologiæ, and forty-eight scientific papers in the Royal Society's Catalogue. *The Fossils of the South Downs. Royal 4to,Royal 4to is a paper size. It produces a fairly large book, with pages of 10 by 12.5 inches (250 by 320 mm) untrimmed. 42 plates. London 1822. This was his first book, the plates of which were drawn by his wife. Expensive, at £3. 3/- (three guineas). At double the price, plates were hand-coloured.Price details from trade adverts in other volumes. *Outlines of the natural history of the environs of Lewes. 4to, 24pp, 3pl. Lewes, 1824. *Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex, containing figures and descriptions of the fossils of Tilgate Forest. Royal 4to, 20 plates, £2. 15s. 6d. 1827. *The Geological Age of Reptiles. In Jameson's Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1831, Vol. 11, pp. 81–85 *A Narrative of the Visit of their most Gracious Majesties William IV and Queen Adelaide, to the Ancient Borough of Lewes, on the 22nd of October 1830. London: Lupton Relfe, 1831. *The Geology of the South-East of England. 8vo, with coloured maps, sections, and numerous plates, £1. 1/-. 1833. *Thoughts on a Pebble. 1836. 8th edition, 1849 *The Wonders of Geology or, a familiar exposition of geological phenomena: being the substance of a course of lectures delivered at Brighton. 2 vols, London, 1838. Lithographic plates drawn by his wife. Data from 4th ed of 1840: vol 1: 428p, frontis & 4 plates; vol 2: pages 429795 plus appendix, glossary and other material, coloured frontis & 10 coloured plates, most drawn by his wife. Mantell's most extensive work. *The Medals of Creation. 2 vols, 1844. *A Day's Ramble in and about the Antient Town of Lewes. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1846. *Thoughts on Animalcules. small 4to, 144p, 12 coloured plates. London: Murray, 1846. 1850 title: The invisible world revealed by the microscope or, thoughts on animalcules. *Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight and along the adjacent Coast of Dorsetshire. 1847. * *Petrifactions and their teachings. 1851. ==References== ==Sources== * **US edition: Terrible Lizard: the first dinosaur hunters and the birth of a new science. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2000. * * * ==External links== * *A History of Dinosaur Hunting and Reconstruction *Schedule of Mantell related tours and events in and around Lewes and Brighton *Gideon Mantell Biography at Strange Science.net *Mantell and Wilds by the Friends of West Norwood Cemetery *The Medals of Creation (1844) First Lessons in Geology and in the Study of Organic Remains by Gideon Mantell *The journal of Gideon Mantell, Hathi Trust *Scanned copy of The Fossils of the South Downs (1822) Category:1790 births Category:1852 deaths Category:English geologists Category:English palaeontologists Category:19th-century English medical doctors Category:English obstetricians Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:People from Lewes Category:Burials at West Norwood Cemetery Category:Wollaston Medal winners Category:Royal Medal winners Category:Drug- related suicides in England |
The USAF Weapons School is a unit of the United States Air Force and United States Space Force, assigned to the 57th Wing and Space Delta 1. It is located at Nellis AFB, Nevada. ==Mission== The mission of the USAF Weapons School is to teach graduate-level instructor courses, which provide advanced training in weapons and tactics employment to officers of the combat air forces. The USAF Weapons School is headquartered at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada with detachments at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, Hurlburt Field, Florida, Little Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas, Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, Fairchild Air Force Base, Washington, McChord Field, Washington, and Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. The Weapons School accomplishes its mission by providing graduate-level, instructor academic and flying courses to USAF Combat Air Forces (CAF) and Mobility Air Forces (MAF). It conducts extensive technical off-station training and is a liaison with CAF and MAF units. It publishes the quarterly USAF Weapons Review with worldwide readership. All positions are selectively manned. The Weapons School's squadrons include the Weapons Instructor Courses for the following aircraft and systems: Air Battle Manager, A-10 Thunderbolt II, Lockheed AC-130, B-1 Lancer, B-2 Spirit, B-52 Stratofortress, C-17 Globemaster III, C-130 Hercules, Control Reporting Center EC-130H Compass Call, F-15C Eagle, F-15E Strike Eagle, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-22A Raptor, F-35 Lightning II, Joint Terminal Attack Controller, Weapons Director, MQ-9 Reaper, HC-130J Combat King II, HH-60 Pave Hawk, KC-135 Stratotanker, MC-130, RC-135 Rivet Joint, U-2 Dragon Lady, Intelligence, Space, ICBM, Cyber, and Support. ==History== === Origins === The USAF Weapons School traces its roots to the Aircraft Gunnery School established in 1949 at Las Vegas Air Force Base (which became Nellis Air Force Base in 1950). This organization brought together a cadre of World War II combat veterans dedicated to teaching the next generation of pilots. The Gunnery School converted to combat crew training to meet the needs of the Korean War. In January 1954, the school assumed the mission of training fighter instructors, and took on the title, "USAF Fighter Weapons School." Students at Nellis trained in F-51 Mustang. F-80 Shooting Star. F-84 Thunderjet and all versions of the F-100 Super Sabre aircraft during this period. By 1960. the F-100 and the F-105 Thunderchief were left as the two primary aircraft flown at the Weapons School. === Vietnam era === In 1965, the Fighter Weapons School added the F-4 Phantom II to its courses. As the roles of fighter aircraft expanded during the Vietnam War, the Fighter Weapons School began to have an impact across the larger Air Force. Many of the air- to-ground and air-to-air innovations of this period can be traced to the Weapons School. Assigned aircraft continued to change in concert with Air Force inventories. The Weapons School deactivated the F-100 and F-105 courses, and added the F-111 and A-7D Corsair II. === Post–Vietnam War era === thumb|F-15 Division F-15C 82-0038 thumb|A-10 Division A-10A 79-0172 thumb|F-4 Division F-4D 66-8700 thumb|Aggressor Division F-5E 74-1572 thumb|F-16 Division F-16C 86–0251 in experimental "Aggressor" motif The Aggressors, flying the T-38 Talon and F-5E Tiger II were stood-up as part of the Weapons School in the early 1970s to improve air-to-air skills by providing accurate threat replication for dissimilar air combat training. The A-7D tenure in the school was a brief 3 years as the squadron transitioned from A-7s to F-5 Aggressors in 1975. Fighter modernization brought both the A-10 Thunderbolt II and the F-15 Eagle into Weapons School operations in 1977. The 1980s ushered in a time of significant change for the Weapons School. In 1981, the school underwent a complete reorganization as the squadrons became divisions. The Aggressor squadrons transferred to the 57th Fighter Weapons Wing. The F-111 Division became a geographically separated detachment of the Nellis-based Weapons School. The newly formed F-16 Fighting Falcon Division graduated its first students in 1982. In 1984 the Weapons School expanded its courses beyond the traditional fighter aircrew, adding a course to train weapons controllers in the F-15 Division. A passing of the torch to the current Weapons School occurred when the last F-4 class graduated in 1985, ending 20 years of F-4 weapons officer training. The Air Weapons Controller Division, later known as the Command and Control Operations (CCO) Division activated as a separate unit in 1987. The school gained a Fighter Intelligence Officers Course in 1988 which became the graduate patch-awarding Intelligence Division in 1990. The F-15E Strike Eagle Division became part of the school in 1991. === Modern era === With the stand-up of Air Combat Command in 1992, the school embarked on a dramatic shift from its 43-year focus exclusively on fighter aviation, dropping the "fighter" from its title and becoming the "Air Force Weapons School." The change was much more than symbolic with the activation of the B-52 and B-1 Divisions that year. Rescue helicopters joined the school with the HH-60 Division in 1995 while the F-111 retired. That year also saw the addition of RC-135 RIVET JOINT and EC-130 COMPASS CALL courses to the CCO Division. To increase the graduate-level understanding of space and air integration for operators, the school added the Space Division in 1996. With a growing need for weapons officers skilled at integrating all aspects of air and space power, the Weapons School has continued to expand. 2000 saw the addition of the E-8 JSTARS to the CCO Division. Special Operations Forces (SOF) also became part of the Weapons School in 2000,developing courses for the MH-53 and AC-130 and Stealth joined the school in 2002 with the addition of the F-117 and B-2 Divisions. SOF added an MC-130 course that year as well. In 2003, all of the Weapons School divisions were re-designated (or initially activated) as squadrons, and the Intelligence Sensor Weapons Instructor Course was added to provide graduate-level training in intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance integration. In 2006, the F-117 Weapons Instructor Course deactivated and the merger with the Mobility Weapons School added the C-130, KC-135, and C-17 Weapons Instructor Courses. In 2008, the F-22 joined the Weapons School and in 2009, the ICBM Weapons Instructor Course was added. In 2012, the Cyber Warfare Operations Weapons Instructor Course was founded and joined the space squadron. In 2019, the Weapons School added the U-2 Weapons Instructor Course. In 2020, the Weapons School added the Control Reporting Center Instructor Course under the 8th WPS which had previously been an Advanced Instructor Course for enlisted ground based controllers. Today's Weapons School encompasses 21 squadrons, teaching 24 combat specialties at 9 locations. Only 30% of today's students come from the classic fighter specialties. ===Lineage=== * Constituted as USAF Fighter Weapons School, and activated, on 30 December 1965 : Organized on 1 January 1966 : Discontinued, and inactivated, on 1 September 1966 * Activated on 30 December 1981 : Re- designated USAF Weapons School on 15 June 1993 ===Assignments=== * Tactical Air Command, 30 December 1965 * 4520 Combat Crew Training Wing, 1 Jan-1 Sep 1966 * 57th Fighter Weapons (later, 57th Fighter; 57th) Wing, 30 Dec 1981–present ==Components== On 3 February 2003, the divisions of the USAF Weapons School formally became squadrons. Each of the new squadrons received the designation of a previously highly decorated notable inactivated unit. Nellis-based units Squadron Date activated Weapons System Notes 6th Weapons Squadron 21 June 2017 F-35 8th Weapons Squadron 3 February 2003 E-8C JSTARS/E-3/RC-135 RIVET JOINT/COMPASS CALL/Control Reporting Center Utilizes CAF Aircraft. Originally was the Air Weapons Controller Division, activated on 21 June 1984 16th Weapons Squadron 3 February 2003 F-16 Fighting Falcon Originally was the F-16 Division, established 1 October 1980 17th Weapons Squadron 3 February 2003 F-15E Strike Eagle Originally was the F-15E Division, established 8 July 1991 19th Weapons Squadron 3 February 2003 Intelligence, U-2 Dragon Lady, RQ-4 Global Hawk Activated in 1988 as the Fighter Intelligence Officer Course; became the Weapons School Intelligence Division in 1990. Graduates now include intelligence officers, as well as pilots of high-altitude ISR aircraft. 26th Weapons Squadron 30 September 2008 MQ-9 In 2015 the 26th Weapons Squadron stopped flying the Predator. 32d Weapons Squadron 28 June 2018 Cyber Warfare Operations Activated in 2012, the Cyber Warfare Operations Weapons Instructor Course started under the 328th Weapons Squadron. In 2018, the Cyber course separated from the 328th Weapons Squadron. Graduates are experts in offensive and defensive cyber warfare and integrating cyber into USAF weapons systems. 34th Weapons Squadron 3 February 2003 HH-60 Pave Hawk Originally was the Weapons School HH-60G Division. Had its beginning with the establishment of the USAF Combat Rescue School at Nellis AFB in 1993. 57th Weapons Support Squadron 3 February 2003 Mission Support Non-flying organization. Originally was the Weapons School Support Division was activated on 1 October 1997 66th Weapons Squadron 3 February 2003 A-10 Thunderbolt II Joint Terminal Attack Controller (JTAC) Initially was the 66th Fighter Weapons Squadron on 15 October 1969 equipped with A-7D Corsair IIs. When the Fighter Weapons School reorganized in 1981, the 66th FWS was redesignated as the A- 10 Division. 315th Weapons Squadron 2 March 2012 Minuteman III Non-flying organization. Originally the 4315th Combat Crew Training Squadron. ICBM WIC originally was in 328th Weapons Squadron. ICBM WIC underwent validation Jan – Jun 2010 (Class 10A), and the first class started in Jul 2010 (10B). 328th Weapons Squadron 3 February 2003 Space Superiority Non-flying organization. Originally was the Weapons School Space Division was activated in July 1996. 433d Weapons Squadron 3 February 2003 F-22A Raptor Originally activated in 1981 as the 433rd Fighter Weapons Squadron. Became Weapons School F-15C Division when the USAF Fighter Weapons School redesignated each of its squadrons as "Divisions" in 1981. First F-22A received July 2010. The last F-15C class graduated in December 2021. 561st Weapons Squadron 16 July 2019 Previously was the 561st Joint Tactics Squadron assigned to 57th Wing. Geographically separated units Squadron Station Date activated Weapons System Notes 14th Weapons Squadron Hurlburt Field, Florida 3 February 2003 Special Operations Aircraft (Various) The Weapons School Special Operations Forces (SOF) Division first activated as Detachment 1, AFSOC/DO on 15 March 2000 at Hurlburt Field, Florida. The unit designation was changed to Detachment 1, 16th Operations Group on 10 August 2000 to align it with the group charged with providing aircraft and personnel who would help build the course. 29th Weapons Squadron Little Rock AFB, Arkansas 1 June 2003 C-130 Hercules Tactical airlift training. Was incorporated from the USAF Mobility Weapons School, 5 July 2006. 57th Weapons Squadron McChord AFB, Washington 1 June 2003 C-17 Globemaster III Strategic airlift training. Was incorporated from the USAF Mobility Weapons School, 5 July 2006. 77th Weapons Squadron Dyess AFB, Texas 3 February 2003 B-1 Lancer Tactical bombardment training. Initially activated as the Weapons School B-1 Division on 28 August 1992. 325th Weapons Squadron Whiteman AFB, Missouri 9 September 2005 B-2 Spirit Advanced stealth bomber training. Replaced 715th Weapons Squadron (13 August 2003 – 9 September 2005) Initially activated as the B-2 Division in May 2002 340th Weapons Squadron Barksdale AFB, Louisiana 3 February 2003 B-52 Stratofortress Strategic Bombardment training. Initially activated as the Weapons School B-52 Division on 1 October 1989. 509th Weapons Squadron Fairchild AFB, Washington 1 June 2003 KC-135 Stratotanker Aerial refueling training. Was incorporated from the USAF Mobility Weapons School, 5 July 2006. Inactive units * A-7D Division (1972–1981) * F-4 Division (1972–1985) * F-111 Division (1972–1992) * 417th Weapons Squadron, F-117 Nighthawk, Holloman AFB, New Mexico * 715th Weapons Squadron, B-2, Whiteman AFB, Missouri ===Stations=== * Nellis AFB, NV, 1 Jan – 1 Sep 1966; 30 Dec 1981 – present ==See also== * NAWDC (USN/USMC equivalent, delivering Naval Air Weapons Courses, including TOPGUN) * ASWC (UK Royal Air Force equivalent, delivering the Qualified Weapons Instructor (QWI) courses.) ==References== * Nellis 57th Wing Fact Sheet * AFHRA USAF Weapons School ==External links== * United States Air Force Weapons School * Air & Space Smithsonian article about USAF Fighter Weapons School in 1957(or archived copy) Category:Las Vegas Valley Category:Military in Nevada Category:Staff colleges of the United States |
Leslie Robert Burks (July 4, 1909 – May 11, 1968) was an American cinematographer who worked in many different film genres and collaborated several times with Alfred Hitchcock. == Biography == Robert Burks was born in Chino, California on July 4, 1909. At age nineteen, he began working as a special effects technician in the Warner Brother's Lab, the industry's largest special effects facility at the time. Burks was promoted to assistant cameraman in 1929, to operating cameraman in 1934, and to special effects cinematographer in 1938. He was promoted to Director of Photography in 1944. With his last promotion at age 35, Burks became the youngest fully accredited DP in the industry. Burks left Warner Bros. alongside Alfred Hitchcock in the fall of 1953 in favor of a move to Paramount. Burks first Director of Photography credit was Jammin' the Blues (1944), a short film featuring leading jazz musicians of the day. Burks is best known for his cinematography in a number of collaborations with director Alfred Hitchcock throughout the 1950s and 1960s. In his twenty five years as a DP, Burks worked on 55 features. Notable credits include The Fountainhead, Beyond the Forest, The Glass Menagerie, The Spirit of St. Louis, The Music Man, and A Patch of Blue. In 1968, Burks died at the age of 58 alongside his wife, Elisabeth, in a fire at their home in Huntington Harbor, California. == Legacy == === Cinematographic style === Burks' cinematography is notable for its wide stylistic range. This cinematographic range gave Burks an ability to support strong directorial vision with techniques and stylistic choices that tended to remain "invisible" to the viewer, rarely calling attention to themselves. Burks time in special effects played a large part in the meticulous planning he did before arriving on set. From the beginning of his career, Burks was known for a high level of involvement in the pre-production of the films he worked on, something that was uncommon for cinematographers at this time. He would next utilize miniature models of each of the films sets in order to pre- plan every lighting and camera setup in the film. This high level of planning bolstered Burks reputation for accuracy and precision when it came to technical set ups that were often unconventional. According to film scholar Christopher Beach, Burks' artistic risks resulted in some of the most visually striking films of all time. Burks was nominated for four Academy Awards, including both best black and white photography and best color photography. Burks' only Oscar win was for To Catch a Thief, which is renowned as "a magnificent example of VistaVision technique." When describing Burks, Byron Haskin, ASC, stated that, "his work is thoroughly excellent in every respect... [He is] honest, straightforward, resourceful and, in the true sense, a gentlemen." ==== Cinematography in The Wrong Man (1956) ==== Burks' cinematography in the black and white photography of Hitchcock's The Wrong Man has been described as "bleakly neorealist," but its precise visual style is hard to pinpoint, instead falling "somewhere between documentary realism and film noir, with elements of Italian neorealism and moments of modernist expressionism." Hitchcock initially intended the film to be highly realist and shot entirely on location in such a way that it felt incredibly documentary, a notion that is in keeping with the films basis in a true story. Ultimately, this was not the case, and The Wrong Man required technical flexibility, as it was shot both on location in New York City and on set in Hollywood, despite appearing to be entirely on location. The demands of on location shooting in New York relied on a lighting scheme of small portable Garnelite lamps, a new invention at this time, while the remainder of the film shot in Hollywood depended on an innovative lighting scheme to imitate the naturalistic style of the on location footage. Beyond the basic level of creating uniform lighting schemes from one location to the next, Burks' lighting style was highly intertwined with the thematics and mood of the film. He frequently utilized the lighting scheme in The Wrong Man to create a cross hatched shadow that "invoked the dominant theme of imprisonment and... of crucifixion". This visual style was supported by frequent extreme camera angles and wide angle lenses that, unlike most of Burks' photography, did call attention to themselves and, in doing so, imbued the film with a notable noir quality. These highly crafted and precise technical and artistic decisions diverge from the explicitly realist documentary style Hitchcock initially sought, and Beach notes that they reflect Burks' flexibility and capability to capture the essence of the narrative mood with his photography. ==== Cinematography in The Birds (1963) ==== The Birds was highly reliant upon Burks' background in special effects, and is often considered to be his greatest technical achievement. Of the film's 1,500 plus shots (three times more than the usual number of shots in a production of the period), more than 400 were either trick or composite shots. The film has an affinity for closeups, particularly of Tippi Hedren, often employing heavy diffusion and a lighting scheme that utilizes a frontal slightly off-camera key that was directional in addition to an eyelight next to the camera as well as some backlight. One of the greatest challenges lay in the realism of the birds themselves, which were initially all mechanical models intended to appear natural. Burks was not satisfied with the look of these fake birds, and instead proposed the use of a combination of real birds and special effects that would allow the birds to appear more realistic. Along with special effects editor Brad Hoffman, Burks used his knowledge of special effects to manipulate pre-existing footage of birds that could then be utilized in the film. In the end, Burks spent over a year planning, shooting, reshooting, and overseeing special effects on The Birds to create what is now seen in the final cut. Burks was also involved in one of the film's most famous and technically impressive scenes, which occurs at its conclusion in the shot of the Brenner's driveway. It required a combination of thirty two different exposures as well as one of Whitlock's matte paintings. Hitchcock stated, "If Bob Burks and the rest of us hadn't been technicians ourselves the film would have cost $5 million [instead of $3 million]." Brad Hoffman further lauded Burks' contribution, saying the film "never could have been made [without Burks]. It was his persistence in doing these shots over and over that made The Birds the classic it is today." ===== Cinematography in Marnie (1964) ===== Marnie, the final collaboration between Hitchcock and Burks, is often referenced as Burks' greatest cinematographic achievement. The film plays with extremes of color as well as exploring the manipulation of telephoto and wide-angle lenses, garnering reactions that were equally extreme. While some lauded the film for its experimental nature, others found the radical style "audacious" and "visually clumsy." The film was highly indicative of the art cinema movement of the 1960s, and according to James Morrison in the International Directory of Films and Filmmakers, the film's experimental style was ahead of its time. In terms of color, "the film avoids warm and bright colors, instead emphasizing subdued tones that would allow for the selective use of two primary colors: red and yellow." This experimentation with color was particularly effective in flashback sequences, where tones were highly desaturated to evoke the feeling of a long suppressed memory. Burks' voyeuristic camera movement in the film was more radical than anything he had done previously, alternating between "tightly framed compositions shot with 50mm fixed lenses and striking camera moves, including backward and forward zooms, elaborate tracking shots pans, crane shots, Dutch angles, and even the combination zoom and dolly shot." As in The Birds, the film also uses extreme close ups of Tippi Hedren. According to Hitchcock biographer Donald Spoto, the director gave Burks "unusual instructions about photographing her face – the camera was to come as close as possible, the lenses were almost to make love to her. For a scene in which she is kissed by Sean Connery, the close-up is so tight, the frame filled so fully with pressing lips, that the tone is virtually pornographic." === Burks and Hitchcock === Burks is best known for his collaborative relationship with director Alfred Hitchcock, acting as cinematographer on twelve of Hitchcock's films in the 1950s and 1960s. Burks' prior experience with special effects complemented Hitchcock's own affinity for special effects . The pair's partnership began with Hitchcock's 1951 Strangers on a Train, which garnered Burks his first Oscar nomination. The pair's collaborations also include: I Confess (1953), Dial M For Murder (1954, 3-D, Warner Color), Rear Window (1954, Technicolor), To Catch a Thief (1955, VistaVision, Technicolor), The Trouble with Harry (1955, VistaVision, Technicolor), The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956, VistaVision, Technicolor), The Wrong Man (1956), Vertigo (1958, VistaVision, Technicolor), North by Northwest (1959, VistaVision, Technicolor), The Birds (1963, Technicolor), and Marnie (1964, Technicolor). Hitchcock's own proficiency in special effects made his directorial style a good match for Burks, allowing for cinematographic experimentation, as his writing often prompted "unusual camera imagery." ==== Other collaborators ==== In addition to Hitchcock, Burks did work with a number of other directors on multiple projects: Delmer Daves: To the Victor, A Kiss in the Dark, and Task Force Don Siegel: Hitler Lives! and Star in the Night King Vidor: The Fountainhead and Beyond the Forest Gordon Douglas: Come Fill the Cup, Mara Maru, and So This is Love (The Grace Moore Story) John Farrow: Hondo, The Boy from Oklahoma Robert Mulligan: The Rat Race and The Great Imposter A particularly important relationship was that of Burks and operative cameraman Leonard J. South, who worked alongside Burks on all twelve films he photographed for Hitchcock. Another important Hitchcock collaborator, screenwriter John Michael Hayes, stated that Burks "gave Hitchcock marvelous ideas [and] contributed greatly to every picture [he shot] during those years." === Other important works === In the early years of his career as a DP at Warner Bros, Burks worked on projects with prominent directors, including Task Force (Delmer Daves, 1948), The Fountainhead (King Vidor, 1949), Beyond the Forest (Vidor, 1949), The Glass Menagerie (Irving Rapper, 1950), and The Enforcer (Bretaigne Windust and Raoul Walsh, 1950). Burks' cinematography on The Fountainhead was recognized by the Motion Picture Academy on the short list for the ten best photographed black and white films of 1949. == Filmography == === Films as special effects photographer === * Marked Woman, 1937 * Brother Orchid, 1940 * A Dispatch from Reuters, 1940 * They Drive by Night, 1940 * The Story of Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet, 1940 * King's Row, 1941 * Highway West, 1941 * In This Our Life, 1942 * Arsenic and Old Lace, 1944 * Pride of the Marines, 1945 * God Is My Co-Pilot, 1945 * Night and Day, 1946 * The Verdict, 1946 * The Two Mrs. Carrolls, 1947 * My Wild Irish Rose, 1947 * Possessed, 1947 * The Unfaithful, 1947 * Cry Wolf, 1947 * The Unsuspected, 1947 * The Woman in White, 1948 * Key Largo, 1948 * Romance on the High Seas, 1948 * Smart Girls Don't Talk, 1948 * John Loves Mary, 1949 * The Younger Brothers, 1949 * The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima, 1952 === Films as cinematographer: === * Jammin' the Blues, 1944 * Make Your Own Bed, 1944 * Escape in the Desert, 1945 * Hitler Lives!, 1945 * Star in the Night, 1945 * To the Victor, 1948 * A Kiss in the Dark, 1948 * Task Force, 1949 * The Fountainhead, 1949 * Beyond the Forest, 1949 * The Glass Menagerie, 1950 * Room for One More, 1951 * Close to My Heart, 1951 * The Enforcer, 1951 * Strangers on a Train, 1951 * Tomorrow is Another Day, 1951 * Come Fill the Cup, 1951 * Mara Maru, 1952 * I Confess, 1953 * The Desert Song, 1953 * Hondo, 1953 * The Boy from Oklahoma, 1953 * So This Is Love, 1953 * Dial M for Murder, 1954 * Rear Window, 1954 * To Catch a Thief, 1955 * The Trouble with Harry, 1955 * The Man Who Knew Too Much, 1956 * The Vagabond King, 1956 * The Wrong Man, 1956 * The Spirit of St. Louis, 1957 * Vertigo, 1958 * The Black Orchid, 1958 * North By Northwest, 1959 * But Not for Me, 1959 * The Rat Race, 1960 * The Great Imposter, 1960 * The Pleasure of His Company, 1961 * The Music Man, 1962 * The Birds, 1963 * Marnie, 1964 * Once a Thief, 1965 * A Patch of Blue, 1965 * A Covenant with Death, 1966 * Waterhole #3, 1967 ==Academy Awards== Nominee - Best Black and White Photography Strangers on a Train 1951 Nominee - Best Color Photography Rear Window 1954 Winner - Best Color Photography To Catch a Thief 1955 Nominee - Best Black and White Photography A Patch of Blue 1965 ==References== ==External links and further reading== * * *"Hitchcock Blonde" by Stephen Pizzello. American Cinematographer; Oct 2012; 93,10; Screen Studies Collection Category:1909 births Category:1968 deaths Category:American cinematographers Category:Accidental deaths in California Category:Best Cinematographer Academy Award winners Category:Deaths from fire in the United States Category:People from Chino, California |
The University of Kashmir (UoK), informally known as Kashmir University (KU), is a collegiate public state university located on the western side of Dal Lake in the city of Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir which was established in 1948. The main campus of the university is divided into three parts; Hazratbal Campus, Naseem Bagh Campus, and Mirza Bagh Campus. The university offers undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral programs in the fields of liberal arts, business, commerce & management studies, education, law, applied sciences & Technology, biological sciences, physical & material sciences, social sciences, medicine, dentistry, engineering, oriental learning, and music & fine arts. It has been awarded Grade "A+" by the NAAC on 20 May 2019. It has also been awarded rank "33" by NIRF ranking 2023. ==History== The inception of the University of Kashmir dates back to the establishment of Jammu and Kashmir University in 1948. Contribution of academicians of various faculties needs special mention. Notable alumni are spread around globe, have made a name for country and for the university. In 1969, it was made into two full-fledged universities: University of Kashmir at Srinagar and University of Jammu at Jammu. The University of Kashmir, since its establishment, has been focused at Hazratbal and encompasses three adjacent areas: Amar Singh Bagh, Naseem Bagh and Mirza Bagh. This campus is spread over . It is the largest university by a number of full-time students in the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. A major part of Amar Singh Bagh and Naseem Bagh constitute the Hazratbal campus which is laid out on the northeastern bank of Dal Lake. Earlier, many postgraduate departments, research and other centres were housed in Naseem Bagh. But the university resolved to develop Naseem Bagh into a heritage site and, thereafter, many departments were shifted to other areas of the Hazratbal campus. Zakura Campus is being developed on 300 kanals of land in close proximity to Hazratbal campus to meet expansion requirements of the university. Mirza Bagh or "University Town" constitutes buildings housing quarters for the university staff. The idea of extending postgraduate programmes to colleges and establishing new campuses at Ananthnag and Baramulla was conceived by the then Vice Chancellor Prof Raees ahmad in 2002. He mobilised over 30 crores for the development of the university from the prime minister's fund for the overall development of the main campus and the establishment of the new campuses. The foundation stones were laid by Mufti Muhammad Sayeed and the plans of buildings were approved. The locations of the campuses had to be changed because of likely floods. After Prof Tareen the development of campuses took a long time and became operational in 2008/2009. The new social science block, the life science block, the examination block, the humanities block, the distance education block, the media block and many other buildings were constructed in 2001 and 2004 during Prof Tareen's period out of the PMs special fund. The 200-capacity convention centre was also completed. The South Campus established on 259 kanals of land at Fateh Garh, Anantnag was started in October 2008. The North Campus on 559 kanals at Delina, Baramulla was started in December 2009. Three more campuses at Kupwara, Kargil and Leh are coming up. == Present form == There are 12 faculties, 47 academic departments, 21 centres, 36 colleges and six (privately managed) recognised institutes spread all over the state. The two largest departments in student enrolment include Faculty of Law and the Business School. The Faculty of Law being one of the oldest departments runs three courses LLB, LLM and B.A, LLB(Hons). The department's student body, "Law Society," actively organises debates, seminars, and moot court competitions. The faculty publishes a refereed research journal, Kashmir University Law Review (KULR). The business school has been renamed as the Department of management studies Pre the naac vist that was held in 2019. It was changed because they added a some other courses as well and thus the name Department of management studies other than the business school. It is still called as the business school but on papers the name has changed The courses offered by the department of Media Education Research Centre (MERC) are in mass communication and journalism. In 2014 the university started its engineering college – Institute of Technology at the newly acquired Zakura Campus. Currently, the college offers four-year BTech courses in Mechanical Engineering, Electronics and Communication Engineering and Electrical Engineering. ==Campus== The university has 247 acres campus in Hazratbal. In order to make education more accessible to people living in remote areas of Kashmir valley, the university has established Satellite Campuses at Anantnag (South Campus), Zakura Campus (Institute of Technology), and Baramulla (North Campus). Three more Satellite Campuses at Kupwara, Kargil and Leh are being established. thumb|University Convocation Complex (December 2011) ===Library=== The university has a central library called Allama Iqbal Library. It has a collection of over 600,000 books including 415 rare manuscripts. It was established to cater the needs of scholars, researchers and students of the university. With the split of university in 1969, the library was shared by the two universities (University of Kashmir and University of Jammu). ===Hostels=== The university provides residential facilities on a first-come-first-served basis to the teaching and non-teaching staff as well as to students. *Gani Kashmiri Hostel for research scholars pursuing M.Phil. and PhD programmes *Habba Khatoon Girls Hostel for female students *Mehboob-ul-Aalam Hostel for postgraduates male students *Shiekh-ul- Aalam (A.R) Hostel for male students *Maulana Anwar Shah Kashmiri Hostel for male students ==Affiliated colleges== The University of Kashmir has 45 affiliated and 21 constituent colleges. thumb|Side view of the main building of Government Degree College, Sopore Constituent colleges *Government Medical College, Srinagar *Government Medical College, Anantnag *Government Medical College, Baramulla *Government Dental College, Srinagar *Government College of Education, Srinagar *Institute of Music & Fine Arts, Srinagar *Government College of Physical Education, Ganderbal *DOEACC, Rangreth Srinagar *Composite Regional Centre Permanently affiliated government colleges *Islamia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar *Government College for Women, Anantnag *Government College for Women, Baramulla *Government College for Women, Nawakadal Srinagar *Government Degree College for Boys, Anantnag *Government College for Boys, Baramulla *Government Degree College, Bemina *Government Degree College, Kupwara *Government Degree College, Sogam lolab *Government Degree College, Handwara *Government Degree College, Sopore *Government Degree College, Pulwama *Government Degree College, Tral *Government Degree College, Shopian *Government Degree College, Ganderbal *Government Degree College, Kulgam *Government Degree College, Kelam *Government Degree College, Doru *Government Degree College, Pattan *Government Degree College, Beerwah *Government Degree College, Uri *Government Degree College, Bijbehara *Government Degree College, Budgam *Government Degree College, Bandipora *Government Degree College for Women, Sopore *Government Model Degree College Tangmarg Gulmarg *Vishwa Bharti Women's College, Srinagar *Government Degree College, Bomai Sopore ==Organisation and administration== ===Faculties, departments, and centres=== *School of Arts, Languages and Literature **Department of Arabic **Department of Urdu **Department of English **Department of Kashmiri **Department of Foreign Languages **Department of Library and Information Science **Department of Linguistics **Department of Persian **Department of Sanskrit **Department of Hindi *School of Social Sciences **Department of Economics **Department of History **Department of Shah-i-Hamadan(A.R) Institute of Islamic Studies **Media Education Research Center (MERC) **Department of Political Science **Department of Sociology & Social Work **Department of Psychology **Department of Philosophy **Department of Library & Information Sciences (LIS) *Faculty of Business & Financial Studies & Management **Department of Business & Financial Studies (Erstwhile department of Commerce) **Department of Management Studies *Faculty of Education **Department of Education **Department of Physical Education *Faculty of Medicine *Faculty of Dentistry *School of Unani and Ayurvedic Medicine *Faculty of Engineering **Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering (Zakura Campus) **Department of Mechanical Engineering (Zakura Campus) **Department of Electrical Engineering (Zakura Campus) **Department of Civil Engineering (Zakura Campus) **Department of Computer Science and Engineering (North Campus, Delina Baramulla) *Faculty of Law **Department of Law *Faculty of Music & Fine Arts *Faculty of Oriental Learning *Faculty of Biological Sciences **Department of Botany **Department of Biochemistry **Department of Zoology **Department of Biotechnology **Department of Clinical Biochemistry *Faculty of Physical & Material Sciences **Department of Chemistry **Department of Geology & Geophysics **Department of Mathematics **Department of Physics **Department of Statistics *School of Earth and Environment Sciences **Department of Earth Sciences **Department of Environmental Science **Department of Geography & Regional Development **Department of Geoinformatics *Faculty of Applied Sciences & Technology **Electronics & Instrumentation Technology **Institute of Home Science **Pharmaceutical Science **Department of Computer Science **Department of Food Science & Technology **Department of Information Technology ( currently under IT&SS;) *Centres **Directorate of Physical Education & Sports **Directorate of Distance Education **Directorate of Life Long Learning **Directorate of Information Technology & Support System (IT & SS) **Directorate of Internal Quality Assurance (DIQA) **Directorate of Watch & Ward **Directorate of Hygiene & Environment **Directorate of Convocation Complex **Centre of Central Asian Studies (CCAS) **Centre of Research for Development (CORD) **Centre for Energy Studies **Centre for Biodiversity & Taxonomy **University Science & Instrumentation Centre **Educational Multimedia Research Centre (EMMRC) **State Resource Centre (SRC) **Public Relations Centre (PRC) **Centre for Career Planning and Counselling(CCPC) **Population Research Centre (PRC) **Allama Iqbal(A.R) Institute of Culture & Philosophy **Institute of Music & Fine Arts **Regional Study Center *Faculty of Nursing ==Academics== University of Kashmir offers 107 courses across 11 streams at undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral level. Under undergraduate programme, the university offers three-year Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Commerce, Bachelor of Law and Bachelor of Science streams, four-year Bachelor of Technology and five-year integrated BA LLB courses in different specializations. Under postgraduate programme, the university offers two-year Master of Arts, Master of Business Administration, MBA-FM, Master of Social Work, Master of Commerce, Master of Technology, Master of Pharmacy and Master of Computer Applications courses. These courses are offered by different schools of specialisations which fall under their respective departments and faculties. ===Scholarships=== ===Merit scholarships=== Students selected for admission to various courses/programmes in the university are eligible to receive two merit scholarships which are paid to the top two merit holders. Merit scholarship in favour of previous year paid students is granted on the basis of merit in the entrance test to the course. In the final year, it is awarded on the basis of merit in the M.A/ MSc/ M.Com./ MLIS Previous/ 1st & 2nd semester examination. The scholarship is granted from the date of admission to the course up to the last date of the examination, subject to a maximum period of 12 calendar months. ===Research scholarships=== There are six departmental scholarships in each Department/Research Centre awarded for research leading to the award of PhD/M.Phil. degrees in addition to contingency grant payable annually for meeting miscellaneous expenses. The amount of scholarship paid to each selected scholar is Rs 10000/= per month for the period of maximum three years. ===Students aid=== The university has adopted a scheme called "Student Aid Fund" under which financial assistance is extended to students, particularly the meritorious ones from low-income groups. The Kashmir University Alumni Association also provides financial assistance to students with poor economic backgrounds with preference given to students who are orphans. ===Rankings=== Internationally, the University of Kashmir was ranked 451–500 in Asia in the QS World University Rankings for 2023. In India, the QS World University Rankings ranked the University of Kashmir 56-60 and the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) ranked it 78th overall. and 48th among universities in 2020. ==Sports== The Directorate of Physical Education & Sports was established in the university in the year 1948 with the objective of promoting sports culture among the youth for the overall development of personality. Since then, it has hosted various inter-university tournaments in various sports like water skiing, kayaking, canoeing, surfing, sailing, and dragon boating at zonal and national levels. The university students have also earned laurels to the university in International Winter Sports Championships. Adventure sports like mountaineering and trekking have also been introduced. Several training camps are also organised in the university to train the students pursuing different courses. The university has cricket, hockey, football, volleyball, handball, baseball, tennis, and basketball courts/fields and gyms within the main campus. ==Notable alumni== *Agha Shahid Ali *Ayub Thakur *Bilal Nazki *Farooq Kathwari *Farooq Nazki *Ghulam Nabi Azad *Karan Singh *Mansoor Ahmad Mir *Mehbooba Mufti *Mirwaiz Umar Farooq *Saifuddin Soz *Syed Salahuddin *Sunanda Pushkar *Tarannum Riyaz *Z. G. Muhammad *Mohammad Yaqoob Mir *Malik Sajad *Davoud Danesh-Jafari, Iranian politician and economist, former was minister of economy and finance affairs of Iran ==See also== *University of Kashmir Convocation Complex *Central University of Kashmir *Cluster University of Srinagar *National Institute of Technology, Srinagar *Foreshore Road ==References== ==External links== * Category:Educational institutions established in 1956 Category:Universities in Jammu and Kashmir University of Kashmir Category:Srinagar district Category:1956 establishments in Jammu and Kashmir |
The Troopers Drum and Bugle Corps is a World Class competitive junior drum and bugle corps. Based in Casper, Wyoming, the Troopers was one of the thirteen founding member corps of Drum Corps International (DCI). ==History== ===The early years=== James E. "Jim" Jones, a Casper, Wyoming building contractor and a veteran of the World War II United States Army Air Forces founded the Troopers Drum and Bugle Corps in 1957 as an activity for local youth. In his own youth, Jones had won the American Legion individual snare drum championship while a member of Casper's Sons of the American Legion drum and bugle corps, in which he had also been the corps manager from age fifteen. He decided to name the new corps the Troopers to honor the 11th Ohio Cavalry Regiment, a United States Army unit stationed at Fort Caspar, Wyoming Territory, to protect supply trains during the Indian Wars of the 19th Century. In order to fund the new corps, Jones took out a $4,000 loan to purchase drums and bugles. In its first season, the Troopers were sponsored by the Casper American Legion post, were strictly a parade corps, and made the corps' first appearance at the State American Legion Convention in Riverton, Wyoming. In 1958, the corps entered its first field competitions. As it was necessary for the Troopers to travel extensively to compete in drum and bugle corps competitions, Jones chartered passenger buses to carry the Troopers across and around the country on trips that would last for several weeks, making the corps a "touring corps", a concept that was unusual at the time. Their first national contest was the 1961 American Legion Championships in Denver, where the corps finished fourth. The Troopers' first major victory was in the 1965 World Open in Bridgeport, Connecticut. In 1966, the Troopers won the VFW Nationals. In 1967, the Wyoming State Legislature designated the Troopers as Wyoming's Musical Ambassadors. The corps won the CYO Nationals three years in a row, from 1968 to 1970. In 1970, they won their second VFW National Championship in Miami Beach, added their third CYO title in Boston, and appeared on national TV during the halftime of a Minnesota Vikings NFL game. In 1971, the Troopers were the stars of a television special, "The Troopers Are Coming", narrated by actor Walter Brennan. === The Drum Corps International era === thumb|The Troopers in 2021|295x295pxIn 1971, at the urging of Jim Jones and Cavaliers founder Don Warren, the Blue Stars, Cavaliers, Madison Scouts, Santa Clara Vanguard, and the Troopers formed the Midwest Combine. This action was taken in reaction to the rigid, inflexible rules of the American Legion and VFW (the primary rule makers and sponsors of both corps and shows) and the low or nonexistent performance fees paid for appearing in the various competitions. The corps felt that not only were they having their creative potential as artistic performing groups stifled, but they were being financially starved. (A similar group of Eastern corps, the United Organization of Junior Corps, known as the "Alliance", was formed by the 27th Lancers, Garfield Cadets, Boston Crusaders, Blessed Sacrament Golden Knights, and Blue Rock.) The Combine members felt that the corps should be making their own rules, operating their own competitions and championships, and keeping the bulk of the profit that shows earned. For the 1971 season, the group of corps stuck together, offering show promoters the five corps as a package. In 1972, the Troopers, along with the nine other corps from the Midwest Combine and the Alliance, plus the Anaheim Kingsmen, Argonne Rebels, and De La Salle Oaklands became the founding members of Drum Corps International, which remains as the current sanctioning body for junior corps in North America. At the first DCI World Championships in Whitewater, Wisconsin, the Troopers finished in sixth place. For DCI's first four years, Troopers were an annual finalists. Jim Jones retired as the Troopers' director in 1987. In 2005, the DCI Board of Directors suspended the Troopers from competition for non-compliance with membership rules. The corps was inactive for the 2006 season, while they reorganized. On October 3, 2006, the Troopers were reinstated as a DCI Division I corps. The Troopers returned to competition for the 2007 season. In 2021, corps director Kristy Jackson stepped down after facing allegations of gross negligence. Michael Gough replaced her in January of the same year. == Show summary (1972–2023)== Source: Key Pale green background indicates DCI World Class Semifinalist Pale blue background indicates DCI World Class Finalist Year Repertoire Score Placement 1972 Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones / Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe / Cincinnati Kid by Lalo Schifrin & Dorcas Cochran / When Johnny Comes Marching Home by Louis Lambert (Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore) / How the West Was Won by Alfred Newman 81.95 6th Place Open Class Finalist 1973 Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones / The Eagle Screams by Nelson Riddle / Black Saddle by Michael Hennagin / Wedding Dance (from Hassaneh Suite) by Jacques Press / Thanksgiving Hymn by Eduard Kremser / Day By Day (from Godspell) by Stephen Schwartz / Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe 86.15 2nd Place Open Class Finalist 1974 Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones / Yankee Doodle (Traditional) / Yellow Rose of Texas (Traditional) / The Virginian by Percy Faith / Tubular Bells by Mike Oldfield / Thanksgiving Prayer by Eduard Kremser / Day By Day (from Godspell) by Stephen Schwartz / Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe 85.65 5th Place Open Class Finalist 1975 Introduction and Fantasia by Rex Mitchell / Tubular Bells by Mike Oldfield / Gentle On My Mind by John Hartford / Night on Bald Mountain by Modest Mussorgsky / The Virginian by Percy Faith / No Goodbye (from How the West Was Won) by Alfred Newman / Bound for the Promised Land (from How the West Was Won) by Ken Darby & Robert Emmett Dolan 76.20 12th Place Open Class Finalist 1976 Roundabout by Jon Anderson & Steve Howe (Yes) / Alabama Jubilee by George L. Cobb & Jack Yellen / Land of Make Believe by Chuck Mangione / Looking for Space by John Denver / Jet by Paul & Linda McCartney (Wings) 82.75 13th Place Open Class 1977 Hang 'em High by Dominic Frontiere / When Johnny Comes Marching Home by Louis Lambert (Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore) / Rodeo by Aaron Copland / Drunken Cowboy / Billy's Death (from Billy the Kid) & Hoedown (from Rodeo) by Aaron Copland / Farandole by Georges Bizet / Bound for the Promised Land (from How the West Was Won) by Ken Darby & Robert Emmett Dolan / Shenandoah (Traditional) / Wild Wild West by Richard Markowitz 78.80 20th Place Open Class 1978 Hang 'em High by Dominic Frontiere / American Salute by Morton Gould / Maple Leaf Rag by Scott Joplin / Rodeo & Hoedown (from Rodeo) by Aaron Copland / Farandole by Georges Bizet / The Ballad of Billy the Kid by Billy Joel / The Ecstasy of Gold by Ennio Morricone 74.25 20th Place Open Class 1979 Variations on a Scene by Alan Broadbent / Aquarius & Let The Sunshine In (from Hair) by Galt MacDermot, James Rado & Gerome Ragni / The Ballad of Billy the Kid by Billy Joel / The Ecstasy of Gold by Ennio Morricone / Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones 77.90 12th Place Open Class Finalist 1980 Theme from The Cowboys by John Williams / Shenandoah (Traditional) / Turkey in the Straw (Traditional) / Central Park by Chick Corea / The Ecstasy of Gold by Ennio Morricone / Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones 76.65 14th Place Open Class 1981 Theme from The Cowboys by John Williams / Turkey in the Straw (Traditional) / Central Park by Chick Corea / En Sueno by Albert Kunzelmann / Shenandoah (Traditional) / Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe 78.10 12th Place Open Class Finalist 1982 Wabash Cannonball (Traditional) / En Sueno by Albert Kunzelmann / Shenandoah (Traditional) / Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe 77.60 14th Place Open Class 1983 25th Anniversary Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones / Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe / Pops Hoedown by Richard Hayman / It Was a Very Good Year by Ervin Drake / How the West Was Won by Alfred Newman 76.85 15th Place Open Class Semifinalist 1984 Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe / Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones / High Noon by Dimitri Tiomkin & Ned Washington / The Aggie Song (from The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas) by Carol Hall 85.20 13th Place Open Class Semifinalist 1985 Symphonic Dance No. 3 - Fiesta by Clifton Williams / Third Symphony, Buckaroo Holiday (from Rodeo) & The Red Pony by Aaron Copland 86.70 9th Place Open Class Finalist 1986 American Salute by Morton Gould / Silverado by Bruce Broughton / Prayer of Thanksgiving (Traditional) / The Red Pony by Aaron Copland / Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe 83.50 11th Place Open Class Finalist 1987 He's Gone Away (Traditional) / American Overture by Morton Gould / Third Symphony by Aaron Copland / When Johnny Comes Marching Home by Louis Lambert (Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore) 81.00 17th Place Open Class Semifinalist 1988 Magnificent Seven by Elmer Bernstein / Corral Nocturne & Hoedown (from Rodeo) by Aaron Copland / Silverado by Bruce Broughton 77.80 19th Place Open Class Semifinalist 1989 How the West Was Won How the West Was Won, Cheyennes & No Goodbyes by Lionel Newman / Bound for the Promised Land by Ken Darby & Robert Emmett Dolan 78.00 18th Place Open Class 1990 Music for the Centennial of the State of Wyoming How the West Was Won by Alfred Newman / Silverado by Bruce Broughton / Pop's Hoedown by Richard Hayman / Shenandoah (Traditional) / America the Beautiful by Samuel A. Ward & Katharine Lee Bates 80.25 17th Place Open Class Semifinalist 1991 The Cowboys from Sunset / Lonesome Dove by Basil Poledouris / Oklahoma Crude by Henry Mancini / Orange Blossom Special by Ervin T. Rouse / Music from Dances With Wolves by John Barry / America the Beautiful by Samuel A. Ward & Katharine Lee Bates 74.90 21st Place Open Class 1992 A Western Odyssey Flag of Stars by Gordon Jacob / Cool, Clear Water by Bob Nolan / Unsquare Dance by Dave Brubeck / The Ecstasy of Gold by Ennio Morricone / Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones 76.10 19th Place Division I 1993 The Last Crossing: East Moves West Ashokan Farewell by Jay Ungar / Cheyennes (from How the West Was Won) by Alfred Newman / Western Overture by Thom Ritter George / Charles County Overture by Joseph Willcox Jenkins / Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe 77.10 19th Place Division I 1994 Southwestern Sketches Sunrise by Fred Taylor / Scherzo by John Cheetham / Santa Fe Saga by Morton Gould / Symphonic Dance No. 3 - Fiesta by Clifton Williams 81.60 14th Place Division I Semifinalist 1995 A Copland Canvas Third Symphony, Mvt. 4; Fanfare for the Common Man & Appalachian Spring by Aaron Copland 80.70 14th Place Division I Semifinalist 1996 American Jubilee The Wind and The Lion by Jerry Goldsmith / Shenandoah (Traditional) / Outdoor Overture by Aaron Copland / Camptown Races by Stephen Foster 74.40 19th Place Division I 1997 American Salute by Morton Gould / The Way West by Bronisław Kaper / Magnificent Seven by Elmer Bernstein / America the Beautiful by Samuel A. Ward & Katharine Lee Bates 68.00 20th Place Division I 1998 Forging a Frontier The Getaway (from Silverado), The Family (from Tombstone) & McKendrick Attack (from Silverado) by Bruce Broughton / Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones 68.60 24th Place Division I 1999 Billy the Kid Billy the Kid by Aaron Copland 73.80 21st Place Division I 2000 Symphony of Freedom America the Beautiful by Samuel A. Ward & Katharine Lee Bates / America's Struggle (Original) / America (from West Side Story) by Leonard Bernstein & Stephen Sondheim / Amazing Grace by John Newton, adapted by William Walker / Stars and Stripes Forever by John Philip Sousa 73.65 19th Place Division I 2001 Tribute to An Uncommon Man Outdoor Overture, El Salon Mexico & Down a Country Lane by Aaron Copland / Chorale & Shaker Dance by John Zdechlik 76.20 19th Place Division I 2002 Red, White and Blue Javelin by Michael Torke / American Elegy by Frank Ticheli / Into the Storm (from Stormworks) by Stephen Melillo 75.55 21st Place Division I 2003 Reflections of the Blue and Gray The Great Locomotive Chase by Robert W. Smith / Gently Flows the Amber Grain by Brian Scott / Battle Music by David Holsinger / Masque by Kenneth Hesketh 75.45 22nd Place Division I 2004 The Troopers Are Coming Carriage of the Spirits & The Chase (from The Good, the Bad and the Ugly) by Ennio Morricone / America the Beautiful by Samuel A. Ward & Katharine Lee Bates / Shenandoah (Traditional) / Finishing It by Bruce Broughton / Down in the Valley (Traditional) / Rodeo by Paul Hart / Houston by David Benoit / Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones / Magnificent Seven by Elmer Bernstein / Taps by Daniel Butterfield 74.925 23rd Place Division I 2005 Gold Rush The Gates of Gold (for Violin and Orchestra) by Joseph Curiale / Death by Triple Fiddle by Sam Bush & Mike Marshall / She'll Be Comin' Round The Mountain (Traditional) 71.675 22nd Place Division I 2006 Corps inactive 2007 Awakening Joy (from Awakening) by Joseph Curiale / Unsquare Dance by Dave Brubeck / Ever Braver, Ever Stronger by Gordon Goodwin / American Faces by David Holsinger 77.55 20th Place Division I 2008 Iron Horse Express Ghost Riders in the Sky by Stan Jones / Canyon of Heroes by Sean O'Loughlin / The Ghost Train Triptych by Eric Whitacre / Sasparilla by John Mackey / Song of the Gandy Dancers by Richard Saucedo / The Great Revival by William Gordon 81.10 16th Place World Class Semifinalist 2009 Western Side Story Cave by Russell Peck / Maria & Somewhere (from West Side Story) by Leonard Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim / Adelina de Maya by Joseph Curiale / America (from West Side Story) by Leonard Bernstein & Stephen Sondheim / Spaghetti Western by Michael Daugherty / One Hand, One Heart (from West Side Story) by Leonard Bernstein & Stephen Sondheim / Pentium by Peter Graham / West Side Story Reprise by Leonard Bernstein & Stephen Sondheim 85.10 12th Place World Class Finalist 2010 Wanted Wanted Dead or Alive by Jon Bon Jovi & Richie Sambora / Trittico by Václav Nelhýbel / Proven Lands (from There Will Be Blood) by Jonny Greenwood / Suite from Our Town by Aaron Copland / Borinage by Michael Gordon / Journey to the Center of the Earth by Peter Graham / Night Flight (from Swing Shift) by Kenji Bunch 83.35 15th Place World Class Semifinalist 2011 The Road Home The Old Church by Stephen Paulus / China Gates by John Adams / Memory (from Nepomuk's Dances, Mvt. 3) by Marcelo Zarvos / Muted and Sensuous (from Four Piano Blues) by Aaron Copland / Mama by Edgar Meyer 83.20 14th Place World Class Semifinalist 2012 This Was the Future Galop from Souvenirs, Op. 28 by Samuel Barber / Music for Theater & The Heiress by Aaron Copland 77.65 18th Place World Class Semifinalist 2013 Magnificent 11 Fanfare for the 11th by Robert W. Smith / Theme from The Magnificent Seven by Elmer Bernstein / John Dunbar's Theme (from Dances with Wolves) by John Barry / Tribal Spirits by Paul Rennick / Battle Hymn of the Republic by William Steffe & Julia Ward Howe 86.05 13th Place World Class Semifinalist 2014 A People's House A People's House by Robert W. Smith / The Ramparts by Clifton Williams / Distant Images by Sandi & Paul Rennick / Lincoln by Robert W. Smith / Oh Shenandoah (Traditional) / America the Beautiful by Samuel A. Ward & Katharine Lee Bates 84.775 14th Place World Class Semifinalist 2015 Wild Horses Dreamer by John Debney / Open Spaces by Robert W. Smith / Wild Horses by Natasha Bedingfield, Andrew Frampton & Wayne Wilkins / Adrenaline City by Adam Gorb 83.800 13th Place World Class Semifinalist 2016 Hero Fanfare & Fire by Robert W. Smith / War Psalm by Paul Rennick / Walking with Heroes by Paul Lovatt-Cooper / Symphony No. 1, Mvt. 1 by John Corigliano / Fix You by Chris Martin, Jonny Buckland, Guy Berryman & Will Champion (Coldplay) 83.275 14th Place World Class Semifinalist 2017 Duels & Duets Part I – The Foe – Romeo and Juliet by Sergei Prokofiev Part II – The Friend – Romeo and Juliet by Sergei Prokofiev Part III – The Lover – Black Heart Tango by Robert W. Smith & Paul Rennick / Nessun Dorma by Giacomo Puccini Part IV – The Foil – The Foil by Robert W. Smith 81.275 17th Place World Class Semifinalist 2018 The New Road West Welcome to the Black Parade by Bob Bryar, Frank Iero, Ray Toro, Gerard Way & Mikey Way (My Chemical Romance) / Toward The Splendid City by Richard Danielpour / Canyon Echoes by Robert W. Smith / Both Sides Now by Joni Mitchell / New Road West by Robert W. Smith 81.787 17th Place World Class Semifinalist 2019 Beyond Boundaries Divertimento for Band, Opus 42 by Vincent Persichetti / Enterprising Young Men (from Star Trek) by Michael Giacchino / Wondrous Light by John Estacio / To The Stars by Randy Edelman / Chorale VI Cantus – Song of Aeolus by Karl Jenkins / Main title, Krill Attack & Shuttle Escape (from The Orville) by Bruce Broughton 81.663 18th Place World Class Semifinalist 2020 Season cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic 2021 Unleashed The Triumph of Time by Peter Graham / Knockin' on Heaven's Door by Bob Dylan / Eclipse by Roger Waters, Nick Mason, Richard Wright & David Gilmour (Pink Floyd) No scored competitions 2022 VorAcious When Johnny Comes Marching Home by Louis Lambert (Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore) / Without Warning by Stephen Melillo / The Ecstasy of Gold by Ennio Morricone / Nothing Else Matters by James Hetfield & Lars Ulrich / Dance of the Earth by Igor Stravinsky / Original Music by Tim Snyder & Paul Rennick 86.425 12th Place World Class Finalist 2023 To Lasso the Sun L’ultima diligenza di Red Rock (from The Hateful Eight) by Ennio Morricone / Harrison's Dream by Peter Graham / Jesu, meine Freude by Johann Sebastian Bach / Theme (from Once Upon a Time in the West) by Ennio Morricone / As if a Voice Were in Them by Oliver Waespi / Final Duel by Ennio Morricone ==Caption awards== At the annual World Championship Finals, Drum Corps International presents awards to the corps with the high average scores from prelims, semifinals, and finals in five captions. Prior to 2000 and the adoption of the current scoring format, the Troopers have won these captions: High Visual Award * 1972, 1973, 1974 High Color Guard Award *1973 ==References== ==External links== *Official website Category:Drum Corps International World Class corps Category:Casper, Wyoming Category:Musical groups established in 1957 Category:1957 establishments in Wyoming |
thumb|right|alt=St. Marien (St. Mary's Church) in Osnabrück, viewed from the Marktplatz (market place).|St. Marien (St. Mary's Church) in Osnabrück, viewed from the Marktplatz (market place). thumb|right|Church clock of St. Marien in Osnabrück St. Marien (St. Mary's Church) is a Lutheran parish and market church in Osnabrück, Germany. It is one of the most artistically and historically significant buildings in the North German city. A previous Romanesque church was mentioned in records as early as 1177. However, the history of the church's construction began some time before it was first mentioned in writing. Archaeological traces suggest the existence of a predecessor building in the 10th century. Construction of the Gothic hall church which exists today started in the 13th century and was completed between 1430 and 1440. The St. Marien church has a complex architectural history. Over time, extensive restorations have enabled archaeological excavations which have contributed considerably to a reconstruction of the building's history. The existence of at least three predecessor buildings has thereby been established. As Osnabrück's oldest town church, it has a central location in the city. The Marienkirche is located directly on the market place, next to the Stadtwaage (city weighing house) and the town hall. Along with the cathedral, St. Katharinen (St. Catherine's) and St. Johann (St. John's), it is one of the four medieval churches which encompass the Innenstadt (city centre) of Osnabrück. == Construction history == === Excavations === Before reconstruction of the Marienkirche started from 1950 onwards following severe damage caused by incendiary bombs during World War II, Detailed information on the Marienkirche in Osnabrück at baufachinformation.de (in German) a series of excavations took place to investigate the building's earlier architectural history. With the modernisation of the building's heating systems in 1958 as well as internal and external renovation work from 1987 to 1992, there arose further opportunities to conduct research into the architectural history of St. Marien. The excavations were carried out by the federal curator of Lower Saxony under the scientific supervision of the then-curators Dr. Roswitha Poppe and Dr. –Ing (Doctor of Engineering) Hans Roggenkamp. The research work received support from the municipal office for the preservation of historical monuments, the Amt für Bau- und Kunstpflege (office for the maintenance of art and buildings) of the Evangelical Church in Osnabrück, and ultimately from master sculptor Werner Paetzke. The extensive excavations managed to establish the existence of at least three predecessor buildings. === From the predecessor buildings to today’s Marienkirche === The oldest predecessor church was a hall building, constructed on a sandy island-like knoll during the 10th century. This is the oldest predecessor building of St. Marien and is regarded as its architectural origin. As the construction project was linked to the establishment of a market, it can be assumed that the initial purpose of the building was for it to be a market church for the city of Osnabrück. The single-nave long building, without a transept but with an almost semicircular apsis, was positioned before an open, two-storied vestibule to the west. A salient feature is the robust stonework of the roofed hall with a width of 2.3 m, suggesting it functioned as part of a fortified church. The form of the ground plan along with the highly retracted interior of the chancel point to late Carolingian or early Saxon-era designs. The second predecessor building of Osnabrück's Marienkirche was constructed on the foundations of the first church in the 11th century. Once again there featured a single-nave roofed hall with a semicircular apsis. However, this time a tower with a vaulted upper floor and basement was also constructed on the west side of the church. Materials from the previous church were used to construct the rectangular western tower. The most recent of the three predecessor churches was built during the 12th century. The single-nave roofed hall was expanded to include two narrow side aisles. A three-aisled basilica with three semicircular altar apses and no transept was built. The core masonry of the western tower and the tower building are the only parts of this building which remain today. During the 13th and 14th centuries the three-aisled basilica was transformed into a Gothic hall church. Four more stories were added to the western tower and the chancel took on a rectangular shape. The subsequent conversion of the rectangular chancel into a basilica chancel around 1430-40 brought work on the Marienkirche to a temporary end. The damage caused during World War II was repaired concurrently alongside the archaeological excavations; the repair work was finished by 1950. The reconstruction work, led by local architect Max H. Berling, also led to changes in the features of the church as well as the colouration, most of which was done during a renovation in 1901. == Building description == thumb|right|Ground plan of the Marienkirche === Ground plan === St. Marien is a three-aisled hall church without a transept. The main aisle is three bays long. The bays in the central nave are slightly rectangular. Both side aisles are four bays deep, these having a slight oblong shape. The central nave is separated from the side aisles by archways consisting of large compound piers. The extension of the side aisles by one bay each enables the inclusion of the western tower in the interior architecture. On the eastern side, the nearly-quadratic hall is appended by the polygon-shaped basilican chancel. Attached to the chancel on the north side is the quadratic sacristy, covering four bays. This has four arches, all buttressed by one central compound pier. The Gothic hall is overlaid by ribbed vaults. The nave is 20.56 metres long in total, which represents only a slight difference from the length and width measurements (roughly 25.5 and 24.5 metres respectively). This gives the nave an almost- cubical shape. The central nave is only slightly wider than the side aisles. This results in merely a weak accentuation of the longitudinal axis of the church. The bays of the side aisles counteract this slight longitudinal alignment by opening up their broadsides to the central nave, thus emphasising the lateral alignment. This gives the impression of undirected space. St. Marien is thus characterised by the overall appearance of its nave. thumb|right|Eastern side of St. Marien in Osnabrück === Exterior === The western tower stands imposingly over the roof of St. Marien, representing the old market church. The design of the north and south sides of the Marienkirche is symmetrical. A total of four portals enable entry into St. Marien, two each on the north and south sides. The market place is characterised by the visible side of the church, featuring four gables crested with tracery and narrow elevated lancet windows. Sandstone figures are positioned on the gables. The buttresses – typical elements of Gothic architecture - help divide the visible side of the church into four vertical zones. The buttresses run in pinnacles with waterspouts between the four gables. There are two portals on this side. One side portal and the Brautportal, the main entrance to the Marienkirche. Buttresses (along with flying buttresses) and balustrades characterise the image of the chancel. The exterior of the chancel underlies a bisection emerging from the ambulatory and the clerestory. The buttress of the Marienkirche in Osnabrück is given a very vivid design by the pinnacles as well as the neo-Gothic balustrades. This dynamic image contrasts with the sober forms of nearby St. Peter's Cathedral as well as the more austere neighbouring market houses. === Brautportal === thumb|right|The Brautportal of St. Marien in Osnabrück The Brautportal is located on the south side of St. Marien. The opulent decorations and the high wimperg signify the Brautportal's status as the main entrance to the Marienkirche. The figures around its frame represent the Clever and the Foolish Virgins. On the left-hand side are the figures of the five Clever Virgins, led by the “Ecclesia”, and on the right are the four Foolish ones, led by the “Synagoge”. (See Ecclesia and Synagoga for more information.) The leaders of the groups standing on the columns represent the New and the Old Covenants. The biblical allegory of the Clever and the Foolish Virgins is often to be found on sacred buildings in Germany. On the arch of the Brautportal – the tympanum – the Coronation of the Virgin is portrayed. Tracery ornamentation on the wimperg and an open-work tracery balustrade frame this work. The Coronation of the Virgin, along with the allegory of the Clever and Foolish Virgins, are replicas from the second half of the 19th century. The originals from the early 14th century are at Osnabrück's (Museum of Cultural History). === Interior === thumb|right|Interior (2022) thumb|right|Interior, view of the Flentrop organ The interior of St. Marien can be accessed via the four portals. The Gothic hall has a compact, undirected appearance. This consistent spatial impression causes misleading diagonal perspectives. The lack of a transept intensifies the feeling of closeness, as well as the effect of uniformity. The ribbed vaults of the three naves – all of equal height – are supported by sturdy compound piers. The tops of the vaults reach heights of 21 metres. The tall compound piers are based on those in the cathedrals of Minden and Paderborn. The naturalistic capital ornamentation of the compound piers in the Marienkirche bears a resemblance to the foliated capitals at the Elisabethkirche in Marburg and at Minden Cathedral. Inside the church, the chancel is characterised by a tripartite division. Along with the low-lying ambulatory the area follows on to a small triforium gallery. The clerestory with tripartite tracery windows stands at the end. The contrast between the high-reaching clerestory and the low-lying ambulatory gives the room arrangement and vision guidance a particular dynamic. Simultaneously the low apertures to the ambulatory emphasise the smallness of the hall. The chancel vault is adorned with the crest of Bishop Erich von Hoya and other heraldic panels. The continuation of the breadth of the nave into the chancel along with the clerestory over the arches – only separated by a narrow triforium – give the impression of a spacious and bright hall. == Features == St. Marien contains several significant decorative features from various workshops and periods of history: the colourful Madonna on the south side of the ambulatory dating from the early 16th century, epitaphs featuring testimonies and locally made Renaissance and Baroque sculptures dating from the 16th and 18th centuries, the winged altar from Antwerp also dating from the early 16th century, the triumphal rood from the late 13th century and the 16th century baptismal font. === Triumphal rood === The triumphal rood from the late 13th century is one of the oldest decorative features in the church. It is suspended from the chancel vault. It portrays the body of Christ as crowned with thorns in the Gothic “Dreinageltypus” style – portrayed also with a nail through the feet to increase the sense of suffering. His knees are lightly tightened and the arms are stretched out almost horizontally. Mary and John – the secondary figures who are normally installed to the right and left of the crucifix – are merely shown as stone consoles on the pillars. === Winged altar === The main altar was produced in Antwerp in 1520 and is composed of a shrine with painted wings. On a total of 12 painted panels on the front and reverse sides of the retable, the viewer is presented with the story of Christ through to his resurrection and the Outpouring of the Holy Spirit on Whitsun. The carved central section of the main altar portrays the Annunciation, the Visitation, the birth, the Adoration, the Circumcision and the presentation in the Temple on six small alcoves. In three discourses the Passion of Jesus is thereby presented: the bearing of the cross, the crucifixion and the Descent from the Cross. These sorts of altars from Antwerp were very widespread across northern Germany during the late 16th century. The predella of the main altar's retable, destroyed in 1945 during the war, was created around 1390 as a self-standing, two-pronged altar retable by the Master of the Berswordt retable, a painter associated with French art during the 1380s whose workshop was assumed to be in Cologne.Götz J. Pfeiffer, Die Malerei am Niederrhein und in Westfalen um 1400. Der Meister des Berswordt-Retabels und der Stilwandel der Zeit (= Studien zur internationalen Architektur- und Kunstgeschichte, 73), Petersberg (Imhof-Verlag), 2009; . === Organ === The organ of St. Marien was built in 1967 by Dutch organ builders Flentrop and underwent extensive renovation in 1998. The slider chest instrument has 47 registers across four manual stops and pedals. The stop and key actions are operated manually. The Brustwerk is fitted with a threshold mechanism.Information on the organ at the parish website (in German) {| border="0" I Rückpositiv C–g3 \---- I Rückpositiv C–g3 \---- I Rückpositiv C–g3 \---- 1\. Prinzipal 8′ 2\. Hohlflöte 8′ 3\. Octave 4′ 4\. Rohrflöte 4′ 5\. Superoctave 2′ 6\. Flachflöte 2′ 7\. Quinte 11/3′ 8\. Sesquialter II 22/3′ 9\. Scharff III–IV 10\. Dulcian 16′ 11\. Krummhorn 8′ Tremulant *Couplers: I/II, III/II, II/P, III/P *Playing aids: Stop-motion device for the main body with the couplers == Bells == There is a set of five bells in the tower (gis° (Hosianna) –h° (Gloria) –dis' (Amen) –fis' (Kyrieleis) –gis' (Halleluja)), which were recast in 1959 by the Rincker bell and art foundry.Partial peal of bells gis°–dis'–fis'–gis', Saturday 22 December 2007, 6:00 pm (marking 4th Sunday of Advent)Full peal of bells on 25 December 2008, 9:45 am (marking Christmas Day). == Literature == * Dehio, G., Weiß, G., Handbuch der deutschen Kunstdenkmäler. Bremen, Niedersachsen (2nd revised and expanded edition) (Munich, 1992) * Kaster, K. (ed.), Die Marienkirche in Osnabrück. Ergebnisse archäologischer, bau- und kunsthistorischer Untersuchungen (Bramsche, 2001) * Poppe, R., Die Marien-Kirche (Osnabruck, 1969) * Schlüter, H., Festschrift zur Wiedereinweihung der St. Marienkirche zu Osnabrück (Osnabruck, 1990) * Warnecke, E. F., Alte Kirchen und Klöster im Land zwischen Weser und Ems (Osnabruck, 1990) == Links == * Parish webpage (in German) * Images of St. Marien on bildindex.de * Article on the church at osnabrueck.de (in German) * H. Karge: Building research and restoration at the Marienkirche in Osnabrück (in German) == References == Mary Osnabruck Mary Osnabruck Mary Category:Tourist attractions in Osnabrück |
Digital Earth is the name given to a concept by former US vice president Al Gore in 1998, describing a virtual representation of the Earth that is georeferenced and connected to the world's digital knowledge archives. ==Concept== ===Original vision=== In a speech prepared for the California Science Center in Los Angeles on January 31, 1998, Gore described a digital future where schoolchildren - indeed all the world's citizens - could interact with a computer-generated three-dimensional spinning virtual globe and access vast amounts of scientific and cultural information to help them understand the Earth and its human activities. The greater part of this knowledge store would be free to all via the Internet, however a commercial marketplace of related products and services was envisioned to co-exist, in part in order to support the expensive infrastructure such a system would require. The origin of the idea can be traced back to Buckminster Fuller's Geoscope, a large spherical display to represent geographic phenomena. Many aspects of his proposal have been realized - for instance, virtual globe geo-browsers such as NASA World Wind, Google Earth and Microsoft's Bing Maps 3D for commercial, social and scientific applications. But the Gore speech outlined a truly global, collaborative linking of systems that has yet to happen. That vision has been continually interpreted and defined by the growing global community of interest described below. The Digital Earth imagined in the speech has been defined as an "organizing vision" to steer scientists and technologists towards a shared goal, promising substantial advances in many scientific and engineering areas, similar to the Information superhighway. ===An emerging view=== Two noteworthy excerpts from the Beijing Declaration on Digital Earth, ratified September 12, 2009 at the 6th International Symposium on Digital Earth in Beijing: :"Digital Earth is an integral part of other advanced technologies including: earth observation, geo-information systems, global positioning systems, communication networks, sensor webs, electromagnetic identifiers, virtual reality, grid computation, etc. It is seen as a global strategic contributor to scientific and technological developments, and will be a catalyst in finding solutions to international scientific and societal issues." :"Digital Earth should play a strategic and sustainable role in addressing such challenges to human society as natural resource depletion, food and water insecurity, energy shortages, environmental degradation, natural disasters response, population explosion, and, in particular, global climate change." ===Next-generation digital Earth=== A group of international geographic and environmental scientists from government, industry, and academia brought together by the Vespucci Initiative for the Advancement of Geographic Information Science, and the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission recently published "Next-Generation Digital Earth" a position paper that suggests its eight key elements: # Not one Digital Earth, but multiple connected globes/infrastructures addressing the needs of different audiences: citizens, communities, policymakers, scientists, educationalists. # Problem oriented: e.g. environment, health, societal benefit areas, and transparent on the impacts of technologies on the environment # Allowing search through time and space to find similar/analogue situations with real time data from both sensors and humans (different from what existing GIS can do, and different from adding analytical functions to a virtual globe) # Asking questions about change, identification of anomalies in space in both human and environmental domains (flag things that are not consistent with their surroundings in real time) # Enabling access to data, information, services, and models as well as scenarios and forecasts: from simple queries to complex analyses across the environmental and social domains. # Supporting the visualization of abstract concepts and data types (e.g. low income, poor health, and semantics) # Based on open access, and participation across multiple technological platforms, and media (e.g. text, voice and multi-media) # Engaging, interactive, exploratory, and a laboratory for learning and for multidisciplinary education and science. ==Key developments== Significant progress towards Digital Earth has been achieved over the last decade as collected in a survey paper by Mahdavi-Amiri et al., including work in these categories: ===Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI)=== The number of Spatial Data Infrastructures has grown steadily since the early 1990s, aided in part by interoperability standards maintained by the Open Geospatial Consortium and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Significant recent efforts to link and coordinate SDI's include Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe (INSPIRE) and the UNSDI Initiative of the UN Geographic Information Working Group (UNIGWG). Between 1998 and 2001, the NASA-chaired Interagency Digital Earth Working Group (IDEW) contributed to this growth with a particular focus on interoperability issues, giving rise to the Web Map Service standard among others. ===Geobrowsers=== The scientific use of geo-browser virtual globes such as Google Earth, NASA's World Wind, and ESRI's ArcGIS Explorer has grown significantly as their functionality has improved and with the KML format having become the de facto standard for globe visualizations. Numerous examples can be viewed at the Google Earth Outreach Showcase and at the World Wind Java Demo Applications and Applets. ===Sensor networks=== Geosensors are defined as "...any device receiving and measuring environmental stimuli that can be geographically referenced." Large scale networks of geosensors have been in place for many years, measuring Earth surface, hydrological and atmospheric phenomena. The advent of the Internet led to a large expansion of such networks, and efforts like Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) Initiative aim to connect them. ===Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI)=== The term Volunteered Geographic Information was coined in 2007 by geographer Michael Goodchild, referring to the rapidly growing volume of social and scientific georeferenced user-generated content being made available on the Web by both expert and non-expert individuals and groups. This phenomenon is seen as an emerging Geoweb that provides Application Programming Interfaces (API's) to software developers and increasingly user- friendly web mapping software to both scientists and the public at large. ===International community=== The International Journal of Digital Earth is a peer-reviewed research journal, launched in 2008, concerned with the science and technology of Digital Earth and its applications in all major disciplines. The International Society for Digital Earth is a non-political, non- governmental and not-for-profit international organization, principally for promotion of academic exchange, science and technology innovation, education, and international collaboration. Several International Symposia on Digital Earth (ISDE) have been held. There have been seven ISDE symposia and three Digital Earth Summits. Proceedings for many of them are available. The 7th Symposium was held in Perth, Western Australia in 2011. The 4th Digital Earth Summit was held in Wellington, New Zealand in September, 2012. ===Digital Earth Reference Model (DERM)=== The term Digital Earth Reference Model (DERM) was coined by Tim Foresman in context with a vision for an all encompassing geospatial platform as an abstract for information flow in support of Al Gore's vision for a Digital Earth.Tim Foresman conversation with Charles Herring in New Zealand, Digital Earth Convention, 2007 The Digital Earth reference model seeks to facilitate and promote the use of georeferenced information from multiple sources over the Internet. A digital Earth reference model defines a fixed global reference frame for the Earth using four principles of a digital system, namely: #Discrete partitioning using regular or irregular cell mesh, tiling or Grid; #Data acquisition using signal processing theory (sampling and quantizing) for assigning binary values from continuous analog or other digital sources to the discrete cell partitions; #An ordering or naming of cells that can provide both unique spatial indexing and geographic location address; #A set of mathematical operations built on the indexing for algebraic, geometric, Boolean and image processing transforms, etc. The Open Geospatial Consortium has a spatial reference system standard based on the DERM called a [Discrete Global Grid] System (DGGS). According to OGC "a DGGS is a spatial reference system that uses a hierarchical tessellation of cells to partition and address the globe. DGGS are characterized by the properties of their cell structure, geo-encoding, quantization strategy and associated mathematical functions. The OGC DGGS standard supports the specification of standardized DGGS infrastructures that enable the integrated analysis of very large, multi-source, multi-resolution, multi-dimensional, distributed geospatial data. Interoperability between OGC DGGS implementations is anticipated through extension interface encodings of OGC Web Services.".OGC Discrete Global Grid System (DGGS) Core Standard Thus, the DGGS is a discrete, hierarchical, information grid with an addressing (or indexing) scheme to assign unique addresses to each cell across the entire DGGS Domain. ==Background== ===United States=== Technology developments that support the current Digital Earth technological framework can be traced to U.S. computing advances derived from the Cold War competition, the space race, and commercial innovations. Therefore, many innovations can be tracked to corporations working for the Department of Defense or NASA. However, the philosophical foundations for Digital Earth can be more closely aligned with the increased awareness of global changes and the need to better understand the concepts of sustainability for the planet's survival. These roots can be traced back to visionaries such as Buckminster Fuller who proposed development of a GeoScope half a century ago, analogous to a microscope to examine and improve our understanding of the planet Earth. From Fall 1998 until Fall 2000, NASA led the U.S. Digital Earth initiative in cooperation with its sister government agencies, including the Federal Geospatial Data Committee (FGDC). Attention to consensus development of standards, protocols and tools through cooperative test-bed initiatives was the primary process for advancement of this initiative within the government community. In 1999, NASA was selected to head a new Interagency Digital Earth Working Group (IDEW), due to its reputation for technology innovations and its focus on the study of planetary change. The new initiative was located in the NASA's Office of Earth Sciences. This titular focus was considered necessary to help align over 17 government agencies and keep sustainability and Earth oriented applications as a guiding principle for the Digital Earth enterprise. Components for development of 3-D Earth graphic-user-interfaces (GUIs) were placed into various technological sectors to stimulate cooperative development support. While initially limited to government personnel, industry and academia were early observers attending IDEW workshops to discuss topics such as, visualization, information fusion, standards and interoperability, advanced computational algorithms, digital libraries and museums. In March 2000, at a special IDEW meeting hosted by Oracle Corporation in Herndon, Virginia, industry representatives demonstrated several promising 3-D visualization prototypes. Within two years, these were captivating international audiences, including Kofi Annan and Colin Powell, in government, business, science, and mass media who began to purchase the early commercial geo-browsers. Just as the spectacular Apollo photography of Earthrise provided an inspiring Earth-centric image for new generations to appreciate the fragility of our biosphere, the 3-D Digital Earths began inspiring growing numbers of people to the possibility of better understanding and possibly saving our planet. Introduction of satellite data into commercially accessible spatial toolboxes significantly advanced the capacity to map, monitor, and manage our planet's resources and provide a unifying perspective on the Digital Earth vision. After Al Gore lost the 2000 presidential election, the incoming administration considered the programmatic moniker Digital Earth a political liability. Digital Earth was relegated to a minority status within the FGDC, used primarily to define 3-D visualization reference models. ===China=== In 1999, with the Chinese government's full backing, the inaugural International Symposium on Digital Earth in Beijing provided a venue for the extensive international support for implementing the Gore Digital Earth vision introduced a year earlier. Hundreds of digital earth cities created by governments and universities resulted. In China, Digital Earth became a metaphor for modernization and automation with computers, leading to its incorporation into a five-year modernization plan. Originating from China's satellite remote sensing community, Digital Earth prowess spread to a range of applications including flood predictions, dust cloud modeling, environmental assessments, and city planning. China has been omnipresent at all international Digital Earth conferences since and has recently founded the International Society for Digital Earth, one of the first NGOs created by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. In 2009, the International Symposium on Digital Earth returned to Beijing for its 6th meeting. ===United Nations=== In 2000, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) advanced the Digital Earth to enhance decision-makers' access to information for then Secretary-General Kofi Annan and the United Nations Security Council. UNEP promoted use of web-based geospatial technologies with the ability to access the world's environmental information, in association with economic and social policy issues. A reorganization of UNEP's data and information resources was initiated in 2001, based on the GSDI/DE architecture for a network of distributed and interoperable databases creating a framework of linked servers. The design concept was based upon using a growing network of internet mapping software and database content with advanced capabilities to link GIS tools and applications. UNEP.net, launched in February 2001, provided UN staff with an unparalleled facility for accessing authoritative environmental data resources and a visible example to others in the UN community. However, a universal user interface for UNEP.net, suitable for members of Security Council, that is non- scientists, did not exist. UNEP began actively testing prototypes for a UNEP geo-browser beginning in mid-2001 with a showcase for the African community displayed at the 5th African GIS Conference in Nairobi, Kenya November 2001. Keyhole Technology, Inc. (later purchased in 2004 by Google and to become Google Earth) was contracted to develop and demonstrate the first full globe 3-D interactive Digital Earth using web-stream data from a distributed database located on servers around the planet. A concerted effort within the UN community, via the Geographic Information Working Group (UNGIWG), followed immediately, including purchase of early Keyhole systems by 2002. UNEP provided further public demonstrations for this early Digital Earth system at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in September, 2002 at Johannesburg, South Africa. In seeking an engineering approach to system-wide development of the Digital Earth model, recommendations were made at the 3rd UNGIWG Meeting, June 2002, Washington, D.C. for creating a document on the Functional User Requirements for geo-browsers. This proposal was communicated to the ISDE Secretariat in Beijing and the organizing committee for the 3rd International Symposium on Digital Earth and agreement was reached by the Chinese Academy of Sciences-sponsored Secretariat to host the first of the two Digital Earth geo-browser meetings. ===Japan=== Japan, led by Keio University and JAXA, has also played a prominent international role in Digital Earth helping to create the Digital Asia Network with a secretariat located in Bangkok to promote regional cooperation and initiatives. Citizens in the Gifu Prefecture upload information to community-scale Digital Earth programs with from their smartphones on topics ranging from first sightings of fireflies in spring to location of blocked handicap access ramps. ==Events== Event Year Location Theme ISDE 1 1999 Beijing, China Moving towards Digital Earth ISDE 2 2001 New Brunswick, Canada Beyond Information Infrastructure ISDE 3 2003 Brno, Czech Republic Information Resources for Global Sustainability ISDE 4 2005 Tokyo, Japan Digital Earth as a Global Commons Digital Earth Summit '06 2006 Auckland, New Zealand Information Resources for Global Sustainability ISDE 5 2007 Berkeley & San Francisco, USA Bringing Digital Earth down to Earth Digital Earth Summit '08 2008 Potsdam, Germany Geoinformatics: Tools for Global Change Research ISDE 6 2009 Beijing, China Digital Earth in Action ISDE 7 2011 Perth, Western Australia ISDE7 The Knowledge Generation Digital Earth Summit '12 2012 Wellington, New Zealand ==See also== *Digital twin *Geocode *Geodesic grid *Géoportail *Geoweb *Grid reference *International Cartographic Association (ICA) *International Society for Digital Earth (ISDE) *Spatial index ==References== ==Further reading== * ==External links== ;Digital Earth technologies *ADEPT - Alexandria Digital Earth Prototype (1999–2004) *US Government Digital Earth Reference Model (DERM) *Global Spatial Data Model (GSDM) *Planetary Skin: A global platform for a new Era of Collaboration *Digital marketing China *PYXIS WorldView Studio: Digital Earth platform for spatial analysis and sharing map data Category:Geographic data and information |
John Taylor (1752–1833) was a pioneer Baptist preacher, religious writer, frontier historian and planter in north and central Kentucky. His two histories of early Baptist churches in Kentucky provide insight into the frontier society of the early decades of the 19th century. His 1820 pamphlet entitled "Thoughts on Missions" put him at the center of the controversy within frontier Baptist congregations about supporting mission societies. In buying and selling land on the frontier, Taylor acquired and 20 African- American slaves by the end of the first decade of the 19th century, thus entering the planter class. ==Early life and education== Taylor was born in 1752 in Fauquier County, Virginia to a farming family. He was taught at home to read, write and do his numbers. Although christened in the Church of England, he was strongly influenced by the preaching of the Baptist William Marshall, whom he first heard at age 17. Taylor united with the Baptists when he was 20 years old and began preaching on the frontier while living in Virginia. In his History of Clear Creek Church: and Campbellism Exposed (1830), Taylor provided material about his origins: > At my birth, and in the early part of my life, my lot was cast in the > backwoods of Virginia, where Indians often killed people, not far from where > I was. My parents, who were of the church of England, told me, I had been > christened when young. Being taught in all the rules of the old prayer book, > I had my partialities that way; but we lived so frontier, I never heard any > man preach, till about 17 years old; this was a baptist, (William Marshall). > My awakening that day, was so striking, that I was won over to Marshall, and > the religion he taught. A little more than two years after this, by the > conviction I had from the New Testament, I was baptised [sic], and became a > baptist from principle. To this way, and cause, I have had warm and decided > attachments ever since. I would not be hard or unfriendly to other christian > societies; but I am a decided, full bred baptist. ... ==Marriage and family== Taylor married Elizabeth Cavanaugh, daughter of Philemon and Nancy (Cave) Kavanaugh. They had several children together.Rev. James E. Welch "John Taylor: Frontier Baptist Minister", Annals of the American Baptist Pulpit, 1860, Baptist History, accessed 13 August 2010 Their son Ben was born a month after their arrival in Kentucky in December 1783, after a difficult three-month trip from Virginia through the mountains.John Taylor, History of Clear Creek Church: and Campbellism Exposed, Frankfort, KY: 1830 Their daughter Jane married Jeconiah Singleton, another early Baptist pioneer and son of Manoah and Sally (Craig) Singleton, members of the early Forks of Elkhorn Church.Ermina Jett Darnell, Forks of Elkhorn Church: With Genealogies of Early Members (on-line), Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., Baltimore, MD: 1946, p. 229. Note: Manoah Singleton m. Sally Craig; their children were 1) Jeconiah (1776–1834), m. Jane Taylor (dau. of Rev. John Taylor) and settled in Woodford. (Other children were listed on the page.) The Singletons had migrated to Kentucky in 1781 with The Travelling Church, led by Sally's brother, the Rev. Lewis Craig, pastor of the notable congregation. ==Career== While Taylor was in his 20s, he organized and served churches in the Virginia frontier settlements. At age 29, he took his young family to Kentucky in late 1783, two years after the historic migration of "The Traveling Church" of Baptists from Spotsylvania County, Virginia. Later he wrote about the trip: "... We arrived at Craig's Station, a little before Christmas (1783), and about three months after our start from Virginia. Through all this rugged travel my wife was in a very helpless state; about one month after our arrival, my son Ben was born."John Taylor, History of Clear Creek Church: and Campbellism Exposed, Frankfort, KY, A. G. Hodges, Commentator Office, 1830"Capt. John Craig's Station (1783)", Kentucky Forts: North Central Kentucky, North American Forts, accessed 12 August 2010. Note: This was likely Capt. John Craig's Station on Clear Creek, 5 miles south of present-day Versailles in Woodford County. Highway markers identify the site at KY 33 and KY 169. He was soon called as the first pastor in Clear Creek Baptist Church, Woodford County, Kentucky. In 1795 Taylor moved with his family to Boone County, where he was the stated preacher at Bullittsburg Baptist Church (1795–1802), the first church in northern Kentucky. Seven of his slaves were also members of the church. He was ministering there when the church experienced a revival in 1800–01 (during the period referred to in the South as the "Second Great Awakening"). A total of 113 people converted and were baptized into Taylor's church. Never financially supported by a church, he pursued independent farming and other vocations, as did most frontier preachers. In addition to acting as a pastor, Taylor was part of organizing local Baptist associations in Kentucky. In 1785 Taylor attended the organizing conference of the Elkhorn Baptist Association (Lexington, Kentucky area). He also was part of organizing the Long Run Baptist Association (Louisville, Kentucky area) in 1803. There he preached the Introductory Sermon and was on the committee of organization. He became one of the early leaders of that association. In 1802 he moved his family to Gallatin County (a portion now in Trimble County) near Mount Byrd along the Ohio River, where he had already bought nearly of land in various tracts.Rev. James E. Welch, "John Taylor: Frontier Baptist Preacher" , William B. Sprague, D.D., ed., Annals of the American Baptist Pulpit, Volume VI, 1860, pp. 152-159, accessed 13 August 2010 There he entered the planter class, for he eventually held 20 enslaved African Americans and owned , selling some of his former land to other settlers to create a community. Historians of the antebellum South define planters as those people who held 20 or more slaves to work their land.Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619-1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, p. xiii While not all Baptists held as many slaves as Taylor, by this time most members had accommodated to the Southern institution and stopped calling for its abolition. "Far more than their Northern counterparts, Southern evangelical Protestants stressed the importance of individual piety rather than social regeneration."Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619-1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, p. 186 Ministering in Gallatin County for 13 years, Taylor also stayed in contact with the churches and pastors of the Boone County area. He attended a total of 25 North Bend Association meetings from 1805 through 1834. He was invited to preach virtually each time he attended. Fourteen of the visits were at Boone County churches, which hosted the association meetings.James R. Duvall, "John Taylor: Frontier Baptist Preacher", Biographies, Baptist History, accessed 12 August 2010 In 1815 Taylor moved his family and slaves to Franklin County to be further from the free state of Indiana, which proximity across the Ohio River from Gallatin County he had believed threatened his slave holdings. The missionary James E. Welch, who knew him, wrote a biography of the preacher, saying Taylor had left Gallatin because of differences with his congregation. He helped found a Baptist church in Frankfort. Next he helped establish one at Buck Run in 1818, where he was invited to pastor. Instead, he chose to preach there regularly for several years. Many religious historians have identified Taylor's leading role in the disputes over the Missionary/Anti-missionary movement that arose among Protestant churches in the United States in the 1820s. In his booklet, "Thoughts on Missions" (1820), Taylor criticized mission societies and their methods of soliciting money from frontier churches. Later in life, he expressed regret over writing the 36-page pamphlet.James E. Welch, "John Taylor: Frontier Baptist Preacher" , William B. Sprague, D.D., ed., Annals of the American Baptist Pulpit, Volume VI, 1860, pp. 152-159, accessed 13 August 2010 The historian Larry D. Smith noted that Taylor was opposed only to "mission societies;" he was never opposed to missions.Larry D. Smith ("John Taylor and Missions: A New Interpretation," Quarterly Review, April–June 1982, pp. 54-61 Most of Taylor's ministry preceded the controversy associated with the anti-missionary movement among Baptists, and he did not appear to have "divided" with his brethren over the issue. In 1820 Taylor gave a copy of his "Missions" pamphlet to the local (North Bend) Association, but they made no comment on it. He was still invited to preach for the association that year and at later times when he attended their meetings. In 1820 the Elkhorn Association reported, "Bro. John Taylor presented to the Association a pamphlet, written by himself, on the subject of missions, which was referred to the committee on arrangement." At a later session of the body, "after much discussion it was agreed to strike out that item from the arrangement, and return the pamphlet to the author."Elkhorn Association Minutes, 1820 Similarly, Taylor gave the booklet to the Long Run Association; there was no surviving record of any response. He was honored by being one of two preachers asked to conduct the funeral of Absalom Graves, who was then the leading advocate of missions in the northern part of the state. Though not formally educated, Taylor was an expressive writer with strong opinions. His A History of Ten Churches was first printed in 1823, and A History of Clear Creek Church: and Campbellism Exposed in 1830. He also wrote several brief biographies, as well as many articles that were published in religious periodicals. The Concise Dictionary of American Biography describes A History of Ten Baptist Churches as "a fine picture of religion on the frontier." When asked to tell about Taylor's life, James E. Welch, a frontier Baptist missionary, wrote: > I saw this aged brother at the meeting of the Elkhorn Association, at the > Big Spring Church, near Frankfort, in 1832. He was a member of the Body; and > yet he took his place on the front seat of the gallery. The Moderator, > observing him, said, — 'Come down, Brother Taylor, and sit with us;' but he > promptly replied, — 'I am a free man, Brother Moderator,' and kept his seat. > (The gallery was a balcony where the slave members and attendees of the > church were seated during worship services.) He was low of stature, > muscular, had broad shoulders and a broad face, high cheek bones and heavy > eyebrows, over-hanging a pair of light and small, but expressive, eyes. He > was plain, and by no means particular, in his apparel, and rather reserved > in conversation, though, at times, he seemed to enjoy a dry joke upon his > brethren. Taylor died in 1833 in Franklin County, Kentucky near Forks of Elkhorn Creek, the year of a major cholera epidemic in the region. Welch wrote: "His death was peaceful and tranquil, and he has left behind him a name worthy of enduring remembrance." The 19th-century historian William Cathcart wrote, "He [Taylor] traveled and preached extensively and probably performed more labor, and was more successful than any other pioneer Baptist preacher in Kentucky."William Cathcart, ed. Baptist Encyclopedia, Philadelphia, PA: Louis H. Everts, 1881, 2 vol. ==Works== * A History of Ten Baptist Churches, Frankfort, KY: (np), 1823; reprint, Cincinnati, OH: Art Guild Reprints, Inc., 1968; reprint with ed. Chester R. Young, Macon, GA: Mercer University Press: 1995, as Baptist Churches on the American Frontier. * A History of Clear Creek Church: and Campbellism Exposed, Frankfort, KY, Printed by A. G. Hodges, Commentator Office, 1830 ==References== ==Further reading== *Dorothy Brown Thompson, "John Taylor of the Ten Churches," The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society, Vol. 46, No. 156, July, 1948, pp. 239–25. Thompson is a descendant of Taylor. *____________________, "John Taylor and the Day of Controversy," The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society, Vol. 53, No. 184, July, 1955, pp. 196–233. *____________________, "Additional Notes on the John Taylor Family," The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society, Vol. 53, No. 185, October, 1955, pp. 348–354. ==External links== * , 1823 * * , 1830 * Category:1752 births Category:1833 deaths Category:American religious leaders Category:People from Fauquier County, Virginia Category:People from Franklin County, Kentucky Category:American male writers |
Lanthanum is a chemical element with the symbol La and atomic number 57. It is a soft, ductile, silvery-white metal that tarnishes slowly when exposed to air. It is the eponym of the lanthanide series, a group of 15 similar elements between lanthanum and lutetium in the periodic table, of which lanthanum is the first and the prototype. Lanthanum is traditionally counted among the rare earth elements. Like most other rare earth elements, the usual oxidation state is +3, although some compounds are known with oxidation state +2. Lanthanum has no biological role in humans but is essential to some bacteria. It is not particularly toxic to humans but does show some antimicrobial activity. Lanthanum usually occurs together with cerium and the other rare earth elements. Lanthanum was first found by the Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1839 as an impurity in cerium nitrate – hence the name lanthanum, from the Ancient Greek (), meaning 'to lie hidden'. Although it is classified as a rare earth element, lanthanum is the 28th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, almost three times as abundant as lead. In minerals such as monazite and bastnäsite, lanthanum composes about a quarter of the lanthanide content. It is extracted from those minerals by a process of such complexity that pure lanthanum metal was not isolated until 1923. Lanthanum compounds have numerous applications as catalysts, additives in glass, carbon arc lamps for studio lights and projectors, ignition elements in lighters and torches, electron cathodes, scintillators, gas tungsten arc welding electrodes, and other things. Lanthanum carbonate is used as a phosphate binder in cases of high levels of phosphate in the blood seen with kidney failure. ==Characteristics== ===Physical=== Lanthanum is the first element and prototype of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears to the right of the alkaline earth metal barium and to the left of the lanthanide cerium. Lanthanum is generally considered the first of the f-block elements by authors writing on the subject. The 57 electrons of a lanthanum atom are arranged in the configuration [Xe]5d16s2, with three valence electrons outside the noble gas core. In chemical reactions, lanthanum almost always gives up these three valence electrons from the 5d and 6s subshells to form the +3 oxidation state, achieving the stable configuration of the preceding noble gas xenon.Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1106 Some lanthanum(II) compounds are also known, but they are usually much less stable. Lanthanum Monoxide (LaO) produces strong absorption bands in some stellar spectra. Among the lanthanides, lanthanum is exceptional as it has no 4f electrons as a single gas-phase atom. Thus it is only very weakly paramagnetic, unlike the strongly paramagnetic later lanthanides (with the exceptions of the last two, ytterbium and lutetium, where the 4f shell is completely full).Cullity, B. D. and Graham, C. D. (2011) Introduction to Magnetic Materials, John Wiley & Sons, However, the 4f shell of lanthanum can become partially occupied in chemical environments and participate in chemical bonding. For example, the melting points of the trivalent lanthanides (all but europium and ytterbium) are related to the extent of hybridisation of the 6s, 5d, and 4f electrons (lowering with increasing 4f involvement), and lanthanum has the second-lowest melting point among them: 920 °C. (Europium and ytterbium have lower melting points because they delocalise about two electrons per atom rather than three.)Krishnamurthy, Nagaiyar and Gupta, Chiranjib Kumar (2004) Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths, CRC Press, This chemical availability of f orbitals justifies lanthanum's placement in the f-block despite its anomalous ground-state configuration (which is merely the result of strong interelectronic repulsion making it less profitable to occupy the 4f shell, as it is small and close to the core electrons). The lanthanides become harder as the series is traversed: as expected, lanthanum is a soft metal. Lanthanum has a relatively high resistivity of 615 nΩm at room temperature; in comparison, the value for the good conductor aluminium is only 26.50 nΩm.Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1429 Lanthanum is the least volatile of the lanthanides. Like most of the lanthanides, lanthanum has a hexagonal crystal structure at room temperature. At 310 °C, lanthanum changes to a face-centered cubic structure, and at 865 °C, it changes to a body-centered cubic structure. ===Chemical=== As expected from periodic trends, lanthanum has the largest atomic radius of the lanthanides. Hence, it is the most reactive among them, tarnishing quite rapidly in air, turning completely dark after several hours and can readily burn to form lanthanum(III) oxide, La2O3, which is almost as basic as calcium oxide.Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1105–7 A centimeter-sized sample of lanthanum will corrode completely in a year as its oxide spalls off like iron rust, instead of forming a protective oxide coating like aluminium, scandium, yttrium, and lutetium. Lanthanum reacts with the halogens at room temperature to form the trihalides, and upon warming will form binary compounds with the nonmetals nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon and arsenic. Lanthanum reacts slowly with water to form lanthanum(III) hydroxide, La(OH)3. In dilute sulfuric acid, lanthanum readily forms the aquated tripositive ion : this is colorless in aqueous solution since La3+ has no d or f electrons. Lanthanum is the strongest and hardest base among the rare earth elements, which is again expected from its being the largest of them.Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1434 Some lanthanum(II) compounds are also known, but they are much less stable. Therefore, in officially naming compounds of lanthanum its oxidation number always is to be mentioned. ===Isotopes=== Naturally occurring lanthanum is made up of two isotopes, the stable 139La and the primordial long-lived radioisotope 138La. 139La is by far the most abundant, making up 99.910% of natural lanthanum: it is produced in the s-process (slow neutron capture, which occurs in low- to medium-mass stars) and the r-process (rapid neutron capture, which occurs in core-collapse supernovae). It is the only stable isotope of lanthanum. The very rare isotope 138La is one of the few primordial odd–odd nuclei, with a long half-life of 1.05×1011 years. It is one of the proton-rich p-nuclei which cannot be produced in the s- or r-processes. 138La, along with the even rarer 180mTa, is produced in the ν-process, where neutrinos interact with stable nuclei. All other lanthanum isotopes are synthetic: with the exception of 137La with a half-life of about 60,000 years, all of them have half-lives less than two days, and most have half-lives less than a minute. The isotopes 139La and 140La occur as fission products of uranium. ==Compounds== Lanthanum oxide is a white solid that can be prepared by direct reaction of its constituent elements. Due to the large size of the La3+ ion, La2O3 adopts a hexagonal 7-coordinate structure that changes to the 6-coordinate structure of scandium oxide (Sc2O3) and yttrium oxide (Y2O3) at high temperature. When it reacts with water, lanthanum hydroxide is formed: a lot of heat is evolved in the reaction and a hissing sound is heard. Lanthanum hydroxide will react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form the basic carbonate.Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1107–8 Lanthanum fluoride is insoluble in water and can be used as a qualitative test for the presence of La3+. The heavier halides are all very soluble deliquescent compounds. The anhydrous halides are produced by direct reaction of their elements, as heating the hydrates causes hydrolysis: for example, heating hydrated LaCl3 produces LaOCl. Lanthanum reacts exothermically with hydrogen to produce the dihydride LaH2, a black, pyrophoric, brittle, conducting compound with the calcium fluoride structure. This is a non-stoichiometric compound, and further absorption of hydrogen is possible, with a concomitant loss of electrical conductivity, until the more salt-like LaH3 is reached. Like LaI2 and LaI, LaH2 is probably an electride compound. Due to the large ionic radius and great electropositivity of La3+, there is not much covalent contribution to its bonding and hence it has a limited coordination chemistry, like yttrium and the other lanthanides.Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1108–9 Lanthanum oxalate does not dissolve very much in alkali-metal oxalate solutions, and [La(acac)3(H2O)2] decomposes around 500 °C. Oxygen is the most common donor atom in lanthanum complexes, which are mostly ionic and often have high coordination numbers over 6: 8 is the most characteristic, forming square antiprismatic and dodecadeltahedral structures. These high-coordinate species, reaching up to coordination number 12 with the use of chelating ligands such as in La2(SO4)3·9H2O, often have a low degree of symmetry because of stereo-chemical factors. Lanthanum chemistry tends not to involve π bonding due to the electron configuration of the element: thus its organometallic chemistry is quite limited. The best characterized organolanthanum compounds are the cyclopentadienyl complex La(C5H5)3, which is produced by reacting anhydrous LaCl3 with NaC5H5 in tetrahydrofuran, and its methyl-substituted derivatives.Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1110 ==History== In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite. Thirty years later, the fifteen-year-old Wilhelm Hisinger, from the family owning the mine, sent a sample of it to Carl Scheele, who did not find any new elements within. In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres, which had been discovered two years earlier. Ceria was simultaneously independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth.Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1424 Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who lived in the same house as Berzelius and studied under him: he separated out two other oxides which he named lanthana and didymia. He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid.See: * (Berzelius) (1839) "Nouveau métal" (New metal), Comptes rendus, 8 : 356-357. From p. 356: "L'oxide de cérium, extrait de la cérite par la procédé ordinaire, contient à peu près les deux cinquièmes de son poids de l'oxide du nouveau métal qui ne change que peu les propriétés du cérium, et qui s'y tient pour ainsi dire caché. Cette raison a engagé M. Mosander à donner au nouveau métal le nom de Lantane." (The oxide of cerium, extracted from cerite by the usual procedure, contains almost two fifths of its weight in the oxide of the new metal, which differs only slightly from the properties of cerium, and which is held in it so to speak "hidden". This reason motivated Mr. Mosander to give to the new metal the name Lantane.) * (Berzelius) (1839) "Latanium — a new metal," Philosophical Magazine, new series, 14 : 390-391. That same year, Axel Erdmann, a student also at the Karolinska Institute, discovered lanthanum in a new mineral from Låven island located in a Norwegian fjord. Finally, Mosander explained his delay, saying that he had extracted a second element from cerium, and this he called didymium. Although he didn't realise it, didymium too was a mixture, and in 1885 it was separated into praseodymium and neodymium. Since lanthanum's properties differed only slightly from those of cerium, and occurred along with it in its salts, he named it from the Ancient Greek λανθάνειν [lanthanein] (lit. to lie hidden). Relatively pure lanthanum metal was first isolated in 1923. ==Occurrence and production== Lanthanum is the third-most abundant of all the lanthanides, making up 39 mg/kg of the Earth's crust, behind neodymium at 41.5 mg/kg and cerium at 66.5 mg/kg. It is almost three times as abundant as lead in the Earth's crust. Despite being among the so- called "rare earth metals", lanthanum is thus not rare at all, but it is historically so named because it is rarer than "common earths" such as lime and magnesia, and historically only a few deposits were known. Lanthanum is considered a rare earth metal because the process to mine it is difficult, time-consuming, and expensive. Lanthanum is rarely the dominant lanthanide found in the rare earth minerals, and in their chemical formulae it is usually preceded by cerium. Rare examples of La-dominant minerals are monazite-(La) and lanthanite-(La). thumb|center|upright=3|Production of Lanthanum from Monazite sand The La3+ ion is similarly sized to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those up to samarium and europium) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate, silicate and carbonate minerals, such as monazite (MIIIPO4) and bastnäsite (MIIICO3F), where M refers to all the rare earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium (mostly Ce, La, and Y).Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1103 Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved. The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and silicon tetrafluoride: the product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution.Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1426–9 The procedure for monazite, which usually contains all the rare earths as well as thorium, is more involved. Monazite, because of its magnetic properties, can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation. After separation, it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3–4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that, the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3. Lanthanum is separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization. This salt is relatively less soluble than other rare earth double salts and therefore stays in the residue. Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra, the daughter of 232Th, which is a strong gamma emitter. Lanthanum is relatively easy to extract as it has only one neighbouring lanthanide, cerium, which can be removed by making use of its ability to be oxidised to the +4 state; thereafter, lanthanum may be separated out by the historical method of fractional crystallization of La(NO3)3·2NH4NO3·4H2O, or by ion-exchange techniques when higher purity is desired. Lanthanum metal is obtained from its oxide by heating it with ammonium chloride or fluoride and hydrofluoric acid at 300-400 °C to produce the chloride or fluoride: :La2O3 \+ 6 NH4Cl → 2 LaCl3 \+ 6 NH3 \+ 3 H2O This is followed by reduction with alkali or alkaline earth metals in vacuum or argon atmosphere: :LaCl3 \+ 3 Li → La + 3 LiCl Also, pure lanthanum can be produced by electrolysis of molten mixture of anhydrous LaCl3 and NaCl or KCl at elevated temperatures. ==Applications== The first historical application of lanthanum was in gas lantern mantles. Carl Auer von Welsbach used a mixture of lanthanum oxide and zirconium oxide, which he called Actinophor and patented in 1886. The original mantles gave a green- tinted light and were not very successful, and his first company, which established a factory in Atzgersdorf in 1887, failed in 1889. Modern uses of lanthanum include: thumb| hot cathode thumb|Comparison of infrared transmittance of ZBLAN glass and silica * One material used for anodic material of nickel-metal hydride batteries is . Due to high cost to extract the other lanthanides, a mischmetal with more than 50% of lanthanum is used instead of pure lanthanum. The compound is an intermetallic component of the type. NiMH batteries can be found in many models of the Toyota Prius sold in the US. These larger nickel-metal hydride batteries require massive quantities of lanthanum for the production. The 2008 Toyota Prius NiMH battery requires of lanthanum. As engineers push the technology to increase fuel efficiency, twice that amount of lanthanum could be required per vehicle. * Hydrogen sponge alloys can contain lanthanum. These alloys are capable of storing up to 400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas in a reversible adsorption process. Heat energy is released every time they do so; therefore these alloys have possibilities in energy conservation systems. * Mischmetal, a pyrophoric alloy used in lighter flints, contains 25% to 45% lanthanum. * Lanthanum oxide and the boride are used in electronic vacuum tubes as hot cathode materials with strong emissivity of electrons. Crystals of are used in high-brightness, extended-life, thermionic electron emission sources for electron microscopes and Hall-effect thrusters. * Lanthanum trifluoride () is an essential component of a heavy fluoride glass named ZBLAN. This glass has superior transmittance in the infrared range and is therefore used for fiber-optical communication systems. * Cerium-doped lanthanum bromide and lanthanum chloride are the recent inorganic scintillators, which have a combination of high light yield, best energy resolution, and fast response. Their high yield converts into superior energy resolution; moreover, the light output is very stable and quite high over a very wide range of temperatures, making it particularly attractive for high-temperature applications. These scintillators are already widely used commercially in detectors of neutrons or gamma rays. * Carbon arc lamps use a mixture of rare earth elements to improve the light quality. This application, especially by the motion picture industry for studio lighting and projection, consumed about 25% of the rare-earth compounds produced until the phase out of carbon arc lamps. * Lanthanum(III) oxide () improves the alkali resistance of glass and is used in making special optical glasses, such as infrared-absorbing glass, as well as camera and telescope lenses, because of the high refractive index and low dispersion of rare-earth glasses. Lanthanum oxide is also used as a grain-growth additive during the liquid-phase sintering of silicon nitride and zirconium diboride. * Small amounts of lanthanum added to steel improves its malleability, resistance to impact, and ductility, whereas addition of lanthanum to molybdenum decreases its hardness and sensitivity to temperature variations. * Small amounts of lanthanum are present in many pool products to remove the phosphates that feed algae. * Lanthanum oxide additive to tungsten is used in gas tungsten arc welding electrodes, as a substitute for radioactive thorium. * Various compounds of lanthanum and other rare-earth elements (oxides, chlorides, triflates, etc.) are components of various catalysis, such as petroleum cracking catalysts. * Lanthanum-barium radiometric dating is used to estimate age of rocks and ores, though the technique has limited popularity. * Lanthanum carbonate was approved as a medication (Fosrenol, Shire Pharmaceuticals) to absorb excess phosphate in cases of hyperphosphatemia seen in end-stage kidney disease. * Lanthanum fluoride is used in phosphor lamp coatings. Mixed with europium fluoride, it is also applied in the crystal membrane of fluoride ion-selective electrodes. * Like horseradish peroxidase, lanthanum is used as an electron- dense tracer in molecular biology. * Lanthanum-modified bentonite (or phoslock) is used to remove phosphates from water in lake treatments. * Lanthanum telluride (La3Te4) is considered to be applied in the field of radioisotope power system (nuclear power plant) due to its significant conversion capabilities. The transmuted elements and isotopes in the segment will not react with the material itself, thus presenting no harm to the safety of the power plant. Though iodine, which can be generated during transmutation, is suspected to react with La3Te4 segment, the quantity of iodine is small enough to pose no threat to the power system. ==Biological role== Lanthanum has no known biological role in humans. The element is very poorly absorbed after oral administration and when injected its elimination is very slow. Lanthanum carbonate (Fosrenol) was approved as a phosphate binder to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end stage renal disease. While lanthanum has pharmacological effects on several receptors and ion channels, its specificity for the GABA receptor is unique among trivalent cations. Lanthanum acts at the same modulatory site on the GABA receptor as zinc, a known negative allosteric modulator. The lanthanum cation La3+ is a positive allosteric modulator at native and recombinant GABA receptors, increasing open channel time and decreasing desensitization in a subunit configuration dependent manner. Lanthanum is an essential cofactor for the methanol dehydrogenase of the methanotrophic bacterium Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum SolV, although the great chemical similarity of the lanthanides means that it may be substituted with cerium, praseodymium, or neodymium without ill effects, and with the smaller samarium, europium, or gadolinium giving no side effects other than slower growth. ==Precautions== Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity and should be handled with care. The injection of lanthanum solutions produces hyperglycemia, low blood pressure, degeneration of the spleen and hepatic alterations. The application in carbon arc light led to the exposure of people to rare earth element oxides and fluorides, which sometimes led to pneumoconiosis. As the La3+ ion is similar in size to the Ca2+ ion, it is sometimes used as an easily traced substitute for the latter in medical studies. Lanthanum, like the other lanthanides, is known to affect human metabolism, lowering cholesterol levels, blood pressure, appetite, and risk of blood coagulation. When injected into the brain, it acts as a painkiller, similarly to morphine and other opiates, though the mechanism behind this is still unknown. ==Prices== The price for a (metric) ton [1000 kg] of Lanthanum oxide 99% (FOB China in USD/Mt) is given by the Institute of Rare Earths Elements and Strategic Metals as below $2,000 for most of the period from early 2001 to September 2010 (at $10,000 in the short term in 2008); it rose steeply to $140,000 in mid-2011 and fell back just as rapidly to $38,000 by early 2012.Specifications and notation: .access-date=27 October 2022. The average price for the last six months (April to September 2022) is given by the Institute as follows: Lanthanum Oxide - 99.9%min FOB China - 1308 EUR/mt and for Lanthanum Metal - 99%min FOB China - 3706 EUR/mt.Information and notation: .access-date=27 October 2022. ==See also== | CASNo_Ref = | CASNo = 7439-91-0 | UNII_Ref = | UNII = 6I3K30563S ==References== ==Bibliography== * ==Further reading== * The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium and Uranium, by R. J. Callow, Pergamon Press, 1967 * Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths, by C. K. Gupta and N. Krishnamurthy, CRC Press, 2005 * Nouveau Traite de Chimie Minerale, Vol. VII. Scandium, Yttrium, Elements des Terres Rares, Actinium, P. Pascal, Editor, Masson & Cie, 1959 * Chemistry of the Lanthanons, by R. C. Vickery, Butterworths 1953 Category:Chemical elements Category:Chemical elements with double hexagonal close-packed structure Category:Lanthanides Category:Reducing agents Category:GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators |
A Christmas Carol. In Prose. Being a Ghost Story of Christmas, commonly known as A Christmas Carol, is a novella by Charles Dickens, first published in London by Chapman & Hall in 1843 and illustrated by John Leech. A Christmas Carol recounts the story of Ebenezer Scrooge, an elderly miser who is visited by the ghost of his former business partner Jacob Marley and the spirits of Christmas Past, Present and Yet to Come. After their visits, Scrooge is transformed into a kinder, gentler man. Dickens wrote A Christmas Carol during a period when the British were exploring and re-evaluating past Christmas traditions, including carols, and newer customs such as cards and Christmas trees. He was influenced by the experiences of his own youth and by the Christmas stories of other authors, including Washington Irving and Douglas Jerrold. Dickens had written three Christmas stories prior to the novella, and was inspired following a visit to the Field Lane Ragged School, one of several establishments for London's street children. The treatment of the poor and the ability of a selfish man to redeem himself by transforming into a more sympathetic character are the key themes of the story. There is discussion among academics as to whether this is a fully secular story, or if it is a Christian allegory. Published on 19 December, the first edition sold out by Christmas Eve; by the end of 1844 thirteen editions had been released. Most critics reviewed the novella favourably. The story was illicitly copied in January 1844; Dickens took legal action against the publishers, who went bankrupt, further reducing Dickens's small profits from the publication. He went on to write four other Christmas stories in subsequent years. In 1849 he began public readings of the story, which proved so successful he undertook 127 further performances until 1870, the year of his death. A Christmas Carol has never been out of print and has been translated into several languages; the story has been adapted many times for film, stage, opera and other media. A Christmas Carol captured the zeitgeist of the early Victorian revival of the Christmas holiday. Dickens acknowledged the influence of the modern Western observance of Christmas and later inspired several aspects of Christmas, including family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games and a festive generosity of spirit. ==Plot== The book is divided into five chapters, which Dickens titled "staves". ===Stave one=== A Christmas Carol opens on a bleak, cold Christmas Eve in London, seven years after the death of Ebenezer Scrooge's business partner, Jacob Marley. Scrooge, an ageing miser, dislikes Christmas and refuses a dinner invitation from his nephew Fred. He turns away two men who seek a donation from him to provide food and heating for the poor and only grudgingly allows his overworked, underpaid clerk, Bob Cratchit, Christmas Day off with pay to conform to the social custom. That night Scrooge is visited at home by Marley's ghost, who wanders the Earth entwined by heavy chains and money boxes forged during a lifetime of greed and selfishness. Marley tells Scrooge that he has a single chance to avoid the same fate: he will be visited by three spirits and must listen or be cursed to carry much heavier chains of his own. ===Stave two=== The first spirit, the Ghost of Christmas Past, takes Scrooge to Christmas scenes of Scrooge's boyhood, reminding him of a time when he was more innocent. The scenes reveal Scrooge's lonely childhood at boarding school, his relationship with his beloved sister Fan, who died young while giving birth to Fred, and a Christmas party hosted by his first employer, Mr Fezziwig, who treated him like a son. Scrooge's neglected fiancée Belle is shown ending their relationship, as she realises that he will never love her as much as he loves money. Finally, they visit a now-married Belle with her large, happy family on the Christmas Eve that Marley died. Scrooge, upset by hearing Belle's description of the man that he has become, demands that the ghost remove him from the house. ===Stave three=== The second spirit, the Ghost of Christmas Present, takes Scrooge to a joyous market with people buying the makings of Christmas dinner and to celebrations of Christmas in a miner's cottage and in a lighthouse. Scrooge and the ghost also visit Fred's Christmas party. A major part of this stave is taken up with Bob Cratchit's family feast and introduces his youngest son, Tiny Tim, a happy boy who is seriously ill. The spirit informs Scrooge that Tiny Tim will die unless the course of events changes. Before disappearing, the spirit shows Scrooge two hideous, emaciated children named Ignorance and Want. He tells Scrooge to beware the former above all and mocks Scrooge's concern for their welfare. ===Stave four=== thumb|upright|alt=Black and white drawing of Scrooge and Bob Cratchit having a drink in front of a large fire|Scrooge and Bob Cratchit celebrate Christmas in an illustration from stave five of the original edition, 1843. The third spirit, the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come, shows Scrooge a Christmas Day in the future. The silent ghost reveals scenes involving the death of a disliked man whose funeral is attended by local businessmen only on condition that lunch is provided. His charwoman, laundress and the local undertaker steal his possessions to sell to a fence. When he asks the spirit to show a single person who feels emotion over his death, he is only given the pleasure of a poor couple who rejoice that his death gives them more time to put their finances in order. When Scrooge asks to see tenderness connected with any death, the ghost shows him Bob Cratchit and his family mourning the death of Tiny Tim. The ghost then allows Scrooge to see a neglected grave, with a tombstone bearing Scrooge's name. Sobbing, Scrooge pledges to change his ways. ===Stave five=== Scrooge awakens on Christmas morning a changed man. He makes a large donation to the charity he rejected the previous day, anonymously sends a large turkey to the Cratchit home for Christmas dinner and spends the afternoon at Fred's Christmas party. The following day he gives Cratchit an increase in pay, and begins to become a father figure to Tiny Tim. From then on Scrooge treats everyone with kindness, generosity and compassion, embodying the spirit of Christmas. ==Background== The writer Charles Dickens was born to a middle- class family which got into financial difficulties as a result of the spendthrift nature of his father John. In 1824 John was committed to the Marshalsea, a debtors' prison in Southwark, London. Dickens, aged 12, was forced to pawn his collection of books, leave school and work at a dirty and rat-infested shoe-blacking factory. The change in circumstances gave him what his biographer, Michael Slater, describes as a "deep personal and social outrage", which heavily influenced his writing and outlook. By the end of 1842 Dickens was a well-established author, having written six major works, as well as several short stories, novellas and other pieces. On 31 December that year he began publishing his novel Martin Chuzzlewit as a monthly serial; the novel was his favourite work, but sales were disappointing and he faced temporary financial difficulties. Celebrating the Christmas season had been growing in popularity through the Victorian era. The Christmas tree had been introduced in Britain during the 18th century, and its use was popularised by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Their practice was copied in many homes across the country. In the early 19th century there had been a revival of interest in Christmas carols, following a decline in popularity over the previous hundred years. The publication of Davies Gilbert's 1823 work Some Ancient Christmas Carols, With the Tunes to Which They Were Formerly Sung in the West of England and William Sandys's 1833 collection Christmas Carols, Ancient and Modern led to a growth in the form's popularity in Britain. Dickens had an interest in Christmas, and his first story on the subject was "Christmas Festivities", published in Bell's Weekly Messenger in 1835; the story was then published as "A Christmas Dinner" in Sketches by Boz (1836). "The Story of the Goblins Who Stole a Sexton", another Christmas story, appeared in the 1836 novel The Pickwick Papers. In the episode, a Mr Wardle describes a misanthropic sexton, Gabriel Grub, who undergoes a Christmas conversion after being visited by goblins who show him the past and future. Slater considers that "the main elements of the Carol are present in the story", but not yet in a firm form. The story is followed by a passage about Christmas in Dickens's editorial Master Humphrey's Clock. The professor of English literature Paul Davis writes that although the "Goblins" story appears to be a prototype of A Christmas Carol, all Dickens's earlier writings about Christmas influenced the story. ===Literary influences=== Dickens was not the first author to celebrate the Christmas season in literature. Among earlier authors who influenced Dickens was Washington Irving, whose 1819–20 work The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. included four essays on old English Christmas traditions that he experienced while staying at Aston Hall near Birmingham. The tales and essays attracted Dickens, and the two authors shared the belief that returning to Christmas traditions might promote a type of social connection that they felt had been lost in the modern world. Several works may have had an influence on the writing of A Christmas Carol, including two Douglas Jerrold essays: one from an 1841 issue of Punch, "How Mr. Chokepear Keeps a Merry Christmas" and one from 1843, "The Beauties of the Police". More broadly, Dickens was influenced by fairy tales and nursery stories, which he closely associated with Christmas, because he saw them as stories of conversion and transformation. ===Social influences=== upright|thumb|alt=A man with shoulder- length black hair, sitting at a desk, writing with a quill|Charles Dickens in 1842, the year before the publication of A Christmas Carol Dickens was touched by the lot of poor children in the middle decades of the 19th century. In early 1843 he toured the Cornish tin mines, where he was angered by seeing children working in appalling conditions. The suffering he witnessed there was reinforced by a visit to the Field Lane Ragged School, one of several London schools set up for the education of the capital's half-starved, illiterate street children. In February 1843 the Second Report of the Children's Employment Commission was published. It was a parliamentary report exposing the effects of the Industrial Revolution upon working class children. Horrified by what he read, Dickens planned to publish an inexpensive political pamphlet tentatively titled, An Appeal to the People of England, on behalf of the Poor Man's Child, but changed his mind, deferring the pamphlet's production until the end of the year. In March he wrote to Dr Southwood Smith, one of the four commissioners responsible for the Second Report, about his change in plans: "you will certainly feel that a Sledge hammer has come down with twenty times the force—twenty thousand times the force—I could exert by following out my first idea". In a fundraising speech on 5 October 1843 at the Manchester Athenaeum, Dickens urged workers and employers to join together to combat ignorance with educational reform, and realised in the days following that the most effective way to reach the broadest segment of the population with his social concerns about poverty and injustice was to write a deeply felt Christmas narrative rather than polemical pamphlets and essays. ===Writing history=== By mid-1843 Dickens began to suffer from financial problems. Sales of Martin Chuzzlewit were falling off, and his wife, Catherine, was pregnant with their fifth child. Matters worsened when Chapman & Hall, his publishers, threatened to reduce his monthly income by £50 if sales dropped further. He began A Christmas Carol in October 1843. Michael Slater, Dickens's biographer, describes the book as being "written at white heat"; it was completed in six weeks, the final pages being written in early December. He built much of the work in his head while taking night-time walks of around London. Dickens's sister-in-law wrote how he "wept, and laughed, and wept again, and excited himself in a most extraordinary manner, in composition". Slater says that A Christmas Carol was > intended to open its readers' hearts towards those struggling to survive on > the lower rungs of the economic ladder and to encourage practical > benevolence, but also to warn of the terrible danger to society created by > the toleration of widespread ignorance and actual want among the poor. George Cruikshank, the illustrator who had earlier worked with Dickens on Sketches by Boz (1836) and Oliver Twist (1838), introduced him to the caricaturist John Leech. By 24 October Dickens invited Leech to work on A Christmas Carol, and four hand-coloured etchings and four black-and-white wood engravings by the artist accompanied the text. Dickens's hand-written manuscript of the story does not include the sentence in the penultimate paragraph "... and to Tiny Tim, who did not die"; this was added later, during the printing process. ==Characters== The central character of A Christmas Carol is Ebenezer Scrooge, a miserly London-based businessman, described in the story as "a squeezing, wrenching, grasping, scraping, clutching, covetous old sinner!" Kelly writes that Scrooge may have been influenced by Dickens's conflicting feelings for his father, whom he both loved and demonised. This psychological conflict may be responsible for the two radically different Scrooges in the tale—one a cold, stingy and greedy semi-recluse, the other a benevolent, sociable man. The professor of English literature Robert Douglas- Fairhurst considers that in the opening part of the book covering young Scrooge's lonely and unhappy childhood, and his aspiration for money to avoid poverty "is something of a self-parody of Dickens's fears about himself"; the post-transformation parts of the book are how Dickens optimistically sees himself. Scrooge could also be based on two misers: the eccentric John Elwes, MP, or Jemmy Wood, the owner of the Gloucester Old Bank and also known as "The Gloucester Miser". According to the sociologist Frank W. Elwell, Scrooge's views on the poor are a reflection of those of the demographer and political economist Thomas Malthus, while the miser's questions "Are there no prisons? ... And the Union workhouses? ... The treadmill and the Poor Law are in full vigour, then?" are a reflection of a sarcastic question raised by the philosopher Thomas Carlyle, "Are there not treadmills, gibbets; even hospitals, poor-rates, New Poor-Law?" There are literary precursors for Scrooge in Dickens's own works. Peter Ackroyd, Dickens's biographer, sees similarities between the character and the elder Martin Chuzzlewit character, although the miser is "a more fantastic image" than the Chuzzlewit patriarch; Ackroyd observes that Chuzzlewit's transformation to a charitable figure is a parallel to that of the miser. Douglas-Fairhurst sees that the minor character Gabriel Grub from The Pickwick Papers was also an influence when creating Scrooge. It is possible that Scrooge's name came from a tombstone Dickens had seen on a visit to Edinburgh. The grave was for Ebenezer Lennox Scroggie, whose job was given as a meal man—a corn merchant; Dickens misread the inscription as "mean man". This theory has been described as "a probable Dickens hoax" for which "[n]o one could find any corroborating evidence". When Dickens was young he lived near a tradesman's premises with the sign "Goodge and Marney", which may have provided the name for Scrooge's former business partner. For the chained Marley, Dickens drew on his memory of a visit to the Western Penitentiary in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in March 1842, where he saw—and was affected by seeing—fettered prisoners. For the character Tiny Tim, Dickens used his nephew Henry, a disabled boy who was five at the time A Christmas Carol was written. The two figures of Want and Ignorance, sheltering in the robes of the Ghost of Christmas Present, were inspired by the children Dickens had seen on his visit to a ragged school in the East End of London. ==Themes== thumb|upright|alt=Scrooge being shown two small children, depicting Ignorance and Want, by the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come|Ignorance and Want from the original edition, 1843 The transformation of Scrooge is central to the story. Davis considers Scrooge to be "a protean figure always in process of reformation"; Kelly writes that the transformation is reflected in the description of Scrooge, who begins as a two-dimensional character, but who then grows into one who "possess[es] an emotional depth [and] a regret for lost opportunities". Some writers, including Grace Moore, the Dickens scholar, consider that there is a Christian theme running through A Christmas Carol, and that the novella should be seen as an allegory of the Christian concept of redemption. Dickens's biographer, Claire Tomalin, sees the conversion of Scrooge as carrying the Christian message that "even the worst of sinners may repent and become a good man". Dickens's attitudes towards organised religion were complex; he based his beliefs and principles on the New Testament. Dickens's statement that Marley "had no bowels" is a reference to the "bowels of compassion" mentioned in the First Epistle of John, the reason for his eternal damnation. Other writers, including Kelly, consider that Dickens put forward a "secular vision of this sacred holiday". The Dickens scholar John O. Jordan argues that A Christmas Carol shows what Dickens referred to in a letter to his friend John Forster as his "Carol philosophy, cheerful views, sharp anatomisation of humbug, jolly good temper ... and a vein of glowing, hearty, generous, mirthful, beaming reference in everything to Home and Fireside". From a secular viewpoint, the cultural historian Penne Restad suggests that Scrooge's redemption underscores "the conservative, individualistic and patriarchal aspects" of Dickens's "Carol philosophy" of charity and altruism. Dickens wrote A Christmas Carol in response to British social attitudes towards poverty, particularly child poverty, and wished to use the novella as a means to put forward his arguments against it. The story shows Scrooge as a paradigm for self-interest, and the possible repercussions of ignoring the poor, especially children in poverty—personified by the allegorical figures of Want and Ignorance. The two figures were created to arouse sympathy with readers—as was Tiny Tim. Douglas-Fairhurst observes that the use of such figures allowed Dickens to present his message of the need for charity, without alienating his largely middle-class readership. ==Publication== thumb|left|alt=Left-hand page shows Mr and Mrs Fezziwig dancing; the right-hand page shows the words "A Christmas Carol. In Prose. Being a Ghost Story of Christmas by Charles Dickens. With illustrations by John Leech|upright=1|First edition frontispiece and title page (1843) As the result of the disagreements with Chapman and Hall over the commercial failures of Martin Chuzzlewit, Dickens arranged to pay for the publishing himself, in exchange for a percentage of the profits. Production of A Christmas Carol was not without problems. The first printing was meant to have festive green endpapers, but they came out a dull olive colour. Dickens' publisher Chapman and Hall replaced these with yellow endpapers and reworked the title page in harmonising red and blue shades. The final product was bound in red cloth with gilt-edged pages, completed only two days before the publication date of 19 December 1843. Following publication, Dickens arranged for the manuscript to be bound in red Morocco leather and presented as a gift to his solicitor, Thomas Mitton. Priced at five shillings (equal to £ in pounds), the first run of 6,000 copies sold out by Christmas Eve. Chapman and Hall issued second and third editions before the new year, and the book continued to sell well into 1844. By the end of 1844 eleven more editions had been released. Since its initial publication the book has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions, translated into several languages and has never been out of print. It was Dickens's most popular book in the United States, and sold over two million copies in the hundred years following its first publication there. The high production costs upon which Dickens insisted led to reduced profits, and the first edition brought him only £230 (equal to £ in pounds) rather than the £1,000 (equal to £ in pounds) he expected. A year later, the profits were only £744, and Dickens was deeply disappointed. ==Reception== thumb|upright|alt=Engraving of Thackeray sitting in a chair at his desk|Thackeray in 1864. He wrote that A Christmas Carol was "a national benefit and to every man or woman who reads it, a personal kindness". According to Douglas-Fairhurst, contemporary reviews of A Christmas Carol "were almost uniformly kind". The Illustrated London News described how the story's "impressive eloquence ... its unfeigned lightness of heart—its playful and sparkling humour ... its gentle spirit of humanity" all put the reader "in good humour with ourselves, with each other, with the season and with the author". The critic from The Athenaeum, the literary magazine, considered it a "tale to make the reader laugh and cry – to open his hands, and open his heart to charity even toward the uncharitable ... a dainty dish to set before a King." William Makepeace Thackeray, writing in Fraser's Magazine, described the book as "a national benefit and to every man or woman who reads it, a personal kindness. The last two people I heard speak of it were women; neither knew the other, or the author, and both said, by way of criticism, 'God bless him!'" The poet Thomas Hood, in his own journal, wrote that "If Christmas, with its ancient and hospitable customs, its social and charitable observances, were ever in danger of decay, this is the book that would give them a new lease." The reviewer for Tait's Edinburgh Magazine—Theodore Martin, who was usually critical of Dickens's work—spoke well of A Christmas Carol, noting it was "a noble book, finely felt and calculated to work much social good". After Dickens's death, Margaret Oliphant deplored the turkey and plum pudding aspects of the book but admitted that in the days of its first publication it was regarded as "a new gospel", and noted that the book was unique in that it made people behave better. The religious press generally ignored the tale but, in January 1884, Christian Remembrancer thought the tale's old and hackneyed subject was treated in an original way and praised the author's sense of humour and pathos. The writer and social thinker John Ruskin told a friend that he thought Dickens had taken the religion from Christmas, and had imagined it as "mistletoe and pudding – neither resurrection from the dead, nor rising of new stars, nor teaching of wise men, nor shepherds". There were critics of the book. The New Monthly Magazine praised the story, but thought the book's physical excesses—the gilt edges and expensive binding—kept the price high, making it unavailable to the poor. The review recommended that the tale should be printed on cheap paper and priced accordingly. An unnamed writer for The Westminster Review mocked Dickens's grasp of economics, asking "Who went without turkey and punch in order that Bob Cratchit might get them—for, unless there were turkeys and punch in surplus, someone must go without". Dickens had criticised the US in American Notes and Martin Chuzzlewit, making American readers reluctant to embrace his work, but by the end of the American Civil War, the book had gained wide recognition in American households. In 1863 The New York Times published an enthusiastic review, noting that the author brought the "old Christmas ... of bygone centuries and remote manor houses, into the living rooms of the poor of today". ==Aftermath== upright|thumb|alt=The Ghost of Christmas Present sitting in front of a roaring fire, and a large spread of food, talking to a scared Scrooge|"The Ghost of Christmas Present" from the original edition, 1843 In January 1844 Parley's Illuminated Library published an unauthorised version of the story in a condensed form which they sold for twopence. Dickens wrote to his solicitor > I have not the least doubt that if these Vagabonds can be stopped they must. > ... Let us be the sledge-hammer in this, or I shall be beset by hundreds of > the same crew when I come out with a long story. Two days after the release of the Parley version, Dickens sued on the basis of copyright infringement and won. The publishers declared themselves bankrupt and Dickens was left to pay £700 in costs. The small profits Dickens earned from A Christmas Carol further strained his relationship with his publishers, and he broke with them in favour of Bradbury and Evans, who had been printing his works to that point. Dickens returned to the tale several times during his life to amend the phrasing and punctuation. He capitalised on the success of the book by publishing other Christmas stories: The Chimes (1844), The Cricket on the Hearth (1845), The Battle of Life (1846) and The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain (1848); these were secular conversion tales which acknowledged the progressive societal changes of the previous year, and highlighted those social problems which still needed to be addressed. While the public eagerly bought the later books, the reviewers were highly critical of the stories. ==Performances and adaptations== By 1849 Dickens was engaged with David Copperfield and had neither the time nor the inclination to produce another Christmas book. He decided the best way to reach his audience with his "Carol philosophy" was by public readings. During Christmas 1853 Dickens gave a reading in Birmingham Town Hall to the Industrial and Literary Institute; the performance was a great success. Thereafter, he read the tale in an abbreviated version 127 times, until 1870 (the year of his death), including at his farewell performance. In the years following the book's publication, responses to the tale were published by W. M. Swepstone (Christmas Shadows, 1850), Horatio Alger (Job Warner's Christmas, 1863), Louisa May Alcott (A Christmas Dream, and How It Came True, 1882), and others who followed Scrooge's life as a reformed man – or some who thought Dickens had got it wrong and needed to be corrected. The novella was adapted for the stage almost immediately. Three productions opened on 5 February 1844, one by Edward Stirling, A Christmas Carol; or, Past, Present, and Future, being sanctioned by Dickens and running for more than 40 nights. By the close of February 1844 eight rival A Christmas Carol theatrical productions were playing in London. The story has been adapted for film and television more than any of Dickens's other works. In 1901 it was produced as Scrooge, or, Marley's Ghost, a silent black-and-white British film; it was one of the first known adaptations of a Dickens work on film, but it is now largely lost. The story was adapted in 1923 for BBC radio. The story has been adapted to other media, including opera, ballet, animation, stage musicals and a BBC mime production starring Marcel Marceau. Davis considers the adaptations have become better remembered than the original. Some of Dickens's scenes—such as visiting the miners and lighthouse keepers—have been forgotten by many, while other events often added—such as Scrooge visiting the Cratchits on Christmas Day—are now thought by many to be part of the original story. Accordingly, Davis distinguishes between the original text and the "remembered version". ==Legacy== thumb|upright|alt=Scrooge pushing a large candle damper over the first ghost|Scrooge extinguishing the first spirit The phrase "Merry Christmas" had been around for many years – the earliest known written use was in a letter in 1534 – but Dickens's use of the phrase in A Christmas Carol popularised it among the Victorian public. The exclamation "Bah! Humbug!" entered popular use in the English language as a retort to anything sentimental or overly festive; the name "Scrooge" became used as a designation for a miser and was added to the Oxford English Dictionary as such in 1982. In the early 19th century the celebration of Christmas was associated in Britain with the countryside and peasant revels, disconnected to the increasing urbanisation and industrialisation taking place. Davis considers that in A Christmas Carol, Dickens showed that Christmas could be celebrated in towns and cities, despite increasing modernisation. The modern observance of Christmas in English- speaking countries is largely the result of a Victorian-era revival of the holiday. The Oxford Movement of the 1830s and 1840s had produced a resurgence of the traditional rituals and religious observances associated with Christmastide and, with A Christmas Carol, Dickens captured the zeitgeist while he reflected and reinforced his vision of Christmas. Dickens advocated a humanitarian focus of the holiday, which influenced several aspects of Christmas that are still celebrated in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games and a festive generosity of spirit. The historian Ronald Hutton writes that Dickens "linked worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation". The novelist William Dean Howells, analysing several of Dickens's Christmas stories, including A Christmas Carol, considered that by 1891 the "pathos appears false and strained; the humor largely horseplay; the characters theatrical; the joviality pumped; the psychology commonplace; the sociology alone funny". The writer James Joyce considered that Dickens took a childish approach with A Christmas Carol, producing a gap between the naïve optimism of the story and the realities of life at the time. thumb|upright|A few of the many editions of A Christmas Carol Ruth Glancy, the professor of English literature, states that the largest impact of A Christmas Carol was the influence felt by individual readers. In early 1844 The Gentleman's Magazine attributed a rise of charitable giving in Britain to Dickens's novella; in 1874, Robert Louis Stevenson, after reading Dickens's Christmas books, vowed to give generously to those in need, and Thomas Carlyle expressed a generous hospitality by hosting two Christmas dinners after reading the book. In 1867 one American businessman was so moved by attending a reading that he closed his factory on Christmas Day and sent every employee a turkey, while in the early years of the 20th century Maud of Wales – the Queen of Norway – sent gifts to London's crippled children signed "With Tiny Tim's Love". On the novella, the author G. K. Chesterton wrote "The beauty and blessing of the story ... lie in the great furnace of real happiness that glows through Scrooge and everything around him. ... Whether the Christmas visions would or would not convert Scrooge, they convert us." Analysing the changes made to adaptations over time, Davis sees changes to the focus of the story and its characters to reflect mainstream thinking of the period. While Dickens's Victorian audiences would have viewed the tale as a spiritual but secular parable, in the early 20th century it became a children's story, read by parents who remembered their parents reading it when they were younger. In the lead-up to and during the Great Depression, Davis suggests that while some saw the story as a "denunciation of capitalism, ...most read it as a way to escape oppressive economic realities". The film versions of the 1930s were different in the UK and US. British-made films showed a traditional telling of the story, while US-made works showed Cratchit in a more central role, escaping the depression caused by European bankers and celebrating what Davis calls "the Christmas of the common man". In the 1960s, Scrooge was sometimes portrayed as a Freudian figure wrestling with his past. By the 1980s he was again set in a world of depression and economic uncertainty. ==See also== * List of Christmas-themed literature * Dickens Christmas fair * The Man Who Invented Christmas ==Notes== ==References== ==Sources== ===Books=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Online resources=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Newspapers, journals and magazines=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * A Christmas Carol read online at Bookwise * * A Christmas Carol at Internet Archive * A Christmas Carol e-book with illustrations * A Christmas Carol Project Gutenberg free online book * * Using Textual Clues to Understand A Christmas Carol Category:1843 British novels Category:1840s fantasy novels Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Books illustrated by Arthur Rackham Category:British fantasy novels Category:British novellas Category:British novels adapted into films Category:British novels adapted into plays Category:British novels adapted into television shows Category:Chapman & Hall books Category:Christmas novels Category:English-language novels Category:Ghost novels Category:Novels about time travel Category:Novels adapted into ballets Category:Novels adapted into operas Category:Novels by Charles Dickens Category:Novels set in London Category:Novels set in the 19th century Category:Victorian novels Category:Works about atonement Category:Books illustrated by John Leech |
The union of Brittany and France was a critical step in the formation of modern-day France. Brittany had been a semi-independent component of the Kingdom of France since Clovis I was given authority over the Gallo-Roman domain during the 5th century. It was first recorded as a "duchy" during the rule of Nominoe in 846.Smith, Julia M. H. Province and Empire: Brittany and the Carolingians. Cambridge University Press: 1992, 97. Over the centuries, the fealty demonstrated by the Duchy of Brittany toward the French king depended significantly on the individuals holding the two titles, as well as the involvement of the English monarchy at that particular time. The reign of Francis II, Duke of Brittany, was at an especially crucial time, as the nobles struggled to maintain their autonomy against the increasing central authority desired by Louis XI of France. As a result of several wars, treaties, and papal decisions, Brittany was united with France through the eventual marriage of Louis XI's son Charles VIII to the heiress of Brittany, Anne in 1491. However, because of the different systems of inheritance between the two realms, the crown and the duchy were not held by the same hereditary claimant until the reign of Henry II, beginning 1547. ==Historical context== ===Roman times through the 13th century=== According to Julius Caesar, Brittany (fr. Bretagne) was historically part of Celtic Gaul as Armorica (Gallic for "Place by the Sea"). On the fall of the Roman Empire, it was integrated into the Gallo-Roman domain of Syagrius. The territory was liberated from imperial control and was awarded by the emperor to Clovis I after his victory at Soissons in 486. Clovis received the titles of Honorary Consul and Patricius, thus assuring the legitimacy of his authority over the ancient Gallo-Roman domain. When Clovis died, Brittany was included in the quarter of the kingdom that was given to his son, Childebert I. In the 9th century, with chaos spreading over Brittany, the Frankish kings, following their policy of partial delegation of power to local representatives (a precursor of the feudal system), nominated administrators of Brittany. Thus Nominoë was designated as Missus Imperatoris (emissary of the emperor) by King Louis the Pious, and then as Ducatus Ipsius Gentismissus of the Bretons, before he rebelled against royal power and obtained a degree of autonomy for Brittany. It has been reported that Louis IV of France (reigned 936–954) stated that Brittany was not part of his kingdom. This was probably because the French king was a close friend of Breton Duke Alan II. Both of them had grown up together at the court of Æthelstan, king of England, as they were in protective exile from King Raoul of France (Louis) and Viking occupation (Alan). Henry II of England (ruled 1154–1189) had attempted to conquer Brittany, which was surrounded on all sides by his possessions, as he held Normandy in his own right and married Eleanor of Aquitaine, thus gaining lands to the south of Brittany. While Henry's maneuvering was partially successful—he became the Count of Nantes, forced Conan IV, Duke of Brittany into abdication, and had Constance, the successor duchess, married to his son Geoffrey—the Duchy of Brittany never became incorporated into the crown of England. ===14th and 15th centuries=== In the 14th century, the Breton War of Succession between the Breton House of Montfort and the House of Penthièvre could be seen as an episode of the Hundred Years' War between the House of Valois (founded by Charles of Valois, the fourth son of Philip III of France) and the House of Plantagenet (founded by Henry II of England). In the 15th century, the Duchy of Brittany remained an independent and sovereign state led by a sovereign Duke. The more recent dukes of Brittany rendered homage to the French king, although Francis II, Duke of Brittany desired a return to greater independence. After the conclusion of the Hundred Years War, it manifested itself in direct conflicts between the king and the great princes of the kingdom. Francis II sought alliances and established diplomatic relations with England, the Holy See, and the Holy Roman Empire. The French ambassadors contested some of the duchy's moves toward independence and its assertion of historic sovereignty. The territorial expansion of France brought it to the borders of Brittany and led to the goal of overlordship or direct control of the peninsula. From the start of the Breton War of Succession in 1341, France sought this goal and because France never willingly accepted the victory of the opposing prince, battles or wars followed one another until the final French success in 1491, 1532 or 1598, according to different views and different sources. Louis XI felt a great hatred for Francis II of Brittany following the latter's involvement in a number of great conspiracies. Louis and his successors, the regent Anne de Beaujeu and Charles VIII, wished to: * destroy the threat of encirclement of the French kingdom between the Duchy of Burgundy (and subsequently the Burgundian Netherlands and the County of Burgundy, which passed to the archduke of Austria) to the north and east, and Brittany to the west. * consolidate the power of the king in the face of Francis II, who, like the other nobles, had profited from the historic enfeeblement of the monarchy to endue himself with symbols of sovereignty, such as a royal seal, a royal crown, the adoption of the principle of lèse-majesté, the establishment of a sovereign parliament (or court of justice), the establishment of a university (at Nantes), independent and direct diplomatic relations with the then major powers, and the eviction of the King's tax collectors. * punish those nobles, including Francis II, who had fought on the anti-royalist side in multiple conflicts, such as the League of the Public Weal (1465), the conquest of Normandy in 1467-68 for Charles of France (1446–1472), the war of 1471-1473, the Mad War (La Guerre Folle) (1484–85), and the Franco-Breton War (1487–1488). The French Chancery justified its sovereignty over Brittany based on historical precedent: * In 497, Clovis I united the Franks into a single kingdom. * In the late 8th century, Charlemagne incorporated Brittany into the Carolingian Empire. * In the 11th century, William the Conqueror expanded into Brittany. The Breton chroniclers and the Breton Chancellery of the 14th-16th centuries defended the opposite view, arguing mainly from settlement of the territory by Bretons at an earlier date than by the Franks; but conveniently forgetting the lack of a treaty with the Roman Empire permitting the settlement in Brittany and the settlement of the Franks in the Vannes region, as well as agreements with the Frankish kings in authority following the advent of Clovis. They also argued for the sovereignty of Brittany based on its status as an ancient kingdom, although Nominoe, who had won considerable autonomy for the administration of Britain, never had the title of king, and the fact that the homage paid by the dukes to the kings was one of alliance rather than as lieges. This last point was not recognized by the King of France. In the second half of the 15th century, the kings of France had multiple events work to their advantage in the quest to acquire Brittany: * England, a traditional ally of the Counts of Montfort-l'Amaury, was unable to act in force on the continent after being expelled in 1453 at the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War and while embroiled in the subsequent Wars of the Roses. Following this civil war, the newly established Tudor dynasty did send an English force under the command of Edward Woodville, Lord Scales to fight in the Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier (1488), in which they were wiped out and Lord Scales killed. Following this defeat, the Tudors did not dare intervene in Breton affairs once again. * Brittany lost another important ally with the 1477 death of the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, whose domain was in part incorporated into the French crown and otherwise inherited by his daughter. * The end of the dynasty of Anjou in 1482 gave the king control of the border between Anjou and Brittany. * The Breton nobility had many interests in the kingdom and, like other nobles, those concerning pensions related to their titles. In addition, the nobles envied the influence of the Valois and of the treasurer of the Landes (an administrative division in southern France), who was a simple commoner. * Francis II, Duke of Brittany, had irritated the nobility of Brittany when, as Prince of the Loire Valley, he had from his childhood retained strong ties with the princes of Valois at the French court (hence the unfortunate coalitions during the feudal revolts against the king). *This lack of authority over his upper aristocracy and his government in general deprived Francis II, and later Anne of Brittany, of support. The nobility preferred to respect royal power, and only associated themselves weakly with the revolt of the great feudal lords during the Mad War (La Guerre Folle) revolt against Anne of France's regency. * Francis II had no legitimate male heir, so his two daughters, Anne and Isabeau, were proclaimed heirs before the Estates of Brittany (the Breton council) in conformity with the Duchy's semi-Salic law of inheritance. However, there were other potential claimants: the Viscount of Rohan, the Prince of Orange, Alain d'Albret, and the King of France, who had purchased an inheritance claim from the Penthièvre family (arising from the treaty signed at the end of the Breton War of Succession). ===Treaty of Sablé=== Following the Battle of Saint-Aubin du Cormier, the Treaty of Sablé, or "treaty of the orchard", concluded with King Charles VIII of France on 20 August 1488, required the agreement of the French king to any marriage of the daughters of Francis II. The survival of the Breton state was thus contingent on the marriage of Anne of Brittany. Francis II wanted Anne to wed Maximilian I of Austria as a means to (hopefully) ensure the sovereignty of Brittany. Although Francis died in September 1488, his loyal supporters facilitated this union for Anne in a marriage by proxy held 19 December 1490. Unfortunately, this violated the Treaty of Sablé as the king of France did not consent to this marriage, and it also placed the rule of Brittany in the hands of an enemy of France. As a result, France resumed its armed conflict with Brittany. The spring of 1491 brought new successes by the French general La Trémoille, and Charles VIII of France came to lay siege to Rennes. Maximilian failed to come to his bride's assistance (the Habsburgs were too busy in Hungary to pay serious attention to Brittany), and Rennes fell. Anne became engaged to Charles in the vault of the Jacobins in Rennes and traveled to Langeais to be married. Although Austria made diplomatic protests, claiming that the marriage was illegal because the bride was unwilling, that she was already legally married to Maximilian, and that Charles was legally betrothed to Margaret of Austria (Maximilian's daughter), Anne was wed to Charles VIII on 6 December 1491. The marriage was subsequently validated by Pope Innocent VIII on 15 February 1492. ==The King of France as Duke of Brittany jure uxoris== Charles VIII became Duke of Brittany jure uxoris upon his marriage to Anne of Brittany. During their marriage, Charles prohibited Anne from using the title of Duchess of Brittany, and imposed his own rule on the Duchy through a Royal Governor from the House of Penthièvre. However, when the king died leaving the royal couple childless, the Duchy of Brittany reverted to Anne. She returned to Brittany and re-established her independent rule. Anne's actions underscored that the Duke of Brittany's line of succession was governed by the Celtic nation's peculiar form of Semi-Salic Law rather than the strict Salic Law governing the Kingdom of France. Her actions also demonstrated that the Duke of Brittany and the King of France, at least at this time, remained distinct and separable titles. Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII, also married Anne of Brittany, and thus the title of Duke of Brittany jure uxoris was once again in the person of the king of France. In this marriage, however, Anne was allowed to use her title, and Louis enacted all official actions in Brittany in her name. When Anne died in January 1514, her and Louis' daughter Claude inherited the Duchy of Brittany in her own right. In May 1514, the title of Duke of Brittany jure uxoris was again extant through Claude's marriage to her cousin Francis, Duke of Angoulême, heir to the throne of France. Louis XII died in January 1515, at which time Francis was crowned king of France (as Francis I), with Claude as his queen consort. ==The King of France as hereditary Duke of Brittany== The Union of Brittany and France was nearly perfected through Francis III, Duke of Brittany, the eldest son of Francis I of France and Claude of France, and therefore the Dauphin of France. Francis III inherited the Duchy when he was 6 years old after the death of his mother in 1524. That Francis I allowed his eldest son to carry the title of the Duke of Brittany supports the perception that the Duchy of Brittany remained separate from the Kingdom of France. However, before the kingship and dukedom could be joined in one person, Francis III died in 1536, never to inherit the French crown. The duchy then passed to Henry, the second son of Francis I and Claude. When Francis I died in 1547, Henry succeeded him as Henry II of France, and the kingdom and dukedom were united in ruler. Francis I also sought to enfold Brittany into the Kingdom of France through parliamentary maneuvers. Francis formally invited the Duchy of Brittany to join the French crown. On 13 August 1532, an edict of union was signed by the Estates of Brittany in Nantes.Bertrand Frélaut. Histoire de Vannes. Éditions Jean-Paul Gisserot, 2000. Page 46. .Yves Henri Nouailhat. Bretagne: écologie, économie, art, littérature, langue, histoire, traditions populaires, vol. 16. d'Encyclopédies régionales. C. Bonneton, 1979. Page 27. Some members of the parliament (the Estates of Brittany) were either intimidated into co-operation with the union or bought off, with the demand for union in fact being inspired by Francis I.Jean-Pierre Leguay. La fin de l'indépendance bretonne (volume 6), Fastes et malheurs de la Bretagne ducale 1213-1532, Ouest-France Université, 1992. Page 435. . It has been argued that the legal validity of the union is doubtful on such grounds.http://www.gwalarn.org/diellou/1532.pdf Louis Melennec, doctoral dissertation on the union between Brittany and France Regardless of the validity of the Edict of Union of 1532, four years later in 1536, Henry became the Duke of Brittany upon the death of his brother. Thereby the Duchy of Brittany was considered incorporated into the Kingdom of France upon the death of his mother.Christophe Levantal. Ducs et pairs et duchés-pairies laïques à l'époque moderne : (1519-1790). Maisonneuve & Larose, coll. Mémoires de France, 1996. Pages 479-481. .A Short History of Brittany The crowns of Brittany and France differed principally in the application of Salic Law, and this difference remained to challenge the permanent union of the two crowns. Before this legal challenge ever surfaced, however, centuries passed, and King Louis XVI of France, who remained Duke of Brittany in his own right, was deposed and beheaded during the French Revolution. The Revolution eliminated royalty, nobility, and any vestiges of a governing sovereign for both the Kingdom of France and the Duchy of Brittany, and the parliament of Brittany remains suppressed to modern times. ==Political and economic factors== The duchy could only submit, in spite of its occasional resistance, in the face of one of Europe's strongest armies. The Breton elite were attracted by France's royal court, but the Breton merchant bourgeoisie in Saint-Malo did not identify with the interests of the Dukes of Brittany. ==Aftermath of the Union of Brittany and France== The union of Brittany and France was a critical step in the formation of modern-day France. Geographically, the union resulted in France's northwestern border becoming the English Channel and its western border, as far south as the Pyrenees Mountains, becoming the Atlantic Ocean, save for island territories and colonies. Politically this unification marked the end to over 1000 years of efforts by various Kings of England to control Brittany, and thwarted later efforts by the King of Spain to establish a foothold there. Throughout its history the Kingdom of Brittany and then the Duchy of Brittany constantly sought independence from Merovingian Kings, Carolingian Emperors, Viking invaders, Norman Dukes, and English, French and Spanish Kings alike. Strong movements for autonomy and even Separatist movements persist in Brittany to modern times, accelerated in part by France's decision to become a leading member of the European Union. The history of the Union of Brittany and France is also incomplete without an understanding that Henry II of France worked to retain the separate legal status of the Duchy even while he, in his person, represented the final step towards the unification. His motivation stemmed from the possibility that if a war involving France were to be lost, he, or his successor, would still hold the Duchy of Brittany as a means to preserve their royal status and function. After union to the French crown the Duchy of Brittany was able to maintain certain privileges and symbolic independence. The Estates of Brittany continued to function independently of the Estates of France. The second son of Francis I of France, Henry II of France, attempted to preserve a legally separate Duchy, and it is felt by some historians that he did this to preserve the region as a sovereign haven for himself during a period when France was at war with Spain. ==See also== *Breton people *Brittany *Duchy of Brittany *List of Breton monarchs *List of French monarchs *Kings of France family tree *Territorial formation of France ==References== ==Bibliography== * Gabory, Émile. L'Union de la Bretagne à la France: Anne de Bretagne, duchesse et reine. Plon, 1941. * Germain, José, and Stéphane Faye. Bretagne en France et l'union de 1532. Tallandier, 1931. * Le Page, Dominique, and Michel Nassiet. L'union de la Bretagne à la France. Éditions Skol Vreizh, 2003. * Leguay, Jean-Pierre. "La fin de l'indépendance bretonne." Fastes et malheurs de la Bretagne ducale 1213-1532. Ouest-France Université, 1992. p. 434-435. * de Mauny, Michel. 1532: le grand traité franco-breton. On account of the author, 1971. * de Mauny, Michel. 1532-1790, les dessous de l'union de la Bretagne à la France. Éditions France-Empire, 1986. . * de Mauny, Michel. Traité d'union de la Bretagne à la France. Celtics Chadenn, 2002. . ==External links== *Letter of Vannes of 4 August 1532 *Edict of Union signed at Nantes in August 1532 *Edict of Plessis-Macé confirming Brittany's privileges (September 1532) Portal:France Category:1532 in Europe Category:Ancien Régime Category:History of Brittany Brittany |
Pyxis is a small and faint constellation in the southern sky. Abbreviated from Pyxis Nautica, its name is Latin for a mariner's compass (contrasting with Circinus, which represents a draftsman's compasses). Pyxis was introduced by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century, and is counted among the 88 modern constellations. The plane of the Milky Way passes through Pyxis. A faint constellation, its three brightest stars—Alpha, Beta and Gamma Pyxidis—are in a rough line. At magnitude 3.68, Alpha is the constellation's brightest star. It is a blue-white star approximately distant and around 22,000 times as luminous as the Sun. Pyxis is located close to the stars that formed the old constellation Argo Navis, the ship of Jason and the Argonauts. Parts of Argo Navis were the Carina (the keel or hull), the Puppis (the poop deck or stern), and the Vela (the sails). These eventually became their own constellations. In the 19th century, John Herschel suggested renaming Pyxis to Malus (meaning the mast) but the suggestion was not followed. T Pyxidis, located about 4 degrees northeast of Alpha Pyxidis, is a recurrent nova that has flared up to magnitude 7 every few decades. Also, three star systems in Pyxis have confirmed exoplanets. The Pyxis globular cluster is situated about 130,000 light-years away in the galactic halo. This region was not thought to contain globular clusters. The possibility has been raised that this object might have escaped from the Large Magellanic Cloud. ==History== In ancient Chinese astronomy, Alpha, Beta and Gamma Pyxidis formed part of Tianmiao, a celestial temple honouring the ancestors of the emperor, along with stars from neighbouring Antlia. The French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille first described the constellation in French as la Boussole (the Marine Compass) in 1752, after he had observed and catalogued almost 10,000 southern stars during a two-year stay at the Cape of Good Hope. He devised fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe. All but one honoured instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment. Lacaille Latinised the name to Pixis [sic] Nautica on his 1763 chart. The Ancient Greeks identified the four main stars of Pyxis as the mast of the mythological Jason's ship, Argo Navis. German astronomer Johann Bode defined the constellation Lochium Funis, the Log, and Line—a nautical device once used for measuring speed and distance travelled at sea—around Pyxis in his 1801 star atlas, but the depiction did not survive. In 1844 John Herschel attempted to resurrect the classical configuration of Argo Navis by renaming it Malus the Mast, a suggestion followed by Francis Baily, but Benjamin Gould restored Lacaille's nomenclature. ==Characteristics== thumb|left|The constellation of Pyxis, the compass, as it can be seen by the naked eye Covering 220.8 square degrees and hence 0.535% of the sky, Pyxis ranks 65th of the 88 modern constellations by area. Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 52°N. It is most visible in the evening sky in February and March. A small constellation, it is bordered by Hydra to the north, Puppis to the west, Vela to the south, and Antlia to the east. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Pyx". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of eight sides (illustrated in infobox). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −17.41° and −37.29°. ==Features== ===Stars=== Lacaille gave Bayer designations to ten stars now named Alpha to Lambda Pyxidis, skipping the Greek letters iota and kappa. Although a nautical element, the constellation was not an integral part of the old Argo Navis and hence did not share in the original Bayer designations of that constellation, which were split between Carina, Vela and Puppis. Pyxis is a faint constellation, its three brightest stars—Alpha, Beta and Gamma Pyxidis—forming a rough line. Overall, there are 41 stars within the constellation's borders with apparent magnitudes brighter than or equal to 6.5. With an apparent magnitude of 3.68, Alpha Pyxidis is the brightest star in the constellation. Located 880 ± 30 light-years distant from Earth, it is a blue-white giant star of spectral type B1.5III that is around 22,000 times as luminous as the Sun and has 9.4 ± 0.7 times its diameter. It began life with a mass 12.1 ± 0.6 times that of the Sun, almost 15 million years ago. Its light is dimmed by 30% due to interstellar dust, so would have a brighter magnitude of 3.31 if not for this. The second brightest star at magnitude 3.97 is Beta Pyxidis, a yellow bright giant or supergiant of spectral type G7Ib-II that is around 435 times as luminous as the Sun, lying 420 ± 10 light-years distant away from Earth. It has a companion star of magnitude 12.5 separated by 9 arcseconds. Gamma Pyxidis is a star of magnitude 4.02 that lies 207 ± 2 light-years distant. It is an orange giant of spectral type K3III that has cooled and swollen to 3.7 times the diameter of the Sun after exhausting its core hydrogen. Kappa Pyxidis was catalogued but not given a Bayer designation by Lacaille, but Gould felt the star was bright enough to warrant a letter. Kappa has a magnitude of 4.62 and is 560 ± 50 light-years distant. An orange giant of spectral type K4/K5III, Kappa has a luminosity approximately 965 times that of the Sun. It is separated by 2.1 arcseconds from a magnitude 10 star. Theta Pyxidis is a red giant of spectral type M1III and semi-regular variable with two measured periods of 13 and 98.3 days, and an average magnitude of 4.71, and is 500 ± 30 light-years distant from Earth. It has expanded to approximately 54 times the diameter of the Sun. Located around 4 degrees northeast of Alpha is T Pyxidis, a binary star system composed of a white dwarf with around 0.8 times the Sun's mass and a red dwarf that orbit each other every 1.8 hours. This system is located around 15,500 light-years away from Earth. A recurrent nova, it has brightened to the 7th magnitude in the years 1890, 1902, 1920, 1944, 1966 and 2011 from a baseline of around 14th magnitude. These outbursts are thought to be due to the white dwarf accreting material from its companion and ejecting periodically. TY Pyxidis is an eclipsing binary star whose apparent magnitude ranges from 6.85 to 7.5 over 3.2 days. The two components are both of spectral type G5IV with a diameter 2.2 times, and mass 1.2 times that of the Sun, and revolve around each other every 3.2 days. The system is classified as a RS Canum Venaticorum variable, a binary system with prominent starspot activity, and lies 184 ± 5 light-years away. The system emits X-rays, and analysing the emission curve over time led researchers to conclude that there was a loop of material arcing between the two stars. RZ Pyxidis is another eclipsing binary system, made up of two young stars less than 200,000 years old. Both are hot blue-white stars of spectral type B7V and are around 2.5 times the size of the Sun. One is around five times as luminous as the Sun and the other around four times as luminous. The system is classified as a Beta Lyrae variable, the apparent magnitude varying from 8.83 to 9.72 over 0.66 days. XX Pyxidis is one of the more-studied members of a class of stars known as Delta Scuti variables—short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology. Astronomers made more sense of its pulsations when it became clear that it is also a binary star system. The main star is a white main sequence star of spectral type A4V that is around 1.85 ± 0.05 times as massive as the Sun. Its companion is most likely a red dwarf of spectral type M3V, around 0.3 times as massive as the Sun. The two are very close—possibly only 3 times the diameter of the Sun between them—and orbit each other every 1.15 days. The brighter star is deformed into an egg shape. AK Pyxidis is a red giant of spectral type M5III and semi-regular variable that varies between magnitudes 6.09 and 6.51. Its pulsations take place over multiple periods simultaneously of 55.5, 57.9, 86.7, 162.9 and 232.6 days. UZ Pyxidis is another semi-regular variable red giant, this time a carbon star, that is around 3560 times as luminous as the Sun with a surface temperature of 3482 K, located 2116 light-years away from Earth. It varies between magnitudes 6.99 and 7.83 over 159 days. VY Pyxidis is a BL Herculis variable (type II Cepheid), ranging between apparent magnitudes 7.13 and 7.40 over a period of 1.24 days. Located around 650 light-years distant, it shines with a luminosity approximately 45 times that of the Sun. The closest star to Earth in the constellation is Gliese 318, a white dwarf of spectral class DA5 and magnitude 11.85. Its distance has been calculated to be 26 light-years, or 28.7 ± 0.5 light-years distant from Earth. It has around 45% of the Sun's mass, yet only 0.15% of its luminosity. WISEPC J083641.12-185947.2 is a brown dwarf of spectral type T8p located around 72 light-years from Earth. Discovered by infrared astronomy in 2011, it has a magnitude of 18.79. ===Planetary systems=== Pyxis is home to three stars with confirmed planetary systems—all discovered by Doppler spectroscopy. A hot Jupiter, HD 73256 b, that orbits HD 73256 every 2.55 days, was discovered using the CORALIE spectrograph in 2003. The host star is a yellow star of spectral type G9V that has 69% of our Sun's luminosity, 89% of its diameter and 105% of its mass. Around 119 light-years away, it shines with an apparent magnitude of 8.08 and is around a billion years old. HD 73267 b was discovered with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) in 2008. It orbits HD 73267 every 1260 days, a 7 billion-year-old star of spectral type G5V that is around 89% as massive as the Sun. A red dwarf of spectral type M2.5V that has around 42% the Sun's mass, Gliese 317 is orbited by two gas giant planets. Around 50 light-years distant from Earth, it is a good candidate for future searches for more terrestrial rocky planets. ===Deep sky objects=== thumb|right|The planetary nebula NGC 2818, imaged by the Hubble telescope|alt=A coloured oval cloud of material against a dark background Pyxis lies in the plane of the Milky Way, although part of the eastern edge is dark, with material obscuring our galaxy arm there. NGC 2818 is a planetary nebula that lies within a dim open cluster of magnitude 8.2. NGC 2818A is an open cluster that lies on line of sight with it. K 1-2 is a planetary nebula whose central star is a spectroscopic binary composed of two stars in close orbit with jets emanating from the system. The surface temperature of one component has been estimated at as high as 85,000 K. NGC 2627 is an open cluster of magnitude 8.4 that is visible in binoculars. Discovered in 1995, the Pyxis globular cluster is a 13.3 ± 1.3 billion year- old globular cluster situated around 130,000 light-years distant from Earth and around 133,000 light-years distant from the centre of the Milky Way—a region not previously thought to contain globular clusters. Located in the galactic halo, it was noted to lie on the same plane as the Large Magellanic Cloud and the possibility has been raised that it might be an escaped object from that galaxy. NGC 2613 is a spiral galaxy of magnitude 10.5 which appears spindle-shaped as it is almost edge-on to observers on Earth. Henize 2-10 is a dwarf galaxy which lies 30 million light-years away. It has a black hole of around a million solar masses at its centre. Known as a starburst galaxy due to very high rates of star formation, it has a bluish colour due to the huge numbers of young stars within it. == See also == * Pyxis (Chinese astronomy) == Notes == ==References== Category:Southern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Lacaille |
Ynglism (Russian: Инглии́зм; Ynglist runes: frameless|40px), institutionally the Ancient Russian Ynglist Church of the Orthodox Old Believers–Ynglings (Древнерусская Инглиистическая Церковь Православных Староверов–Инглингов, Drevnerusskaya Ingliisticheskaya Tserkov' Pravoslavnykh Staroverov–Inglingov), is a direction of Rodnovery formally established in 1992 by Aleksandr Yuryevich Khinevich (b. 1961) in Omsk, Russia, and legally recognised by the Russian state in 1998, although the movement was already in existence in unorganised forms since the 1980s. The adherents of Ynglism call themselves "Orthodox", "Old Believers", "Ynglings" or "Ynglists". The Ynglist Church was described by some scholars as having a complex and well-defined doctrine and liturgy, an authoritative leading hierarchy, and as focusing on esoteric teachings. The Ynglists regard themselves as preserving the true, orthodox (i.e. in accordance with the universal order, right), religious tradition of the Russians, of all Slavs, and of all white European "Aryans". Other Rodnover groups in Russia are strongly critical of Ynglism; at a veche of Russian Rodnover organisations Ynglist doctrines were formally rejected. In the mid 2000s the church faced judicial prosecutions for ethnic hatred, and Khinevich himself was convicted with probation between 2009 and 2011. After the central organisation in Omsk was dissolved, the movement proliferated into multiple groups in all the regions of Russia, and also in various countries of Europe and North America. The holy writings of Ynglism are the four Slavo-Aryan Vedas. ==Overview== ===Terminology=== The term "Ynglism" refers to the Ynglings, the oldest royal kins of Scandinavia, a branch of the early Indo- Europeans or Aryans, whom the Ynglists believe to have originated from the Omsk region of Western Siberia, Russia. According to the Ynglists, the term has cosmological significance, referring to the order of the universe carried by the primordial fiery radiance — the Ynglia, personified as Yngly — emanated by the supreme God, Ramha. They also call their religion "Orthodoxy" and "Old Belief". According to Ynglist history and terminology, the Slavic term for "Orthodoxy", Pravoslavie (Православие, that like the Greek counterpart precisely means "right honouring", or "honouring" [slavit'] the "truth, order" [Prav]), is older than Christianity. The term, which means the right way of living in accordance with the law of the universe, was appropriated by Eastern Orthodox Christianity among the Slavs only by the 17th century, through the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, in order to wholly absorb the indigenous religion which was then still prevalent among the population. Prior to the reform, Christianity used the Greek-based loanword Ortodoksalnost (Ортодоксальность). The term "Russian" and related ones would derive instead from the Aryan root ros (рос), referring to "brightness" and "holiness". The definition "Old Believers" (Староверы, Starovery), which today is employed to refer to Christians who preserved pre-Nikonian rituals, who are more correctly called the "Old Ritualists" (Старообрядцы, Staroobryadtsy), was imposed on the latter during the same Nikonian reform. Their previous name was "Righteous Christians" (Праведные Христиане, Pravednye Khristiane), and "Old Believers" referred instead to indigenous Slavic religion. According to the Ynglists, these theories would be proven by 13th-century documents preserved by a sect of the Christian Old Believers. ===Characteristics=== Aleksandr Y. Khinevich (b. 1961) is a native of Omsk and graduated from the Omsk State Technical University. He began to give an organisation to Ynglism between the 1980s and the early 1990, starting from the community Dzhiva-Astra (Джива-Астра) which practised exorcism and traditional medicine, and formally founded the Ynglist Church in 1992, in Omsk. In the same year he published a book entitled Ynglism, Short Course, in which he put forward the backbone of his doctrine, and he visited the United States where he claimed to have established branch groups of the Ynglist Church. Later in the 1990s he published the Slavo-Aryan Vedas, the fundamental books of Ynglism. As the head of the Ynglist Church he is known by his followers as Pater Diy (Патер Дий, meaning "Divine Father" or "Shining Father"), or volkhv Kolovrat. He does not qualify Ynglism either as a "paganism" or as a "religion", but rather as a "cosmic wisdom" brought by the Aryans, and preserved since ancient times in the region of Western Siberia. The scholar Elena Golovneva argued that it is accurate to classify Ynglism a "new religious movement", or an "invented tradition", which nonetheless contains elements drawn from very old sources. Scholars have identified influences from Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Helena Blavatsky's Theosophy, and German Ariosophy within Ynglism. The scholars Alexey V. Gaidukov and Kaarina Aitamurto described Ynglism as a movement focused on esotericism, with an authoritative leading hierarchy and a well-defined doctrine and liturgy. In the 1990s Khinevich had in all likelihood an acquaintance with Viktor Bezverkhy (1930–2000), the founder and major ideologist of Peterburgian Vedism. Khinevich would have been granted the title of "honorary Wend" by the Union of Wends, the Rodnover organisation founded by Bezverkhy in 1990. Although there was not a full-fledged cooperation with the Peterburgian Vedists, and they never accepted the Slavo-Aryan Vedas of Ynglism, Khinevich reportedly took inspiration from Peterburgian Vedism and reprinted many materials of the Union of Wends. In the 2000s, Nikolay Viktorovich Levashov (1961–2012), after having elaborated his own teachings widely based upon Ynglism, established another organised Rodnover current, Levashovism, which recognises the Slavo-Aryan Vedas as its fundamental sources. The scholar Polina P. Kocheganova noted that the "cosmic religion" proposed by Ynglism may be regarded as a "modernist" approach to Rodnovery, different from other currents which represent a "traditionalist" approach. Similarly, Gaidukov defined Ynglism as an eclectic or "polysyncratic" (i.e. mixing together elements from different sources) form of Rodnovery. For its characteristics, Ynglism is not regarded as genuine Rodnovery by some other Rodnover groups; in 2009, two of the largest Russian Rodnover organisations, the Union of Slavic Native Belief Communities and the Circle of Pagan Tradition, issued a joint statement against Ynglism, Levashovism, and the doctrines of other authors, deeming them "pseudo-Pagan teachings, pseudo-linguistics, pseudo-science and outright speculation." Kocheganova observed that, however, also the teachings of those Rodnover groups which criticised Ynglism are based on hypotheses about ancient Slavic religion. ===Writings and authors=== thumb|upright=1.0|Three of the canonical Slavo-Aryan Vedas, the Book of Light, two copies of Ynglism, and the Source of Life, plus the non-canonical Slavic Worldview. The central holy writings of the Ynglist movement are the Slavo- Aryan Vedas (Славяно-Арийские Веды, Slavyano-Ariyskiye Vedy), purportedly ancient texts allegedly passed down generation by generation in Western Siberia, whose most ancient parts would be tens of thousands of years old. They were allegedly originally written on santy (сантии, сантьи, саньтии), tablets made of noble metals, which would now be kept in a secret location by the high priests of Ynglism and would contain texts composed of 186,000 "Slavic Aryan runes", first transliterated into Cyrillic script and printed on paper in 1944. Four hundred Dacian golden copies of the original Siberian tablets would have been discovered in 1875 at the Sinaia Monastery in the Bucegi Mountains, Romania, and handed over to the king Carol I of Romania, of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family, who ordered to recopy them in lead before melting most of the golden ones to replenish the royal treasury; known as the "Dacian Santies", they would be preserved in various private vaults and museums of Romania. The Vedas were effectively published by Aleksandr Khinevich since the mid 1990s, and were preceded in 1992 by the book Ynglism, Short Course in which Khinevich put forward the core of his doctrine. The Ynglists claim that the Scandinavian Eddas are a western European Latinised version of their ancient Vedas. The first Veda comprises the Book of the Wisdom of Perun (Сантии Веды Перуна, Santy Vedy Peruna; also translated as Книга Мудрости Перуна, Kniga Mudrosti Peruna) and the Saga ob Inglingakh, a Russian version of the Scandinavian Ynglinga saga.List of the Slavo-Aryan Vedas as it appeared on their official Russian website as of 27 June 2017. The second Veda comprises the Book of Light (Книга Света, Kniga Sveta) and the first part of the Word of Wisdom of the Wise Velimudra (Слово Мудрости Волхва Велимудра, Slovo Mudrosti Volkhva Velimudra). The third Veda comprises the Ynglism, the Ancient Faith of Slavic and Aryan Folks (Инглиiзмъ, Древняя Вера Славянскихъ и Арiйскихъ Народовъ; Ingliizm, Drevnyaya Vera Slavyanskikh i Ariyskikh Narodov) and the second part of the Word of Wisdom. The fourth and last Veda of Ynglism contains the Source of Life (Источник Жизни, Istochnik Zhizni) and the White Way (Белый Путь, Bely Put). A fifth book, though not part of the canonical Vedas, is Slavic Worldview, Confirmation of the Book of Light (Славянское Мiропонiмание, Подтверждение Книги Света; Slavyanskoye Miroponimaniye, Podtverzhdeniye Knigi Sveta). After they were published by Khinevich, the Ynglist Vedas were sold in many thousands of copies. According to Golovneva, such popularity of the books proves that they are "far from being marginal", as they represent "the basis for a certain kind of popular knowledge of ancient history". Besides their Vedas, the Ynglists also rely upon the Book of Veles, and also upon various Gnostic scriptures, including the Secret Gospel of John and the New Testament of the Holy Apostle Thomas discovered in 1945. Apart from Aleksandr Khinevich, another important Russian author of Ynglist literature is Aleksey V. Trekhlebov (volkhv Vedagor), one of the earliest and closest disciples of the former. Trekhlebov came from the study of Indian religions, and he is a yogi; he claimed to have received initiation in Nepal from a high lama, whom, however, advised him to seek the truth in his own native traditions. He has dedicated his life to the "spiritual and moral education of the Slavs, the spiritual revival of the Russians towards mental health and enlightenment"; for this purpose, he has written various Ynglist books, including The Blasphemers of Finist the Bright Falcon (Кощуны Финиста Ясного Сокола, Koshchuny Finista Yasnogo Sokola). In Ukraine, a notable spreader of Ynglist ideas was Volodymyr Kurovskyi, who contributed to the making of the documentary Igra Bogov ("Play of Gods"). ==Beliefs== According to the Ynglists, their beliefs represent the original religion of the Indo-Europeans or Aryans, which was preserved in the purest and most detailed forms by the Slavs and the Iranians, while the Indo-Aryans who migrated into the Indian subcontinent mixed with native Indians and corrupted the original Vedic doctrines. According to the prolific Ynglist writer Aleksey Trekhlebov, one of the closest disciples of Aleksandr Khinevich, the Slavic tradition offers three postulates for knowing truth: word (slovo), vision (vedy) and experience (opyt). It is therefore open to a certain degree of personal gnosiology: in estimating the validity of a given truth a person should listen the opinion of his spiritual teacher, read what the Slavo-Aryan Vedas say about it, and ponder whether it seems reasonable in the light of his own experience. The scholar Victor Shnirelman observed that the Ynglist doctrine owes much to Slavic, Germanic, Iranian and Indian sources, but integrates gods and concepts from other cultures as well. For instance, Ynglist beliefs include the idea of reincarnation matching that of Hinduism, and the idea of a struggle between good and evil forces matching that of Zoroastrianism. The scholar Robert A. Saunders described Ynglist doctrine as influenced by late nineteenth and early twentieth-century German Ariosophy. The Ynglists themselves believe that their doctrine systematises ideas already contained in the original "Russian spiritual culture", and that it would be the way for saving mankind from degeneration. ===Theology=== thumb|upright=1.0|Scheme of the theology of Omskian Ynglism: Ramha begets Ynglia-Yngly, which begets Rod, from which depart the four ramifications of the Slavo-Aryans. Shnirelman described Ynglist theology as esoteric, and, citing the words of Aleksandr Khinevich himself, as "neither monotheistic nor polytheistic" as were the beliefs of the "early ancestors" — the earliest Indo-Europeans, whom Khinevich identifies as the Slavo-Aryans. Ynglist theology is monistic: all the deities of nature and the entities that they generate are regarded as the manifestations of the energy emanated by the supreme universal God. According to Ynglist sources, Ynglist theology and Slavic spirituality in general may be defined as a "rodotheism", that is to say a "worship of the gods of the kins" which links mankind back to the supreme God of the universe, which is the supreme ancestor of the universe itself. ====The utmost God and its order==== According to Ynglist theology, the Ynglia (Инглия; Ynglist rune: frameless|20px), called Yngly when personified (Ингли, Инглъ; cf. the Germanic Yng, Yngwi, whose Scandinavian runic consists of square symbols → frameless|20px, and cf. the Germanic suffix "-ing", implying the action of generation and production) is the structural order of the universe and of all phenomena, characterised as a fiery radiance emanated by the supreme God, the "One Indivisible God" (Единый Неделимый Бог, Yediny Nedelimy Bog), named Ramha (Рамха, also spelled Ramkha; Ynglist runes: frameless|35px) in Ynglist terminology. Ramha is absolute, unknowable, unfathomable, and yet manifests itself as the gods generating all phenomena in accordance with the supreme order, the Ynglia. The latter is personified as Yngly, the intelligence of God, keeper of the source of the fire of the universe, and model of the earliest progenitor of humanity, Rod. Yngly-Ynglia is represented by the swastika symbol, which Ynglists call the "image of Yngly" and consider the first written symbol of humanity, as well as the symbol for the "defense of the native land and of the holy faith". Apart from the similarity of the names of the Ynglist Ramha and the Indian Brahman, Brahma, and Rama, Ramha is also identified with the ancient Egyptian concept of Ra central to the other Russian Rodnover movement of Vseyasvetnaya Gramota (the "Universal Script"). Alexey Gaidukov observed that the Ynglist name for the supreme God is also similar to that of Ramtha, the entity allegedly channelled by the American New Ager J. Z. Knight. A hymn to Ramha declaims: A hymn to Yngly declaims: ====The gods of nature==== In Ynglist theology, below Ramha and Yngly, and in the matrix into which the energy of Yngly becomes incarnated — the Earth, also called Midgard ("Middle-Realm") by the Ynglists according to Scandinavian terminology —, there are Rod — the archetype of humanity, progenitor of all the ancestors — and the multitude of the gods of nature. These gods are described as immutable, informational personal laws who harmoniously generate the different forms of life in the universe and support them in their course. They are all in accordance with the order (the Ynglia) begotten by the supreme God, but at the same time they may exceptionally intervene in the course of phenomena helping the spiritual evolution of mankind along the right path, if people are motivated by sincere creativity and love. An Ynglist dictum is that "the gods are our fathers, and we are their children". In other words, the gods are the progenitors, ancestors of all entities. The Ynglists distinguish four categories of gods: ① "Highest Gods" (Вышние Боги, Vyshniye Bogi), those orchestrating the deepest processes of the universe; ② "Gods-Protectors" (Боги-Покровители, Bogi-Pokroviteli), those patronising the celestial bodies, the stars and planets, the Earth, the Moon as well as the "Rods", the progenitors of human lineages of the bright Aryan "great race"; ③ "Gods-Governors" (Боги-Управители, Bogi-Upraviteli), who control various elements, desires, the measured flows of life on Earth; ④ "Gods-Guardians" (Боги-Охранители, Bogi-Okhraniteli), who influence various locations on Earth, such as arable lands, forests and the countries of the Aryans. In the hierarchy of the Highest Gods there are: Vyshen (Вышень, Slavicised Vishnu), Kryshen (Крышень, Slavicised Krishna) and Svarog — the ecliptic north pole; Perun, Indra and Simargl — the celestial north pole, Iriy or Svarga; Dazhbog — the Sun; — the great year or great time; Svetovid and Ramkhat — the year; Dzhiva and Marena — life and death; Veles — the patron of the Earth; Mokosh and Lada — aspects of the Earth; Rod and Rozhana — male and female progenitors of human kins. In the hierarchy of divinity, gods act in triads, Triglavs, of which the main one is Svarog-Perun-Svetovid, representing conscience, freedom and light. On the level of the cycle of the Sun, Yngly manifests itself as the eight gods who govern the eight phases of the year: Kolyada, Veles, Lelya, Yarilo, Kupalo, Perun, Mokosh and Marena. In their incarnated form, materially functioning as progenitors of genealogical lineages, the gods of the northern polar astral planes, especially of the Svarga, are known as "Ases" (Асов, Asov) and they are believed by the Ynglists to be the forefathers of the four ramifications of the Slavo-Aryans: Da'Aryans (Да'Арийцы), Kh'Aryans (Х'Арийцы), Rassenians (Расены) and Svyatorussians (Святорусы). "Rod-Forefather" (Род-Породитель, Rod-Poroditel; Ynglist runes: frameless|40px; also translatable as "Kin-Progenitor") is the archetype of all the progenitors of the genealogical lineages, and is described as one and the same with Ramha, through Yngly. He is without image, like Ramha, but Ynglists worship him through the symbol of Ramha constituted by the three runes of its name. The protection of Rod flows through Prav, Yav and Nav, the three worlds of traditional Slavic cosmology. A hymn to Rod-Forefather declaims: ===Cosmology=== thumb|upright=1.0|Representation of the four dimensions of Ynglist cosmology and of the cycle of life throughout them. ====Prav, Yav, Nav, and Slav==== According to Ynglist cosmology, reality consists of three dimensions, recognised by common Rodnover cosmology as well: Prav (Правь, "Right"), Yav (Явь, "Manifested") and Nav (Навь, "Unmanifested"). The Ynglists, however, distinguish a fourth concept defining a part of Nav, that is to say Slav (Славь, "Glory"). Prav is the transcendental, spiritual dimension of the gods, who follow the right law (the Ynglia) of Ramha, Yav is the material dimension in which all entities are incarnated, and Nav is the dimension of the soul/movement, which can be Bright Nav (Светлый Навь, Svetly Nav) or Dark Nav (Темный Навь, Temny Nav). The Bright Nav is otherwise called Slav, and is the orderly northern polar Svarga, the dimension of celestial deities, while the Dark Nav is the unorderly deep-space dimension of demons. In the cosmological scheme, the Bright Nav is above while the Dark Nav is below, and Yav is the boundary in-between the two and may develop according to the models of one or the other Nav. Also, Prav is spiritual, supra-mental, while Nav — consisting in the movements of the celestial asterisms — is merely astral if dark but astral and mental if bright (Slav), and Yav is physical, phenomenical. ====Cycles of life==== According to the Ynglists the soul of the human being is eternal and undergoes a cyclical journey which begins from the dimension of Prav, where it is identified with the radiance of the utmost God, then passing through the other dimensions of Nav, Yav and Slav, where the soul has to acquire knowledge of darkness in order to objectively recognise light, develop itself according to the bright order of Slav, and finally ascend back to Prav. The soul is created out of the infinite light of God in Prav by Dzhiva, the goddess matrix of life; then, from Prav the soul passes to its own "sovereign star" (звезда-владыка, zvezda-vladyka) in the astral dimension of Nav, especially Slav (the Bright Nav); then, from Nav the soul comes as a stream of light to the physical dimension of Yav on some planet, where it incarnates and develops in matter with the aim of ascending to the mental plane of Slav and ultimately having once again access to Prav. The incarnations are governed by the goddess Karna. From the matrix of life in Prav, the soul brings with itself throughout the other dimensions the energy and the information — a "figurative structure" — necessary for the completion of its cycles of incarnation; in the material dimension of Yav, the knowledge brought from Prav joins the specialised Rod of a kin, the progenitor deity of a given genealogical lineage, which provides the soul with a compatible body, context and information inherited from the blood of the ancestors, by means of which the soul may improve itself in its given situation, although the soul always has the free will for acquiring new abilities to improve itself towards Slav. The purpose of successive incarnations in different worlds of Yav is to discern between bright ways and dark ways, to act as creators in accordance with the bright order of the utmost God, and to favour the sublimation of matter; if the purpose of a given incarnation in Yav is not fulfilled over the course of a lifetime, Karna makes the soul reincarnate in the same world until the goal has been completed. ===Historiosophy and eschatology=== thumb|upright=1.0|Woman from Belovodye, Lola Lonli, 2000. The Ynglists reject official historical narrative, which they believe to be manipulated, and argue that it should be replaced with history as told in their Slavo-Aryan Vedas or with koshchunosloviya, that is history based on Russian folk tales (koshchuny). They believe that "Yngling", a name that identifies the earliest royal dynasties of Scandinavia, means "offspring of Yngly", and that the historical Ynglings migrated to Scandinavia from the region of Omsk, which was a spiritual centre of the early Indo-Europeans or Aryans. They hold that the Saga ob Ynglingakh, their Russian version of the Scandinavian Ynglinga saga (itself composed by Snorri Sturluson on the basis of an older Ynglingatal), proves their ideas about the origins of the Ynglings in Omsk, and that the Scandinavian Eddas are ultimately a more recent, western European and Latinised version of their own sacred books, the Slavo-Aryan Vedas. Ynglism presents itself as the true spirituality of the Indo-Europeans or Aryans, a term which means "harmonious men", those who live in accordance with the laws of God and therefore manifest bright physical features and clear thoughts. The Aryans were spiritually influenced by the northern celestial pole and its circumpolar stars, especially the astral images of the Big Dipper and Little Dipper, respectively parts of the Great Bear and Little Bear; these constellations, spinning around the pole, draw the changing image of Yngly (the swastika) in the four phases of the day and the year. The Aryans would be the incarnation in Yav of gods of such northern polar astral plane, which is the Iriy or Svarga and corresponds to the Bright Nav; these gods are called Ases and the Aryans would be the "heavenly kin" (небесный род, nebesny rod). The first Aryans dwelt at the geographic North Pole, the Arctic, and because of this they are known in Greek sources as the "Hyperboreans", the inhabitants of "Hyperborea" (literally "over the north"). Hyperborea was named Daarya (Даария) by the Aryans in their original language, and is also known by the Ynglists as "Arctida". After leaving their original homeland Daarya, the Aryans settled in what is today the vast expanse of Eurasia, where the richest occurrences of hooked cross symbolism in historical testimonies have been found, in patterns of architecture, weaponry, and tools of everyday life. The Aryans gave this vast territory the name "Asia" (the land of incarnated gods) or Rassenya (Рассеня), a term which would have evolved into "Ruthenia" and "Russia". The Ynglist author Trekhlebov claims that most of the ancient peoples of Eurasia, known by a variety of ethnonyms, were in fact ramifications of the Slavo-Aryans, and that the same term "Russians" and related ones come from the Aryan root ros meaning "radiance", "light" and "holiness". The precise area where they established the centre of their civilisation was that which in Russian folklore is known as Belovodye (Беловодье; "White Waters"), which the Ynglists locate in Siberia and identify as the same as the Tibetan concept of Shambhala, the Scandinavian Asgard ("Gods-Realm"), and the land of the Rigvedic rivers: they identify the rivers as the Yenisei and Angara, the Lena, the Irtysh and Ob, and the Ishim and the Tobol. This country was also called Pyatirechye (Пятиречье), and when the Aryans' domains reached the Ishim and the Tobol it became known as Semirechye (Семиречье). The Aryans built their architectures according to the pattern of Alatyr — a Slavic mythological stone or mountain which represents the world centre or the world axle —, which is the same as the image of Yngly (hooked cross), which endows human consciousness with virtue. Omsk was the location of the capital "Asgard the Great" or "Asgard of Iriy" of the Aryan spiritual civilisation, and it is the place where the salvation of all humanity begins. In Okunevo, in the same region of Omsk, was located an important religious centre, where, according to Ynglist beliefs, original Aryan knowledge was preserved even in times of Christianisation and secretly passed down generation by generation eventually coming to Aleksandr Khinevich himself. The Ynglist chronological account of history begins either with the end of the Last Glacial Period (c. 13.000 BCE), with the descent of the gods from the "celestial temple" of Iriy, or with the foundation of "Asgard of Iriy". Ynglism would be the means to regather the Aryans and reconnect them to their progenitors, reawakening their pristine way to perceive the world. Ynglist doctrine proposes an apocalyptic eschatology according to which a "great priest" and a "great priestess" from Omsk will lead the forces of light against the forces of darkness, which will eventually be vanquished and destroyed in the "end of the world"; as told in the Book of the Wisdom of Perun: ===Morality and ethics=== ====The Nine Great Warps==== thumb|upright=1.0|Symbol of the Slavo-Aryan race, the "heavenly kin"; the four beams of the hooked cross represent its four subdivisions, based on the eye colours: gray the Da'Aryans, green the Kh'Aryans, hazel the Rassenians, blue the Svyatorussians. It is often completed by a sword pointing downward over the hooked cross, representing the descent of the primordial fire of Yngly and the wisdom of the Slavo-Aryans. The "Nine Great Warps" (Девять Великих Основ, Devyat' Velikikh Osnov) constitute the ethical code of Ynglism which guides the "weft" of the destiny of the Aryans and their descendants towards perfection. Similarly to Theosophical beliefs, Khinevich taught that the different human races have different astral origins. Only Aryans, that is to say white races, are considered to be the offspring of the gods of the spheres of the Svarga, the Bright Nav, while non-Aryan black races are considered to be the offspring of deep-space demons of the Dark Nav. The union of whites and blacks is held to produce wicked mixlings, the "gray race", and the Abrahamic religions and the masses they persuade are believed to be essentially of a gray nature. In some Ynglist writings, the term "grays" does not define black- white mixlings, but the pre-existing deep-space demons themselves who would have penetrated some peoples of the non-white races, including both the black and the yellow races. In still other writings, the gray race of deep-space demons would try to possess and corrupt all the other races, including the white, the black, the yellow and the red races, by hybridising with them. Aleksandr Khinevich stressed that Ynglism is a religion exclusively for white people. The gods of the Bright Nav when incarnated in Yav are known as Ases, and they are the progenitors of all the kins of the Aryans and the Slavs, the heavenly kin. The Slavo-Aryan kins are subdivided into four major lineages: the Aryans are subdivided into the gray-eyed Da'Aryans carriers of blood type O, and the green-eyed Kh'Aryans carriers of blood type O and rarely A; the Slavs are subdivided into the hazel-eyed Rassenians carriers of blood type A and rarely O, and the blue-eyed Svyatorussians carriers of blood type O or A. The goal of the Ases is to pass on, generation by generation and through the reincarnations, the spiritual wisdom for continuous perfection and recreation whose aim is favouring the return of souls to the Bright Nav and the ascension to Prav. The Warps are: ① dedication, towards the study of holy writings, traditions and ancestral wisdom, and to the worship of the gods; ② spirituality, that is to say engagement in understanding and developing one's spiritual side; ③ compassion, for all living things created by God; ④ penitence, for upkeeping the harmony of body and spirit which grants peace; ⑤ tolerance, for the freedom of others which nevertheless may not go against the right laws of God; ⑥ friendship, towards other human lineages but not towards wicked people who go against the right laws of God; ⑦ love, towards all living things created by God and reflected among humans as the worship of ancestors; ⑧ testing, to be gone through in order to develop spiritual virtue; ⑨ integration, that is to say the search for and upkeeping of the meaning and purpose that everything has within its own context. In addition to the Nine Great Warps, there are thirty-three commandments for each of the nine great celestial deities. ====Family and politics==== The Ynglist Church is concerned with the health of the Russians, and other Slavic peoples, and of the family as any folk's fundamental unit, and its values are exceptionally conservative. They emphasise that men are innately disposed towards "public" life and spiritual quest, while women fulfill themselves in the "private" life of the family at home and in the function of reproduction. Kaarina Aitamurto described the church as strongly patriarchal; the social model that Ynglism proposes is the traditional hierarchy of the family, headed by male elders. The veche (assembly) of the church itself is conceived as the gathering of these elders, the fathers. According to Ynglist beliefs, women are "so tied to their natural task of reproduction" that they may not reach the same intellectual and spiritual achievements of men, who are naturally more prone to the abstract thinking that is needed for political assignments. Ynglism is critical of modern Western liberal democracy, and espouses instead an ideal of democracy that is more similar to ancient Greek democracy. According to the Ynglists, universal suffrage leads to unwise decisions and ultimately to the disruption of society, because the majority of people are not wise. In their view, modern liberal democracies are dictatorships of the "biggest minorities", whereas ancient Slavic veche and mir were based on "consensual decision-making". The Ynglists propose the traditional Slavic principle of samoderzhavie, a word they interpret as "people ruling themselves", claimed to be the highest "true will of the people" which comes to be incarnated and exercised by a wise ruler. ====Education and "beneficial offspring"==== According to the Ynglist Church, the demographic decline of contemporary Russia has to be studied as a crisis of the psycho-physical heritage transmitted by Russian parents to their children, and of the environment where these children grow up. Within the Ynglist Church, the "purity of the kin (rod) and the blood" is considered a divine command: miscegenation and incest, as well as "perverted" sexuality without reproductive ends and the consumption of alcohol and drugs, are forbidden as unhealthy threats of "modern confusion" imported from the "degenerated" West. Miscegenation, the production of gray mixlings from the union of white and black races, would cause "spiritual and intellectual decline". As a solution, Ynglists emphasise the theme of "creating beneficial descendants" (созидание благодетельного потомства, sozidanye blagodetel'nogo potomstva), and encourage the creation of large families of up to sixteen children, considered the number of an ideal "full circle of offspring". In a broader metaphysical discourse, all forces of globalisation coming from the West are perceived as alien models that infiltrate and spoil the spirit and language of Slavic culture. An excerpt from the Slavo-Aryan Vedas declaims: Ynglist doctrines emphasise a "healthy way of life", which includes eating natural and pure food, being responsible and sober, but also ideas based on theories of human biology and genetics which are "far from academic perceptions". For instance, the Ynglists firmly condemn sex out of wedlock, as they believe that it, as all other "unnatural" ways of life, shortens the lifespan, and they espouse the theory of telegony, that is to say the idea that a woman is genetically shaped by the men with whom she has sexual intercourse, and her offspring would inherit genetic characteristics of all her bedmates. They also believe that giving birth makes a woman three years younger, if other aspects of her life are correct. Regarding telegony, Aleksandr Khinevich taught: ==Practices== The Ynglist Church is known for its intensive proselytism, carried out through a "massive selling" of books, journals and other media. The Ynglists spread the content of the Slavo-Aryan Vedas, teach "Aryan mathematics" and ancient grammar, and also health techniques. They also spread the use a system of "Slavo-Aryan runes" in which the original metallic sheets of the Slavo-Aryan Vedas were written. ===Clergy, temples and rituals=== The scholar Alexey Gaidukov described Ynglism as having a well-defined hierarchic ecclesiastical structure and worship system. The Ynglist Church is led by the Pater Diy ("Divine Father", "Shining Father); from the 1990s throughout the 2020s the Pater Diy is Aleksandr Khinevich, also known as volkhv Kolovrat. The Pater Diy is the head of the utmost Council of Elders (Совет Старейшин, Sovet Stareyshin) of the church. Any priest (жрец, zhrets; священник, svyashchennik) member of the church may be appointed to become the succeeding Pater Diy, but he must not be younger than 21 years old. Below the Pater Diy, there are five ranks in the sacerdotal hierarchy of the church: ① Ingling-svyashchennik (Инглинг- священник, "Yngling priest"), the highest rank of priests below the Pater Diy whose duty is to perform divine liturgies; ② khramovnik (храмовник, "templar"), defining priests who act as temple guardians, performing temple duties except divine liturgies; ③ volkhv (волхв, "mage"), defining priests who perform sacraments inside and outside the temples, except divine liturgies and temple duties; ④ strannik (странник, "wanderer"), defining priests who assist the former two ranks in performing temple duties, sacraments, and also wander as missionaries; and ⑤ dukhovnik (духовник, "spiritual confessor"), defining priests who perform only rituals of purification and initiation, including baptisms. All of them wear white robes, with cloaks and belts of different colours to distinguish the rank they belong to. The khramovnik also bear a sword and a short dagger with themselves to represent their role as temple guardians. Such sacerdotal hierarchy, like the organisation of temples (khram) and communities, mimicks that of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Contrary to other Rodnover traditions which prefer that collective worship is held at shrines consisting of wooden idols (капь, kap') and other ritual elements placed in clearings or natural open holy spaces, Ynglism emphasises that worship should be held inside walled temples. The worship of the gods and the ancestors is conducted by the Ynglists through a detailedly elaborated liturgy in which the style of speech and behaviour of the participants are similar to those of Orthodox Christians. Also similar is the strict regulation of performance, timing and content of prayers and appeals; the Ynglists conduct rituals and recite prayers at precise times of the day and before or after undertaking certain actions, such as before beginning to work, before going to sleep, and similar others. Prayers, speech formulations, are held to be energetic vibrations directed to certain gods, thus going to certain stars and constellations which are the bodies of such gods; Slavo-Aryan prayers are meant to go mainly to the northern celestial pole, Svarga. Yearly gatherings (veche) of great numbers of Ynglist believers are held in summer. All Ynglist believers have to go through three rites of initiation, for entry and confirmation in the communion of the church; three baptisms, respectively in water, fire and spirit: the baptism in water is undergone at the age of 9 and marks the entry into the communion of the church; the baptism in fire is undergone at the age of 24 and confirms the presence of the believer in the communion; the baptism in spirit is undergone at the age of 36, considered the age when a person reaches full adulthood and is sanctified for creating a new family. Weddings in Ynglism are usually held in coincidence with the holiday and month of Kolyada (December). During their divine liturgies, the Ynglists practise a peculiar gesture, the "holy sign" (святое знамение), to "illustrate the holy faith, repeating the holy lightning of Perun which consecrated the life of the ancestors": to do it, the third phalanges of the thumb, the ring finger and the small finger of the right hand are joined together to represent the great Triglav of Svarog-Perun-Svetovid, as well as conscience, freedom and light, while the index and the middle finger are joined in straight line to represent the heavenly kin (the genealogy) and the mother goddess receiving it; folded in this way, the two straightened fingers first touch the forehead, then the left eye, then the right eye, and endly the mouth. ===Yujism=== thumb|upright=1.0|Yujist figurative representation of reality. Yujism (юджизм; Ynglist runes: frameless|40px; lit. "good life"; also spelled "yudzhism" or "eujism") is the learning and practice of the right view on reality, characteristic of and taught by the "earliest ancestors" with whom the Ynglists identify themselves — the Aryans. The fundamental requirement for learning yujism is the ability of figurative thought; according to the Ynglists, images convey much more informations than either sounds or gestures, whence the movement's emphasis on runes, which immediately set in motion images in the mind. The goal of yujism is the perception and understanding of reality as an energetic process; when one becomes conscious of such energetic process, yujism becomes his way of life. The first rune, the "image of Yngly" which is the swastika symbol, is conceived as well as the representation of yuj or yudzh (юдж) itself, which Ynglist sources themselves equate with Indian yoga. Yuj is the expansion of human consciousness that is triggered by becoming aware of how the energetic process of reality works by articulating itself into a duality, a positive and a negative stream — or rather celestial creative-innovative and terrestrial conservative-repetitive stream — of the universal radiation of Yngly, called respectively ha (ха) and tha (тха) and represented by the two possible directions of the swastika, respectively rightwise 卍 and leftwise 卐. The Ynglists claim that tha and ha are the ancient Slavic names of the same dual concept that is known in Chinese thought as yin and yang. The Ynglist author Trekhlebov asserted that Slavo-Aryans are those who make balance between principles of yin and yang by living in harmony with the law of the supreme God. The yujist worldview is schematically represented by the figure of a "flat earth sustained by three elephants, themselves sustained by a turtle which swims in an unlimited ocean": the flat earth represents the twofold structure of perception, ha and tha — articulating in all dualities, from "yes–no" to "up–down"; the three elephants symbolise the three dimensions of reality — Yav, Nav and Prav — material, ideal (which realises itself in words) and mystical reality, which are also three forms of being; and the turtle is yuj itself, that is to say the awakened consciousness, which draws information from the ocean, which represents the infinite energy of God (the Ynglia). Before engaging in yujist practices, an Ynglist believer should always recite the following prayer to his ancestors: ====Ninefold energetic system==== thumb|upright=1.0|Representation of the nine energetic centres of the human body. According to Ynglist yujism, when the universal energy forms the human body it flows along the spinal cord and coalesces throughout energetic centres or chakras, a concept which the Ynglists claim to belong to the worldview of the ancient Slavo-Aryans and which was later adopted and simplified in Indian religions. The spinal cord is a conductor which has a positive pole (+) receiving the celestial energy flow (ha 卍) from the north pole down through the right side of the body, and a negative pole (-) receiving the terrestrial energy flow (tha 卐) from the south pole up through the left side of the body. In the Ynglist yujist system there are a total of thirty-seven energetic centres in the human body, of which nine are the fundamental ones which receive the universal energy and the other twenty-eight are ancillary ones which settle the energy received by the nine main ones. The nine energetic centres are divided into three lower chakras responsible for physical development, three middle chakras responsible for mental development, and three upper chakras responsible for spiritual development. The nine energetic centres, from the upper to the lower ones and each with the corresponding colour and musical sound frequency, are: ① istok (исток) in the coccyx region, which receives the material watery energy and information ascending from the south pole, whose colour is black and which vibrates at low infrasound frequencies; ② zarod (зарод) in the pubis region, which allocates energy to the generation of life, whose colour is red and which vibrates at the note Do; ③ zhivot (живот) in the abdomen region, which allocates energy to physical development, whose colour is orange and which vibrates at the note Re; ④ persi (перси) in the thorax region, which allocates energy to creativity, whose colour is yellow and which vibrates at the note Mi; ⑤ lada (лада) in the right shoulder, which allocates energy to love and goodness, whose colour is green, which vibrates at the note Fa, and which is also known as the "solar breath"; ⑥ lelya (леля) in the left shoulder, which allocates energy to intuition, whose colour is azure, which vibrates at the note Sol, and which is also known as the "lunar breath"; ⑦ usta (уста) in the throat region, which allocates energy to the vocal expression of thought, whose colour is blue and which vibrates at the note La; ⑧ chelo (чело) in the forehead region, which allocates energy to the figurative expression of thought and to vision, whose colour is purple and which vibrates at the note Si; ⑨ rodnik (родник), in the crown region, which receives the spiritual fiery energy and information descending from the north pole, from the gods and the ancestors, whose colour is white and which vibrates at high ultrasound frequencies. The universal energy flowing through the centres of the human body converges into a point in the region of the heart where the two polarities of the flux — the rightwise masculine fiery energy of the north pole (ha) and the leftwise feminine watery energy of the south pole (tha) — become harmonised, and the thus reunified energy unfolds as a spinning cross represented by the Ynglist symbol of the svadebnik (свадебник, "wedding"). The energetic flux and its informations would also be conveyed by channels of the blood system; the different human races — black, red, gray, yellow and white — would have different functions in reality based on different configurations of the energetic channels of their blood — respectively six, nine, ten, twelve and sixteen channels, arranged in different shapes. In gray-generated mixlings there would be a predominance of the feminine watery polarity on the masculine fiery polarity as typical of the gray race, and the energetic channels would be unstable, so that the flux of the universal energy would be disrupted giving rise to degenerative and self-destructive physical and mental flaws. ====Ninefold bodily system==== According to Ynglist yujism, the human body — created by the nine chakras conveying the flux of the universal energy — also exists energetically on nine levels, of which one representation is the traditional Russian matryoshka doll made of nine wooden figures placed one inside the other in decreasing size. Of the nine energetic bodies, three are in the Yav physical dimension and together constitute what is commonly referred to as the "body" (тело, telo), three are in the Nav astral-mental dimension and together constitute what is commonly referred to as the "soul" (душа, dusha), and three are in the Prav supra-mental dimension and together constitute what is commonly referred to as the "spirit" (дух, dukh). The bodies of Yav are: ① the "explicit body" (явное тело, yavnoye telo), which is the densest material body; ② the "protective body" (защитное тело, zashchitnoye telo), which is the thin layer around the material body which protects it; and ③ the "mensural body" (мерное тело, mernoye telo), which contains the former two functioning like a structural mould. The bodies of Nav are: ① the "astral body" (астральное тело, astral'noye telo), which is the body that a person has on the plane of the stars to move between them; ② the "mental body" (ментальное тело, mental'noye telo), which is the body that a person makes as an image of thought to move on such plane; and ③ the "causal body" (каузальное тело, kausal'noye telo), which is the body moulded by contexts and relations in which a person finds itself on such plane. The bodies of Prav are: ① the "body of the soul" (тело души, telo dushi), which is the highest energetic essence created by Dzhiva present in all the dimensions but especially linking the astral-mental dimension to the spiritual supra- mental dimension; ② the "body of the form" (тело формы , telo formy), which is the highest formal essence imparted by the celestial gods; and ③ the "body of the spirit" (тело духа, telo dukha), the essence corresponding to the state of identification with the light of the utmost God itself. ===Calendar=== ====Krugolet and kologod==== Ynglism proposes a unique structure of time which differs from that of other branches of Rodnovery and which Aleksandr Khinevich claimed to be a genuine Slavic calendar. It is used by the Ynglists for organising their life and their divine liturgies. It is based on great cycles of 144 years — krugolet (круголет), literally "circle flight", personified as —, with each year beginning on 20 September on the autumn equinox, consisting of nine months of forty or forty-one days subdivided in weeks of nine days, with each day consisting of sixteen hours, each hour consisting of 144 minutes, and each minute of further subdivisions. In the krugolet, years are arranged in groups of sixteen, with fifteen of them constiting of 365 days and the sixteenth year consisting of 369 days. Each year also has its own name and associated animal (e.g. White Dog, White Goat, and the like). According to Ynglist teachings, the "cycle of the year" (кологод, kologod) is itself a phenomenon reflecting the order of the supreme God, that is to say its active manifestation, Yngly. Each month's name may be written as a compound of two Ynglist runes, of which the first rune is either Ay (Ай), Bey (Бэй), Gey (Гэй), Day (Дай), E (Э), Vey (Вэй), Xey / Khey (Хей), or Tay (Тай), reflecting basic sounds in Indo-European tongues and representing the natural characteristics manifesting in the given month. The second rune in the names is always the rune 20px Let (Летъ), which means "year" as well as "summer", as the months are phases of the year which comes to its full maturity in summer. The only exception to this rule is the first month, Ramkhat (Рамхатъ), whose name refers to the beginning of Ramha's ordering action, Yngly, represented by the swastika-like first rune and extending as the entire year. Month Runic sign Meaning Corresponding Latinate month(s) Ramhat / Ramkhat Рамхатъ Aylet Айлетъ center Aylet is the month of new gifts. The rune Ay means prosperity, full baskets. It is the propitious tide for weddings, for beginning building new things, and for harvests. November Beylet Бэйлетъ center Beylet is the month of white light and peace, representing the pure radiance of divinity, glory and the resting of the soul. December Geylet Гэйлетъ center Geylet is the month of blizzards and fierce and severe cold. January–February Daylet Дайлетъ center Daylet is the month of the rebirth of nature; plants and animals awaken and are strengthened. March Elet Элетъ center Elet is the month of sowing, this being the foremost meaning of the rune E. It is the sowing not only of seeds in the ground, but also of the word in people; it is therefore the month of naming and renaming of persons, for them to be born again. April Veylet Вэйлетъ center Veylet is the month of winds. The rune Vey is an image of flying, and of blowing wind. This month is when Stribog ("Wind God") and his children are most active. May–June Xeylet Хейлетъ center Xeylet, or spelled "Kheylet", is the month of the receipt of the gifts of nature. The rune Xey is an image of positive force. What was sown in Elet and grew throughout Veylet, is finally harvested in Xeylet. July Taylet Тайлетъ center Taylet is the month of completion of the year, of divine creation, of full summer. The rune Tay means the top, the limit, the end of something (just like the homophonous Chinese grapheme and in words like "Taiga", literally "end of the path"). August ====Holidays==== Ynglists respect eight holidays throughout the year. They are arranged in the cycle of the year, symbolically identified as the Alatyr, and they correspond to the eight gods (laws) of Yngly reflected by the cycle of the Sun. Holidays are called "thresholds" (порог, porog) and they mark the beginning of the various phases of the year. The action of each god begins to influence nature two weeks before the entry in each new phase, and in these two weeks of "entrance to the holiday" the Ynglists purify themselves in both mind and body. There are also overarching phases: the phase between the holidays of Kolyada and Kupalo is that of the blossoming of masculine forces, while the phase between Lelya and Mokosh is that of the blossoming of feminine forces. The threshold of Perun marks a period of quiescence of all forces, while the subsequent Mara is a phase that is unfavourable for both the polarities of nature. Each holiday and the period which it opens has appropriate ritual actions to be carried out in order to remain in tune with the cycle of the year. The Ynglists believe that if one behaves incorrectly, that is to say not in harmony with the rites (ряд, ryad) which follow the natural rhythm of the year, his own biorhythm, connection with the ancestors, and life cycle are disrupted, he becomes unhealthy and gets old quickly. Festival Meaning Period Kolyada Winter solstice. This is the threshold that marks the beginning of the spiral of the new year and the birth of the Sun. Everything is given the opportunity to be reborn in purified forms, and forces are ready for expanding into new creations. Men are instructed by ancestors on how to project the new year. December Veles Veles is the god of the underworld, of wild animals and plants, and of the fertile soil from which new growth may develop. The Veles threshold marks the period in which one should think how to interact with natural laws and resources in order to bring his projects to completion. February Lelya Spring equinox. The Lelya threshold marks the beginning of the period when masculine and feminine forces are perfectly aligned, love blossoms and they begin to exchange energies with each other. Men and women dance in circles, the former clockwise and the latter counterclockwise, so to look into the eyes of each other; energy is believed to be transmitted through the eyes and the hands. This is also the phase for putting projects into matter. March–April Yarilo The Yarilo threshold marks the phase when powers sprout vehemently, ardently (яриться, yaritsya). In nature, everything starts to grow powerfully. This is the right time for merrymaking, games and feasts, and is a period of great inspiration and creativity. May–mid June Kupalo Summer solstice. This is the threshold when the Sun reaches its brightest stage, and forces, both masculine and feminine, reach their highest strength. It marks the beginning of the phase when it is more likely for healthy children to be conceived. Mid June–July Perun This is the threshold that marks the full maturity of males, but also the beginning of the decline of masculine forces, while women are in bloom. On the day of Perun men show their skills with weapons and in crafts, while afterwards they dedicate themselves to contemplation, hunting and fishing. On the same day, boys undergo a ritual of initiation into men. August Mokosh Autumn equinox. Mokosh is the goddess of fate. This threshold marks a phase of introspection, as the year is coming to its end. Men examine their actions carried out during the outgoing year, in order to be transformed for the forthcoming year. The day of Mokosh is celebrated with a ritual consisting in taking a handful of soil, reckoning an action, be it good or bad, and giving it back to the Earth forming a raised circle of soil, then lighting a "bonfire of fate" or a candle in such circle which will purify all the year's actions. Another ritual with the same meaning consists of hanging a thread to the branch of a tree and then walking around the tree, men clockwise and women counterclockwise, twisting a spiral while shouting out what happened during the year. September–October Mara This threshold marks the death of the Sun and the triumph of the chthonic goddess Marena, the primordial mother. Sensitive people are tendentially depressed in this phase. However, things die only in body, while thought continues to work and concentrates to be reborn in the new year. This makes this phase propitious for study and understanding divine knowledge. November ===Symbolism and numerology=== thumb|upright=1.0|The star of Yngly. The swastika — the hooked cross, whose Sanskrit name means "well being" — is a very important symbol in Ynglism, with fifty variations in Ynglist symbolism and twelve in Aleksey Trekhlebov's teachings. In Ynglism it represents the Ynglia, the fiery radiance enlivening and ordering everything in the universe, personified as Yngly; hence it is also called the "image of Yngly" and it is considered the first written symbol of humanity, as well as the foremost symbol of the Slavo- Aryans, and of the defence of their lands and their faith. Its many variations symbolise the various forms of life which are generated in accordance with Yngly — the patterns of the gods of planets, earthly weather phenomena, classes of entities, and so on. Besides the swastika, another important symbol in Ynglism is the nine-pointed "star of Yngly" (звезда Инглии, zvezda Yngly), also called oberezhnik (обережник, symbol of the "guardian") and mati-gotka (мати-готка, "ready mother") in popular tradition, referring to matter ready to be ordained by the divine force. The Ynglia itself is often represented at the centre the star as a hooked cross, a thunder (Perun) or as a sword. The star of Yngly also represents the harmonised man (Aryan). The three intersecting triangles represent the three worlds of traditional Slavic cosmology (Prav, Yav and Nav), the Triglav manifestations within each of them, but also spirit, body and soul on the human plane. The circle surrounding the triangles represents the Ynglia itself, and also human consciousness awakened by the cognition of Yngly, while the infinite space beyond the circle is God's infinite potentiality. The three triangles also represent the elements of earth, water and fire, while the circle represents air and the infinite space beyond it represents the infinite Heaven (Svarga). While Rodnovery generally rejects numerology and forms of medieval magic if numbers are conceived as abstract and not connected with objects of the real world, it accepts such practices if the numbers are seen in webs of symbolism with objects, as manifesting in objects of the real world. Ynglism is one of the denominations of Rodnovery in which numerical symbolism is best systematised. Particularly important symbolic numbers in Ynglism are: the number 3, which symbolises the triads of deities, especially the great Triglav of Svarog-Perun-Svetovid; the number 8, double of 4, which symbolises the four seasons of the year and the four horizontal divisions of space, both with four intermediate stages; the number 33, which is the number of the commandments of the celestial deities; and the number 108, which is the number of all possible sins. There are also numbers symbolically associated to the divisions of time: the number 9, which symbolises the nine months of the Ynglist year and the nine days of the Ynglist week; the number 16, which symbolises the sixteen hours of the Ynglist day; the number 40, which symbolises the forty days of each Ynglist even month; the number 144, which is the number of minutes of the Ynglist hour and of years in the great cycles of the Ynglist calendar; and the number 369, which is the number of days in a year. ==Sociology== thumb|upright=1.0|The Temple of the Wisdom of Perun, part of the headquarters of the Ynglist Church in Omsk, as it appeared in 2004, before it was destroyed by arson on September 16 of the same year. It was rebuilt in the 2010s. ===Views on Christianity=== Like other esoteric sciences, Ynglism is ambivalent towards Christianity, considering Jesus as an important prophet — a "great wanderer", veliky putnik — while accusing Christian churches to have distorted his original message, which would be preserved in apocryphal literature. The journal Dzhiva-Astra issued by the Ynglist Church published Gnostic scriptures which are popular among Russian nationalists. More specifically, the Ynglists regard Jesus as an incarnation of the constellation of Pisces, and Paulanism — Christianity as formulated by Paul of Tarsus — to be responsible for the corruption of much of his original teaching. The Ynglists also argue that early Slavic volkhvs were aware of the concepts of a supreme God and of the trinity, which were later borrowed by the Christian religion. Like other Rodnover groups, the Ynglists ultimately consider Christianity to be an anti-national international machination aimed at the degeneration and the enslavement of people, primarily the Slavs and the Russians in particular. They believe that Christianity was deliberately invented by the Jews — whom they consider as the leading elite of the wicked "gray race" — as an "excellent ideological weapon" to enslave the whole world. ===Links with political parties=== Kaarina Aitamurto characterised the Ynglist Church as less politically goal-oriented than other Rodnover movements. According to Victor Shnirelman, Aleksandr Khinevich was politically active in the propagation of Ynglist ideas between 1990 and 1993, but then left politics and became more focused on an esoteric development of the movement. The Russian scholar of religion Vladimir B. Yashin of the Department of Theology and World Cultures of Omsk State University wrote in 2001 that the Ynglist Church had close ties with the Omsk regional branch of the far-right political party Russian National Unity of Alexander Barkashov, whose members provided security and order during the mass gatherings of the Ynglists. On the other hand, the non-Ynglist Russian Rodnover leader Nikolay Speransky (volkhv Velimir) in the early 2010s classified Aleksandr Khinevich among the representatives of left-wing ideas within Rodnovery, although recognising that he then kept most of his activity outside of politics. ===Judicial prosecution=== Tensions between the Ynglist Church and authorities began in 1997 when complaints accused the former for its use of swastika-like religious symbolism and for extreme nationalism. Years later, in 2004, the headquarters of the Ynglist Church in Omsk, namely the "Spiritual Administration of the Asgardian Country of Belovodye", were prosecuted and dissolved as "extremist organisations" by decision of the Omsk Regional Court, a decision which was appealed at the Supreme Court of Russia later that year, but was upheld by the court. The reasons for the prosecution were once again the use of swastika symbols and the teachings about the unhealthiness of interracial mixing; Aleksandr Khinevich himself was prosecuted in 2008–2009 by the Omsk District Court, which found him guilty of having illegally reorganised the church and continued to propagate its teachings, under the article 282 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, and on 11 June 2009 sentenced him to the punishment of one year and a half of prison, conditional with two years of probation. In 2008, a local Ynglist organisation in Adygea was prosecuted by the Maykop District Court, while in 2015 an Ynglist organisation in Stavropol Krai was prosecuted by the Stavropol Regional Court. In the same year 2015 it was the turn of the Slavo-Aryan Vedas, the sacred writings of Ynglism, to be condemned as "extremist literature" by the Omsk District Court, a decision which was later appealed but confirmed in 2016 by the Omsk Regional Court. ===Demographics=== Despite the judicial prosecutions, Ynglist organisations continued their activities and mass celebrations as an unregistered religious movement, having expanded to all the federal subjects of Russia and to various countries abroad, and Aleksandr Khinevich himself resumed large-scale preaching activities in 2011. According to the scholar Vladimir B. Yashin, it would have been impossible for the authorities to uproot the church from public life, since in 2001 there were already about three thousand Ynglists in Omsk alone. By 2009, the number of Ynglists in Omsk alone had grown to 13,000. Meanwhile, between 2001 and 2009 the community of permanent residents at the Asgardian headquarters had grown from 500 to 600 people. In 2016, the scholar Kaarina Aitamurto reported that Ynglism clearly had a "substantial number of followers", while Elena Golovneva noted that Ynglist ideas were not marginal even among non-Ynglist Russian Rodnovers. According to Yashin, Ynglism came out strengthened after the prosecutions, turning into a decentralised phenomenon, a movement of dozens of organisations which were not only present in all of the regions of Russia, particularly in Krasnodar, Chelyabinsk and Tyumen, in Moscow, but also present in Ukraine, Germany and the Czech Republic. Judge V. A. Matytsin of the Omsk District Court reported that as of 2009 the movement had also established communities in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as well as in the United States and Canada. According to Yashin, Ynglism, along with mainstream Rodnovery, has gained many adherents in the regions of the North Caucasus of southern Russia because many Slavs who live there believe that Ynglism and Rodnovery represent their cultural identity, which they believe is at war with the culture of the area's Islamic population. Golovneva reported that at the time of her study the activities of Ynglist communities were financed by their parishioners themselves and by two commercial organisations, namely "Asgard" and "Iriy", which were involved in building and consulting. She found that among the Ynglists in Omsk, many of them were teenagers and young adults, both under-graduate and post-graduate students, "modern people with a great reverence for the spirituality of the past". An adherent of Ynglism stated that the movement's doctrines were attractive to "a full cross-section of society", from "immature youth to bureaucrats, businessmen and military personnel", and these people found "normal, harmonious mutual relationships" within the movement. ==See also== * Slavic Rodnovery ** Anastasianism ** Levashovism ** Peterburgian Vedism ** Vseyasvetnaya Gramota * Germanic Heathenry ** Ariosophy * Gnosticism * Historical Vedic religion ** Hinduism * Theosophy * Zoroastrianism ==Notes== ==References== ===Citations=== ===Sources=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * Slavo-Aryan Vedas main website * Держава Русь, Derzhava Rus — Power of Rus * Родовые Истоки, Rodovye Istoki — Ancestral Origins, website of the Pankovs' Altaic tradition of Ynglism * Akademie-Rod — Rod Academy, Pankovs' Ynglism in Germany * Civic Association "Tartaria", Ynglism in Slovakia Category:Modern pagan traditions Category:Slavic neopaganism Category:Modern pagan organizations based in Russia Category:Far-right politics Category:1980s in modern paganism |
The Larry Sanders Show is an American sitcom set in the office and studio of a fictional late-night talk-show. The series was created by Garry Shandling and Dennis Klein and aired from August 1992 to May 1998 on the HBO cable television network. Throughout its run, numerous celebrities have made guest appearances, usually playing fictionalized versions of themselves. ==Season 1== *Episode 1: "The Garden Weasel" ** Robert Hays as himself ** James Karen as Sheldon Davidoff ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish ** Kathy Kinney as dog trainer * Episode 2: "The Promise" ** David Spade as himself ** Dana Delany as herself ** William Shatner as himself ** Cindy Morgan as Karen Jackson * Episode 3: "The Spider Episode" ** Carol Burnett as herself ** Jon Lovitz as himself ** Steve Duchesne as himself ** Steven R. Kutcher as himself * Episode 4: "Guest Host" ** Dana Carvey as himself ** Anne-Marie Johnson as Barbara Kirsh ** James Karen as Sheldon Davidoff ** Hervé Villechaize as himself * Episode 5: "The New Producer" ** Robert Morton as himself ** Jeff Cesario as himself ** Ian Buchanan as Jonathan Litman ** Evelina Fernandez as Nina * Episode 6: "The Flirt Episode" ** Mimi Rogers as herself ** Michael Richards as himself ** Carmen Filpi as Bert Crawley ** Sam Whipple as Makeup artist ** Mindy Sterling as Writer * Episode 7: "Hank's Contract" ** Robin Williams as himself ** George Foreman as himself ** James Karen as Sheldon Davidoff * Episode 8: "Out of the Loop" ** Peter Falk as himself ** Kimberley Kates as Sally ** Sam Whipple as Makeup artist * Episode 9: "The Talk Show Episode" ** Billy Crystal as himself ** Catherine O'Hara as herself * Episode 10: "Party" ** Martin Mull as himself * Episode 11: "The Warmth Episode" ** Richard Simmons as himself ** Mindy Sterling as Writer ** John Riggi as Photographer ** Sam Whipple as Makeup artist * Episode 12: "A Brush With (the Elbow of) Greatness" ** David Paymer as Norman Litkey ** Tom Dahlgren as Ben Smalley ** John Riggi as Reporter ** Jeanne Basone as Cindy Remington ** Bella Shaw as herself * Episode 13: "The Hey Now Episode" ** Bob Saget as himself ** Earl Holliman as himself ** T Bone Burnett as himself ** Sam Whipple as Makeup artist ** Ray Combs as himself ** Mindy Sterling as Writer ** Patrick Thomas O'Brien as Carl Henckel ==Season 2== * Episode 1: "The Breakdown: Part 1"" ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish ** Kathy Ireland as herself ** Los Lobos as themselves ** Victor Raider-Wexler as Doctor ** John Riggi as Steve * Episode 2: The Breakdown: Part 2" ** Dana Delany as herself ** Helen Hunt as herself ** Teri Garr as herself ** Susan Anton as herself ** John Riggi as Steve ** Kristin Davis as Bri * Episode 3: "The List" ** Alec Baldwin as himself ** Ed Begley Jr. as himself ** Daniel Baldwin as himself * Episode 4: "The Stalker" ** Phil Hartman as himself ** Corbin Bernsen as himself ** Nelson Ascencio as Xavier The Burglar * Episode 5: "Larry's Agent" ** Barry Levinson as himself ** Doc Severinsen as himself ** Tommy Newsom as himself ** John Pleshette as Leo ** James Karen as Sheldon Davidoff ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant * Episode 7: "Life Behind Larry" ** David Letterman as himself ** Steven Wright as himself ** Kevin Nealon as himself ** Bobcat Goldthwait as himself ** Tom Snyder as himself ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish ** Richard Lewis as himself * Episode 8: "Artie's Gone" ** Bruno Kirby as himself ** Porno for Pyros as themselves ** Steven Wright as himself ** Les Lannom as Tech Guy * Episode 9: "Larry Loses Interest" ** Suzanne Somers as herself ** Joan Embery as herself ** Anita Barone as Michelle ** Richard Frank as Thomas ** Les Lannom as Stagehand * Episode 10: "Larry's Partner" ** Eric Bogosian as Stan Paxton * Episode 11: "Broadcast Nudes" ** Hugh Hefner as himself * Episode 12: Larry's Birthday" ** Sugar Ray Leonard as himself ** John Riggi as Mike Patterson ** Miguel Perez as Camera #1 ** Julio Oscar Mechoso as Camera #2 * Episode 13: "Being There" ** Gary Kemp as Jake Woodward ** Talia Balsam as Dora * Episode 14: "The Performance Artist" ** Roseanne Barr as herself ** Tom Arnold as himself ** Jay Leno as himself ** Tim Miller as himself ** George Segal as himself ** John Riggi as Mike Patterson * Episode 15: "Hank's Wedding" ** Ed McMahon as himself ** Adam Sandler as himself ** Alex Trebek as himself ** Leah Lail as Margaret Dolan * Episode 16: "Off Camera" ** Elizabeth Ashley as herself ** John Ritter as himself ** Gene Siskel as himself ** Warren Zevon as himself ** Joshua Malina as Robert Brody ** Peter Tolan as Adam Loderman * Episode 17: "The Grand Opening" ** Martin Mull as himself ** Burt Reynolds as himself ** Jerry Seinfeld as himself ** John Riggi as Mike Patterson * Episode 18: "New York or L.A." ** Chris Farley as himself ** Howard Stern as himself ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ** David Warner as Richard Germain ** Robin Quivers as herself ==Season 3== *Episode 1: "Montana" ** Bernadette Peters as herself ** Robin Williams as himself ** David Warner as Richard Germain * Episode 2: "You're Having My Baby" ** Mimi Rogers as herself ** Ray Wise as Lloyd Simon ** Tracey Ellis as Mary Beth Nagler * Episode 3: "Would You Do Me a Favor?" ** Jason Alexander as himself ** Warren Frost as Jerry Sanders ** French Stewart as Intern * Episode 4: "The Gift Episode" ** Danny DeVito as himself ** Jimmie Walker as himself ** Paul Willson as Bob Minkoff * Episode 5: "People's Choice" ** Elvis Costello as himself ** Rita Moreno as herself ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish * Episode 6: "Hank's Night in the Sun" ** George Wendt as himself ** Shadoe Stevens as himself * Episode 7: "Office Romance" ** Bob Saget as himself * Episode 8: "The Mr. Sharon Stone Show" ** Sharon Stone as herself ** David Paymer as Norman Litkey ** Julianne Phillips as herself ** Lisa Edelstein as Diane French * Episode 9: "Headwriter" ** Dave Thomas as himself ** John Riggi as Mike Patterson ** Jim Turner as Greg * Episode 10: "Like No Business I Know" ** Bobcat Goldthwait as himself ** Regis Philbin as himself ** Phil Leeds as Sid Bessel * Episode 11: "Larry Loses a Friend" ** Jon Lovitz as himself ** Mark Roberts as Leo Metcalf ** Elsa Raven as Jarina Venvenich * Episode 12: "Doubt of the Benefit" ** Rob Reiner as himself ** Richard Belzer as himself ** Pauly Shore as himself * Episode 13: "Hank's Divorce" ** Leah Lail as Margaret Dolan ** Wayne Rogers as himself * Episode 14: "The Fourteenth Floor" ** John Ritter as himself ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish ** Matt Letscher as Daniel Pryor ** Haley Joel Osment as Little Boy * Episode 15: "Next Stop...Bottom" ** Sarah Jessica Parker as herself ** Mary Gross as herself ** Wendy Liebman as herself ** David Viscott as himself ** Phil Leeds as Sid Bessel ** Patrick Bristow as Raoul ** Angelle Brooks as Felicia ** Gloria LeRoy as Helen * Episode 16: "Arthur's Crises" ** Clint Black as himself ** Kris Kristofferson as himself * Episode 17: "End of the Season" ** Roseanne Barr as herself ** Pat Sajak as himself ** Jeff Cesario as himself ** Mark Sweet as himself ** Michel Richard as himself ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ==Season 4== * Episode 1: "Roseanne's Return" ** Roseanne Barr as herself ** Chevy Chase as himself ** Charles Cioffi as Dr. Reisman * Episode 2: "Hank's New Assistant" ** Dana Carvey as himself ** Peter Dante as Delivery Man * Episode 3: "Arthur After Hours" ** Ryan O'Neal as himself ** Sandra Bernhard as herself ** Elya Baskin as Nicolae * Episode 4: "The Bump" ** Jeff Cesario as himself ** David Duchovny as himself ** Rob Lowe as himself ** Vendela Kirsebom as herself ** Barry Nolan as Newscaster * Episode 5: "Jeannie's Visit" ** Tatjana Patitz as herself * Episode 6: "The P.A." ** Colin Quinn as Cully ** Chris Isaak as himself ** Larry King as himself * Episode 7: "Hank's Sex Tape" ** Henry Winkler as himself ** Norm Macdonald as himself ** Phil Leeds as Sid Bessel ** Jennifer Rhodes as Irene Goodman ** Athena Massey as Woman #1 ** Jon Favreau as Jon * Episode 8: "Nothing Personal" ** Jeff Goldblum as himself ** Marg Helgenberger as Susan Elliott * Episode 9: "Brother, Can You Spare 1.2 Million?" ** Paul Willson as Frank ** Molly Hagan as Ad Executive * Episode 10: "Conflict of Interest" ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ** Jennifer Aniston as herself ** Beck as himself ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish ** Andy Kindler as himself * Episode 11: "I Was a Teenage Lesbian" ** Brett Butler as herself ** Susan Gibney as Kia ** Michael Boatman as Greg * Episode 12: "Larry's Sitcom" ** Chris Elliott as himself ** Jennie Garth as herself ** Kevin Nealon as himself ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ** Christine Healy as Kim ** Peter Dante as Steve ** Harvey Vernon as Harlan Wilcox * Episode 13: "Larry's Big Idea" ** Courteney Cox as herself ** David Letterman as himself * Episode 14: "Beverly and the Prop Job" ** Paul Mooney as Clyde ** Victoria Principal as herself ** Dick Anthony Williams as Beverly's Father * Episode 15: "0.409" ** Shawn Colvin as herself ** John Stamos as himself ** Sam Rubin as himself ** Gerrit Graham as Kevin * Episode 16: "Eight" ** Fred de Cordova as himself ** Farrah Fawcett as herself ** k.d. lang as herself ** Mandy Patinkin as himself ** Pat O'Brien as himself ** Rosie O'Donnell as herself ** Ryan O'Neal as himself ** George Segal as himself ** Noah Wyle as himself * Episode 17: "Larry's on Vacation" ** Sandra Bernhard as herself ** Julianna Margulies as herself ** Gloria Steinem as herself ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish ** Lois Foraker as Ellen Boyd ==Season 5== * Episode 1: "Everybody Loves Larry" ** Jon Stewart as himself ** David Duchovny as himself ** Elvis Costello as himself ** Charles Nelson Reilly as himself ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish ** Laura Cayouette as Carol ** Peter Dante as Steve * Episode 2: "My Name is Asher Kingsley" ** Amy Aquino as Rabbi Marcy Klein ** Tom Poston as himself ** They Might Be Giants as themselves ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish ** Jon Korkes as Stu ** Ned Bellamy as Carl * Episode 3: "Where is the Love?" ** Tom Shales as himself ** Sally Field as herself ** Sting as himself ** Jake Johannsen as himself ** John Robert Hoffman as David * Episode 4: "Ellen, Or Isn't She?" ** Ellen DeGeneres as herself ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ** Scott Jaeck as Jake * Episode 5: "The New Writer" ** Kevin Nealon as himself ** Sarah Silverman as Wendy Traston ** Shawn Colvin as herself ** Todd Barry as Keith ** Bil Dwyer as Ed * Episode 6: "Matchmaker" ** Tim Conway as himself ** Harvey Fierstein as himself ** Nicollette Sheridan as herself ** Tim DeKay as Gordon ** Tim Maculan as Allen * Episode 7: "Make a Wish" ** Ben Stiller as himself ** Jim Belushi as himself ** David Paymer as Norman Litkey ** Chauncey Leopardi as Charlie ** Brooke Smith as Tonya Bailey ** Robin Bain as Model * Episode 8: "Artie, Angie, Hank and Hercules" ** Angie Dickinson as herself ** Don Rickles as himself ** Laura Leighton as herself ** Taylor Nichols as Robbie * Episode 9: "The Prank" ** Lori Loughlin as herself ** John Stamos as himself ** Cecil Hoffman as Michelle Hollaway ** Butthole Surfers as themselves ** Todd Barry as Keith ** Robert Mailhouse as Gary Rindels * Episode 10: "The Book" ** Dana Delany as herself ** Bruno Kirby as himself ** Marlee Matlin as herself ** Brooke Shields as herself ** Joyce Brothers as herself ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ** Joseph C. Phillips as James * Episode 11: "Pain Equals Funny" ** Kirk Baily as Ed ** Suli McCullough as Jack * Episode 12: "The Roast" ** Kip Addotta as himself ** Dana Carvey as himself ** Norm Crosby as himself ** Al Franken as himself ** Bruno Kirby as himself ** Bill Maher as himself ** Carl Reiner as himself ** Jon Stewart as himself ** Carrot Top as himself ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ** David Paymer as Norman Litkey * Episode 13: "Larry's New Love" ** Melinda McGraw as Alex ** Bruce Greenwood as Roger Bingham ** Jeff Foxworthy as himself ** Daisy Fuentes as herself ** Warren Littlefield as himself ** Paul Westerberg as himself ==Season 6== * Episode 1: "Another List" ** Jon Stewart as himself ** Winona Ryder as herself ** Smash Mouth as themselves ** Bruce Greenwood as Roger Bingham ** Joshua Malina as Kenny Mitchell ** George Wyner as Paul Fisher * Episode 2: "The Beginning of the End" ** Jon Stewart as himself ** Colin Hay as himself ** Bruce Greenwood as Roger Bingham ** Joshua Malina as Kenny Mitchell ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ** Charles Cioffi as Dr. Reisman * Episode 3: "As My Career Lay Dying" ** Lea Thompson as herself ** Bob Costas as himself ** Jim Gray as himself ** Fred de Cordova as himself ** Pat Sajak as himself ** Andy Williams as himself ** Donny Osmond as himself ** Jeff Kahn as Jeff ** Jim Brooks as Vern the Intern * Episode 4: "Pilots and Pens Lost" ** Dave Chappelle as himself ** Bridget Fonda as herself ** Jonathan Katz as himself ** Carlos Jacott as Bill ** Jenna Stern as Lisa * Episode 5: "The Interview" ** Jim Belushi as himself ** Ben Folds Five as themselves ** Maureen O'Boyle as herself ** Vince Vaughn as himself ** David Spade as himself ** David Paymer as Norman Litkey * Episode 6: "Adolf Hankler" ** Jon Stewart as himself ** Wayne Federman as Stan Sanders ** Jason Alexander as himself ** Kristen Johnston as herself ** Wu- Tang Clan as themselves ** Joshua Malina as Kenny Mitchell ** Deborah May as Melanie Parrish ** Richard Penn as Dr. Reisman * Episode 7: "Beverly's Secret" ** Michael Bolton as himself ** Drew Carey as himself ** Eriq La Salle as himself ** Tom Amandes as Russ Schmitt ** Ashley Gardner as Fran Schmitt ** Wade Williams as Mike ** Steven Wright as himself * Episode 8: "I Buried Sid" ** Laura Dern as herself ** Jerry Stiller as himself ** Larry Miller as himself ** Paul Willson as Fred ** Rosey Grier as himself ** Char Margolis as herself ** Heidi Klum as herself * Episode 9: "Just the Perfect Blendship" ** Gina Gershon as herself ** Jeff Goldblum as himself ** Illeana Douglas as herself ** Terry Bradshaw as himself ** Sarah Silverman as Wendy Traston ** Polly Draper as Dr. Monica Gordon * Episode 10: "Putting the "Gay" Back in Litigation" ** Illeana Douglas as herself ** Bruno Kirby as himself ** Ed Begley Jr. as himself ** Drew Barrymore as herself ** Sarah Silverman as Wendy Traston * Episode 11: "Flip" ** Jim Carrey as himself ** Jerry Seinfeld as himself ** Tim Allen as himself ** Ellen DeGeneres as herself ** Carol Burnett as herself ** Sean Penn as himself ** Clint Black as himself ** Warren Beatty as himself ** David Duchovny as himself ** Greg Kinnear as himself ** Bruno Kirby as himself ** Tom Petty as himself ** Jon Stewart as himself ** Marshall Bell as Sound Guy ** David Bowe as Jimmy Franks ** Bob Odenkirk as Stevie Grant ** David Paymer as Norman Litkey ** Paul Willson as Fred Guest Stars Category:Lists of guest appearances in television |
Crystal engineering studies the design and synthesis of solid-state structures with desired properties through deliberate control of intermolecular interactions. It is an interdisciplinary academic field, bridging solid-state and supramolecular chemistry. The main engineering strategies currently in use are hydrogen- and halogen bonding and coordination bonding. These may be understood with key concepts such as the supramolecular synthon and the secondary building unit.G. R. Desiraju, Crystal Engineering: A Holistic View, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 8342–8356. ==History of term== The term 'crystal engineering' was first used in 1955 by R. Pepinsky R. Pepinsky, Crystal Engineering - New Concept in Crystallography, Physical Review , 1955, 100, 971. but the starting point is often credited to Gerhard SchmidtG. M. J. Schmidt, Photodimerization in the solid state, Pure Appl. Chem., 1971, 27, 647. in connection with photodimerization reactions in crystalline cinnamic acids. Since this initial use, the meaning of the term has broadened considerably to include many aspects of solid state supramolecular chemistry. A useful modern definition is that provided by Gautam Desiraju, who in 1988 defined crystal engineering as "the understanding of intermolecular interactions in the context of crystal packing and the utilization of such understanding in the design of new solids with desired physical and chemical properties."G. R. Desiraju, Crystal Engineering: The design of Organic Solids, Elsevier, 1989, Amsterdam Since many of the bulk properties of molecular materials are dictated by the manner in which the molecules are ordered in the solid state, it is clear that an ability to control this ordering would afford control over these properties. ==Non-covalent control of structure== thumb|297x297px|Br···O halogen bonds observed in crystal structure of 3D silsesquioxanes. Crystal engineering relies on noncovalent bonding to achieve the organization of molecules and ions in the solid state. Much of the initial work on purely organic systems focused on the use of hydrogen bonds, although coordination and halogen bonds provide additional control in crystal design.P. Metrangolo, H. Neukirch, T. Pilati and G. Resnati, Halogen Bonding Based Recognition Processes: A World Parallel to Hydrogen Bonding, Acc. Chem. Res. 2005, 38, 386-395. Molecular self-assembly is at the heart of crystal engineering, and it typically involves an interaction between complementary hydrogen bonding faces or a metal and a ligand. "Supramolecular synthons" are building blocks that are common to many structures and hence can be used to order specific groups in the solid state.G. R. Desiraju, Supramolecular Synthons in Crystal Engineering—A New Organic Synthesis, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 1995, 34, 2311-2327. == Design of multi-component crystals == thumb|561x561px|A five component crystal was designed by Desiraju and co workers by a rational retrosynthetic strategy (IUCrJ, 2016, 3, 96–101). The intentional synthesis of cocrystals is most often achieved with strong heteromolecular interactions. The main relevance of multi-component crystals is focused upon designing pharmaceutical cocrystals.O. Almarsson and M. J. Zaworotko, Crystal engineering of the composition of pharmaceutical phases. Do pharmaceutical co-crystals represent a new path to improved medicines?, Chem. Commun. 2004, 1889-1896 Pharmaceutical cocrystals are generally composed of one API (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient) with other molecular substances that are considered safe according to the guidelines provided by WHO (World Health Organization). Various properties (such as solubility, bioavailability, permeability) of an API can be modulated through the formation of pharmaceutical cocrystals. ==In two dimensions== 2D architectures (i.e., molecularly thick architectures) is a branch of crystal engineering.J. V. Barth, G. Constantini, K. Kern, Engineering atomic and molecular nanostructures at surfaces, Nature, 2005, 437, 671–679. The formation (often referred as molecular self-assembly depending on its deposition process) of such architectures lies in the use of solid interfaces to create adsorbed monolayers. Such monolayers may feature spatial crystallinity.C.A. Palma, M. Bonini, T. Breiner, P. Samori, Supramolecular Crystal Engineering at the Solid– Liquid Interface from First Principles: Toward Unraveling the Thermodynamics of 2D Self- Assembly, Adv. Mat., 2009, 21, 1383–1386J. A. A. W. Elemans, S.B. Lei S. De Feyter, Molecular and Supramolecular Networks on Surfaces: From Two Dimensional Crystal Engineering to Reactivity, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2009, 48, 7298–7332 However the dynamic and wide range of monolayer morphologies ranging from amorphous to network structures have made of the term (2D) supramolecular engineering a more accurate term. Specifically, supramolecular engineering refers to "(The) design (of) molecular units in such way that a predictable structure is obtained"J. Simon, P. Bassoul, Design of molecular materials: supramolecular engineering, 2000 WileyVCH or as "the design, synthesis and self-assembly of well defined molecular modules into tailor-made supramolecular architectures".A. Ciesielski, C.A. Palma, M. Bonini, P. Samori, Towards Supramolecular Engineering of Functional Nanomaterials: PreProgramming MultiComponent 2D SelfAssembly at Solid Liquid Interfaces, Adv. Mat., 2010, 22, 3506–3520. scanning probe microscopic techniques enable visualization of two dimensional assemblies. ==Polymorphism== Polymorphism, the phenomenon wherein the same chemical compound exists in more than one crystal forms, is relevant commercially because polymorphic forms of drugs may be entitled to independent patent protection. The importance of crystal engineering to the pharmaceutical industry is expected to grow exponentially.D. Braga, F. Grepioni, L. Maini and M. Polito in Crystal Polymorphism and Multiple Crystal Forms, Vol. (Ed. W. M. Hosseini), Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2009, pp. 87-95. Polymorphism arises due to the competition between kinetic and thermodynamic factors during crystallization. While long-range strong intermolecular interactions dictate the formation of kinetic crystals, the close packing of molecules generally drives the thermodynamic outcome. Understanding this dichotomy between the kinetics and thermodynamics constitutes the focus of research related to the polymorphism. thumb|The pathways to kinetically favoured and thermodynamically favoured crystals.|305x305px In organic molecules, three types of polymorphism are mainly observed. Packing polymorphism arises when molecules pack in different ways to give different structures. Conformational polymorphism, on the other hand is mostly seen in flexible molecules where molecules have multiple conformational possibilities within a small energy window. As a result, multiple crystal structures can be obtained with the same molecule but in different conformations. The rarest form of polymorphism arises from the differences in the primary synthon and this type of polymorphism is called as synthon polymorphism. == Crystal structure prediction == Crystal structure prediction (CSP) is a computational approach to generate energetically feasible crystal structures (with corresponding space group and positional parameters) from a given molecular structure. The CSP exercise is considered most challenging as "experimental" crystal structures are very often kinetic structures and therefore are very difficult to predict. In this regard, many protocols have been proposed and are tested through several blind tests organized by CCDC since 2002. A major advance in the CSP happened in 2007 while a hybrid method based on tailor made force fields and density functional theory (DFT) was introduced. In the first step, this method employs tailor made force fields to decide upon the ranking of the structures followed by a dispersion corrected DFT method to calculate the lattice energies precisely.M. A. Neumann, F. J. J. Leusen and J. Kendrick, A Major Advance in Crystal Structure Prediction, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 2427-2430. Apart from the ability of predicting crystal structures, CSP also gives computed energy landscapes of crystal structures where many structures lie within a narrow energy window.S. L. Price, Computed Crystal Energy Landscapes for Understanding and Predicting Organic Crystal Structures and Polymorphism, Acc. Chem. Res. 2009, 42, 117–126. This kind of computed landscapes lend insights into the study on polymorphism, design of new structures and also help to design crystallization experiments. == Property design == thumb|A resorcinol based templating strategy described by Macgillivray and co workers to illustrate the control of photodimerization outcome, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2000, 122, 7817-7818.|358x358px The design of crystal structures with desired properties is the ultimate goal of crystal engineering. Crystal engineering principles have been applied to the design of non-linear optical materials, especially those with second harmonic generation (SHG) properties. Using supramolecular synthons, supramolecular gels have been designed.P. Dastidar, Supramolecular gelling agents: can they be designed? Chem. Soc. Rev. 2008, 37, 2699P. Sahoo, D. K. Kumar, S. R. Raghavan, P. Dastidar. Supramolecular Synthons in Designing Low Molecular Mass Gelling Agents: L-Amino Acid Methyl Ester Cinnamate Salts and their Anti-Solvent- Induced Instant Gelation Chem. Asian J. 2011, 6, 1038–1047 == Mechanical properties of crystalline materials == thumb|484x484px|Four mechanical properties of crystalline materials: shear strength, plasticity, elasticity, and brittleness. Information adapted from Saha et al. 2018. thumb|416x416px|Designing a material with targeted mechanical properties requires command over complex structures across a range of length scales. Designing a crystalline material with targeted properties requires an understanding of the material's molecular and crystal features in relation to its mechanical properties. Four mechanical properties are of interest for crystalline materials: plasticity, elasticity, brittleness, and shear strength). === Intermolecular interactions === Manipulation of the intermolecular interaction network is a means for controlling bulk properties. During crystallization, intermolecular interactions form according to an electrostatic hierarchy. Strong hydrogen bonds are the primary director for crystal organization. ==== Crystal architecture ==== Typically, the strongest intermolecular interactions form the molecular layers or columns and the weakest intermolecular interactions form the slip plane. For example, long chains or layers of acetaminophen molecules form due to the hydrogen bond donors and acceptors that flank the benzene ring. The weaker interactions between the chains or layers of acetaminophen required less energy to break than the hydrogen bonds. As a result, a slip plane is formed. thumb|500x500px|A. Slip planes associated with layered or columnar architectural features in crystalline materials. Red dotted and black dashed lines represent the direction of the weakest and strongest intermolecular interactions, respectively, which influences the slip plane. B. Example of the strongest (hydrogen bonds) and weakest (van der Waals) interactions in acetaminophen structure that influences the crystal structure. A supramolecular synthon is a pair of molecules that form relatively strong intermolecular interactions in the early phases of crystallization; these molecule pairs are the basic structural motif found in a crystal lattice. ==== Defects or imperfections ==== Lattice defects, such as point defects, tilt boundaries, or dislocations, create imperfections in crystal architecture and topology. Any disruption to the crystal structure alters the mechanism or degree of molecular movement, thereby changing the mechanical properties of the material. Examples of point imperfections include vacancies, substitutional impurities, interstitial impurities, Frenkel’s defects, and Schottky’s defects. Examples of line imperfections include edge and screw dislocations. ==== Assessing Crystal Structure ==== Crystallographic methods, such as X-ray diffraction, are used to elucidate the crystal structure of a material by quantifying distances between atoms. The X-ray diffraction technique relies on a particular crystal structure creating a unique pattern after X-rays are diffracted through the crystal lattice. Microscopic methods, such as optical, electron, field ion, and scanning tunneling microscopy, can be used to visualize the microstructure, imperfections, or dislocations of a material. Ultimately, these methods elaborate on the growth and assembly of crystallites during crystallization, which can be used to rationalize the movement of crystallites in response to an applied load. Calorimetric methods, such as differential scanning calorimetry, use induce phase transitions in order to quantify the associated changes in enthalpy, entropy, and Gibb's free energy. The melting and fusion phase transitions are dependent on the lattice energy of the crystalline material, which can be used to determine percent crystallinity of the sample. Raman spectroscopy is a method that uses light scattering to interact with bonds in a sample. This technique provides information about chemical bonds, intermolecular interactions, and crystallinity. ==== Assessing mechanical properties ==== Nanoindentation is a standard and widely-accepted method for measuring mechanical properties within the crystal engineering field.S. Varughese, M. S. R. N. Kiran, U. Ramamurty and G. R. Desiraju, Nanoindentation in Crystal Engineering: Quantifying Mechanical Properties of Molecular Crystals, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013, 52, 2701-2712. The method quantifies hardness, elasticity, packing anisotropy, and polymorphism of a crystalline material. Hirshfeld surfaces are visual models of electron density at a specific isosurface that aid in visualizing and quantifying intermolecular interactions. An advantage to using Hirshfeld surfaces in crystal engineering is that these surface maps are embedded with information about a molecular and its neighbors. The insight into molecular neighbors can be applied to assessment or prediction of molecular properties. An emerging method for topography and slip plane analysis using energy frameworks, which are models of crystal packing that depict interaction energies as pillars or beams. ==See also== * Coordination polymers * crystal nets (periodic graphs) * Crystallography * Laser-heated pedestal growth * CrystEngComm * Crystal Growth & Design * CrystEngCommunity * Hydrogen bond * Molecular design software * Supramolecular chemistry * Self-assembly * Molecular self-assembly == References == ==External links== *Crystal Growth and Design *CrystEngComm *Acta Crystallographica Section B *Cambridge Structural Database Category:Materials science Category:Chemical product engineering Category:Solid-state chemistry Category:Supramolecular chemistry Category:Crystallography |
The USC Trojans baseball program represents the University of Southern California in college baseball. Established in 1888, the team is a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the Pac-12 Conference. USC’s home field is Dedeaux Field, which is named in honor of former head coach and National College Baseball Hall of Fame inductee Rod Dedeaux. The USC Trojans are one of the most successful programs in the history of college baseball. The Trojans have won more baseball national championships than any other program across all divisions of college baseball. With 12 national championships, USC is far and away the leader in that category; no other Division I school has more than seven. As of June 14, 2021, USC also ranked fifth in all-time College World Series (CWS) appearances with 21, trailing only Texas (37), Miami (FL) (25), Florida State (23), and Arizona State (22). The Trojans have won more individual CWS games (74) than any program but Texas (85). USC also ranks fourth in all-time NCAA tournament wins with 173—trailing only Texas (245), Florida State (199), and Miami (194)—and 10th in total NCAA tournament appearances with 37. The Trojans have compiled an all-time record of 2,944–1,745–29 ()—ranking sixth in all-time wins and 22nd in all-time win percentage—and have captured outright or tied for 38 conference championships, as of the end of the 2021 season. USC's most notable baseball coach was Rod Dedeaux, who coached from 1942 to 1986 and led the school to 11 of its NCAA championships, including five straight from 1970 to 1974. The first Trojan national championship came in 1948. The 12th and most recent NCAA championship came in 1998. ==History== ===The early years=== The Trojans began recognizing baseball as a school sport in 1889. As with many programs during the late 19th century and early 20th century, the Trojans lacked a consistent head coach, when they even had one at all. It was not until 1908 that the Trojans had an official head coach, Harvey Holmes, but Holmes only coached the team for one year. Holmes also coached other sports at USC including football and track. The team would get another coach during the 1911 season, Curtiss Bernard. Bernard also only coached for a year, and in 1912 the Trojans once again had a one-year coach in Len Burrell. During the World War I years, the USC baseball team was made up mostly of law school students, but the team opened up to all students for the 1916 and 1917 seasons. Following the conclusion of the war, the baseball team was coached by "Gloomy Gus" Henderson in 1920 (who would also coach the Trojan basketball team for two years and the football team for six). Henderson would join forces with Willis Hunter as co-coaches for the 1921 season, but the team was left without a coach for the 1922 season. In 1923 the team was coached by George Wheeler, who also coached the law students during the 1914 season. Wheeler coached the team for a year, and would mark the last time the Trojan baseball team has lacked consistency at the coaching position. ===Sam Crawford era=== thumb|Sam Earl "Wahoo Sam" Crawford 1911 baseball card Long-time Major League Baseball player and multiple MLB record- holder Sam Crawford took over as head coach of USC baseball in 1924. Crawford would mark the end of inconsistency at the coaching ranks for the baseball program. During his tenure, the program slowly began to rise to national prominence, and Crawford helped to create the California Intercollegiate Baseball Association (CIBA) in 1927. Crawford coached the Trojans for six years before turning the reigns over to Sam Barry. Crawford compiled an overall record of 59-46-3, including a second-place finish during the initial campaign for the CIBA. ===Sam Barry era=== In 1930, Sam Barry took over the USC baseball program and immediately built off of the success his predecessor had. On his arrival at USC in 1929, he was named head basketball coach and was made an assistant for the USC football team under his friend and colleague, Howard Jones. When Jones died suddenly in 1941, Barry was named his successor, and served as head coach for all three major USC sports teams simultaneously. Barry won the CIBA title in his first year, finishing 11–2 and 25–5–1 overall. During the next decade, Barry would claim four more CIBA titles. Barry coached the Trojans from 1930–1941 before joining the Navy during World War II. As he left, he recommended that Jeff Cravath become the head football coach, Julie Bescos become the head basketball coach, and Rod Dedeaux, the captain of his 1935 team, become the head baseball coach. Upon his return, Barry would resume coaching the Trojans alongside Dedeaux. Barry finished with a career mark of 219–89–3. He remains one of only three coaches to coach a Final Four game and in a College World Series. Barry was elected to the inaugural class of the American Baseball Coaches Association Hall of Fame in 1966. ===Barry-Dedeaux years=== thumb|Rod Dedeaux and Sam Barry circa 1950 When Sam Barry returned from World War II in 1946, Barry and Dedeaux served as co-coaches, with Dedeaux running the team each year until Barry finished the basketball season. The arrangement was so successful that USC won the College World Series in 1948. ====1948 National Championship==== After finishing the season 40–12–1, USC met Yale for the 1948 NCAA Division I baseball championship at the second College World Series. The CWS in 1948 was a best 2-out-of-3 format. The games were played on June 25 and June 26, with June 26 being a doubleheader if necessary. USC won the first game, 3–1 to take a 1–0 series lead, but lost game 2 by a score of 8–3. The third and final game immediately followed game 2. USC scored a run in the first inning to claim a lead it would not surrender. USC claimed their first national championship with a game 3 victory, 9–2. Although USC won, they were unable to prevent future President of the United States of America, George Bush, from collecting a double in the final game. ===Rod Dedeaux era=== After being co-head coach in 1942 with his former college coach Sam Barry, Dedeaux took over the USC program in 1943. Barry recommended Dedeaux to coach the team when Sam Barry joined the Navy. Dedeaux coached the Trojans by himself for the next three years, until once again joining forces with Barry as co-head coaches. After Barry's death in September 1950, Dedeaux became the sole coach of USC baseball. After taking over in 1951, Dedeaux became the sole coach and proceeded to build on the early success to establish the strongest program in collegiate baseball. The Trojans claimed 11 straight CIBA championships in Dedeaux's first 11 years. The Trojans claimed nine outright titles and tied for first in 1953 and 1957. Following the 1957 campaign, Dedeaux's team finished the season 36–8 overall and earned the first of his 10 national championships as sole coach. ====1958 National Championship==== ====1961 National Championship==== ====1963 National Championship==== ====1968 National Championship==== ====1970 National Championship==== ====1971 National Championship==== ====1972 National Championship==== ====1973 National Championship==== ====1974 National Championship==== ====1978 National Championship==== ====Retirement and legacy==== After a total of 45 years as head coach of USC, Dedeaux decided to retire following the 1986 campaign. Dedeaux drastically changed college baseball and left historic marks on the sport that might never be touched. Dedeaux won a total of 11 national championships, 10 by himself and one with Sam Barry, compiled a record of 1,332–571–11, and completed a stretch of 37 years without a losing season. He retired as the winningest coach in college baseball history and held that distinction until 1994 when Texas head coach Cliff Gustafson broke it. While he was at USC, Dedeaux also served as coach of the United States national baseball team at both the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, and the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, with baseball being a demonstration sport prior to its elevation to full medal status in 1988. Following his retirement, Dedeaux became the Director of Baseball for USC, and for the rest of his life remained a beloved annual presence at the College World Series in Omaha, Nebraska. The field the Trojans currently play their games at is named after him. He was inducted into the American Baseball Coaches Association's Hall of Fame in 1970, and in 1999 was named the Coach of the Century by Collegiate Baseball magazine. Dedeaux died at age 91 in Glendale, California, of complications from a December 2, 2005, stroke. He was survived by his wife of 66 years, the former Helen Jones, and their four children. On July 4, 2006, Dedeaux was inducted as a member of the first class of inductees into the College Baseball Hall of Fame. ===Post Rod Dedeaux=== ====Mike Gillespie==== USC reached out to Mike Gillespie, one of Rod Dedeaux's former players, to replace the recently retired coach. Gillespie played under Dedeaux from 1960–1962, and after a successful coaching stint at the College of the Canyons, he was named just the fourth head coach of USC baseball since 1924. =====1998 National Championship===== Gillespie was named National Coach of the Year in 1998. =====Retirement and legacy===== After 20 years as the head coach of the Trojans, Gillespie decided to retire following the 2006 season. During his career, Gillespie kept Trojan baseball in the spotlight, especially in the years leading up to and following the 1998 championship. He finished with an overall record of 763–471–2 during his tenure as coach of the Trojans. As a result of his success, Gillespie earned the honor to coach the 2000 USA National Team. During his tenure he was named Pac-10 coach of the year four times, while his teams produced 44 All-America selections, 94 draft picks, and 25 Major League players. After sitting out the 2007 season, Gillespie was named coach of the UC Irvine Anteaters in September 2007. Gillespie replaced Dave Serrano, who had just guided the Anteaters to their first CWS appearance but left to take over at Cal State Fullerton, his alma mater, after George Horton left Fullerton to head the new program at Oregon. ====Chad Kreuter==== In June 2006, Chad Kreuter became only the fifth man to earn the title of head baseball coach at USC since 1924. Kreuter replaced his father-in-law, Mike Gillespie, after Gillespie retired. Kreuter failed to reach the postseason in each of his four years as head coach. He produced an overall record of 111–117 during this time, never posting a winning record. During his tenure, the Trojans twice finished in last place in the Pac-10, and never higher than fifth in the conference. Although his players flourished in the classroom, he came under heavy criticism late in his tenure. He was relieved of his duties in August 2010 and replaced by assistant coach and former Loyola Marymount head coach Frank Cruz. ====2010s==== On May 30, 2019, Dan Hubbs was informed that his contract would not be renewed by the university. On June 14, 2019, former Loyola Marymount head coach Jason Gill was hired to be the head coach for the Trojans. ====Jason Gill==== On June 14, 2019, Former Loyola Marymount head coach Jason Gill was hired to be the new head coach of the USC Trojans baseball program. ==Ball Parks== ===Bovard Field=== Bovard Field was the former home of USC baseball until Dedeaux Field opened in 1974. The baseball field was aligned (home to center field) similar to Dedeaux Field, but a few degrees clockwise, nearly true north, but just slightly west. Home plate was located in today's E.F. Hutton Park and left field was bounded by Watt Way. Beyond first base, a large eucalyptus tree came into play; while its trunk was in foul territory, some of its branches crossed into fair territory and guarded the foul line in shallow right field. ===Dedeaux Field=== thumb|left|Dedeaux Field Dedeaux Field is the home field for the USC Trojans baseball team. It is named after the former legendary USC coach Rod Dedeaux, who coached from 1942 to 1986. The Trojans moved into the ballpark in 1974, the same year that they won their fifth consecutive national championship. After many renovations, the current capacity is 2,500 people. ==Head coaches== *Records are through March 11, 2020 1889–1907 No Coach on Record 1908 Harvey Holmes 1 17–2 .895 1909–1910 No Coach on Record 1911 Curtiss Bernard 1 10–3 .769 1912 Len Burrell 1 6–9 .400 1913 No Coach on Record 1914–1915 USC was Represented by School of Law 1916–1917 USC was Represented by School of Law (Open to all students) 1918–1919 World War I - No Team 1920 Elmer "Gloomy Gus" Henderson 1 9-4-1 .679 1921 Willis O. Hunter/Henderson 1 9–3 .750 1922 No Coach on Record 1922–1923 Branch Bocock 2 15-15-2 .500 1924–1929 Sam Crawford 6 59-46-3 .560 1930–1941 Sam Barry 12 219-89-3 .709 1942 Barry-Dedeaux See Below See Below See Below 1943–1945 Rod Dedeaux See Below See Below See Below 1946–1950 Barry-Dedeaux 6 170-70-3 .706 1951–1986 Rod Dedeaux 45 1,332-571-11 .699 1987–2006 Mike Gillespie 20 763-471-2 .618 2007–2010 Chad Kreuter 3 83–85 .494 2011–2012 Frank Cruz 2 48–63 .432 2013–2019 Dan Hubbs 7 186–198–1 .484 2020–2022 Jason Gill 3 60–59 2023–present Andy Stankiewicz 0 0–0 Longest Tenure 1 Rod Dedeaux 45 2 Mike Gillespie 20 3 Sam Barry 12 Most Wins 1 Rod Dedeaux 1,332 2 Mike Gillespie 763 3 Sam Barry 219 Best Winning Pct. 1 Sam Barry .934 2 Barry-Dedeaux .706 3 Rod Dedeaux .699 ==Year-by-Year Results== Through the end of the 2021 season. Final Rankings are from Collegiate Baseball Division I Final Polls (1959–2006) Official 2007 NCAA Baseball Records Book 1889 0–1 1890 No Games No Games No Games No Games 1891 No Games No Games No Games No Games 1892 5-0-1 1893* 4–6 1894 0–1 1895 No Games No Games No Games No Games 1896 0–2 1897 No Games No Games No Games No Games 1898 8–3 1899 3–4 1900 0–1 1901 No Games No Games No Games No Games 1902 0–6 1903 3–3 1904 1–4 1905 6–5 1906 12-4-1 1907 7–6 1908 Harvey Holmes 17–2 1909 11–7 1910 4–6 1911 Curtiss Bernard 10–3 1912 Len Burrell 6–9 1913 2–6 1914** George Wheeler 8–2 1915** Ralph Glaze 5–10 1916*** Charles "Pat" Millikan 6-5-1 1917*** Phil Koerner/Millikan 5–6 1918**** 0–1 1919 World War I - No Team World War I - No Team World War I - No Team World War I - No Team 1920 Elmer"Gloomy Gus"Henderson 9-4-1 1921 Willis O. Hunter/Henderson 9–3 1922 5–6 1923 George Wheeler 7–11 1924 Sam Crawford 4–7 1925 Sam Crawford 9-4-1 1926 Sam Crawford 11-6-2 1927 Sam Crawford 8–15 6–6 Finished 2nd in the conference 1928 Sam Crawford 12–7 5–7 Finished tied for 3rd in conference 1929 Sam Crawford 15–7 8–6 Finished 3rd in the conference 1930 Sam Barry 25-5-1 11-2-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1931 Sam Barry 24-6-0 14-4-0 Finished 2nd in the conference 1932 Sam Barry 15-3-1 11-2-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1933 Sam Barry 11-8-0 3-6-0 Finished tied for 3rd in the conference 1934 Sam Barry 22-10-0 10-5-0 Finished 2nd in the conference 1935 Sam Barry 16-12-0 10-5-0 Finished tied for 1st in the conference 1936 Sam Barry 19-9-0 13-2-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1937 Sam Barry 16-8-0 10-5-0 Finished 2nd in the conference 1938 Sam Barry 24-7-0 11-4-0 Finished 2nd in the conference 1939 Sam Barry 23-7-0 11-4-0 Finished tied for 1st in the conference 1940 Sam Barry 12-8-0 8-7-0 Finished 3rd in the conference 1941 Sam Barry 12-6-1 9-6-0 Finished 3rd in the conference 1942 Barry-Dedeaux 18-5-1 12-2-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1943 Rod Dedeaux 27-7-3 1-2-0 Finished 2nd in the conference 1944 Rod Dedeaux 16-13-0 4-4-0 Finished 2nd in the conference 1945 Rod Dedeaux 13-15-1 3-5-0 Finished 2nd in conference 1946 Barry-Dedeaux 24-8-0 11-1-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1947 Barry-Dedeaux 25-12-0 11-4-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1948 Barry- Dedeaux 40-12-1 13-2-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1949 Barry-Dedeaux 37-14-1 12-2-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1950 Barry-Dedeaux 26-19-0 8-7-0 Finished tied for 3rd in conference 1951 Rod Dedeaux 32-19-0 11-5-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1952 Rod Dedeaux 37-12-1 11-5-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1953 Rod Dedeaux 25-25-1 10-6-0 Finished tied for 1st in the conference 1954 Rod Dedeaux 20-11-1 11-5-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1955 Rod Dedeaux 30-10-0 12-3-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1956 Rod Dedeaux 26-11-0 14-2-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1957 Rod Dedeaux 19-13-0 12-4-0 Finished tied for 1st in the conference 1958 Rod Dedeaux 36-8-0 14-2-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1959 Rod Dedeaux 29-6-1 14-2-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1960 Rod Dedeaux 40-14-0 12-4-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1961 Rod Dedeaux 43-9-1 12-4-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1962 Rod Dedeaux 33-13-2 11-5-0 Finished 2nd in conference 1963 Rod Dedeaux 37-16-1 10-6-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1964 Rod Dedeaux 40-15-0 17-3-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1965 Rod Dedeaux 30-15-1 9-11-0 Finished 5th in the conference 1966 Rod Dedeaux 49-11-1 16-4-0 Finished 1st in the conference 1967 Rod Dedeaux 38-13-2 9-6-0 Finished 3rd in the conference 1968 Rod Dedeaux 49-14-1 15-2-1 Finished 1st in the conference 1969 Rod Dedeaux 42-12-1 13-8-0 Finished 3rd in the conference 1970 Rod Dedeaux 51-13-1 11-3-0 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1971 Rod Dedeaux 54-13-0 17-0-0 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1972 Rod Dedeaux 50-13-1 14-4-0 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1973 Rod Dedeaux 51-11-0 14-4-0 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1974 Rod Dedeaux 50-21-0 11-7-0 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1975 Rod Dedeaux 43-14-1 12-4-0 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1976 Rod Dedeaux 36-28-3 15-8-1 Finished 2nd the Pac-10 1977 Rod Dedeaux 51-20-0 16-2-0 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1978 Rod Dedeaux 56-10-0 15-3-0 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1979 Rod Dedeaux 34-26-1 15-15-0 Finished 4th in the Pac-10 1980 Rod Dedeaux 30-25-1 13-17-0 Finished 5th in the Pac-10 1981 Rod Dedeaux 38-25-0 15-15-0 Finished 3rd in the Pac-10 1982 Rod Dedeaux 25-38-0 9-21-0 Finished 6th in the Pac-10 1983 Rod Dedeaux 33-24-1 17-13-0 Finished tied for 2nd the Pac-10 1984 Rod Dedeaux 48-25-0 18-12-0 Finished tied for 2nd the Pac-10 1985 Rod Dedeaux 24-45-0 5-25-0 Finished 6th in the Pac-10 1986 Rod Dedeaux 26-30-0 12-18-0 Rod Dedeaux Retire Finished 4th in the Pac-10 1987 Mike Gillespie 32–28 12–18 Finished tied for 5th in the Pac-10 1988 Mike Gillespie 36-27-1 13–17 Finished 4th in the Pac-10 1989 Mike Gillespie 42-25-1 16–14 Finished 3rd in the Pac-10 1990 Mike Gillespie 41–23 18–12 Finished 3rd in the Pac-10 1991 Mike Gillespie 46-18-1 23–7 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1992 Mike Gillespie 29–26 13–17 Finished 6th in the Pac-10 1993 Mike Gillespie 35–29 15–15 Finished 4th in the Pac-10 1994 Mike Gillespie 42–20 19–11 Finished 3rd in the Pac-10 1995 Mike Gillespie 49–22 21–9 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1996 Mike Gillespie 44-17-1 24–6 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 1997 Mike Gillespie 45–20 17–13 Finished 3rd in the Pac-10 1998 Mike Gillespie 49–17 21–9 Finished 2nd in the Pac-10 1999 Mike Gillespie 36–26 17–7 Finished 2nd in the Pac-10 2000 Mike Gillespie 44–20 16–8 Finished 4th in the Pac-10 2001 Mike Gillespie 45–19 18–6 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 2002 Mike Gillespie 37–24 17–7 Finished 1st in the Pac-10 2003 Mike Gillespie 28–28 11–13 Finished tied for 5th in the Pac-10 2004 Mike Gillespie 24–32 11–13 Finished tied for 6th in the Pac-10 2005 Mike Gillespie 41–22 15–9 Finished tied for 3rd in the Pac-10 2006 Mike Gillespie 25–33 11–13 Mike Gillespie Retired Finished tied for 5th in the Pac-10 2007 Chad Kreuter 27–29 8–16 Finished 9th in the Pac-10 2008 Chad Kreuter 28–28 11–13 Finished tied for 6th in the Pac-10 2009 Chad Kreuter 28–28 13–14 Finished tied for 5th in the Pac-10 2010 Chad Kreuter 28–32 7–20 Finished 10th in the Pac-10 2011 Frank Cruz 25–31 13–14 Finished 7th in the Pac-10 2012 Frank Cruz 23–32 8–22 Finished 10th in the Pac-12 2013 Dan Hubbs 20–36 10–20 Finished 9th in the Pac-12 2014 Dan Hubbs 29–24 16–14 Finished tied for 5th in the Pac-12 2015 Dan Hubbs 39–21 18–12 Finished tied for 3rd in the Pac-12 2016 Dan Hubbs 28–28 15–15 Finished 7th in the Pac-12 2017 Dan Hubbs 21–34 8–22 Finished 12th in the Pac-12 2018 Dan Hubbs 26–28 12–18 Finished 8th in the Pac-12 2019 Dan Hubbs 25–29–1 13–15–1 Finished 7th in the Pac-12 2020***** Jason Gill 10–5 0-0 Finished T-3rd in the Pac-12 2021 Jason Gill 25–26 13–17 Finished T-8th in the Pac-12 2022 Jason Gill 0–0 0–0 Upcoming season **Includes six games played in fall of 1892. ***USC was represented by School of Law team. ****USC was represented by School of Law but the team was open to all students. *****No official team due to World War I; students briefly organized team. ******From March 12 on the rest of the 2020 season was canceled due to the COVID-19 **Includes six games played in fall of 1892. ***USC was represented by School of Law team. ****USC was represented by School of Law but the team was open to all students. *****No official team due to World War I; students briefly organized team. ******From March 12 on the rest of the 2020 season was canceled due to the COVID-19 **Includes six games played in fall of 1892. ***USC was represented by School of Law team. ****USC was represented by School of Law but the team was open to all students. *****No official team due to World War I; students briefly organized team. ******From March 12 on the rest of the 2020 season was canceled due to the COVID-19 **Includes six games played in fall of 1892. ***USC was represented by School of Law team. ****USC was represented by School of Law but the team was open to all students. *****No official team due to World War I; students briefly organized team. ******From March 12 on the rest of the 2020 season was canceled due to the COVID-19 **Includes six games played in fall of 1892. ***USC was represented by School of Law team. ****USC was represented by School of Law but the team was open to all students. *****No official team due to World War I; students briefly organized team. ******From March 12 on the rest of the 2020 season was canceled due to the COVID-19 **Includes six games played in fall of 1892. ***USC was represented by School of Law team. ****USC was represented by School of Law but the team was open to all students. *****No official team due to World War I; students briefly organized team. ******From March 12 on the rest of the 2020 season was canceled due to the COVID-19 ==National Championships== 1948 Barry-Dedeaux 40-12-1 Defeated Yale, 9-2 1958 Rod Dedeaux 36-8-0 Defeated Missouri, 8-7 1961 Rod Dedeaux 43-9-1 Defeated Oklahoma St., 1-0 1963 Rod Dedeaux 37-16-1 Defeated Arizona, 5-2 1968 Rod Dedeaux 49-14-1 Defeated Southern Illinois, 4-3 1970 Rod Dedeaux 51-13-1 Defeated Florida St., 2-1 1971 Rod Dedeaux 54-13-0 Defeated Southern Illinois, 7-2 1972 Rod Dedeaux 50-13-1 Defeated Arizona St., 1-0 1973 Rod Dedeaux 51-11-0 Defeated Arizona St., 4-3 1974 Rod Dedeaux 50-21-0 Defeated Miami, 7-3 1978 Rod Dedeaux 56-10-0 Defeated Arizona St., 10-3 1998 Mike Gillespie 49-17-0 Defeated Arizona St., 21-14 Total national championships Total national championships Total national championships 12 12 ==USC in the NCAA tournament== *The NCAA Division I baseball tournament started in 1947. *The format of the tournament has changed through the years. USC did not make the tournament in 1947. USC did not make the tournament in 1947. USC did not make the tournament in 1947. USC did not make the tournament in 1947. 1948 5-1 .833 Won the NCAA Western playoffs; College World Series Champions 1949 3-3 .500 Won the NCAA Western playoffs; College World Series (3rd Place) USC did not make the tournament in 1950. USC did not make the tournament in 1950. USC did not make the tournament in 1950. USC did not make the tournament in 1950. 1951 2-2 .500 College World Series USC did not make the tournament in 1952 or 1953. USC did not make the tournament in 1952 or 1953. USC did not make the tournament in 1952 or 1953. USC did not make the tournament in 1952 or 1953. 1954 1-2 .333 Lost to Fresno St. in NCAA District 8 playoffs 1955 2-2 .500 Won NCAA District 8 playoffs; College World Series USC did not make the tournament in 1956 or 1957. USC did not make the tournament in 1956 or 1957. USC did not make the tournament in 1956 or 1957. USC did not make the tournament in 1956 or 1957. 1958 7-1 .875 Won NCAA District 8 playoffs; College World Series Champions USC did not make the tournament in 1959. USC did not make the tournament in 1959. USC did not make the tournament in 1959. USC did not make the tournament in 1959. 1960 8-3 .727 Won NCAA District 8 playoffs and Finals; College World Series Runner-up 1961 9-1 .900 Won NCAA District 8 playoffs and Finals; College World Series Champions USC did not make the tournament in 1962. USC did not make the tournament in 1962. USC did not make the tournament in 1962. USC did not make the tournament in 1962. 1963 7-2 .778 Won NCAA District 8 Finals; College World Series Champions 1964 6-2 .750 Won NCAA District 8 playoffs and Finals; College World Series USC did not make the tournament in 1965. USC did not make the tournament in 1965. USC did not make the tournament in 1965. USC did not make the tournament in 1965. 1966 6-2 .750 Won NCAA District 8 Finals; College World Series USC did not make the tournament in 1967. USC did not make the tournament in 1967. USC did not make the tournament in 1967. USC did not make the tournament in 1967. 1968 7-2 .875 Won NCAA District 8 Finals; College World Series Champions USC did not make the tournament in 1969. USC did not make the tournament in 1969. USC did not make the tournament in 1969. USC did not make the tournament in 1969. 1970 6-1 .857 Won NCAA District 8 Finals; College World Series Champions 1971 7-2 .778 Won NCAA District 8 Finals; College World Series Champions 1972 College World Series Champions 1973 College World Series Champions 1974 College World Series Champions 1975 1-2 .333 Eliminated by Pepperdine in the West Regional USC did not make the tournament in 1976. USC did not make the tournament in 1976. USC did not make the tournament in 1976. USC did not make the tournament in 1976. 1977 1978 College World Series Champions USC did not make the tournament from 1979 to 1983. USC did not make the tournament from 1979 to 1983. USC did not make the tournament from 1979 to 1983. USC did not make the tournament from 1979 to 1983. 1984 USC did not make the tournament from 1985 to 1987. USC did not make the tournament from 1985 to 1987. USC did not make the tournament from 1985 to 1987. USC did not make the tournament from 1985 to 1987. 1988 1989 1990 1991 USC did not make the tournament in 1992. USC did not make the tournament in 1992. USC did not make the tournament in 1992. USC did not make the tournament in 1992. 1993 3-2 .600 Lost in the NCAA Central II Regional Finals to Texas 1994 3-2 .600 Lost in the NCAA South Regional Finals to LSU 1995 8-3 .727 Won the NCAA West Regional; College World Series Runner-up 1996 3-2 .600 Lost in the NCAA Central II Regional Finals to Oklahoma St. 1997 3-2 .600 Lost in the NCAA South II Regional Finals to Alabama 1998 9-2 .818 Won the NCAA East Regional; College World Series Champions 1999 3-3 .500 Won the Los Angeles Regional; Lost to Stanford in the Palo Alto Super Regional 2000 6-2 .750 Won the Fullerton Regional & Atlanta Super Regional; College World Series (5th Place) 2001 6-2 .750 Won the Los Angeles Regional & Super Regional; College World Series (5th Place) 2002 3-2 .600 Won the Los Angeles Regional; Lost to Stanford in the Palo Alto Super Regional USC did not make the tournament in 2003 or 2004. USC did not make the tournament in 2003 or 2004. USC did not make the tournament in 2003 or 2004. USC did not make the tournament in 2003 or 2004. 2005 4-3 .571 Won the Long Beach Regional; Lost to Oregon St. in the Corvallis Super Regional USC did not make the tournament from 2006 to 2014. USC did not make the tournament from 2006 to 2014. USC did not make the tournament from 2006 to 2014. USC did not make the tournament from 2006 to 2014. 2015 2-2 .500 Lost to Virginia in the Lake Elisinore Regional USC did not make the tournament from 2016-2021. USC did not make the tournament from 2016-2021. USC did not make the tournament from 2016-2021. USC did not make the tournament from 2016-2021. Totals 173–70 .712 ==NCAA records== ===Individual records=== 1960 Bruce Gardner Innings Pitched in a Season (182.2) No. 2 all-time 1960 Bruce Gardner Victories (18) Led the nation in 1960 1964 Walt Peterson Victories (17) Led the nation in 1964 1966 John Stewart Victories (16) Led the nation in 1966 1970 Dan Stoligrosz Home runs in a Season (14) Led the nation in 1970 1972 Fred Lynn Home runs in a Season (14) Led the nation in 1972 1974 Rich Dauer Hits in a Season (108) Led the nation in 1974 1974 Rich Dauer Runs Batted In (92) Led the nation in 1974 1974 Rich Dauer Total Bases (181) Led the nation in 1974 1984 Mark McGwire Home runs in a Season (32) Led the nation in 1984 1987 Brian Nichols Saves (17) Led the nation in 1987 1993 Dan Hubbs Saves (18) Led the nation in 1993 1995–1998 Jack Krawczyk Career Saves (49) No. 2 all-time 1998 Seth Etherton Strikeouts (182) Led the nation in 1998 1998 Jack Krawczyk Saves in a Season (23) No. 1 all- time 2001 Mark Prior Strikeouts (202) Led the nation in 2001 2005 Ian Kennedy Strikeouts (158) Led the nation in 2005 ===Team records=== All-Time Win Percentage (.654) No. 16 overall All-Time Victories (2,589) No. 3 overall 1973 Home runs (62) Led the nation in 1973 ==Player awards== === All-Americans === The following is a listing of first team selections. Other selections are available at USC's official website.http://usctrojans.cstv.com/auto_pdf/p_hotos/s_chools/usc/sports/m-basebl/auto_pdf/basebl- all-americans *1948 :Wally Hood (p) - ABCA :Art Mazmanian (2b) - ABCA :Hank Workman (of) - ABCA *1949 :Jim Brideweser (p) - ABCA *1950 :Jay Roundy (of) - ABCA *1952 :Hal Charnofsky (ss) - ABCA *1953 :Ed Simpson (1b) - ABCA *1956 :Kent Hadley (1b) - ABCA *1957 :Bill Olson (cf) - ABCA *1958 :Jerry Siegert (of) - ABCA *1959 :Bill Thom (p) - ABCA :Johnny Werhas (3b) - ABCA *1960 :Bruce Gardner (p) - ABCA *1961 :Willie Ryan (1b) - ABCA *1964 :Walt Peterson (p) - ABCA *1970 :Brent Strom (p) - ABCA *1971 :Steve Busby (p) - ABCA *1972 :Fred Lynn (of) - ABCA *1973 :Roy Smalley (ss) - ABCA *1974 :Rich Dauer (3b) - ABCA *1975 :Steve Kemp () - ABCA *1978 :Bill Bordley (p) - ABCA *1981 :Dan Davidsmeier (ss) - ABCA *1984 :Mark McGwire (1b) - ABCA & BA *1988 :Jim Campanis (c) - BA *1991 :Mark Smith (of) - BA & CB *1995 :Gabe Alvarez (ss) - ABCA :Geoff Jenkins (of) - BA & CB *1998 :Seth Etherton (p) - ABCA, BA, & CB :Jack Krawczyk (p) - ABCA & CB *1999 :Barry Zito (p) - ABCA, BA, & CB *2001 :Mark Prior (p) - ABCA, BA, & CB *2005 :Jeff Clement (c) - ABCA, BA, & CB :Ian Kennedy (p) - BA & CB Legend *ABCA = American Baseball Coaches Association *BA = Baseball America *CB = Collegiate Baseball ===All-College World Series=== *1958 :Mike Castanon (2b) :Fred Scott (ss) :Ron Fairly (of) :Bill Thom^ (p) *1960 :William Ryan (1b) :Bob Levingston (of) :Mickey McNamee (of) :Art Ersepke (of) :Bill Heath (c) :Bruce Gardner (p) *1961 :William Ryan (1b) :Art Ersepke (of) :Larry Himes (c) :Jim Withers (p) :Larry Hankammer (p) *1963 :Gary Holman (1b) :Kenny Washington (of) :Buddy Hollowell^ (c) :Walt Peterson (p) *1964 :Gary Sutherland (ss) :Willy Brown (of) *1966 :John Stewart (p) *1968 :Bill Seinsoth^* (1b) :Bill Lee (p) *1970 :Frank Alfano (2b) :Dan Stoligrosz (3b) :Jim Barr (p) *1971 :Frank Alfano (2b) :Fred Lynn* (of) :Mark Sogge (p) *1972 :Daryl Arenstein (1b) :Tim Steele (of) :Sam Ceci (c) :Russ McQueen^* (p) *1973 :Rod Smalley* (ss) :Ken Huizenga (of) :Randy Scarbery (c) *1974 :Rob Adolph (2b) :Rich Dauer (3b) :Marvin Cobb (ss) :Bob Mitchell (of) :George Milke^ (p) :Mark Barr (p) *1978 :Dave Hostetler (1b) :Doug Stokke (ss) :Tim Tolman (if) :John Wells (cf) :Rod Boxberger^ (p) *1995 :Geoff Jenkins* (of) :Randy Flores (p) :Wes Rachels (if) *1995 :Rod Dedeaux~ Head Coach *1998 :Robb Gorr (1b) :Jack Krawczyk (p) :Jason Lane (dh) :Eric Munson (c) :Wes Rachels^ (2b) :Brad Ticehurst (of) Legend *^ denotes player was named MOP of the College World Series ** denotes selection to College World Series All- Decade team *~ denotes selection to All-Time College World Series team ===Johnny Bench Award=== *2005: Jeff Clement *2015: Garrett Stubbs ==Notable players== *Brian Bannister *Aaron Boone *Bret Boone *Don Buford *Jeff Cirillo *Ron Fairly *Kent Hadley *Geoff Jenkins *Randy Johnson *Jacque Jones *Steve Kemp *Dave Kingman *Barry Latman *Fred Lynn *Mark McGwire *Mark Prior *Blake Sabol *Tom Seaver * Al Silvera *Roy Smalley *Barry Zito ==See also== * List of NCAA Division I baseball programs ==Notes== ==References== |
They're Only Chasing Safety is the fourth studio album by American rock band Underoath. It was released on June 15, 2004, through Solid State Records. Following the release of their third studio effort The Changing of Times (2002), half of the band's members were replaced. After finalizing the line-up with vocalist Spencer Chamberlain, the band recorded their next release with producer James Paul Wisner at his home studio Wisner Productions in February 2004. The album has been tagged with various genres including screamo and melodic hardcore and features subtle references to Christianity. Drummer Aaron Gillespie had more of a vocal presence to contrast Chamberlain's screams. Before the album's release, Underoath undertook a tour with their labelmates and later with Eighteen Visions. Throughout 2004, the band went on the Warped Tour before going on their own headlining tour, and closed the year supporting Coheed and Cambria. "Reinventing Your Exit" was released as the lead single in February 2005. An appearance on the inaugural Taste of Chaos tour led to another headlining US tour, shows in Europe and a second spell on Warped Tour. A Canadian tour in late 2005 with the Used preceded a reissue of the album in October 2005. It received generally favorable reviews from music critics, some of whom highlighted the various musical styles and praised Underoath for its accessibility. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album gold in the US in 2011, and it was nominated for a Dove Award for best rock album. It has been re-pressed on vinyl and performed in its entirety. ==Background== Christian metalcore band Underoath released their third studio album The Changing of Times in February 2002. It was the band's first release through Solid State Records; it marked a line-up change with the appearance of guitarist Timothy McTague and bassist William Nottke. Nottke was replaced with Grant Brandell and guitarist James Smith was brought in. Vocalist Dallas Taylor left the 2003 Warped Tour, and My Synopsis singer Matt Tarpey stood in for him for some shows.Sharpe-Young 2005, p. 339 Taylor officially left the band in October 2003; Brandell said this was due to personal issues that hampered the band's frequent touring schedule.Jenison 2004, p. 49 McTague said Taylor wanted a "more stable environment", explaining that they did not have much money and were touring constantly. Underoath played shows with This Runs Through, both of which lived in Tampa, Florida. This Runs Through vocalist Spencer Chamberlain was asked to join them but he rejected the offer because he was busy with This Runs Through. After he was told Underoath would otherwise have to cancel the shows, he temporarily joined the band for a few performances. Chamberlain was invited to practice with Underoath when This Runs Through were ending, and asked again to become a member of the band. ==Recording== Chamberlain officially joined Underoath in January 2004, and a month later, they recorded their next album. Underoath had worked with producer James Paul Wisner on their past two albums and wanted to work with someone else. They had two other producers in mind but due to timing conflicts, the opted to work with him again. Wisner acted as engineer at recording sessions in his home studio Wisner Productions in Florida. Throughout the making of the album, the members paid rent to stay at Wisner's house. His neighbor repeatedly banged on the door because the room in which Underoath were recording guitars shared a wall with the neighbor. The band learned the neighbor was a nurse and worked nights; the band switched rooms and had to re-record half of the songs. Keyboardist Christopher Dudley said the guitars were subsequently redone four times and two-to-three times for the bass guitar. He mentioned that they wanted to distance themselves away from the "really clean, polished sounding" material of Wisner's past production work, "but [They're Only Chasing Safety] still has that polished feel to it". Matt Goldman recorded programming and Aaron Marsh's additional vocals. Chamberlain and Gillespie damaged their voices during the recording, and Gillespie was briefly hospitalized with blisters on his tonsils.Napier ed. 2019, p. 58 J.R. McNeely mixed the recordings at Compound Studios in Seattle, Washington, and the album was mastered by Troy Glessner at Spectre Studios. Chamberlain would later remark that the album sounded so "dry and feels just so cut to the core". ==Composition and lyrics== ===Overview=== The output of Underoath has been described as metalcore. According to Alex Henderson of AllMusic, "this screamo/post-hardcore/melodic hardcore approach is quite different from full-fledged metalcore; while metalcore units like Hatebreed, Brick Bath, and Finland's notoriously ferocious Rotten Sound go right for the jugular, Underoath and similar bands prefer to mix honey with vinegar". Andrew Segal of Cross Rhythms described the album as nu metal, and said it is on the heavier side of the rock scale, is well produced and "shows more signs of intelligence than the [nu-metal] genre is often credited with". Andrew Sacher, writing for Brooklyn Vegan, referred to They're Only Chasing Safelty as "one of melodic metalcore's biggest mainstream breakthroughs". Henderson said the references to Christianity are more subtle than anything from the band's contemporaries. Brian Flota in his book The Politics of Post-9/11 Music noted unlike other Christian acts, Underoath refer to Jesus by name, whereas others refer to the figure as "Him".Flota 2016, p. 177 The most pop-like tracks on the album, such as "Reinventing Your Exit", were written when Taylor was still a member. Gillespie was given more-vocal presence to contrast with Chamberlain's screams. In the past, Taylor had been the sole lyricist, but for They're Only Chasing Safety, Chamberlain and Gillespie contributed lyrics. Chamberlain said he had to adapt to Gillespie writing chorus sections as he did not listen to many bands with choruses. Chamberlain solely wrote the words to three of the tracks and Gillespie wrote one-to-two by himself, and the rest they wrote together. ===Tracks=== McTague used "Your New Aesthetic" (1999) by Jimmy Eat World as a template for "A Boy Brushed Red Living in Black and White".Underoath 2020, event occurs at 1:15:46–57 Underoath tried to improve upon the demo version's drum break but were unsuccessful and sampled the loops from the demo, which they had made with Goldman, and used it on the album version.Underoath 2020, event occurs at 1:09:47–1:10:37 "Reinventing Your Exit" evokes the material of Hawthorne Heights; it evolved from the Taylor- sung track "Heatherwood". The interlude track "The Blue Note" was made in an hour; it consists of two layered stock loops. Underoath 2020, event occurs at 2:13:04–15 "It's Dangerous Business Walking Out Your Front Door" is a murder ballad that features 1980s-esque electronic parts; it recalls the work of the Used and its bridge section includes a choir from a local church. McTague said the band misled the choir about the song's meaning to persuade them to sing on the album. With "Down, Set, Go", the band attempted to emulate the style of Brand New's Deja Entendu (2003), with which they were enamored. For the ending of "I'm Content with Losing", McTague performed his part in the style of the Casket Lottery.Underoath 2020, event occurs at 3:24:07–11 "Some Will Seek Forgiveness, Others Escape" is reminiscent of the work of Copeland, being anchored around an electronica beat, and was intended to show Underoath "wearing their hearts on their sleeves". McTague said the song deals with a person "realizing the error of [their] ways, asking for forgiveness and making a vow to start over and do what's right".Flota 2016, p. 178 Unlike the rest of the songs on the album, the track was composed within half an hour. Marsh's part in the song deals with him having "both feet out the door with Christianity". "I've Got Ten Friends and a Crowbar That Says You Ain't Gonna Do Jack" was written and recorded for the album's 2005 reissue.Underoath 2020, event occurs at 3:52:02–7 ==Release and promotion== thumb|alt=Several men performing onstage playing and singing into a microphone|Underoath toured throughout 2004 and 2005 promoting the album. In March and April 2004, Underoath toured the US as part of the Solid State Tour with labelmates Norma Jean and Beloved, among others, which was followed by a few shows with From First to Last. On April 21, 2004, They're Only Chasing Safety was announced for release in two months' time; alongside this, "Reinventing Your Exit" was posted on the band's Purevolume profile. The album was released on June 15, 2004, through Solid State. The artwork depicts Julie McCaddon, the wife of designer Kris McCaddon, wearing an oxygen mask. McCaddon, who had little budget to design the cover, hired his wife rather than a professional model for a photography session. In June 2004, the band embarked on a US tour with Eighteen Visions, prior to appearance at that year's Hellfest and Warped Tour. During the Warped Tour, Underoath's audience grew and at one point matched the size of one of the tour's headliners, the Used. Underoath initially planned to support Senses Fail but had to pull out when Chamberlain married. Instead, they instigated their own Get Awesome Tour with Stretch Arm Strong and the Chariot. Following this, they supported Coheed and Cambria on their headlining US tour. "Reinventing Your Exit" was released to radio on February 22, 2005; the music video for the song was filmed in Brooklyn, New York City. Underoath wanted to release "A Boy Brushed Red Living in Black and White", which they felt was more representative of the album's sound, but Solid State Records opted for something closer to The Changing of Times track "When the Sun Sleeps".Underoath 2020, event occurs at 2:07:36–57 On the radio edit of "Reinventing Your Exit", Chamberlain's vocals are lower in the mix and cut the breakdown.Underoath 2020, event occurs at 2:12:08–23 In February and March 2005, Underoath performed on the East Coast dates of the first Taste of Chaos tour. They appeared at the South by Southwest music conference, prior to headlining the Total Badical Tour. The trek, which ran into May 2005, was supported by Fear Before the March of Flames, the Chariot, Hopesfall and These Arms Are Snakes. Towards the tour's conclusion, Underoath appeared at The Bamboozle and Cornerstone Festivals. Following this, Underoath went on a tour of Europe that included a performance at Download Festival, and then appeared on Warped Tour in June and July 2005. On August 23, 2005, the music video for "It's Dangerous Business Walking Out Your Front Door" was posted on MTV's website. It was filmed in Hollywood with director Josh Graham, and depicts the band performing in a forest after having been involved in a car crash. The band played some US shows with Silverstein prior to a Canadian tour in September 2005 with the Used and Alexisonfire. ===Reissues and full-album performances=== On October 4, 2005, They're Only Chasing Safety was re- released through Tooth and Nail Records as a special edition that included four bonus tracks, a bonus DVD, and new artwork and packaging designed by Converge's Jacob Bannon. The band were planning to issue the DVD on its own until the label suggested combining it with They're Only Chasing Safety and selling it at the same price had the DVD been released separately. In October and November 2005, the group supported Thrice on their headlining US tour. They're Only Chasing Safety was included in a three-CD set called Play Your Old Stuff: An Underoath Anthology (2011), alongside The Changing of Times and their fifth studio album Define the Great Line (2006). They're Only Chasing Safety was packaged with Define the Great Line as a two-LP set to promote the band's 2016 Rebirth Tour, during which they performed both albums in full. They're Only Chasing Safety was then included with Define the Great Line and their sixth studio album Lost in the Sound of Separation as part of the Underoath Observatory (2021) vinyl box set. To coincide with this, Underoath performed all three albums in their entireties as part of the Underoath: Observatory livestream series. "A Boy Brushed Red Living in Black and White", "Reinventing Your Exit", and "It's Dangerous Business Walking Out Your Front Door" were included on the band's second and third compilation albums Anthology: 1999–2013 (2012) and Icon (2014). ==Reception== The album was met with generally favorable reviews from music critics. AllMusic's Alex Henderson said the band "do a decent job of integrating the honey and the vinegar" on the album, with Chamberlain having a "firm grasp of the sort of good cop/bad cop and heaven/hell contrasts that characterize a screamo disc" as this album. Andrew Segal of Cross Rhythms wrote that album had a "few good surprises which certainly make it merit more than just one listen", as its varied instrumental "largely set it melodically apart from a genre where people are often prone to detuning their instruments". Though he noticed some "moments that are a ittle 'samey'," it was overall a "well produced album that [...] shows more signs of intelligence than the genre is often credited with". The staff at HM Magazine saw it as a band evolving as they incorporate more melody, and "while it has ups and downs as a complete album, several songs approach greatness". Jesusfreakhideout staff writer Josh Taylor saw it as the band's most "accessible [release] to those not even interested in the genre", and while it was "not quite as heavy as previous ventures, [.. the album] is, hands down, one of the best releases of 2004". Len Nash of The Phantom Tollbooth noted that the band had change styles to emo, which would serve as a "better position to compete against many mainstream artists". He added that despite the album be "'emotic' in nature, Underoath still jams out". Lollipop Magazine Adrian Bromley saw it as "[g]eneric mediocre metalcore, for the most part, save for the techno/keyboard bits used on certain songs". musicOMH reviewer Vik Bansal also pointed out the musical shift to emo, and said the album "does little to raise the heartbeat or send frissons down the spine". He added that Chamberlain's vocals "sit at odds with the music", and proposed that if Chamberlain sung more, he would have compared Underoath to labelmates Dead Poetic. Sputnikmusic staff member Damrod wrote that while the "musical work is solid, it can not convince me completely. This is mainly because the sound is so similar to many other bands popular in the genre". Punk Planet Scott Morrow wrote that apart from a "few legitimately decent moments", he struggled to sit through the album, citing the "trite and whiny singsong sound and can't-you- hear-the-pain-in-my-voice? screams".Morrow 2005, p. 138 Fred Pilarczyk of mxdwn considered it a "safe album in all aspects, from the vocals, instrumentation, and production" with every song "follow[ing] a similar formula". The album peaked at number 101 on the Billboard 200 and number seven on the Christian Albums charts. As of 2005, the album sold more than 218,000 copies, with the re-release selling an additional 279,000 copies, making a combined sales of more than 500,000 copies in the US alone. The reissue topped the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in December 2011. In 2005, the album was nominated for a Dove Award for Rock Album of the Year at the 36th GMA Dove Awards.Jones, Kim. "2005 Dove Awards - 36th Annual Dove Awards" . About.com. Retrieved June 13, 2013. Alternative Press ranked "Reinventing Your Exit" at number 40 on their list of the best 100 singles from the 2000s. ==Track listing== All music by Underoath. All lyrics written by Aaron Gillespie and Spencer Chamberlain, except where noted. ==Personnel== Personnel per booklet. Underoath * Timothy McTague – guitar * Christopher Dudley – keyboards * Aaron Gillespie – drums, clean vocals * Spencer Chamberlain – unclean vocals * Grant Brandell – bass guitar * James Smith – guitar Additional musicians * Aaron Marsh – additional vocals (track 10) Production and design * James Paul Wisner – producer, engineer * Matt Goldman – additional vocals recording, programming recording * J.R. McNeely – mixing * Troy Glessner – mastering * Kris McCaddon – A.D. photography, design * David Stuart – band photography ==Charts and certifications== ===Weekly charts=== Chart performance for They're Only Chasing Safety Chart (2004–2005) Peak position ===Certifications=== ==References== Citations Sources * * * * * * ==External links== *They're Only Chasing Safety at Solid State Records' website Category:2004 albums Category:Underoath albums Category:Tooth & Nail Records albums Category:Albums with cover art by Jacob Bannon Category:Melodic hardcore albums Category:Screamo albums Category:Emo albums by American artists Category:Solid State Records albums Category:Albums produced by James Paul Wisner Category:Golf Records albums |
Frightened Rabbit were a Scottish indie rock band from Selkirk, formed in 2003. Initially a solo project for vocalist and guitarist Scott Hutchison, the final lineup of the band consisted of Hutchison, his brother Grant (drums), Billy Kennedy (guitar, bass), Andy Monaghan (guitar, keyboards), and Simon Liddell (guitar). From 2004, the band were based in Glasgow. Frightened Rabbit's first studio album, Sing the Greys, was recorded by the Hutchison brothers and Billy Kennedy, released on independent label Hits the Fan in 2006. The band subsequently signed to Fat Cat Records, in 2007, and shortly after recorded their second album The Midnight Organ Fight (2008). The album was released to strongly positive reviews and extensive touring, with guitarist and keyboardist Andy Monaghan joining the band to flesh-out its live performances. The band's third studio album, The Winter of Mixed Drinks, was released in 2010, with former Make Model guitarist Gordon Skene joining the band for its accompanying tour. Frightened Rabbit signed to Atlantic Records later that year, and issued two EPs, A Frightened Rabbit EP (2011) and State Hospital (EP) (2012), before the release of its fourth studio album, Pedestrian Verse in 2013. A critical and commercial success in the UK, the album peaked at number nine on the UK Albums Chart, with additional guitarist Simon Liddell joining the band on its subsequent tour. Disillusioned from touring, Scott Hutchison, Monaghan, and Liddell recorded a studio album without the band, entitled Owl John (2014). Gordon Skene departed from the band in early 2014, and the band recorded Painting of a Panic Attack the following year with producer Aaron Dessner (The National), in New York, with Liddell joining the band as a full contributing member. Scott Hutchison died in May 2018 after going missing. In December 2018 the remaining members of the band played together for the first time since Hutchison's death, at a charity gig in Glasgow with special guests performing vocals. The band have said that Frightened Rabbit "no longer exists" without Scott Hutchison, although some music from the album that was in progress when Hutchison died may be released in the future. ==History== ===Formation and first years (2003–2006)=== In 2003, vocalist and guitarist Scott Hutchison used the name Frightened Rabbit, which came from a name his mother gave him in his youth due to his chronic shyness, as a stage moniker for his solo shows. The project became a full- fledged band with the addition of his brother Grant Hutchison on drums in 2004, and guitarist Billy Kennedy in 2006. During early shows, the band would give out their email address for those interested in receiving a free demo. After a time during which few demos were sent out, Scott said that he would send out biscuits with the music, which led to a rise in requests for the demo. This led to a lasting impression with the recipients. ===Sing the Greys (2006–2007)=== The band released their debut album Sing the Greys in May 2006 on local label, Hits The Fan. The band was offered a deal from Fiction Records but ultimately the label withdrew their offer. In January 2007, The Self- Starter Foundation brought the band to the East Coast of the United States for a short tour. The band returned to the United States in March to play SXSW. Brighton indie label Fat Cat Records released a remixed/remastered version of the album in the US in October 2007, distributed by Caroline Distribution. The band then embarked on a full American tour. The album was released in the UK in November 2007. ===The Midnight Organ Fight (2008–2009)=== Earlier in 2007, the band had recorded a new album, The Midnight Organ Fight at producer Peter Katis's Tarquin Studios in Bridgeport, Connecticut. This album was released 15 April 2008. It was critically acclaimed, receiving an 8.1 rating on music website Pitchfork.com. After recording The Midnight Organ Fight, the current quartet line-up was completed with the addition of guitarist/keyboardist Andy Monaghan of Piano Bar Fight (who have previously played as support to Frightened Rabbit). In an interview, Scott mentions that he "met him on New Year's Eve, in Glasgow, in a bar. I was really hammered and I was like 'why don't you come and play some shows with us man?' and he was like 'Yeah!'. The next day, I got a text like 'Do you remember… did you say something about this or is it my imagination?'". The band supported Death Cab for Cutie during their November 2008 UK & Irish tour, and released a live album, Quietly Now! in October. ===The Winter of Mixed Drinks (2010)=== Whilst touring in support of The Midnight Organ Fight, Scott Hutchison noted that he was "excited at the prospect of being in the studio again," and that stated that he "can't do another break-up album 'cause I haven't had one this year! Maybe it'll just be a little less focused on me".The Skinny:Issue 39 pg. 35 Hutchison subsequently announced plans to head to Crail, Fife to write material for the band's third studio album:Qmunicate: Issue 66, Down the Rabbit Hole, pg. 11 In May 2009, a video appeared online of Hutchison performing a new track, entitled "Swim Until You Can't See Land". The song was later revealed as the first single from the forthcoming third album. In October 2009, the band members unveiled the album's title, The Winter of Mixed Drinks, and announced the arrival of a fifth band member, Gordon Skene (formerly of Make Model). According to Scott Hutchison: The Winter of Mixed Drinks was released in March 2010. The band made their US television debut on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on 25 May 2010, performing "Nothing Like You". In June 2010, they appeared on The A.V. Club covering The Lemonheads. On 12 October 2010, the television crime drama Detroit 1-8-7 featured the song "Yes I Would." The first single from the album, "Swim Until You Can't See Land" was also used in the trailer for the 2010 movie, "The Beaver". They have also been chosen personally by Belle & Sebastian to perform at their second Bowlie Weekender festival, presented by All Tomorrow's Parties in the UK in December 2010. Again, the band supported Death Cab for Cutie during their 2011 North American tour. ===Signing to Atlantic and A Frightened Rabbit EP (2010–2012)=== The band's first release after signing to Atlantic, the three-track A Frightened Rabbit EP, was released on 28 July 2011 and was available exclusively on their subsequent tour. On 19 October 2011, the EP was released as a free download to subscribers to the band's newsletter, with the announcement of a limited-run vinyl being available for pre-order. The songs on the EP are "Scottish Winds", "Fuck This Place" and "The Work"; Camera Obscura's Tracyanne Campbell contributes vocals on "Fuck This Place", and Archie Fisher sings on "The Work". The EP was re-issued on vinyl for the first time since its original release for Record Store Day 2022.A Frightened Rabbit EP - Record Store Day Retrieved 23 April 2022. In 2010, Scott Hutchison wrote, recorded and performed with the charity project The Fruit Tree Foundation, appearing on its debut album, First Edition. ===Pedestrian Verse (2013)=== On 6 December 2011, Clash Music reported that Frightened Rabbit were planning to record their fourth album, and Scott Hutchison states, "it's written, essentially," noting that they are on the production stage. Scott states, "We're experimenting with minor keys, which is actually new for us," remarking upon the idea of a new sound. The band announced that on 1 May 2012 they would start recording the fourth album. The fourth album also marked the first time for the band that it is not Scott Hutchison alone with the task of songwriting, with Hutchison saying that "it's done nothing but benefit the new songs." The album was released on 4 February 2013, and was preceded by an EP entitled State Hospital, featuring Scottish vocalist Aidan Moffat, released 25 September 2012. On tour in 2012 for support of State Hospital, Scott announced that the album would be released in February 2013. In November 2012, Frightened Rabbit announced the name of their new album, Pedestrian Verse, via their official Facebook page. Released to widespread critical acclaim, the band embarked upon an extensive tour in support of the album. ===Owl John and Gordon Skene's departure (2014–2015)=== Regarding a forthcoming fifth studio album, Hutchison noted in October 2013: "We're going to have to start thinking about the next record after this tour. We've done a lot of writing in Scotland, but it would be good to shift it up a gear and get out of the comfort zone, away from what we're used to, and over [in America] would be good for that. So the only worry, especially on the West Coast and California, is the effect that may have on my writing, and whether I would be all happy and full of vitamins." In January 2014, Scott Hutchison revealed plans to record a solo album, stating: "With Pedestrian Verse being more collaborative, I said I’d never write a Frightened Rabbit record in the way I used to, which is true. But it doesn’t mean I don’t want to write any records like that. It’s going to be really pleasant to go back to that way of working, where I sit around and do stuff myself." Both keyboardist and guitarist Andy Monaghan and touring member Simon Liddell collaborated with Scott on the project, which was later named Owl John. On 25 March 2014, Gordon Skene departed the band owing to "differing opinions" with the four other members. The band wrote on Facebook: "There is no more to tell other than sometimes things just don’t work out and when people have differing opinions often the best option is to simply part ways and get on with life separately." ===Painting of a Panic Attack (2016–2017)=== Frightened Rabbit announced via social media their fifth album, Painting of a Panic Attack, would be released on 8 April 2016. The band followed the album news with an album trailer showcasing album track 'Lump Street', and UK/US 2016–2017 tour announcement on 23 February. Frightened Rabbit released a new song "Fields of Wheat" on 11 July 2017, with the band stating, "We made this recently. It felt like the song should go out now, because it's about what's happening now." In late 2017, the band released a three-track EP entitled Recorded Songs, which featured a collaboration with musician Julien Baker. ===Sixth album plans and death of Scott Hutchison (2018–2019)=== In early 2018, Scott and Grant announced a new side-project called Mastersystem alongside Justin and James Lockey of Editors and Minor Victories respectively. The band released their debut album Dance Music on 4 April. In February and March 2018, Frightened Rabbit embarked upon a ten-year anniversary tour in support of The Midnight Organ Fight. Regarding the possibility of new material and a possible sixth studio album, Scott noted that the band were building a home studio in Glasgow, and working on songs: "We’ve got like five or six songs that are sketchy. Then there are a lot of pieces of music that don’t have lyrics on them yet, but that’s coming together. I would like for that to be finished by the end of the year. We’re just going to constantly evolve it. I’ve been certainly trying to look for new themes. There’s one that’s currently about how I question whether or not I would be willing to bring a child into the world as it stands. Not that I’m in any position to do so at all, but you know… I’m trying to find different things cause it’s album six, and I can’t do this all time time, you know. I don’t think anybody really gives a fuck about my relationships any more. So yeah, I’ll try and steer clear of that". On 9 May 2018, Scott Hutchison was reported missing by Scottish police and the members of Frightened Rabbit. Hutchison was last seen early on the morning of 9 May leaving a hotel in South Queensferry. His brother and band-mate Grant, on the band's official Twitter account, urged anyone with information on his whereabouts to contact Police Scotland. On 10 May, police found a body at Port Edgar in South Queensferry, which was the next day confirmed to be Hutchison's. The band issued a statement following Hutchison's death: On 25 May, the band announced they had cancelled their First Incident festival, which had been due to take place on 1 June in Glasgow and would have featured them in a headlining performance. Grant Hutchison tweeted that fans who had purchased tickets would be refunded or could donate their money the Scottish Association for Mental Health in Scott's memory if they so wished. In August 2018, the band announced they would be performing at the Sleep in the Park charity event in Glasgow on 8 December, which would be their first concert since Hutchison's death. The band performed eight songs at the concert, and were joined by guest singers James Graham of The Twilight Sad, Ross Clark of Three Blind Wolves and Fiskur, Simon Neil of Biffy Clyro and Kathryn Joseph. In May 2019, the Hutchison family established Tiny Changes, a mental health charity named after a lyric from the band's song "Head Rolls Off", in memory of Scott. In July 2019, Atlantic Records released Tiny Changes: A Celebration of Frightened Rabbit's The Midnight Organ Fight, an album featuring musician friends and colleagues of the band covering their 2008 album in full. It was supposed to be released in summer 2018 to mark the tenth anniversary of The Midnight Organ Fight, and Scott Hutchison was fully involved in the process and had approved the tracks included. In the run-up to the covers album's release, the remaining members of the band gave several interviews, stating that "the band does not exist" without Scott. It was also mentioned that there were demos already recorded for the band's planned sixth album and that these materials may still be released by the band. In January 2022, following the release of the lyrics book, The Work, Grant Hutchison noted that the band could work on Scott's sixth album demos in the near future: "I think we do feel like maybe [this] year at some point we could either sit in a room or just separately pick up our instruments and play along to those demos and maybe revisit them and get them out there. Whether it’s in an album format or whether we just decide to release them as we feel they’re ready, I think we feel a responsibility there to kind of finish off unfinished work for sure." ==Band line-up== Concerning the band's line-up, Scott Hutchison noted in 2008: "The initial lineup in Frightened Rabbit was just myself. I had really only been messing with my 4 track for about 6 months before I started playing some shows on my own. Some of the songs still didn't have words and I was mostly just mumbling nonsense half the time. Grant joined a year later, making the outfit much noisier. Billy came along about 6 months after this and actually made it a bit less noisy. He's very calming like that is Billy. Andy has been in the band since January, and adds all the extra details we were missing before. Still not sure if we're finished gathering members". In 2009, Make Model band member Gordon Skene joined Frightened Rabbit, playing their first live show with Skene on 6 November 2009. His departure from the band was announced on 25 March 2014. ===Band members=== * Scott Hutchison – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (2003–2018; died 2018) * Grant Hutchison – drums, percussion, backing vocals (2004–2018) * Billy Kennedy – lead guitar, bass guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (2005–2018) * Andy Monaghan – guitar, keyboards, bass guitar, backing vocals (2008–2018) * Gordon Skene – guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (2009–2014) * Simon Liddell – guitar, keyboards (2014–2018; touring member 2013–2014) ===Timeline=== ==Charitable work== Frightened Rabbit have done extensive work with Invisible Children music coalition project, going on tour with them in 2011. They performed songs for them, including a cover of the Death Cab For Cutie song, "Different Names for the Same Thing", as well as performing the song "Scottish Winds", from their new EP. At the end of the tour, they auctioned off the guitar they played during the tour, signed by the members, and the proceeds went to the Invisible Children corporation. In 2015, Frightened Rabbit raised money for Ditch the Label, a UK anti-bullying charity, after receiving messages from an internet troll. In 2017 the band performed at the Sleep in the Park charity event, raising money for homelessness charities in Scotland. They were scheduled to perform at the 2018 as well; after the death of frontman Scott Hutchison, the band played at the event with guest vocalists. ==Discography== Studio albums *Sing the Greys (2006) *The Midnight Organ Fight (2008) *The Winter of Mixed Drinks (2010) *Pedestrian Verse (2013) *Painting of a Panic Attack (2016) ==References== ==External links== *Official Site * *Frightened Rabbit The Self-Starter Foundation profile Category:2003 establishments in Scotland Category:2018 disestablishments in Scotland Category:Sibling musical groups Category:Musical groups established in 2003 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2018 Category:Musical quartets Category:Scottish indie rock groups Category:British indie folk groups Category:FatCat Records artists Category:Atlantic Records artists |
This is the results breakdown of the local elections held in Andalusia on 8 May 1983. The following tables show detailed results in the autonomous community's most populous municipalities, sorted alphabetically. ==Overall== ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 municipal election results in Andalusia → Parties and alliances Popular vote Councillors Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 1,485,502 50.38 +20.55 4,411 +1,669 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 683,793 23.19 +21.64 1,960 +1,851 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 435,941 14.78 –3.09 1,026 –181 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 109,524 3.71 –5.51 136 –123 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 25,822 0.88 New 58 +58 United Candidacy of Workers (CUT) 11,691 0.40 +0.19 51 +18 Independent Party of Almería (PIDA) 8,824 0.30 New 62 +62 Liberal Democratic Party (PDL) 5,448 0.19 New 8 +8 Socialist Action Party (PASOC)2 3,047 0.10 –0.14 2 –6 Spanish Communist Workers' Party (PCOE) 2,864 0.10 New 0 ±0 Independent Group of Benalmádena (GIB) 2,569 0.09 +0.04 9 +3 Independents (Morón de la Frontera) (INDEP) 2,181 0.07 New 4 +4 Republican Left (IR) 1,966 0.07 New 7 +7 Workers' Socialist Party (PST) 1,853 0.06 New 0 ±0 Independents (Motril) (INDEP) 1,582 0.05 New 1 +1 Independents (El Ejido) (INDEP)3 1,521 0.05 ±0.00 4 +1 Independents (Chiclana de la Frontera) (INDEP) 1,475 0.05 New 2 +2 Independent Group for Marbella (GIM) 1,422 0.05 ±0.00 2 ±0 Independent Group of Huelva (GIH) 1,404 0.05 –0.08 0 –2 United Rotenians (RRUU) 1,225 0.04 New 3 +3 MEC (MEC) 1,222 0.04 New 0 ±0 Independents (El Puerto de Santa María) (INDEP) 1,174 0.04 New 1 +1 Independent Group for the Progress of Malagenean People (AIPM) 980 0.03 New 1 +1 Andalusian Workers' Group (ATA) 890 0.03 New 1 +1 Others 153,678 5.21 — 881 –3,465 Blank ballots 1,276 0.04 –0.01 Total 2,948,874 100.00 8,630 –87 Valid votes 2,948,874 99.93 +0.98 Invalid votes 2,008 0.07 –0.98 Votes cast / turnout 2,950,882 65.49 +3.41 Abstentions 1,554,642 34.51 –3.41 Registered voters 4,505,524 Sources ==City control== The following table lists party control in the most populous municipalities, including provincial capitals (shown in bold). Gains for a party are displayed with the cell's background shaded in that party's colour. Municipality Population Previous control New control Alcalá de Guadaíra 45,577 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Algeciras 85,390 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Almería 140,745 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Antequera 35,765 Independent Antequeran Candidacy (CAI) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Benalmádena 13,622 Independent Group of Benalmádena (GIB) Independent Group of Benalmádena (GIB) Cádiz 156,711 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Chiclana de la Frontera 36,492 Independent Candidacy (CI) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Córdoba 279,386 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) Communist Party of Spain (PCE) Dos Hermanas 57,548 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Écija 34,703 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) El Ejido 29,560 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) El Puerto de Santa María 55,748 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) Communist Party of Spain (PCE) Fuengirola 29,160 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Granada 246,642 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Huelva 127,822 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Jaén 95,783 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Jerez de la Frontera 175,653 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) La Línea de la Concepción 56,609 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Linares 55,122 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Málaga 502,232 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Marbella 60,172 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Morón de la Frontera 27,986 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Motril 40,506 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Ronda 30,762 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) San Fernando 72,103 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) Sanlúcar de Barrameda 48,390 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) Communist Party of Spain (PCE) Seville 645,817 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Utrera 38,097 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Vélez-Málaga 41,937 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) ==Municipalities== ===Alcalá de Guadaíra=== :Population: 45,577 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Alcalá de Guadaíra election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 13,279 67.42 +29.27 16 +8 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 3,270 16.60 New 3 +3 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 2,367 12.02 –14.53 2 –4 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 759 3.85 –7.01 0 –2 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –22.82 0 –5 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 19,696 21 ±0 Valid votes 19,696 100.00 +0.48 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.48 Votes cast / turnout 19,696 65.96 –0.38 Abstentions 10,165 34.04 +0.38 Registered voters 29,861 Sources ===Algeciras=== :Population: 85,390 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Algeciras election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 14,664 43.36 +20.41 12 +6 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 9,268 27.41 –3.63 7 –1 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 6,376 18.85 +16.13 5 +5 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 2,088 6.17 –9.31 1 –3 Independents (INDEP) 688 2.03 New 0 ±0 Independents (INDEP) 431 1.27 New 0 ±0 Liberal Democratic Party (PDL) 302 0.89 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –25.25 0 –7 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 33,817 25 ±0 Valid votes 33,817 100.00 +0.86 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.86 Votes cast / turnout 33,817 58.02 +8.51 Abstentions 24,471 41.98 –8.51 Registered voters 58,288 Sources ===Almería=== :Population: 140,745 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Almería election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 33,952 60.82 +28.30 18 +8 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 16,451 29.47 +25.79 8 +8 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 3,590 6.43 –5.38 1 –2 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 1,035 1.85 –9.13 0 –3 Independent Party of Almería (PIDA) 480 0.86 New 0 ±0 Socialist Action Party (PASOC) 318 0.57 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –37.02 0 –11 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 55,826 27 ±0 Valid votes 55,826 100.00 +1.17 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –1.17 Votes cast / turnout 55,826 57.19 +0.86 Abstentions 41,786 42.81 –0.86 Registered voters 97,612 Sources ===Antequera=== :Population: 35,765 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Antequera election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 9,919 59.05 +30.16 13 +7 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 4,307 25.64 New 5 +5 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 1,525 9.08 –4.21 2 –1 Andalusian Workers' Group (ATA) 890 5.30 New 1 +1 United Candidacy of Workers (CUT) 158 0.94 New 0 ±0 Independent Antequeran Candidacy (CAI) n/a n/a –37.15 0 –8 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –13.97 0 –3 Party of Labour of Andalusia (PTA) n/a n/a –5.79 0 –1 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 16,799 21 ±0 Valid votes 16,799 100.00 +0.98 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.98 Votes cast / turnout 16,799 58.05 –3.44 Abstentions 12,138 41.95 +3.44 Registered voters 28,937 Sources ===Benalmádena=== :Population: 13,622 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Benalmádena election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Independent Group of Benalmádena (GIB) 2,569 45.23 +12.29 9 +3 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 1,590 27.99 +13.05 5 +3 Independent Group (AI) 563 9.91 New 2 +2 Arroyo de la Miel and Benalmádena Popular Candidacy (CPAB) 295 5.19 New 1 +1 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 203 3.57 +3.57 0 ±0 Communist Party of Spain (PCE–PCA) 200 3.52 –24.14 0 –5 United Candidacy of Workers (CUT) 177 3.12 New 0 ±0 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 83 1.46 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –16.18 0 –3 Party of Labour of Andalusia–Andalusian Federation (PTA–FA) n/a n/a –8.28 0 –1 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 5,680 17 ±0 Valid votes 5,680 100.00 +6.19 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –6.19 Votes cast / turnout 5,680 66.97 –0.41 Abstentions 2,802 33.03 +0.41 Registered voters 8,482 Sources ===Cádiz=== :Population: 156,711 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Cádiz election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 34,107 59.46 +26.92 18 +9 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 18,286 31.88 New 9 +9 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 2,058 3.59 –3.77 0 –2 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 880 1.53 –15.20 0 –4 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 827 1.44 New 0 ±0 Workers' Socialist Party (PST) 652 1.14 New 0 ±0 Liberal Democratic Party (PDL) 553 0.96 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –41.46 0 –12 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 57,363 27 ±0 Valid votes 57,363 100.00 +1.78 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –1.78 Votes cast / turnout 57,363 50.66 +0.23 Abstentions 55,865 49.34 –0.23 Registered voters 113,228 Sources ===Chiclana de la Frontera=== :Population: 36,492 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Chiclana de la Frontera election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 8,851 66.61 +41.78 15 +9 Independents (INDEP) 1,475 11.10 New 2 +2 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 1,217 9.16 +6.80 2 +2 Independents (INDEP) 789 5.94 New 1 +1 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 734 5.52 –8.65 1 –2 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 221 1.66 New 0 ±0 Independent Candidacy (CI) n/a n/a –36.44 0 –8 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –16.19 0 –3 Party of Labour of Andalusia (PTA) n/a n/a –6.02 0 –1 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 13,287 21 ±0 Valid votes 13,287 100.00 +0.37 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.37 Votes cast / turnout 13,287 56.92 –2.67 Abstentions 10,055 43.08 +2.67 Registered voters 23,342 Sources ===Córdoba=== :Population: 279,386 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Córdoba election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 79,685 57.97 +29.93 17 +9 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 32,263 23.47 New 6 +6 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 21,476 15.62 –7.97 4 –3 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 1,980 1.44 New 0 ±0 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 1,580 1.15 –16.01 0 –5 Workers' Socialist Party (PST) 478 0.35 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –25.93 0 –7 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 137,462 27 ±0 Valid votes 137,462 100.00 ±0.00 Invalid votes 0 0.00 ±0.00 Votes cast / turnout 137,462 69.29 +4.72 Abstentions 60,911 30.71 –4.72 Registered voters 198,373 Sources ===Dos Hermanas=== :Population: 57,548 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Dos Hermanas election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 12,443 52.29 +22.49 13 +6 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 7,203 30.27 –9.33 8 –1 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 3,567 14.99 New 4 +4 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 585 2.46 –5.86 0 –2 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –12.41 0 –2 Independent Democrats Group (ADI) n/a n/a –8.08 0 –1 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 23,798 25 +4 Valid votes 23,798 100.00 +0.42 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.42 Votes cast / turnout 23,798 63.76 +0.58 Abstentions 13,528 36.24 –0.58 Registered voters 37,326 Sources ===Écija=== :Population: 34,703 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Écija election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 5,953 36.60 –12.67 8 –3 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 5,361 32.96 +22.46 7 +5 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 4,176 25.68 +16.98 6 +4 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 773 4.75 –4.16 0 –2 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –21.18 0 –4 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 16,263 21 ±0 Valid votes 16,263 100.00 +0.52 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.52 Votes cast / turnout 16,263 68.35 +6.73 Abstentions 7,530 31.65 –6.73 Registered voters 23,793 Sources ===El Ejido=== :Population: 29,560 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of El Ejido election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 4,740 54.71 +22.08 12 +5 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 1,593 18.39 New 4 +4 Independents (INDEP) 1,521 17.56 +2.10 4 +1 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 475 5.48 –12.86 1 –3 Socialist Action Party (PASOC) 335 3.87 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –33.57 0 –7 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 8,664 21 ±0 Valid votes 8,664 100.00 +1.31 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –1.31 Votes cast / turnout 8,664 45.93 –0.09 Abstentions 10,200 54.07 +0.09 Registered voters 18,864 Sources ===El Puerto de Santa María=== :Population: 55,748 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of El Puerto de Santa María election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 6,139 33.25 +8.07 9 +2 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 5,206 28.20 +7.42 8 +3 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 4,945 26.79 +21.01 7 +6 Independents (INDEP) 1,174 6.36 New 1 +1 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 607 3.29 –14.01 0 –4 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 390 2.11 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –30.25 0 –8 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 18,461 25 ±0 Valid votes 18,461 100.00 +0.51 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.51 Votes cast / turnout 18,461 50.16 –1.83 Abstentions 18,346 49.84 +1.83 Registered voters 36,807 Sources ===Fuengirola=== :Population: 29,160 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Fuengirola election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 7,710 64.21 +21.23 15 +5 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 2,890 24.07 +22.12 5 +5 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 604 5.03 –5.56 1 –1 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 423 3.52 New 0 ±0 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 380 3.16 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –37.96 0 –9 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 12,007 21 ±0 Valid votes 12,007 100.00 +0.71 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.71 Votes cast / turnout 12,007 63.38 –0.04 Abstentions 6,937 36.62 +0.04 Registered voters 18,944 Sources ===Granada=== :Population: 246,642 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Granada election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 69,530 60.41 +39.09 18 +12 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 34,773 30.21 New 9 +9 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 5,114 4.44 –7.00 0 –3 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 2,012 1.75 New 0 ±0 MEC (MEC) 1,222 1.06 New 0 ±0 Liberal Democratic Party (PDL) 956 0.83 New 0 ±0 Granadin Candidacy of Workers (CGT) 765 0.66 –5.22 0 –1 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 726 0.63 –21.96 0 –6 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –36.19 0 –11 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 115,098 27 ±0 Valid votes 115,098 100.00 +0.89 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.89 Votes cast / turnout 115,098 66.30 +5.37 Abstentions 58,499 33.70 –5.37 Registered voters 173,597 Sources ===Huelva=== :Population: 127,822 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Huelva election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 30,680 64.54 +39.75 20 +13 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 10,694 22.50 New 7 +7 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 1,847 3.89 –3.40 0 –2 Independent Group of Huelva (GIH) 1,404 2.95 –5.59 0 –2 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 779 1.64 New 0 ±0 Workers' Socialist Party (PST) 723 1.52 New 0 ±0 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 695 1.46 –19.27 0 –6 Liberal Democratic Party (PDL) 405 0.85 New 0 ±0 United Candidacy of Workers (CUT) 312 0.66 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –29.34 0 –8 Workers' Revolutionary Organization (ORT) n/a n/a –9.30 0 –2 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 47,539 27 ±0 Valid votes 47,539 100.00 +1.76 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –1.76 Votes cast / turnout 47,539 54.05 +2.21 Abstentions 40,415 45.95 –2.21 Registered voters 87,954 Sources ===Jaén=== :Population: 95,783 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Jaén election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 23,943 52.27 +25.22 14 +7 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 17,423 38.04 +31.47 10 +9 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 2,452 5.35 –6.58 1 –2 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 1,017 2.22 New 0 ±0 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 968 2.11 –13.20 0 –4 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –35.80 0 –10 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 45,803 25 ±0 Valid votes 45,803 100.00 +0.75 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.75 Votes cast / turnout 45,803 67.61 +2.93 Abstentions 21,944 32.39 –2.93 Registered voters 67,747 Sources ===Jerez de la Frontera=== :Population: 175,653 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Jerez de la Frontera election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 39,231 54.58 +26.47 16 +8 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 19,312 26.87 +6.21 7 +1 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 10,260 14.27 +12.53 4 +4 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 2,611 3.63 –18.15 0 –6 Liberal Democratic Party (PDL) 461 0.64 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –26.08 0 –7 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 71,875 27 ±0 Valid votes 71,875 100.00 +0.79 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.79 Votes cast / turnout 71,875 64.62 +9.33 Abstentions 39,355 35.38 –9.33 Registered voters 111,230 Sources ===La Línea de la Concepción=== :Population: 56,609 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of La Línea de la Concepción election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 18,602 79.71 +32.13 22 +9 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 2,869 12.29 +11.22 3 +3 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 637 2.73 –5.73 0 –2 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 625 2.68 –7.94 0 –2 Communist Movement (MC) 604 2.59 –2.67 0 –1 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –27.01 0 –7 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 23,337 25 ±0 Valid votes 23,337 100.00 +0.85 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.85 Votes cast / turnout 23,337 58.83 –0.07 Abstentions 16,334 41.17 +0.07 Registered voters 39,671 Sources ===Linares=== :Population: 55,122 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Linares election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 16,702 61.76 +21.63 16 +6 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 6,051 22.37 +15.00 6 +4 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 3,788 14.01 –9.65 3 –3 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 503 1.86 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –26.94 0 –7 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 27,044 25 ±0 Valid votes 27,044 100.00 +0.94 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.94 Votes cast / turnout 27,044 71.02 +4.11 Abstentions 11,037 28.98 –4.11 Registered voters 38,081 Sources ===Málaga=== :Population: 502,232 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Málaga election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 119,436 63.30 +29.13 21 +10 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 48,323 25.61 +24.95 8 +8 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 13,554 7.18 –13.43 2 –5 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 3,692 1.96 –12.66 0 –4 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 2,407 1.28 New 0 ±0 Spanish Communist Workers' Party (PCOE) 1,275 0.68 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –21.26 0 –7 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 188,687 31 +2 Valid votes 188,687 100.00 +1.37 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –1.37 Votes cast / turnout 188,687 56.18 +5.53 Abstentions 147,184 43.82 –5.53 Registered voters 335,871 Sources ===Marbella=== :Population: 60,172 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Marbella election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 10,761 52.05 +27.85 16 +10 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 3,634 17.58 +17.21 5 +5 Socialist Action Party (PASOC)2 1,973 9.54 +3.92 2 +1 Independent Group for Marbella (GIM) 1,422 6.88 –1.86 2 ±0 Communist Party of Andalusia (PCA–PCE) 908 4.39 –7.81 0 –3 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 761 3.68 New 0 ±0 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 641 3.10 –11.90 0 –4 Independent Group for the Progress of Marbellan People (AIPM) 337 1.63 New 0 ±0 United Candidacy of Workers (CUT) 145 0.70 New 0 ±0 Falangist Movement of Spain (MFE) 93 0.45 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –17.98 0 –5 Independent Citizen Group (ACI) n/a n/a –15.19 0 –4 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 20,675 25 ±0 Valid votes 20,675 100.00 +75 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.75 Votes cast / turnout 20,675 60.22 +11.06 Abstentions 13,656 39.78 –11.06 Registered voters 34,331 Sources ===Morón de la Frontera=== :Population: 27,986 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Morón de la Frontera election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 7,211 58.67 +46.81 13 +11 Independents (INDEP) 2,181 17.74 New 4 +4 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 1,213 9.87 +1.31 2 ±0 Independents (INDEP) 892 7.26 New 1 +1 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 794 6.46 New 1 +1 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –54.97 0 –12 Party of Labour of Andalusia (PTA) n/a n/a –22.34 0 –5 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 12,291 21 ±0 Valid votes 12,291 100.00 +0.83 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.83 Votes cast / turnout 12,291 63.64 –3.84 Abstentions 7,023 36.36 +3.84 Registered voters 19,314 Sources ===Motril=== :Population: 40,506 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Motril election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 13,245 70.88 +42.28 16 +10 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 2,838 15.19 New 3 +3 Independents (INDEP) 1,582 8.47 New 1 +1 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 1,022 5.47 –3.86 1 –1 Party of Labour of Andalusia (PTA) n/a n/a –30.48 0 –7 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –27.06 0 –6 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 18,687 21 ±0 Valid votes 18,687 100.00 +0.78 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.78 Votes cast / turnout 18,687 67.88 +3.37 Abstentions 8,844 32.12 –3.37 Registered voters 27,531 Sources ===Ronda=== :Population: 30,762 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Ronda election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 6,478 50.73 +28.33 11 +6 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 2,953 23.13 New 5 +5 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 2,532 19.83 –8.03 4 –2 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 806 6.31 –3.21 1 –1 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –35.49 0 –8 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 12,769 21 ±0 Valid votes 12,769 100.00 +1.39 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –1.39 Votes cast / turnout 12,769 56.02 –0.80 Abstentions 10,023 43.98 +0.80 Registered voters 22,792 Sources ===San Fernando=== :Population: 72,103 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of San Fernando election results → center|315px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 8,925 35.38 +12.75 9 +3 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 8,679 34.40 +9.45 9 +2 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 5,746 22.78 +19.18 6 +6 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 1,282 5.08 –5.11 1 –1 Liberal Democratic Party (PDL) 594 2.35 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –34.04 0 –10 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 25,226 25 ±0 Valid votes 25,226 100.00 +0.20 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.80 Votes cast / turnout 25,226 52.03 –3.23 Abstentions 23,526 47.97 +3.23 Registered voters 48,482 Sources ===Sanlúcar de Barrameda=== :Population: 48,390 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Sanlúcar de Barrameda election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 9,994 55.05 +13.28 12 +3 Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 4,625 25.48 +15.41 6 +4 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 2,827 15.57 New 3 +3 Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) 490 2.70 New 0 ±0 Independents (INDEP) 217 1.20 New 0 ±0 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –27.60 0 –6 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) n/a n/a –18.13 0 –4 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 18,153 21 ±0 Valid votes 18,153 100.00 +0.72 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.72 Votes cast / turnout 18,153 55.80 –4.72 Abstentions 14,382 44.20 +4.72 Registered voters 32,535 Sources ===Seville=== :Population: 645,817 ===Utrera=== :Population: 38,097 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Utrera election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 11,534 65.72 +14.10 19 +7 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL) 1,909 10.88 New 2 +2 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 780 4.44 –7.74 0 –2 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 326 1.86 –7.66 0 –2 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –20.09 0 –4 Party of Labour of Andalusia (PTA) n/a n/a –6.59 0 –1 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 14,549 21 ±0 Valid votes 14,549 100.00 +0.83 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –0.83 Votes cast / turnout 14,549 56.15 –4.07 Abstentions 11,361 43.85 +4.07 Registered voters 25,910 Sources ===Vélez-Málaga=== :Population: 41,937 ← Summary of the 8 May 1983 City Council of Vélez-Málaga election results → center|300px Parties and alliances Popular vote Seats Votes % ±pp Total +/− Spanish Socialist Workers' Party of Andalusia (PSOE–A) 10,999 60.21 +25.93 14 +6 People's Coalition (AP–PDP–UL)1 3,657 20.02 +14.56 4 +3 Socialist Party of Andalusia–Andalusian Party (PSA–PA) 1,467 8.03 –13.99 1 –4 Communist Party of Spain (PCE) 1,166 6.38 –0.78 1 ±0 Independent Group for the Progress of Malagenean People (AIPM) 980 5.36 New 1 +1 Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) n/a n/a –26.09 0 –6 Blank ballots 0 0.00 ±0.00 Total 18,269 21 ±0 Valid votes 18,269 100.00 +1.74 Invalid votes 0 0.00 –1.74 Votes cast / turnout 18,269 61.98 +6.19 Abstentions 11,206 38.02 –6.19 Registered voters 29,475 Sources ==References== Andalusia 1983 |
Cyber-insurance is a specialty insurance product intended to protect businesses from Internet-based risks, and more generally from risks relating to information technology infrastructure and activities. Risks of this nature are typically excluded from traditional commercial general liability policies or at least are not specifically defined in traditional insurance products. Coverage provided by cyber-insurance policies may include first-party coverage against losses such as data destruction, extortion, theft, hacking, and denial of service attacks; liability coverage indemnifying companies for losses to others caused, for example, by errors and omissions, failure to safeguard data, or defamation; and other benefits including regular security-audit, post-incident public relations and investigative expenses, and criminal reward funds. ==Advantages== Because the cyber-insurance market in many countries is relatively small compared to other insurance products, its overall impact on emerging cyber threats is difficult to quantify. As the impact to people and businesses from cyber threats is also relatively broad when compared to the scope of protection provided by insurance products, insurance companies continue to develop their services. According to a survey, 46% of all breaches have an effect on companies with fewer than 1,000 employees. In this case, strong security measures and cyber liability insurance may be necessary. As insurers payout on cyber-losses, and as cyber threats develop and change, insurance products are increasingly being purchased alongside existing IT security services. Indeed, the underwriting criteria for insurers to offer cyber-insurance products are also early in development, and underwriters are actively partnering with IT security companies to develop their products. As well as directly improving security, cyber-insurance is enormously beneficial in the event of a large-scale security breach. Insurance provides a smooth funding mechanism for recovery from major losses, helping businesses to return to normal and reducing the need for government assistance.BIGS (2017) As a side benefit, may cyber-insurance policies require entities attempting to procure cyber-insurance policies to participate in a IT security audit before the insurance carrier will bind the policy. This will help companies determine their current vulnerabilities and allow the insurance carrier to gauge the risk they are taking on by offering the policy to the entity. By completing the IT security audit the entity procuring the policy will be required, in some cases, to make necessary improvements to their IT security vulnerabilities before the cyber-insurance policy can be procured. This will in-turn help reduce risk of cyber crime against the company procuring cyber- insurance. Finally, insurance allows cyber-security risks to be distributed fairly, with the cost of premiums commensurate with the size of expected loss from such risks. This avoids potentially dangerous concentrations of risk while also preventing free-riding. ==Disadvantages== Information Technology is an inherent facet of virtually all modern businesses, the requirement for a separate product only exists because of a deliberate scoping exercise which has excluded theft and damage associated with modern technologies from the existing product lines. Bruce Schneier has postulated that existing insurance practices tend to follow either the "Flood or Fire" model however Cyber events don't appear to be modeled by either of these event types, this has led to the situation where the scope of Cyber Insurance is further restricted to decrease the risk to the underwriters. Compounding this is a paucity of data relating to actual damage correlated with the type of event, a lack of standards associated with the classification of events, and a lack of evidence associated with the efficacy of "Industry best practices". Insurance relies upon sound actuarial data against a largely static background of risk. Given that these don't exist at present it is unlikely that either the buyers of these products will achieve the value outcomes that they desire. This view of the market is reflected in the current market state where standard exclusions result in a situation where "An insurer could argue they apply to almost any data breach". According to Josephine Wolff, cyber insurance has been "ineffective at curbing cybersecurity losses because it normalizes the payment of online ransoms, whereas the goal of cybersecurity is the opposite—to disincentivize such payments to make ransomware less profitable." ==History == Early works in the 1990s focused on the general merits of cyber-insurance. In the late 1990s, when the business perspective of information security became more prominent, visions of cyber-insurance as a risk management tool were formulated. Although its roots in the 1980s looked promising, battered by events such as Y2K and the 9/11 attacks, the market for cyber-insurance failed to thrive and remained in a niche for unusual demands. Coverage is tightly limited, and clients include SMBs (small and medium businesses) in need of insurance to qualify for tenders, or community banks too small to hedge the risks of their online banking operations. If not the first, at least one of the first, cyber liability policies as we now call them was developed for the Lloyd's of London market in 2000. The policy was spearheaded by Keith Daniels and Rob Hamesfahr then attorneys with the Chicago, IL law firm of Blatt, Hammesfahr & Eaton. Working closely with Ian Hacker, then a Lloyd's underwriter, and Ted Doolittle and Kinsey Carpenter, then brokers with Kinsey Carpenter, a San Francisco, CA insurance broker, the policy provided third- party coverage along with business interruption coverage. In those early days, it was thought that a big risk would be for a company to negligently transmit a virus that could infect other companies' systems who would then bring suit against the original company as well as business interruption. The policy was one of the first, as well, to include first-party and third-party coverages in the same form. While such errors & omissions have likely happened, suits against organizations on this basis have proven to be rare. The focus of forms that have developed since 2000 has been on business interruption, payment of fines and penalties, credit monitoring costs, public relations costs, and the cost of restoring or rebuilding private data, and they continue to expand and evolve today. Also, technology errors & omissions policies are now sold with third-party coverage to organizations, such as programmers and technology installers who could get sued if their advice or product fails to be satisfactory to their clients. Other early entrants to the cyber market included American International Group (AIG) and Chubb. Today, more than 80 companies are competing in the cyber market. Even a 2002 conservative forecast, which predicted a global market for cyber-insurance worth $2.5 billion in 2005, turned out to be five times higher than the size of the market in 2008. Overall, in relative terms, the market for cyber-insurance shrank as the Internet economy grew. In practice, several obstacles have prevented the market for cyber-insurance from achieving maturity; absence of reliable actuarial data to compute insurance premiums, lack of awareness among decision-makers contributing to too little demand, as well as legal and procedural hurdles have been identified in the first generation" of cyber- insurance literature until about 2005. The latter aspect may cause frustration when claiming compensation for damages. Furthermore, entities considering cyber-insurance must undergo a series of often invasive security evaluation procedures, revealing their IT infrastructures and policies. Meanwhile, witnessing thousands of vulnerabilities, millions of attacks, and substantial improvement in defining security standards and computer forensics calls into question the validity of these factors to causally explain the lack of an insurance market. == Types == * Network Security - Insurance for loss derived from a cyber or hacking event. * Theft and fraud. Covers loss of monies (or similar monetary instrument) resulting from the theft of such assets by a malicious actor(s) whose fraudulent activity, primarily the unauthorized access to the policyholder's systems, allows such actor to gain such assets by fraudulent transfer. * Forensic investigation. Covers the legal, technical, or forensic services necessary to assess whether a cyber attack has occurred, to assess the impact of the attack, and to stop an attack. * Business interruption. Covers lost income and related costs where a policyholder is unable to conduct business due to a cyber event or data loss. * Extortion. Provides coverage for the costs associated with the investigation of threats to commit cyber attacks against the policyholder’s systems and for payments to extortionists who threaten to obtain and disclose sensitive information. * Reputation Insurance : Insurance against reputation attacks and cyber defamation. * Computer data loss and restoration. Covers physical damage to, or loss of use of, computer-related assets, including the costs of retrieving and restoring data, hardware, software, or other information destroyed or damaged as the result of a cyber attack. * Data Restoration. Covers expenses related with the restoration or recreation of data that were lost due to security or system failure. ==Current need == The infrastructure, the users, and the services offered on computer networks today are all subject to a wide variety of risks posed by threats that include distributed denial of service attacks, intrusions of various kinds, eavesdropping, hacking, phishing, worms, viruses, spams, etc. In order to counter the risk posed by these threats, network users have traditionally resorted to antivirus and anti-spam software, firewalls, intrusion-detection systems (IDSs), and other add-ons to reduce the likelihood of being affected by threats. In practice, a large industry (companies like Symantec, McAfee, etc.) as well as considerable research efforts are currently centered around developing and deploying tools and techniques to detect threats and anomalies in order to protect the cyber infrastructure and its users from the resulting negative impact of the anomalies. Despite improvements in risk protection techniques over the last decade due to hardware, software, and cryptographic methodologies, it is impossible to achieve perfect/near-perfect cyber-security protection. The impossibility arises due to a number of reasons: * Scarce existence of sound technical solutions. * Difficulty in designing solutions catered to varied intentions behind network attacks. * Misaligned incentives between network users, security product vendors, and regulatory authorities regarding protecting the network. * Network users taking advantage of the positive security effects generated by other users' investments in security, in turn, themselves not investing in security and resulting in the free-riding problem. * Customer lock-in and first-mover effects of vulnerable security products. * Difficulty to measure risks resulting in challenges to designing pertinent risk removal solutions. * The problem of a lemons market, whereby security vendors have no incentive to release robust products in the market. * Liability shell games played by product vendors. * User naiveness in optimally exploiting feature benefits of technical solutions. Given the above-mentioned inevitable barriers to near 100% risk mitigation, the need arises for alternative methods for risk management in cyberspace. To highlight the importance of improving the current state of cyber-security, US President Barack Obama issued a cyber-security executive order in February 2013 that emphasizes the need to reduce cyber-threats and be resilient to them. In this regard, some security researchers in the recent past have identified cyber- insurance as a potential tool for effective risk management. Cyber-insurance is a risk management technique via which network user risks are transferred to an insurance company, in return for a fee, i.e., the insurance premium. Examples of potential cyber-insurers might include ISP, cloud provider, traditional insurance organizations. Proponents of cyber-insurance believe that cyber-insurance would lead to the design of insurance contracts that would shift appropriate amounts of self-defense liability to the clients, thereby making the cyberspace more robust. Here the term ‘self-defense' implies the efforts by a network user to secure their system through technical solutions such as anti-virus and anti-spam software, firewalls, using secure operating systems, etc. Cyber-insurance has also the potential to be a market solution that can align with economic incentives of cyber-insurers, users (individuals/organizations), policymakers, and security software vendors. i.e., the cyber-insurers will earn profit from appropriately pricing premiums, network users will seek to hedge potential losses by jointly buying insurance and investing in self-defense mechanisms, policymakers would ensure the increase in overall network security, and the security software vendors could experience an increase in their product sales via forming alliances with cyber-insurers. A key area to manage risk is to establish what is an acceptable risk for each organization or what is 'reasonable security' for their specific working environment. Practicing 'duty of care' helps protect all interested parties - executives, regulators, judges, the public who can be affected by those risks. The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA) provides practices and principles to help balance compliance, security, and business objectives when developing security controls. Legislation In 2022, Kentucky and Maryland enacted insurance data security legislation based upon the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (“NAIC”) Insurance Data Security Model Law (MDL-668). Maryland's SB 207 takes effect on October 1, 2023. Kentucky's House Bill 474 goes into effect on January 1, 2023. ==Existing issues == Consequently, during 2005, a “second generation" of cyber-insurance literature emerged targeting risk management of current cyber- networks. The authors of such literature link the market failure with fundamental properties of information technology, specially correlated risk information asymmetries between insurers and insureds, and inter-dependencies. Information asymmetry has a significant negative effect on most insurance environments, where typical considerations include inability to distinguish between users of different (high and low risk) types, i.e., the so-called adverse selection problem, as well as users undertaking actions that adversely affect loss probabilities after the insurance contract is signed, i.e., the so-called moral hazard problem. The challenge due to the interdependent and correlated nature of cyber-risks is particular to cyber-insurance and differentiates traditional insurance scenarios (e.g., car or health insurance) from the former. In a large distributed system such as the Internet, risks span a large set of nodes and are correlated. Thus, user investments in security to counter risks generate positive externalities for other users in the network. The aim of cyber-insurance here is to enable individual users to internalize the externalities in the network so that each user optimally invests in security solutions, thereby alleviating moral hazard and improving network security. In traditional insurance scenarios, the risk span is quite small (sometimes it spans only one or two entities) and uncorrelated, thus internalizing the externalities generated by user investments in safety, is much easier. === Ambiguities in terms === FM Global in 2019 conducted a survey of CFOs at companies with over $1 billion in turnover. The survey found that 71% of CFOs believed that their insurance provider would cover "most or all" of the losses their company would suffer in a cyber security attack or crime. Nevertheless, many of those CFOs reported that they expected damages related with cyber attacks that are not covered by typical cyber attack policies. Specifically, 50% of the CFOs mentioned that they anticipated after a cyber attack a devaluation of their company's brand while more than 30% expected a decline in revenue. ===War exclusion clauses=== Like other insurance policies, cyber insurance typically includes a war exclusion clause - explicitly excluding damage from acts of war. While the majority of cyber insurance claims will relate to simple criminal behaviour, increasingly companies are likely to fall victim to cyberwarfare attacks by nation-states or terrorist organizations - whether specifically targeted or simply collateral damage. After the US and UK, governments characterized the NotPetya attack as a Russian military cyber-attack insurers are arguing that they do not cover such events. == Why are Cyber-Insurance and Cyber Re-Insurance Markets Commercially Not Popular Enough? == It is well known from market practice that cyber- insurance markets have not blossomed in terms of injected premium inflow as per its visionary potential. There is a big multi-billion-dollar supply demand gap indicating market failure in an economic sense. While policy and legal studies have had a sound say in why that is the case, it is the field of mathematical modeling research that have formally established the fact on why it is so. Examples of seminal modeling work studying the economic efficiency of non-accumulative cyber-risk covering cyber insurance markets include (i) Lelarge and Bolot, (ii) Pal et al., (iii) Pal et al., (iv) Pal et al., (v) Johnson et al., and (vi) Shetty, et al. These works first show the free-riding behavior of Internet users (primarily users and organizations) without the presence of cyber-insurance, and then study how insurance can reduce free- riding within a network of organizations. The works by Lelarge and Bolot; and Shetty et al. present the benefits of cyber-insurance in incentivizing Internet users to invest appropriately in security. However, their works address restricted market types that only consider independent residual cyber- risks from various user sources arriving to cyber-insurers. Lelarge et al. do not model information asymmetry in their work. Although Shetty et al. prove that cyber-insurance markets are inefficient under conditions of information asymmetry, their results do not generally extend to settings where insured organizations are networked among each other. Johnson et al discuss the role of the joint existence of self-insurance and market insurance on the adoption of the different types of insurance by users, but do not model the network of interdependent organizations. In most recent work, Pal et al in a series of joint articles prove the inefficiency of cyber-insurance markets under conditions of partial information asymmetry and correlated risks and show the existence of efficient markets (both regulated and unregulated) under premium discrimination. Recent work on mathematical cyber-risk modeling to study the market sustainability of covering aggregate cyber-risk by cyber (re-)insurers have been undertaken only by Pal et al. Based on a series of rigorous modeling analysis on the dimensions of economics and statistics. they prove that only in the case of aggregating light-tailed and independently sourced cyber-risks (a practically less probable event) will efficient cyber-insurance markets be sustainable. In all other cases, cyber (re-)insurance markets will exist but will be largely inefficient with symptoms such as low premium injection, market for lemons, high supply demand gap, and few re-insurers. Information asymmetry between the insured and the insurance provider alongside the correlated nature of cyber-risks are the primary reasons for such market inefficiencies. Cunningham, Pfleeger, Pal, Liu et al. , and Liu et al. computationally argue against the existence of sustainable cyber (re-)insurance markets under information asymmetry. The common message out of their study is that IT driven systems have too many vulnerabilities for computers to detect them (thereby eliminating information asymmetry) in practically feasible time - leave alone humans. While Cunningham logically argues for this problem to be Turing Undecidable, Pal et al., and Liu et al. , are the first to formally prove that the problem is NP-Hard and derive an approximation solution to alleviate the information asymmetry problem. The results justify why the cyber (re-)insurance markets have been so sparse over the last decade. ==Availability== As of 2014, 90% of the cyber-insurance premium volume was covering exposure in the United States. Although at least 50 insurance companies have cyber-insurance product offerings, the actual writing is concentrated within a group of five underwriters. Many insurance companies have been hesitant to enter this coverage market, as sound actuarial data for cyber exposure is non-existent. Hampering the development of this actuarial data is inadequate disclosure regarding cyber attacks by those affected. After a significant malware incident in 2017, however, Reckitt Benckiser released information on how much the cyberattack would impact financial performance, leading some analysts to believe the trend is for companies to be more transparent with data from cyber incidents. With cyber insurance premiums expected to grow from around $2 billion in 2015 to an estimated $20 billion or more by 2025, insurers and reinsurers are continuing to refine underwriting requirements. Market immaturity and lack of standardization are two reasons why underwriting cyber products today make it an interesting place to be in the insurance world. Not only do you have an insurance marketplace that’s trying to reach a standard and accommodate the needs of today’s insured, but you also, at the same time, have a rapidly developing exposure landscape and capacity available. ==Pricing== As of 2019, the average cost of cyber liability insurance in the United States was estimated to be $1,501 per year for $1 million in liability coverage, with a $10,000 deductible. The average annual premium for a cyber liability limit of $500,000 with a $5,000 deductible was $1,146, and the average annual premium for a cyber liability limit of $250,000 with a $2,500 deductible was $739. In addition to location, the main drivers of cost for cyber insurance include the type of business, the number of credit/debit card transactions performed, and the storage of sensitive personal information such as date of birth and Social Security numbers. ==References== Category:Internet security Category:Types of insurance |
Claud Schuster, 1st Baron Schuster, (22 August 1869 – 28 June 1956) was a British barrister and civil servant noted for his long tenure as Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office. Born to a Mancunian business family, Schuster was educated at St. George's School, Ascot and Winchester College before matriculating at New College, Oxford in 1888 to read history. After graduation, he joined the Inner Temple with the aim of becoming a barrister, and was called to the Bar in 1895. Practising in Liverpool, Schuster was not noted as a particularly successful barrister, and he joined Her Majesty's Civil Service in 1899 as secretary to the Chief Commissioner of the Local Government Act Commission. After serving as secretary to several more commissions, he was made Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office in 1915. Schuster served in this position for 29 years under ten different Lord Chancellors, and with the contacts obtained thanks to his long tenure and his work outside the Office he became "one of the most influential Permanent Secretaries of the 20th century".Hall (2003) p.x His influence over decisions within the Lord Chancellor's Office and greater Civil Service led to criticism and suspicions that he was a "power behind the throne", which culminated in a verbal attack by the Lord Chief Justice Lord Hewart in 1934 during a session of the House of Lords. Schuster retired in 1944 and was elevated to the peerage. Despite being officially retired he continued to work in government circles, such as with the Allied Commission for Austria and by using his seat in the House of Lords as a way to directly criticise legislation. ==Early life and education== Schuster was born on 22 August 1869 to Frederick Schuster, a manager of the Manchester firm of merchants Schuster, Fulder and Company, and his wife Sophia Wood, the daughter of a lieutenant colonel in the Indian Army.Hall (2003) p.1 The family described themselves as "Unitarian" but were descended from Jews who had converted to Christianity in the mid-1850s and included other notable people such as Sir Arthur Schuster, Sir Felix Schuster, and later Sir George Schuster.Hall (2003) p.2 From the age of seven he was educated at St. George's School, Ascot, one of the most expensive preparatory schools in the country but one known for harsh treatment; it was standard for the headmaster to flog pupils until they bled and force other students and staff to listen to their screams.Hall (2003) p.3 During the school holidays he accompanied his father to Switzerland, where he developed a lifelong love of mountaineering and skiing.Hall (2003) p.4 He was president of the Alpine Club from 1938 to 1940. When he was fourteen he was sent to Winchester College, which was known as both the most academic of the main public schools and also for its discomfort.Hall (2003) p.7 Schuster's time at St George's had prepared him for discomfort, however, and he was noted as being very proud of attending the school. While at Winchester, Schuster played Winchester College football and was occasionally involved in debates; he was not, however, noted as a particularly exceptional pupil.Hall (2003) p.6 He matriculated at New College, Oxford in 1888 and graduated with second-class honours in history in 1892; again he was not noted as a particularly outstanding student, which was attributed to the time he spent enjoying himself rather than studying.Hall (2003) p.8 Despite his lack of academic brilliance he was invited to deliver the Romanes Lecture in 1949, an honour normally only given to the most eminent alumni of Oxford. After graduation, he unsuccessfully tried to become an examination fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.Hall (2003) p.11 ==Bar work and career change== After his failure to become a fellow of All Souls, Schuster joined the Inner Temple and was called to the bar in 1895. He practised in Liverpool and, though he was not noted as a particularly successful barrister, he became Circuit Junior of the Northern Circuit Bar in late 1895, an important position. By this point Schuster was married and required a steady income to support his family, something which the bar was not providing.Hall (2003) p.12 With his love of the English language and the knowledge that he was "good with paper" Schuster decided to join Civil Service, with the intention of becoming a Permanent Secretary. Schuster entered the Civil Service in 1899 and as a qualified lawyer was exempt from the required examinations, something that marked him as "different" from other civil service employees with whom he worked.Hall (2003) p.13 His first post was as secretary to the Chief Commissioner of the Local Government Act Commission, which produced a report leading to the creation of the London County Council. After this he worked as a secretary to the Great Northern Railway and then for the workers' union at London & Smith's Bank Ltd. After his job at the union he was noticed by Robert Morant who employed him as a temporary legal assistant to the Board of Education on the understanding that the job would become permanent, which it did in 1907. In 1911 he was promoted to Principal Assistant Secretary, and after Morant was appointed to the English Commission under the National Insurance Act 1911 Schuster followed him by being appointed Chief Registrar of the Friendly Societies, which granted him a place on the Societies' committee.Hall (2003) p.14 In February 1912 he gave up his position as Chief Registrar to become Secretary (and then legal adviser) to the English Insurance Commission, with the newspapers of the time reporting that he had had "three promotions in two months", a consequence of his high standing with Morant. During this period he was also involved in drafting education bills with Arthur Thring. The commission was "a galaxy of future Whitehall stars",Hall (2003) p.15 and contained many individuals who would later become noted civil servants in their own right, including Morant, Schuster, John Anderson, Warren Fisher and John Bradbury.Hall (2003) p.22 The contacts Schuster made during his time on the committee were instrumental in advancing his career; as a lawyer rather than a dedicated civil servant he was considered an outsider, and the links he made – particularly the friendships he struck up with Fisher and Anderson – helped allay this to some extent.Hall (2003) p.26 He was knighted in 1913 for his services on various committees. ==Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office== In 1915 Sir Kenneth Muir Mackenzie, the Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office, was close to retirement. The Lord Chancellor, Lord Haldane, believed that the duties of the lord chancellorship were too much for one man, and should be divided between a lord chancellor and a minister of justice.Hall (2003) p.44 As such, he looked for a Permanent Secretary who was a qualified lawyer and who could help him set up a Ministry of Justice after the war, appointing Schuster in early 1915. The two did not work together, however, until Haldane became Lord Chancellor for a second time in 1924;Hall (2003) p.45 he was forced to resign several months before Schuster started work on 2 July 1915 after being accused of pro-German sympathies. ===Lords Buckmaster and Findlay (1915–1916, 1916–1919)=== The first Lord Chancellor under whom Schuster served was Lord Buckmaster, who was appointed on 27 May 1915.Hall (2003) p.72 Although most senior government offices at this time were held by wealthy aristocrats, the office of Lord Chancellor stood out as most of the appointees were lawyers from the middle class. Buckmaster was considered "the most plebeian of Lord Chancellors", as he was the son of a farmer and schoolteacher who later became a justice of the peace. Schuster became Permanent Secretary in July, a month after Buckmaster took his post, and immediately tried to make an impression on the workings of the office by modernising it; under the previous Permanent Secretary – who abhorred time-saving mechanisms – shorthand had been forbidden, and the office had owned only one typewriter.Hall (2003) p.43 Buckmaster and Schuster had similar outlooks on World War I, with both their sons serving on the Western Front; Schuster almost certainly helped write the 1915 memorandum Buckmaster circulated to Cabinet arguing that forces should be concentrated on the Western Front rather than spread out in an attempt to assault other areas.Hall (2003) p.74 H. H. Asquith resigned as Prime Minister in December 1916, and as a member of Asquith's cabinet Buckmaster followed him.Hall (2003) p.75 He was replaced by Lord Finlay who was appointed on 12 December.Hall (2003) p.79 Aged 74 when he was appointed, Finlay was the oldest person to be made Lord Chancellor since Lord Campbell, who was 80 when he was appointed in 1859, and his age showed, with his decisions being slow and cautious. Luckily the job of the Lord Chancellor during the last two years of World War I was limited to maintaining the system rather than instituting any changes, and his tenure was uneventful. During this period Schuster was very influential in judicial appointments, phrasing his reports in such a way that Finlay could only logically accept one candidate.Hall (2003) p.80 Although Finlay was not a member of the War Cabinet, which limited his political influence to some extent, he was close friends with Lord Haldane and through Haldane Schuster made contacts with up and coming politicians such as Sir Alan Sykes and Jimmy Thomas; the group was described as "the future Labour Cabinet".Hall (2003) p.82 During Findlay's tenure as Lord Chancellor the question of a Ministry of Justice again came up; while the Law Society was in favour of such a department the Bar Council along with Schuster was opposed to any changes in the status quo, and as the person who prepared a report on the matter for the Lord Chancellor Schuster did his best to express his disapproval of any changes.Hall (2003) p.86 For his continued work in the Civil Service Schuster was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1918. A year later he was made a King's Counsel: an odd honour for a man who no longer practiced as a barrister. ===Lord Birkenhead (1919–1922)=== Finlay had been appointed on the conditions that he would not claim a pension (it was war-time, and there were already four retired Lord Chancellors claiming £5,000 per year pensions) and that he would resign when required.Hall (2003) p.83 Despite this he was surprised when he was dismissed after the 1918 general election, first hearing about it when it was mentioned in the newspapers. His replacement Lord Birkenhead was appointed on 14 January 1919, and was a controversial choice; he was only 46 when appointed and was unpopular with large sections of the Bar as a result; George V himself wrote to the Prime Minister before Birkenhead was appointed and said that "His Majesty does not feel sure that [Birkenhead] has established such a reputation in men's minds as to ensure that the country will welcome him to the second highest position which can be occupied by a subject of the Crown".Hall (2003) p.88 Birkenhead and Schuster established a strong partnership, and Schuster played a part in instituting Birkenhead's legal reforms, particularly those relating to the law of real property.Hall (2003) p.104 Real property law in the English and Welsh legal system had evolved from feudalism, and was an immensely complex system understood by only a small number of lawyers.Hall (2003) p.105 In particular peculiarities meant that land owned by beneficiaries could be sold without the agreement of all the beneficiaries involved, something partially rectified by the Settled Land Act 1882 and the Land Transfer Act 1897. Despite these statutes reform in this area was still needed, and Lord Haldane presented reform bills to parliament in 1913, 1914 and 1915 with no real progress thanks to the opposition of the Law Society.Hall (2003) p.106 In March 1917 a Reconstruction Subcommittee under Sir Leslie Scott was created to consider land policy after the First World War, and Schuster (who had devilled for Scott when working as a barrister in Liverpool) was appointed as a member. The subcommittee decided that the law should be changed to merge real and personal property law, and that outdated aspects of land law such as copyholds and gavelkind should be eliminated. When Birkenhead became Lord Chancellor in 1919 he inherited the problem of English property law, and immediately instructed Schuster to prepare the department for forcing a bill through Parliament on the matter.Hall (2003) p.107 Although there was general agreement that property law should be reformed the process was made more difficult by the various vested interests involved; the Law Society, for example, was opposed to the changes because it would reduce the fees dedicated property solicitors could earn by making it possible for more solicitors to understand that area of law and become involved. After intense negotiation Schuster and the Law Society representative agreed that a "period of probation" lasting three years would be included in the bill, which Charles Brickdale the Chief Registrar of HM Land Registry considered "a very good bargain".Hall (2003) p.108 When the bill finally got to the House of Commons it met additional opposition from Members of Parliament who were also members of the Law Society and Bar Council, as well as Lord Cave who later became Lord Chancellor.Hall (2003) p.109 After further negotiations the bill was passed on 8 June 1922, with Birkenhead taking the credit, and it became the Law of Property Act 1922.Hall (2003) p.110 Schuster also assisted Birkenhead in his attempts to reform the administration of the court system, particularly in his preparation of the Supreme Court of Judicature (Consolidation) Act 1925.Hall (2003) p.111 A committee was also set up to look into the reform of the Supreme Court of Judicature, the County Courts and the Probate Services, divided into a subcommittee for each institution. Schuster served as a member of the committee, with his primary goal being to end the patronage and nepotism that filled the judicial system.Hall (2003) p.112 Although the Supreme Court was resistant the committee did succeed in making some changes, such as introducing mandatory retirement ages for masters and clerks; they were unable, however, to end the patronage. Schuster also attempted to reform the County Courts by increasing their jurisdiction, and a Committee on County Court Procedure (known as the Swift Committee after its chairman Rigby Swift) was set up in 1920, with Schuster serving as a member.Hall (2003) p.113 The commission concluded that the Treasury had mismanaged the County Courts, and on 1 August 1922 the Lord Chancellor's Office instead became responsible for the courts, with Schuster becoming Accounting Officer. The committee's final report was used as the basis for the County Courts Act 1924, which did much to correct the problems with the County Courts. Schuster was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the 1920 New Year War Honours. ===Lords Cave and Haldane (1922–1924, 1924)=== By the summer of 1922 the coalition government Birkenhead was a member of began to splinter, and when it finally collapsed Birkenhead was forced to resign on 25 October 1922. His replacement was Lord Cave, a member of the new Conservative government who was appointed on 27 October 1922. The Conservative government under Stanley Baldwin soon ran into trouble due to his desire to introduce protectionist tariffs to protect British jobs.Hall (2003) p.140 Baldwin called an early general election in December 1923 to serve as a referendum on the subject, and although the Conservatives remained the largest party they did not have enough Members of Parliament to claim a parliamentary majority. At the opening of the new Parliament in January 1924 the party was defeated in a vote of no confidence, and the King instead invited the Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald to form a government. This caused various constitutional problems; traditionally every member of a cabinet, including the Prime Minister, must be a Privy Councillor. MacDonald was not a Privy Councillor, and therefore could not be made Prime Minister.Hall (2003) p.141 The king asked Lord Cave for a way around this problem, and as an expert on constitutional issues Schuster helped draft the response. In the end it was determined that MacDonald would be sworn in as a Privy Councillor and then invited to form a government. As a member of the old Conservative government Cave left office on 23 January 1924.Hall (2003) p.150 He was replaced by Lord Haldane, who was serving for a second time and was sworn in on 25 January. Haldane was in favour of the creation of a Ministry of Justice, and although Schuster was privately against it he suggested that he would have accepted the responsibilities of such a Ministry on the condition that it remained under his control as the Lord Chancellor's Office was.Hall (2003) p.151 Haldane was ill, however, and the Labour government lasted only ten months thanks to the publishing of the Zinoviev Letter, and no large-scale reforms such as the creation of a Ministry of Justice were ever pushed through.Hall (2003) p.154 ===Lords Cave and Hailsham (1924–1928, 1928–1929)=== After the collapse of the Labour government in October 1924 the Conservative Party returned to power, and Lord Cave became Lord Chancellor for a second time on 7 November. Spending four and a half years in office Cave had time to push through some significant reforms, including the Law of Property Act 1925 based on the 1922 act Schuster had been involved in. By 1925 Schuster had spent a decade as Permanent Secretary and was described as a "Whitehall Mandarin", his contacts and long service allowing him greater influence over policy decisions than a Permanent Secretary normally had.Hall (2003) p.146 The expansion of the Lord Chancellor's Office he had overseen also gave him greater opportunities to delegate to his subordinates, allowing him more time to spend on committees and inquiries directly influencing the way the government worked. As a result of his power and influence he grew to dislike being opposed in any way, and this led to conflict between him and other heads of department. As a reward for his continued service with the Lord Chancellor's Office he was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 1927 New Year Honours. Lord Cave resigned on 28 March 1928 due to ill health, and died the day after.Hall (2003) p.155 His replacement was Lord Hailsham, who was appointed by Stanley Baldwin on 29 March 1928. Hailsham's first tenure as Lord Chancellor lasted barely a year and highlighted the fact that despite his abilities (many thought that if he had not accepted the offer to become Lord Chancellor he would likely have become Prime Minister) he was not a particularly innovative Lord Chancellor.Hall (2003) p.156 For a short period in August 1928 he acted as Prime Minister (Baldwin was on holiday in Aix-en-Provence) with Schuster as his chief adviser, but he rarely went to 10 Downing Street and nothing eventful happened during his time in charge. ===Lord Sankey (1929–1935)=== Lord Hailsham left office in mid-1929 with the fall of the Conservative government in 1929. His replacement was a member of the newly elected Labour Government, Lord Sankey, who was appointed on 8 June 1929. Sankey was appointed on Schuster's advice, and served longer with him than any other Lord Chancellor.Hall (2003) p.165 Sankey was a "reforming" Lord Chancellor, and as part of one of his first reforms Schuster helped him draft and pass the Statute of Westminster in 1931. During this period the question of Judge's salaries also arose, and almost caused a constitutional crisis.Hall (2003) p.178 As Permanent Secretary Schuster was tasked with ensuring that the courts ran correctly, and although the Judges were independent they were paid by the Lord Chancellor's Office.Hall (2003) p.179 Although a Select Committee in 1878 had recommended that County Court Judges be paid £2,000 a year this increase had still failed to appear due to the economic hardships caused by the First World War. The increase was eventually implemented in 1937, but in the meantime High Court Judges had also been lobbying for an increase, as their pay had stayed at the same level since 1832. Schuster and Warren Fisher had produced a report recommending a pay increase in 1920, but again the economic hardship prevented their plan from being implemented. The 1931 economic crash led to the government passing the National Recovery Act 1931, which reduced the salaries of High Court judges by 20%. The judges, who had been expecting a pay raise instead, were shocked, and six High Court judges threatened to resign, with Mr Justice McCardie accusing Schuster of having his salary almost doubled in the last twelve years. The Prime Minister and Sankey met to write a letter to the judges demanding that they give in; as soon as Schuster heard about this he rushed to Whitehall to "stop the madness".Hall (2003) p.181 The protests from the judges increased through 1931 and 1932, with several judges including Mr Justice Clauson and Mr Justice Luxmoore threatening to sue the government. After negotiations between Schuster and the judges failed to bring an end to the crisis the section of the act cutting judges' pay was quietly dropped. Soon after becoming Permanent Secretary Schuster had decided that his aim should be to make sure that the entire court system was under the control of his office, rather than partially under his control and partially under the control of the Treasury as it had been when he started.Hall (2003) p.190 The 1931 Royal Commission on the Civil Service recommended that all Civil Service departments take a more business-like approach to their work, and spurred Schuster into making a further attempt to reorganise and reform the Lord Chancellor's Office. As such he persuaded Sankey to set up a Departmental Committee on the Business of the Courts, with Lord Hanworth (one of Schuster's friends) chairing the committee and Schuster himself sitting as a member. As he had under Lord Birkenhead Schuster attempted to reform the County Courts. He partially succeeded in doing when his recommendations were included in the Administration of Justice [Appeals] Act 1934 which sent appeals from the county courts straight to the Court of Appeal rather than the Divisional Courts.Hall (2003) p.191 He also attempted to have the number of jury trials in civil cases reduced, something which Hanworth supported but which was blocked by the King's Bench Division. Schuster also took part in law reform after Lord Sankey decided to set up a Law Revision Committee in January 1934 which consisted of Sankey, Schuster, four judges, five barristers, one solicitor and two academic lawyers.Hall (2003) p.192 The committee produced 86 reports from 1934 to 1939 on a variety of subjects, and many of their recommendations were made into legislation after negotiations with the Home Office. Although the Law Revision Committee fell into disuse after this it was re-formed as a permanent Law Commission in 1965. In 1934 Schuster was subject to a public attack by Lord Hewart, the Lord Chief Justice.Hall (2003) p.216 On 7 December 1934 his clerk found a bill amongst Hewart's parliamentary papers with a clause that allowed the Lord Chancellor to appoint any Lord Justice of Appeal as vice-president of the Court of Appeal, a right traditionally held by the Lord Chief Justice. Hewart immediately made plans to attend the House of Lords, where Lord Sankey was expected to move the second reading of the bill in question.Hall (2003) p.218 Immediately after second reading Hewart rose and began a speech that was "as violent an attack as has ever been made in the Lords".Hall (2003) p.219 In it he criticised the officials of the Lord Chancellor's Department (which to listeners clearly meant Schuster specifically) and insinuated that the bill was part of a conspiracy to move power from the judiciary to the politicians (and thus the civil service) and create a Ministry of Justice. The speech provoked uproar in the house; a public quarrel between senior judges and civil servants had not happened in centuries, especially in such a traditionally calm and collected place. Lord Reading, himself a former Lord Chief Justice, adjourned the debate, and the following Friday Lord Hailsham, at the time the Leader of the House of Lords, made a defence of Schuster, saying that "I can show that this is an absolute delusion [and] that there was no such scheme ever hatched".Hall (2003) p.224 He showed that the proposal of a Ministry of Justice had originated in 1836, long before Schuster became Permanent Secretary, and in addition that the report Schuster had helped prepare for Sankey was clearly biased against the creation of such a Ministry as he himself was opposed to it. He went on to praise Schuster as "the author and instigator of many great reforms", and along with a similar speech by Lord Sankey and an amendment to the offending bill this helped appease Hewart. ===Lords Hailsham and Maugham (1935–1938, 1938–1939)=== Lord Hailsham returned to power on 7 June 1935 after the election of a new government, and by this point his health was beginning to decline, limiting his effectiveness.Hall (2003) p.157 The Second Italo- Abyssinian War alerted the Civil Service and MI5 to the ambitions of Italy and Germany, and the Committee of Imperial Defence was asked to review the defence legislation that had been used in the First World War and present it to Warren Fisher. Fisher was horrified at how outdated the laws were, and with the permission of the Cabinet organised a War Legislation Committee under Schuster to draft a new code of defence regulations.Hall (2003) p.159 Norman Brook, later head of the Civil Service, served as secretary, and the committee was described as "a model piece of organisation" thanks to the work of Schuster as chairman. The regulations drafted by the committee were eventually made into law after the passing of the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939. Lord Hailsham left his position in 1938 due to his failing health, and was replaced by Lord Maugham, who was appointed on 15 March. His appointment was done on Schuster's advice and was considered quite a surprise as he had no real political experience; even Maugham himself admitted he had not expected to be offered the job.Hall (2003) p.235 Schuster and Maugham had a difficult relationship, especially after the start of the Second World War in 1939, due to their differing political opinions.Hall (2003) p.237 Schuster did not play an active part in policy decisions in this period, partially because of his disagreements with Maugham and partially because Maugham preferred to work on legislation and policy changes himself.Hall (2003) p.236 Schuster later said that he got on with all of his Lord Chancellors except one—Maugham. ===Lords Caldecote and Simon (1939–1940, 1940–1945)=== Lord Maugham resigned on 3 September 1939, giving his failing health as a reason (he was 73 when he left the post), and he was replaced by Lord Caldecote a day later. Caldecote only held the office for eight months, but during this period spent a large amount of time preparing legislation for the Second World War.Hall (2003) p.240 Putting the country on a war footing would impact on the ability of people to fulfil their civil obligations if, for example, they were conscripted, and Schuster was made chairman of a Cabinet subcommittee "to consider the problems arising from the inability of persons, owing to war conditions, to fulfil their contractual and other obligations, and in particular to consider the complaints already made to MPs and government departments".Hall (2003) p.241 The subcommittee made six reports and their recommendations were eventually made into the Liabilities (Wartime Adjustment) Acts of 1941 and 1944. Schuster also led the committee that drafted the USA (Visiting Forces) Bill that provided that any criminal proceedings in relation to the behaviour of US soldiers stationed in Britain would be led by the US military authorities rather than the British government. Lord Caldecote was forced to leave his position after only 8 months due to the fall of Neville Chamberlain's government, of which he was a part. He was replaced by Lord Simon, who took up his position on 12 May 1940.Hall (2003) p.243 Simon frequently delegated to Schuster and accepted his advice on judicial appointments, such as that of Tom Denning to the High Court in 1944.Hall (2003) p.244 Schuster also had influence in committee appointments; when Simon was asked to select a chairman for the Committee on Reconstruction Priorities he delegated to Schuster, who chose Sir Walter Monckton.Hall (2003) p.245 ==Retirement== Schuster retired in 1944, and on 22 June of that year he was raised to the peerage as Baron Schuster, of Cerne in the County of Dorset.Hall (2003) p.253 By the time he retired Schuster had served as Permanent Secretary for 29 years under 10 Lord Chancellors, records that have not yet been broken. He also served as High Sheriff of Dorset in 1941. In retirement he undertook work for the Allied Commission for Austria and "tackled the unexpected with the zest of a young man" despite being 75.Hall (2003) p.257 He returned to Britain in 1946.Hall (2003) p.258 He served as Treasurer of the Inner Temple in 1947, and in 1948 and 1949 took his seat in the House of Lords to voice his opinions on legislation, something he had previously been unable to do publicly due to Civil Service neutrality.Hall (2003) p.259 He participated in debates over the Criminal Justice Act 1948 and Criminal Justice Act 1949, and was noted for being polite to the point of obsequiousness.Hall (2003) p.260 He gave the Romanes Lecture in 1949 on the subject of "Mountaineering" and continued to play an active part in public life, helping reconstruct the Inner Temple after it was bombed in the Second World War. On 27 June 1956 he fell ill at an old Wykehamist dinner and was taken to Charing Cross Hospital, where he died the next morning. ==Personal life== Schuster met William Walter Merry when he was Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford and the two became friends due to their shared love of mountaineering. Through him he met Merry's daughter, Elizabeth, whom he married in 1896.Hall (2003) p.9 They had two children: a son, Christopher John Claud Schuster, in 1899 and a daughter, Elizabeth Alice Schuster, in 1902, before Elizabeth Merry's death in 1936.Hall (2003) p.xviiHall (2003) p.10 Christopher also attended Winchester College and was killed in 1918 on the Western Front, and Elizabeth later married Theodore Turner, a King's Counsel, before dying in 1983. ==Arms== ==References== ==Bibliography== * Category:1869 births Category:1956 deaths Category:Alumni of New College, Oxford Category:British barristers Category:British King's Counsel Category:Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Category:Members of the Inner Temple Category:People educated at Winchester College Category:Permanent Secretaries to the Lord Chancellor's Office Category:Private secretaries in the British Civil Service Category:Presidents of the Alpine Club (UK) Category:20th-century King's Counsel Category:High Sheriffs of Dorset Category:People educated at St. George's School, Ascot Category:Barons created by George VI |
Michael Cretu (, ; born 18 May 1957) is a Romanian-German musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer. He gained worldwide fame as the founder and musician behind the musical project Enigma, which he formed in 1990. Cretu began a music career in 1976 as a solo artist and released numerous studio albums as well as writing and producing albums for his then-wife, German pop singer Sandra. He also worked with artists through the 1980s, including Peter Cornelius, Hubert Kah, and Mike Oldfield. Cretu was sometimes identified as "Curly" or "Curly M.C.", in reference to his curly hair and creț meaning "curly" in Romanian. Cretu scored an unexpected worldwide commercial hit with the debut Enigma album MCMXC a.D. (1990), helped by its lead single, "Sadeness (Part I)". Cretu continues to produce Enigma albums and singles; the most recent is The Fall of a Rebel Angel (2016), its eighth overall. Enigma has sold an estimated 70 million albums worldwide, Cretu's management company Crocodile-Music stated that Cretu's produced recordings have sold 100 million copies worldwide. ==Early life== Cretu was born on 18 May 1957 in Bucharest, Romanian People's Republic, to a Romanian father and Austrian mother. In 1965, he studied the piano and classical music at Colegiul Tehnic Nr. 2 in Bucharest, followed by further study in Paris for five months in 1968."Enigma Michael Creţu: întalnire cu omul invizibil" , Evenimentul Zilei, 14 October 2008 Around this time, Cretu wished to pursue a career in pop music after listening to "Golden Slumbers" on Abbey Road (1969) by The Beatles, calling the song "beautiful". After he informed his mother, Cretu recalled: "She goes, 'Aaargh! Disaster! Do you want to end up starving?'" In 1975, Cretu relocated to Bad Homburg, Germany and studied at the Academy of Music in Frankfurt, where he graduated with a degree in musical composition in 1978. Cretu went on to speak four languages. ==Career== ===1976–1988: Solo career, producer, and early bands=== After graduating from the Academy of Music, Cretu remained in Germany and took up work as a session musician. Among Cretu's first jobs was being taken on as keyboardist and producer for German recording artist Frank Farian, and playing keyboards on "Rivers of Babylon" by Boney M. In 1981, Cretu co-formed the German new wave band Moti Special with other session players. Their debut album Motivation (1985) contained the single "Cold Days, Hot Nights" which became a hit around Europe. Cretu left the group before they released their second album in 1990. Cretu's first solo album was released in 1979, titled Moon, Light & Flowers. It contains the singles "Shadows Over My Head" and "Wild River" released in 1978, and "Moonlight Flower" and "Love Me" (the latter two singles became popular hits in the Philippines) from 1979. His second album, Legionäre, was released in 1983 and features German lyrics sung by him. Cretu's third solo album was titled Die Chinesische Mauer and was released in 1985. The literal English translation is The Chinese Wall. As with the second album, it features German lyrics sung by Cretu and is co-produced by Armand Volker. This album was also released as a separate album with English-language lyrics and a different track listing under the name The Invisible Man. Several of the tracks on The Invisible Man were edited slightly and, therefore, had different lengths than the German-language versions on Die Chinesische Mauer. This featured the song "Samurai", which became a hit. In 1985, Cretu produced, arranged, and played the keyboards, drums, and programming on The Long Play (1985), the first studio album from German pop singer Sandra. The two began a relationship, and were married in 1988. In the 1980s, Cretu took over production for the pop quartet Hubert Kah and started writing songs with the band leader Hubert Kemmler, achieving a number of hits. Among his other work, Cretu was also one of the producers of Mike Oldfield's 1987 album Islands and the producer of Peter Schilling's 1989 The Different Story (World of Lust and Crime) album. In 1992, Cretu worked with Peter Cornelius on Return to Innocence, to provide the guitar riffs. For the third album, Cretu teamed up with Jens Gad to work together on Le Roi Est Mort, Vive Le Roi! and launched in 1998 a new trance project Trance Atlantic Air Waves and the album The Energy of Sound. He owned the A.R.T. Studios in Ibiza before moving to a new mansion in the Ibiza hills. His former house, near Sant Antoni de Portmany on the western coast of Ibiza, was a Moroccan-style mansion that was designed and built by Bernd Steber and Gunter Wagner in more than nine years. It also featured a new recording studio. The Spanish High Court deemed the house to have been built illegally and in infringement of Spanish environmental regulations which led to the €18 million villa being razed in May 2009. ===1988–present: Enigma=== Cretu was encouraged to pursue a solo project by Oldfield, who was impressed by his studio production skills and musical ideas. This led to the creation of his musical project Enigma, which Cretu said was born from the idea of making music that he himself liked, while bringing in a sense of mysticism. The formation of Enigma involved Fabrice Cuitad, under the alias of David Fairstein, and Frank Peterson. The trio worked together to create their groundbreaking debut single "Sadeness (Part I)", which became a surprise international hit. MCMXC a.D., the album, which was released in 1990, was hugely successful. Cretu was not surprised by the album's unexpected success, as he recalled telling his wife before its release, "This will be a huge hit or nothing at all". "Cretu's style of mixing a variety of musical genres, samples and sounds was very unusual to the ears of the listening public at the time, and led to him being described as an "alchemist in sound". The second album, The Cross of Changes, was released in 1993. Peterson had disagreements with Cretu by the time of recording and left the project in 1991. Cretu changed Enigma's direction from Gregorian chants to tribal chants for its second album, culminating in its second international hit single "Return to Innocence". Cretu purposefully reduced the use of Gregorian chants as numerous artists had started to use them in their music, causing "an avalanche of bad copies", but later regarded it as a compliment. Cretu was approached by Paramount Pictures to write the soundtrack of the film Sliver and he came up with another 1993 single "Carly's Song" after the main female character's name. In 1996 Enigma's third album Le Roi est mort, vive le Roi! was released. Stylistically, it sounded like a combination of the first and second albums. It did not achieve the same level of success as them, but sold over 1 million copies in the United States and received a Gold certificate in the United Kingdom nonetheless. In 1999 Cretu steered the project in another direction by using samples of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana for the fourth album The Screen Behind the Mirror, released in 2000. Andru Donalds and Ruth-Ann Boyle first appeared as features on this Enigma project. Although Jens Gad had been working with Cretu on the earlier albums, this was the first time that he had been given actual credits. In 2001, Cretu released two Enigma compilation albums: Love Sensuality Devotion: The Greatest Hits and Love Sensuality Devotion: The Remix Collection that include credits to ATB. By this time, Enigma has clocked close to an estimated 30 million sales worldwide. Cretu continued to record Enigma albums, releasing Voyageur in 2003. Familiar sounds of the Shakuhachi flute, tribal or Gregorian chants were replaced with more commercially-friendly tunes and beat. In March 2006, a new single called "Hello and Welcome" was released in anticipation of another album, A Posteriori. A Posteriori is the sixth Enigma studio album. It was released on 22 September 2006. Seven Lives Many Faces is the seventh Enigma studio album. It was released on 19 September 2008. The Fall of a Rebel Angel was released on 11 November 2016. ==Personal life== Cretu married Sandra on 7 January 1988; together they have twin sons who were born in July 1995. They lived in Ibiza, Spain in a home that also housed A.R.T. Studios, where the Enigma albums were recorded. In November 2007, the couple divorced. The Ibiza home was bulldozed after Cretu lost a legal battle in which he did not obtain planning permission to renovate and build on the site. After the divorce, Cretu remarried. He now lives in Munich. Cretu became known as an artist who kept a low profile, giving few interviews and avoiding concert tours. ==Discography== === Solo albums=== * 1979 – Moon, Light & Flowers (re-released in Germany in 1994 as: Ausgewählte Goldstücke) * 1983 – Legionäre (English edition: Legionnaires) * 1985 – Die Chinesische Mauer (English edition: The Invisible Man) ===Solo singles=== * 1978 – "Shadows Over My Head" * 1978 – "Wild River" * 1979 – "Moonlight Flower" * 1979 – "Love Me" * 1983 – "Total Normal" * 1983 – "Zeitlose Reise" * 1983 – "Der Planet der verlorenen Zeit" * 1983 – "Today, Today" * 1984 – "Schwarzer Engel" * 1985 – "Carte Blanche" * 1985 – "Die Chinesische Mauer" * 1985 – "Samurai" (German Version)" * 1985 – "Samurai (Did You Ever Dream)" (English Version) [#3 Austria, No. 2 Switzerland, No. 4 Sweden, No. 1 Greece, No. 4 Italy, No. 12 Germany] * 1985 – "Silver Water" * 1986 – "Gambit" * 1987 – "School's Out" (Cretu & Thiers) * 1987 – "When Love Is the Missing Word" (Cretu & Thiers) * 1988 – "Don't Say You Love Me (Let Me Feel It)" (Cretu & Thiers) * 1988 – "Captain Right" (Cretu & Thiers) * 1992 – "Rettungsringe sterben aus" (Cretu & Peter Cornelius) * 1992 – "Nur die Hoffnung nicht" (Cretu & Peter Cornelius) ===Collaborations and productions=== * 1980 – Topas; "Topas" * 1981 – Peter Kent; "Happy Weekend" * 1982 – Severine * 1983 – Mireille Mathieu; "Ein neuer Morgen" * 1983 – Mary and Gordy * 1983 – Peter Cornelius; "Fata Morgana" * 1984 – Hubert Kah; "Goldene Zeiten" * 1986 – Hubert Kah; Tensongs * 1986 – Avenue; "Imagination" * 1985 – Moti Special; Motivation * 1987 – Mike Oldfield; Islands * 1987 – Inker & Hamilton; Dancing Into Danger * 1987 – Cretu And Thiers; School's Out * 1988 – Cretu And Thiers; Belle Epoque * 1989 – Hubert Kah; "Sound of My Heart" * 1989 – Sylvie Vartan; "Confidanses" * 1989 – Peter Schilling; The Different Story (World of Lust and Crime) * 1992 – Peter Cornelius and Cretu; Peter Cornelius and Cretu * 1993 – Maggie Reilly; "Midnight Sun" * 1996 – Kurt Maloo; The Captain of Her Heart (Michael Cretu Mixes) * 1998 – Trance Atlantic Air Waves; The Energy of Sound * 1999 – Andru Donalds; "Snowin' Under My Skin" * 2001 – Andru Donalds; "Let's Talk About It" * 2007 – Ruth-Ann Boyle; "What About Us" ===Sandra=== Cretu worked as writer, producer and background vocalist for Sandra's albums: * 1985: The Long Play [#12 Germany, No. 8 Norway, No. 2 Sweden, No. 18 Austria, No. 4 Switzerland] * 1986: Mirrors [#16 Germany, No. 14 Norway, No. 40 Sweden, No. 13 Switzerland] * 1987: Ten on One [#19 Germany, No. 28 Austria, No. 14 Switzerland] * 1988: Into a Secret Land [#14 Germany, No. 18 Norway, No. 22 Sweden, No. 13 Austria, No. 9 Switzerland] * 1988: Everlasting Love * 1990: Paintings in Yellow [#4 Germany No. 30 Sweden, No. 14 Austria, No. 8 Switzerland] * 1992: Close to Seven [#7 Germany, No. 20 Norway, No. 27 Sweden, No. 26 Austria, No. 13 Switzerland] * 1992: 18 Greatest Hits [#10 Germany, No. 7 France, No. 36 Sweden, No. 27 Switzerland No. 1 Finland] * 1995: Fading Shades [#42 Germany, No. 37 Switzerland] * 1999: My Favourites [#16 Germany, No. 15 Norway, No. 43 Switzerland] * 2002: The Wheel of Time [#8 Germany, No. 63 Austria, No. 68 Switzerland] ==References== ==External links== *The Official Enigma website (international) * * * Category:1957 births Category:German electronic musicians Category:German new wave musicians Category:Romanian electronic musicians Category:Enigma (German band) members Category:German people of Austrian descent Category:German people of Romanian descent Category:German record producers Category:Living people Category:Virgin Records artists Category:Polydor Records artists Category:East West Records artists Category:Musicians from Bucharest Category:Romanian expatriates in West Germany Category:Romanian pianists Category:Romanian Roman Catholics Category:Romanian emigrants to West Germany Category:Romanian people of Austrian descent |
Corpus separatum (Latin for "separated body") was the internationalization proposal for Jerusalem and its surrounding area as part of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly with a two-thirds majority in November 1947. According to the Partition Plan, the city of Jerusalem would be brought under international governance, conferring it a special status due to its shared importance for the Abrahamic religions. The corpus separatum was one of the main issues of the Lausanne Conference of 1949, besides the borders of Israel and the question of the Palestinian right of return. The Partition Plan was not implemented, being firstly rejected by Palestinian and other Arab leaders and then overtaken by the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, which left Jerusalem split between Israel (West Jerusalem) and Jordan (East Jerusalem). Presently, there is generally wide international support for the view that Jerusalem should be a dual capital, with an even split between Israel and the State of Palestine,UNGA, 29 November 2012 Resolution 67/19. Status of Palestine in the United Nations (doc.nr. A/RES/67/19 d.d. 04-12-2012)European Parliament, 5 July 2012, Resolution 2012/2694(RSP) although exact positions are divided. == Origin of the concept == The origins of the concept of corpus separatum or an international city for Jerusalem has its origins in the Vatican's long-held position on Jerusalem and its concern for the protection of the Christian holy places in the Holy Land, which predates the British Mandate. The Vatican's historic claims and interests, as well as those of Italy and France were based on the former Protectorate of the Holy See and the French Protectorate of Jerusalem. ==Protection of non-Jewish rights== The Balfour Declaration, which expressed British support for the plan for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, also contained a proviso: :“it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine“. The Balfour Declaration, as well as the proviso, were incorporated in article 95 of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920) and in the Mandate for Palestine (1923). Besides safeguarding the obvious interests of the non-Jewish inhabitants in Palestine, the claims of the Vatican and European powers were claimed to be covered by these provisos. These powers had officially lost all capitulation rights in the region by article 28 of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). The Palestinian Mandate also provided in articles 13 and 14 for an international commission to resolve competing claims on the holy places, but Britain never gave any effect to these articles. ==Negotiations towards UN Partition Plan== During the negotiations in 1947 of proposals for a resolution for peace in Mandate Palestine, the Vatican, Italy and France revived their historic claims over the Christian holy places that they had lost in 1914 but expressed them as a call for a special international regime for the city of Jerusalem. The Vatican supported UN Resolution 181, which called for the “internationalisation” of Jerusalem. In the encyclical In multiplicibus curis (1948), Pope Pius XII expressed his wish that the holy places have “an international character”. The 15 May 1948 issue of L’Osservatore Romano, the official newspaper of the Holy See, wrote that “modern Zionism is not the true heir to the Israel of the Bible, but a secular state…. Therefore the Holy Land and its sacred places belong to Christianity, which is the true Israel.” The Vatican would scrupulously avoid recognition of Israel and even any use of the name for decades after Israel’s establishment. The State of Israel & the Universal Church, Seeking a Theology of the Holy Land, by Massimo Faggioli, May 3, 2018. The Vatican's position in 1947 culminated in the incorporation of the corpus separatum status for Jerusalem in the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and is believed to have influenced Catholic countries, especially in Latin America, to vote in favour of the partition plan. In 1948, this proposal was repeated in UN General Assembly Resolution 194, which again called for Jerusalem to be an international city, under United Nations supervision. Pius XII repeated his support for internationalisation in the 1949 encyclical Redemptoris nostri cruciatus. The call for internationalisation was repeated by Pope John XXIII. In December 1967, after the Six Day War, Pope Paul VI changed the Vatican’s position, now calling for a “special statute, internationally guaranteed” for Jerusalem and the holy places, rather than internationalisation, while still not making any reference to Israel, and the revised position of “international guarantees“ was followed by John Paul II and Benedict XVI. The Vatican reiterated this position in 2012, recognizing Jerusalem's "identity and sacred character" and calling for freedom of access to the city's holy places to be protected by "an internationally guaranteed special statute". After the US recognized Jerusalem as Israel's capital in December 2017, Pope Francis expressed the Vatican's position: "I wish to make a heartfelt appeal to ensure that everyone is committed to respecting the status quo of the city, in accordance with the relevant resolutions of the United Nations." ==The corpus separatum in Resolutions 181 and 194== Because of its many holy places and its association with three world religions, Jerusalem had international importance. The United Nations wanted to preserve this status after the termination of the British Mandate and guarantee its accessibility. Therefore, the General Assembly proposed a corpus separatum, as described in Resolution 181. It was to be "under a special international regime and shall be administered by the United Nations". The administering body would be the United Nations Trusteeship Council, one of the five UN "Charter" organs. (See Resolution 181, Part III (A).) The corpus separatum covered a rather wide area. The Arabs actually wanted to restore the former status as an open city under Arab sovereignty, but eventually supported the corpus separatum.UN Committee on Jerusalem, Meeting between the Committee on Jerusalem and the delegations of the Arab states, 20 June 1949 (doc.nr. A/AC.25/Com.Jer./SR.33) Israel rejected the plan and supported merely a limited international regime.Letter dated 31 May 1949, addressed by Mr. Walter Eytan, Head of the Delegation of Israel (doc.nr. A/AC.25/Com.Jer/9 d.d. 01-06-1949)UNCCP, 5 April 1949, second progress report (doc.nr. A/838 d.d.19-04-1949), see par. 28. In May 1948, Israel told the Security Council that it regarded Jerusalem outside its territory,UNGA, 22 May 1948, Replies of Provisional Government of Israel to Security Council questionnaire (doc.nr. S/766) but now it claimed sovereignty over Jerusalem except the Holy Places. ===Resolution 181=== Corpus separatum was initially proposed in UN General Assembly Resolution 181 (II) of 29 November 1947, commonly referred to as the UN Partition Plan. It provided that: :"Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem ... shall come into existence in Palestine two months after the evacuation of the armed forces of the mandatory Power has been completed but in any case not later than 1 October 1948". All the residents would automatically become "citizens of the City of Jerusalem", unless they would opt for citizenship of the Arab or Jewish State. ===Failure of the plan=== The Partition Plan was not implemented on the ground. The British did not take any measures to establish the international regime and left Jerusalem on 14 May, leaving a power vacuum,Yoav Gelber, Independence Versus Nakba; Kinneret–Zmora-Bitan–Dvir Publishing, 2004, , p.104 as the neighboring Arab nations invaded the newly declared State of Israel. The Battle for Jerusalem ended on 18 July 1948 with Israel in control of West Jerusalem and Transjordan controlling East Jerusalem. On 2 August 1948 the government of Israel declared West Jerusalem an administered area of Israel.Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 12 August 1948, 2 Jerusalem Declared Israel-Occupied City- Government Proclamation (onweb.archive.org/) ===Resolution 194=== With the failure to implement the Partition Plan, including the continuing Arab–Israeli conflict, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 194 on 11 December 1948 to establish a UN Conciliation Commission, whose tasks included the implementation of the international regime for the Jerusalem area. Resolution 194 provided the following directives in articles 7, 8, and 9: ; Principle of United Nations supervision :Resolves that the Holy Places ... in Palestine should be protected and free access to them assured,...; that arrangements to this end should be under effective United Nations supervision; ... in presenting ... its detailed proposals for a permanent international regime for the territory of Jerusalem, should include recommendations concerning the Holy Places in that territory ... ; Area and sovereignty :Resolves that, in view of its association with three world religions, the Jerusalem area, including the present municipality of Jerusalem plus the surrounding villages and towns, the most Eastern of which shall be Abu Dis; the most Southern, Bethlehem; the most Western, Ein Karim (including also the built-up area of Motsa); and the most Northern, Shu'fat, should be accorded special and separate treatment from the rest of Palestine and should be placed under effective United Nations control.This area equals that of Resolution 181, Part III (B). ; Demilitarization :Requests the Security Council to take further steps to ensure the demilitarization of Jerusalem at the earliest possible date. ; Separate control :Instructs the Conciliation Commission to present to the fourth regular session of the General Assembly detailed proposals for a permanent international regime for the Jerusalem area which will provide for the maximum local autonomy for distinctive groups consistent with the special international status of the Jerusalem area. ; United Nations coordinator :The Conciliation Commission is authorized to appoint a United Nations representative who shall cooperate with the local authorities with respect to the interim administration of the Jerusalem area. ; Access :Resolves that, pending agreement on more detailed arrangements among the Governments and authorities concerned, the freest possible access to Jerusalem by road, rail or air should be accorded to all inhabitants of Palestine. ; Attempts to impede right of access :Instructs the Conciliation Commission to report immediately to the Security Council, for appropriate action by that organ, any attempt by any party to impede such access. ==Further developments== At the end of the 1948–49 war, under the Armistice Agreement, an Armistice Demarcation Line was drawn, with West Jerusalem occupied by Israel and the whole West Bank and East Jerusalem, occupied by Transjordan. In the letter of 31 May 1949, Israel told the UN Committee on Jerusalem that it considered another attempt to implement a united Jerusalem under international regime "impracticable" and favored an alternative UN scenario in which Jerusalem would be divided into Jewish and Arab zones. On 27 August 1949, the Committee on Jerusalem, a subcommittee of the Lausanne Conference of 1949, presented the draft text of a plan for implementation of the international regime. The plan envisioned a demilitarised Jerusalem divided into a Jewish and an Arab zone, without affecting the nationality of its residents. The commentary noted that the committee had abandoned the original principle of a corpus separatum. Jerusalem would be the capital of neither Israel nor the Arab state.UN Committee on Jerusalem, 27 August 1949, Third progress report to the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine (doc.nr. A/AC.25/Com.Jer/12) On 1 September 1949, the Conciliation Commission, chaired by the United States of America, submitted the plan to the General Assembly.UNCCP, 1 September 1949 Palestine – Proposals for a permanent international regime for the Jerusalem area (doc.nr. A/973 d.d. 12-09-1949). The plan was explained in document A/973/Add.1 (12-11-1949). The General Assembly did not accept the plan and it was not discussed.CEIRPP/DPR, 1 January 1981, The status of Jerusalem , see chapter VI On 5 December 1949, Israeli Prime Minister Ben-Gurion declared Jewish Jerusalem (i.e. West Jerusalem) an organic, inseparable part of the State of Israel.Knesset website, Statements of the Prime Minister David Ben- Gurion Regarding Moving the Capital of Israel to Jerusalem. Retrieved 13-05-2013 He also declared Israel no longer bound by Resolution 181 and the corpus separatum null and void, on grounds that the UN had not made good on its guarantees of security for the people of Jerusalem under that agreement. Four days later, on 9 December 1949, the General Assembly approved Resolution 303 which reaffirmed its intention to place Jerusalem under a permanent international regime as a corpus separatum in accordance with the 1947 UN Partition Plan. The resolution requested the Trusteeship Council to complete the preparation of the Statute of Jerusalem without delay.UNGA, 9 December 1949, Resolution 303 (IV). Palestine: Question of an international regime for the Jerusalem area and the protection of the Holy Places [doc.nr. A/RES/303 (IV)] On 4 April 1950, the Trusteeship Council approved a draft statute for the City of Jerusalem, which was submitted to the General Assembly on 14 June 1950.UNGA, 14 June 1950, General Assembly official records: Fifth session supplement no. 9 (A/1286) , Question of an international regime for the Jerusalem area and protection of the Holy Places – Special Report of the Trusteeship Council (see Annex II) The statute conformed to the partition plan of 29 November 1947. It could not, however, be implemented. ==International support== The UN has never revoked resolutions 181 and 194, which continues to be the official position that Jerusalem should be placed under a special international regime.UNGA, 30 November 2011, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, 66/18. Jerusalem (doc.nr. A/RES/66/18 d.d. 26-01-2012) "Recalling its resolution 181 (II) of 29 November 1947, in particular its provisions regarding the City of Jerusalem," "Reiterates its determination that any actions taken by Israel, the occupying Power, to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration on the Holy City of Jerusalem are illegal and therefore null and void and have no validity whatsoever," Nevertheless, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said on 28 October 2009 that he personally believed that Jerusalem must be the capital of both Israel and Palestine.Jerusalem must be capital of both Israel and Palestine, Ban says, UN News Centre, (October 28, 2009) ===European Union=== The European Union continues to support the internationalisation of Jerusalem in accordance with the 1947 UN Partition Plan and regards Jerusalem as having the status of corpus separatum.Foundation for Middle East Peace – May 1999: "Europe Affirms Support for a Corpus Separatum for Greater Jerusalem" ===United States=== The United States did not officially relinquish its early support of the corpus separatum principle until 2017, when it recognized Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. On 23 October 1995, the Congress passed the advisory Jerusalem Embassy Act saying that "Jerusalem should be recognized as the capital of the State of Israel; and the United States Embassy in Israel should be established in Jerusalem no later than May 31, 1999"; nevertheless, the Act contained a provision allowing the President to suspend the motion. Indeed, from 1998 to 2017, the congressional suggestion to relocate the embassy from Tel Aviv was suspended semi-annually by every sitting president, each time noting its necessity "to protect the national security interests of the United States". During his first presidential campaign, Donald Trump announced that he would move the US embassy to Jerusalem. As president, he said in an interview in February 2017 to the Israeli newspaper Israel Hayom that he was studying the issue. While Trump decided in May not to move the embassy to Jerusalem "for now," to avoid provoking the Palestinians, on 6 December 2017 he recognized Jerusalem as the capital of Israel and has begun the process of moving the embassy to the city. Guatemala followed the United States in moving its consulate to Jerusalem. Since the Congress does not control U.S. foreign policy, despite the Embassy Act, official U.S. documents and websites did not refer to Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.Adam Kredo, Solving the White House photo mystery over ‘Jerusalem, Israel’. JTA, 16 August 2011 However, this changed with the recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital by Donald Trump. ===Holy See=== The Holy See has previously expressed support for the status of corpus separatum. Pope Pius XII was among the first to support such a proposal in the 1949 encyclical Redemptoris nostri cruciatus, and the concept was later re-proposed during the papacies of John XXIII, Paul VI and John Paul II. ===Consulates in Jerusalem=== Various countries maintain consulates-general in Jerusalem. These operate in a unique way, at great variance with the normal diplomatic practice. The countries which maintain these consulates do not regard them as diplomatic missions to Israel or the Palestinian Authority, but as diplomatic missions to Jerusalem. Where these countries also have embassies to Israel, usually located in Tel Aviv, the Jerusalem-based consul is not subordinate to the ambassador in Tel Aviv (as would be the normal diplomatic usage) but reports directly to the country's foreign ministry. This unique diplomatic situation could be considered, to some degree, as reflecting the corpus separatum which never came into existence. ==Status after 1967== 250px|thumb|Settlement patterns in same area in 2006. Purple indicates Jewish concentrations and orange indicates Palestinian Arab concentrations. Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel gained military control of all Jordanian territory west of the Jordan.Dumper, The politics of Jerusalem since 1967, Page 42: "Despite full military control and the assertion of total Israeli sovereignty over the whole of Jerusalem" On 27 June 1967, it extended its law and jurisdiction to 17,600 acres of formerly Jordanian territory, including all of Jordanian Jerusalem and a portion of the nearby West Bank; the area is now known as East Jerusalem, and widely referred to as occupied Jerusalem. The extension was widely regarded as tantamount to annexation and had widely not been recognized internationally. The present municipal boundaries of Jerusalem are not the same as those of the corpus separatum set out in the Partition Plan and do not include, for example, Bethlehem, Motza, or Abu Dis. In 1980, the Israeli Knesset passed a Jerusalem Law declaring united Jerusalem to be Israel's capital, although the clause "the integrity and unity of greater Jerusalem (Yerushalayim rabati) in its boundaries after the Six-Day War shall not be violated" was dropped from the original bill. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 of 20 August 1980 condemned this and no countries located their embassies in Jerusalem,Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Resident Missions – Heads of Missions and Addresses. 2016. until the United States moved its embassy from Tel Aviv in 2018. In numerous resolutions, the UN has declared every action changing the status of Jerusalem illegal and therefore null and void and having no validity. A recent such resolution was Resolution 66/18 of 30 November 2011. ==See also== *Positions on Jerusalem *UN General Assembly Resolution 194, (1948) *United Nations Conciliation Commission, (1949) *Free City of Danzig ==References== ==External links== *Official map of the Jerusalem corpus separatum *IMEU: Maps: 2.7 – Jerusalem and the Corpus Separatum proposed in 1947. Map from Institute for Middle East Understanding. Category:1947 establishments in Mandatory Palestine Jerusalem Category:Israeli–Palestinian peace process Category:Late modern history of Jerusalem Category:Power sharing |
Air Mauritius is the flag carrier airline of Mauritius. The airline is headquartered in Port Louis, Mauritius, with its hub based at Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport. The company was placed in voluntary administration on 22 April 2020 in wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and exited administration mid-2021. ==History== ===Foundation=== The company was set up on by Air France, the BOAC enterprise, and the Government of Mauritius, with a 27.5% stake each; the balance was held by Rogers and Co. Ltd., the general sales agent for Air France and BOAC in Mauritius. In the beginning, the carrier operated international services in conjunction with Air France, Air India and British Airways, which jointly had a 25% holding in Air Mauritius at that time. Until 1972, the company restricted its activities to ground services only; it started flight operations in its own right in August 1972 with a six-seater Piper PA-31 Navajo aircraft leased from Air Madagascar, connecting Mauritius with Rodrigues. The aircraft wore an Air Mauritius decor, but kept a Malagasy registration. In 1973, a wet-leased Vickers VC10 from British Airways enabled the company to launch a long-haul route to London via Nairobi, whereas services to Bombay were operated by Air India. The Navajo was replaced with a 16-seater Twin Otter that was acquired in 1975. When an agreement with Air France and British Airways came to an end, a Boeing 707-400 wet-leased from British Airtours helped the airline to start long-haul services in its own right. Long-range operations started on . A second Twin Otter arrived in 1979. ===Services expansion=== By , the company had 414 employees and a fleet of one Boeing 707-420, one Boeing 737-200 and two Twin Otters to serve a route network of passenger and cargo services to Bombay, London, Nairobi, Réunion, Rodrigues, Rome and Tananarive. Ownership of the company had changed to have the government of Mauritius as the major shareholder (42.5%), followed by Rogers & Co. (17.5%), Air France and British Airways (15% each) and Air India (10%). Air Mauritius acquired a second-hand Boeing 707-320B in 1981. It had previously belonged to South African Airways (SAA), and permitted the airline to return the Boeing 707-400 to British Airtours. In , a joint service between Air Mauritius and Air Madagascar began in the Tananarive–Mauritius–Comoros–Nairobi and Réunion–Mauritius runs, following the lease of an Air Madagascar Boeing 737. During the early 1980s, routes to Durban and Johannesburg were inaugurated using Boeing 707-320B aircraft flown with Air India and British Airways crews. The incorporation of a second aircraft of the type, bought from Luxavia, allowed the carrier to expand the European route network to Rome and Zurich in 1983, whereas Paris was added in the mid-1980s. Leased from SAA, a Boeing 747SP named ″Chateau de Réduit″ entered the fleet in and was deployed on services to London. By , the fleet comprised two Boeing 707-320Bs, a Boeing 737-200, a Boeing 747SP and a Twin Otter. That month, the first of two Bell 206 JetRangers was incorporated. In , a 46-seater ATR 42 was ordered, and Singapore was added to the route network with a weekly service using Boeing 707 equipment. In that year, Air Mauritius joined the African Airlines Association. The carrier made a profit of GBP3.5 million for the fiscal year 1985–86. In 1986, a second Boeing 747SP that was also leased from SAA entered the fleet; it was named ″Chateau Mon Plaisir″. The incorporation of this aircraft allowed the carrier to phase out a Boeing 707. In 1987, South African Airways' landing rights on Australian soil were suspended by the Australian government and Qantas ceased its operations in South Africa. There had been an increase in demand from businessmen since that time, as most passengers travelling from South Africa to Australia had to stop at Hong Kong, Taipei or Singapore. Given that landing rights in Australia for Air Mauritius had not been approved yet, a Boeing 747SP non-stop service to Hong Kong commenced on , in cooperation with Cathay Pacific. Flights to Kuala Lumpur had started in . ===Fleet modernisation=== Valued at million and financed by a group of banks that included Barclays, BNP, Crédit Lyonnais and the Spectrum Bank, the company took delivery of two Boeing 767-200ERs in . These aircraft were named ″City of Port Louis″ and ″City of Curepipe″. One of them set a record-breaking distance for commercial twinjets on , when it flew non-stop from Halifax, Nova Scotia to Mauritius, covering a distance of almost in less than 17 hours. A contract worth million including spare parts for these two Boeing 767s had been signed a year earlier. Also in 1988, a Boeing 707 was leased from Air Swazi Cargo to operate freighter services, and the first ATR-42 started revenue flights in , replacing the Twin Otters on inter-island services. A second ATR-42 was ordered in . By , the route network included Antananarivo, Bombay, Durban, Geneva, Harare, Hong Kong, Johannesburg, Kuala Lumpur, London, Moroni, Munich, Nairobi, Paris, Reunion, Rodrigues, Rome, Singapore and Zurich. A new route to Perth was inaugurated in . Named ″Paille en Queue″ and leased from ILFC, the first Airbus A340-300 entered the fleet in ; following delivery, a Boeing 747SP that was on lease from SAA was returned. The airline became the first in the Southern Hemisphere to fly the A340-300. A second A340-300, named ″Pink Pigeon″ and purchased directly from Airbus, was handed over by the aircraft manufacturer in . Services to Brussels and Cape Town were launched in and that year. Also leased from ILFC and named ″Kestrel″, Air Mauritius' third A340-300 joined the fleet in . The airline started trading on the Stock Exchange of Mauritius during the year. In 1996, the last Boeing 747SP was sold to Qatar Airways and direct flights to Manchester were launched. ===2000 onwards=== At , Air Mauritius had 2,000 employees. At this time, the airline had a fleet of five Airbus A340-300s, one ATR42-300, two ATR42-500s and two Boeing 767-200ERs that served a route network including Antananarivo, Brussels, Cape Town, Delhi, Durban, Frankfurt, Geneva, Harare, Hong Kong, Johannesburg, Kuala Lumpur, London, Mahe Island, Manchester, Maputo, Mauritius, Melbourne, Milan, Mumbai, Munich, Paris, Perth, Rodrigues Island, Rome, Singapore, St Denis de la Reunion, St Pierre de la Reunion, Vienna and Zürich. African medium-haul routes started utilising the Airbus A319 following its delivery in 2001. The A340-300 Enhanced version was ordered by the carrier in mid-2005. The A340-300 Enhanced was put on service on the London Heathrow route in December 2006, soon after delivery. In late 2007, the fleet saw the incorporation of the Airbus A330-200; a second aircraft of the same type was delivered in . In March 2016, Air Mauritius launched the 'Air Corridor' with its first direct flights to Singapore, which was previously served via Kuala Lumpur. The new route aimed at improving air connectivity between Mauritius and Singapore in order to stimulate the growth of passenger and cargo traffic between Asia and Africa through these two hubs. On 22 April 2020, the board of directors took the decision to place the Company under voluntary administration after coronavirus-related disruptions made it impossible for the airline to meet its financial obligations for the foreseeable future. The pandemic had a major impact on the revenue of the company while it was seeking to change its business model to address existing financial problems. The company will continue its operation, this decision was taken to safeguard the interest of the company and its stakeholders. ==Corporate affairs== ===Key people=== Dev Manraj, G.O.S.K held the chairman position and BUTON Indradev was the officer in charge. Dev Manraj was a key figure in the MCB-NPF financial scandal which came to light in 2003. In December 2022, Krešimir Kučko, former Croatia Airlines and Gulf Air CEO, was appointed CEO of Air Mauritius. ===Ownership and subsidiaries=== Air Mauritius was the first Mauritian company with its majority owned by the state that made their shares public. Listing was granted in November 1994 and share trading on the stock exchange of Mauritius commenced in February 1995. , shareholders having more than 5% of direct participation in the airline were Air Mauritius Holdings Ltd. (51%) and the government of Mauritius (8.37%), while other investors held the remaining stake. Air Mauritius Holdings Ltd. was in turn owned in its majority (43.83%) by the Mauritian Government. Air Mauritius Limited's wholly owned subsidiaries were Airmate Ltd., Air Mauritius Holidays Ltd., Air Mauritius Holidays (Pty) Ltd. Australia, Air Mauritius Institute Co. Ltd., Air Mauritius SA (Proprietary) Ltd., Mauritian Holidays Ltd. (UK) and Mauritius Helicopters Ltd.; partly owned subsidiaries were Mauritius Estate Development Corporation Ltd. (93.7%), Pointe Coton Resort Hotel Company Ltd. (54.2%), and Mauritius Shopping Paradise Company Ltd. (41.7%). ===Business trends=== The key trends for Air Mauritius over recent years are shown below (as at year ending 31 March): 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Turnover (EURm) 414.2 448.1 445.6 371.7 436.0 453.2 452.1 461.5 465.7 488.3 494.8 514.3 499.8 Net Profit (EURm) 17.0 10.3 8.5 16.5 26.9 4.9 Number of passengers (000s) 1,177 1,311 1,192 1,133 1,295 1,325 1,297 1,330 1,370 1,499 1,603 1,695 1,724 Passenger load factor (%) 74.6 76.8 74.9 80.6 79.8 77.1 78.9 75.5 73.7 78.7 79.6 78.9 78.4 Number of aircraft (at year end) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 15 12 Notes/sources accessdate= 28 August 2019 accessdate= 28 August 2019 accessdate= 28 August 2019 accessdate= 28 August 2019 accessdate= 28 August 2019 accessdate= 28 August 2019 accessdate= 26 August 2019 ===Headquarters=== , Air Mauritius had its headquarters at Air Mauritius Centre in Port Louis, Mauritius. ===Controversies=== Air Mauritius was the focus of a politico-financial scandal known as the Caisse Noire Affair. As a result of the investigation which lasted from 2001 to 2015 several senior members of its management including Gérard Tyack, Sir Harry Tirvengadum and others were prosecuted. Gérard Tyack was jailed. == Destinations == thumb|ATR 72-500 3B-NBG "Port Mathurin" wearing the airline's 50th anniversary livery. In , the carrier signed a cooperation agreement with Air Austral, Air Madagascar, Air Seychelles and Inter Ile Air that established Vanilla Alliance and is aimed at improving air services between the Indian Ocean Commission members. , Air Mauritius served 22 destinations from its hub in Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport, two of them domestic. ===Codeshare agreements=== Air Mauritius has codeshare agreements with the following airlines: * Air Austral * Air France * Air India * Air Madagascar * Emirates * Hong Kong Airlines * Kenya Airways * Malaysia Airlines * Singapore Airlines * South African Airways * Virgin Australia ===Frequent flyer programme=== Air Mauritius' frequent flyer programme is called Kestrelflyer, which offers Silver and Gold accounts. ==Fleet== ===Recent developments and future plans=== In , during the Farnborough Air Show, it was announced Air Mauritius signed a memorandum of understanding with Airbus for six Airbus A350-900s, of which two will be leased from AerCap Holdings and with the option to place additional orders for up to three more aircraft of the type between 2023 and 2025. It was originally planned that the leased aircraft would join the fleet by the end 2017 and the other four would join in 2019 and 2020. In , Air Mauritius announced that it would be leasing two Airbus A330-900 aircraft from Air Lease Corporation to replace two Airbus A340-300E aircraft from September and October 2018. Due to delays from Airbus, these aircraft were delivered in April and June 2019. The two Airbus A350-900 that were due to be delivered in 2020, were pushed back to 2023. It was also announced that the airline's existing aircraft would be refurbished with new seats, new inflight entertainment systems and onboard Wi-Fi. The revamp of the cabin interiors was planned to be completed by June 2018. The two Airbus A350-900s that were due to join the fleet in 2019 were sublet to South African Airlines for 3 years. In August 2020, these aircraft were returned early by SAA, due to financial difficulties. In July 2021, the airline completed the sale of its two Airbus A319 and remaining Airbus A340 aircraft. The retirement of the Airbus A340 marked the end of 27 years of service of the fleet type with the airline. The retirement of the two Airbus A330-200 from the fleet was completed by end of November 2021. ===Current fleet=== , the Air Mauritius fleet consisted of the following aircraft: Air Mauritius fleet Aircraft In fleet Orders Passengers Notes J Y Total Airbus A330-200 1 1 18 236 254 Leased for 3 year period from Carlyle Aviation Partners Airbus A330-900 2 -- 28 260 288 Airbus A350-900 4 3 28 298 326 ATR 72-500 3 -- -- 72 72 Total 10 4 The airline also operates two Bell 206 JetRanger helicopters that are used for tour services. ===Former fleet=== The airline previously operated the following aircraft: * Airbus A319-100 * Airbus A330-200 * Airbus A340-300 * ATR 42-300 * ATR 42-500 * Boeing 707-320B * Boeing 707-420 * Boeing 737-200 * Boeing 747SP * Boeing 747-200B * Boeing 767-200ER * Boeing 767-300ER * de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter * Lockheed L-1011-500 ==See also== * List of airlines of Mauritius * Transport in Mauritius ==References== ==Bibliography== * ==External links== * Category:Airlines of Mauritius Category:Airlines established in 1967 Category:Government-owned airlines Category:1967 establishments in Mauritius Category:Vanilla Alliance Category:Government- owned companies of Mauritius Category:Companies based in Port Louis *[J]: Business *[Y]: Economy |
Armando Joseph Catalano (January 14, 1924 – April 30, 1989), better known as Guy Williams, was an American actor. He played swashbuckling action heroes in the 1950s and 1960s. Among his most notable achievements were two TV series: Zorro in the title role, and as the father of the Robinson family on the popular sci-fi series Lost in Space. During most of the 1970s, Guy Williams frequently visited and worked in television shows in Argentina, where he was most revered. He retired in the early 1980s in Buenos Aires, where he died of a brain aneurysm in 1989. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Guy Williams was born of Sicilian parentage on January 14, 1924, as Armando Joseph Catalano in the Washington Heights area of New York City. His parents, insurance broker Attilio Catalano and Clara Arcara, were from the island of Sicily, and were by then living in poverty. Attilio was the son of a wealthy timber grower in Messina, who purchased land in New Jersey. Williams grew up in the Little Italy neighborhood of The Bronx. In Public School 189, Williams stood out in mathematics. Later, he attended George Washington High School, while he occasionally worked at a soda fountain. He then left to attend the Peekskill Military Academy, where he was an enthusiastic student. His interests included American football and chess. ===First artistic steps=== Williams wanted to be an actor, spurred by his good looks and 6'3" height. When he decided not to continue studying, his mother, who later became an executive of a foreign film company, was disappointed because it was expected that he would follow in his father's footsteps as an insurance broker. After working as a welder, cost accountant and aircraft-parts inspector during World War II, Williams became a salesman in the luggage department at Wanamaker's. While there, he decided to send his photos to a modeling agency. He quickly found great success with assignments resulting in photographs in newspapers and magazines, including Harper's Bazaar as well as on billboards and book covers. He then adopted the name Guy Williams (1940s) on the advice of his agent Henry Wilson after a director refused to cast him because of his on-screen moniker, Guido Armando, that sounded "too foreign". In 1946, Williams signed a one year contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and moved to Hollywood. He had a featured role as a pilot in the MGM film The Beginning or the End (1947), about the first U.S. deployed atom bomb. He appeared in only a few films afterwards and soon returned to New York. In 1948, to advertise cigarettes while skiing, Williams did an extensive filming trip accompanied by Janice Cooper, a John Robert Powers model. During the long photographic sessions, they fell in love, marrying on December 8, just after they returned to New York City. They had two children, Guy Steven Catalano (aka Guy Williams Jr.) and Antoinette Catalano (aka Toni Williams); both became actors. By 1950, Williams was filming some of the pioneering television commercials in the U.S. His father died in 1951, never to witness his son's rise to fame. In 1952, Williams obtained a new one-year contract with Universal-International and moved to Hollywood. He also appeared in an episode of the Lone Ranger, playing town sheriff. ===Early Hollywood (1951–1957)=== Guy Williams appeared in small supporting roles in films, including: * The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) (uncredited) as Radar Operator at beginning of film * Bonzo Goes to College (1952) – as Ronald Calkins * The Mississippi Gambler (1953) – as Andre * The Golden Blade (1953) – as Baghdad's town crier * The Man from the Alamo (1953) – as a sergeant * Take Me to Town (1953) – as a small hero * Highway Patrol (1955) - as Patrolman Hanson * I Was a Teenage Werewolf (1957) – as police officer In 1953, he suffered a serious accident when he fell from a horse and was dragged over 200 yards, resulting in a long scar on his left shoulder. Because of this he returned to New York to continue acting and modeling there and temporarily abandoned his film career. In 1953, he left Universal and became a freelancer for movies produced by Allied Artists and Warner Brothers. ===Zorro (1957–1959, 1960–1961)=== Early in 1957, Williams appeared twice in the role of Steve Clay in the television series Men of Annapolis, a military drama set at the United States Naval Academy. He also appeared in the Rod Cameron drama State Trooper in the episode "No Fancy Cowboys" about the defrauding of guests at a dude ranch. About this time, the Walt Disney Company was casting for Zorro, a television series based on the character created in 1919 by Johnston McCulley: the young nobleman Don Diego de la Vega and his masked alter ego Zorro. To play the main character, the chosen actor would have to be handsome and have some experience with fencing. Walt Disney interviewed Guy Williams, telling him to start growing a mustache "neither very long or thick." The exclusive contract paid Williams the then very high wage of $2,500 per week, equal to $ today. Williams resumed his professional training in fencing with the Belgian champion Fred Cavens (who also trained Douglas Fairbanks, Errol Flynn and Tyrone Power), since the show required sword fights in most episodes. He also took guitar lessons with the famous Vicente Gomez. Williams's first appearance as Zorro was on the Disney anthology television series The Fourth Anniversary Show, wherein he challenged the notion that Zorro was a fictional character. The series of half-hour episodes debuted on ABC on October 10, 1957. It was an instant hit in the U.S. Seventy-eight episodes were produced over two seasons (1957–1959), and two movies were edited from TV episodes: The Sign of Zorro (1958) and Zorro the Avenger (1959). The theme song was composed by Norman Foster and George Bruns and performed by The Mellomen; it reached #17 on the Hit Parade. In 1959, a legal dispute arose between Disney and ABC, causing a hiatus and the eventual cancellation of Zorro. However, four hour-long episodes were produced with the original primary cast, including Williams. These episodes were released as part of the Walt Disney Presents series between October 30, 1960, and April 12, 1961. On March 5, 1959, as Zorro was ending its original run, Williams was a guest star, along with Sally Brophy and Tom Nolan on The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford. In 1962, Williams played Sir Miles Hendon in the Walt Disney's The Prince and the Pauper, shot in England. ===European films=== After finishing his contract with Disney, Guy Williams went to Europe to film two movies: * Damon and Pythias (MGM production filmed in Italy in 1962, directed by Curtis Bernhardt), as Damon, the classic Greek hero who offers his life as warrant of the word of Pythias (played by Don Burnett), his friend who has been condemned to death for political reasons; * Captain Sindbad (MGM production filmed in Germany in 1962, directed by Byron Haskin, based on the classic tale of the Arabian Nights), in the role of Sindbad the Sailor. ===Bonanza (1964)=== In 1964, Guy Williams returned to Hollywood to resume his career, being added to the cast of the hit TV series Bonanza as Ben's nephew Will Cartwright. Williams found himself written out of the series after five episodes despite being slated to become one of the four permanent leads. His character had been created as a replacement for Adam Cartwright, since actor Pernell Roberts planned to leave the show at the end of that season, thus allowing the format with four regular leads to continue. Fans wrote in to keep the original Cartwrights and producers held Roberts to his contract and kept him on for another season. It is unknown as to how those fans got the address. ===Lost in Space (1965–1968)=== In 1965, Guy Williams returned to weekly television in the popular science-fiction series Lost in Space with June Lockhart as his wife. Guy Williams played Professor John Robinson, an expert in astrophysics and geology, who commanded the mission of the Jupiter 2 spaceship, taking his family in a voyage to colonize the Alpha Centauri star system. ===Retirement in Argentina (1979–1989)=== After Lost in Space, Guy Williams decided to retire in order to better enjoy his wealth which had been generated by investments in several businesses, buying and selling on the stock market. When Williams had first visited Argentina in 1973, he was taken by the admiration and fascination the Argentine people expressed for him and his character of El Zorro. In return, Williams fell in love with the culture and people of Argentina. In the late 1970s, he retired, except for personal appearances, to Recoleta, an upscale neighborhood of Buenos Aires. In subsequent years, Williams also brought to Argentina some of the original cast members of the Zorro series, including Henry Calvin who performed as Sergeant Garcia. Williams even formed a circus (Circo Real Madrid) with the local fencing champion -and later actor- Fernando Lupiz, traveling all over South America (1977). In 1983, Williams returned to Los Angeles for two final television appearances. He joined Lost in Space cast members June Lockhart, Angela Cartwright, Bob May and Marta Kristen for two celebrity episodes of Family Feud against the casts of Batman and Gilligan's Island respectively. He later appeared as a guest on Good Morning America. ==Death== In 1989, after spending solitary months in Argentina, it was reported that Williams had disappeared. The local police searched his apartment in Recoleta on May 6, 1989, finding his body. He had died of a brain aneurysm. Owing to his great popularity in Argentina, his ashes lay for two years at the Argentine Actors' Society cemetery at La Chacarita Cemetery, Actor Pantheon & Crypt 278. In 1991, in accordance with his wishes, Williams's ashes were spread over the Pacific Ocean in Malibu, California. ==Homages== * In 2000, Williams was the first local celebrity inducted into the Bronx Walk of Fame. He was represented at the ceremony by his son Steven Catalano (Guy Williams Jr.) * In 2001, (August 2), he was posthumously granted a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at 7080 Hollywood Blvd after petitions from thousands of his fans in front of the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce in 2000. * In October 2002, the fans of Williams, with his children Steven and Toni in attendance, dedicated to him a bench in New York's Central Park. * In August 2003, fans belonging to an online group Guy Williams' Friendslist, along with Williams's wife Janice, their children Steven and Toni, and Toni's son Nando in attendance, placed a commemorative plaque dedicated to Williams in the Old Cemetery section of the Mission San Luis Rey de Francia at Oceanside, California, where the Zorro series was filmed in 1957. * In 2011, Williams was named a Disney Legend. * The impression of a U.S. postage stamp commemorative of Guy Williams was cancelled due to the change of the US Postal Service's protocol, though the fans had been campaigning for the stamp since 1998. A number of books have been written which feature Williams, particularly in his role as Zorro. This includes the Zorro Television Companion, detailing the making of the Disney series, as well as a biography by Antoinette Girgenti Lane, Guy Williams: The Man Behind the Mask (2005). A collection of original Zorro short stories, some inspired specifically by Guy Williams, was edited by Richard Dean Starr and released in 2008. It includes an introduction by Guy Williams Jr. (with Matthew Baugh) and an afterword by Isabel Allende. The cover art on the trade paperback edition by Douglas Klauba was a homage to Guy Williams. ==References== ==External links== * * Official Guy Williams Family Page Category:1924 births Category:1989 deaths Category:American male film actors Category:American male television actors Category:George Washington Educational Campus alumni Category:Male models from New York (state) Category:American people of Italian descent Category:Male actors from New York (state) Category:American emigrants to Argentina Category:American expatriates in Argentina Category:20th-century American male actors Category:Deaths from intracranial aneurysm Category:Masked actors Category:Models from New York City Category:Peekskill Military Academy alumni |
The Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Hanover () is a Lutheran church body (Landeskirche) in the northern German state of Lower Saxony and the city of Bremerhaven covering the territory of the former Kingdom of Hanover. The seat of the Landesbischof (bishop) is the Lower Saxon state capital Hanover. The Marktkirche is the preaching venue of the bishop. 200px|right|Evangelical- Lutheran Church of Hanover == Creeds and memberships == The teachings of the Church of Hanover are based on the teachings brought forward by Martin Luther during the Reformation. The Church of Hanover is a full member of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD), the Confederation of Protestant Churches in Lower Saxony,http://www.evangelische-konfoederation.de/ the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany (VELKD), the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe and the Lutheran World Federation. == History == Before the formation of the Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Hanover in 1863/1864, there were several regional Protestant churches earlier established by and within the borders of previous principalities and regions, combined as the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814. These churches were: *the General Diocese of Aurich (1815–1922, since 1863 a subdivision of the all-Hanoverian church), formed in East Frisia when annexed to Hanover,The General Diocese of Aurich was led by the Lutheran-Reformed simultaneous consistory, co-chaired by a Lutheran and a Reformed general superintendent each. *the (est. 1651, since 1863 a subdivision of the all-Hanoverian church), comprising the High- Bailiwick of Stade except for the Land of Hadeln, *the Lutheran Church of the Land of Hadeln (1525–1885, since 1863 a subdivision of the Hanoverian church) based in Otterndorf, *the old-Hanoverian Church (1705-merger of Calenberg [est. 1589] and Lunenburg-Celle [est. 1531] Lutheran state churches with subdivisions of its ownThe old-Hanover Church was subdivided into (a) the General Dioceses of Calenberg (till 1903], (b) of Göttingen [1589–1903], (c) of Grubenhagen and Harz (1598–1880, thereafter part of Göttingen), (d) of Harburg [1708-1903, partitioned from the Lunenburg-Celle), (e) of Hildesheim (1806–1903, formed from territory newly annexed to Hanover) and (f) of Lunenburg-Celle (till 1903).), with its consistory based in Hanover city, *the Loccum jurisdiction (Bezirk Loccum), *the Osnabrück city jurisdiction (Bezirk Osnabrück-Stadt), and *the Osnabrück land jurisdiction (Bezirk Osnabrück- Land).„Historischer Rückblick“, on: Evangelisch-lutherische Landeskirche Hannovers, retrieved on 20 September 2014. All these churches were state churches in the Kingdom of Hanover, with the king being summus episcopus (Supreme Governor of the Lutheran churches), but otherwise without any joint bodies. In 1848 the Lutheran parishes were democratised by the introduction of presbyteries (, sg./pl.; lit. in ), elected by all major male parishioners and chairing each congregation in co-operation with the pastor, prior being the sole chairman. This introduction of presbyteries was somewhat revolutionary in the rather hierarchically structured Lutheran churches. Whereas liberal Lutherans demanded the establishment of elected synods (general or regional church assemblies) too, feeling encouraged by the general development of parliamentarianism, the revivalist Lutherans strove for self-rule within the Lutheran churches in order to strengthen religion and faith against the government's interference in ecclesiastical affairs, considered by them as too rationalistic and too much inspired by ideas of the enlightenment. So liberal and revivalist Lutherans aimed at forming an ecclesiastical body, as provided by the 1833 constitution of Hanover,Cf. Grundgesetz des Königreiches Hannover, vom 26. September 1833 (Basic Law of the Kingdom of Hanover), § 60 (2), on: Verfassungen der Welt (i.e. Constitutions of the world), retrieved on 20 September 2014. consisting of elected and appointed clergy and laymen. Especially the catechism used since 1790 was unwelcome among revivalists as being too much inspired by ideas of the Enlightenment. So the Royal government, more precisely its ministry of cult and education, prepared a catechism reform to be prepared by government-appointed experts. The outcome was a new catechism, based on that of 1634, and on 14 April 1862 decreed by the government. If the outcome would have been less controversial the royal administration might have had the opportunity to continue its church policy the monarchic supreme-governor way. However, the new old-style catechism, including regular confession, desired by King George V, but meanwhile widely out of use and considered among many liberal Lutherans as too Catholic and un- Protestant, caused an outrage, the Hanover Catechism Strife, surprising the Royal administration. Inspired by the protest note "Prüfet Alles" (about ) by Pastor , later nicknamed the Luther of the Wendland, a movement evolved. When summoned by the Hanover Consistory in order to explain himself, a crowd of thousand accompanied him through the streets of that city and military was sent suppressing any gathering and subsequent street riots in town. George V gave in, he dismissed his minister of cult, finally even his complete cabinet and, under the tensions occurring, he withdrew the reformed catechism. George V agreed to get the catechism reform revised by an ecclesiastical body formed according to the 1833 constitution. In autumn 1862 the new minister of cult, (term: 1862–1865), convened this body, called the Vorsynode (i.e. proto-synod, a preliminary church legislative assembly), comprising 72 members, 64 elected, eight appointed, half of them clergy, the others laymen. The proto-synod met and negotiated several times until 6 October 1863, becoming the founding body of the Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Hanover, uniting synodals from all the seven existing old Lutheran state churches in the kingdom.„Typisch Evangelisch“, on: Evangelisch-lutherische Landeskirche Hannovers, retrieved on 20 September 2014. Its then 72 male members were to design a church constitution, including the regulations as to the synod. The formation of the Church of Hanover was thus started by defining all the then existing Lutheran congregations in the kingdom as part of the to-be-represented church electorate. In October 1864 the Estates Assembly of Hanover (the parliament Ständeversammlung) adopted the first law, outlined by the proto-synod, as to the constitution of the all-Hanoverian Lutheran state church, its component subdivisions (dioceses and jurisdictions), and its legislative state synod (; historically state synod is the correct translation, as to the post-1918 function, without state churches anymore, regional synod is more appropriate). After the Prussian conquest in 1866, on 19 September 1866, the day before the official Prussian annexation took place and with the last king, George V, already in exile, the Kingdom's six government-appointed consistories established the joint all-Hanoveran state consistory (Landeskonsistorium), based in Hanover too, consisting of representatives from each provincial consistory. The provincial consistories were in Aurich, a simultaneously Lutheran and Reformed consistory dominated by Lutherans (for East Frisia) and the Lutheran consistories in Hanover (for the former Electorate of Brunswick and Lunenburg proper), in Ilfeld (for the County of Hohenstein, a Hanoverian exclave in the Eastern Harz mountains), in Osnabrück (for the former Prince- Bishopric of Osnabrück), in Otterndorf (existed 1535-1885 for the Land of Hadeln) as well as in Stade (existed 1650-1903, until 1885 for the former Bremen-Verden proper without Hadeln, then including the complete Stade Region). Thus with the Church of Hanover the elected state synod came first and the formation of a steady nationwide executive, the Landeskonsistorium (state consistory) followed as the second step in 1866. The first ordinary state synod (Landessynode), succeeding the proto-synod, only convened in 1869, when after the Prussian annexation the Hanoverian Lutherans desired a representative body separate from Prussian rule, though it was restricted to Lutheran matters only. The Church of Hanover became a stronghold of Hanoverian separatism and therefore somewhat politicised. It opposed the Prussian Union, comprising the Protestant parishes in the Prussian territory prior the 1866 annexations, not only for its being a stronghold of Prussian patriotism, but for being a united church of Lutheran and Calvinist congregations, with a preponderance of Calvinism because the Calvinist Hohenzollern dynasty wielded its influence in the unification of Lutherans and Calvinists in then Prussia in 1817. The Hanoverian Lutherans managed to maintain their independence, with the Prussian government refraining from imposing the Prussian Union onto them. The reconciliation of the Lutheran majority of the citizens in annexed Hanover with their new Prussian citizenship was not to be further complicated by religious quarrels. Until 1903 all provincial consistories except for the one in Aurich were dissolved, their functions taken over by the state consistory.Since 1882 the bi-denominational consistory in Aurich simultaneously functioned as the central religious body of the newly established Evangelical Reformed Church of the Province of Hanover, comprising almost all the Calvinist congregations in the prevailingly Lutheran Province of Hanover. This anomaly ended when this consistory became an exclusively Reformed body in 1922, following the constitutional reorganisation of the church bodies after the Weimar Constitution had decreed the separation of church and state in 1919. The Weimar Constitution of 1919 provided for the separation of state and religion. After the system of state churches had disappeared with the monarchies in the German states, the question arose why the Protestant church bodies within Germany did not merge. Besides the smaller Protestant denominations of the Mennonites, Baptists or Methodists, which were organised across state borders along denominational lines, in 1922 there were 29 (later 28) church bodies organised along territorial borders of the German states or Prussian provinces.For a list of the 29 church bodies see Landeskirchen. In fact, a merger was permanently under discussion, but never materialised due to strong regional self-confidence and traditions as well as the denominational fragmentation into Lutheran, Calvinist (Reformed) and United and uniting churches. Following the Swiss example of 1920, the Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Hanover and 28 other territorially defined German Protestant churches founded the German Evangelical Church Confederation in 1922, which was no new merged church, but a loose federation of the existing independent church bodies.Cf. Kirchenbundesvertrag of 25 May 1922, on: Verfassungen der Welt (i.e. Constitutions of the world), retrieved on 20 September 2014. In 1922 the Church of Hanover counted 2,414,000 parishioners.Sebastian Müller-Rolli in collaboration with Reiner Anselm, Evangelische Schulpolitik in Deutschland 1918–1958: Dokumente und Darstellung, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999, (=Eine Veröffentlichung des Comenius- Instituts Münster), p. 29\. . Since the adoption of the Leuenberg Agreement in 1973 the Church of Hanover practises church fellowship with many non-Lutheran Protestant churches in Germany and the world, understood as pulpit and table fellowship as well as full communion in witness and service.Achim Krämer, Gegenwärtige Abendmahlsordnung in der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland: die Abendmahlsfrage in ihrer theologischen, historischen und ekklesiologischen Bedeutung im Blick auf Abendmahlsgemeinschaft zwischen lutherischen, unierten und reformierten Landeskirchen, Munich: Claudius-Verlag, 1973, (=Ius ecclesiasticum: Beiträge zum evangelischen Kirchenrecht und zum Staatskirchenrecht; vol. 16), simultaneously: Freiburg (Breisgau), Univ., Diss., 1969, p. 87\. . After Margot Käßmann's resignation as bishop in February 2010, Hans-Hermann Jantzen served as vicar (acting bishop) until Ralf Meister's investiture as her successor on 26 March 2011.Ralf Meister als neuer Landesbischof gewählt, EVLKA - News 25 November 2010 == Practices == Ordination of women and blessing of same-sex marriages were allowed.Evangelisch.de: Hannoversche Landeskirche will gleichgeschlechtliche Paare segnen (German)Evangelisch.de: Hannoversche Landeskirche öffnet Homosexuellen den Weg zum Traualtar (German) == Today's subdivisions == The Church of Hanover is divided into 6 dioceses of land districts (German: Sprengel) in which a regional bishop presides: * district of Hanover () - regional bishop: ** with the City Church Association Hanover (): (city superintendent (German: Stadtsuperintendent): Hans-Martin Heinemann) * district of Hildesheim-Göttingen () - regional bishop: * district of Lüneburg () - regional bishop: * district of Osnabrück () - regional bishop: * district of East Frisia/Emsland () - regional bishop: * district of Stade ()- regional bishop: Each district is in turn divided into smaller deaneries (), each of which is led by a superintendent. The 56 deaneries are divided into 1320 parishes. == Bodies == The Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Hanover has six constitutional bodies, these are the Bishop, the Church Senate, the Synode, the Territorial Synodal Committee, the Church Office and the Council of Bishops. === Synod === The Synode (Landessynode, i.e. historically state synod is the correct translation, as to the post-1918 situation, without state churches anymore, regional synod is the more appropriate translation) is the parliament of the Church. Since 1869 the Landessynode was elected for three year terms, with the interruption - due to the Struggle of the Churches between 1934 and 1946. Today the members of the Synod, the synodals, are elected every six years in constituencies. Today's Landessynode comprises 75 synodals, 63 elected, ten appointed by the church senate, one delegated by the Lutheran theological faculty of the George Augustus University in Göttingen and the Abbot of Loccum, as an ex officio member. The Synod meets twice a year. Its duties are similar to those of political parliaments. The Landessynodalausschuss (synodal committee) is the elected steady board representing the synod between synodal meetings. President of the Synod is Matthias Kannengiesser. === Bishop === Since its new constitution of 1925, accounting for the separation of religion and state by the Weimar Constitution (1919), the Head of the Church of Hanover is the bishop (Landesbischof) who is elected by the Synod. The bishop usually retires at the age of 65. Until 1918 there was supreme governorship (summepiscopacy) by the respective monarch, whereas the actual executive of the church (Landeskonsistorium) was led by its presidents, competent to sign contracts of the church. The bishop also has his or her headquarters in Hanover, the Marktkirche there is the bishop's preaching venue. The Bishop is chairman of the College in the church office (see below). ;Bishops: * 1925–1947: August Marahrens * 1947–1971: Johannes Lilje * 1971–1988: * 1988–1999: * 1999–2010: Margot Käßmann * 2010–2011: vacancy, acting per pro as vicar * since 26 March 2011: Ralf Meister ==== Presidents of the State Consistory ==== * 1866–1883: , last Hanoverian Kultusminister (minister of culture) * 1883–1885: vacancy * 1885–1893: Otto Mejer * 1894–1903: * 1903–1910: * 1911: * 1912–1920: * 1921–1924: === Bischofsrat (council of Bishops) === On all matters concerning ecclesiastical life, the Bischofsrat consults at regular meetings. It consists of the Landesbischof (bishop) of the Church of Hannover and the regional bishop, the spiritual heads of today's six dioceses (Sprengel). The Bischofsrat is in charge of recommending agendas, hymn books and catechisms. === Church Senate === Another important body is the Church Senate (Kirchensenat). It is the steady directing collegial body combining the bishop, the president of the church office, the president of the synod, the president of the synodal committee, one clerical member of the Church Office, one of the six regional bishops, three synodals, and four other members of the Church of Hanover (but not synodals).„Kirchensenat“, on: Evangelisch-lutherische Landeskirche Hannovers, retrieved on 20. September 2014. The Church Senate prepares bills and may issue ordinances within the scope of church laws passed by the synod. The church senate proposes up to three candidates for the bishop elections, it appoints the regional bishops and supervises them, it appoints ten members of the synod, it appoints the presidents and vice-presidents of the church office, chooses the Church of Hanover delegates for the Evangelical Church in Germany meetings, it demarks the competences of the bishop, the regional bishops, and the church office. === Church Office === The Regional Church Office (German: ) is the administrative center of the Church of Hanover. The Bishop is chairman of the College in the church office (or less the "government" of the Church), which includes, besides the bishop, the president of the Church Office, the Spiritual Vice President (since 2006: ), the Legal Vice President ( since 2002: )) and the theological and legal supreme regional church councillors (German: Oberlandeskirchenräte). There are currently (2008) 210 employees working in the Church Office. ==== Presidents ==== *1924–1929: Viktor Lampe *1930–1933: Max Schramm *1933–1946: Friedrich Schnelle *1946–1952: Gustav Ahlhorn *1952–1970: Karl Wagenmann *1970–1983: Johann Frank *1984–2008: * 2008- 2013: Burkhard Guntau * since 2013: Stephanie Springer ==== Spiritual Vice Presidents ==== * 1924–1932: Karl Wagenmann * 1932–1933: Paul Fleisch * 1933–1934: Gerhard Hahn * 1953–1965: * 1965–1969: Friedrich Bartels * 1969–1984: Hans Philipp Meyer * 1984–1999: Günter Linnenbrink * 1999–2001: Hans Schmidt * 2001–2002: * 2002–2006: * since 2006: == Mission == The Evangelical-Lutheran Mission in Lower Saxony (ELM), which was founded in 1977 as a common organisation for the Churches of Hanover, of Brunswick and of Schaumburg-Lippe, maintains relationships with the overseas partner churches of the Hanoverian regional church. Its history dates back to 1849 when Pastor Ludwig Harms began training the first missionaries. The headquarters of the ELM is in Hermannsburg in the Südheide. == Haus kirchlicher Dienste ( House of Church Services) == The Haus kirchlicher Dienste (since 2002) (House of Church Services), founded in September 1937 as Amt für Gemeindedienst (Office for congregational services) are the service and competence center for the Church of Hanover and supports the work of the Church of Hannover and the parishes. The house provides facilities and agencies for work areas in the Church of Hanover. In 2011, the House of Church Services had 200 employees. The House of Church Services also includes the Hanns-Lilje-House () and the Bursfelde Abbey. The departments are: * Department 1 includes the areas of library work, the deacons (German: Diakone), volunteers, deans' secretaries, community consultation and organisational development, community management, sexton, media (Media Centre of the Church of Hanover), and parish secretaries. * Department 2 oversees the Bursfelde Abbey, faith and Bible classes, home groups, church tourism, church for vacationers, spa and leisure ministry, missionary service, the missionary center Hanstedt I, open churches and pilgrimage and meditation paths. * Department 3 comprises the work with older people, visiting services, women's work, men's work, sports, and the World Day of Prayer. * Department 4 is the youth ministry. * Department 5 includes the areas of ecumenism, church in Europe, the relationships with Islam and Judaism, migrants, the topic of ethnic and Eastern Churches, and the assistance for Chernobyl children, philosophical issues, art and culture, the Decade to Overcome Violence development-related education, peace building and support of community service and volunteer services. * Department 6 includes the areas of work, business and social affairs, church service for trade and commerce, rural areas and agriculture, and ecology and environmental management. in cooperation with the Confederation of Protestant churches in Lower Saxony: * Church service in police and customs * Evangelical adult education in Lower Saxony () * The Protestant village assistants' work () religious associations: * The Evangelical Association of Family Education Center Hanover * Central Association meeting Christians and Jews e.V. * Evangelical Partners Help e.V. Church Office Hanover: * Audit Office * Staff Office * Fund of the Church In addition, sections of the Evangelical Media Service Centre === Director === * (1937) 1941-1953: Oberkirchenrat Adolf Cillien * 1953-1956: Landessuperintendent Theodor Laasch (per pro) * 1956-1961: Former Superintendent Paul Kurth * 1965-1975: Former Superintendent Rudolph Herrfahrdt * 1975-1990: Professor Paul Gerhard Jahn * 1990-1999: Pastor Hans Joachim Schliep * 1999-2008: Pastor Dine Fecht * Since 2008: Pastor Ralf Tyra The Director is the Chairman of the Executive Committee (Former: Leadership Conference), which, in addition to the directors, the CEO, the head of the department and the pedagogical head of Protestant adult education in Lower Saxony (Ev. Erwachsenenbildung Niedersachsen) be a member of. From 1979 to 2002, the director of the Office of Congregational Service (now: House of Church Services) was the Commissioner for the Environment of the Confederation of Protestant Churches in Lower Saxony. == Institutions of the Church == In Loccum, the church maintains a Protestant academy and a theological seminary, which is located in the Loccum Abbey. Other facilities are the Religion Pedagogical Institute, the Center for Health Ethics (German: Zentrum für Gesundheitsethik) and the Hanns-Lilje Foundation (). == Notes == == External links == * Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hanover * http://www.diakonie-hannovers.de/pages/index.html * http://www.kirchliche- dienste.de/ * https://web.archive.org/web/20111025154402/http://www.evlka.de/zfg_de_dyn/index.php * Evangelical Church in Germany Hanover Hanover Category:Hanover Hanover church Hanover Hanover Hanover Hanover Hanover |
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament. Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by the Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, a United Nations-sponsored organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT Parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely. More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance. As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties to the treaty, though North Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations. Four UN member states have never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons: India, Israel, and Pakistan. In addition, South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined. The treaty defines nuclear- weapon states as those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945), Russia (1949), the United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), and China (1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, and North Korea have openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, while Israel is deliberately ambiguous regarding its nuclear weapons status. The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: > the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and > the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of > peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the > ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by Ambassador Thomas Graham Jr. At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons. Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of the Nuclear Suppliers Group and the enhanced verification measures of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Additional Protocol. Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high- ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons.Benjamin K. Sovacool (2011). Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy, World Scientific, pp. 187–190. ==Treaty structure == thumb|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of "pillars" is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as a three-pillar system,See, for example, the Canadian government's NPT web site The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty . with an implicit balance among them: # non-proliferation, # disarmament, and # the right to peacefully use nuclear technology.Ambassador Sudjadnan Parnohadiningrat, 26 April 2004, United Nations, New York, Third Session of the Preparatory Committee for the 2005 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, furnished by the Permanent Mission of the Republic of Indonesia to the United Nations (indonesiamission- ny.org) These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation. The "pillars" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that "three pillars" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance.This view was expressed by Christopher Ford, the U.S. NPT representative at the end of the Bush Administration. See "The 2010 Review Cycle So Far: A View from the United States of America", presented at Wilton Park, United Kingdom, 20 December 2007. ===First pillar: Non-proliferation=== Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon. Under Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes. Five states are recognized by NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer "nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices" and "not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to "receive", "manufacture", or "acquire" nuclear weapons or to "seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices (Article III). The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non- NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United Kingdom Secretary of State for Defence, Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a non-conventional attack by "rogue states".UK 'prepared to use nuclear weapons' BBC article dated 20 March 2002 In January 2006, President Jacques Chirac of France indicated that an incident of state-sponsored terrorism on France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the "rogue state's" power centers.France 'would use nuclear arms', BBC article dated 19 January 2006Chirac: Nuclear Response to Terrorism Is Possible, Washington Post article dated 20 January 2006 ===Second pillar: Disarmament=== Under Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament. Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, "Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament." Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them "to negotiate in good faith". On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to the Non-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as being anything but vague. In their view, Article VI constitutes a formal and specific obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation. The International Court of Justice (ICJ), in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that > There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion > negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict > and effective international control. The ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament. Critics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in the post–Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals.Mishra, J. "NPT and the Developing Countries", (Concept Publishing Company, 2008) . Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament. No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systemsSee, e.g., Disarmament, the United States, and the NPT, Christopher Ford, U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation, delivered at the Conference on "Preparing for 2010: Getting the Process Right," Annecy, France, 17 March 2007; Nuclear Disarmament Progress and Challenges in the Post-Cold War World , U.S. statement to the Second Session of the Preparatory Committee for the 2010 NPT Review Conference, Geneva (30 April 2008) —could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007, "logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge."U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation Christopher Ford, "Disarmament and Non-Nuclear Stability in Tomorrow's World," remarks to the Conference on Disarmament and Nonproliferation Issues, Nagasaki, Japan (31 August 2007). ===Third pillar: Peaceful use of nuclear energy=== NPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation. This so-called third pillar provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. As the commercially popular light water reactor nuclear power station uses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market. Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the "Achilles' heel" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007, 13 states have an enrichment capability. During the 1960s and 1970s many states, almost 60, were supplied with research reactors fuelled by weapon grade highly enriched uranium (HEU) through the United States Atoms for Peace program and a similar Soviet Union program. In the 1980s a program to convert HEU research reactors to use low enriched fuel was started in the United States due to proliferation concerns. However 26 states possessed more than 1 kg of civilian HEU in 2015, and as of 2016 the stocks of HEU for civilian research were 60 tonnes, with 74 research reactors still using HEU. Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered the principal obstacle to, and "pacing element" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. "ENR") technology.See Remarks by President Bush at the National Defense University (11 February 2004), available at https://georgewbush- whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/02/20040211-4.html (announcing initiative to stop spread of ENR technology). Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a "virtual" nuclear weapons program. The degree to which NPT members have a "right" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty. Countries that have become Parties to the NPT as non-nuclear-weapon States have a strong record of not building nuclear weapons, although some tried and one eventually left the NPT and acquired nuclear weapons. Iraq was found by the IAEA to have violated its safeguards obligations and subject to punitive sanctions by the UN Security Council. North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations, and http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/MediaAdvisory/2003/med-advise_048.shtml and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices. Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non- consensus decision because it "failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time" to report aspects of its enrichment program. In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. The IAEA reported Syria's safeguards non- compliance to the UN Security Council, which did not take action. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed. In 2004, Mohamed ElBaradei said that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons. ==Key articles== Article I: Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices. Article II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. Article III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Article IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. 2\. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co- operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. Article VI: Each party "undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control". Article IX: "For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967." Article X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative). ==History== thumb|upright=1.6|Date NPT first effective (including USSR, YU, CS of that time) The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that the Cold War deterrent relationship between just the United States and the Soviet Union was fragile. Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, escalation in tensions, and nuclear conflict. Moreover, since the use of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Initial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles. In December 1953, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in his "Atoms for Peace" proposal, presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility for promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997. Within the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched by Frank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the first State to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of the Cold War and of South African apartheid. In 1992, The People's Republic of China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. The treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decide whether the treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period or periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, state parties to the treaty agreed—without a vote—on the treaty's indefinite extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear-weapon state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined the NPT (and the Treaty of Tlatelolco NWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT states parties have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and acceded to the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nuclear arsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. The former Soviet Republics where nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined the NPT by 1994 following the signature of the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances.Why care about Ukraine and the Budapest Memorandum, Steven Pifer, Brookings Institution, 5 December 2019.Budapest Memorandum at 25: Between Past and Future, Mariana Budjeryn and Matthew Bunn, Belfer Center, March 2020.The Breach: Ukraine’s Territorial Integrity and the Budapest Memorandum, Mariana Budjereyn, Nuclear Proliferation International History Project Issue Brief #3, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Successor states from the Breakup of Yugoslavia and Dissolution of Czechoslovakia also joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to accede to the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to accede in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries in Compact of Free Association with the USA joined the NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The European states of Monaco and Andorra joined in 1995–6. Also acceding in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. ===United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing=== At the time the treaty was being negotiated, NATO had in place secret nuclear weapons sharing agreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended "unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling", so there is no breach of the NPT. These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including the Soviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time.Otfried Nassauer, Institute for Energy and Environmental Research (ieer.org), Science for Democratic Action Volume 9 Number 3, May 2001, Nuclear Sharing in NATO: Is it Legal? As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tactical B61 nuclear bombs for use by Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Turkey under these NATO agreements.Hans M. Kristensen, National Resources Defence Council (nrdc.org), February 2005, U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe: A Review of Post-Cold War Policy, Force Levels, and War Planning Many states, and the Non- Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its "nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political".NATO (nato.int), NATO's Nuclear Forces in the New Security Environment U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuading West Germany not to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with the Warsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self- defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route.See, e.g., U.S. Director of Central Intelligence, Likelihood and Consequences of a Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Systems, declassified U.S. National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 4–63 (28 June 1963), at p.17, paragraph 40. (West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.See, e.g., U.S. Director of Central Intelligence, Annex to National Intelligence Estimate No. 100-2-58: Development of Nuclear Capabilities by Fourth Countries: Likelihood and Consequences, declassified U.S. National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 100-2-58 (1 July 1958), at p.4, paragraphs 18–19; U.S. Director of Central Intelligence, Likelihood and Consequences of the Development of Nuclear Capabilities by Additional Countries, declassified U.S. National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 100-4-60 (20 September 1960), at p. 2, paragraph 4, & p.8, paragraphs 27–29.) ===Preparations for Russia's weapon deployment in Belarus=== On 27 February 2022, shortly after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, a referendum was staged in Belarus to remove a constitutional prohibition on basing nuclear weapons on its territory. On 25 June 2022, President of Belarus Lukashenko met Russian President Putin to discuss the deployment of Russian short-range nuclear-capable missiles on the territory of Belarus. The transfer of nuclear warheads would require a further decision, possibly after a number of years, and could be tied to future NATO decisions. In Belarus, Russia plans to deploy nuclear-capable Iskander-M missile systems. Both conventional and nuclear versions of the missile would be provided under the plans. Additionally, Putin said that he would facilitate the modifications necessary for Belarusian Su-25 bombers to carry nuclear missiles. On 14 June 2023, president Lukashenka said that Russia had started moving tactical nuclear weapons into Belarus’s territory. The Russian president had said the weapons were moved "as a deterrence measure” against threats to Russian statehood, and would not be controlled by Belaru. NATO saw no evidence in a change in Russia's nuclear position, while Ukrainian intelligence said that not a single warhead had yet been transferred. In February 2022, Belarus adopted a referendum that amended its constitution to repeal the prohibition on deployment of nuclear weapons in Belarus.Belarus referendum approves proposal to renounce non-nuclear status - agencies, Reuters, 27 February 2022. ==Non-parties== Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long-standing policy of deliberate ambiguity with regards to its nuclear program (see List of states with nuclear weapons). ===India=== India has detonated nuclear devices, first in 1974 and again in 1998. It is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheads and was among the few countries to have a no first use policy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India's former NSA Shivshankar Menon signaled a significant shift from "no first use" to "no first use against non-nuclear weapon states" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of the National Defence College in New Delhi on 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's "strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence". India argues that the NPT creates a club of "nuclear haves" and a larger group of "nuclear have-nots" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India's then External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee said during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: "If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment." Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future. In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them under IAEA safeguards. Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India "an important partner in the non-proliferation regime." In December 2006, United States Congress approved the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non- proliferation record, and India's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population. On 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreement and on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). While India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries. The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008. When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents of arms control denounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. , Australia, a top three uranium producer and home to world's largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export Uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India. In November 2011, Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard announced a desire to allow exports to India, a policy change which was authorized by her party's national conference in December. The following month, Gillard overturned Australia's long-standing ban on exporting uranium to India. She further said, "We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this the Asian century," and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons. On 5 September 2014 Tony Abbott, Gillard's successor as Australian Prime Minister, sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. "We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas," Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi signed a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation. ===Pakistan=== In May 1998, following India's nuclear tests earlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, the Chagai-I and Chagai-II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads. According to analyses of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Stimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile material for 350 warheads. Pakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it, Foreign Secretary Aizaz Ahmad Chaudhry was quoted as responding "It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we?" Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear-weapon state. The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India,BBC (bbc.co.uk), 2 March 2006, US and India seal nuclear accord but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future. By 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was "peaceful". The British government criticized this, on the grounds that 'the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan'. China did not seek formal approval from the nuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was "grandfathered" when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members. Pakistan applied for membership on 19 May 2016, supported by Turkey and China However, many NSG members opposed Pakistan's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea. Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016. ===Israel=== Israel has a long-standing policy of deliberate ambiguity with regards to its nuclear program (see List of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at its Dimona site in the Negev since 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of "Israeli exceptionality", a term coined by Professor Gerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large-scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability. The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli junior nuclear technician Mordechai Vanunu—subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel—published evidence about the program to the British Sunday Times in 1986. On September 18, 2009, the General Conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency called on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on "Israeli nuclear capabilities", which passed by a narrow margin of 49–45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that "Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution." However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015.IAEA Members Reject Israel Resolution, Kelsey Davenport, Arms Control Today, 2 October 2013.Resolution Calling Out Israel Fails , Kelsey Davenport, Arms Control Today, October 2015. As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel. ==Other States== ===North Korea=== North Korea acceded to the treaty on 12 December 1985 in order to obtain assistance from the Soviet Union in the construction of four light-water reactors, but was ruled be in noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards agreement after a series of inspections in 1992-93 which determined that North Korean had not fully declared its history of reprocessing spent fuel at the Yongbyon nuclear facility. North Korea responded by announcing its intent to withdraw from the treaty on 12 March 1993, and President Bill Clinton responded by announcing sanctions and considering military action. The crisis ended with the Agreed Framework negotiated by former US President Jimmy Carter in which North Korea agreed to an IAEA-monitored freeze of plutonium production facilities and construction of new reactors in exchange for two light-water reactors and heavy fuel oil shipments through the US-led Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization consortium. North Korea also abandoned its withdrawal from the NPT.International Atomic Energy Agency (iaea.org), May 2003, Fact Sheet on DPRK Nuclear Safeguards During the late 1990s and the early 2000s critics of the agreement, as well as Clinton's successor George W. Bush, expressed skepticism on North Korean compliance to the Agreed Framework. During 2002 negotiations US Assistant Secretary of State James A. Kelly accused North Korea of a secret highly enriched uranium program; North Korean First Vice Foreign Minister Kang Sok-ju and Vice Foreign Minister Kim Kye-gwan responded by denying the allegations but asserting that North Korea had a right to nuclear weapons. The U.S. subsequently halted fuel oil shipments to North Korea in December 2002 and the DPRK government again gave notice of withdrawal from NPT on 10 January 2003.Korean News Service, Tokyo (kcna.co.jp), 10 January 2003, Statement of DPRK Government on its withdrawal from NPT The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty.Nuclear Age Peace Foundation (wagingpeace.org), 10 April 2003, North Korea's Withdrawal from Nonproliferation Treaty Official In April 2003, North Korea agreed to the multilateral six-party talks to find a diplomatic solution to the issue hosted by China and including the United States, South Korea, Russia, and Japan. North Korea initially demanded resumption of fuel shipments, while the United States demanded the "complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantlement" of the North Korean nuclear program. On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks. "We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK [Democratic People's Republic of Korea]," a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue.Korean News Service, Tokyo (kcna.co.jp), February 2005, DPRK FM on Its Stand to Suspend Its Participation in Six-party Talks for Indefinite Period Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply of light water reactors to replace North Korea's indigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions. On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT.Agence France Presse, 2006, N. Korea raises stakes on nuclear deal with reactor demand , furnished by Media Corp News (channelnewsasia.com), 20 September 2005 The six-party talks eventually collapsed before a final agreement could be negotiated after the U.S. State Department sanctioned Banco Delta Asia under Section 311 of the Patriot Act for money-laundering involving North Korean accounts. On 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test "in the future", although it did not state when.BBC (news.bbc.co.uk), 3 October 2006, N Korea 'to conduct nuclear test' On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) the United States Geological Survey detected a magnitude 4.3 seismic event north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test. The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completed a successful underground test of a nuclear fission device. After United Nations Security Council Resolution 1718 imposed sanctions on North Korea, the six-party talks resumed. In February 2007 the parties agreed to the Initial Actions for the Implementation for the Joint Statement in which North Korea would dismantle its nuclear weapons programs, including the Yongbyon reactor, in exchange for the return of frozen funds at Banco Delta Asia and foreign energy assistance. However, the agreement failed due to verification problems and North Korea fully withdrew from the six-party talks in 2009 after the other members condemned the 2009 North Korean missile tests, expelling all US and IAEA inspectors from the country. The UN responded by adopting United Nations Security Council Resolution 1874 expanding the sanctions regime. In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002 CIA reports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence. On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations, there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok-ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that the A.Q. Khan proliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantling Libya's WMD programs points toward North Korea as the source for Libya's uranium hexafluoride (UF6)—which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment.See generally U.S. Department of State, "Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments", August 2005, pp. 87–92, www.state.gov/documents/organization/52113.pdf; Anthony Faiola, "N. Korea Declares Itself a Nuclear Power," The Washington Post, 10 February 2005, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A12836-2005Feb10.html; "Khan 'Gave N. Korea Centrifuges'", BBC News, 24 August 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4180286.stm; "Pakistan and North Korea: Dangerous Counter-Trades", IISS Strategic Comments, Vol. 8, No. 9 (November 2002). North Korea formally announced the existence of a uranium enrichment program in September 2009. In 2011, after rising tensions over the North Korean nuclear program, the ROKS Cheonan sinking, and the bombardment of Yeonpyeong, North Korea began to express interest in returning to the six- party talks. Bilateral negotiations between North Korea and the United States after the death of Kim Jong-il led to the 29 February 2012 "Leap Day Agreement" in which North Korea would agree to allow IAEA inspections and resume the six-party talks. However, these diplomatic gains were quickly undercut by launching the Unha-3 rocket, leading the United States to suspend food aid. North Korea conducted further nuclear tests in 2013, January 2016, September 2016, and 2017, and announced that it was developing miniaturized warheads and intercontinental ballistic missiles. It also claimed that it had successfully thermonuclear weapons in the January 2016 and 2017 tests. The North Korean nuclear weapons development led to the 2017–2018 North Korea crisis which nearly led to war, with both North Korean Supreme Leader Kim Jong-un and US President Donald Trump threatening military action. The crisis was averted after a series of meetings between Kim Jong-un, US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, and South Korean President Moon Jae-in finally culminating with the 2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summit between Trump and Kim, the first face-to-face meeting between the US and North Korean heads of state. The IAEA has called for North Korea to rejoin it and the NPT since 2013. ===Iran=== Iran is a party to the NPT since 1970 but was found in non- compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003 IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei reported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations under the NPT with respect to: * reporting of nuclear material imported to Iran; * reporting of the subsequent processing and use of imported nuclear material; * declaring of facilities and other locations where nuclear material had been stored and processed. After about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program, the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement. This was reported to the UN Security Council in 2006,Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Resolution adopted on 4 February 2006, after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment. Instead, Iran resumed its enrichment program. The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities. In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address "alleged studies" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as "baseless" and the documents as "fabrications". In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not "cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues ... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program."GOV/2009/35, Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and relevant provisions of Security Council resolutions 1737 (2006), 1747 (2007), 1803 (2008) and 1835 (2008) in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 5 June 2009. The United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations.Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments, Bureau of Verification and Compliance, U.S. Department of State, 30 August 2005 The November 2007 US National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's "Key Judgments", however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was only "nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work"-namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations. Since Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz—and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production—began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary "pacing element" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much.See, e.g., U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation Christopher A. Ford, "The 2020 NPT Review Cycle So Far: A View from the United States of America", remarks at Wilton Park, UK (20 December 2007), ("Given that possession of the necessary quantity of fissile material is the most difficult challenge in developing a nuclear weapon, the recently-released U.S. National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) hardly alleviates our concerns about Iran's nuclear work."). As The Bush Administration's Director of National Intelligence (DNI) Mike McConnell put it in 2008, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus "probably the least significant part of the program." Iran stated it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it had "constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency". Iran also stated that its enrichment program has been part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. Early during his tenure as United Nations Secretary General, between 2007 and 2016, Ban Ki-moon welcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA. He urged a peaceful resolution of the issue. In April 2010, during the signing of the U.S.-Russia New START Treaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations were demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying "We will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security." In 2015, Iran negotiated a nuclear deal with the P5+1, a group of countries that consisted of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) plus Germany. On 14 July 2015, the P5+1 and Iran concluded the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for constraints and on Iran's nuclear activities and increased verification by the IAEA. On 8 May 2018, President Donald Trump withdrew the United States from the JCPOA and reimposed sanctions on Iran. ===South Africa=== South Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them—unlike the former Soviet states Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the former USSR and also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states. During the days of apartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility at Pelindaba near Pretoria where uranium was enriched to fuel grade for the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station as well as weapon grade for bomb production. In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United States Harry Schwarz signed the Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then president Frederik Willem de Klerk openly admitted that the country had developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled before South Africa acceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program. ===Libya=== Libya had signed (in 1968) and ratified (in 1975) the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by the A.Q. Khan proliferation networkImplementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, International Atomic Energy Agency, GOV/2008/39, 12 September 2008.—including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating its WMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring.Uncovering the Nuclear Black Market: Working Toward Closing Gaps in the International Nonproliferation Regime, by David Albright and Corey Hinderstein, Institute for Science and International Security, 4 June 2004. In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment—including prototypes for improved SCUD ballistic missiles—were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining the Chemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed.See generally Assistant Secretary of State Paula DeSutter, "Libya Renounces Weapons of Mass Destruction, ; DeSutter, "Completion of Verification Work in Libya", testimony before the Subcommittee on International Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Human Rights (22 September 2004); DeSutter, "U.S. Government's Assistance to Libya in the Elimination of its Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)", testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (26 February 2004) In 2011, the Libyan government of Muammar al-Gaddafi was overthrown in the Libyan Civil War with the assistance of a military intervention by NATO forces acting under the auspices of UN Security Council Resolution 1973. Gaddafi's downfall 8 years after the disarmament of Libya, in which Gaddafi agreed to eliminate Libya's nuclear weapons program, has been repeatedly cited by North Korea, which views Gaddafi's fate as a "cautionary tale" that influences North Korea's decision to maintain and intensify its nuclear weapons program and arsenal despite pressure to denuclearize.Megan Specia & David E. Sanger, How the 'Libya Model' Became a Sticking Point in North Korea Nuclear Talks, New York Times (16 May 2018).Wyn Bowen & Matthew Moran, What North Korea learned from Libya's decision to give up nuclear weapons, The Conversation (11 May 2018).Målfrid Braut-Hegghammer, Giving Up on the Bomb: Revisiting Libya’s Decision to Dismantle its Nuclear Program, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (23 October 2017). ===Syria=== Syria is a state party to the NPT since 1969 and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of the Syrian Civil War it was known to operate only one small Chinese-built research reactor, SRR-1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desert Deir ez-Zor Governorate. The reactor's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted in Operation Orchard, that took place on 6 September 2007 and saw as many as eight Israeli Air Force aircraft taking part. The Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off of the US Bush administration, although the latter declined to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did not cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Despite a half-century state of war declared by surrounding states, Israel did not want publicity as regards its breach of the ceasefire, while Syria was not willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program. ===Ukraine=== Ukraine acceded to the NPT in 1994 as a non- nuclear-weapon state, and committed to remove all nuclear weapons from its territory. In recognition of Ukraine's decision, the UK, the United States and Russia provided security assurances to Ukraine under the Budapest Memorandum of 1994. Following the invasion of Ukraine by Russia in 2014 and 2022, John Paull, an environmental scientist from the University of Tasmania, questioned the wisdom of the relinquishment of Ukraine's nuclear weapons in exchange for what he considered an empty assurances of national integrity.Paull, John (2023). War in Ukraine: Treaty to Treachery, in Proceedings of Russia-Ukraine War: Consequences for the World, 3rd International Scientific and Practical Internet Conference, March 2–3, 2023. WayScience, Dnipro, Ukraine (pp. 18-20) Andreas Umland, an analyst from the Swedish Institute of International Affairs, likewise argued that Ukraine had been unwise to give up its arsenal, as Russia breaking the treaty only had limited consequences, and demonstrated that only a nuclear arsenal guarantee a country's sovereignty in the face of aggression from a nuclear power. However, Mariana Budjeryn of Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center, argued that it was unclear whether Ukraine's nuclear arsenal would have kept it safe from Russian aggression. Establishing operative control and maintaining the missiles would have been challenging for Ukraine, which might have faced sanctions had it refused to give up its arsenal. ==Leaving the treaty== Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if "extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice. NATO states argue that when there is a state of "general war" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATO nuclear weapons sharing policy. NATO's argument is based on the phrase "the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding. See United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing above. North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of "supreme interests of its country". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under the Agreed Framework and "suspended" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before. The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation. Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the "extraordinary events" and "supreme interests" requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of the Six-Party Talks called for North Korea to "return" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn. ==Recent and coming events== The main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document, which included among other things "practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as the Thirteen Steps. On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India.The Associated Press, 2005, Bush opens energy door to India, furnished by CNN (cnn.com), 18 July 2005 At the time, British columnist George Monbiot argued that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT regime.George Monbiot, The Guardian (guardian.co.uk), 2 August 2005, The treaty wreckers In the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was "peaceful". Arms control advocates criticised the reported China- Pakistan deal as they did in case of U.S.-India deal claiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence in South-Asia. According to a report published by U.S. Department of Defense in 2001, China had provided Pakistan with nuclear materials and has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory. At the Seventh Review Conference in May 2005,"The 2005 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held from 2 to 27 May 2005 at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. The President-elect of the Review Conference is Ambassador Sérgio de Queiroz Duarte of Brazil". 2005 Review Conference. Retrieved 26 May 2020. there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of serious nuclear disarmament by the nuclear powers. The non-aligned countries reiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament.Syed Hamid Albar, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia, United Nations (un.org), New York, 2 May 2005, The General Debate of the 2005 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons The 2010 Review Conference was held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, Ambassador Libran Capactulan of the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus.Summary of the 2010 NPT final outcome document, Beatrice Fihn, Reaching Critical Will, 1 June 2010. Final Document, 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, NPT/CONF.2010/50, adopted 28 May 2010. The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray, a fact that many attributed to the U.S. President Barack Obama's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015. The "Global Summit on Nuclear Security" took place 12–13 April 2010. The summit was proposed by President Obama in Prague and was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with the Proliferation Security Initiative and the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism.Obama Calls for Global Nuclear Summit in March 2010 from America.gov, retrieved on 8 January 2010. Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit, which issued a communiqué and a work plan. For further information see 2010 Nuclear Security Summit. In a major policy speech at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin on 19 June 2013, Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in the U.S. nuclear arsenal. According to Foreign Policy, Obama proposed a "one-third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads—on top of the cuts already required by the New START treaty—bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000". Obama is seeking to "negotiate these reductions with Russia to continue to move beyond Cold War nuclear postures," according to briefing documents provided to Foreign Policy. In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating from Iran and North Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in the United States Congress to ratify the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons. On 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of the Marshall Islands has brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NNPT enforced. The 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document. The Tenth Review Conference convened 1–26 August 2022, after a two-year postponement due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and concluded without adopting a final document. Contentious negotiations came close to consensus on a text, but ultimately Russia blocked consensus over issues related to the war in Ukraine, including references to the safety of the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant in the draft text. On June 23, 2023 The US Department of State issued a statement that the United States hosted the meeting on June 13-14 in Cairo among the five nuclear weapons states, describing it as "an ongoing exchange in the context of the Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty (NPT)." ==Criticism and responses== Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as "a conspiracy of the nuclear 'haves' to keep the nuclear 'have-nots' in their place". This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which "obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening". Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT. Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it "discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967," while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT. There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads (as of February 2021) among them. As noted above, the International Court of Justice, in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that "there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control". Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons.[wmdreport.org/ndcs/online/NuclearDisorderPart1Section2.pdf Nuclear Disorder Part 1 Section 2] The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that, since the end of the Cold War, it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons, and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons. U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. By the time accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush were completed, the U.S. arsenal was less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it had been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT.Fact Sheet: Increasing Transparency in the U.S. Nuclear Weapons Stockpile, 3 May 2010. The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel.See. e.g., "Disarmament, the United States, and the NPT"; U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation Christopher Ford, "Procedure and Substance in the NPT Review Cycle: The Example of Nuclear Disarmament", remarks to the Conference on "Preparing for 2010: Getting the Process Right," Annecy, France (17 March 2007); "The United States and Article VI: A Record of Accomplishment," . As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War.Remarks by U.S. National Security Advisor Stephen Hadley at the Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford University (8 February 2008) The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult. The United Kingdom, France and Russia likewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments. According to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the "NPT has one giant loophole": Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the "inalienable right" to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power. A "number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons". A 2009 United Nations report said that: > The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide > dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing > technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these > technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in > nuclear weapons. According to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States. Based on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons was adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on January 22, 2021, it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT. ==See also== * 13 steps (an important section in the Final Document of the 2000 Review Conference of the Treaty) * Chemical Weapons Convention * Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) * Humanitarian Initiative * Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT) * Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) * New Agenda Coalition (NAC) * Non-Proliferation and Disarmament Initiative (NPDI) * Nuclear armament * Nuclear warfare * Nuclear-weapon-free zone ** Multi-country zones *** African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Pelindaba) *** Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (Treaty of Semei) *** South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Rarotonga) *** Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Bangkok) *** Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Treaty of Tlatelolco) ** Other UN- recognized zones *** Mongolian Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zone *** Outer Space Treaty *** Seabed Arms Control Treaty * Nuclear Terrorism * Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) * Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) * Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) * Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (also known as the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty) * Weapon of Mass Destruction (WMD) * Zangger Committee * List of states with nuclear weapons * List of weapons of mass destruction treaties ==References== ==External links== * Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (PDF) – IAEA * UN Office of Disarmament Affairs NPT section * Procedural history, related documents and photos on the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law * Membership/Signatories * Annotated Bibliography on the NPT from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues * Compilation of speeches and papers relevant to NPT Review Cycle, U.S. Department of State * 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Canada competed at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games held in the British Crown Dependency of Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011. Their participation marked their third Commonwealth Youth Games appearance. Canada was represented by the Commonwealth Games Canada, the association which is responsible for Commonwealth Games and Commonwealth movement in Canada. The delegation of 70 people included 56 competitors and 14 coaches and supporting staff. Asianna Covington of Surrey, British Columbia, was given the honor to carry the national flag of Canada at the opening ceremony. Caroline Morin-Houde of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec, was selected as the flag bearer in the closing ceremony. This was the first time that Canada failed to win any gold medal, and devolved to 15th position with six silvers and 16 overall medals, Canada ranking fifth in the medal table (with six golds and 26 overall medals) of the previous Commonwealth Youth Games. Sprinter Caroline Morin-Houde was the most successful competitor from Canadian side, winning three silvers. Artistic gymnast Curtis Graves was the most medal winning athlete in the Canadian delegation, winning two silvers and two bronze medals. With one silver and one bronze, Shaina Harrison and Kal Nemier were other competitors who won multiple medals at the Games. ==Medalists== A total of 20 out of 56 Canadian competitors won medals at the Games. The following Canadian competitors won medals at the Games. In the 'by discipline' sections below, medalists' names are emboldened. | width="78%" align="left" valign="top" | Medal Name Sport Event Date Athletics 100 m 9th Athletics 200 m 11th Athletics 4×100 m relay 11th Boxing Bantamweight 11th Gymnastics Horizontal bar CIII 11th Gymnastics Men's team CIV 9th Athletics 100 m hurdles 10th Athletics 100 m 9th Athletics 4×100 m relay 11th Athletics 400 m hurdles 11th Athletics 800 m 11th Boxing Middleweight 10th Cycling Time trial team 9th Gymnastics Horizontal bar CIII 11th Gymnastics Parallel bars CIII 11th Gymnastics Still rings CIII 11th | width="22%" align="left" valign="top" | Medals by discipline Medals by discipline Medals by discipline Medals by discipline Medals by discipline Medals by discipline Discipline Image:Gold medal icon.svg Image:Silver medal icon.svg Image:Bronze medal icon.svg Total Athletics 0 3 5 8 Badminton 0 0 0 0 Boxing 0 1 1 2 Cycling 0 0 1 1 Gymnastics 0 2 3 5 Rugby sevens 0 0 0 0 Total 0 6 10 16 ===Multiple medalists=== Name Medal Sport Event Athletics 100 m 200 m 4×100 m relay Gymnastics Men's team CIV Horizontal bar CIII Parallel bars CIII Still rings CIII Athletics 4×100 m relay 100 m Gymnastics Men's team CIV Horizontal bar ==Athletics== Athletics Canada, the national governing body of athletics in Canada, selected 21 athletes (nine men and twelve women) as a part of the delegation to participate in the athletics events. This was the second time in the history of the Games that Canada sent contingents for the athletics. Canada made its appearance in the athletics events of the Commonwealth Youth Games in 2008, where they won one gold, three silver and three bronze medals. In the athletics team, there were nine men: Steven Ajayi (100 m), Drelan Bramwell (100– and 200 m), Jeremy Coughler (2000 m steeplechase), Christian Gravel (3000 m), Denray Jean-Jacques (400 m), Keefer Joyce (100 m), Troy Smith (1500 m), Matthew Swanson (800 m), and Jordan Wand (800 m), and twelve women: Mireille Aylwin-Descôteaux (2000 m steeplechase), Asianna Covington (discus and hammer throw), Adrianne Erdman (2000 m steeplechase), Taylor Farquhar (400 m hurdles), Emma Galbraith (800 m), Shaina Harrison (100 m), Alexa Hrycun (1500 m), Cassandra Jones (400 m), Vanessa McLeod (800 m), Caroline Morin-Houde (200 m), Brooke Rowland (javelin throw), and Marie-Colombe St-Pierre (200 m) athletes. The team was also accompanied by Christine Laverty as head coach, Jean-François Roy as team manager, and two event coaches George Kerr and Gregory Peters. ;Men Athlete Events Heat Semifinal Final Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Drelan Bramwell 100 m 10.76 1 Q 10.72 3 Q 10.60 4 Drelan Bramwell 200 m 21.79 2 Q 22.04 3 did not advance did not advance Keefer Joyce 100 m 10.69 1 Q 10.61 2 Q 10.63 5 Steven Ajayi 200 m 22.07 2 Q 22.29 3 did not advance did not advance Denray Jean- Jacques 400 m 49.16 3 Q 50.33 4 did not advance did not advance Matthew Swanson 800 m 1:52.74 2 Q 1:52.72 2 Q 1:54.09 4 Jordan Wand 800 m 1:55.18 2 Q 2:03.85 6 did not advance did not advance Christian Gravel 1500 m 4:01.50 4 Q N/A N/A 3:58.81 6 Troy Smith 1500 m 4:01.95 5 Q N/A N/A 4:04.09 8 Thomas Jeremy Coughler 2000 m steeplechase N/A N/A N/A N/A 6:14.36 6 4×100 m relay N/A N/A N/A N/A 41.44 File:Bronze medal icon.svg ;Women Athlete Events Heat Semifinal Final Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Caroline Morin-Houde 100 m 11.97 1 Q 11.67 1 Q 11.81 File:Silver medal icon.svg Caroline Morin-Houde 200 m 24.40 1 Q 24.74 1 Q 24.44 File:Silver medal icon.svg Shaina Harrison 100 m 12.00 1 Q 11.82 2 Q 11.81 File:Bronze medal icon.svg Marie-Colombe St-Pierre 200 m 24.89 2 Q 25.14 2 Q 25.04 6 Cassandra Jones 400 m 58.15 2 Q 57.56 3 Q DQ DQ Emma Galbraith 800 m 2:16.42 1 Q N/A N/A 2:16.08 5 Vanessa McLeod 800 m 2:15.34 3 Q N/A N/A 2:13.08 File:Bronze medal icon.svg Alexa Hrycun 100 m hurdles 13.86 1 Q N/A N/A 13.96 4 Deshaunda Morrison 100 m hurdles 13.87 3 Q N/A N/A 13.77 File:Bronze medal icon.svg Taylor Farquhar 400 m hurdles N/A N/A N/A N/A 62.00 File:Bronze medal icon.svg Mireille Aylwin-Descôteaux 2000 m steeplechase N/A N/A N/A N/A 7:17.81 6 Adrianne Erdman 2000 m steeplechase N/A N/A N/A N/A 7:14.58 5 4×100 m relay N/A N/A N/A N/A 46.58 File:Silver medal icon.svg Asianna Covington Discus throw N/A N/A N/A N/A 43.52 m 5 Asianna Covington Hammer throw N/A N/A N/A N/A 49.94 m 4 ==Badminton== Commonwealth Games Canada sent eight—four men and four women—badminton players to the Games, competing in all the events. None of the players succeeded in winning a medal. The doubles pair of Nathan Choi and Nyl Yakura advanced to the bronze final match where they lost to Srikanth Kidambi and Hema Thandarang of India. Athlete Event Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Ref Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Clinton Wong Men's singles Bye Matthew Carder (SCO) W 21–15, 18–21, 21–16 Matthew Carder (WAL) L 22–24, 18–21 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Nyl Yakura Men's singles Bye W 21–8, 21–8 L 18–21, 15–21 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Adrianna Giuffre Women's singles Bye Alannah Stephenson (NIR) W 21–16, 21–16 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Wan-Ting Tsai Women's singles Bye W 21–6, 21–3 L 15–21, 21–13, 8–21 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Andrew Lau, Clinton Wong Men's doubles N/A N/A Jason Ramjas, Matthaus Wilford (TRI) W 21–6, 21–9 Srikanth Kidambi, Hema Thandarang (IND) L 21–18, 16–21, 15–21 did not advance did not advance did not advance Nathan Choi, Nyl Yakura Men's doubles N/A N/A Matthew Carder, Josh Neil (SCO) W 21–14, 21–10 Hu-Wen Chew, Toby Wong (AUS) W 21–9, 21–11 Nelson Heg, Ee yi Teo (IND) L 17–21, 11–21 Bronze final Srikanth Kidambi, Hema Thandarang (IND) L 14–21, 21–15, 12–21 4 Adrianna Giuffre, Wan-Ting Tsai Women's doubles N/A N/A Sonia Cheah, Li lian Yang (MAS) L 13–21, 18–21 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Vivian Kwok, Kacey Tung Women's doubles N/A N/A Matthew Carder, Josh Neil (FLK) W 21–3, 21–8 Jacqueline Guan, Gronya Somerville (AUS) L 11–21, 12–21 did not advance did not advance did not advance Kacey Tung, Clinton Wong Mixed doubles N/A N/A Aminath Suhaila Hussain Mohamed Shabin (MDV) W 21–2, 21–2 Daniel Font Jordan Hart (WAL) L 21–15, 15–21, 19–21 did not advance did not advance did not advance Wan- Ting Tsai, Nyl Yakura Mixed doubles N/A N/A Andries Malan, Jennifer van den Berg (RSA) W 21–11, 21–10 Emily Trebert, Jordan Trebert (GGY) W 21–8, 21–10 Nelson Heg, Meng yean Lee (MAS) L 21–18, 21–17, –21, 16–21 did not advance did not advance ==Boxing== Canada entered four pugilists—Brody Pigeon (light flyweight), Jessy Brown (bantamweight), Luis Valdivia (welterweight) and Cody Crowley (middleweight)—to compete in the boxing events. Both Pigeon and Brown received byes in their first round matches. Pigeon eliminated in the second round (quarterfinal) after losing to Nyiko Ndukula of South Africa. Brown was the only medal winning Canadian boxer. He defeated Benjamin Henry of Guyana in the quarterfinal and Obedy Mutapa of Zambia in the semifinal. In the final bout, Brown lost to Qais Ashfaq of England by the points difference of 3 to 15, but his appearance in the final round helped him with the podium finish—a silver medal. Opponent of Valdivia, Kieran Smith, won the quarterfinal match due to walkover. Crowley defeated Tevita Pomale of Tonga in the quarterfinal, but lost to Dylan Hardy of Australia in the semifinal. Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Ref Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Brody Pigeon Light flyweight Bye L 11–16 did not advance Jessy Brown Bantamweight Bye W opponent retired injured W 19–7 Qais Ashfaq (ENG) L 3–15 File:Silver medal icon.svg Luis Valdivia Welterweight N/A Kieran Smith (SCO) L opponent won by walkover did not advance Cody Crowley Middleweight N/A W 16–5 W 12–14 did not advance ==Cycling== ;Men Athlete Event Time Rank Ref Elliott Doyle Time trial 10.02 15 Elliott Doyle Road race @1Lap 22 Elliott Doyle Criterium @34Laps 27 Simon-Pierre Gauthier Time trial 9.44 9 Simon-Pierre Gauthier Road race 2:37:24 15 Simon-Pierre Gauthier Criterium 57.48 8 Charles Matte Time trial 9.43 8 Charles Matte Road race 2:36:22 7 Charles Matte Criterium @34Laps 26 David Onsow Time trial 10.37 27 David Onsow Road race @2Laps 24 David Onsow Criterium @35Laps 28 Elliott Doyle, Simon-Pierre Gauthier, Charles Matte, David Onsow Time trial team 19.27 File:Bronze medal icon.svg Elliott Doyle, Simon-Pierre Gauthier, Charles Matte, David Onsow Road race team — 6 ;Women Athlete Event Time Rank Ref Allyson Gillard Time trial 11:44 12 Allyson Gillard Road race 1:14:52 15 Allyson Gillard Criterium @3Laps 15 Tennessee Mayer Time trial 11:45 13 Tennessee Mayer Road race 1:16:01 16 Tennessee Mayer Criterium @2Laps 13 Janie Rioux- Coulombe Time trial 11:50 15 Janie Rioux-Coulombe Road race 1:08:11 11 Janie Rioux-Coulombe Criterium @2Laps 12 Allyson Gillard, Tennessee Mayer, Janie Rioux-Coulombe Time trial team 23.29 5 Allyson Gillard, Tennessee Mayer, Janie Rioux-Coulombe Road race team — 6 ==Gymnastics== ;Artistic ;Men Athlete Event Apparatus Final Floor Pommel horse Rings Vault Parallel bars Horizontal bar Total Rank Zachary Clay Qualification 13.400 Q 13.050 Q 10.450 14.650 Q 13.600 Q 12.950 78.100 3 Q Zachary Clay All-around 13.650 12.600 11.650 14.850 13.500 10.800 77.050 7 Zachary Clay Floor 13.300 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 13.300 4 Zachary Clay Pommel horse N/A 12.950 N/A N/A N/A N/A 12.950 4 Zachary Clay Vault N/A N/A N/A 14.175 N/A N/A 14.175 5 Zachary Clay Parallel bars N/A N/A N/A N/A 12.850 N/A 12.850 4 Kal Nemier Qualification 12.650 10.350 13.050 Q 14.500 13.000 13.450 Q 77.000 5 Q Kal Nemier All-around 13.100 10.700 13.450 14.900 12.900 13.550 78.600 5 Kal Nemier Rings N/A N/A 12.850 N/A N/A N/A 12.850 5 Kal Nemier Horizontal bar N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 13.600 13.600 File:Bronze medal icon.svg Curtis Grave Qualification 12.050 8.500 12.550 Q 14.100 13.400 Q 13.450 Q 74.050 11 Curtis Grave Rings N/A N/A 13.400 N/A N/A N/A 13.400 File:Bronze medal icon.svg Curtis Grave Parallel bars N/A N/A N/A N/A 13.250 N/A 13.250 File:Bronze medal icon.svg Curtis Grave Horizontal bar N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 13.750 13.750 File:Silver medal icon.svg ==Rugby sevens== Canadian roster for the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games consisted 12 players. Players were selected evenly from British Columbia and Ontario only. Shane Thompson, head coach of the Canadian National Under-18 Men's Sevens team, joined the team as coach, Jeff Williams as assistant coach and Darrell Devine as co-coach/manager. ;Team Roster *Lukas Balkovec *Justin Douglas *Fergus Hall *Conor McCann *Andrew Battaglia *Haydn Evans *Lucas Hammond *Jorden Sandover- Best *Byron Boville *Scott Gauer *Patrick Kay *Nathan Yanagiya ;Pool A Team Pld W D L PF PA PD Pts 3 3 0 0 97 5 +92 9 3 2 0 1 63 38 +25 7 3 1 0 2 65 46 +19 5 3 0 0 3 5 140 −135 3 \---- \---- ;Quarterfinals Canadian team qualified for the quarterfinal after finishing third in the pool A. On 11 September, team Canada played its quarterfinal match against the runner-up of pool B South Africa. South African team won the match with a goal difference of 24–12, and qualified for the semifinals. ;Semi Final Plate and Bowl After losing to South African team in the quarterfinal, Canadian team played against Trinidad and Tobago to qualify for the Grand Final Plate match. Canada beat Trinidad and Tobago with a goal difference of 60–7, largest margin victory of Canada in the tournament. ;Grand Final Plate Canada faced Isle of Man in the Grand Final Plate match. Isle of Man earned a place after beating Sri Lanka in the other semi Final Plate match. Similar to pool round match, Isle of Man remained scoreless and Canadian team with a goal difference of 52–0 won Grand Final Plate—equivalent to fifth position in the final standings. ==See also== *2011 Commonwealth Youth Games medal table *Canada at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics ==References== ==External links== *Official website (results) of the Games *Official website of the Commonwealth Games Canada (for 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games) Category:2011 in Canadian sports Category:Nations at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games Category:Canada at multi-sport events |
"Pound the Alarm" is a song by rapper Nicki Minaj, serving as the fourth single from her second studio album, Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded (2012). The song was written by RedOne, Carl Falk, Rami Yacoub, Bilal Hajji, and Achraf Jannusi, with co-writing credits from Minaj, and production was handled by RedOne, Falk, and Yacoub. Despite the song not winning the poll where Minaj and her label asked fans to pick the next single from her album, the label went ahead and released "Pound the Alarm" due to a large number of airplay requests for the song. Musically, "Pound the Alarm" is a Eurodance song that talks about having a good time and partying all night, as well as going to festivals/carnivals as the music video portrays. The song reached the top ten in Australia, Canada, Finland, Ireland, Israel, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom and in top twenty in Mexico and France. In the United States, the song peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart. The accompanying music video was shot in her native birth country, Trinidad and Tobago, and features Minaj performing at a national Trinidad and Tobago Carnival as well as dancing from locals of the country. The music video received positive reviews, with many enjoying the fun atmosphere. The song was featured on Minaj's Pink Friday: Reloaded Tour. The song is included in the game Just Dance 2014. It is also one of the select songs available on the demo version. ==Background== On May 24, 2012, a poll was posted on Minaj's official website asking the fans to choose the next single(s). The poll is divided into three categories. The third and final category asks to choose between "Pound the Alarm", "Whip It", and "Va Va Voom". "Va Va Voom" had the most votes and won the poll. "Whip It" came in second and "Pound the Alarm" came in third. After the poll results were finalized, a fan then told Minaj; "ΝΟΟΟ!! Pound The Alarm is way more energetic!!!", where Minaj replied: "I agree!!!! Fun2perform. But the polls don't lie do they?"." The song was eventually trending on Twitter for the choice of the songs. Moments later she tweeted: "Oop. Just got word that radio 1 in the uk and nova & 2day fm in australia are runnin w/ #poundthealarm due to the amount of requests" and later added after "Sorry va va voomers...Looks like France has chosen #poundthealarm for the win as well barbz.""Twitter" / NICKIMINAJ: Sorry #vavavoomers". www.twitter.com. Minaj confirmed on Twitter on June 6, 2012, that she chose "Pound the Alarm" as the next single instead of "Va Va Voom" owing to the number of radio requests "Pound the Alarm" was getting in the UK, Australia, and France. It officially impacted Australian radio on June 12, 2012, where it was the most added track of the week. It also impacted UK radio on June 15, 2012. In the United States, the song was released as the second mainstream single and fourth single overall from the album on July 17, 2012. ==Composition== "Pound the Alarm" is a Eurodance song produced by RedOne, Falk, and Rami. It is composed in common time in the key of C minor with a tempo of 125 beats per minute. It moves in common time and follows a chord progression of Cm–Gm–A–B, and Nicki's vocals span from B3 to A4. The song makes use of EDM, techno and house in its composition, while also being influenced by rave. After each chorus there is a "frantic" Eurodance and dubstep breakdown, and also features the sounds of alarms, which were sampled from American artist Britney Spears from her 2000 single "Stronger", weaving beats, and "seize-the-night" lyrics. Lyrically, it talks about having a good time and partying. However, in one of the verses, she warns her lover by saying, "I'm a bad bitch, no muzzle", meaning that whilst muzzles prevent dogs from barking, nobody can stop her from saying what she wants to say, as she is a 'bad bitch'. When the song received mixed reception from critics with it being too similar, RedOne, who produced both the song and "Starships" told MTV News that "Pound the Alarm" is sonically edgier. "It's got the pop element, but it's got some hard-core elements, some dance underground elements." Laurence Green from MusicOMH compared the song to 2 Unlimited by saying "The techno push of 'Pound the Alarm' comes on like [2 Unlimited] set loose in the studio [...]". Kitty Empire from The Observer described the song as firmly a "half-rap, half-pop" song. ==Critical reception== Entertainment Weekly gave a positive review by describing the song as "The perfect trunk rattler to blast from your pink Barbie Bentley, with booming synths that build to a brain- numbing epiphany: 'Music. Makes Me. High.'" Slant Magazine stated that "Pound the Alarm", along with "Starships", "Whip It", and "Automatic", are "retro- techno-pop earsores indiscriminately arranged bits of LMFAO's 'Sexy and I Know It', Rihanna's 'We Found Love', and pretty much any recent Britney Spears or Katy Perry song you can name", adding that "Her repeated exhortation on 'Pound the Alarm' to get things 'hotter and hotter and sexy and hotter' is about as weak as club-jam come-ons get." Fact gave it a positive review, saying "its avalanche-force hoover noises are so over-the-top and its hooks so catchy that you may as well save time and cave into it now." Kitty Empire from The Observer said the song makes the album "a persuasive compromise between this album's chart fodder and its rap turf." Andrew Unterberger of Popdust gave the song a mixed review, and compared it to the works of Jennifer Lopez, Taio Cruz, The Black Eyed Peas, and Beyoncé. Billboard editor Andrew Hampp gave the song a negative review, stating that it is a "'Starships' sound-alike" and saying the only difference is that "Nicki does a little bit more singing than she does on her current single, but otherwise the two tracks are virtually indistinguishable. Even the chorus is a rewrite." Emily Mackay from NME said the song was a "charmless trancey ba[n]ger" and categorised it as a part of the album that "flipflops". Matthew Cole was more negative, stating the song is "about as weak as club-jam come-ons get". Drowned in Sound called the song "trashy electro [music]". ==Commercial performance== "Pound the Alarm" debuted at 92 and peaked at number 15 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at number fourteen on the US Pop Songs. The song also peaked at number one on Hot Dance Club Songs. The song managed to peak inside the top ten in Canada, peaking at number nine on the charts. The song also managed to have success in the Oceanic regions. In Australia, the song debuted at number thirty-three, until the next week it peaked at number ten for two non-consecutive weeks. It was eventually certified 2× Platinum by Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for sales of 70,000. In New Zealand, the song debuted at twelve, until the next week it peaked at number six for two consecutive weeks. The song was then certified Gold by Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for sales of 7,500. The song was also very successful in European regions. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted at seventy-nine until it fell out; it later re- entered at number sixty-one and peaked at number eight. The song also marks Minaj's third solo top ten entry in the UK, following "Super Bass" and "Starships". In France, the song debuted at 137, until it rose to number 52. "Pound the Alarm" later re-entered at 59, peaking at nineteen. In Finland, the song debuted at fourteen and peaked at number four. In Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), the song debuted at 41 and 43, reaching numbers fourteen and thirty-one, respectively (for two consecutive weeks). The song debuted at 86 on the Dutch Top 40 and peaked at number 30 on the chart; it further debuted and peaked at number 23 in Denmark. In Switzerland, the song debuted at number 52 and peaked at number 44. It peaked at number eight in Scotland as well. ==Music video== The video was shot in Trinidad at Queen's Park Savannah on July 4, 2012, and had what was seen to be a carnival theme. Open auditions were held for the video on-set. 500 people were scheduled to appear in the music video and were asked to come wearing carnival attire. Director Benny Boom, who filmed Minaj's "Beez in the Trap" and "Right by My Side" videos, also directed the "Pound the Alarm" video. Minaj released a 'behind the scenes' video of the shoot on July 13, 2012. It premiered on Minaj's VEVO account on Tuesday, July 31, 2012. ===Synopsis=== thumb|right|250px|Minaj dresses in carnival attire throughout the video. The video for "Pound the Alarm" begins with Minaj on a building, singing and looking over the city. She pays tribute to Trinidad and Tobago, her birthplace, and the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival. The video opens with a steelpan version of the song, and shots of different locations in Port of Spain. Then the flag of Trinidad and Tobago appears before Minaj is shown standing in a bird eye view of Port of Spain. Minaj is wearing a custom-made Trinidadian flag-themed bra and high- rise panties. She then is seen walking down an alleyway in a red carnival costume, joined by other women in the same Trinbagonian carnival attire, they are seen partying and dancing to the song. In this scene, Minaj has a large feathered headdress on. Minaj is then seen onstage holding a concert with Trinidadian artistes: Machel Montano, Bunji Garlin and Fay-Ann Lyons, while confetti comes down and the audience throw up the Trinidadian flag. Many Trinidadian carnival characters appear in the video such as Dame Lorraine, Blue Devil, Jab Jab, Moko Jumbies (people walking on stilts), and others. Towards the end of the video, Minaj is sitting on top of a stereo speaker, while fireworks appear in the night sky. Minaj forms a conga line and does some choreography with her backup dancers. Minaj and other women are dancing sensually on each other; the local term for this dance is called "wining". Towards the end of the video Minaj is seen in front of her cousins from Trinidad, and wrapping a Trinidadian bandanna around her mouth. The video ends with Minaj walking towards a bright light still dressed in Carnival attire. Of the video, Romeo's Corner said "Other than being a very colorful video and the beautiful Trinidad as its backdrop, I don't see how this video could do anything with 'Pound the Alarm' other than having fun." ==Live performances and other usages== Minaj performed "Pound the Alarm" live during Radio 1's Hackney Weekend on June 23, 2012, as part of the line-up on the main stage. Minaj performed the song on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on July 13, 2012. The song was also included on Minaj's Pink Friday Tour and her Pink Friday: Reloaded Tour. She also performed the song on Today, along with "Starships" and "I Am Your Leader". The song is featured in the fourth episode of the tenth season of RuPaul's Drag Race. At the end of the episode, the bottom two contestants, Dusty Ray Bottoms and Monét X Change, had to lip sync to the song to avoid elimination, with Bottoms being the loser. The song is also sampled in the song Sissy That Walk by RuPaul. ==Track listing== * Digital download # "Pound the Alarm" – 3:21 # "Pound the Alarm" (music video) – 4:05 * Digital download EP # "Pound the Alarm" (Liam Keegan Mix) – 4:42 # "Pound the Alarm" (Nicole Chen Mix) – 5:43 # "Pound the Alarm" (Nick Lees Mix) – 5:51 # "Pound the Alarm" (Jelfa Mix) – 5:27 # "Pound the Alarm" (Kitz Looper Mix) – 5:25 * US CD single # "Pound the Alarm" (Liam Keegan Mix) – 4:42 # "Pound the Alarm" (Nicole Chen Mix) – 5:43 # "Pound the Alarm" (Nick Lees Mix) – 5:51 # "Pound the Alarm" (Jelfa Mix) – 5:27 # "Pound the Alarm" (Kitz Looper Mix) – 5:25 ==Credits and personnel== ;Recording *Recorded at Conway Recording Studios, Hollywood, California, United States *Mixed at Conway Recording Studios ;Personnel *Nicki Minaj – songwriter, vocals *RedOne – songwriter, producer, backing vocals, instruments *Carl Falk – songwriter, producer, mixing, instruments *Rami Yacoub – songwriter, producer, mixing, instruments *Bilal Hajji – songwriter, backing vocals *Achraf Jannusi – songwriter, backing vocals *Trevor Muzzy – recording, mixing, vocal editing *Ariel Chobaz – recording *Jon Sher – recording assistant *Jeanette Olsson – backing vocals ==Charts and certifications== ===Weekly charts=== Chart (2012) Peak position Australia (ARIA) 10 scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" Canada (Canadian Hot 100) 8 Denmark (Tracklisten) 23 Finland (Suomen virallinen lista) 4 scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" Mexico (Billboard Mexican Airplay) 17 scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" Philippines (MyMusicStore) 87 scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" ===Year-end charts=== Chart (2012) Position Australia (ARIA) 87 Australia Urban (ARIA) 27 Belgium Urban (Ultratop Flanders) 33 Belgium Dance (Ultratop Wallonia) 38 Canada (Canadian Hot 100) 58 France (SNEP) 118 UK Singles Chart 62 US Billboard Hot 100 75 US Dance Club Songs (Billboard) 4 US Dance/Mix Show Airplay (Billboard) 35 US Rhythmic (Billboard) 36 ===Certifications=== ==Release history== Region Date Format Australia June 12, 2012 Mainstream radio United Kingdom June 15, 2012 United States July 17, 2012 Top 40/Mainstream radio July 31, 2012 Rhythmic radio ==See also== * List of number-one dance singles of 2012 (U.S.) ==References== Category:Nicki Minaj songs Category:2012 singles Category:Eurodance songs Category:Songs written by Nicki Minaj Category:Song recordings produced by RedOne Category:Songs written by RedOne Category:Songs written by Carl Falk Category:Songs written by Rami Yacoub Category:Songs written by Bilal Hajji Category:Song recordings produced by Rami Yacoub Category:Music videos directed by Benny Boom Category:Songs written by AJ Junior Category:2011 songs Category:Songs about parties |
The Left (; stylised in all capsZum Umgang mit der Marke DIE LINKE. In: die- linke.de, May 22, 2007, accessed on May (PDF).), commonly referred to as the Left Party ( ), is a democratic socialist political party in Germany. The party was founded in 2007 as the result of the merger of the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) and Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative. Through the PDS, the party is the direct descendant of the Marxist–Leninist ruling party of the former East Germany, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. Since 2022, The Left's co-chairpersons have been Janine Wissler and Martin Schirdewan. The party holds 39 seats out of 736 in the Bundestag, the federal legislature of Germany, having won 4.9% of votes cast in the 2021 German federal election. Its parliamentary group is the smallest of six in the Bundestag, and is headed by parliamentary Amira Mohamed Ali and Dietmar Bartsch. The Left is represented in nine of Germany's sixteen state legislatures, including all five of the eastern states. As of 2021, the party participates in governments in the states of Berlin, Bremen, and Mecklenburg- Vorpommern as a junior partner, as well as in Thuringia, where it leads a coalition with the Social Democratic Party and The Greens headed by Minister- President Bodo Ramelow. The Left is a founding member of the Party of the European Left, and is the third-largest party in the European United Left–Nordic Green Left group in the European Parliament. In December 2022, had 54,214 registered members, making it the sixth-largest party in Germany by membership. The Left promotes anti-capitalism, anti-fascism, and anti- militarism, and is neutral on European integration. It is the furthest left- wing party of the six represented in the Bundestag. ==History== ===Background=== The main predecessor of The Left was the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), which emerged from the ruling Socialist Unity Party (SED) of East Germany (GDR). In October 1989, facing increasing unpopularity, the SED replaced long-time leader Erich Honecker with Egon Krenz, who began a program of limited reforms, including the legalisation of opposition groups. He also loosened restrictions on travel between East and West Berlin, which inadvertently led to the fall of the Berlin Wall and his resignation. He was succeeded by Gregor Gysi, part of a group of reformers who supported the Peaceful Revolution. His ally Hans Modrow, the new Chairman of the Council of Ministers, became the de facto national leader. Seeking to change its image, the party expelled most of its former leadership, including Honecker and Krenz; the new government negotiated with opposition groups and arranged free elections. The SED adopted the name Party of Democratic Socialism and oriented itself as pro-democratic, socialist, and supportive of East German sovereignty. The party chose Modrow as its lead candidate for the 1990 East German general election but was decisively defeated, finishing in third place with 16.4% of votes cast. The PDS was excluded from further political developments due to the aversion of the opposition, now in power, which considered it essentially tied to the dictatorship.Mary Elise Sarotte, 1989: The Struggle to Create Post-Cold War Europe (second edition). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014 After debuting with a meagre 2.4% nationwide in the 1990 German federal election immediately after reunification, the PDS gained popularity throughout the 1990s as a protest party in the eastern states. In the 1998 German federal election it won 5.1% of votes, enough to win seats outright without relying on direct constituencies as it had in 1994. By the 2000s, it was the second-largest party in every eastern state legislature except Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Despite electoral successes, the PDS faced internal strife due to ideological disputes, a chronic decline in membership, and a near-complete lack of support in the western states, which has been home to 85% of Germany's population. The 1994 German federal election also saw a "red socks" campaign used by the centre-right, including the CDU/CSU and the Free Democratic Party (FDP), to scare off a possible red–red–green coalition (SPD–PDS–Greens). Analysts have stated that such a strategy likely paid off, as it was seen as one of the decisive elements for the narrow victory of Kohl for the CDU/CSU–FDP. The campaign was criticized as an obvious attempt to discredit the whole political left; the PDS reinterpreted it for itself by printing red socks. ===PDS–WASG alliance=== In January 2005, a group of disaffected Social Democrats and trade unionists founded Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative (WASG), a left- wing party opposed to federal Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's Agenda 2010 labour and welfare reforms. The party made a modest showing of 2.2% in the North Rhine-Westphalia state election in May, but failed to win seats. The election saw the incumbent SPD government defeated in a landslide, which was widely interpreted as a sign of the federal SPD's unpopularity. Chancellor Schröder subsequently called an early federal election to be held in September. WASG continued to gain members, prompting the PDS leadership to propose an alliance between the two parties. With the established eastern base of the PDS and WASG's potential for growth in the west, the parties hoped to enter the Bundestag together. They agreed to form an electoral pact, in which they would not run against one another in direct constituencies and would create joint electoral lists featuring candidates from both parties. They also agreed to unify into a single party in 2007. To symbolise the new relationship, the PDS renamed itself the Left Party.PDS (). The joint list ran under the name The Left.PDS (), though in the western states, where the PDS was shunned for its association with the GDR, "PDS" was optional. The alliance's profile was greatly boosted when former federal Minister of Finance Oskar Lafontaine, who had left the SPD after the North Rhine-Westphalia election, joined WASG in June. He was chosen as the party's lead candidate for the federal election and shared the spotlight with Gregor Gysi of the PDS. Polls early in the summer showed the unified Left list winning as much as 12 percent of the vote, and for a time it seemed possible the party would surge past the Greens and FDP and become the third-largest party in the Bundestag. During the campaign, the party was subject to frequent criticism. At one event, Oskar Lafontaine described Fremdarbeiter ("foreign workers", a term associated with the Nazi regime) as a threat to German labour. He claimed to have misspoken, but in an article published in Die Welt, a group of prominent German writers accused him of deliberately appealing to xenophobic and far-right voters. In the 2005 federal election, the Left.PDS easily passed the electoral threshold, winning 8.7% of the vote and 53 seats. It became the fourth largest party in the Bundestag. The result of the election was inconclusive; between the SPD, Greens, and Left.PDS, left-wing parties held a majority, but the SPD was unwilling to cooperate with the Left.PDS. The result was a grand coalition of the CDU and SPD. ===Foundation of The Left=== Negotiations for a formal merger of the PDS and WASG continued through the next year until a final agreement was reached on 27 March 2007. The new party, called The Left (Die Linke), held its founding congress in Berlin on 16 June 2007. Lothar Bisky and Oskar Lafontaine were elected as co-leaders, while Gregor Gysi became leader of the party's Bundestag group. The unified party quickly became a serious force in western Germany for the first time. It comfortably surpassed the electoral threshold in Bremen in 2007, and throughout 2008 won seats in Lower Saxony, Hesse and Hamburg. The "five-party system" in Germany was now a reality in the west as well as the east. A string of electoral successes followed during the "super election year" of 2009. The Left achieved 7.5% in the European elections, confirming their enduring nationwide popularity. Six state elections were held throughout the year, and in each of them the party either surged ahead or consolidated earlier gains. They saw an upswing in Thuringia and Hesse and won seats for the first time in Schleswig-Holstein and Saarland. Oskar Lafontaine ran as the party's lead candidate in Saarland, leading the party to a massive success with 21.3% of the vote. In Saxony and Brandenburg, The Left's vote declined slightly, but it remained the second largest party in both states. ===2009 federal election=== The electoral collapse of the Social Democratic Party in the federal election on 27 September 2009 saw The Left's vote surge to 11.9%, increasing its representation in the Bundestag from 54 to 76 seats, just under half as large as the SPD's parliamentary group. It became the second most popular party in the eastern states with 28.5%, while experiencing a breakthrough in the west with 8.3%. It was the most popular party in Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg, and won sixteen direct constituencies, the largest tally by a minor party in history. The Left nonetheless remained in opposition. The Left won seats in the parliament of Germany's most populous state, North Rhine-Westphalia, in the May 2010 election. They now held seats in thirteen of Germany's sixteen states, only absent from three states in the traditionally conservative south. In January 2010, Oskar Lafontaine announced that, due to his ongoing cancer treatment, he would not seek re-election to the party leadership at the upcoming party congress. At the congress in May, Lothar Bisky also chose not to nominate for re-election; Klaus Ernst and Gesine Lötzsch were elected as the party's new leaders. Just a few weeks later, the SPD and Greens invited the Left to support their candidate for the 2010 presidential election, former Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records Joachim Gauck. They suggested that this was an opportunity for the Left to leave their communist past behind them and show unconditional support for democracy. However, the party refused to support him, highlighting his support of the War in Afghanistan and his attacks on their party."Nicht wählbar": Linke ist gegen Gauck, n-tv, 28 June 2010 They also rejected the conservative Christian Wulff, favourite of Chancellor Angela Merkel,Linke verhindert Gauck, Wulff wird Präsident, Manager Magazin instead putting forward their own nominee, television journalist Luc Jochimsen. The red-green camp reacted with disappointment.Streit über Präsidentenwahl: Linke verteidigt Anti-Gauck-Kurs, Spiegel Online, 1 July 2010 SPD chairman Sigmar Gabriel described The Left's position as "bizarre and embarrassing," stating that he was shocked that they would declare Joachim Gauck their enemy due to his investigation of GDR injustice. The SPD and Greens expected the Left to support Gauck in the decisive third round of the election; however, after Jochimsen withdrew, most of the Left's delegates abstained.Gauck-Boykott vertieft die Gräben, n24.de Wulff was elected by an absolute majority. The party was isolated ahead of the March 2012 presidential election. The federal CDU/CSU–FDP government invited the SPD and Greens to agree on an all-party consensus candidate; The Left was excluded. Those invited eventually agreed to support Joachim Gauck. The Left again refused to support him. SPD chair Sigmar Gabriel once again criticized the party, claiming they harboured "sympathy for the German Democratic Republic." The Left put forward Beate Klarsfeld, a journalist and outspoken anti-fascist who had investigated numerous Nazi war criminals. She received 10.2% of the delegate votes. Gauck was elected in the first round with 80.4% of votes. The Left's fortunes began to turn in 2011, and they suffered a string of setbacks and defeats through 2013, particularly in the western states. They failed to win seats in Rhineland-Palatinate and Baden- Württemberg, and suffered losses in Bremen, Berlin, and Saarland. Crucially, the party lost its seats in the Landtags of Schleswig-Holstein, North Rhine- Westphalia, and Lower Saxony. On 11 April 2012, Gesine Lötzsch resigned as party co-leader, citing medical conditions her husband was suffering. Klaus Ernst subsequently announced he would not seek re-election as leader at the party congress in June. Katja Kipping, who had served as deputy leader since 2007, was elected as co-leader with 67.1% of votes. Bernd Riexinger was elected as the other co-leader with 53.5% of votes, winning a narrow contest against Dietmar Bartsch. ===2013 federal election=== In the 2013 federal election, The Left received 8.6% of the national vote and won 64 seats, a decline from 2009. However, due to the collapse of the FDP, they moved into third place. After the formation of a second grand coalition between the CDU and SPD, The Left became the leading party of the opposition. The party narrowly retained its seats in the Hessian state election held on the same day as the federal election. The Left suffered a major loss in Brandenburg in 2014, losing a third of its voteshare and falling to third place. Nonetheless, it continued as a junior partner under the SPD. The 2014 Thuringian state election was the party's biggest success to date, achieving not only its best state election result (28.2%) but also forming the first coalition with one of its own members at the head. The party was able to negotiate a red-red-green coalition with the SPD and Greens, and Bodo Ramelow was elected Minister- President by the Landtag of Thuringia, becoming the first member of the party to serve as head of government of any German state. The Left achieved modest gains in the city-states of Hamburg and Bremen in 2015. They suffered a loss in Saxony-Anhalt reminiscent of that in Brandenburg 18 months earlier, falling to third place and losing a third of their voteshare. In September, the Left joined government in Berlin after the 2016 state election as the second- largest member of a coalition with the SPD and Greens. ===2017 federal election=== In the 2017 federal election, The Left fell to fifth place due to the re-entry of the FDP in fourth place and the ascension of AfD to third place. The party suffered substantial losses in its traditional eastern heartland, but made a net gain nationally thanks to an improvement in the western states, rising to 9.2% of votes (up 0.6 points). Throughout 2017, they failed to make a comeback to the Landtags of Schleswig-Holstein, North Rhine- Westphalia, and Lower Saxony, despite making gains in all three states. The party's slow decline in Saarland continued, winning 12.8% in March. In 2018, they defended their seats in Hesse. Kipping and Riexinger were re-elected for a third time at the party congress in 2018, winning 64.5% and 73.8% respectively. The Left had mixed results in 2019. In the European election, they declined to 5.5%, the worst result in a national election since the party's formation. In the Bremen state election held on the same day, the party made small gains, and joined a western state government for the first time in a coalition under the SPD and Greens. The Left suffered major losses in the Brandenburg and Saxony state elections held on 1 September, losing almost half its voteshare in each, and left the Brandenburg government, in which they had participated since 2009. In the 2019 Thuringian state election, Ramelow led the party to its best ever result, winning 31.0% and becoming the largest party in a state legislature for the first time, though his red-red- green government lost its majority. In February 2020, the FDP's Thomas Kemmerich was elected Minister-President with the support of AfD and the CDU, but immediately resigned due to widespread outrage. After a protracted government crisis, Ramelow was re-elected for a second term to lead a minority government. In August 2020, Kipping and Riexinger announced they would step down as co-chairs in accordance with party regulations stating that no position should be held by the same person for more than eight years. A party congress was scheduled on 30 October to 1 November 2020, but was cancelled on 27 October due to the worsening of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany; the party instead held a fully digital congress on 26–27 February 2021. Hessian parliamentary leader Janine Wissler and Thuringia branch leader Susanne Hennig-Wellsow were elected co-chairs on 27 February, winning 84% and 71% of votes cast, respectively. === 2021 federal election === During the 2021 German federal election, The Left was eager to become a partner in a coalition government with the SPD and Greens. As the CDU/CSU collapsed in the polls and the SPD surged, the last month of the campaign saw the conservative government engage in a Red Scare campaign against The Left and the prospect of a red–red–green coalition, utilising red-baiting and fearmongering about extremism; the party had elected a new moderate leadership and put forward an observably more moderate programme than previous elections. A capital flight to Switzerland ensued due to fear of increased taxes for the wealthy through higher inheritance tax and a wealth tax. The Left won 4.9% of votes and 39 seats in the 26 September federal election, its worst showing since its official formation in 2007, narrowly failing to cross the 5% electoral threshold. The party was nonetheless entitled to full proportional representation as it won three direct constituencies; two in Berlin and one in Leipzig. This meant a net loss of 4.3 percentage points of vote share and 30 seats overall. Notably, of the Bundestag Petra Pau was defeated in her direct constituency of Berlin-Marzahn-Hellersdorf. Due to The Left's poor performance, a left-wing coalition fell a few seats short of a majority in the Bundestag. State elections in Berlin and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern were held on the same day. The Left suffered minor losses in both, but nonetheless joined coalition governments in each state. In Berlin, they joined a renewed coalition with the SPD and Greens. In Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, they replaced the CDU as junior partner to the SPD. After the federal election, The Left suffered internal strife and its fortunes continued to decline. A major blow came in the March 2022 Saarland state election, with the party losing all their seats amid conflict between the state leadership and Oskar Lafontaine, who declined to run again and quit the party shortly before the election. Further, reports of sexism and abuse arose within the Hesse branch, including claims that implicated Janine Wissler. In April, Susanne Hennig-Wellsow resigned as co-leader, citing the party's recent troubles and desire to spend more time with family. Further losses came in the Schleswig-Holstein and North Rhine-Westphalia state elections in May. The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine highlighted fault lines within the party. The leadership and majority took a strongly anti-war and pro-Ukrainian stance, while the faction around Sahra Wagenknecht opposed sanctions against Russia. At the party congress in June, incumbent Janine Wissler was re-elected as leader, while co-chair of The Left in the European Parliament (GUE/NGL) group Martin Schirdewan was elected as Hennig-Wellsow's successor. They both faced challenges from candidates aligned with Wagenknecht's faction, winning majorities of 57% and 61% of votes respectively. During a Bundestag speech in September, Wagenknecht attacked the federal government for launching what she called "an unprecedented economic war against our most important energy supplier," and called for the end of sanctions against Russia. The speech was boycotted by half The Left's deputies, and prompted numerous calls for her resignation by colleagues. Hundreds of members were reported to have left the party over the dispute, including prominent former MdB Fabio De Masi. Die Tageszeitung reported that Wagenknecht's supporters had begun planning a breakaway party to compete in the 2024 European elections. ==Ideology== The Left advocates for democratic socialism as an alternative to capitalism. The Left is vocally anti-fascist and anti-militarist. As a platform for left-wing politics in the wake of globalization, the Left includes many different factions, ranging from communists to social democrats. During the joint party convention with the Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative in March 2007, a document outlining political principles was agreed on. The official program of the party was decided upon by an overwhelming majority at the party conference in October 2011 in Erfurt. ===Economic policy=== The Left aims at increasing government spending in the areas of public investments, education, research and development, culture, and infrastructure, as well as increasing taxes for large corporations. It calls for increases in inheritance tax rates and the reinstatement of the individual net worth tax. The party aims at a linear income tax progression, which would reduce the tax burden for lower incomes, while raising the middle- and top-income tax rates. The combating of tax loopholes is a perennial issue, as The Left believes that they primarily benefit people with high incomes. The party aims for the financial markets to be subject to heavier government regulation, with the goal, among others, to reduce the speculation of bonds and derivatives. The party wants to strengthen anti-trust laws and empower cooperatives to decentralise the economy. Further economic reforms supported by the party include solidarity and more self- determination for workers, a ban on hydraulic fracturing, the rejection of privatization, and the introduction of a federal minimum wage, and more generally the overthrow of property and power structures in which, citing Karl Marx's aphorism, "man is a debased, enslaved, abandoned, despicable essence." ===Foreign policy=== Concerning foreign policy, The Left calls for international disarmament, while ruling out any form of involvement of the Bundeswehr outside of Germany. The party calls for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Germany, as well as the replacement of NATO with a collective security system including Russia as a member country. They believe that German foreign policy should be strictly confined to the goals of civil diplomacy and cooperation, instead of confrontation, though they also believe that such demands are more of a vision, are not to be implemented as soon as possible, and should not be seen as inflexible preconditions for a federal, left-wing red–red–green coalition. In their manifesto, the party says: "All support for NATO states which, like Erdoğan's Turkey, disregard international law, must be stopped immediately." The Left criticised Germany's defense plan with Saudi Arabia, which has been waging war in Yemen and has been accused of massive human rights violations."Opposition parties condemn German defence plan with Saudi Arabia". The Local. 8 December 2016. The Left supports further debt cancellations for developing countries and increases in development aid, in collaboration with the United Nations, World Trade Organization, World Bank, and diverse bilateral treaties among countries. The party supports reform of the United Nations as long as it is aimed at a fair balance between developed and developing countries. The Left would have all American military bases within Germany, and if possible in the European Union, enacted within a binding treaty, dissolved. The Left welcomes European integration, while opposing what it believes to be neoliberal policies in the European Union. The party strives for the democratisation of the EU institutions and a stronger role of the United Nations in international politics. The Left opposed both the war in Afghanistan and the Iraq War, as well as the Lisbon Treaty. The party has a mixed stance towards the Russo-Ukrainian War. Gregor Gysi has described Russia as state capitalist, and the party has called the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation and the Russian military intervention in Ukraine to be illegal; however, Gysi commented that older elements of the party have a strong penchant for Russia and the Soviet Union. The party declared in May 2014 that Ukraine should not receive any kind of support from Germany as long as there are fascists inside its government. Some members of the party (like MP Andrej Hunko) are strong supporters of the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic. The party also takes a friendly stance towards China; Sevim Dağdelen, deputy leader of The Left in the Bundestag, criticized EU commission president Ursula von der Leyen's speech calling for a new EU policy towards China, saying that "[t]he EU and its member states want to challenge the emerging power China, including through military means." == Political stance == The Left is generally considered a left-wing, big tent party. This party is sometimes considered part of the German "centre-left" camp. It has been described as "far-left" by some news outlets including the BBC, Euronews, The Guardian, and , and is considered to be left-wing populist by some researchers. The Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution () does not regard the party as extremist or a threat to democracy; it monitors some of its more radical internal factions, such as the Communist Platform and the Socialist Left, on account of extremist tendencies, as do some states' constitutional authorities.Verfassungsschutzbericht reports , 2007–2015, Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz ==Structure== thumb|The 2022 party conference The Left is organised into branches in each of the 16 states. The party has smaller branches on a local level, for which the corresponding state branches are responsible. These branches usually organise across a district, city, or (in Berlin), borough. The lowest unit of the party is the grassroots organization, which, depending on the density of membership, can include a residential area, a city or an entire district. The party has a youth wing, Left Youth Solid, and a student wing known as The Left.SDS. The party is also affiliated with a number of left-wing think tanks, education, and policy groups, most prominently the Rosa Luxemburg Foundation. The party is formally led by a 26-member Party Executive Committee (PEC), of which seven are members of the party's leadership, the executive board. This includes two federal co- chairpersons, of which at least one is required by statute to be female. Convention also dictates that one leader should come from the Eastern states and one from the west, though this is not an official rule. The PEC is elected by a regular party congress, which also discusses and determines the party platform and rules on basic political and organisational matters. The leadership group of the party's Bundestag faction is considered a second centre of power within the party, and conflicts sometimes arise between the federal leadership and parliamentary group. This most prominently happened in 2015, which resulted in Bundestag co-leaders Sahra Wagenknecht and Dietmar Bartsch being elected as lead candidates for the 2017 federal election, defeating federal co-chairs Katja Kipping and Bernd Riexinger. The Left's internal structure underwent a transitional phase after its formation in 2007 in order to integrate the different groups. Western party organisations were initially strongly favoured in party congresses, which strengthened the "fundamental opposition" faction of Oskar Lafontaine. These provisions expired at the 2014 party congress. The dual leadership, initially a temporary measure, was adopted permanently in 2010. This was not initially the case for the parliamentary group leadership, which was co-chaired by both Gregor Gysi and Lafontaine between 2005 and 2009, and solely by Gysi thereafter. After his retirement in 2015, however, the dual chairmanship was reintroduced. The executive committee originally comprised 44 members, but was reduced to 26 at the 2022 party congress. The number of deputy leaders was originally four, increased to six in 2018, and reduced to three in 2022. The Left is noted for having an unusually strong and formalised system of internal factions, which are outlined in the party statutes. Factions with sufficiently large membership are entitled to send delegates to party congresses. In addition, there are around 40 working groups within the party. Since June 2022, the composition of the Party Executive Committee has been as follows: Position Member(s) Party Chair * Janine Wissler * Martin Schirdewan Deputy Party Chair * Ates Gürpinar * Lorenz Gösta Beutin * Katina Schubert * Jana Seppelt Federal Party Secretary Federal Treasurer Member of the Party Executive Committee * Didem Aydurmus * Christine Buchholz * Janis Ehling * * * Kathrin Gebel * Margit Glasow * Bettina Gutperl * Stefan Hartmann * Sebastian Koch * Dana Lützkendorf * Tupac Orellana Mardones * Ellen Ost * Luigi Pantisano * Jan Richter * * * Daphne Weber The Council of Elders (Ältestenrat) is an advisory body formed in December 2007. Lothar Bisky stated the council would "focus on the development of the party, allied and international issues, the history of the left and possible consequences for the socialist program." Its current composition is as follows: Position Member(s) Chair Hans Modrow Vice Chair Wolfgang Grabowski Ursula Schumm-Garling Member of the Council of Elders Gretchen Binus Edeltraut Felfe Friederun Fessen Johanna Klages Evelin Nowitzki Bärbel Schindler-Saefkow Anni Seidl Sybille Stamm Bruno Mahlow ===Leadership history=== Federal chairpersons Federal chairpersons Federal chairpersons Term start Term end 60x60px Lothar Bisky 60x60px Oskar Lafontaine 60x60px Gesine Lötzsch 60x60px Klaus Ernst 60x60px Katja Kipping 60x60px Bernd Riexinger 60x60px Susanne Hennig-Wellsow 60x60px Janine Wissler Vacant 60x60px Janine Wissler Martin Schirdewan (2019) Martin Schirdewan 60x60px Janine Wissler Incumbent Bundestag chairpersons Bundestag chairpersons Bundestag chairpersons Term start Term end 60x60px Gregor Gysi 60x60px Oskar Lafontaine 60x60px Gregor Gysi 60x60px Gregor Gysi 60x60px Dietmar Bartsch 60x60px Sahra Wagenknecht 60x60px Dietmar Bartsch 60x60px Amira Mohamed Ali Incumbent ===State branches=== The party has branches in all 16 states. As of 31 December 2022, the membership of the branches is as follows. State Leader(s) Members Elwis Capece 3,749 Kathrin Flach-Gomez 3,058 7,100 4,534 Anna Fischer 667 1,711 Jakob Migenda 3,079 Franziska Junker Thorben Peters 2,919 2,766 Kathrin Vogler Sascha H. Wagner 7,764 Stefan Glander 1,478 Barbara Spaniol 1,426 Stefan Hartmann 6,559 Janina Böttger 2,833 Susanne Spethmann Luca Grimminger 1,093 3,478 Total Total 54,214 ===Internal factions=== The Left is noted for having an unusually strong and formalised system of internal factions, which are outlined in the party statutes. Factions with sufficiently large membership are entitled to send delegates to party congresses. The party is traditionally split between reformist factions, such as the Reform Left Network and Forum for Democratic Socialism, and orthodox factions such as the Communist Platform, Anti-Capitalist Left, and Socialist Left. The Emancipatory Left occupies a middle position. However, starting from 2015, the party underwent an internal realignment due to the preeminence of Sahra Wagenknecht, who advocated a return to a fundamentally working-class focus and populist positions in the wake of the European refugee crisis and rise of the Alternative for Germany. In response, many eastern reformers and members of radical left factions allied in the broad "Movement Left" (Bewegungslinke), committed to social movements, environmentalism, and intersectional progressivism. The Movement Left broadly dominates the party, with no members of the Wagenknecht faction elected to the executive at the 2022 congress. Faction Description Anti-Capitalist Left A current founded in 2006 which seeks to strengthen the party's anti- capitalist profile. The AKL describe themselves as "movement-oriented" and seek cooperation with extra-parliamentary parties and left-wing movements. They are aligned with the orthodox left-wing of The Left, and believe that the party should only participate in coalition governments if a set of minimum criteria are met, including no privatization, no military operations, and no cuts to social welfare or the public service. The BfV classifies the AKL as an extremist association. In 2020, the AKL had 1,060 members. Prominent members include Tobias Pflüger, Cornelia Hirsch, Ulla Jelpke, Lucy Redler, and Niema Movassat. Communist Platform Originally formed as a tendency of the PDS. It is less critical of German Democratic Republic than other currents and upholds orthodox Marxist positions. A "strategic goal" of the KPF is "building a new socialist society, using the positive experiences of real socialism and to learn from mistakes". Its primary leader is Sahra Wagenknecht, former co-leader of the party's Bundestag faction. The BfV classifies the KPF as an extremist association. In 2020, the group had 1,122 members. Democratic Socialist Forum A democratic socialist group considered part of the reformist wing of the party. Originally founded in 2002 as the Forum Second Renewal, it was reformed in 2007 to promote the positions of the PDS within the new Left party. It places emphasis on civil rights and social progressivism, and supports cooperation with the SPD and Greens. Prominent members include Dietmar Bartsch and Luise Neuhaus-Wartenberg. Ecological Platform A current which promotes green politics and eco-socialism. Founded in 1994 within the PDS, it is critical of capitalism and supports degrowth. The group describes itself as "a forum for all left-wing ecologists", and is expressly open to non-Left party members. Emancipatory Left A libertarian socialist current co-founded in May 2009 by Katja Kipping, Caren Lay, and Julia Bonk. They advocate radical democracy, a decentralized society, and are supportive of social movements. Ema.Li is described as holding a "middle position" between the reformist and orthodox wings of the party. The group accepts members of other factions as well as non-party members. Besides its co-founders, prominent members include Christoph Spehr and Anne Helm. Formed in February 2003 as a reaction to the increasing influence of reform- oriented groups such as the Reform Left Network. They opposed a shift away from Marxism and what they feared as a move toward a social market economy model. As of 2021, the faction is only partly recognised within the party. The BfV classified GD/SD as an extremist organisation in 2018, but did not include the group in its 2020 report. Marxist Forum Founded in 1995 within the PDS to promote classical Marxism. It is critical of the reform-oriented wings and positions of the party and is often sympathetic to the GDR. As of 2021, the faction is only partly recognised within the party. The BfV classified the group as "orthodox communist" and extremist in its 2018 report, and reported that it had 400 members. The Marxist Forum did not appear in the BfV's 2020 report. Reform Left Network Originally formed in 2003 as a tendency within PDS promoting social democracy. It is closely associated with the Democratic Socialist Forum, which was formed around the same time. The Reform Left Network strongly supports involvement in coalition governments with the SPD and Greens. It includes a number of prominent Left politicians, including Bundestag Vice-President Petra Pau, and Saxony-Anhalt branch leader Wulf Gallert, as well as Jan Korte, Stefan Liebich, and Halina Wawzyniak. As of 2021, the faction is no longer recognised within the party. Socialist Left Includes Keynesian leftists and reform communists, and seeks to orient the party toward the labour movement. It is considered part of the left wing of the party. Many leaders of the Socialist Left were formerly members of WASG, and the group models itself on the Dutch Socialist Party and the Italian Communist Refoundation Party. The revolutionary socialist current Marx21 organises within SL, as it does not meet the requirements to become its own caucus. The BfV classifies the current as an extremist association. In 2020, the group had 1,000 members. Leading members include Janine Wissler, Thomas Händel, Jürgen Klute, and Christine Buchholz. In addition to the recognised platforms, a number of smaller groups have aligned with The Left and its predecessors, such as the Trotskyist Socialist Alternative (SAV), though the membership applications of some of its leaders, including Lucy Redler, were initially rejected. Der Funke, supporters of the International Marxist Tendency (IMT) in Germany, pursue entryist strategies in the party, while the Fourth International-affiliated International Socialist Organisation (ISO) also works inside The Left. Other left-wing groups, such as the German Communist Party (DKP), have formed local alliances with the party, but have not joined. The Association for Solidarity Perspectives (VsP) also supports the party. ==Membership and electorate== According to regular studies by the Free University of Berlin, in 2021 The Left's membership comprised 17% blue- collar workers and 32% white-collar workers, similar to the SPD, while 35% were civil servants and 10% self-employed. 51% of party members held an academic degree, and 33% were organized in trade unions. Prior to the merger with WASG, the voting base of PDS was an approximate cross-section of the population, favoured somewhat by more educated voters. Since the merger, The Left has become more favoured among working-class and poorer voters, which made up the core of WASG's support. Since the mid-2010s, the party has gained significant popularity among youth. Prior to the merger, PDS had by far the highest proportion of members over 60 years of any party, at 68%, and the lowest proportion of members under 30, at just 4%. By 2021, these numbers had fallen and risen, respectively, to 40% and 23%. The Left now is tied with the FDP in proportion of members under 30. Two-thirds of members who joined the party between 2016 and 2018 were under 35 years of age. In the 2021 federal election, The Left was twice as popular among voters under 25 than among voters over 70. The PDS inherited 170,000 members from the SED in 1990, but suffered constant decline from that point until the merger with WASG. Upon its formation, The Left had 71,000 members, of which 11,500 had been WASG members. Over the next two years the party grew, reaching a peak of 78,000 in 2009, after which point numbers began to decline. In 2016, the party had 59,000 members. This trend temporarily reversed following the 2017 federal election, and the party gained several thousand new members for a total of 62,300 in 2019; however, membership shrank again to 60,350 in December 2020. ===Geography=== thumb|Results for the second votes by constituency in the 2017 federal election A large part of The Left's base and membership reside in the new states (the former GDR). The voting base of the PDS was limited almost entirely to the east; upon its formation, the vast majority of The Left's western membership came from WASG. However, the party has grown in the west in the years since: while in 2005, the Left.PDS list won just 45.5% of its votes in the western states, this grew to 57.7% in 2009, and 65.4% in 2017. Between 2016 and 2018, 72% of new party members were from the western states, 15% from the east, and 13% from Berlin. During this period, the party's membership total in the west exceeded that of the east for the first time. As of 2021, 50% of The Left's members are from the west, 37% from the east, and 13% from Berlin. Despite this, on the state level, the party has been marginalised in the west since making several breakthroughs in 2007–2010. Since 2010, it has lost representation in the Landtags of Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, and Schleswig-Holstein. Generally growing popularity in the west has also been offset by major losses in most of its eastern heartland since 2014. The Left's voter demographics are skewed strongly by region. In the east, Left voters and members trend much older: in 2018, 44% of the party's members in Mecklenburg- Vorpommern were 76 years or older. Meanwhile, in the west, the party membership is male-dominated, with two-thirds of western members being men. ===Women=== Women have been well-represented amongst elected representatives from The Left. The party's gender quota requires that at least half of the party's ruling bodies and representatives should be female. In 2021, the party elected two women, Janine Wissler and Susanne Hennig-Wellsow, as federal co- chairs for the first time. Female membership in the PDS was stable at around 45% during the 1990s and 2000s, far higher than any other party, but fell to 39% post-merger in 2007 since the large majority of WASG members were male. Nonetheless, the party had the highest representation of women in its membership until it was overtaken by the Greens in 2012. In 2021, 37% of Left members were female, compared to 42% for the Greens and 33% for the SPD. After the 2009 election, the party's Bundestag group was 52.6% female, second only to the Greens (57.4%). In 2013, this increased slightly to 54.7%, which was the highest of any group. After both the 2017 and 2021 federal elections, The Left's group was 54% female, second to the Greens (58%). ==Controversies== ===Observation by Constitutional Protection=== The Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz, abbreviated as BfV or Verfassungsschutz) is the German federal domestic security agency, tasked with intelligence-gathering on threats concerning the democratic order, the existence and security of the federation or one of its states. This includes monitoring and reporting on suspected extremist groups and political parties. Members of The Left and groups within the party have been periodically monitored, sometimes leading to controversy. The Verfassungsschutz does not consider the party in its entirety extremist, but monitors several of its internal factions and groupings. According to the 2018 report, these are the Communist Platform, Socialist Left, working group AG Cuba Sí, the Anti-capitalist Left, Marxist Forum, and Gera Dialogue/Socialist Dialogue. The Verfassungsschutz also monitors Socialist Alternative and Marx21, which have links with the Anti-Capitalist Left and the Socialist Left, respectively. The 2007 Verfassungsschutz report commented that in practice the parliamentary party appears as to act as a "reform-oriented" left force.Verfassungsschutzbericht 2007 , Federal Ministry of the Interior. In the past, The Left was under observation by all western German states. In January 2008, Saarland became the first to cease observation. As of 2008, the authorities of Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, and Lower Saxony considered The Left in its entirety to be extremist.Die Linke – keine Gefährdung für die Verfassung, tagesschau.de, 16. January 2008, accessed 16 March 2008 In the five eastern states, The Left is not under surveillance, as state constitutional authorities see no indication of anti-constitutional tendencies in the bulk of the party; however, the Communist Platform is under observation in three eastern states.Neue Linke verunsichert Verfassungsschützer , netzeitung.de, 18 June 2007, accessed 16 March 2008 Surveillance of party members has been a point of controversy. Bodo Ramelow, a prominent Left politician in Thuringia, was under surveillance until a court ruling in January 2008 that this was illegal.Beobachtung von Linkspartei-Politiker verboten, Welt Online, 17 January 2008, accessed 16 March 2008 In January 2012, reported that 27 of the party's 76 Bundestag members were under surveillance, as well as 11 of the party's members of various state parliaments. This included nearly the entirety of the party's Bundestag leadership, federal co-leader Gesine Lötzsch, deputy leader Halina Wawzyniak, and Vice President of the Bundestag Petra Pau. Many of those under surveillance were not associated with acknowledged extremist factions of the party. This surveillance was criticised by the SPD, Greens, and FDP; federal Justice Minister Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger described it as "intolerable". In October 2013, the Federal Constitutional Court deemed the surveillance of Bundestag members unconstitutional except in extraordinary circumstances, such as if the member was abusing their office to undermine the constitutional order, or otherwise actively fighting against it. Federal Minister of the Interior Thomas de Maizière subsequently announced that none of The Left's Bundestag members would be surveilled, even those affiliated with the factions considered extremist by the Verfassungsschutz. ===Extremism and populism=== Both media and political scientists have discussed whether The Left should be considered extremist in nature.See, for example, Frank Decker, Viola Neu: Handbuch der deutschen Parteien, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2007, p. 323 ff.; Eckhard Jesse, Jürgen P. Lang: Die Linke – der smarte Extremismus einer deutschen Partei. Olzog Verlag, Munich 2008; for the past history of PDS: Steffen Kailitz: Politischer Extremismus in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Wiesbaden 2004, p. 82 ff. and for suspicion of extremism in the party as a whole: Eckhard Jesse: Die Linke, and a rebuke: Richard Stöss: Die Linke. Zur Beobachtung der Partei durch den Verfassungsschutz. Outlets including the BBC, The Guardian, Euronews, and have described the party as far-left. Among academics, there is a general consensus that at least some sections of the party are extremist; however, political scientist Richard Stöss states that they make up less than ten percent of the party membership – 5,000 of 62,000 members according to the BfV – and compete for resources among themselves, and there is little risk of these groups becoming dominant and exerting major influence over the party's leadership and platform.Richard Stöss: Die Linke. Zur Beobachtung der Partei durch den Verfassungsschutz. Eckhard Jesse states that, while The Left is far more accepting of the Basic Law than parties like the National Democratic Party of Germany, the presence of its extremist factions means the party overall represents a "soft left-wing extremism".Eckhard Jesse: Die Linke Political scientist Karl-Rudolf Korte states that the party is well-integrated within the constitutional order, and "has actually rendered considerable services to German democracy" through the integration of East German protest movement into the parliamentary system. Nonetheless, he criticises the party's continued association with extremist groups. The Left has also been characterised as left-wing populist by researchers such as Cas MuddeCas Mudde: Radical Parties in Europe. In: From Politics and Contemporary History 45 (2008) 47, p. 12–18. and Tilman Mayer.Tilman Mayer: Left-wing populism as a challenge. For the demagogical siphoning of resentments. In: The Political Opinion, Nr. 465, August 2008, pp. 15–18, here: p. 15, 17 (PDF). Florian Hartleb states that the party is "social-populist".Florian Hartleb: Populism – a central characteristic of party politics in turbulent times?. In: Friso Wielanga, Florian Hartleb (ed.): Populism in modern democracy. The Netherlands and Germany in comparison. Waxmann, Münster u. a. 2011, , pp. 105–127, here: p. 117. According to Frank Decker, the party during the leadership of Oskar Lafontaine could be described as left-wing populist.Frank Decker: From a protest phenomenon to a permanent political phenomenon: right-wing and left- wing populism in Western Europe. In: Uwe Backes, Alexander Gallus, Eckhard Jesse (ed.): Jahrbuch Extremismus & Demokratie, 27th year (2015), Nomos, Baden-Baden 2015, , pp. 57–72, here: p. 59. In 2011, Bundestag deputy and later party co-leader Katja Kipping stated that she believed The Left needed "a double strategy [of] social-ecological restructuring plus left-wing populism" to become attractive to voters. She elaborated: "Left-wing populism means targeting those who are marginalized in our society in a targeted and pointed manner." ===Association with the SED=== The Left's position as the successor of the PDS and SED has made it subject to significant controversy and criticism, as well as claims that the party is sympathetic to the former GDR.Verdrängte Parteigeschichte: Plädoyer für eine Entzauberung der Linkspartei, spiegel.de, 25 September 2009, accessed 25 September 2009 Prominent member Sahra Wagenknecht, who served as co-leader of the party's Bundestag group from 2015 to 2019, is well known for her controversial statements on this issue. In a 2009 interview, she rejected the characterisation of East Germany as a dictatorship or unconstitutional state (). Other incidents include a walkout conducted in 2007 by the Left's delegation in the Landtag of Saxony during a German Unity Day ceremony in protest of the presence of Joachim Gauck, former East German pro-democracy campaigner and later Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records, who was the keynote speaker at the event. The Left's state leader André Hahn claimed that Gauck did not deliver an "appropriate or balanced speech", arguing he had "an absolutely one-sided view of the GDR." ==Election results== ===Federal Parliament (Bundestag)=== Election Constituency Constituency Party list Party list Seats +/– Status Election Votes % Votes % Seats +/– Status 2005 3,764,168 8.0 (#4) 4,118,194 8.7 (#4) 52 2009 4,791,124 11.1 (#3) 5,155,933 11.9 (#4) 22 2013 3,585,178 8.2 (#3) 3,755,699 8.6 (#3) 12 2017 3,966,035 8.6 (#4) 4,296,762 9.2 (#5) 5 2021 2,306,755 5.0 (#7) 2,269,993 4.9 (#7) 30 As WASG and PDS ===European Parliament=== Election Votes % Seats +/– 2009 1,968,325 7.5 (#5) 1 2014 2,167,641 7.4 (#4) 1 2019 2,056,010 5.5 (#5) 2 ===State Parliaments (Länder)=== State parliament Election Votes % Seats +/– Status Baden-Württemberg 2021 173,295 3.6 (#6) 0 No seats Bavaria 2018 435,949 3.2 (#7) 0 No seats Berlin 2023 184,954 12.2 (#4) 2 Brandenburg 2019 135,558 10.7 (#5) 7 Bremen 2019 165,752 2 Hamburg 2020 364,102 9.1 (#4) 2 Hesse 2018 181,332 6.3 (#6) 3 Lower Saxony 2022 98,585 2.7 (#6) 0 2021 90,865 9.9 (#4) 2 2022 146,634 2.1 (#6) 0 No seats Rhineland-Palatinate 2021 48,210 2.5 (#7) 0 No seats Saarland 2022 11,689 2.6 (#6) 7 No seats Saxony 2019 224,354 10.4 (#3) Saxony-Anhalt 2021 116,927 11.0 (#3) 4 Schleswig-Holstein 2022 23,035 1.7 (#7) 0 No seats Thuringia 2019 343,736 31.0 (#1) 1 Best historic results for state parties State Seats / Total % Position/Gov. Year Lead Candidate Baden- Württemberg 3.6 (#6) No seats 2021 Sahra Mirow Bavaria 4.4 (#6) No seats 2008 Fritz Schmalzbauer Berlin 22.6 (#3) 2001 Gregor Gysi (Deputy Governing Mayor 2002) Brandenburg 27.2 (#2) 2009 Kerstin Kaiser Bremen 11.3 (#4) 2019 Kristina Vogt Hamburg 9.1 (#4) 2020 Cansu Özdemir Hesse 6.3 (#6) 2018 Janine Wissler Jan Schalauske Lower Saxony 7.1 (#5) 2008 Kreszentia Flauger 24.4 (#3) 1998 Helmut Holter (Deputy Minister-President 1998–2002) 5.6 (#5) 2010 Bärbel Beuermann Rhineland-Palatinate 3,0 (#5) No seats 2011 Robert Drumm Tanja Krauth Saarland 21.3 (#3) 2009 Oskar Lafontaine Saxony 23.6 (#2) 2004 Peter Porsch Saxony-Anhalt 19.6 (#3) with PDS confidence and supply 1998 Petra Sitte Schleswig-Holstein 6.0 (#5) 2009 Antje Jansen Thuringia 31.0 (#1) 2019 Bodo Ramelow (Minister-President 2014–) ====State results timeline==== Baden-Württemberg Election Votes % Seats +/− 2011 139,700 2.8 0 2016 156,211 2.9 0 2021 173,317 3.6 0 Bavaria Election Votes % Seats +/− 2008 461,755 4.4 0 2013 251,097 2.1 0 2018 435,949 3.2 0 Berlin Election Votes % Seats +/− 2006 225,689 16.3 10 2011 170,829 11.6 3 2016 255,740 15.6 7 2021 255,231 14.0 1 Brandenburg Election Votes % Seats +/− 2009 377,084 27.2 3 2014 183,172 18.6 9 2019 135,572 10.7 7 Bremen Election Votes % Seats +/− 2007 23,282 8.4 7 2011 73,769 5.6 2 2015 115,385 9.5 3 2019 166,378 11.3 2 Hamburg Election Votes % Seats +/− 2008 50,173 6.4 8 2011 220,428* 6.4 0 2015 300,567* 8.5 3 2020 364,102* 9.1 1 *) five votes per voter *) five votes per voter *) five votes per voter *) five votes per voter *) five votes per voter Hesse Election Votes % Seats +/− 2008 140,769 5.1 6 2009 139,074 5.4 0 2013 161,488 5.2 0 2018 181,263 6.3 3 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Election Votes % Seats +/− 2006 141,534 17.3 0 2011 125,528 18.4 1 2016 106,259 13.2 3 2021 90,865 9.9 2 Lower Saxony Election Votes % Seats +/− 2008 243,361 7.1 11 2013 110,525 3.1 11 2017 177,118 4.6 0 North Rhine-Westphalia Election Votes % Seats +/− 2005 254,977 3.1 0 2010 435,627 5.6 11 2012 194,428 2.5 11 2017 415,936 4.9 0 Rhineland- Palatinate Election Votes % Seats +/− 2006 44,826 2.6 0 2011 56,054 3.0 0 2016 60,074 2.8 0 2021 48,210 2.5 0 Saarland Election Votes % Seats +/− 2009 113,660 21.5 11 2012 77,612 16.1 2 2017 68,566 12.9 2 2022 11,689 2.6 7 Saxony Election Votes % Seats +/− 2009 370,359 20.6 2 2014 309,568 18.9 2 2019 224,411 10.4 13 Saxony-Anhalt Election Votes % Seats +/− 2006 217,295 24.1 1 2011 235,011 23.7 3 2016 183,296 16.3 13 2021 116,927 11.0 4 Schleswig- Holstein Election Votes % Seats +/− 2009 95,764 6.0 6 2012 29,900 2.2 6 2017 55,833 3.8 0 Thuringia Election Votes % Seats +/− 2009 288,932 27.4 1 2014 265,425 28.2 1 2019 343,738 31.0 1 ===Results timeline=== Party Year DE EU BW BY BE BB HB HH HE NI MV NW RP SL SN ST SH TH PDS 1990 2.4 9.2 13.4 15.7 10.2 12.0 9.7 PDS 1991 2.4 9.2 13.4 15.7 10.2 12.0 9.7 PDS 1992 2.4 9.2 13.4 15.7 10.2 12.0 9.7 PDS 1993 2.4 9.2 13.4 15.7 10.2 12.0 9.7 PDS 1994 4.4 4.7 9.2 18.7 22.7 16.5 19.9 16.6 PDS 1995 4.4 4.7 14.6 18.7 2.4 22.7 16.5 16.6 PDS 1996 4.4 4.7 14.6 18.7 2.4 22.7 16.5 16.6 PDS 1997 4.4 4.7 14.6 18.7 2.4 0.7 22.7 16.5 16.6 PDS 1998 5.1 4.7 14.6 18.7 2.4 0.7 0.2 24.4 16.5 19.6 16.6 PDS 1999 5.1 5.8 17.7 23.3 2.9 0.7 0.2 0.8 22.2 21.3 PDS 2000 5.1 5.8 17.7 23.3 2.9 0.7 0.2 1.1 0.8 22.2 1.4 21.3 PDS 2001 5.1 5.8 22.6 23.3 2.9 0.4 0.2 1.1 0.0 0.8 22.2 1.4 21.3 PDS 2002 4.0 5.8 23.3 2.9 0.4 0.2 16.4 1.1 0.0 0.8 22.2 20.4 1.4 21.3 PDS 2003 4.0 5.8 23.3 1.7 0.4 0.4 1.1 0.0 0.8 22.2 20.4 1.4 21.3 PDS 2004 4.0 6.1 28.0 1.7 0.4 1.1 0.0 2.3 23.6 20.4 1.4 26.1 The Left.PDS & WASG 2005 8.7 6.1 28.0 1.7 0.4 3.1 0.0 2.3 23.6 20.4 0.5 26.1 The Left.PDS & WASG 2006 8.7 6.1 3.1 13.4 28.0 1.7 0.4 16.8 3.1 2.7 2.3 23.6 24.1 0.5 26.1 The Left 2007 8.7 6.1 3.1 28.0 8.4 0.4 16.8 3.1 2.7 2.3 23.6 24.1 0.5 26.1 The Left 2008 8.7 6.1 3.1 4.4 28.0 8.4 6.4 5.1 7.1 16.8 3.1 2.7 2.3 23.6 24.1 0.5 26.1 The Left 2009 11.9 7.5 3.1 4.4 27.2 8.4 6.4 5.4 7.1 16.8 3.1 2.7 21.3 20.6 24.1 6.0 27.4 The Left 2010 11.9 7.5 3.1 4.4 8.4 6.4 5.4 7.1 16.8 5.6 2.7 21.3 20.6 24.1 6.0 27.4 The Left 2011 11.9 7.5 2.8 4.4 11.6 5.6 6.4 5.4 7.1 18.4 5.6 3.0 21.3 20.6 23.7 6.0 27.4 The Left 2012 11.9 7.5 2.8 4.4 11.6 5.6 6.4 5.4 7.1 18.4 2.5 3.0 16.1 20.6 23.7 2.3 27.4 The Left 2013 8.6 7.5 2.8 2.1 11.6 5.6 6.4 5.2 3.1 18.4 2.5 3.0 16.1 20.6 23.7 2.3 27.4 The Left 2014 8.6 7.4 2.8 2.1 11.6 18.6 5.6 6.4 5.2 3.1 18.4 2.5 3.0 16.1 18.9 23.7 2.3 28.2 The Left 2015 8.6 7.4 2.8 2.1 11.6 9.5 8.5 5.2 3.1 18.4 2.5 3.0 16.1 18.9 23.7 2.3 The Left 2016 8.6 7.4 2.9 2.1 15.6 9.5 8.5 5.2 3.1 13.2 2.5 2.8 16.1 18.9 16.3 2.3 The Left 2017 9.2 7.4 2.9 2.1 9.5 8.5 5.2 4.6 13.2 4.9 2.8 12.8 18.9 16.3 3.8 The Left 2018 9.2 7.4 2.9 3.2 9.5 8.5 6.3 4.6 13.2 4.9 2.8 12.8 18.9 16.3 3.8 The Left 2019 9.2 5.5 2.9 3.2 10.7 11.3 8.5 6.3 4.6 13.2 4.9 2.8 12.8 10.4 16.3 3.8 31.0 The Left 2020 9.2 5.5 2.9 3.2 10.7 9.1 6.3 4.6 13.2 4.9 2.8 12.8 10.4 16.3 3.8 The Left 2021 4.9 5.5 3.6 3.2 14.0 10.7 9.1 6.3 4.6 9.9 4.9 2.5 12.8 10.4 11.0 3.8 The Left 2022 4.9 5.5 3.6 3.2 14.0 10.7 9.1 6.3 2.7 9.9 2.1 2.5 2.6 10.4 11.0 1.7 Party Year DE EU BW BY BE BB HB HH HE NI MV NW RP SL SN ST SH TH Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner Bold indicates best result to date. Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner ==See also== *List of political parties in Germany ==Notes== ==References== ==Literature== *Dominic Heilig, Mapping the European Left: Socialist Parties in the EU, Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, April 2016 *David F. Patton. Out of the East: From PDS to Left Party in Unified Germany (State University of New York Press; 2011) *Hubertus Knabe, Honeckers Erben. Die Wahrheit über Die Linke. Propyläen, Berlin 2009, * * ==External links== *Official website *Programmatic Points *Ingar Solty, The New German Left Party , Rosa Luxemburg Foundation *Dan Hough, Michael Koss and Jonathan Olsen: The Left Party in Contemporary German Politics. London: Palgrave, 2007 *Ingar Solty: Transformation of the German Political System and European Historical Responsibility of the German Left Party, Das Argument 271, 3/2007, pp. 329-47 *Victor Grossman: A Huge Step Towards Left Unity in Germany, Monthly Review Zine *Ingo Schmidt: The Left Opposition in Germany. Why is the Left So Weak When So Many Look For Political Alternatives?, in Monthly Review, May 2007 *A New European Socialist Movement? The Rise of the Left Party in Germany by Ingar Solty and Frank Deppe, in Toronto, Canada, 18 March 2008 *Was the German Election a Turning Point?, Toronto, Canada, 13 November 2009 Category:2007 establishments in Germany Category:Anti-fascist organisations in Germany Category:Anti-militarism in Europe Category:Democratic socialist parties in Europe Category:Left-wing parties in Europe Category:Left-wing politics in Germany Category:Left-wing populism Category:Multi-tendency organizations Category:Non-interventionist parties Category:Organisations based in Berlin Category:Parties represented in the European Parliament Category:Party of the European Left member parties Category:Political parties established in 2007 Category:Socialist parties in Germany Category:Opposition to NATO |
The Mercedes-Benz R107 and C107 are sports cars which were produced by Mercedes-Benz from 1971 until 1989, being the second longest single series ever produced by the automaker after the G-Class. They were sold under the SL (R107) and SLC (C107) model names as the 280SL, 280SLC, 300SL, 350SL, 350SLC, 380SL, 380SLC, 420SL, 450SL, 450SLC, 450SLC 5.0, 500SL, 500SLC and 560SL. The R107/SL was a two-seat car with a detachable roof. It replaced the W113 SL- Class in 1971 and was replaced by the R129 SL-Class in 1989. The predecessor W113 was notably successful in North America, with 19,440 units (40%) of 48,912 total units sold in the US. The R107 and C107 were even more focused on the American market, with specialized engines, bumper designs, headlights, and emissions management designs. The R107 and C107 sold 204,373 units in the US (68%) of 300,175 total units sold (excluding grey market sales into the US). During its production run, the SL was the only roadster offered by Mercedes- Benz. The C107/SLC was a four-seat car with a fixed roof and an optional sliding steel sunroof. It replaced the W111 Coupé in 1971 and was replaced by the C126 S-class coupe in 1981. ==Model history== thumb|left|early 350SL The R107 and C107 took the chassis components of the midsize 1968 Mercedes-Benz W114 model and mated them initially to the M116 and M117 V8 engines used in the W108, W109 and W111 series. The body styles for both R107 and C107 did not change materially from introduction in 1971 to their end of production in 1981 (coupé) and 1989 (soft-top) respectively. The SL (R107) variant was a 2-seat convertible/roadster with standard soft-top, with optional winter hardtop and only rarely ordered bench for the tiny rear cabin. thumb|left|SLC rear quarter window slats The SLC (C107) derivative was a 2-door hardtop coupe with normal rear seats. The SLC is commonly referred to as an 'SL coupe', and it was the first and only time Mercedes-Benz based their S-class coupe on a stretched 2-seat SL roadster platform, rather than on a large S-class saloon, replacing the former saloon-based 280/300SE coupé in Mercedes lineup. The SLC model run ended in 1981, much earlier than the SL, to be replaced with a much larger model, the 380SEC and 500SEC, again based on the new 1980 full-size S-class liner. Volume production of the first R107 car, the 350SL, started in April 1971 alongside the last of the W113 cars; the 350SLC followed in October. The early 1971 350SL are very rare and were available with an optional 4 speed fluid coupling automatic gearbox. The 1971 4sp auto were quick cars for the day with 0-60 mph in 8 seconds. In addition, the rare 1971 cars were fitted with Bosch electronic fuel injection. ===European models and engines=== thumb|left|The C107 SLC has had a successful rally career thumb|left|Mercedes 560SL (Australia) The 350SL and 350SLC for the European market used a 3.5 liter V8 engine. thumb|Mercedes-Benz 450SLC 5.0 From July 1974 both SL and SLC could also be ordered with a fuel-injected 2.8L straight-6 as 280SL and 280SLC. In September 1977 the 450SLC 5.0 joined the line. This was a homologation version of the big coupé, featuring a new all-aluminium five- liter V8, aluminium alloy bonnet and boot lid, as well as a black rubber rear spoiler and a small front lip spoiler. These changes resulted in a reduction in weight of over 100kg when compared to the 'old' 450SLC. The '5.0' was built in limited numbers, only 2,769 being completed between 1977 and 1981. Maximum speed of the '5.0' was some 10km/h faster than that of the '4.5' at around 225km/h. The 450SLC 5.0 was produced in order to homologate the SLC for the 1978 World Rally Championship. Starting in 1980, the 350SLC, 450SLC, and 450SLC 5.0 models (like the 350SL and 450SL) were discontinued in 1980 with the introduction of the 380SLC and 500SLC in March 1980. At the same time, the cars received a very mild makeover; the 3-speed automatic was replaced by a four-speed unit, returning to where the R107 started in 1971 with the optional 4 speed automatic 350SL (3.5lt). The 280SLC, 380SLC, and 500SLC were discontinued in 1981 with the introduction of the W126 series 380SEC and 500SEC coupes. A total of 62,888 SLCs had been manufactured over a ten-year period of which just 1,636 were the 450SLC-5.0 and 1,133 were the 500SLC. Both these models are sought by collectors today. With the exception of the R171 SLK 55 AMG Black Series and the SL65 AMG Black Series, the SLC remains the only fixed roof Mercedes-Benz coupe based on a roadster rather than a saloon. Following the discontinuation of the SLC in November 1981 the 107 series continued initially as the 280SL, 380SL, and 500SL. At this time, the V8 engines were re-tuned for greater efficiency, lost a few horsepower and consumed less fuel, largely due to substantially higher (numerically lower) axle ratios that went from 3.27:1 to 2.47:1 for the 380SL and from 2.72:1 to 2.27:1 for the 500SL. From September 1985 the 280SL was replaced by a new 300SL and the 380SL by a 420SL; the 500SL continued and a 560SL was introduced for certain extra-European markets, notably the USA, Australia and Japan. Also in 1985, the Bosch KE Jetronic was fitted. The KE Jetronic system varied from the earlier, all mechanical system by the introduction of a more modern engine management "computer", which controlled idle speed, fuel rate, and air/fuel mixture. The final car of the 18 years running 107 series was a 500SL painted Signal Red, built on 4 August 1989; it currently resides in the Mercedes-Benz museum in Stuttgart, Germany. ===North American models=== North America was the key market for this Personal luxury car, and two thirds of R107 and C107 production was sold there.https://media.daimler.com/dcmedia/0-921-657476-1-1279283-1-0-0-0-0-1-0-0-0-1-0-0-0-0-0.html Daimler.com Retrieved 11 May 2016 The R107/C107 for the North American market sported four round low-output sealed beam headlights, due to unique U.S. regulations. Sales in North America began in 1972, and cars wore the badge 350SL, but actually had a larger 4.5L V8 with 3 speed auto (and were renamed 450SL for model year 1973); the big V8 became available on other markets with the official introduction of the 450SL/SLC on non-North American markets in March 1973. US cars sold from 1972 through 1975 used the Bosch D Jetronic fuel injection system, an early electronic engine management system. From 1974, the front and rear bumpers were dramatically lengthened, by on each end, to comply with the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration regulations, that mandated no damage at an impact of . R107 and C107 cars were exported to the US with low compression 4.5 liter V8 engines to meet stringent US emissions requirements, yet still provide adequate power. US models sold from 1976 through 1979 used the Bosch K Jetronic system, an entirely mechanical fuel injection system. The 450SL was produced until 1980. Starting in 1980, US cars were equipped with lambda control, which varied the air/fuel mixture based on feedback from an oxygen sensor. The smaller engined 380SL replaced the 450SL from 1981 to 1985. The Malaise era 380SL was the least powerful of the US market R107 roadsters. North American market SL and SLC models retained the "protruding" 5 mph bumpers, even after the wisdom of the law was reconsidered in 1981. ====US gray market sales==== thumb|left|Mercedes-Benz 450SLC 5.0 (U.S.) The more powerful 500SL with a 5.0 liter engine, produced from 1980–1989, was not available in the US. This drove many customers to obtain the European specification car in the "gray market." Finally, a more powerful version was available from the factory, from 1986 to 1989, the 560SL. It was exclusive to the USA, European, Japanese and Australian markets. Despite the larger 5.6 liter engine of the U.S. 560SL, the forbidden Euro-spec 500SL was the fastest production R107 produced (mostly because of the lack of emission restraints). The 500SL was published by Mercedes-Benz as having 0-60 mph times of 7.4 seconds for a top speed of . Torque for the 500SL is at 3200 rpm and for the 560SL at 3500 rpm. ====Mechanical troubles==== Model years 1975 and 1976 for the 450SL suffered from vapor lock and hard restart because of the under-bonnet position of the catalytic converter. Starting in MY 1977, the catalytic converter was moved to replace the resonator, located just behind the transmission in the exhaust system. The 380SL/SLC engine came with a single row timing chain from 1981 through 1983. These early 380SL/SLC models were plagued with chain failure problems and the problem was corrected by Mercedes-Benz, free of charge. Some models, however, escaped retrofit and may at some point fail as a result. MYs 1984 and 1985 came with a double row timing chain from the factory to address this issue. Another problem area for late 450SLs was the automatic climate control system. Based on a "servo," which controlled coolant flow to the heater core, as well as vacuum to actuate the vents in the interior of the car, the system proved unreliable. It was installed on 450SLs through end of production in 1980. Models produced prior to 1978 had a manual climate control system, 380SL models produced from 1981 received a more reliable automatic climate control system. ===South African assembly=== Both the SL and SLC models were also assembled in South Africa by UCDD (United Car and Diesel Distributors) for the captive domestic market from early 1977 (on a contractor basis before Daimler-Benz A.G. acquired a majority stake of UCDD in 1984). Only about 40 units per month were built. ==Technical data== ===Europe=== Technical data Mercedes-Benz R107/C107 (standard version - non USA, S, J, AUS) (Manufacturer's figures except where stated) Mercedes-Benz 280SL / 280SLC* 300SL 350SL / 350SLC** 380SL / 380SLC† 420SL 450SL / 450SLC*** 500SL / 500SLC****‡ Produced: MY 1974–1985 (SL) MY 1974–1981 (SLC) MY 1985–1989 MY 1971–1980 MY 1980–1985 (SL) MY 1980–1981 (SLC) MY 1985–1989 MY 1973–1980 MY 1980–1989 (SL) MY 1980–1981 (SLC) Engine: 6-cylinder-inline engine (four-stroke), front- mounted 90° 8-cylinder-V engine (four-stroke), front-mounted Bore x Stroke: 86 mm x 78.8 mm 88.5 mm x 80.25 mm 92 mm x 65.8 mm 92 mm x 71.8 mm 92 mm x 78.9 mm 92 mm x 85 mm 96.5 mm x 85 mm Displacement: 2746 cc 2960 cc 3499 cc 3818 cc 4196 cc 4520 cc 4973 cc Max. Power @ rpm: @ 6000 @ 5700 @ 5800 @ 5500 @ 5200 @ 5000 @ 5000 Max. Torque @ rpm: @ 4500 @ 4400 @ 4000 @ 4000 @ 3750 @ 3000 @ 3200 Compression Ratio: 9.0: 1 9.2: 1 9.5: 1 9.0: 1 9.0: 1 8.8: 1 9.0: 1 Fuel feed: Fuel injection, Bosch D-Jetronic (-1976), K-Jetronic (-1980), K-Jetronic with Lambda (-1985) and from 1985 KE-Jetronic Fuel tank capacity: , from 1985: Valvetrain: DOHC, duplex chain SOHC, simplex chain SOHC, duplex chain Cooling: Water Gearbox: 4- or 5-speed manual standard on 380/420/450/500: 3-speed automatic, from 1980: 4-speed automatic rear wheel drive Electrical system: 12 volt Front suspension: Double wishbones, coil springs, additional rubber springs, stabilising bar Rear suspension:: Diagonal swing axle, coil springs, stabilising bar Brakes: Disc brakes (Ø 278 mm front, 279 mm rear; from 1985: 284/279 mm), power assisted ABS from 1980 on request or standard Steering: Recirculating ball steering Body structure: Sheet steel, unibody construction Dry weight: SL: SLC: align="center" Loaded weight: SL: SLC: align="center" Track front/ rear: from 1985: Wheelbase: SL: SLC: Length: SL: SLC: Width: Height: SL: SLC: Tire sizes: 185HR14 205/65VR15 205/70VR14 205/70VR14 205/65VR15 205/70VR14 205/70VR14 Top speed: align="center" Fuel Consumption (estimates): Notes: * in 1976/77 rated at @ 6000 ** in 1976/77 rated at @ 5500, from 1978 at @ 5750 *** from November 1975 (change from D-Jetronic to K-Jetronic) rated at @ 5000, from 1978 again at @ 5000 **** from November 1981 rated at @ 4750, from 1985 at @ 4750, catalyst version at @ 4700 † from autumn 1981 a different 3.8L engine was used (bore/stroke 88 x 78.9 mm, @ 5250); this engine already was in use for North American versions ‡ early versions (1978) of the 450SLC 5.0 used a slightly larger version of this engine (Type M117): bore/stroke 97 x 85 mm, 5025 cc, @ 5000 ===North America=== Technical data Mercedes-Benz R107/C107 (North American models)Mike Covello, op. cit., pp. 527–545. (Manufacturer's figures except where stated) Mercedes-Benz 350SL / 350SLC / 450SL / 450SLC 380SL / 380SLC 560SL Produced: MY 1972–1980 MY 1981–1985 (SL) MY 1981 (SLC) MY 1986–1989 Engine: 90° 8-cylinder-V engine (four-stroke), front-mounted Bore x Stroke: x x x Displacement: 4520 cc 3839 cc 5549 cc Max. Power @ rpm: @ 4750 later @ 4750 @ 4750 @ 5200 Max. Torque @ rpm: @ 3000 later @ 3000 @ 2750 @ 3500 Compression Ratio: 8.0: 1 8.3: 1 9.0: 1 Fuel feed: Bosch fuel injection Fuel tank capacity: , from 1985: Valvetrain: SOHC, 1981-1983: single chain, all others: duplex chain Cooling: Water Gearbox: 3-speed automatic, from 1981: 4-speed automatic rear wheel drive Electrical system: 12 volt Front suspension: Double wishbones, coil springs, additional rubber springs, stabilising bar Rear suspension:: Diagonal swing axle, coil springs, stabilising bar Brakes: Disc brakes (Ø front, rear; from 1985: 284/279 mm), power assisted Steering: Recirculating ball steering Body structure: Sheet steel, unibody construction Dry weight: SL: SLC: SL: SLC: Track front/ rear: Wheelbase: SL: SLC: Length: SL: SLC: SL: SLC: Width: Height: SL: SLC: Tire sizes: N/A Top speed: N/A Fuel consumption (estimates): N/A ===Models timeline=== == Motorsport == === 450SLC 5.0 === thumb|1979 Mercedes- Benz 450SLC 5.0 In 1978 the factory prepared two examples for the one-off Vuelta a la América del Sur, a month-long event of some 7,000 kilometres in length that took the competitors from Buenos Aires and back via Rio, Manaus, Caracas, Bogota, Lima, La Paz, Santiago and Ushuaia. The car driven by Andrew Cowan and Colin Malkin won by 20 minutes from team-mates Sobiesław Zasada and Andrzej Zembrzuski. In 1979 a 5.0-litre 450SLC driven by Hannu Mikkola won the Bandama Rally in Côte d'Ivoire, with others finishing 2nd, 3rd and 4th. That same year the factory had used the 450SLC '5.0' to contest the Safari Rally, only narrowly missing out on victory because of suspension breakages. Nevertheless, the car driven by Hannu Mikkola finished 2nd. Results in 1980 were worse, and the factory team was disbanded at the season's end. An Albert Pfuhl proceeded to buy all six cars, equipment, and spare parts from the works team. Pfuhl and his team built a series of cars to compete in the 1984 Paris–Dakar Rally with a white and blue "BOSS" livery. The cars finished well down the order. ==Appearance in media== The R107 was seen frequently on American television programs of the 1970s, like Dallas, The Six Million Dollar Man, Hart To Hart, Switch, The Rockford Files, and Wonder Woman. The R107 plays a key role in Robert Altman's The Long Goodbye (film) (1973), where Philip Marlowe (Elliott Gould) tries to contact the elusive Eileen (Nina van Pallandt) driving away in her open 450SL, but he is hit by another car. In the 1980 movie American Gigolo, Richard Gere drives a black 1980 Mercedes-Benz 450SL (R107). In a later disconcerting scene, Gere's character Julian Kaye rips the car apart in his apartment garage looking for a stash of jewels he believes planted in the car to frame him for the Rheiman murder. A modified Mercedes R107 appeared in Season 1, Episode 9 (Berks to the Future) of the Amazon Prime Video original series The Grand Tour. It was used by Jeremy Clarkson, who was trying to create a new type of sports utility vehicle by combining the chassis and engine of a Land Rover Discovery with the bodies of classic sports cars. Originally he tried it with a 1978 MGB, which failed, so he used the Mercedes R107. The car was named as 'The Excellent' and Clarkson still owns it today. ==See also== *Mercedes-Benz SL-Class ==References== ===Notes=== ===Bibliography=== * * * ==External links== R107 R107 Category:Roadsters Category:Convertibles Category:Coupés Category:Cars introduced in 1971 Category:1980s cars Category:Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Category:Group 4 (racing) cars |
The NatWest Three, also known as the Enron Three, are three British businessmen – Giles Darby, David Bermingham and Gary Mulgrew. In 2002 they were indicted in Houston, Texas on seven counts of wire fraud against their former employer Greenwich NatWest, at the time a division of National Westminster Bank, as part of the Enron scandal. After a high-profile battle in the British courts they were extradited from the United Kingdom to the United States in 2006. On 28 November 2007, each pleaded guilty to one count of wire fraud in exchange for the other charges being dropped. On 22 February 2008 they were each sentenced to 37 months in prison. Initially they were jailed in the US, but were later repatriated to British prisons to serve out the rest of their sentences. They were released from custody in August 2010. ==Background== In 2000 the three worked for Greenwich NatWest, then a unit of National Westminster Bank, later acquired by Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS). The three were involved in Greenwich NatWest's dealings with Enron Corporation. As a result of these dealings NatWest owned a stake in a Cayman Islands- registered partnership called Swap Sub.Statement of Facts, section 8. Swap Sub was a special purpose entity created by Andrew Fastow, Enron's CFO, ostensibly for the purpose of hedging Enron's investment in Rhythms NetConnections, an internet service provider. Swap Sub's assets consisted of cash and Enron stock. Its liability was an option giving Enron the ability to require it to buy Enron's entire investment in Rhythms NetConnections at a predetermined price in 2004.Fox, pp. 152–53 In addition to NatWest, Credit Suisse First Boston held an equal stake in Swap Sub. The remainder was owned by a partnership managed by Fastow. In March 2000, Enron decided to terminate the hedging arrangement with Swap Sub. Fastow managed to persuade Enron to pay Swap Sub a $30 million fee to terminate the option and recover the Enron stock it owned,Fox, p. 159 even though, because of a decline in the price of the Rhythms stock, "Swap Sub owed Enron a ton of money". $10 million of the payment went to Credit Suisse First Boston; Fastow falsely claimed to Enron that the other $20 million would go to NatWest, but in fact only $1 million did so. The payment, which was formally agreed on 22 March 2000, resulted in large profits for Swap Sub, enriching several Enron employees who had acquired ownership interests in the partnership.Fox (2004), pp. 159–60 ==The crime== According to the Statement of Facts which was signed by all three defendants as part of their eventual plea bargain, the Three realized in early 2000 that, because of rises in the stock prices of Enron and Rhythms, NatWest's interest in Swap Sub "had quite some value".Statement of Facts, section 16 On 22 February of that year, the three bankers made a presentation to Enron CFO Andrew Fastow suggesting ways in which this value could be captured; however, Fastow ultimately rejected this proposal.Statement of Facts, section 19. Shortly afterwards, Fastow contacted Gary Mulgrew in late February or early March 2000 and offered to purchase NatWest's interest in Swap Sub.Statement of Facts, section 20 He also offered Mulgrew what is described in the Statement of Facts as "an unspecified financial opportunity" if he were to leave NatWest. Mulgrew discussed this conversation with Darby and Bermingham. On 6 March 2000, Fastow's assistant Michael Kopper contacted Darby with a formal proposal that a company Kopper controlled should purchase NatWest's stake in Swap Sub for $1 million.Statement of Facts, section 21. Mulgrew and Darby subsequently recommended to their superiors that NatWest should accept this offer.Statement of Facts, section 22. Later that month, the three bankers learned that the "unspecified financial opportunity" which had been mentioned to Mulgrew involved their personally acquiring a portion of NatWest's stake in Swap Sub.Statement of Facts, section 23 In furtherance of this, Kopper set up a deal for the Three to acquire a put option on half of NatWest's former stake in the company. On 17 March, Darby collected the signatures needed to finalize the NatWest sale.Statement of Facts, section 26. On 20 March the Three executed the option agreement with Kopper.Statement of Facts, section 27. The Three concealed both their dealings with Fastow and Kopper, and the fact that they now had a financial interest in the company that bought Swap Sub, from their superiors at NatWest.Statement of Facts, section 28. According to the Statement of Facts, the Three were unaware of the 22 March agreement to pay $30 million to Swap Sub.Statement of Facts, section 29 On 21 April 2000, Bermingham, who had resigned from NatWest in the meantime, exercised the options, resulting in a profit of more than $7 million.Statement of Facts, section 31 He subsequently split the proceeds with Darby and Mulgrew.Statement of Facts, section 33. ==Timeline of legal proceedings== ===FSA investigation=== In November 2001 the three bankers, having now moved to work at Royal Bank of Canada, learned that the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was investigating Fastow and voluntarily met with the British Financial Services Authority (FSA) to discuss the deal. According to their own account, the Three initiated this meeting in order to "ensure transparency". Bermingham later claimed that "[w]e gave [the FSA] everything because we thought we had nothing to hide." In February 2002 the FSA completed its inquiries without taking any action. It later emerged that the FSA had passed the results of its investigation to the SEC, which had in turn passed them on to the prosecutors in the US Department of Justice. According to a report in The Times the FSA report was so detailed that it told the SEC whom to interview and what evidence would be needed to secure a conviction, and concluded that "there appears to be evidence that the three individuals were subject to a major conflict of interest". ===Issue of arrest warrants and indictment=== US arrest warrants for the Three were issued in June 2002. They were indicted by a grand jury in Houston, Texas in September of the same year on seven counts of wire fraud.Indictment: United States of America v. David Bermingham, Giles Darby and Gary Mulgrew, United States District Court, Southern District of Texas, Houston Division, usdoj.gov; accessed 16 November 2015. The warrants were among the first issued by Enron prosecutors; media reports speculated that their main purpose was to induce the Three into a plea bargain whereby they would testify against Kopper and Fastow (seen as more important prosecution targets) in exchange for reduced sentences. During the long delay caused by the decision of the Three to fight extradition, however, Kopper and Fastow both pleaded guilty and entered into plea bargains themselves. Thus, in an ironic turn of events, Kopper and Fastow were likely to have been the key prosecution witnesses against the Three if the case had gone to trial. The indictment set out seven counts of wire fraud, each one corresponding to a document (fax, email or wire transfer) that was transmitted electronically in the United States in furtherance of the alleged fraudulent scheme. In addition to the facts agreed to as part of the eventual plea bargain, the indictment alleged that the Three knew, at the time they recommended the sale of Swap Sub to NatWest, that its value was significantly greater than $1 million, and that the 22 February presentation to Fastow was part of the fraudulent scheme. Although Enron officials were involved, the indictment did not allege that Enron Corporation itself was a victim of the scheme, or that the Three's activities had any connection to Enron's collapse. The evidence against the NatWest Three included preparations for the 22 February presentation, which contained the phrase > Problem is that it is too obvious (to both Enron and LPs) what is happening > (ie, robbery of LPs), so probably not attractive. Also no certainty of > making money ... Prosecutors alleged that the use of the word "robbery" in the presentation showed that the Three knew that they were planning to commit a crime. They also cited the discrepancy between the amounts of money accepted by NatWest ($1 million) and Credit Suisse First Boston ($10 million) for their equal stakes in Swap Sub. ===Extradition to the United States=== US prosecutors began to pursue proceedings in what they expected to be a "routine" extradition in the summer of 2002. The Three were arrested in Britain on 23 April 2004. Extradition proceedings under the Extradition Act 2003 commenced in June of that year amid widespread controversy.Brits arrested in Enron case awaiting extradition hearing Houston Chronicle, 10 June 2004. In September 2004 a judge at Bow Street Magistrates' Court ruled that the extradition could proceed. The Three responded by suing Britain's Serious Fraud Office (SFO) in the High Court of Justice, seeking judicial review to force a prosecution in the UK which would have taken precedence over the US investigation. In response the SFO issued a statement defending its decision to defer to prosecutors in the US: After a significant delay, the extradition was endorsed by Home Secretary Charles Clarke in May 2005. The Three appealed this decision also in the High Court. On 20 February 2006 both the appeal against extradition and the suit to force the SFO to prosecute (which were consolidated into one case) were rejected by the High Court. The bankers appealed further to the House of Lords, but this appeal failed on 21 June 2006. On 27 June 2006 the Three lost an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights. Rumours in the British press that the government would support the Three's case were rejected by Attorney General Lord Goldsmith on 7 July 2006. ===Initial court proceedings in the United States=== After all legal avenues of appeal against extradition had been exhausted, the Three arrived in Houston on 13 July 2006. They spent one night in that city's Federal Detention Center before being released into the custody of their attorney, under a requirement that they wear electronic monitoring devices. On 21 July, a judge ruled that the Three could go free on bond but could not leave the Houston area, could not meet with each other without their lawyers present, and were required to raise between $80,000 and $150,000 by the end of the month."Judge: Brits in Enron case must stay put", Houston Chronicle, 21 July 2006 US immigration services gave them permission to accept employment in the US for a period of one year, but, because of the judge's order, they were not permitted to leave the Houston area to seek or obtain work."Judge limits travel of British Enron bankers", Houston Chronicle, 22 July 2006. ===Trial date postponements=== On 2 August 2006 the trial date was delayed indefinitely from 13 September 2006, in order to allow two of the Three to secure legal representation.Former bankers win delay in trial, Houston Chronicle, 2 August 2006 On 9 August 2006 the legal situation of the Three was complicated by subpoenas served on them in an Enron-related civil suit against Royal Bank of Canada.Enron investors call NatWest Three in civil lawsuit, The Guardian, 9 August 2006 On 12 August 2006 all three informed the judge that they had retained attorneys.Ex-bankers from Britain retain lawyers, Houston Chronicle, 12 August 2006 On 6 September 2006, the trial date was set for February 2007 if witnesses could be obtained in time, failing that for 4 September 2007. Until that time the Three were required to wear monitoring devices and were forbidden from leaving the Houston area.Trial set for next September in Enron-related case, Houston Chronicle, 6 September 2006 On 1 August 2007, the trial date was moved back yet again to January 2008. This was following another earlier postponement to 22 October. This further delay was a significant blow to the three, and their supporters stressed again the problems they were facing with the scale of legal fees and further separation from their families in the UK.Natwest Three devastated at new trial delay,The Times,2 August 2007. ===Witnesses controversy=== On 6 August 2007, the Three asked the judge in the case to order six former colleagues living in Britain to provide video testimony for their defence. In a court filing explaining this request, they alleged that "[s]everal individuals now refuse to travel to the United States to appear on defendants' behalf because they feel, or have been, threatened by the [US] government". Such a request would have required the co-operation of British authorities. The Three's filing also claimed that Royal Bank of Scotland was obstructing attempts to contact a larger group of thirty-six employees who were also potential witnesses, claiming that "[t]he Royal Bank of Scotland and the Royal Bank of Canada have… taken steps to prevent Defendants from securing the testimony of former colleagues", and that "counsel for the purported victim in this case [RBS] has interfered with the ability of defence counsel to obtain relevant testimony". They concluded that the Three's ability "to mount a vigorous defence has thereby been severely compromised, if not eviscerated". The Three went so far as to publicly name the prospective witnesses in the hope that that would encourage some of them to speak out. ===Plea bargain=== On 28 November 2007, the Three accepted a plea bargain, pleading guilty to one count of wire fraud. In exchange, prosecutors agreed to drop the other six counts, and to support the application by the Three to serve part of their sentences in the United Kingdom. In the plea agreement, the Three pleaded guilty to count four of the indictment, relating to the email from London to Houston of the final Swap Sub sale documents. A "statement of facts" was appended to the plea agreement as Exhibit A and was signed by all three defendants. Prosecutor Alice Fisher stated, "[t]hese three defendants admitted today that they defrauded NatWest by entering into a secret and illegal deal with officers from Enron – a deal that yielded millions in profits for them personally at the expense of their employer". However, an article in The Daily Telegraph argued that the guilty pleas were motivated not by actual guilt, but rather by the prospect of further delays before the trial and possible 35-year sentences if convicted. Other British commentators agreed that this was a possibility. The Telegraph piece went on to claim that the statement of facts did not state that the Three knowingly defrauded NatWest. The original indictment alleged that the Three knew that NatWest's stake was worth far more than the $1 million it was being sold for; the statement of facts claimed only that bankers believed it was likely that they would make significant amounts of money as a result of the transaction, based on information that they concealed from their employer. In August 2010 Bermingham and Mulgrew appeared in a video on ungagged.net, a site devoted to attacking the US Department of Justice's handling of the Enron collapse. In the video David Bermingham recanted his guilty plea, and both he and Mulgrew claimed that they had been pressured into accepting plea bargains, attacking the US judicial system and characterising their treatment as "torture"."NAT West banker claims he was 'tortured' into pleading guilty", Daily Telegraph, 15 August 2010. Giles Darby said that he "fundamentally" disagreed with the claims made by Bermingham and Mulgrew in the video."Giles Darby fundamentally disagrees with 'torture' outburst by David Bermingham and Gary Mulgrew", Daily Telegraph, 17 August 2010. ===Sentencing and prison=== The NatWest Three were sentenced on 22 February 2008 to 37 months of imprisonment. They were given no remission for the time they had spent in the United States awaiting trial. They were also required to repay $7.3 million to Royal Bank of Scotland, the successor bank to Greenwich NatWest, of which $1.25 million would be due when the men surrendered themselves to prison authorities. During sentencing, the Three each made brief statements to the judge. Mulgrew said that he had shown a "lack of integrity" and "exercised poor judgement", concluding that "I have no one to blame but myself". Darby admitted that he was "wrong", and said "I deeply regret my involvement in this whole affair." Darby's lawyer stated that "Andy Fastow and the culture of greed at Enron corrupted everybody and everything it came in contact with", and added that the Three "are as much victims as anybody else." The Three requested to be assigned to the low- security federal prison in Allenwood, Pennsylvania. In April 2008, each was assigned to a different prison: Mulgrew was ordered to surrender to the facility in Big Spring, Texas on 30 April; Giles Darby to the Allenwood facility on 7 May; and David Bermingham to the prison in Lompoc, California, on 9 May. Mulgrew, Darby and Bermingham were assigned consecutive federal inmate numbers (66096-179, 66097-179 and 66098-179 respectively). They were later allowed to serve the remainder of their sentence in England. Bermingham was moved from Spring Hill Open Prison to a closed prison in Grendon Underwood in August 2009. The three were released in August 2010. ==Public relations campaign in Britain== Press coverage of the Three in Britain was initially mostly negative, focusing on the amount of money the men had gained and their extravagant lifestyles. For example, The Independent wrote that the men saw themselves as "womanising buccanneers who played as hard and as fast as they pursued their deals", and The Sunday Times described Mulgrew as "fiercely competitive" with "a massive ego" and "scars on his arms" from his former career as a nightclub bouncer. The tone of the reporting changed when the Three secured the services of Bell Yard Communications, a public relations firm which specialised in "public reputation management during times of corporate crisis or dispute", headed by Melanie Riley. Adrian Flook of M: Communications was also involved. Both firms claimed to be working pro bono. Riley said that "I have been working pro bono for the last six months because I believe in the case. We have worked hard to ensure that people understood the inequity of the Extradition Act." Guardian journalist Nick Davies, in his book Flat Earth News, described the strategy adopted by Bell Yard: Davies later recounted the reaction of the press: Riley summed up her strategy as follows: M: Communications co-founder Nick Miles added: An article in the Financial Times also highlighted the achievements of the public relations team: The Three feature as victims of British justice in the £500,000 documentary Taking Liberties, made by Bermingham's film finance acquaintance.Taking Liberties , bbc.co.uk; accessed 16 November 2015. ==Extradition controversy== The extensive news coverage of the Three in Britain resulted in a large-scale debate over the merits of their extradition to the United States under the then new Extradition Act 2003. In particular, a high-profile campaign against the extradition was led by The Daily Telegraph newspaper. Several arguments were raised against the extradition. ===Jurisdiction argument=== It was argued that the crime was committed by British citizens living in Britain against a British company based in London, the nation's capital city and that, therefore, any resulting criminal case fell under British legal and territorial jurisdictionRandall, Jeff "NatWest Three caught on extradition's one-way street", The Daily Telegraph, 1 March 2006. and should be tried by a British court."Try Natwest three in UK – Tories", BBC News, 6 July 2006. However, British authorities decided not to prosecute due to a purported lack of evidence."Enron charge trio facing US trial", BBC News, 24 May 2005. ===Fair trial argument=== Some argued that it would be very difficult for Three to receive a fair trial in Texas. The case could have taken years to come to trial. The trial was scheduled to begin in September 2006, but was repeatedly postponed to January 2008. The three accused men would be forced to remain in the US, far away from their families in the UK. Additionally, while on bail they would be unable to find gainful employment in order to fund a legal defence against the charges brought against them. (The Three were permitted to seek employment in the US provided they remained in Houston.) It was also claimed that the defendants would be handicapped in preparing a defence because most of the evidence and witnesses were overseas in the UK. They argued that witnesses would be reluctant to come to Texas. ===Extradition inequality argument=== It was alleged that the extradition arrangements between the US and the UK were highly unequal. The Act's terms made it easier to extradite British citizens to America than vice versa. There has been much criticism of the fact that the Americans do not have to produce a prima facie case to extradite British citizens, whereas there was no comparable facility to extradite US citizens to the UK. Despite this, the head of Britain's Serious Fraud Office, Robert Wardle, has claimed that there would have been enough evidence to extradite the Three to the US even under the old extradition arrangements. He expressed astonishment that the men had become a "cause célèbre", and expressed confidence that the Three would get a fair trial in the US. Supporters of the Three claim that when the extradition law was passed in the wake of 11 September the British government stated that it was only to be used in the so-called war against terror and if the treaty was ratified by the US. However, neither of these conditions was written into the text of the extradition law, and neither had been fulfilled in the case of the Three at the time of their extradition. (The treaty was subsequently ratified by the US in September 2006.) ==House of Commons debate== The Speaker of the House of Commons, Michael Martin, allowed an emergency debate, on 12 July 2006, on both the treaty and the 'Natwest Three' after a request by Liberal Democrat MP Nick Clegg. ==Neil Coulbeck== On 12 July 2006, a former Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) executive and FBI prosecution witness Neil Coulbeck had been found dead, after committing suicide by slitting his wrists. Coulbeck had worked for RBS until 2004, latterly as Head of Group Treasury. It had been suggested by friends and family that the FBI 'hounded' Coulbeck. At the inquest into his death, Coulbeck's wife stated that he had been deeply disturbed by the extradition of the Three, and it was known that he had provided a crucial statement which in part led to their extradition. The FBI denied this, saying that it had interviewed Coulbeck only once, four years earlier. ==Relevance in future extradition cases== The case of the NatWest Three was cited in Parliament in relation to the 2020 US extradition request for Mike Lynch, founder of software company Autonomy. David Davis stated: ==Publications== * ** Comments on the attempt by the US to extradite Autonomy founder Mike Lynch: "[i]t is a near statistical certainty that someone extradited to the US will end up guilty, most probably through a plea bargain rather than going to trial, because the criminal justice system in the US is so heavily geared towards this outcome". * ** "[A]longside the horror stories about gang beatings and brutality, Giles also wrote about the larger-than-life characters he met and the unexpected antics of his fellow inmates." * ** "The remarkable true story of one man’s journey from a Glasgow orphanage to a notorious gang-infested prison in Texas. Driven by his desire to return to his son in England and haunted by the increasingly frustrating search for his missing daughter". ==See also== * Babar Ahmad * David Carruthers * Peter Dicks * Gary McKinnon * Christopher Tappin * Syed Talha Ahsan * Richard O'Dwyer ==References== ==Bibliography== * * ==External links== * Friends Extradited (a supporter website) * * "Telegraph executives lend support to 'NatWest Three'", guardian.co.uk; accessed 16 November 2015. *Inmate Tracker – shows Bermingham's term in the Federal Bureau of Prisons system *Inmate Tracker which shows Mulgrew's term in the Federal Bureau of Prisons system *Inmate Tracker – shows Darby's term in the Federal Bureau of Prisons system * Gary Mulgrew profile, ft.com; accessed 16 November 2015. Category:2002 crimes in the United States Category:British fraudsters Category:English white-collar criminals Category:Corporate crime Category:Enron scandal Category:Quantified groups of defendants Category:People extradited from the United Kingdom to the United States Category:Living people Category:NatWest Group litigation Category:Year of birth missing (living people) |
The Gujarat Sultanate, or the Sultanate of Guzerat, was a medieval Indo-Muslim kingdom established in the early 15th century in Western India, primarily in the present-day state of Gujarat, India. The kingdom was founded by Sultan Zafar Khan Muzaffar, whose ancestors were Tāṅks from southern Punjab. He rose to the nobility after marriage of his sister with Firuz Shah Tughlaq, the Delhi Sultan, and would become the Governor (Naib) of Gujarat under the Delhi Sultanate. Following Timur's invasion of the Delhi Sultanate, Delhi was devastated and its rule weakened considerably, so he declared himself independent in 1407, and formally established the Sultanate. The next sultan, his grandson Ahmad Shah I moved the capital to Ahmedabad in 1411. His successor Muhammad Shah II subdued most Rajput chieftains. The prosperity of the sultanate reached its zenith during the rule of Mahmud Begada. He also subdued most Gujarati Rajput chieftains and built a navy off the coast of Diu. In 1509, the Portuguese empire wrested Diu from the Sultanate in the Battle of Diu (1509). The Moghul emperor Humayun attacked Gujarat in 1535 and briefly occupied it, during which Bombay, Bassein & Daman would become a Portuguese colony, thereafter Bahadur Shah was killed by the Portuguese while making a deal in 1537. The end of the sultanate came in 1573, when Akbar annexed Sultanate of Guzerat into his empire. The last ruler Muzaffar Shah III was taken a prisoner to Agra. In 1583, he escaped from the prison and with the help of the nobles succeeded to regain the throne for a short period before being defeated by Akbar's minister Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. == Origin == The dynasty was founded by Muzaffar Shah I. There are multiple theories of origin of Muzaffar Shah. According to some accounts, Zafar Khān's father, Wajīh-ul- Mulk, was born Sadhāran or Sahāran and lived in a village near Thanesar in modern-day Haryana. One theory says that Wajih-ul-Mulk and his brother were influential Chaudharis who were agriculturists by profession but could also muster thousands of fighting men on their call. According to Sikandar's Mirati Sikandari, Sadhāran/Sahāran had a long list of ancestors that eventually traced to Rāmacandra, whom he says Hindus worship as God. This claim of the sultans’ links with the solar lineage is not found very often in texts and inscriptions they patronised. Some scholars state he was a Khatri,* * * * on the basis of the work Mirat-i-Sikandari by Shaikh Sikandar Ibn Muhammad who was a contemporary of Gujarat Sultans while others state he was a Rajput.* * * * * * According to Misra, Tank were Khatris who were agrarian people belonging to South Punjab. Misra states that Sikandar vaguely knew the Tanks were vintners but claimed they were of "noble and high spirit". Sikandar states that originally the Tanks and Khatris were brothers, but the former had taken a liking to drinking alcohol and were expelled and thus called "Tank". Misra states that Sikandar does not mention that the Tanks were Rajputs and is of the opinion that probably the Tanks were considered as Rajputs by virtue of their association with Khatris and claimed descent from Kṣatriyas and did not belong to any major houses of Rajputs. In Har Bilas Sardas 1917 monograph Maharana Kumbha, he mentions Sadharan being a Khatri convert of the Tank tribe. But as per writer Aparna Kapadia, the two brothers Saharan and Sadhu who are regarded as ancestors to Zafar Khan, founder of the dynasty were probably Tank Rajputs from Thanesar in modern-day Haryana. Writer Burton Stein mentions the dynasty's ruler Ahmad Shah I as a "converted Rajput" who as governor had made the province ( till then part of Delhi Sultanate) an independent sultanate in 1411. Other historians such as Dr. V.K Agnihotri and Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi even wrote that Sadhāran was a Jat convert to Islam. American historian Richard M. Eaton simply described Zafar Khan being the son of a "peasant convert to Islam". == History == ===Early rulers=== Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq appointed Malik Mufarrah, also known as Farhat-ul-Mulk and Rasti Khan governor of Gujarat in 1377. In 1387, Sikandar Khan was sent to replace him, but he was defeated and killed by Farhat-ul-Mulk. In 1391, Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad bin Tughluq appointed Zafar Khan, the son of Wajih-ul-Mulk as governor of Gujarat and conferred him the title of Muzaffar Khan (r. 1391 - 1403, 1404 - 1411). In 1392, he defeated Farhat-ul-Mulk in the battle of Kamboi, near Anhilwada Patan and occupied the city of Anhilwada Patan.Majumdar, R.C. (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 155-7 In 1403, Zafar Khan's son Tatar Khan urged his father to march on Delhi, which he declined. As a result, in 1408, Tatar imprisoned him in Ashawal (future Ahmedabad) and declared himself sultan under the title of Muhammad Shah I (r. 1403 - 1404). He marched towards Delhi, but on the way he was poisoned by his uncle, Shams Khan. After the death of Muhammad Shah, Muzaffar was released from the prison and he took over the control over administration. In 1407, he declared himself as Sultan Muzaffar Shah I, took the insignia of royalty and issued coins in his name. After his death in 1411, he was succeeded by his grandson, the son of Tatar Khan, Ahmad Shah I. ===Ahmad Shah I=== Soon after his accession, Ahmad Shah I was faced with a rebellion of his uncles. The rebellion was led by his eldest uncle Firuz Khan, who declared himself king. Ultimately Firuz and his brothers surrendered to him. During this rebellion Sultan Hushang Shah of Malwa Sultanate invaded Gujarat. He was repelled this time but he invaded again in 1417 along with Nasir Khan, the Farooqi dynasty ruler of Khandesh and occupied Sultanpur and Nandurbar. Gujarat army defeated them and later Ahmad Shah led four expeditions into Malwa in 1419, 1420, 1422 and 1438.Majumdar, R.C. (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 157-60 In 1429, Kanha Raja of Jhalawad with the help of the Bahmani Sultan Ahmad Shah ravaged Nandurbar. But Ahmad Shah's army defeated the Bahmani army and they fled to Daulatabad. The Bahmani Sultan Ahmad Shah sent strong reinforcements and the Khandesh army also joined them. They were again defeated by the Gujarat army. Finally, Ahmad Shah annexed Thana and Mahim from Bahmani Sultanate. At the beginning of his reign, he founded the city of Ahmedabad which he styled as Shahr-i-Mu'azzam (the great city) on the banks of Sabarmati River. He shifted the capital from Anhilwada Patan to Ahmedabad. The Jami Masjid (1423) in Ahmedabad were built during his reign.Majumdar, R.C. (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 709-23 Sultan Ahmad Shah died in 1443 and succeeded by his eldest son Muhammad Shah II. ===Successors of Ahmad Shah I=== Muhammad Shah II (r. 1442 - 1451) first led a campaign against Idar and forced its ruler, Raja Hari Rai or Bir Rai to submit to his authority. He then exacted tribute from the Rawal of Dungarpur. In 1449, he marched against Champaner, but the ruler of Champaner, Raja Kanak Das, with the help of Malwa Sultan Mahmud Khilji forced him to retreat. On the return journey, he fell seriously ill and died in February 1451. After his death, he was succeeded by his son Qutb-ud-Din Ahmad Shah II (r. 1451 - 1458).Majumdar, R.C. (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 160-1 Ahmad Shah II defeated Khilji at Kapadvanj. He helped Firuz Khan ruling from Nagaur against Rana Kumbha of Chittor's attempt to overthrow him. After death of Ahmad Shah II in 1458, the nobles raised his uncle Daud Khan, son of Ahmad Shah I, to the throne. ===Mahmud Begada=== But within a short period of seven or twenty-seven days, the nobles deposed Daud Khan and set on the throne Fath Khan, son of Muhammad Shah II. Fath Khan, on his accession, adopted the title Abu-al Fath Mahmud Shah, popularly known as Mahmud Begada. He expanded the kingdom in all directions. He received the sobriquet Begada, which literally means the conqueror of two forts, probably after conquering Girnar and Champaner forts. Mahmud died on 23 November 1511.Majumdar, R.C. (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 162-7 ===Muzaffar Shah II and his successors=== Khalil Khan, son of Mahmud Begada succeeded his father with the title Muzaffar Shah II. In 1519, Rana Sanga of Chittor defeated a joint army of Malwa and Gujarat sultanates and took Mahmud Shah II of Malwa captive. Muzaffar Shah sent an army to Malwa but their service was not required as Rana Sanga had generously restored Mahmud Shah II to the throne.However,Rana Sanga defeated Ibrahim Lodhi of Delhi at Battle of Dholpur around the same time and Conquered Much of Malwa along with Chanderi and he bestowed it to his Vassal Medini Rai who ruled over Malwa under his lordship with Chanderi as his capital.The victory brought Rajputs within day's march of Agra and Delhi and made them contender of supremacy of Northern India. Rana Sanga later invaded Gujarat and plundered the Sultanate's treasuries, greatly damaging its prestige, Sanga also annexed northern Gujarat and appointed one of his Rajput vassals to rule there. The invasion of Rana weakened Gujarat, however after Rana Sanga's death, the sultans of Gujarat freed their kingdom from Rajputs and grew even more powerful as they sacked Chittor fort in 1535. He died on 5 April 1526 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sikandar.Majumdar, R.C. (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 167-9 After few months, Sikandar Sháh was murdered by a noble Imád-ul-Mulk, who seated a younger brother of Sikandar, named Násir Khán, on the throne with the title of Mahmúd Shah II and governed on his behalf. Other son of Muzaffar Shah II, Bhadur Khan returned from outside of Gujarat and the nobles joined him. Bahádur marched at once on Chámpáner, captured and executed Imád-ul-Mulk and poisoning Násir Khán ascended the throne in 1527 with the title of Bahádur Sháh. ===Bahadur Shah and his successors=== Bahadur Shah expanded his kingdom and made expeditions to help neighbouring kingdoms. In 1532, Gujarat came under attack of the Mughal Emperor Humayun and fell. Bahadur Shah regained the kingdom in 1536 but he was killed by the Portuguese on board the ship when making a deal with them. Bahadur had no son, hence there was some uncertainty regarding succession after his death. Muhammad Zaman Mirza, the fugitive Mughal prince made his claim on the ground that Bahadur's mother adopted him as her son. The nobles selected Bahadur's nephew Miran Muhammad Shah of Khandesh as his successor, but he died on his way to Gujarat. Finally, the nobles selected Mahmud Khan, the son of Bahadur's brother Latif Khan as his successor and he ascended to the throne as Mahmud Shah III in 1538.Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) (2007). The Mughul Empire, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, , pp.391-8 Mahmud Shah III had to battle with his nobles who were interested in independence. He was killed in 1554 by his servant. Ahmad Shah III succeeded him but now the reigns of the state were controlled by the nobles who divided the kingdom between themselves. He was assassinated in 1561. He was succeeded by Muzaffar Shah III. ===Muzaffar Shah III=== Mughal Emperor Akbar annexed Gujarat in his empire in 1573 and Gujarat became a Mughal Subah (province). Muzaffar Shah III was taken prisoner to Agra. In 1583, he escaped from the prison and with the help of the nobles succeeded to regain the throne for a short period before being defeated by Akbar's general Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana in January 1584. He fled and finally took asylum under Jam Sataji of Nawanagar State. The Battle of Bhuchar Mori was fought between the Mughal forces led by Mirza Aziz Koka and the combined Kathiawar forces in 1591 to protect him. He finally committed suicide when he was surrendered to the Mughal. ==List of rulers== ==Administration== Gujarát was divided politically into two main parts; one, called the khálsah or crown domain administered directly by the central authority; the other, on payment of tribute in service or in money, left under the control of its former rulers. The amount of tribute paid by the different chiefs depended, not on the value of their territory, but on the terms granted to them when they agreed to become feudatories of the king. This tribute was occasionally collected by military expeditions headed by the king in person and called mulkgíri or country-seizing circuits. The internal management of the feudatory states was unaffected by their payment of tribute. Justice was administered and the revenue collected in the same way as under the Chaulukya kings. The revenue consisted, as before, of a share of the crops received in kind, supplemented by the levy of special cesses, trade, and transit dues. The chief's share of the crops differed according to the locality; it rarely exceeded one-third of the produce, it rarely fell short of one-sixth. From some parts the chief's share was realised directly from the cultivator by agents called ; from other parts the collection was through superior landowners. ;Districts and crown lands The Áhmedábád kings divided the portion of their territory which was under their direct authority into districts or sarkárs. These districts were administered in one of two ways. They were either assigned to nobles in support of a contingent of troops, or they were set apart as crown domains and managed by paid officers. The officers placed in charge of districts set apart as crown domains were called muktiă. Their chief duties were to preserve the peace and to collect the revenue. For the maintenance of order, a body of soldiers from the army headquarters at Áhmedábád was detached for service in each of these divisions, and placed under the command of the district governor. At the same time, in addition to the presence of this detachment of regular troops, every district contained certain fortified outposts called thánás, varying in number according to the character of the country and the temper of the people. These posts were in charge of officers called thánadárs subordinate to the district governor. They were garrisoned by bodies of local soldiery, for whose maintenance, in addition to money payments, a small assignment of land was set apart in the neighbourhood of the post. On the arrival of the tribute-collecting army the governors of the districts through which it passed were expected to join the main body with their local contingents. At other times the district governors had little control over the feudatory chiefs in the neighbourhood of their charge. The Gujarat Sultanate had comprised twenty-five sarkars (administrative units). ;Fiscal For fiscal purposes each district or sarkár was distributed among a certain number of sub-divisions or parganáhs, each under a paid official styled ámil or tahsildár. These sub-divisional officers realised the state demand, nominally one-half of the produce, by the help of the headmen of the villages under their charge. In the sharehold and simple villages of North Gujarát these village headmen were styled Patel or according to Muslim writers mukaddams and in the simple villages of the south they were known as Desai. They arranged for the final distribution of the total demand in joint villages among the shareholders, and in simple villages from the individual cultivators. The sub-divisional officer presented a statement of the accounts of the villages in his sub-division to the district officer, whose record of the revenue of his whole district was in turn forwarded to the head revenue officer at court. As a check on the internal management of his charge, and especially to help him in the work of collecting the revenue, with each district governor was associated an accountant. Further that each of these officers might be the greater check on the other, Ahmad Shah I enforced the rule that when the governor was chosen from among the royal slaves the accountant should be a free man, and that when the accountant was a slave the district governor should be chosen from some other class. This practise was maintained till the end of the reign of Muzaffar Sháh II, when, according to the Mirăt-i-Áhmedi, the army became much increased, and the ministers, condensing the details of revenue, farmed it on contract, so that many parts formerly yielding one rupee now produced ten, and many others seven eight or nine, and in no place was there a less increase than from ten to twenty per cent. Many other changes occurred at the same time, and the spirit of innovation creeping into the administration the wholesome system of checking the accounts was given up and mutiny and confusion spread over Gujarát. ==Sources of history== Mirat-i-Sikandari is a Persian work on the complete history of Gujarat Sultanate written by Sikandar, son of Muhammad aka Manjhu, son of Akbar who wrote it soon after Akbar conquered Gujarat. He had consulted earlier works of history and the people of authority. Other Persian works of the history of Gujarat Sultanate are Tarikh-i-Muzaffar Shahi about reign of Muzaffar Shah I, Tarik-i-Ahmad Shah in verse by Hulvi Shirazi, Tarikh-i-Mahmud Shahi, Tabaqat-i-Mahmud Shahi, Maathi-i-Mahmud Shahi about Mahmud I, Tarikh-i-Muzaffar Shahi about Muzaffar Shah II's conquest of Mandu, Tarikh-i-Bahadur Shahi aka Tabaqat-i-Husam Khani, Tarikh-i-Gujarat by Abu Turab Vali, Mirat-i-Ahmadi. Other important work in Arabic about history of Gujarat includes Zafarul-Walih bi Muzaffar wa Alih by Hajji Dabir. ==Architecture== The distinctive Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat drew micro-architectural elements from earlier Maru-Gurjara architecture and employed them in mihrab, roofs, doors, minarets and facades. In the 15th century, the Indo-Islamic style of Gujarat is especially notable for its inventive and elegant use of minarets. They are often in pairs flanking the main entrance, mostly rather thin and with elaborate carving at least at the lower levels. Some designs push out balconies at intervals up the shaft; the most extreme version of this was in the lost upper parts of the so-called "shaking minarets" at the Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad,"The Shaking Minarets at Ahmedabad, drawn in 1809", British Library which fell down in an earthquake in 1819. This carving draws on the traditional skills of local stone-carvers, previously exercised on Hindu temples in the Māru-Gurjara and other local styles.Harle, 429-430 Gujarat Sultans built lavishly, particularly in the capital, Ahmedabad. The sultanate commissioned mosques such as the Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad, Jama Masjid at Champaner, Qutbuddin Mosque, Rani Rupamati Mosque, Sarkhej Roza, Sidi Bashir Mosque, Kevada Mosque, Sidi Sayyed Mosque, Nagina Mosque and Pattharwali Masjid, as well as structures such as Teen Darwaza, Bhadra Fort and the Dada Harir Stepwell in Ahmedabad. The Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park, the 16th century capital of Gujarat Sultanate, documents the early Islamic and pre-Mughal city that has remained without any change. Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat presages many of the architectural elements later found in Mughal architecture, including ornate mihrabs and minarets, jali (perforated screens carved in stone), and chattris (pavilions topped with cupolas). File:Jama Masjid Ahmedabad heritage.jpg|Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad (the upper parts of the minarets at the entrance now lost). File:The Teen Darwaza Gate..JPG|Teen Darwaza (Three-Gate) entrance to Ahmedabad File:Sarkhej Roza 1.JPG|Sarkhej Roza complex, Ahmedabad File:Mosque of Sidi Sayed Jaali.JPG|Jali at the Sidi Sayyid Mosque File:Bhadra Fort 5 jpeg.jpg|Bhadra Fort, Ahmedabad File:Into the dark, Dada Harir Stepwell, Ahmedabad, Gujarat.jpg|Dada Harir Stepwell, Ahmedabad File:Champaner, Kevada Masjid (9840302206).jpg|Kevada Mosque, Champaner ==References== ===Bibliography=== * * * * * ==External links== *Coins of the Gujarat Sultanate Category:History of Gujarat |
The Mississippi Alluvial Plain is a Level III ecoregion designated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in seven U.S. states, though predominantly in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. It parallels the Mississippi River from the Midwestern United States to the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi Alluvial Plain ecoregion has been subdivided into fifteen Level IV ecoregions. ==Description== The Mississippi Alluvial Plain extends along the Mississippi River from the confluence of the Ohio River and Mississippi River southward to the Gulf of Mexico; temperatures and annual average precipitation increase toward the south. It is a broad, nearly level, agriculturally- dominated alluvial plain. It is veneered by Quaternary alluvium, loess, glacial outwash, and lacustrine deposits. River terraces, Swales, and levees provide limited relief, but overall, it is flatter than neighboring ecoregions in Arkansas, including the South Central Plains. Nearly flat, clayey, poorly- drained soils are widespread and characteristic. Streams and rivers have very low gradients and fine-grained substrates. Many reaches have ill-defined stream channels. The ecoregion provides important habitat for fish and wildlife, and includes the largest continuous system of wetlands in North America. It is also a major bird migration corridor used in fall and spring migrations, known as the Mississippi Flyway. Potential natural vegetation is largely southern floodplain forest and is unlike the oak–hickory and oak–hickory–pine forests that dominate uplands to the west in Ecoregions 35, 36, 37, 38, and 39; loblolly pine, so common in the South Central Plains (35), is not native to most forests in the Arkansas portion of Ecoregion 73. The Mississippi Alluvial Plain has been widely cleared and drained for cultivation; this widespread loss or degradation of forest and wetland habitat has impacted wildlife and reduced bird populations. Presently, most of the northern and central sections are in cropland and receive heavy treatments of insecticides and herbicides; soybeans, cotton, and rice are the major crops, and aquaculture is also important. Agricultural runoff containing fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and livestock waste have degraded surficial water quality. Concentrations of total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, total phosphorus, ammonia nitrogen, sulfates, turbidity, biological oxygen demand, chlorophyll a, and fecal coliform are high in the rivers, streams, and ditches of the region; they are often much greater than elsewhere in Arkansas, increase with increasing watershed size, and are greatest during the spring, high-flow season. Fish communities in least altered streams typically have an insignificant proportion of sensitive species; sunfishes are dominant followed by minnows. Man-made flood control levees typically flank the Mississippi River and, in effect, separate the river and its adjoining habitat from the remainder of its natural hydrologic system; in so doing, they interfere with sediment transfer within the region and have reduced available habitat for many species. Between the levees that parallel the Mississippi River is a corridor known as the batture lands. Batture lands are hydrologically linked to the Mississippi River, flood-prone, and contain remnant habitat for “big river” species (e.g., pallid sturgeon) as well as river-front plant communities; they are too narrow to map as a separate Level IV ecoregion. Earthquakes in the early nineteenth century offset river courses in Ecoregion 73. Small to medium size earthquakes still occur frequently; their shocks are magnified by the alluvial plain's unconsolidated deposits, creating regional land management issues. ==Level IV ecoregions== ===Northern Holocene Meander Belts (73a)=== The Northern Holocene Meander Belts ecoregion is a flat to nearly flat floodplain containing the meander belts of the present and past courses of the Mississippi River. Point bars, natural levees, swales, and abandoned channels marked by meander scars and oxbow lakes are common and characteristic. Ecoregion 73a tends to be slightly lower in elevation than adjacent ecoregions. Its abandoned channel network is more extensive than in the Southern Holocene Meander Belts (73k) of Louisiana. Ecoregion 73a is underlain by Holocene alluvium; it lacks the Pleistocene glacial outwash deposits of Ecoregion 73b. Soils on natural levees are relatively coarse- textured, well-drained, and higher than those on levee back slopes and point bars; they grade to very heavy, poorly-drained clays in abandoned channels and swales. Overall, soils are not as sandy as the Northern Pleistocene Valley Trains (73b) and are finer and have more organic matter than the Arkansas/Ouachita River Holocene Meander Belts (73h). Natural vegetation varies with site characteristics. Younger sandy soils have fewer oaks and more sugarberry, elm, ash, pecan, cottonwood, and sycamore than Ecoregion 73d. Widespread draining of wetlands and removal of bottomland forests for cropland has occurred. Soybeans, cotton, corn, sorghum, wheat, and rice are the main crops. Catfish farms are increasingly common and contribute to the already large agricultural base. The ecoregion covers . Protected areas include Choctaw Island Wildlife Management Area (WMA), Lake Chicot State Park (SP), and Wapanocca National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) in Arkansas, Tensas River National Wildlife Refuge in Louisiana, Big Oak Tree SP in Missouri, Chickasaw NWR, Lake Isom NWR, T.O. Fuller SP, and Reelfoot Lake SP in Tennessee, and Reelfoot NWR in Tennessee and Kentucky. In Mississippi, the ecoregion is protected in the following areas: Dahomey NWR, Delta National Forest and Hillside NWR, Leroy Percy SP, Mathews Brake NWR, Morgan Brake NWR, Panther Swamp NWR, and the Yazoo NWR. The area also includes four culturally important sites: Fort Defiance in Illinois, Columbus-Belmont State Park in Kentucky, Winterville Mounds in Mississippi and Towosahgy State Historic Site in Missouri. ===Northern Pleistocene Valley Trains (73b)=== The Northern Pleistocene Valley Trains ecoregion is a flat to irregular alluvial plain composed of sandy to gravelly glacial outwash overlain by alluvium; sand sheets, widespread in the St. Francis Lowlands (73c), are absent. The Pleistocene outwash deposits of Ecoregion 73b are usually coarser and better drained than the alluvial deposits of Ecoregions 73a, 73d, and 73f. They were transported to Arkansas by the Mississippi River and its tributaries and have been subsequently eroded, reduced in size, and fragmented by laterally migrating channels or buried by thick sediments. Ecoregion 73b has little local relief or stream incision. Elevations tend to be slightly higher than adjacent parts of Ecoregions 73a and 73d. Cropland is extensive and has largely replaced the original forests; soybeans are the main crop and cotton is also produced. The few remaining forests are dominated by species typical of higher bottomlands such as Nuttall oak, willow oak, swamp chestnut oak, sugarberry, and green ash. There are more lowland oaks in Ecoregion 73b than in Ecoregions 73a and 73d. The ecoregion covers within Arkansas, Mississippi, and Tennessee, with 78% in Mississippi, and the remainder roughly split between the remaining two states. Protected areas within the region include the Tallahatchie NWR in Mississippi. ===St. Francis Lowlands (73c)=== thumb|right|The St. Francis River near the Arkansas-Missouri border The St. Francis Lowlands ecoregion is flat to irregular and has many relict channels. Ecoregion 73c is mainly composed of late-Wisconsinan age glacial outwash deposits and, in contrast to Ecoregion 73b, is partly covered by undulating sand sheets. Sand blows and sunk lands occur and have been attributed to the 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes. Loess, which veneers older outwash deposits in Ecoregion 73g, is absent. Topography, lithology, and hydrology vary over short distances and natural vegetation varies with site characteristics. Cropland is extensive and has largely replaced the original forests; soybeans, corn, and cotton are the most common crops but wheat, sorghum, and rice are also produced. Although the streams of the St. Francis Lowlands have been extensively channelized, water quality tends to be better than in the less channelized areas of Ecoregion 73g because of a lack of loess veneer in Ecoregion 73c. The ecoregion covers within Arkansas and Missouri, with 64% in Missouri. The lands immediately adjacent to the St. Francis River are preserved in the St. Francis Sunken Lands WMA in Arkansas. The Big Lake National Wildlife Refuge preserves flat flooded swamplands created by the New Madrid earthquakes. ===Northern Backswamps (73d)=== The Northern Backswamps ecoregion is made up of low-lying overflow areas on floodplains, and includes poorly drained flats and swales. Water often collects in its marshes, swamps, oxbow lakes, ponds, and low gradient streams. Soils developed from clayey alluvium including overbank and slack-water deposits; they commonly have a high shrink-swell potential and are locally rich in organic material. Water levels are seasonally variable. Native vegetation in the wettest areas is generally dominated by bald cypress–water tupelo forest; slightly higher and better drained sites have overcup oak–water hickory forest and the highest, best-drained areas support Nuttall oak forest. Today, bottomland forest, cropland, farmed wetlands, pastureland, and catfish farms occur. Backswamps are important areas for capturing excess nutrients from local waters and for storing water during heavy rain events. The ecoregion covers within Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana, with 54% in Mississippi, 35% in Louisiana, and the balance in Arkansas. ===Grand Prairie (73e)=== The Grand Prairie ecoregion is a broad, loess-covered terrace formerly dominated by tall grass prairie and now primarily used as cropland. It is typically almost level. However, incised perennial and intermittent streams occur and a narrow belt of low hills is found in the east. Prior to the 19th century, flatter areas with slowly to very slowly permeable soils (often containing fragipans) supported Arkansas's largest prairie. They were generally bounded by open woodland or savanna. In all, about 400,000 acres of prairie grasses and forbs occurred in Ecoregion 73e, and were a sharp contrast to the bottomland forests that once dominated other parts of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (73). Low hills were covered by upland deciduous forest containing white oak, black oak and southern red oak. Drier ridges were dominated by post oak. Narrow floodplains had bottomland hardwood forests. Cropland has now largely replaced the native vegetation. In the process, some prairie species have been extirpated from the ecoregion (e.g., greater prairie chicken); others have been sharply reduced in population and restricted to a few prairie remnants. Distinctively, rice is the main crop; soybeans, cotton, corn, and wheat are also grown. Rice fields provide habitat and forage for large numbers and many species of waterfowl; duck and goose hunting occurs. The ecoregion covers , entirely within Arkansas. ===Western Lowlands Holocene Meander Belts (73f)=== The Western Lowlands Holocene Meander Belts ecoregion is a flat to nearly flat floodplain containing the meander belts of the present and past courses of the White River, Black River, and Cache River. Its meander belts are narrower than the Northern Holocene Meander Belts (73a), but point bars, natural levees, swales, and abandoned channels are common in both regions. Soils on natural levees are relatively coarse-textured, well-drained, and higher than those on levee back slopes and point bars; they grade to heavy, poorly-drained clays in abandoned channels and swales. Natural vegetation varies with site characteristics. Today, Ecoregion 73f contains some of the most extensive remaining tracts of native bottomland hardwood forest in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Cropland also occurs. Flood control levees are less developed and riverine processes are more natural and dynamic than in Ecoregion 73a. Backwater flooding in the White River occurs well upstream of its confluence with the higher Mississippi River; as a result, riparian and natural levee communities are less common and oak-dominated communities are more widespread than in Ecoregion 73a. Wetlands in the Cache-lower White River systems have been designated as one of only nineteen “Wetlands of International Importance” in the United States by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Regulation of White River flow, in combination with the downcutting of the Mississippi River for navigation (and related wing levees and cutoffs), have altered flood regimes on the lower White River, thereby increasing stream bank instability and bottomland forest mortality in Ecoregion 73f. Most streams and rivers in Ecoregion 73f are fed by the Ozark Highlands and Boston Mountains; sediment load is generally less than in the Mississippi River. The ecoregion covers , with 99% within Arkansas. ===Western Lowlands Pleistocene Valley Trains (73g)=== The terraces of the Western Lowlands Pleistocene Valley Trains are largely composed of Pleistocene glacial outwash that was transported to Arkansas by the Mississippi River and deposited by braided streams. Physiography is widely muted by windblown silt deposits (loess), sand sheets, or sand dunes; loess and sand sheets are more widespread than in the Northern Pleistocene Valley Trains (73b) and St. Francis Lowlands (73c). Many interdunal depressions called “sandponds” occur and are either in contact with the water table or have a perched aquifer. Elevations are higher than adjacent parts of the Northern Holocene Meander Belts (73a) and Western Lowlands Holocene Meander Belts (73f); consequently, uplands are rarely if ever flooded. Native plant communities are different from more frequently inundated ecoregions; for example, post oak and loblolly pine are native to Ecoregion 73g but are absent from lower, overflow areas. Sandpond forest communities are generally dominated by overcup oak, water hickory, willow oak, and pin oak; understory in a few sandponds may include pondberry (Lindera melissifolia), federally listed as endangered. Today, cropland is extensive and the main crops are soybeans and cotton. Commercial crawfish, baitfish, and catfish farms are common. The Western Lowlands Pleistocene Valley Trains (73g) ecoregion is a wintering ground for water fowl. Duck hunting is widespread. The ecoregion covers between Arkansas and Missouri, with 86% in Arkansas. ===Arkansas/Ouachita River Holocene Meander Belts (73h)=== The Arkansas/Ouachita River Holocene Meander Belts ecoregion is a flat to nearly flat floodplain containing the meander belts of the present and past courses of the lower Arkansas River and Ouachita Rivers. Point bars, natural levees, swales, and abandoned channels marked by meander scars and oxbow lakes are common and characteristic. Soils on natural levees are more coarse-textured, well-drained, and higher than those on levee back slopes and point bars. Soils grade to poorly-drained clays in abandoned channels and swales. Overall, soils have less organic matter than in the Northern Holocene Meander Belts (73a). Bayou Bartholomew inhabits the longest section of abandoned channels. It flows against the edge of the South Central Plains, receives drainage from it, and has sufficient habitat diversity to be one of the most species-rich streams in North America. Bayou Bartholomew supports over half of all known mussel species found in Louisiana. Within an abandoned course, bald cypress and/or water tupelo typically grow in the modern stream channel adjacent to a strip of wet bottomland hardwood forest dominated by overcup oak and water hickory. The remainder of the native forest has largely been cleared and drained for cropland and pastureland. Corn, cotton, and soybeans are the main crops. ===Arkansas/Ouachita River Backswamps (73i)=== The flats, swales, and natural levees of the Arkansas/Ouachita River Backswamps ecoregion include the slackwater areas along the Arkansas and Ouachita rivers, where water often collects into swamps, oxbow lakes, ponds, and sloughs. In contrast to the Northern Backswamps (73d), this region is widely veneered with natural levee deposits. Soils derived from these deposits are Alfisols, Vertisols, and Inceptisols that are generally more loamy and better drained than the clayey soils of the Northern Backswamps (73d). As a result, willow oak and water oak are native instead of other species adapted to wetter overflow conditions. Drainage canals and ditches are common. This artificial drainage and the sandy veneer of natural levee deposits help explain why Ecoregion 73i is more easily and widely farmed than the Northern Backswamps (73d). Soybeans, corn, cotton, and rice are important crops but forests and forested wetlands also occur. ===Macon Ridge (73j)=== Macon Ridge is underlain almost entirely by Pleistocene glacial outwash deposits that were transported to Arkansas by the Mississippi River and deposited by braided streams. It is veneered by windblown silt deposits (i.e. loess) like Ecoregions 73e, 73g, and 74a. Soils are influenced by loess and contrast with the alluvial soils of Ecoregions 73a and 73h. Macon Ridge (73j) is a continuation of the Western Lowlands Pleistocene Valley Trains (73g) but is better drained, and supports drier plant communities. Its eastern edge is 20 to 30 feet above the adjacent, lithologically and physiographically distinct, Northern Holocene Meander Belts (73a). The western side of Macon Ridge (73j) is lower than the eastern side, and is about the same elevation as the lithologically and physiographically distinct Arkansas/Ouachita River Holocene Meander Belts (73h). Native forest types range from those of better drained bottomlands dominated by willow oak, water oak, and swamp chestnut oak to upland hardwood forests dominated by white oak, southern red oak, and post oak. Prairies and loblolly pinedominated areas may also have occurred on Macon Ridge (73j). Today, Ecoregion 73j is a mosaic of pastureland, forest, and cropland. Soybeans, cotton, and oats are major crops. The ecoregion covers between Arkansas and Louisiana, with 86% within Louisiana. In Arkansas, most of Macon Ridge is within Chicot County between Lake Village and Eudora. ===Southern Holocene Meander Belts (73k)=== The Southern Holocene Meander Belts ecoregion stretches from just north of Natchez, Mississippi south to New Orleans, Louisiana. Similar to the Northern Holocene Meander Belts (73a), point bars, oxbows, natural levees, and abandoned channels occur. This region, however, has a longer growing season, warmer annual temperatures, some hyperthermic soils, and more precipitation than its northern counterparts of 73a and 73h. Soils are somewhat poorly and poorly drained Inceptisols, Entisols, and Vertisols. The ecoregion contains minor species such as live oak, laurel oak, and Spanish moss that are generally not found in the more northerly regions. The bottomland forests have been cleared and the region has been extensively modified for agriculture, flood control, and navigation. The levee system is extensive throughout the region. Soybeans, sugarcane, cotton, corn, and pasture are the major crops, with crawfish aquaculture common. The ecoregion covers , almost entirely within Louisiana. ===Southern Pleistocene Valley Trains (73l)=== The Southern Pleistocene Valley Trains ecoregion is a continuation of the northern valley train regions in Mississippi, Arkansas, and Tennessee. It is composed of scattered small remnants of early-Wisconsin glacial outwash deposits, similar to those of Macon Ridge (73j). This ecoregion, however, has warmer annual temperatures, a longer growing season, and higher annual rainfall. Soils are somewhat poorly and poorly drained Alfisols, Inceptisols, and Vertisols with loamy and clayey surfaces. Some species occur here that are not present in the Macon Ridge (73j) or Western Lowlands Pleistocene Valley Trains (73g) ecoregions to the north in Arkansas. Overcup oak, Nuttall oak, honey locust, elm, water oak, sweetgum, blackgum, and hickory are the most common tree species. This region is generally higher than the adjacent Southern Backswamps (73m) ecoregion and soils are more sandy and better drained than the heavy clay soils of the backswamps. Cropland and pasture is common with corn, soybeans, and cotton as major crops. The ecoregion covers , entirely within Louisiana. ===Southern Backswamps (73m)=== The Southern Backswamps ecoregion is generally warmer, has a longer frost free period, and has more precipitation than the Northern Backswamps (73d). Similar to 73d, soils are mostly poorly drained, clayey Vertisols, rich in organic matter. Wetlands are common and flooding occurs frequently. Bottomland hardwood forests are more prevalent in this region than in the adjacent Southern Holocene Meander Belts (73k), where cropland is common. Channelization and flood control systems have modified this region and impacted many of the wetland habitats. The ecoregion covers , almost entirely within Louisiana. ===Inland Swamps (73n)=== The Inland Swamps ecoregion marks a transition, ranging from the fresh waters of the Southern Backswamps (73m) at the northern extent of the intratidal basins to the fresh, brackish, and saline waters of the deltaic marshes of Ecoregion 73o. It includes a large portion of the Atchafalaya Basin. Soils are mostly poorly or very poorly drained, clayey Entisols and Vertisols. Swamp forest communities are dominated by bald cypress and water tupelo, which are generally intolerant of brackish water except for short periods. In areas where freshwater flooding is more prolonged, the vegetative community is dominated by grasses, sedges, and rushes. This region contains one of the largest bottomland hardwood forest swamps in North America. Deposits include organic clays and peats up to thick, and inter-bedded fresh- and brackish-water carbonaceous clays. The levees in place on either side of the Mississippi River have diverted much of the river flow from its natural tendency to flow into the Atchafalaya Basin. Large concrete structures prevent diversion into the Atchafalaya River, and flow from the Red River is also controlled. While this helps control flooding, it has also modified the region and contributed to the loss of wetland habitat. The ecoregion covers , entirely within Louisiana. ===Deltaic Coastal Marshes and Barrier Islands (73o)=== Brackish and saline marshes dominate the Deltaic Coastal Marshes and Barrier Islands ecoregion. The region supports vegetation tolerant of brackish or saline water including saltmarsh cordgrass, marshhay cordgrass, black needlerush, and coastal saltgrass. Black mangrove occurs in a few areas, and some live oak is found on Grand Isle and along old natural levees. Extensive organic deposits lie mainly below sea level in permanently flooded settings resulting in the development of mucky surfaced Histosols. Sediments of silts, clays, and peats contain large amounts of methane, oil, and hydrogen sulfide gas. Inorganic sediments found within the ecoregion are soft and have high water contents. They will shrink dramatically upon draining. The wetlands and marshes act as a buffer to help moderate flooding and tidal inundation during storm events. Lack of sediment input, delta erosion, land subsidence, and rising sea levels threaten the region. The ecoregion covers , entirely within Louisiana. ==See also== * Ecoregions defined by the EPA and the Commission for Environmental Cooperation: ** List of ecoregions in North America (CEC) ** List of ecoregions in the United States (EPA) ** List of ecoregions in Arkansas ** List of ecoregions in Louisiana ** List of ecoregions in Mississippi * The conservation group World Wildlife Fund maintains an alternate classification system: ** List of ecoregions (WWF) ** List of ecoregions in the United States (WWF) ==References== * Category:Ecoregions of the United States Category:Ecoregions of Arkansas Category:Ecoregions of Illinois Category:Regions of Arkansas Category:Regions of Illinois Category:Regions of Kentucky Category:Regions of Louisiana Category:Regions of Mississippi Category:Regions of Missouri Category:Regions of Tennessee |
Horst Petri (March 18, 1913 – December 12, 1962) and Erna Petri (May 30, 1920 – July 2000) were married Nazi war criminals during World War II. == Early lives == After graduating from high school, Horst trained as a farmer and received a graduate degree in farming in 1935. During this time, he joined the Nazi Party and SS, the former in 1932 and the latter in 1934. Erna Kürbs was born into a farming family in the village of Herressen near Weimar. In 1936, the 16-year-old Erna met Horst, who spoke to her about the Greater German Reich. Although her father was opposed, the two quickly struck up a relationship. When Erna became pregnant a year later, the two wed in 1938. The child was a boy. Erna became pregnant once more in 1942 and they welcomed a daughter in January 1943. == War crimes == In 1939, Horst received SS training at the Dachau and Buchenwald concentration camps. During the war, he would eventually rise to the rank of Untersturmführer. In June 1942, the Petris moved to the Grzenda manor house in Poland after Horst was appointed as a plant manager there. They received frequent visits from SS and Wehrmacht officers. Within two days of moving, Erna witnessed her husband beating a laborer. Horst also routinely raped his female servants. Local farmers called him a sadist who enjoyed whipping Ukrainians, Poles, and Jews. thumb|upright=1.35|The Grzenda manor house, pictured in 2015 When four Jews were caught in the estate while trying to escape from a transport to a death camp, Horst told Erna and her female guest that "this was men's work, nothing that women should be concerned about." Horst then executed the Jews as they were walking away. When Horst was not home, he participated in mass shootings of the Jewish population in a town next to the estate. He also participated in mass deportations, and the massacre of 15 Ukrainian farmers who were reported to have delivered food to partisans. He also once indiscriminately bombed a Ukrainian village with grenade launchers after suspecting the citizens of supporting partisans. Seven villagers died. Erna followed her husband's lead and abused her farm workers. She often fired warning shots at them, sometimes as her son watched. On one occasion, Erna had her husband send three Ukrainian peasant women to Janowska concentration camp after they refused to work. To her surprise, all three women were spared death, and she allowed them back to the manor several weeks later. Erna also accompanied her husband on hunts for fugitive Jews, during which she personally killed four Jewish men. After the harvest in autumn 1942, the approximately 150 Jews from Grzenda were also transported to the Janowska concentration camp or the Belzec extermination camp. In September 1943, Erna was returning from a shopping trip in Lviv in her carriage when she came across six nearly naked boys (aged 6 to 12) crouching by the side of the road. The children had escaped from a railcar destined for Sobibor extermination camp. The children were terrified and hungry. When Erna realized they were Jewish escapees, she calmed them, took them home, fed them and waited for her husband to return. When Horst did not return after several hours, Erna took the children into the woods to a pit where other Jews had been buried, lined them up, and shot them one by one execution-style. In 1944, the Petris fled their manor due to the advance of the Red Army. Horst got his SS tattoo removed to destroy evidence. He was taken prisoner by U.S. soldiers, but was released in May 1945. == Arrest and trial == Horst and Erna both avoided detection during the initial search for war criminals in the post-war period. They settled down in East Germany and became farmers. Horst joined the Liberal Democratic Party of Germany, the Free German Trade Union Federation, and the Peasants Mutual Aid Association. In 1957, the Petris' son fled the country, drawing the attention of the Stasi, which started surveilling them. They were arrested for "anti-state activities" in 1961. While searching through their house, Stasi officers found no evidence of the couple plotting against the state. However they happened to come across photos of the Grzenda manor and a guestbook from the war. The guestbook contained the names of numerous senior SS officers and Wehrmacht officers. The most damning name was that of Fritz Katzmann. Both Petris were interrogated for months. Horst confessed. Erna initially denied everything, but also confessed after about a month of questioning. Asked why she did not talk sooner, she said she feared punishment, but thought her husband would take the blame for her crimes. Erna told the officers that she had learned how to best kill someone while overhearing her husband's colleagues discussing the mass shootings of Jews. Officials said that "from time to time", she showed "human emotions". However, most of them were disgusted and could now understand how she was able to shoot children. * Why did you shoot the Jewish men and children? ** I was barely twenty-five years old, still young and inexperienced. I lived only under my husband, who was in the SS and carried out shootings of Jewish persons. I seldom came into contact with other women, so that in the course of this time I became more hardened, desensitized. … I wanted to show [the SS men] that I, as a woman, could conduct myself like a man. So I shot four Jews and six Jewish children. I wanted to prove myself to the men … . * "How could you as a mother of two children … shoot innocent Jewish children?" ** "I am unable to grasp at this time how in those days I was in such a state as to conduct myself so brutally and reprehensibly. However, I had been so conditioned to fascism and the racial laws, which established a view toward the Jewish people. As was told to me, I had to destroy the Jews. It was from this frame of mind that I came to commit such as brutal act." Both confessions were detailed and consistent with one another. The Stasi then turned over the evidence to the local prosecutor, who charged them with numerous offenses, including war crimes and crimes against humanity. In September 1962, Erna and her husband went on trial in Erfurt. Seventeen witnesses, mostly former workers from the manor, testified against them. During their trial, the Petris said they kept the shootings of the children quiet. Horst told Erna she made the right choice, but had said not to discuss the incident. Erna was a civilian and not authorized to kill Jews. If the news spread, there was a small chance of her facing questioning. Erna explained that she had fed the children before killing them. She also said after the first two had been killed, the others began to cry, "but not loudly, they whimpered". None of the children fled since they were exhausted after being on a railcar for several days. In an audio recording of the trial, Erna was so open with the details of her crimes that the prosecutor cut her off and said "Thank you, we have heard enough". Although Horst was less cooperative, the testimony of the witnesses confirmed his guilt beyond any doubt. At times, Erna got caught in "memory lapses". She was called out as a liar by the judge. In his verdict, the judge recognized the passage of time. But while he acknowledged this, he said "it is essential that these crimes be uncovered with regard for the passage of time." He considered having both Petris executed. However, he felt that Erna's husband was partly responsible for her behavior and that "the constant interaction with the SS beasts in Grzenda was a considerable factor in causing her to commit crimes." He also said that overall, Horst's crimes were far more serious: * The mass shootings and mass deportations of Jews * Torturing and abusing the locals, often without provocation with the infliction of permanent of injuries * Participating in the drive-by hunts and shootings of Jewish escapees * Participating in the massacre of 15 Ukrainian peasants who were accused of giving food to partisans * Using grenade launchers to indiscriminately bomb a Ukrainian village which he suspected of supporting partisans ** Seven villagers were killed * Additional murders and executions No Jewish witnesses were sought for the trial, so Horst's further crimes against Jews were not mentioned. Nevertheless, the evidence showed that Horst had not routinely abused and murdered people, but that he often did this on his own initiative, without direct orders. According to the judge, this was the deciding factor in sentencing. On September 15, 1962, he sentenced Erna to life in prison and Horst to death. Horst unsuccessfully appealed to the Supreme Court of East Germany. The appeal was rejected less than a month later. Chief of State Walter Ulbricht had the option to grant clemency. After he declined to intervene, Horst was guillotined at Leipzig Prison on December 22, 1962. Horst's remains were cremated, and he was buried in an unmarked grave. Erna was sent to Hoheneck Fortress to serve her sentence. Caught off-guard by the severity of the sentencing, she retracted her statements and started to fight her case. Her friends and family reassured her that she could quickly get out of prison. However, Erna's pleas for release, and those of her children on behalf, were routinely ignored by East German officials. In letters to her attorneys, Erna wrote that the court interpreter had mistranslated the words of the foreign witnesses who testified against her, resulting in her being falsely implicated. She wrote long letters to the prosecutor's office, attempting to explain herself. In a 1963 appeal, Erna insisted that she had never killed anyone nor handled a gun. Only out of "love and fear" had she falsely confessed to murdering the children, hoping to help her husband. Erna then said she had heard about the Jews who were being deported to Lublin to be gassed, and protested. She claimed to have told her husband that "those people are humans after all", only to be silenced by him, who told her to be quiet or she would get in trouble. All of these claims were rejected. Becoming more desperate, Erna claimed that in 1938, around the time of Kristallnacht, she had protested the treatment of Jews, and that only her pregnancy kept her from being immediately arrested. In a politically riskier appeal, Erna described her interrogation. She claimed that the Stasi had baited her into confessing to the murders with a note from Horst. The note, which she said was a forgery, implicated her in the murders of the children. Erna said she was angry about the note since she was innocent, but had concluded that it was a plea for help from Horst. Erna said she had chosen to take some of the blame for his sake. When the Berlin Wall fell in November 1989, Erna, now nearly 70, was still in prison. In December 1989, she wrote to West German attorneys, describing her interrogation. Erna claimed that during the war, she had taken regular trips to Lviv for supplies. During her trips, she had visited the Janowska camp to select Jewish laborers and brought them back to her manor. Erna remembered having Jewish women help her in the house, but could not remember what happened to them (during her 1961 interrogation, she described these women as troublemakers). Insisting that she was innocent, Erna wrote, "I sacrificed myself for my husband, the man my parents warned me about." She acknowledged that Horst had killed Jews and was rightfully punished. Erna's case was re- examined, and her children continued to lobby for her release. They wrote pleas to the West German Chancellor, U.S. President, Russian Premier, and the German Parliament. Their mother, they claimed, was an innocent victim of Stasi interrogation and torture. They said her confessions were false and taken under duress, and that she had suffered enough regardless. They said she had been in prison, away from her family and grieving her executed husband, for nearly 30 years. On December 31, 1989, Erna was one of 46 Nazi war criminals convicted under East German law who were in prison. Between 1989 and April 1990, 23 of these convicts were released or died in prison. After taking time served and other factors into account, another five were released in a partial amnesty. After the reunification, Erna, who was still in prison, petitioned for a review of her case. Although a West German court affirmed the verdict and sentence, Erna was released from prison on health grounds in 1992. One account claims that Stille Hilfe, a relief organization for the SS, convinced a court to release her. Stille Hilfe allegedly paid for Erna's apartment after her release. The organization was likely also responsible for her being invited to Bavaria, where she went on trips to the Alpine mountains and lakes with Gudrun Burwitz, the daughter of Heinrich Himmler and a prominent member of Stille Hilfe. Erna once referred to Burwitz as "the most wonderful woman." Erna died in July 2000, a few months after her 80th birthday. Two hundred people, which was everyone in her village, and a number of other people whom her family did not know, attended her funeral. The children of the Petris never retracted their support for their mother. In an interview in 2006, Erna's daughter, who was 18 when her mother was arrested, said her parents had often showed the photo albums to her and special guests. Had she realized that the Stasi were going to eventually find them by chance, she said she would have just gotten rid of them. == References == == Bibliography == * p291/20 * Category:1940s murders in Poland Category:Married couples Category:Criminal duos Category:The Holocaust in Poland |
Christopher P. Thomas (born 13 January 1947 in Perivale, Middlesex, England) is an English record producer who has worked extensively with the Beatles, Pink Floyd, Procol Harum, Roxy Music, Badfinger, Elton John, Paul McCartney, Pete Townshend, Pulp and the Pretenders. He has also produced breakthrough albums for the Sex Pistols, the Climax Blues Band and INXS. ==Early life== Thomas was classically trained on the violin and piano as a child and he began playing bass in London pop bands, turning down at one point the opportunity to play with Jimi Hendrix and Mitch Mitchell before Hendrix had struck fame. After several years, Thomas decided that he had little interest in making a career as a performing musician. In a 1998 interview, he stated "I realized that being in a band you were dependent on all these other people, and I also knew that if I'd ever been successful in a band, I would've wanted to stay in the studio and just make the records; I wasn't that interested in playing live." ==Recording sessions with the Beatles== Looking to break into production, Thomas wrote to Beatles producer George Martin seeking work and, in 1967, was employed as an assistant by AIR, an independent production company, which had been founded by Martin and three other EMI producers. Thomas was allowed to attend sessions at EMI Studios by the Hollies and, in 1968, the Beatles. He was there for much of the recording of the Beatles' self-titled double album (also known as the "White Album"). Midway through these sessions, Martin decided to take a holiday, and he proposed that Thomas continue working with the band in his absence. Thomas recalled: "I had just come back from holiday myself, and when I came in there was a little letter on the desk that said, "Dear Chris, Hope you had a nice holiday. I'm off on mine now. Make yourself available to The Beatles. Neil and Mal know you're coming down." Thomas produced (without credit) "Birthday" and "Happiness Is a Warm Gun". He also played keyboards on four songs from The White Album: harpsichord on "Piggies", mellotron on "The Continuing Story of Bungalow Bill", and piano on "Long, Long, Long" and "Savoy Truffle". ==Early production credits== Thomas was not credited as producer or co-producer on The Beatles, although his name appears as co-producer on some of the original session sheets. By the end of 1968, he had received his first solo credit: The Climax Chicago Blues Band by the Climax Blues Band. Procol Harum would be the first band with which Thomas would enjoy a steady working relationship, producing their albums Home, Broken Barricades and Procol Harum Live: In Concert with the Edmonton Symphony Orchestra during 1970–71. Thomas subsequently travelled to Los Angeles to produce Christopher Milk's 1972 album Some People Will Drink Anything (Warner Bros/Reprise), and met John Cale, who invited Thomas to produce his Paris 1919. At the sessions with Procol, Thomas met Roxy Music singer-songwriter Bryan Ferry, who asked him to produce the band's second album, For Your Pleasure. The collaboration continued for the next four albums (Stranded, Country Life, Siren and Viva!). ==Recording sessions with Pink Floyd== In 1973, as Thomas' work continued to attract interest, he took on mixing duties with Pink Floyd for their The Dark Side of the Moon album. "I came in at the end," he said. "I'd heard the band sent the tapes off to four different people to mix, so they could choose their favourite mix. I thought this was a weird idea, especially as they had worked on it for such a long time and had been producing it themselves. I understood they wanted someone to give opinions on whether something worked or not. But to take the tapes away and mix it? I said, 'I definitely don't want to do that.' So, in the end, they finally came in and we mixed it altogether at Abbey Road." In his Mix interview, Thomas claimed he would finish work on the Floyd album at midnight and drive to AIR Studios to do more work on Procol Harum's Grand Hotel album until 5 am. Thomas got involved after David Gilmour, Rick Wright, Roger Waters and Nick Mason could not agree how the album should be mixed: Waters and Mason wanted a dry and clean mix, using the nonmusical elements, while Gilmour and Wright wanted a more subtle mix, with an emphasis on echo. Wright denied that there were any violent arguments. In 1993, Gilmour described Thomas' role on as a referee for arguments between himself and Waters: "[We] argued so much that it was suggested we get a third opinion. We were going to leave Chris to mix it on his own, with Alan Parsons engineering. And, of course, on the first day I found out that Roger sneaked in there. So the second day I sneaked in there. And from then on, we both sat right at Chris's shoulder, interfering. But luckily, Chris was more sympathetic to my point of view than he was to Roger's." Gilmour's recollections are disputed by Thomas: "There was no difference in opinion between them. I don't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun." "The overall sound was pretty much dictated by what was on the multitracks," observed engineer Alan Parsons. "I don't think the mix necessarily revolutionised what was there. If you were to play the multitrack tape now and put the faders up, it would sound like the Dark Side of the Moon we all know. So, no, I wasn't aware of any conflict of that kind. But the plus side of Chris being brought in was in solving any problems between the band at the time of mixing. He was like a mentor, a guiding light and intermediary." In any event, Thomas's involvement resulted in both Waters and Gilmour being satisfied with the final release. He also synchronised the echo on "Us and Them" and was at the session for "The Great Gig in the Sky". ==Recording sessions with Badfinger== Thomas produced a trio of albums for power pop group Badfinger on the tail end of their career, beginning with 1973's Ass, and 1974's Badfinger and Wish You Were Here albums. Ass was originally recorded with Badfinger producing, but the group later admitted they were incapable of producing themselves. Members Pete Ham and Tom Evans solicited Thomas' help in cleaning up existing recordings and laying down new tracks. Although the succeeding album Badfinger retained Thomas from the outset and was considered by critics to be an improvement in production, neither album was successful in the marketplace. For their third project together, Thomas held a meeting with the group and pleaded that they all concentrate on making the best record they could muster. It turned out that Wish You Were Here garnered the most positive critical response from periodicals, including Rolling Stone magazine. ==Recording sessions with the Sex Pistols== In 1976, he was asked by Malcolm McLaren to produce the Sex Pistols. Thomas' colleagues in the recording industry were horrified by his involvement with the Sex Pistols, particularly when he found himself producing the band at the same time as he was working with Paul McCartney. His work with the band also led to one of his most curious album credits. Co-producer Bill Price explained: During the media furore over the single God Save the Queen, Thomas, Price and Sex Pistols' vocalist Johnny Rotten were subject to a razor attack outside a pub in Highbury, London. In 2007, Thomas produced a brand new studio recording of "Pretty Vacant" for use in the new video game Skate. John Lydon, Steve Jones and Paul Cook all play on this new version, which was recorded in Los Angeles in July 2007. Neither of the original bass players, Glen Matlock or Sid Vicious were present (Vicious had died in 1979). ==Work with other artists== Thomas also programmed Moog synthesizer on David Bowie's first two albums, the song "Son of My Father" by Chicory Tip, Leonard Cohen's Songs of Love and Hate, and Elton John's eponymous album. He also programmed and played Moog synthesiser on George Harrison's All Things Must Pass and the theme from The Persuaders! by John Barry. In 1979, Thomas produced Wings' final album Back to the Egg, as bandleader Paul McCartney was looking for a more (and then current) new wave or punk oriented production style. In 1985, Thomas played a critical part in achieving a worldwide breakthrough for the Australian band INXS. The band's keyboardist and main songwriter Andrew Farriss stated that the band had "already finished the Listen Like Thieves album, but Chris Thomas told us there was still no 'hit'. We left the studio that night knowing we had one day left and we had to deliver 'a hit'. Talk about pressure." Thomas recalls he was worried that the standard of songs the band had laid down was not as strong as he wished. Thomas then went on to produce the follow up album, 1987's Kick, which became INXS' most successful album of their career. He also produced 1990's X. Thomas was a fundamental part of the Pretenders' success, producing The Pretenders' first (self-titled) album in 1980, the second album Pretenders II in 1981 and their third effort, Learning to Crawl (1984), and all singles in between; his work on Learning to Crawl earned him the nickname on the liner notes of the "fifth Pretender". He returned on their 1994 success, Last of the Independents, co-producing one track "I'm A Mother" with Ian Stanley. Thomas has won Rolling Stone Critics "Producer of the Year", Billboard "Producer of the Year", plus Grammy and Brit Awards. ==Production credits== Singles produced by Thomas include: * "Street Life", "Love Is the Drug" by Roxy Music * "Let's Stick Together" by Bryan Ferry * "Be Good to Yourself" by Frankie Miller * "Anarchy in the U.K.", "God Save the Queen", "Pretty Vacant", "Holidays in the Sun" by The Sex Pistols * "Brass in Pocket", "Talk of the Town", "I Go to Sleep", "Back on the Chain Gang" by The Pretenders * "Let My Love Open the Door", "Face the Face" by Pete Townshend * "Blue Eyes", "I'm Still Standing", "I Guess That's Why They Call It the Blues", "Sacrifice", "Can You Feel the Love Tonight", "Circle of Life" by Elton John * "What You Need", "Need You Tonight", "Never Tear Us Apart", "Suicide Blonde", "Disappear" by INXS * "Stay" by Shakespears Sister * "All for Love" by Bryan Adams, Rod Stewart and Sting * "Common People" by Pulp Albums produced or mixed by Thomas include: * 1968: The Climax Chicago Blues Band by Climax Blues Band, The Beatles by The Beatles * 1969: Climax Blues Band Plays On by Climax Blues Band, Abbey Road by The Beatles * 1970: A Lot of Bottle by Climax Blues Band, Home by Procol Harum * 1971: Tightly Knit by Climax Blues Band, Mick Abrahams by Mick Abrahams * 1972: Some People Will Drink Anything by Christopher Milk, At Last by Mick Abrahams Band, keyboard player on Son of My Father by Chicory Tip'' * 1973: For Your Pleasure by Roxy Music, Stranded by Roxy Music, Grand Hotel by Procol Harum, Paris 1919 by John Cale, Ass by Badfinger, The Dark Side of the Moon (mixing) by Pink Floyd * 1974: Badfinger by Badfinger, Wish You Were Here by Badfinger, Exotic Birds and Fruit by Procol Harum, Kurofune (aka Black Ship) by Sadistic Mika Band, Country Life by Roxy Music * 1975: Siren by Roxy Music, Hot Menu! by Sadistic Mika Band * 1976: Viva! by Roxy Music, Let's Stick Together by Bryan Ferry * 1976: Full House by Frankie Miller * 1977: Hurt by Chris Spedding * 1977: Never Mind the Bollocks by the Sex Pistols * 1978: Power in the Darkness by Tom Robinson Band * 1979: Back to the Egg by Wings * 1980: Pretenders by The Pretenders; Empty Glass by Pete Townshend * 1981: Pretenders II by The Pretenders, The Fox by Elton John * 1982: All the Best Cowboys Have Chinese Eyes by Pete Townshend, Jump Up! by Elton John * 1983: Too Low for Zero by Elton John * 1984: Hysteria by The Human League * 1984: Learning to Crawl by The Pretenders; Breaking Hearts by Elton John * 1985: Listen Like Thieves by INXS; White City by Pete Townshend * 1987: Kick by INXS * 1988: Reg Strikes Back by Elton John; Live Nude Guitars by Brian Setzer * 1989: Sleeping with the Past by Elton John * 1990: X by INXS * 1992: The One by Elton John * 1994: Last of the Independents by The Pretenders, The Lion King soundtrack, Jewel by Marcella Detroit, The Division Bell by Pink Floyd (mixing) * 1995: Different Class by Pulp * 1996: Filthy Lucre Live by Sex Pistols * 1997: The Big Picture by Elton John * 1998: This Is Hardcore by Pulp * 1999: Run Devil Run by Paul McCartney * 2001: Or8? by Hoggboy * 2004: How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb by U2 * 2006: On an Island by David Gilmour; Razorlight by Razorlight * 2010: Serotonin by Mystery Jets * 2013: Snapshot by The Strypes ==References== ===Works cited=== * * ==External links== * Chris Thomas interview (Mix magazine, 1998) * Interview and feature on Chris Thomas (podcast hosted by Beatles biographer Robert Rodriguez, December 2018) Category:1947 births Category:Brit Award winners Category:English bass guitarists Category:English keyboardists Category:English male guitarists Category:English record producers Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Living people Category:Male bass guitarists Category:Musicians from London Category:People educated at Latymer Upper School Category:People from Perivale |
thumb|Third edition (1960) Understanding Poetry was an American college textbook and poetry anthology by Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren, first published in 1938. The book influenced New Criticism and went through its fourth edition in 1976. The textbook "widely influenced ... the study of poetry at the college level in America." Robert Penn Warren biographical sketch at the Academy of American Poets Web site, accessed January 25, 2007 The Intercollegiate Studies Institute has named the book one of the "Fifty best books of the century." Understanding Poetry, according to an article at the Modern American Poetry Web site, "codified many of the so-called New Critical ideas into a coherent approach to literary study. Their book, and its companion volume, Understanding Fiction (1943), revolutionized the teaching of literature in the universities and spawned a host of imitators who dominated English departments well into the 1960s." Bohner, Charles, "Robert Penn Warren's Life and Career", accessed February 6, 2007 Even those who are highly critical of the textbook's approach to poetry have acknowledged the reach and influence of the volume. Poet Ron Silliman has called it "the hegemonic poetry textbook of the period." Silliman, Ron, "The Desert Modernism", article in The Electronic Poetry Review, accessed February 6, 2007 According to Warren's obituary in The New York Times: "Understanding Poetry and Understanding Fiction, which he wrote with Mr. Brooks, taught an entire generation how to read a work of literature and helped make the New Criticism dominant in the decade surrounding World War II. It was an approach to criticism that regarded the work at hand as autonomous, as an artifact whose structure and substance could be analyzed without respect to social, biographical and political details.""Robert Penn Warren, Poet and Author, Dies", obituary article, no byline noted on New York Times Web page, The New York Times, September 16, 1989, page 1, accessed February 6, 2007 Writing in The Virginia Quarterly Review, Harold B. Sween said: "Among the rank and file of university faculty in the English-speaking world, few works of this century have gained the influence of two of his [Brooks'] textbooks written in collaboration with Warren, Understanding Poetry (1938) and Understanding Fiction (1943). They revolutionized the teaching of literature in thousands of classrooms for 25 years . . . Brooks and Warren gained universal recognition for changing the focus of reading poetry (and fiction). Sween, Harold B., "Cleanth Brooks: Courtly Enigma", a review of Cleanth Brooks and the Rise of Modern Criticism, by Mark Royden Winchell, in The Virginia Quarterly Review, Winter 1998, accessed February 6, 2007 ==Contents== These contents refer to the third edition (1960), which may differ in some respects, particularly in poems used as examples, from other editions. ===Preface=== -- from the Preface Poetry is inherently "dramatic," the authors say, defining dramatic as something concrete which involves a process and a conflict in an effort to find meaning. There are other ways to think of poetry other than as knowledge, the authors concede, but that is "the assumption behind this book." Poems should not be thought of as carrying messages or statements that can be translated more concisely or exactly in prose. Instead, the reader must "surrender to" the impact of the poem as a whole, which includes comprehending the form of the poem. In fact, the kind of knowledge that poetry gives readers can be comprehended "only through form." Readers should carefully observe the human events, images, rhythms, and statements of the poem. Context is also important. The form of a poem is a person's attempt to deal with a certain problem, "poetic and personal." Poems are written within a historical and cultural context, and the reader also has a context and needs to understand the "dramatic implications of the form." ====Preface in the third edition==== For the third edition, the authors add in the preface (in a section dated January 24, 1960) that the introductions to the several sections have been expanded, some discussions from the previous edition have been dropped and others added. The exercises have been changed and expanded; selections of poems have been changed to better represent some periods; two appendices have been dropped ("Ambiguity, Added Dimension, and Submerged Metaphor" and "the Poem Viewed in Wider Perspective"), with much of their material put into the exercises and discussions; "How Poems Come About: Intention and Meaning" has been revised, with new material added; Section VII, "Poems for Study" has turned into an anthology, although not a systematic survey, of modern poetry. ===Introduction=== People communicate not just to convey information for businesslike practical reasons, they also convey feelings and attitudes. Telling a joke, passing the time in conversation and greeting old friends are some examples, and poetry is another. Some propositions -- including many involving values, emotions, feelings, attitudes and judgments -- can't be conveyed through communicating practical information or with scientific precision. Like science, literature (and especially poetry) uses a specialized language for the purposes of precision in matters different from science. In ordinary life, people must deal with forms of communication that use some of the methods of poetry, including editorials, sermons, political speeches, advertisements and magazine articles. Yet when approaching poems, many people confuse practical or "scientific" kinds of communication with poetic communication, sometimes as a way of justifying their interest in poetry, and so fall into certain mistakes. One mistake is "message-hunting" -- looking only for a profitable statement or idea in a poem. A short prose statement can work better than a poem for communicating advice. Something else is at work in poetry. Another mistake is thinking that poetry deals only with emotion or sensation, or even thinking that poetry can express an emotion such as grief the way tears would express it, or bring up the emotion in the reader. But poetry can never do that as well as real experience, the authors say, and a poem, such as Keats' Ode to a Nightingale, used as an example here, may really convey the poet's interpretation of an experience. A third common mistake is an attempt to mechanically combine the first two, defining poetry as the "beautiful statement of some high truth", or "truth" with "decorations". This mistake can lead to thinking of poems as collections of pretty language pleasing for its associations with pleasant things. But even Shakespeare and Milton wrote fine passages bringing up unpleasant and disagreeable associations. The things represented don't themselves shape the poetic effect, which depends on the "kind of use the poet makes of them." These mistakes look at poems in a mechanical way rather than in an organic way in which the elements (such as meter, rhyme, figurative language, along with attitude and emotion) need to be understood to be acting in a fundamental, intimate, organic way with each other. The introduction also states (but doesn't develop the thought )that poems are inherently dramatic, with an implied speaker who reacts to a situation, scene or idea. ==="I. Narrative Poems"=== In a "Foreword" introducing discussions of individual poems, the authors say that poetry takes the general human interest that people have in other people (expressed at other times in news articles about such things as outlaws, lovers killing lovers or other tragedies, to cite some examples) and put into a form "that preserves it" even after initial curiosity wanes. Poems that tell a story use the reader's natural curiosity about how a story will turn out (the most obvious way we become interested in literature), although readers or listeners who know the ending still enjoy the poems. The story element can be prominent, as in "Frankie and Johnny" or much less prominent, as in Robert Frost's, "Out, Out". Narrative is a way for the poet to provoke certain emotional reactions and ideas in readers. Using the ballad "Johnie Armstrong" as an example, the authors show how a narrative poem, far more than a novel or even a short story, will use bare "facts" in a dramatic way that gives them an emotional and intellectual meaning, whether or not the reader or listener has analyzed those or other elements. Poems are more concentrated or "closely" organized than prose in that they tend to present concentrated, sharper selected details in a concentrated, carefully arranged way, giving them more "intensity." By presenting concrete, explicit statements (as in "The Wife of Usher's Well"), the poet can convey an emotional impact as well as information, which more abstract language can't do. The reader can also be drawn into a more immediate appreciation of a poem by drawing out ideas from suggestions rather than the poet making explicit statements. Yet not every implication of a poem needs to be understood consciously for a reader to enjoy the work. The theme of a poem can be properly described (to give a fuller understanding of the poem) without the process becoming "message hunting" if the reader understands that "the poem gives the theme its force", not the other way around. ==="II. Descriptive Poems"=== The poems in this section give readers an impression of some scene or object showing the impression they gave the poet either through his senses or imagination. Conveying fresh, vivid impressions of things is fundamental to good poetry, the authors assert. Descriptions in poetry are linked closely to our lives and our values, just as narratives are. When a poet describes an object it is separated from its context in the natural world and therefore looks different to the reader. We feel it carries associations, emotional or intellectual or both, that the natural object doesn't. If nothing else, we know that the poet has chosen the object to describe and we wonder why. ==="III. Metrics"=== Rhythmical language in poetry is one of the ways we can see the tendency of poems towards a high degree of organization -- there tends to be far more emphasis on rhythm in poetry than in prose. Verse, a specialized form of rhythm in language, is one of the elements that, when related to other elements in a poem, combines to form poetry. Rhythm is often associated with powerful or intense states of emotion, and while poetry is not concerned with only the emotional elements of human experience, it does try to "do justice to" those elements. "[P]oetry is a result of a relationship among various elements and does not ever inhere specially in any single element. It is the fusion of all the elements that counts." (page 152, 3rd edition) Verse may seem trivial but is a powerful way of "establishing a pervasive impression of unity." Stanza patterns do the same. They reveal a "certain formality" to the text and focus our attention. Since poetry frequently defies common sense, metrical form, in a way, offers the reader hope that the text will ultimately make sense, even that all parts of the poem will ultimately make sense. Meter can also be a subtle way for a poet to emphasize and de-emphasize. By occasionally breaking the metrical pattern, the poet can emphasize a word, for example. Certain metrical situations don't automatically produce particular effects -- the use of meter achieves an effect only within the context of sense and feeling. The same is true for stanza forms, which are worth considering only as far as they help produce the particular effect of any given poem. Free verse, with varying line lengths and sometimes little else to distinguish it from prose, uses the particular lengths and line breaks to call attention to particular words or details. ==="IV. Tone"=== In poems, tone is the expression of attitude. Tone is also linked with poetic voice. ==="V. Imagery"=== metaphor simile personification ==="VI. Theme: Statement and Idea"=== ==="VII. Poems for Study"=== Poems are simply presented here without "critical apparatus" directing the student. The poems are meant to be modern (although, in the third edition at least, the authors recognize that it's a stretch to include Gerard Manley Hopkins). With poets who are relatively recent and mostly still living, the works come from the same world as the student. The poems are put in "natural groupings" for convenience, although other groupings of the same poems could also be made. ==="VIII. How Poems Come About: Intention and Meaning"=== The poem itself is what's important to the reader, but knowing something about the origin of a poem may help us better understand and appreciate it and poetry in general. Understanding the cultural context of a work of literature is also vital. ==Publication history== The book was reworked for each new edition: * First edition, 1938 * Second edition, 1950 * Third edition, 1960, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. * Fourth edition, 1976 ** ** ==Notes== ==External links== * Web page at the University of Pennsylvania describing the book * Online excerpt from the second edition of book (on Andrew Marvell's "Horatian Ode") Category:Books about poetry Category:Literary textbooks Category:Poetry anthologies Category:New Criticism Category:1938 non-fiction books Category:1950 non-fiction books Category:1960 non-fiction books Category:1976 non-fiction books Category:1938 poetry books Category:1950 poetry books Category:1960 poetry books Category:1976 poetry books |
Libraries and librarians are recurring elements in fiction. Below is a list of notable fictional literary works, films and television episodes that are set, wholly or partially, in a library or in which a librarian features prominently. The year refers to the original release date of the work. ==Books and comics== (Alphabetized by author's surname) * In Hiro Arikawa's Japanese light novel series Library War (2006-ongoing) (also the title of the series' first book), the Japanese government enacts a sweeping censorship law, which spawns a decades-long conflict with forces seeking to protect libraries. * Batgirl as Dr. Barbara Gordon, who is depicted as working as librarian in Gotham City's Public Library. * Jorge Luis Borges' short story, "The Library of Babel" (1941), depicts a universe consisting of a library of hexagonal rooms. * In Ray Bradbury's science fiction novel, Fahrenheit 451 (1953), books are outlawed and some rebels fight back by memorizing works, making themselves living libraries. * Jen Swann Downey's The Ninja Librarian book series, which begins with The Ninja Librarians: The Accidental Keyhand (2014), follows a sword-wielding girl who apprentices herself to a secret society of warrior librarians whose job it is to protect writers from getting in trouble for the viewpoints and ideas they publish. * Umberto Eco's first novel, The Name of the Rose (1980), is a murder mystery revolving around the existence of a book in the library of a Benedictine monastery., * Scott Hawkins' The Library at Mount Char has protagonists who refer to themselves as librarians. * Stephen King's novella, The Library Policeman (September 1990), is synopsized at King's official website as follows: "When a man forgets to return some books he borrowed from the library while writing a speech, and later accidentally destroys them, the phantom librarian who lent him the books sends the library policemen to terrorize him". * Audrey Niffenegger's The Time Traveler's Wife features Henry, who works in the Newberry Library, and also appears in the film adaptation. * Garth Nix's Lirael (2001) features Lirael, an assistant librarian. * In Anders Jacobsson and Sören Olsson's Sune series, Karin Andersson is a librarian.Sune och Svarta Mannen, Rabén & Sjögren, 1989, 5-10 - Sunes familj * The Elizabeth Peters' novel The Seventh Sinner (1972) features Jacqueline Kirby, a librarian. * In Terry Pratchett's Discworld series, The Librarian of the Unseen University is a recurring character that first appears in 1983. * Philip Roth's Goodbye, Columbus features a librarian who is racist. * In J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, the castle of Hogwarts features a library. Madam Irma Pince is the librarian at Hogwarts during the series. * Brandon Sanderson's young adult comic novel Alcatraz Versus the Evil Librarians (2007) is the first in a series about a young teen with an unusual skill, who finds himself battling against a cult of evil librarians who secretly rule the world. * Neal Stephenson's novel Snow Crash features a virtual librarian. * In Jo Walton's Among Others, Allison Carroll is a librarian. ==Film and stage== (Alphabetical by series or title) * In Angels and Demons (2009), the sequel to The Da Vinci Code (2006), Robert Langdon visits the Vatican Library and the Vatican archives several times to carry out research on the meaning and significance of various symbols.Library World Records, 3d ed., by Godfrey Oswald, page 117. * The Breakfast Club (1985), five high school students serve a Saturday detention in the school's library. * Citizen Kane stars a librarian. * The Day After Tomorrow (2004), a group of people takes shelter from sudden freezing cold in the New York Public Library, burning books to keep warm.T * Desk Set (1957) stars Katharine Hepburn as the head of a reference library; she and her staff are seemingly threatened with replacement by an early computer invented by Spencer Tracy's character. * Doctor Strange (2016) features the Kamar-Taj library, which houses ancient books about powerful magical lore. * Fahrenheit 451 (1966), an adaptation of Ray Bradbury's book. * Foul Play features Gloria Mundy, a shy San Francisco librarian. * From Hell (2001) starring Johnny Depp, contains scenes representing the British Library. * The opening scenes of Ghostbusters (1984) include a haunted library with three librarian ghosts, filmed at the iconic central branch of the New York Public Library.Bukoff, Ronald N. “‘A Trip to the Library’; or, The Curse of ‘Marian the Librarian’: Images of Libraries and Librarians on the Musical Stage.” Studies in Popular Culture 22, no. 1 (1999): 27–41. via JSTOR, access March 8, 2023. * Harry Potter films Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (2001), Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002), Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005), and Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (2009) feature the Hogwarts Library. * Indiana Jones & The Last Crusade features a trip to a Venetian Library and stereotypical male librarian. * It's a Wonderful Life features Mary Hatch Bailey, an "old maid" librarian in Pottersville. * John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum (2019) features a scene that takes place in the New York Public Library. * In The Librarian franchise, Flynn Carsen (Noah Wyle) is hired by the New York Metropolitan Library, and recruited into an ancient clandestine order of Librarians. He's introduced in the first original film of the franchise, The Librarian: Quest for the Spear (2004), where he is entrusted with the role of protecting the historical, and often magical, contents of a secret section of the library. He returns in The Librarian: Return to King Solomon's Mines (2006) and in The Librarian: Curse of the Judas Chalice (2008). * The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), Gandalf travels to Gondor to research in Lord Denethor's Library the Ring in Bilbo's possession. * The Disney/Pixar film Monsters University (2013) features a librarian. * The Mummy (1999) features Evelyn Carnahan, the female lead who is a clumsy librarian. She also appeared in the two sequels of this film. * The female lead in The Music Man is a librarian at the Madison Public Library and the musical features the song "Marian the Librarian".This Broadway show won five Tony Awards and its cast album won the first Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album and spent 245 weeks on the Billboard charts.John Kenrick (25 March 2010). Musical Theatre: A History. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 238. . It was also made into a film of the same name that was nominated for six Academy Awards and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy. * The Name of the Rose (1986), an adaptation of Umberto Eco's novel. * The Omen (2006) contains scenes representing the Vatican library. * Only Two Can Play (1962) stars a Welsh librarian and occasional drama critic. * The Party Girl (1995) stars Mary, a party girl who discovers she wants to be a librarian. * The Pagemaster features Mr. Dewey, an eccentric librarian. * The Prince & Me (2004) contains scenes representing a Danish Library. * The Public stars librarian Stuart Goodson, who is comfortable with the homeless people who use his public library every day. * Oblivion (2013) takes place in an imagined future amidst the ruins of New York, including those of the New York Public Library. * Red (2010) has Frank Moses (Bruce Willis), a former black-ops CIA agent, visiting a New York college library to look up a book after he obtained a postcard with a Dewey classification number on it. * The musical She Loves Me (1963) includes the song "A Trip to the Library". * Something Wicked This Way Comes (1983) features a librarian. * Storm Center (1956) includes protagonist, Alicia Hull, a small town librarian. * The Time Machine (2002), a film adaptation of H. G. Wells's novel, features a holographic artificial intelligence librarian at the New York Public Library in the year 2030 and afterwards. * UHF (1989) features the character Conan the Librarian.Ruth Kneale, You Don't Look Like a Librarian: Shattering Stereotypes and Creating Positive New Images in the Internet Age, Information Today: 2009, p 77 ==Games== (Alphabetized by series or title) * The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim features a librarian. * Don't Starve features a librarian, Ms. Wickerbottom, as a playable character. * Genshin Impact (2020) features a playable librarian character named Lisa. * The 2020 adventure game, The Librarian, features a librarian. * Metro 2033 features librarians as characters. Neil Marshall (Assistant Librarian for the Faculty of Education of the MMU Library is the writer of this article. * Monkey Island II: LeChuck's Revenge features an unnamed female librarian. ==Television== (Alphabetical by series, then chronological by episode) * The Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2001) character, librarian Rupert Giles, serves as Buffy Summers' mentor and surrogate father figure; beneath the school library lies a secret gateway to the demon realms. * An episode of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation features Aaron Pratt, an autistic librarian. *In the Doctor Who episode "Silence in the Library" (2008), Donna Noble and Tenth Doctor visit a planet which is a 51st- century book repository simply called "The Library". * In the Doctor Who episode "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS" (2013), Clara visits the TARDIS library. * In Game of Thrones, several libraries figure prominently: in Oldtown at The Citadel, maintained by maesters; in King's Landing at the Red Keep, maintained by septons; at Winterfell (where in the season 8 "Battle of Winterfell", Arya Stark is stalked by wights), maintained by House Stark's maestre; and at the Wall at Castle Black, maintained by Maester Aemon Targaryen of the Night's Watch; additionally, Shireen Baratheon uses books from her collection at Dragonstone to teach the imprisoned Davos Seaworth to read. * Hilda features Kaisa, the librarian of the Trolberg Library and a witch. * The Inspector Morse episode "Twilight of the Gods" (1993), featured the Bodleian Library * In one episode of Mira, Royal Detective, Mira and her father Sahil operate a bookmobile. * In "Once Upon A Time", Belle is a princess-turned-librarian. * Orange Is the New Black features Tasha "Taystee" Jefferson, a librarian at Litchfield Penitentiary. * Outlander, season 2 (2016), contains scenes representing the library at the Palace of Versailles in Paris. It is here that Jamie and the Minister of Finance, Joseph Duverney play chess, and where the Comte St. Germain poisons Claire. * Episodes of Parks and Recreation feature Tammy, a librarian * In Person of Interest seasons 1 through 3 (2011), the enigmatic billionaire Harold Finch operates secretly from within an abandoned library. * She-Ra and the Princesses of Power features George and Lance, two gay historians who run a family library. * Silent Library was a television game show with a public library setting that aired on MTV from 2009 to 2011. * In the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "All Our Yesterdays" (1969), Captain Kirk, McCoy, and Spock are transported back in time by the sole remaining inhabitant of a doomed planet: the librarian Mr. Atoz. * In the Stranger Things (2016-2017), in the third episode of both seasons 1 and 2, the librarian of the Hawkins Public Library helps characters research information. * The Big City Greens episode "Quiet Please" features an unnamed librarian at a city library. * The Crazy Ones features Flora, a drunk librarian. * The Librarians (2007-2010) is an Australian television comedy series that has a librarian as the protagonist. * The Librarians (2014-2018), a continuation of The Librarian film series, features several characters who work for The Library. * In The Twilight Zone episode "The Obsolete Man" (1961), a totalitarian state, having banned books, sentences a librarian to death for the crime of being obsolete. * The We Bare Bears episode "The Library" features an unnamed female librarian. * Welcome to the Wayne features Clare Rhona, head librarian of The Stanza. ==Other== * "Ms Dewey", a sexy librarian character for the Bing search engine. * Pearl, a librarian action figure, modeled on Seattle Public Library librarian Nancy Pearl. ==See also== * Librarians in popular culture * New York Public Library in popular culture * Films set in libraries category ==References== ==Further reading== * * * * * * Category:History of fiction Librarians Category:Lists of librarians |
Big Brother Danmark was the Danish version of the international reality television franchise Big Brother created by producer John de Mol. The series debuted on Danish television in January 2001 and was axed in June 2014, due to poor ratings. The show first aired two regular seasons on TvDanmark2 (Now Kanal 4) in 2001. The series returned once again in 2003 on TvDanmark2, first with a celebrity season called "V.I.P.", later that year TvDanmark2 aired the first regular Big Brother season in nearly two years. In 2004 TvDanmark2 aired one season before the show was paused indefinitely. The season was a celebrity season and was called "Reality Allstars". In 2007, it was announced that Modern Times Group, had bought the rights to Big Brother in Denmark. In the fall of 2007, TV3 Denmark aired the first season of Big Brother. The premiere of the 2007 series was watched by over 199,000 people in Denmark. Big Brother returned once again in 2008 under the title Hotel Big Brother, this season was a special season and it was broadcast in the summer of 2008. The special edition season only lasted for 56 days. In the fall of 2008, TV3 Denmark aired their third Big Brother season, that season was an ordinary season lasting 105 days. In April 2009 Modern Times Group and TV3 Denmark announced that a new season of Big Brother would premiere in September 2009. In January 2010 Modern Times Group officially axed Big Brother Denmark after four seasons. They stated in a press release that they would for the future focus more on other productions such as Paradise Hotel and Robinson Ekspeditionen In 2009, Kanal 4 chose to rebroadcast the first season of Big Brother Denmark. After a 2-year break, Kanal 5 Denmark and SBS TV Denmark relaunched Big Brother Danmark in 2012 and the show aired for three regular seasons (2012–2014) and one special season (2012). The show was finally cancelled after 13 years by SBS Discovery on June 19, 2014, due to poor ratings. In 2021, on the 20th anniversary of the first season in Denmark, Jill Liv Nielsen who won the first season back in 2001 was interviewed by the Danish public service broadcaster DR, for an article about the show. ==Series overview== Seasons Launch date Finale date Days Housemates Winner Prize money Presenter Extra Presenter(s) Network Original Run 1 Big Brother 2001 (1) 28 January 2001 10 May 2001 103 13 Jill Liv Nielsen DKK 500,000 Lisbeth Janniche Mads Vangsø and Anette Toftgaard TvDanmark2 2 Big Brother 2001 (2) 25 August 2001 6 December 2001 104 14 Carsten B. Berthelsen DKK 1,000,000 Mads Vangsø, Anette Toftgaard and Jill Liv Nielsen 3 Big Brother V.I.P. 16 February 2003 22 May 2003 95 13 Thomas Bickham DKK 500,000 none 4 Big Brother 2003 21 September 2003 27 November 2003 68 16 Johnni Johansen DKK 1,000,000 5 Big Brother 2004 1 March 2004 1 April 2004 31 11 Jill Liv Nielsen DKK 250,000 2nd Run 6 Big Brother 2007 26 August 2007 2 December 2007 98 15 Robert D. Skousen DKK 1,000,000 Adam Duvå Hall Lisbeth Østergaard TV3 7 Hotel Big Brother 1 June 2008 27 July 2008 56 11 Ingrid Dyrlund Mattias Hundebøll 8 Big Brother 2008 31 August 2008 14 December 2008 105 18 Victor Bregendal none 9 Big Brother 2009 6 September 2009 18 December 2009 103 Mathilde Jacob Mattias Hundebøll 3rd Run 10 Big Brother 2012 30 January 2012 13 May 2012 105 21 Amanda Heisel DKK 625,000 Marie Egede none Kanal 5 11 Big Brother 4 Stjerners Middag 21 May 2012 24 May 2012 4 4 Cathrine Pedersen none Peter Mygind (speaker) 12 Big Brother 2013 4 February 2013 18 May 2013 104 21 Bjørn Clausen DKK 500.000 Anne Kejser 13 Big Brother 2014 1 January 2014 27 April 2014 118 22 David G. Feldstedt Oliver Bjerrehuus == Viewership == === Ratings for the seasons of Big Brother Denmark === Seasons Premiere Average Finale Big Brother 2001 (1) 572.000 529.000 562.000 Big Brother 2001 (2) 403.000 365.000 259.000 Big Brother V.I.P. 354.000 275.000 192.000 Big Brother 2003 179.000 124.000 273.000 Big Brother 2004 76.000 64.000 136.000 Big Brother 2007 199.000 186.000 220.000 Hotel Big Brother 107.000 65.000 103.000 Big Brother 2008 95.000 47.000 89.000 Big Brother 2009 68.000 55.000 102.000 Big Brother 2012 204.000 195.000 205.000 Big Brother 4 Stjerners Middag 180.000 183.000 176.000 Big Brother 2013 119.000 105.000 127.000 Big Brother 2014 97.000 70.000 106.000 == Cancellation == SBS Discovery Media announced on 19 July 2014 that they had axed Big Brother Denmark, due to declining viewerships . Season 13 (2014) had an average viewership of 70.000. which is a drop since the first season of Big Brother Denmark back in 2001, which had an average of 500.000 viewers. Eight years after the cancellation (2022) are there still no plans of reviving the show in Denmark. It is therefore unknown when Big Brother will return to Denmark again. ==Big Brother 2001 (season 1)== Start Date: 28 January 2001 End Date: 10 May 2001 Duration: 103 days The Finalists: 2 - Jill* (The Winner) & Nico* (Runner-up) The Grand Prize: 500,000 DKK Evicted Housemates: 8 - Anja, Anna, Chris, Eddie, Eva, John, Naja* & Suzanne* Voluntary Exits: 3(7*) - Christian, Pil & Søren Ejected Housemates: 0 - Notes: * - Jill, Naja, Nico & Suzanne voluntarily left the House and later re-entered On day 77, all the remaining housemates left the house. Two hours later only four returned with agreement to get weekly visits by families and friends. ===Nominations Table=== The first person a housemate nominates is for 2 points, whilst the second nomination is for just 1 point. Week 2 Week 4 Week 6 Week 8 Week 10 Week 10 Week 12 Week 13 Week 14 Week 15 Week 2 Week 4 Week 6 Week 8 Intruder Eviction Week 12 Week 13 Week 14 Week 15 Jill Pil, Eva Chris, John John, Søren Søren, Eddie Anna Søren, Eddie Søren, Naja No nominations No nominations Winner (Day 103) Nico Eva, Pil Chris, Anja Pil, Anja Anja, Jill Anna Pil, Jill Pil, Naja No nominations No nominations (Day 103) Naja Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Nominated Eddie, Jill, Nico, Søren Suzanne Nico, Suzanne No nominations No nominations Evicted (Day 96) Suzanne Eva, Chris John, Chris John, Søren Eddie, Søren Anna Eddie, Søren Naja, Søren No nominations Evicted (Day 89) Evicted (Day 89) Christian Eva, Anja Anja, John Anja, John Anja, Suzanne Anna Suzanne, Eddie Suzanne, Naja Walked (Day 77) Walked (Day 77) Walked (Day 77) Pil Søren, Suzanne Chris, Nico Søren, John Søren, Anja Anna Naja, Eddie Naja, Nico Walked (Day 77) Walked (Day 77) Walked (Day 77) Søren Pil, Chris Chris, Suzanne Pil, Anja Anja, Jill Anna Jill, Naja Jill, Suzanne Walked (Day 77) Walked (Day 77) Walked (Day 77) Eddie Not in House Not in House Exempt Anja, Jill Naja Søren, Pil Evicted (Day 68) Evicted (Day 68) Evicted (Day 68) Evicted (Day 68) Anna Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Nominated Evicted (Day 58) Evicted (Day 58) Evicted (Day 58) Evicted (Day 58) Evicted (Day 58) Anja Eva, Chris Chris, John John, Søren Christian, Eddie Evicted (Day 54) Evicted (Day 54) Evicted (Day 54) Evicted (Day 54) Evicted (Day 54) Evicted (Day 54) John Exempt Nico, Chris Søren, Jill Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Chris Pil, Jill Pil, Jull Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Eva Suzanne, Søren Evicted (Day 12) Evicted (Day 12) Evicted (Day 12) Evicted (Day 12) Evicted (Day 12) Evicted (Day 12) Evicted (Day 12) Evicted (Day 12) Evicted (Day 12) Notes none none none Nominated For Eviction Eva, Pil Chris, John John, Søren Anja, Søren Anna, Naja Eddie, Søren Naja, Nico, Suzanne Jill, Naja, Nico, Suzanne Jill, Naja, Nico Jill, Nico Walked none Christian, Pil, Søren none Evicted Eva 61% to evict Chris 53% to evict John 71% to evict Anja 84% to evict Anna 6 of 7 votes to evict Eddie 64% to evict Eviction cancelled Suzanne 52% to evict Naja 60% to evict Nico 29% to win Evicted Eva 61% to evict Chris 53% to evict John 71% to evict Anja 84% to evict Anna 6 of 7 votes to evict Eddie 64% to evict Eviction cancelled Suzanne 52% to evict Naja 60% to evict Jill 71% to win Notes: John was exempt from the Nomination Process as he entered late on Day 4. As a new Housemate, Eddie was exempt from the Nomination Process this Week. On Day 58, the Housemates had to evict one of the new Housemates, either Anna or Naja. After winning a task Naja won the right to distribute 5 points, instead of the usual 3, this Week. She could do this any way she liked, and chose to give one point each to Eddie, Jill, Nico, Søren and Suzanne. All Housemates voluntarily left the House on Day 77 and only Jill, Naja, Nico and Suzanne angrred to re-enter the House following talks with the producers on Day 78. The Nominations are voided and the Eviction is cancelled as only 4 Housemates now remain in the House: Jill, Naja, Nico & Suzanne. From now on all Housemates automatically face the Public Vote to evict, except for the final two who will face a vote to win. ==Big Brother 2001 (season 2)== Start Date: 25 August 2001 End Date: 6 December 2001 Duration: 104 days The Prize: 1,000,000 DKK The Finalists: 3 - Carsten (The Winner), Sverre (Runner-up) & Sheila (3rd) Evicted Housemates: 9 - Aida, Dina, Ghazal, June, Martin, Randi, René, Søren & Tina Voluntary Exits: 2 - Cosmo & Mik ===Nominations Table=== The first person a housemate nominates is for 2 points, whilst the second nomination is for just 1 point. Week 4 Week 10 Week 12 Week 14 Week 15 Week 15 Week 15 Week 4 Week 10 Week 12 Week 14 Day 102 Final Final Carsten Aida René, Dina Randi, Mik Randi, Sverre Randi, Aida Aida Randi, Martin Randi, Ghazal No Nominations Sverre Aida Tina, Dani Mik, Dina René, June June, Aida Aida Randi, Sheila Ghazal, Randi No Nominations Sheila Søren Tina, Randi Mik, Dina Cosmo, René Randi, Martin Aida Martin, Sverre Randi, Ghazal No Nominations Ghazal Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Martin Martin Randi Randi Sverre No Nominations Evicted (Day 102) Evicted (Day 102) Randi Sverre Sheila, Tina Carsten, Dina René, Carsten June, Carsten Martin Martin, Ghazal Ghazal, Carsten Evicted (Day 97) Evicted (Day 97) Evicted (Day 97) Martin Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House 3-Aida 2-Cosmo Nominated Randi, Ghazal Evicted (Day 83) Evicted (Day 83) Evicted (Day 83) Evicted (Day 83) Aida Cosmo Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) June, Martin Nominated Re-Evicted (Day 69) Re-Evicted (Day 69) Re-Evicted (Day 69) Re-Evicted (Day 69) Re-Evicted (Day 69) Cosmo Aida Mik, Sheila Mik, Dina June, Sheila June, Aida Walked (Day 69) Walked (Day 69) Walked (Day 69) Walked (Day 69) Walked (Day 69) Walked (Day 69) June Søren Tina, Randi Mik, Dina Cosmo, Randi Randi, Aida Evicted (Day 55) Evicted (Day 55) Evicted (Day 55) Evicted (Day 55) Evicted (Day 55) Evicted (Day 55) René Tina Tina, Sheila Mik, Randi Randi, Sverre Evicted (Day 41) Evicted (Day 41) Evicted (Day 41) Evicted (Day 41) Evicted (Day 41) Evicted (Day 41) Evicted (Day 41) Mik Tina Tina, Cosmo June, Cosmo Walked (Day 27) Walked (Day 27) Walked (Day 27) Walked (Day 27) Walked (Day 27) Walked (Day 27) Walked (Day 27) Walked (Day 27) Dina Søren Randi, Tina Randi, Sheila Evicted (Day 27) Evicted (Day 27) Evicted (Day 27) Evicted (Day 27) Evicted (Day 27) Evicted (Day 27) Evicted (Day 27) Evicted (Day 27) Tina Sverre June, Sverre Evicted (Day 13) Evicted (Day 13) Evicted (Day 13) Evicted (Day 13) Evicted (Day 13) Evicted (Day 13) Evicted (Day 13) Evicted (Day 13) Evicted (Day 13) Søren Aida Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Evicted (Day 4) Notes Notes none none Walked none Mik none Cosmo none Nominated For Eviction Nominated For Eviction Aida, Søren Randi, Sheila, Tina Dina, Mik, Randi Cosmo, Randi, René Aida, June, Randi Aida, Martin Ghazal, Martin Ghazal, Randi Carsten, Ghazal, Sheila, Sverre Carsten, Sheila, Sverre Evicted Evicted Aida 4 of 6 votes to evict Tina 47% to evict Dina 53% to evict Aida Most votes to return June 59% to evict Aida 3 of 4 votes to evict Martin 50% to evict Randi 63% to evict Ghazal 58% to evict Sheila 24% (out of 3) Sverre 47% (out of 2) Evicted Evicted Søren 3 of 6 votes to evict Tina 47% to evict Dina 53% to evict René 39% to evict June 59% to evict Aida 3 of 4 votes to evict Martin 50% to evict Randi 63% to evict Ghazal 58% to evict Carsten 53% to win Notes: The Housemates had to evict a male and a female. Each female voted to evict a male and each male voted to evict a female. The males are denoted by the blue boxes by their name, and the girls by the red boxes. On Day 34 Aida re-entered the House after a Public Vote, and was joined by Martin, a new Housemate. Martin was allowed to Nominate for 5 Points this Week, and distributed them as follows: Aida (3 points) and Cosmo (2 points). This Week the Public Nominated, and Aida and Martin received the most votes, and the surviving Housemates voted to Evict one of them. Ghazal, as a new Housemate, was Exempt from this Vote, but could vote and voted to Evict Martin. Randi was originally Nominated, but won immunity and hence Ghazal took her place. Martin was Evicted with just 71 more votes than Ghazal - the closest vote in Big Brother history. All Housemates faced the Public Vote to Evict this Week to decide the three finalists. The final three Housemates all faced the Public Vote to win. ==Big Brother V.I.P. (season 3)== Start Date: 16 February 2003 End Date: 22 May 2003 Duration: 95 days The Prize: 500,000 DKK No live coverage: Shown weekly over 12 weeks, starting 7 March. The final was shown on 22 May 2003. House: The Big Brother Norway house was used The Finalists: 3 - Thomas (The Winner)-51%, Pil (Runner-up)-27% & Michael (3rd)-22% Evicted Housemates: 9 - Bashy, Brigitte, Carl-Mar, Gigi, Helena, Kira, Lise- Lotte, Masja & Morten Ejected Housemates: 1 - Moses ===Housemates=== Housemates Residence Famous for... Age Bashy Quraishy Frederiksberg Pakistan People Society 57 Brigitte Nielsen Switzerland Actress 39 Carl-Mar Møller Kokkedal Therapist and author 49 Gigi Li Fredie-Pedersen Dragør Dancer, singer & actress 20 Helena Blach Lavrsen Dragør Silver medalist for Curling at the 1998 Winter Olympics 39 Kira Eggers Los Angeles Model and stripper 28 Lise-Lotte Lohmann København Actress 46 Masja Juel Bornholm Hairdresser 24 Michael Teschl København Singer 31 Morten Messerschmidt Frederikssund Politician 22 Moses Hansen Kolding Author 61 Helle Kragenskjold, "Pil" Islands Brygge Big Brother 1 Housemate 34 Thomas Bickham København Dragqueen 27 ==Big Brother 2003 (season 4)== Start Date: 21 September 2003 End Date: 27 November 2003 Duration: 68 days The Grand Prize: 1,000,000 DKK The Finalists: 4 - Johnni (The Winner), Tania (Runner-up), Henrik (3rd) & Raz (4th) Evicted Houseamtes: 7 - Cutter, Jesper, June, Kathrine, Makiah, Robert & Sissal Voluntary Exits: 4 - Clara, Gry, Lotte & Martin Ejected Housemates: 1 - Michael ===Nominations Table=== The first person a housemate nominates is for 2 points, whilst the second nomination is for just 1 point. Week 1 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 10 Johnni Cutter, Robert Michael, Tania Makiah, Kathrine June, Tania June, Henrik Tania, June Henrik, Tania Robert, Henrik (Day 68) Tania Cutter, Robert Raz, Lotte Kathrine, Robert Henrik, Kathrine Jesper, Johnni Henrik, June Robert, Sissal Robert, Raz (Day 68) Henrik Not in House Not in House Exempt Raz, Kathrine Jesper, Johnni Tania, Sissal Sissal, Robert Robert, Raz (Day 68) Raz Lotte, Clara Michael, Tania Tania, Kathrine June, Henrik June, Jesper June, Henrik Robert, Henrik Henrik, Tania (Day 68) Robert Tania, Michael Michael, Tania Makiah, Kathrine Henrik, June Tania, Henrik Henrik, June Henrik, Tania Henrik, Tania Evicted (Day 61) Evicted (Day 61) Sissal Michael, Johnni Tania, Michael Kathrine, Raz Kathrine, June Jesper, Henrik June, Henrik Henrik, Johnni Evicted (Day 54) Evicted (Day 54) Evicted (Day 54) June Not in House Not in House Exempt Raz, Kathrine Jesper, Raz Sissal, Raz Evicted (Day 47) Evicted (Day 47) Evicted (Day 47) Evicted (Day 47) Jesper Not in House Not in House Not in House Exempt Henrik, June Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Evicted (Day 40) Kathrine Not in House Lotte, Johnni Tania, Robert Sissal, June Evicted (Day 33) Evicted (Day 33) Evicted (Day 33) Evicted (Day 33) Evicted (Day 33) Evicted (Day 33) Makiah Michael, Sissal Lotte, Michael Kathrine, Robert Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Evicted (Day 26) Lotte Johnni, Tania Michael, Tania Walked (Day 20) Walked (Day 20) Walked (Day 20) Walked (Day 20) Walked (Day 20) Walked (Day 20) Walked (Day 20) Walked (Day 20) Martin Clara, Tania Raz, Tania Walked (Day 16) Walked (Day 16) Walked (Day 16) Walked (Day 16) Walked (Day 16) Walked (Day 16) Walked (Day 16) Walked (Day 16) Michael Cutter, Clara Lotte, Raz Ejected (Day 15) Ejected (Day 15) Ejected (Day 15) Ejected (Day 15) Ejected (Day 15) Ejected (Day 15) Ejected (Day 15) Ejected (Day 15) Gry Robert, Sissal Walked (Day 13) Walked (Day 13) Walked (Day 13) Walked (Day 13) Walked (Day 13) Walked (Day 13) Walked (Day 13) Walked (Day 13) Walked (Day 13) Clara Michael, Tania Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Cutter Michael, Tania Evicted (Day 5) Evicted (Day 5) Evicted (Day 5) Evicted (Day 5) Evicted (Day 5) Evicted (Day 5) Evicted (Day 5) Evicted (Day 5) Evicted (Day 5) Notes none none none Nominated For Eviction Cutter, Michael Lotte, Michael, Robert, Tania Kathrine, Makiah, Tania Henrik, June, Kathrine Henrik, Jesper, Jude Henrik, June, Tania Henrik, Robert, Sissal Henrik, Raz, Robert, Tania Henrik, Johnni, Raz, Tania Henrik, Johnni, Raz, Tania Walked none Clara, Gry Martin, Lotte none Ejected none Michael none Evicted Cutter 59% to evict Eviction Cancelled Makiah 58% to evict Kathrine 58% to evict Jesper 74% to evict June 37% to evict Sissal 52% to evict Robert 58% to evict Raz 12% to win Henrik 14% to win Evicted Cutter 59% to evict Eviction Cancelled Makiah 58% to evict Kathrine 58% to evict Jesper 74% to evict June 37% to evict Sissal 52% to evict Robert 58% to evict Tania 30% to win Johnni 44% to win ===Note=== Kathrine, as a new Housemates, is Exempt from Nomination this Week; she can Nominate but not be Nominated. Robert automatically faces the Public Vote this Week for rule-breaking. The Eviction was Cancelled after a spate of recent Walk-outs and Ejections. Henrik and June are Exempt from the Nominations Process as new Housemates. Jesper, as a New Housemates, is Exempt from the Nomination Process. Robert was immune from Nomination this Week after winning a challenge. Robert was awarded an extra Nomination Point this Week for blocking cameras. ==Big Brother – Reality Allstars 2004 (season 5)== Start Date: 1 March 2004 End Date: 1 April 2004 Duration: 31 days The Winner: Jill Liv Nielsen The Grand Prize: 250,000 DKK ===Nominations Table=== The first person a housemate nominates is for 2 points, whilst the second nomination is for just 1 point. #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 Final Final Jill Leslie Lars Carl-Mar Naeem Carl-Mar Naeem Carl-Mar Allando Allando Lars Allando Clara Lars Leslie Clara Clara Lotte Clara Carl-Mar Jill Lotte Lotte Clara Clara Allando Allando Not in house Not in house Exempt Jill Lotte Lotte Clara Jill Clara Franciska Leslie Carl-Mar Carl-Mar Lars Carl-Mar Lars Allando Lars Allando Lars Allando Jill Clara Lars Leslie Carl-Mar Naeem Carl-Mar Naeem Carl-Mar Lars Lars Allando Allando Jill Evicted Evicted Lotte Lars Leslie Naeem Lars Naeem Carl-Mar Allando Jill Allando Lars Evicted Evicted Evicted Carl-Mar Leslie Lotte Jill Lars Jill Lars Jill Clara Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Naeem Jill Lars Jill Lotte Lars Clara Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Richard Lars Lotte Lotte Lars Walked Walked Walked Walked Walked Walked Leslie Lars Jill Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Allan Walked Walked Walked Walked Walked Walked Walked Walked Up for eviction Lars Leslie Carl-Mar Jill Lars Lotte Naeem Carl-Mar Lars Naeem Allando Carl-Mar Jill Allando Lars Lotte Allando Clara All housemates Walked Allan Richard none Evicted Leslie Most votes to evict Eviction Cancelled Naeem Most votes to evict Carl-Mar Most votes to evict Lotte Most votes to evict Clara Most votes to evict Franciska Fewest votes to win Allando Fewest votes to win Evicted Lars Fewest votes to win Jill 46% to win == Big Brother 2012 (season 10) == Start Date: 30 January 2012 End Date: 13 May 2012 Duration: 105 days The Winner: Amanda Heisel The Grand Prize: 500,000 DKK === Nominations table === Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12 Week 13 Week 14 Week 15 Nominations received Amanda Lesley ? Nominated Mads Patricia ? ? Melander Michella Alexander Mads Evicted(Day 42) Cathrine Patricia CathrineHenrik Nominated Umar Nominated Alexander Michella Nominated Alexander Henrik 30 Henrik Stine Alexander Nominated Amanda ? Mads Melander Mads Melander Banned Michella Mette Mette Thomas Nominated Nominated NoNominations Thomas Alexander Exempt Amanda Alexander Runner-Up(Day 105) 17 Umar Lesley ? NoNominations Amanda ? Melander ? Melander Michella Patricia Cathrine Michella Alexander Michella Alexander MetteCathrine NoNominations Exempt NoNominations Thomas Michella Exempt Alexander Amanda Third Place(Day 105) 5 Alexander Lesley ? NoNominations Stine ? Lasse ? Clifford Christian Mads Amanda Mette Denise Mette Henrik MetteHenrik NoNominations Nominated Nominated Henrik Michella Exempt Amanda Henrik Evicted(Day 98) 25 Michella Lesley ? NoNominations Patricia ? Lasse Melander Amanda Cathrine Cathrine Patricia Cathrine Patricia Cathrine Henrik CathrineHenrik NoNominations NotEligible Exempt Amanda Umar Nominated Evicted(Day 91) 25 Thomas Amanda Lesley NoNominations ? Stine Melander ? Christian Melander Amanda Mads Michella Mette Henrik Umar HenrikCathrine NoNominations Henrik NoNominations Henrik Amanda Evicted(Day 84) 8 Cathrine Lesley ? NoNominations Stine ? ? ? Melander Michella Banned Michella Mads Michella Alexander Nominated NotEligible Nominated Evicted(Day 77) 21 Patricia Lesley ? NoNominations Stine ? Melander ? Michella Melander Banned Michella Mads Alexander Michella MetteHenrik NoNominations Nominated Evicted(Day 70) 9 Guido Lesley ? NoNominations Banned Christian ? Christian Mads Alexander Mads Alexander Michella Alexander Michella MetteCathrine Nominated Evicted(Day 63) 6 Mette Not inHouse Exempt Cathrine Amanda Denise Mads Alexander Thomas Evicted(Day 56) 14 Mads Lesley ? Nominated Amanda ? Lasse ? Melander Clifford Amanda Guido Thomas Denise Evicted(Day 49) 22 Denise Not inHouse Exempt Mads Amanda Mads Guido Ejected(Day 47) 4 Christian Lesley Amanda NoNominations Stine ? Guido ? Guido Mads Evicted(Day 35) 8 Melander Lesley ? NoNominations Umar ? Lasse ? Clifford Christian Umar Walked(Day 34) 25 Clifford BunnieHouse NoNominations Stine ? Melander ? Melander Mads Ejected(Day 34) 5 Lasse BunnieHouse NoNominations Stine ? Melander Mads Evicted(Day 28) 8 Stine Lesley ? NoNominations ? ? Evicted(Day 21) 20 Line Louise Lesley Nominated Evicted(Day 14) 0 Louise Stine ? Evicted(Day 7) 8 Nicolai BunnieHouse Evicted(Day 7) 0 Lesley Cathrine Patricia Walked(Day 3) 24 Notes 1, 2 3 4 5 6 7, 8 none 9, 10 11 12, 13 14 none 15 16 none Up for eviction Amanda, ~~Lesley~~ , Louise Amanda Henrik, Line, Mads Alexander, Stine, Umar Lasse, Melander ~~Melander~~ , Christian, Umar Amanda, Mads Michella, Mads Alexander, Cathrine, Mette, Michella Amanda, Cathrine, Henrik, Guido Alexander, Amanda, Henrik, Patricia Alexander, Amanda, Cathrine Henrik, Thomas Amanda, Michella Alexander, Amanda Amanda, Henrik, Umar ~~Clifford~~ , Lasse, Nicolai Walked Lesley none Melander none Ejected none Clifford none Denise none Evicted Louise Line Stine Lasse Christian Amanda Mads Mette Guido Patricia Cathrine Thomas Michella Alexander Umar Henrik Nicolai Amanda == Big Brother –4 Stjerners Middag 2012 (season 11) == Start Date: 21 May 2012 End Date: 24 May 2012 Duration: 4 days The Winner: Cathrine Pedersen The Grand Prize: none == Big Brother 2013 (season 12) == Start Date: 4 February 2013 End Date: 18 May 2013 Duration: 104 days The Winner: Bjørn Clausen The Grand Prize: 500,000 DKK === Nominations table === Nominations received Bjørn Tarik Camilla Tarik David NoNominations Lene Hartmann David Lene NoNominations NoNominations NoNominations Nominated Katja Hartmann Tarik Katja Exempt Katja Tania NoNominations NotEligible Silas Winner(Day 104) 13 Silas Not inHouse NoNominations NoNominations NoNominations Exempt Hartmann Katja Camilla Tarik Nominated Katja Tania NoNominations NotEligible Nominated Runner-Up(Day 104) 11 Victor Camilla Tarik Tarik Camilla NoNominations Julie Hartmann Evicted(Day 27) Julie Hartmann Dennis Nominated Katja Tania Nominated NotEligible Tania Third Place(Day 104) 8 Tania Camilla Lene Lene Camilla NoNominations Julie Victor Camilla David NoNominations Exempt NoNominations NoNominations Julie Hartmann Hartmann Camilla NoNominations Silas Bjørn NoNominations Camilla Nominated Evicted(Day 101) 12 Camilla Tarik Lene Aissatou Hartmann Nominated Katja Dennis Hartmann Katja NoNominations NoNominations Exempt Nominated Tarik Hartmann Hartmann Katja NoNominations Katja Tania Nominated Nominated Evicted(Day 100) 55 Dennis Shawn Camilla Bjørn Ronni NoNominations Victor Julie Julie Hartmann NoNominations NoNominations NoNominations NoNominations Julie Silas Hartmann Katja NoNominations Silas Bjørn Nominated Evicted(Day 97) 8 Katja Camilla Bjørn Lene Ronni NoNominations Victor Julie Julie Hartmann Nominated Evicted(Day 41) Silas Julie Silas Camilla NoNominations Silas Bjørn Re-Evicted(Day 90) 30 Tarik Camilla Shawn Hartmann Camilla NoNominations Julie Camilla Hartmann Camilla NoNominations NoNominations NoNominations Exempt Julie Camilla Silas Bjørn Nominated Evicted(Day 83) 15 Hartmann Camilla Shawn Camilla Ronni Nominated Julie Victor Ronni Camilla Evicted(Day 34) Silas Julie Camilla Tarik Re-Evicted(Day 76) 35 Julie SecretCaravan Katja Camilla NoNominations Katja Hartmann Hartmann Ronni NoNominations NoNominations NoNominations Evicted(Day 55) Dennis Hartmann Re- Evicted(Day 69) 30 Lene Camilla Shawn Camilla Ronni NoNominations Camilla Victor Tania Camilla NoNominations NoNominations NoNominations Nominated Evicted(Day 62) 14 David Camilla Bjørn Bjørn Camilla NoNominations Julie Victor Hartmann Camilla NoNominations Nominated Nominated Ejected(Day 59) 4 Ronni Camilla Dennis Hartmann Lene NoNominations Hartmann Julie Hartmann Lene Nominated NoNominations NoNominations Ejected(Day 59) 8 Danijel Not inHouse Nominated NoNominations Nominated Evicted(Day 55) N/A Malene Not inHouse NoNominations Nominated Evicted(Day 48) N/A Phillip Katja Camilla Katja Camilla NoNominations Julie Camilla Camilla Julie NoNominations Nominated Evicted(Day 48) 0 Aissatou Tania Dennis Katja Camilla Nominated Evicted(Day 20) 2 Bianca Camilla Lene Lene Ronni Evicted(Day 13) N/A Simone SecretCaravan Walked(Day 9) N/A Elise Shawn Camilla Left(Day 8) N/A Shawn Dennis Camilla Evicted(Day 6) 7 Martin Ejected(Day 5) N/A Notes 1, 2, 3, 4 5, 6 7 8 none 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 none Nominated Camilla Shawn Tarik Bianca Camilla Julie Katja Lene Aissatou Camilla Hartmann Hartmann Julie Victor Camilla Hartmann Julie Danijel Katja Ronni David Malene Phillip Danijel David Bjørn Camilla Lene Hartmann Julie Silas Camilla Dennis Hartmann Silas Tarik Victor Katja Silas Tania Camilla Dennis Victor Camilla Silas Tania Bjørn Silas Victor Walked none Simone none Ejected Martin none DavidRonni none Evicted Shawn Bianca Aissatou Victor Hartmann Katja Malene Julie Lene Julie Hartmann Tarik Katja Dennis Camilla Tania Victor Silas Phillip Danijel Bjørn == Big Brother 2014 (season 13) == Start Date: 1 January 2014 End Date: 27 April 2014 Duration: 119 days The Winner: David G. Feldstedt The Grand Prize: 500,000 DKK === Nominations table === David Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Mark Frida Rasmus Mark Ginna Camilla Jimmi Jonathan Camilla Nicki Rasmus Jimmi Not Eligible Nominated No Nominations Nominated Winner (Day 119) Winner (Day 119) Nirvana Malene Sandra Sandra Ginna Sandra Ginna Jimmi Ginna Sandra Karoline No Nominations Not Eligible Karsten Cecilie David Andreas David Ronnie Mark Camilla Jimmi David Not Eligible Jimmi Frida 4-Rasmus 3-Nicki 2-David Exempt No Nominations No Nominations Runner-Up (Day 119) Runner-Up (Day 119) Ronnie Not in House Not in House Not in House Ginna Jimmi Sandra Ginna No Nominations Not Eligible Andreas Jonathan Mark Frida Mark Jonathan Ginna Camilla Jimmi Jonathan Camilla Nicki Rasmus Jimmi 3-Rasmus Nominated No Nominations No Nominations Third place (Day 119) Third place (Day 119) Ginna Sandra Nicki Klaus Sandra Sandra Karoline Kenneth Jonathan Karoline Sandra No Nominations Ronnie Sandra Karsten Jonathan Camilla Jonathan Ronnie David Mark Camilla Jonathan Ronnie Not Eligible Mark Frida Not Eligible Exempt Nominated Nominated Evicted (Day 117) Evicted (Day 117) Nicki Malene Ginna Sandra Johannes Ginna Sandra Ginna Jonathan Sandra Ginna No Nominations Evicted (Day 42) Evicted (Day 42) Evicted (Day 42) Evicted (Day 42) Frida Camilla Jonathan Jimmi Not Eligible Rasmus Jimmi Not Eligible Exempt Nominated Nominated (Day 117) (Day 117) Frida Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Exempt No Nominations Not Eligible Andreas Cecilie Camilla David Jonathan Ronnie Mark Ginna Nicki Jimmi Not Eligible Jimmi Mark Not Eligible Exempt Nominated Evicted (Day 113) Evicted (Day 113) Evicted (Day 113) Jimmi Banned Karoline Sandra Sandra Karoline Karoline Kenneth Karoline Cecilie No Nominations Not Eligible Cecilie Ronnie Camilla David Ronnie David Camilla Mark Jonathan Ronnie Nirvana Nicki Mark Ronnie 2-Nicki 1-Frida Nominated Evicted (Day 112) Evicted (Day 112) Evicted (Day 112) Evicted (Day 112) Rasmus Banned Klaus Sandra Sandra Mark Kenneth Jonathan Karoline Ronnie No Nominations Sandra Ronnie Ronnie Cecilie Andreas Frida Karsten David Camilla Mark Nicki Camilla Nirvana Nicki Mark Ronnie 6-Nicki Evicted (Day 105) Evicted (Day 105) Evicted (Day 105) Evicted (Day 105) Evicted (Day 105) Mark Sabina Ginna Sandra Ginna Sandra Ginna Ginna Jonathan Sandra Ginna No Nominations Ronnie Sandra Karsten Cecilie Frida David David Karsten Camilla Frida Jonathan Jimmi Camilla Nirvana Jimmi David Evicted (Day 98) Evicted (Day 98) Evicted (Day 98) Evicted (Day 98) Evicted (Day 98) Evicted (Day 98) Camilla Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Mark Jonathan Karsten Ginna Mark Ginna Ginna David Not Eligible Evicted (Day 91) Evicted (Day 91) Evicted (Day 91) Evicted (Day 91) Evicted (Day 91) Evicted (Day 91) Evicted (Day 91) Jonathan Not in House Not in House Not in House Kenneth Ginna Ginna Sandra No Nominations Not Eligible Cecilie Ronnie Andreas Frida Ronnie Karsten Camilla Mark Nicki Ronnie Evicted (Day 84) Evicted (Day 84) Evicted (Day 84) Evicted (Day 84) Evicted (Day 84) Evicted (Day 84) Evicted (Day 84) Evicted (Day 84) Cecilie Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Mark Ginna No Nominations Andreas Mark Jonathan Andreas Evicted (Day 56) Evicted (Day 56) Frida Mark Re-Evicted (Day 77) Re-Evicted (Day 77) Re-Evicted (Day 77) Re-Evicted (Day 77) Re-Evicted (Day 77) Re-Evicted (Day 77) Re-Evicted (Day 77) Re-Evicted (Day 77) Re-Evicted (Day 77) Karsten Ginna Nirvana Sandra Johannes Sandra Ginna Kenneth Jonathan Karoline Sandra No Nominations Nominated Frida Jonathan Mark Frida Rasmus Mark Evicted (Day 70) Evicted (Day 70) Evicted (Day 70) Evicted (Day 70) Evicted (Day 70) Evicted (Day 70) Evicted (Day 70) Evicted (Day 70) Evicted (Day 70) Evicted (Day 70) Andreas Not in House Not in House Not in House Not in House Exempt No Nominations Ronnie Sandra Jonathan Ronnie Jonathan Ginna Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Evicted (Day 63) Sandra Malene Ginna Karoline Nicki Jimmi Ginna Jimmi Nirvana Mark Ginna No Nominations Ronnie Nirvana Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Evicted (Day 49) Karoline Sabina Sandra Sandra Klaus Sandra Ginna Kenneth Ginna Ginna Sandra Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Evicted (Day 35) Kenneth Not in House Not in House Ginna Karsten Jimmi Karoline Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Evicted (Day 28) Johannes Banned Karoline Klaus Nirvana Sandra Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Evicted (Day 21) Klaus Ginna Sandra Sandra Ginna Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Evicted (Day 14) Patrich Banned Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Ejected (Day 13) Sabina Malene Sandra Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Walked (Day 11) Malene Sabina Sandra Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Evicted (Day 7) Notes 1, 2 none 3 4, 5 none 6 7 none 8, 9 10, 11, 12 13 14, 15 16 17, 18 19 20 21 22 none none Up for eviction Ginna Malene Sandra Karoline Klaus Sandra Johannes Rasmus Sandra Ginna Jimmi Kenneth Ginna Karoline Sandra none Karsten Ronnie Sandra Cecilie Jonathan Karsten Andreas Camilla Frida Mark David Karsten Ronnie Camilla Cecilie Nicki Jimmi Jonathan Nicki Camilla Nicki Nirvana Jimmi Mark Rasmus David Nicki Rasmus David Jimmi Ronnie Frida Ginna Nicki David Ginna Nicki David Nirvana Ronnie David Nirvana Ronnie Walked none Sabina none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none Ejected none Patrich none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none Evicted Malene Fewest votes to save Klaus Fewest votes to save Johannes Fewest votes to save Kenneth Fewest votes to save Karoline Fewest votes to save Nicki Automatically evicted Sandra Fewest votes to save Cecilie Fewest votes to save Andreas Fewest votes to save Karsten Fewest votes to save Cecilie Fewest votes to save Jonathan Fewest votes to save Camilla Fewest votes to save Mark Fewest votes to save Rasmus Fewest votes to save Jimmi Fewest votes to save Frida Ex-housemates' choice to evict Nicki Fewest votes to save Ronnie Fewest votes to win Nirvana Fewest votes to win Evicted Malene Fewest votes to save Klaus Fewest votes to save Johannes Fewest votes to save Kenneth Fewest votes to save Karoline Fewest votes to save Nicki Automatically evicted Sandra Fewest votes to save Cecilie Fewest votes to save Andreas Fewest votes to save Karsten Fewest votes to save Cecilie Fewest votes to save Jonathan Fewest votes to save Camilla Fewest votes to save Mark Fewest votes to save Rasmus Fewest votes to save Jimmi Fewest votes to save Frida Ex-housemates' choice to evict Ginna Fewest votes to save David Most votes to win David Most votes to win ==References== Category:Danish reality television series Category:2010s Danish television series Category:2000s Danish television series Category:2001 Danish television series debuts Category:2006 Danish television series endings Category:Television series revived after cancellation Category:2012 Danish television series debuts Category:2014 Danish television series endings Category:Danish-language television shows Category:Kanal 4 original programming |
Johann Nepomuk Hummel (14 November 177817 October 1837) was an Austrian composer and virtuoso pianist. His music reflects the transition from the Classical to the Romantic musical era. He was a pupil of Mozart, Salieri and Clementi. He also knew Beethoven and Schubert. == Life == ===Early life=== thumb|left|Hummel's birthplace in Klobučnícka St., Bratislava Hummel was born as an only child (which was unusual for that period) in Pressburg, Kingdom of Hungary (now Bratislava, Slovakia). He was named after the Czech patron saint John of Nepomuk. His father, Johannes Hummel,Hust, Christoph. 2003. "Hummel, Johann Nepomuk." In: Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. 2nd ed. Ludwig Finscher (ed.). Kassel: Bärenreiter, pp. 503–511. was the director of the Imperial School of Military Music in Vienna; his mother, Margarethe Sommer Hummel, was the widow of the wigmaker Josef Ludwig. The couple married just four months beforehand. Hummel was a child prodigy. At the age of eight, he was offered music lessons by the classical composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who was impressed with his ability. Hummel was taught and housed by Mozart for two years free of charge and made his first concert appearance at the age of nine at one of Mozart's concerts. Hummel's father then took him on a European tour, arriving in London where he received instruction from Muzio Clementi and where he stayed for four years before returning to Vienna. In 1791 Joseph Haydn, who was in London at the same time as young Hummel, composed a sonata for Hummel, who gave its first performance in the Hanover Square Rooms in Haydn's presence. When Hummel finished, Haydn reportedly thanked the young man and gave him a guinea. The outbreak of the French Revolution and the following Reign of Terror caused Hummel to cancel a planned tour through Spain and France. Instead, he returned to Vienna, giving concerts along his route. Upon his return to Vienna he was taught by Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Joseph Haydn, and Antonio Salieri. At about this time, young Ludwig van Beethoven arrived in Vienna and also took lessons from Haydn and Albrechtsberger, thus becoming a fellow student and a friend. Beethoven's arrival was said to have nearly destroyed Hummel's self-confidence, though he recovered without much harm. The two men's friendship was marked by ups and downs, but developed into reconciliation and mutual respect. Hummel visited Beethoven in Vienna on several occasions with his wife Elisabeth and pupil Ferdinand Hiller. At Beethoven's wish, Hummel improvised at the great man's memorial concert. It was at this event that he made friends with Franz Schubert, who dedicated his last three piano sonatas to Hummel. However, since both composers had died by the time of the sonatas' first publication, the publishers changed the dedication to Robert Schumann, who was still active at the time. ===Career=== thumb|upright|Hummel, c. 1814, Goethe-Museum, Düsseldorf In 1804, Hummel became Konzertmeister to Nikolaus II, Prince Esterházy's estate at Eisenstadt. Although he had taken over many of the duties of Kapellmeister because Haydn's health did not permit him to perform them himself, he continued to be known simply as the Konzertmeister out of respect to Haydn, receiving the title of Kapellmeister, or music director, to the Eisenstadt court only after the older composer died in May 1809. He remained in the service of Prince Esterházy for seven years altogether before being dismissed in May 1811 for neglecting his duties. He then returned to Vienna where, after spending two years composing, he married the opera singer Elisabeth Röckel in 1813. The following year, at her request, was spent touring Russia and the rest of Europe. The couple had two sons. The younger, Carl (1821–1907), became a well-known landscape painter. The older, , worked as pianist, conductor and composer; he moved to the U.S. and died in Troy, New York. He was at Beethoven's funeral as a pallbearer. Hummel later held the positions of Kapellmeister in Stuttgart from 1816 to 1818 and in Weimar from 1819 to 1837, where he formed a close friendship with Goethe, learning among other things to appreciate the poetry of Schiller, who had died in 1805. During Hummel's stay in Weimar he made the city into a European musical capital, inviting the best musicians of the day to visit and make music there. He brought one of the first musicians' pension schemes into existence, giving benefit concert tours when the retirement fund ran low. Hummel was one of the first to agitate for musical copyright to combat intellectual piracy. In 1825, the Parisian music-publishing firm of Aristide Farrenc announced that it had acquired the French publishing rights for all future works by Hummel. In 1830, Hummel gave three concerts in Paris; at one of them, a rondo by Hummel was performed by Aristide Farrenc's wife, the composer Louise Farrenc, who also "sought Hummel's comments on her keyboard technique."Bea Friedland, Louise Farrenc, 1804–1875: Composer, Performer, Scholar, 1980, Ann Arbor, UMI Press, pp. 15–16, ISN=0-8357-1111-0 In 1832, at the age of 54 and in failing health, Hummel began to devote less energy to his duties as music director at Weimar. In addition, after Goethe's death in March 1832 he had less contact with local theatrical circles and as a result found himself in partial retirement from 1832 until his death in 1837. === Last years and legacy === thumb|Hummel's grave in the Historical Cemetery, Weimar At the end of his life, Hummel saw the rise of a new school of young composers and virtuosi, and found his own music slowly going out of fashion. His disciplined and clean Clementi-style technique, and his balanced classicism, opposed him to the rising school of tempestuous bravura displayed by the likes of Liszt. Composing less and less, but still highly respected and admired, Hummel died peacefully in Weimar in 1837. A freemason (like Mozart), Hummel bequeathed a considerable portion of his famous garden behind his Weimar residence to his masonic lodge. His grave is in the Historical Cemetery, Weimar. Although Hummel died famous, with a lasting posthumous reputation apparently secure, he and his music were quickly forgotten at the onrush of the Romantic period, perhaps because his classical ideas were seen as old-fashioned. Later, during the classical revival of the early 20th century, Hummel was passed over. Like Franz Joseph Haydn, whose musical revival had to wait until the second half of the 20th century, Hummel was overshadowed by Mozart and especially Beethoven. Due to a rising number of recordings, such as by Hyperion Records and Naxos, and an increasing number of live performances, his music has become reestablished in the classical repertoire. Notable students include Ferdinand Hiller and Alexander Müller. == Music == thumb|upright=1.5|A surviving manuscript of Hummel's work, probably in his own hand Hummel's music took a different direction from that of Beethoven. Looking forward, Hummel stepped into modernity through pieces like his Piano Sonata in F-sharp minor, Op. 81, cherished by Robert Schumann, and his Fantasy, Op. 18, which would have a major influence for Schubert's Wanderer Fantasy, for piano. These pieces are examples where Hummel may be seen to both challenge the classical harmonic structures and stretch the sonata form. His main oeuvre is for the piano, on which instrument he was one of the great virtuosi of his day. He wrote eight piano concertos, a double concerto for violin and piano, ten piano sonatas (of which four are without opus numbers, and one is still unpublished), eight piano trios, a piano quartet, a piano quintet, a wind octet, a cello sonata, two piano septets, a mandolin concerto, a mandolin sonata, a Trumpet Concerto in E major written for the keyed trumpet (usually heard in the more convenient E-flat major), a "Grand Bassoon Concerto" in F, a quartet for clarinet, violin, viola, and cello, four hand piano music, 22 operas and Singspiels, masses, and much more, including a variation on a theme supplied by Anton Diabelli for part 2 of Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. Although thought of in terms of the piano in modern times, Hummel was seriously and constantly interested in the guitar, and he was talented with the instrument. He was prolific in his writing, and his compositions for it begin with opus 7 and finish with opus 93. Other guitar works include Opp. 43, 53, 62, 63, 66, 71 and 91, which are written for a mixture of instruments.Philip J. Bone, The Guitar and Mandolin, biographies of celebrated players and composers for these instruments, London: Schott and Co., 1914. Hummel's output is marked by the conspicuous lack of a symphony. Of his eight piano concertos the first two are early Mozartesque compositions (S. 4/WoO 24 and S. 5) and the later six were numbered and published with opus numbers (Opp. 36, 85, 89, 110, 113, and posth.) A full list of Hummel's works is available online., compiled and formatted by Mr. Mikio Tao of Japan. His sources were The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, as well as Dieter Zimmerschied's Thematisches Verzeichnis der Werke von Johann Nepomuk Hummel == Influence == While in Germany, Hummel published A Complete Theoretical and Practical Course of Instruction on the Art of Playing the Piano Forte (1828), which sold thousands of copies within days of its publication and brought about a new style of fingering and of playing ornaments. Later 19th century pianistic technique was influenced by Hummel, through his instruction of Carl Czerny who later taught Franz Liszt. Czerny had transferred to Hummel after studying three years with Beethoven. Liszt himself idolized the work and influence of Hummel and often performed his works. Hummel's influence can also be seen in the early works of Frédéric Chopin and Robert Schumann, and the shadow of Hummel's Piano Concerto in B minor as well as his Piano Concerto in A minor can be particularly perceived in Chopin's concertos. This is unsurprising, considering that Chopin must have heard Hummel on one of the latter's concert tours to Poland and Russia, and that Chopin kept Hummel's piano concertos in his active repertoire. Harold C. Schonberg, in The Great Pianists, writes "...the openings of the Hummel A minor and Chopin E minor concertos are too close to be coincidental".Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Pianists, p. 110 In relation to Chopin's Preludes, Op. 28, Schonberg says: "It also is hard to escape the notion that Chopin was very familiar with Hummel's now-forgotten Op. 67,Scans from Universal Edition c. 1900, and symbolic data for Op. 67 preludes composed in 1815 – a set of twenty-four preludes in all major and minor keys, starting with C major". Robert Schumann also practiced Hummel (especially the Sonata in F-sharp minor, Op. 81), and considered becoming his pupil. Liszt's father Adam refused to pay the high tuition fee Hummel was used to charging (thus Liszt ended up studying with Czerny). Czerny, Friedrich Silcher, Ferdinand Hiller, Sigismond Thalberg, and Adolf von Henselt were among Hummel's most prominent students. He also briefly gave some lessons to Felix Mendelssohn.Joel Sachs, "Hummel, Johann Nepomuk", §6 'Performance and teaching', Oxford Music Online (subscription only), accessed 29 May 2011 == References == Notes Sources * * Further reading * Johann Nepomuk Hummel: Der Mensch und Künstler. Karl Benyovszky, Breslau: Eos-Verlag 1934. * Zwischen Klassik und Klassizismus. Johann Nepomuk Hummel in Wien und Weimar. Anselm Gerhard, Laurenz Lütteken (editors), Kassel: Bärenreiter 2003. * * Lorenz, Michael: "Maria Eva Hummel. A Postscript", Vienna 2013 * Kapellmeister Hummel in England and France. Joel Sachs, Detroit: Information Coordinators 1977. * Johann Nepomuk Hummel und Weimar. Komponist, Klaviervirtuose, Kapellmeister 1778–1837. Kurt Thomas, Weimar: Rat der Stadt 1987 * Dieter Zimmerschied. Die Kammermusik Johann Nepomuk Hummels. Mainz 1966. * Dieter Zimmerschied. Thematisches Verzeichnis der Werke von Johann Nepomuk Hummel. Hofheim am Taunus: Hofmeister 1971. == External links == * * * The Hummel Project, biographical information, videos, audio samples and scores, information on performances of Hummel's works * * Hummel Gesellschaft Weimar (Hummel society in Weimar) (German) * Hummel's House in Marienstrasse 8, Weimar Official website of the Hummel House (owned by the Lückhoff Institute) * musicalics.com * 8notes biography and commentary * Compactdiscoveries article on Hummel's relation to Chopin * Hummel on Hyperion Records; many of the individual CD pages have a further link to sound samples and/or the CD booklet notes. * Hummel medallion by David d'Angers, 1834. * Hummel notes written in Japanese by Mikio Tao * , animated score Category:1778 births Category:1837 deaths Category:18th-century Austrian people Category:18th-century classical composers Category:18th-century classical pianists Category:18th-century keyboardists Category:18th-century Austrian male musicians Category:19th-century Austrian people Category:19th-century classical composers Category:19th-century classical pianists Category:19th- century keyboardists Category:19th-century male musicians Category:Austrian Classical-period composers Category:Austrian classical pianists Category:Austrian Freemasons Category:Austrian male classical composers Category:Austrian Romantic composers Category:Classical composers of church music Category:Composers for piano Category:Composers for the classical guitar Category:Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society Category:Male classical pianists Category:Musicians from Bratislava Category:Pupils of Antonio Salieri Category:Pupils of Johann Georg Albrechtsberger Category:String quartet composers |
The 1992 Fountain Fire was a large and destructive wildfire in the U.S. state of California's Shasta County. After igniting on August 20 in an act of probable but unattributed arson, the fire was driven by strong winds and outpaced firefighters for two days while exhibiting extreme fire behavior such as long-range spotting, crown fire runs, and pyrocumulonimbus clouds that generated dry lightning. The fire consumed 63,960 acres and destroyed 636 structures (including more than 300 homes), primarily in the communities of Round Mountain and Montgomery Creek along the State Route 299 corridor. In 1992 the Fountain Fire was the third most destructive wildfire in recorded California history (though as of 2022 it no longer ranks among even the top 20 most destructive California wildfires), and at more than $22 million it was then also the most expensive fire to contain in recorded California history. At the time the Fountain Fire was recognized not just as a major disaster, but also as a "fire of the future". The devastation the fire left as it moved through rural communities intermingled with private timberlands, in a difficult and high-stakes environment for firefighters, made it emblematic of the challenges faced by residents and responders alike in the wildland-urban interface. The Fountain Fire has been surpassed by more recent California wildfires in metrics for losses, but it remains notable for its speed, widespread destruction in multiple communities, and the long-term alteration of the landscape within its footprint. == Background factors == left|thumb|A map of air temperatures °F at 00Z (5:00 p.m. PDT) on August 20, the first day of the Fountain Fire, illustrates the widespread high temperatures in CA.|alt=A map of North American air temperatures at 5:00 p.m., showing very high temps localized to California Both long-term climatic patterns and short- term weather conditions combined to create an environment conducive to a large and uncontrollable wildfire in late August 1992. Between 1987 and 1992, California experienced a six-year drought in the state's first extended such period since the 1920s and 1930s. All six years ranked in the driest ten percent by runoff, and the stress on forests led to widespread bark beetle infestation. Several weeks of high temperatures, at or exceeding for 22 days, preceded the fire in Shasta County. There were also fewer than normal available firefighters due to an already-active fire season throughout California and the rest of the western United States; at the time many firefighters were tasked to the destructive Old Gulch Fire in Calaveras County. === Critical fire weather === Lastly, a critical fire weather pattern developed for the portion of Northern California that included the Fountain Fire area. The influence of an upper-level trough moving onshore in the Pacific Northwest and a strong upper-level jet situated over Northern California created strong flow out of the southwest, and Foehn winds on the eastern slopes of the Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada. Those winds also brought dry air, courtesy of the dry slot—a zone of clear, dry air which often accompanies low-pressure systems. The Northern California Geographical Coordination Center identifies this as a typical critical fire weather setup in northeastern California and the southern Cascades: "Pre-frontal conditions occur when strong, southwesterly or westerly winds are generated by the dry, southern tail of a rapidly moving cold front." In the Fountain Fire's vicinity on August 20, southwest winds were gusting up to 25 miles per hour. == Fire progression == === August 20 === The Fountain Fire was first spotted by a fire lookout atop Hogback Mountain in the Shasta-Trinity National Forest at about 12:50 p.m. PDT on August 20. The lookout reported a smoke column behind a ridge, near a historic drinking fountain along Highway 299 (which gave the incident its name). The lookout could not see the actual ignition point of the growing fire, which was confirmed by the Shasta Bear Mountain lookout's cross- check to be about 2 miles from the fountain in dry grass off of Buzzard Roost Road, just west of Phillips Road and south of Highway 299. When a resident of Phillips Road spotted the fire shortly before 1:00 p.m., it was already 30 feet wide and had climbed into the tree canopy. ==== Resources attempt to stop the fire ==== Firefighting resources were dispatched over the next 10 minutes; aircraft arrived overhead by 1:07 p.m., reporting that the fire was 2–3 acres and spreading north quickly, threatening structures within minutes. The first ground units arrived at 1:19 p.m., 29 minutes after the first report. The first two fire engines on scene were forced to defend a house that was under construction and at risk from blowing embers. Firefighters saved multiple homes, but the fire still grew rapidly. By 2:17 p.m. the Fountain Fire had burned 50 acres in its first 90 minutes, and at around 3:30 p.m. fire activity intensified further. Officials were initially hopeful that they could hold the fire at Highway 299 outside of Round Mountain and keep it to less than 200 acres. They were nearly successful, but the high winds drove the fire into brush beneath power lines. The lines arced, causing nine simultaneous spot fires, and the firefighters were unable to keep the Fountain Fire from continuing towards and through Round Mountain. Round Mountain, Montgomery Creek, and the small subdivision of Moose Camp were all evacuated around 4:00 p.m. By 4:30 p.m., the fire had crossed Highway 299. ==== Fire behavior increases ==== The Fountain Fire's northeastern push developed into an intense crown fire, with flame lengths of up to 300 feet that kept ground crews from safely engaging. The wind helped embers ignite spot fires at least 1 mile ahead of the main fire. The pyrocumulonimbus plume generated by the Fountain Fire reached at least 25,000 feet in altitude, as detected by weather radar in Medford, Oregon, and generated numerous lightning strikes. The 50–70 mph jet stream blowing out of the west created a chimney effect when it met the billowing smoke plume, ventilating the fire and increasing fire behavior. A Forest Service meteorologist with California's Northern Operations Service Center speculated that, based on witness reports and debris, the fire may also have formed violent fire-generated vortices. A National Weather Service meteorologist in Redding assigned to the incident concurred, noting possible "fire tornadoes". Investigators found pine trees 2 to 3 feet in diameter snapped in half. Such vortices can rival low-end traditional tornados in size and strength, and multiple such strong vortices have been recorded in Northern California wildfires, including the 2014 Eiler Fire near Hat Creek and the infamous EF3 "fire tornado" produced by the 2018 Carr Fire on the outskirts of the city of Redding. ==== Fire burns through Round Mountain ==== As the fire swept through the community of Round Mountain, it burned with temperatures estimated at , hot enough that it melted a cast-iron bathtub, stainless steel knives, chrome car bumpers, glass bottles, and even cooked potatoes growing underground. No one died or was severely injured when the fire front pushed through the town, but multiple people reported driving out through the flames or leaving their properties just before flames reached them. By 5:00 p.m., fifteen people were trapped in an 80-acre meadow at the end of Frisby Road when they found the way out to Highway 299 blocked by flames. The McMillan family, ranchers and owners of the meadow property, had planned to go there in case of a fire and were able to both wet the area down with water trucks and flood it by blocking irrigation ditches. The group of people and vehicles remained there as the fire moved through with 200-foot flame lengths, blowing the roofs off of nearby barns with the force of its passage. Two men put out spot fires with a bulldozer. A helicopter looking for people who had not evacuated discovered the group, surrounded by flames. It was able to land and extricate two of the women and a 2-year-old child, but could not return. Firefighters could not safely reach the remaining people and evacuate them until 10:00 p.m., five hours after they took shelter. Meanwhile, the fire continued moving north and east: by midnight, the fire had pushed further along the Highway 299 corridor and was south of Montgomery Creek. It had so far burned approximately 12,000 acres and forced between 1,000 and 2,000 people in the area to evacuate. === August 21 === thumb|Cropped NASA TERRA satellite imagery from 2001 shows the salvage-logged Fountain Fire burn scar still starkly visible in Northern California.|alt=A satellite image from 2001 shows a distinct brown fire scar surrounded by green The second day marked the single largest day of growth on the Fountain Fire, as similar weather conditions continued to fuel extreme fire behavior. At one point the fire was burning 80 acres every minute, and spreading at a rate of 6 miles per hour. This growth was also marked by more long-range spotting, of distances between 1/4 of a mile and 2 miles ahead of the fire. In the morning, fire crews focused on protecting Montgomery Creek by attempting to stop one branch of the fire's advance at Fenders Ferry Road off of Highway 299, south of the community and north of Round Mountain. While firefighters were able to protect many structures along the road itself, they were unable to prevent the winds (a combination of continuing gusts from the southwest and inflow winds towards the Fountain Fire's massive plume to the east) from pushing flames across the road. This happened shortly after noon, and the fire then pressed towards Montgomery Creek. The fire entered the center of the community along Highway 299 by 3:00 p.m. Multiple homes were destroyed, but firefighters protected the local school, post office, and other major structures with assistance from aircraft. Meanwhile, the larger head of the fire to the east continued advancing, forcing the communities of Big Bend, Hillcrest, and Moose Camp to be evacuated. Later that day, the fire burned through Moose Camp, another community of 60 summer cabins and other structures between Montgomery Creek and Burney off Highway 299, and left only about 20 remaining. By 6:00 p.m. on August 21, the larger town of Burney was placed under a voluntary evacuation advisory—California Highway Patrol officers used bullhorns to warn residents, and the Red Cross shelter that had been established because of the fire was also forced to move. The fire moved so quickly and fiercely that firefighters did not expect to be able to stop it short of where the conifer forests gave way to old lava beds east of Burney. By dusk, the fire had advanced all the way to Hatchet Mountain and Hatchet Mountain Pass, damaging radio equipment on the mountain's summit. The flames were visible from Burney itself. By 10:00 p.m., the fire front was within 1.5 miles of the town, and had set a log deck on fire at Sierra Pacific Industries' mill on its western outskirts. However, once the Fountain Fire's flame front crested the hills west of Burney, it was no longer in alignment with the wind and up-slope terrain that had driven it along the Highway 299 corridor for the previous 36 hours. By midnight, the fire had burned more than 35,000 acres in total. === August 22 and beyond === The Fountain Fire's behavior and growth over its first two days were sobering to firefighters. On August 22, the third day of the fire, Cal Fire deputy incident commander Bill Clayton predicted that the fire would grow to 100,000 acres. A Cal Fire memo posted for crews that same day read: "The fire has moved 7 miles in 6.5 hours the first day, faster the second day (Friday). Prepare for more of the same today. It is critically dry, fueled with variable winds, produced rapid fire runs and heavy spotting which ran out crews many times." However, August 22 ended up bringing much more moderate weather conditions and fire behavior. Cooler temperatures and lighter winds allowed firefighters to gain ground. On the morning of August 22, firefighters lit backfires off of Highway 299 near Hatchet Mountain to prepare and strengthen control lines. By the end of the day, it was clear that the fire was progressing to the northeast of Burney and not towards it. During the 22nd and 23rd, the flanks of the fire proved problematic: the fire moved northeast towards the Pit River, and southwest towards Oak Run and other communities. On August 23, fire crews and aircraft worked to stop the Fountain Fire from getting too close to the Pit River, citing both the steepness of the terrain beyond it, dense fuels, and the high resource values (such as old-growth forests and endangered spotted owl habitat) that would be at risk if it crossed. In that case, officials feared a "whole new ball game" with "uncontrollable" fire conditions. However, crews were aided by strong winds from the north, though the same winds made containing the fire difficult on its southern side closer to Oak Run. Residents of Round Mountain and Montgomery Creek were briefly allowed to return to their properties to assess the damage. Before dawn on August 24, low humidity and winds of up to 25 miles per hour that had generated a red flag warning for much of Northern California also briefly caused the fire to become more active, jumping the fire line into the Cow Creek drainage. Some evacuation orders were issued again, including in Oak Run and Mill Creek, but the fire did not burn any more structures and by that afternoon it was 40% contained in all. The winds failed to rematerialize on the 25th, and though weather remained hot and dry, crews continued to work on the fire's flanks. Firefighters constructed hand line in the Pit River canyon, in terrain too rugged for bulldozers and described by a Shasta-Trinity National Forest spokesperson as "steeper than a cow's face." At this point, Big Bend, Moose Camp, and Hillcrest were the only communities remaining under mandatory evacuation orders. Firefighters also reported re-burning and flare- ups of activity near unburned islands (ranging from 30 to 400 acres in size) of vegetation and structures within the fire. By midday August 26, the fire was 75% contained. On August 27 it remained hot and dry with calm winds. On August 28, the Fountain Fire was declared 100% contained, having burned a total area just shy of 64,000 acres. However, firefighters continued to monitor 12,000 acres of unburned vegetation within the perimeter that risked reigniting, primarily on Hatchet Mountain and Lookout Mountain. The fire was officially declared controlled on November 1, and other fire suppression operations continued until mid-November. == Firefighting effort == A deadlock between the Democratic California state legislature and Republican Governor Pete Wilson meant that the state was without a budget from July 1 to September 3 in 1992, and consequently unable to pay many state employees or contractors in anything but official IOUs during that period. These included Cal Fire firefighters, many of whom bought and wore T-shirts while working on the Fountain Fire that displayed the names of major fires, a "beleaguered firefighter" illustration, and the words "All this for an IOU?" Additionally, on August 23 the Fountain Fire was reported to be short of 105 wildland firefighters—equivalent to seven handcrews—primarily because of resources taken up by the Old Gulch Fire in Calaveras County. There were also fewer replacements in part because the budget stalemate meant that fire departments throughout the state were in some cases unwilling to send their idle units, worried about potential budget cuts and the need to maintain their own operations in the face of uncertain funding and reimbursement. At the peak of the suppression effort around 4,464 personnel, at least 600 of them California Conservation Camp Program prison inmates paid a dollar a day, worked to fight the fire. Firefighters worked shifts as long as 24 hours. The Shasta County fairgrounds in the town of Anderson, south of Redding, served as the main base camp for firefighters in the effort to contain the fire. On Sunday, August 23, air tankers dropped 212,000 gallons of fire retardant on the Fountain Fire, a then-record for the Forest Service air attack base in Redding. Aircraft, including Grumman S2Fs and Lockheed P-3 Orions dropped over 740,000 gallons of fire retardant in total, joined by at least 15 water-dropping helicopters and more than 470 vehicles involved in ground efforts. A Cal Fire official described the air attack fleet as "larger than the Peruvian Air Force." When suppression was complete, at more than $22 million, the Fountain Fire had become the then-most expensive fire to contain in recorded California history. At the time, the Fountain Fire was also the third most destructive wildfire in recorded California history, though it no longer ranks among the top 20 most destructive California wildfires. === Criticisms and responses === Many residents who lost their homes in the Fountain Fire afterwards expressed criticisms of the firefighting effort. They stated that the firefighters should have cut more and larger fire lines between the flames and Montgomery Creek, and that crews did not defend structures that could have been saved. They also contended that many resources stood idle without orders for too long before engaging the fire or refused to engage at all. Multiple residents said they believed that their homes were destroyed in backfires set by firefighters in attempts to slow the main fire. A Cal Fire battalion chief was assaulted during the fire by a man who reportedly disagreed with the way it was being fought. Eventually, in November, more than 200 residents attended a meeting to air their disagreements over Cal Fire's efforts. Representatives for area politicians, including for U.S. House Representative Wally Herger, also attended. Fire officials pushed back on these criticisms, asserting primarily that fire behavior was so intense that losses were unavoidable—many structures lay at the end of long driveways adjacent to heavy vegetation and could not have been safely protected. They also argued that without the context of internal communications, firefighters running out of water and leaving to get more was probably interpreted as them abandoning structures. Finally, they pointed to at least 228 structures that had been saved as evidence of success in the face of the severe conditions. One firefighter noted the challenges posed by the wildfire burning largely on private forest lands: in a national forest firefighters could build fire lines and conduct firing operations wherever they chose, but private ownership and power lines made those options more complicated in the Fountain Fire. The Rural Fire Protection in America Steering Committee interviewed fire officials, though not local residents, and produced a report analyzing Cal Fire's initial mobilization for the Fountain Fire. The report was favorable, though it noted during the early stages of the fire radio frequencies were overloaded and firefighters generally lacked good information on which homes were defensible and which were not. In March 1993, about 400 people attended a hearing held in Redding by the California State Senate Committee for Natural Resources and Wildlife on the Fountain Fire fight. That same month, Cal Fire also released its own internal report on the Fountain Fire. Issued by a 4-member committee of Northern California fire chiefs and officers, it interviewed 24 different fire officials (but no victims). The Cal Fire report was again mostly favorable to the agency, but listed several areas for improvement. It concluded that during the first 48 hours of the fire there were too few Cal Fire managers for the amount of equipment (the result of budget reductions and fires elsewhere), as well as serious communications issues. During the fire, 72 amateur ham radio operators had coordinated closely with Cal Fire and other agencies in the absence of telephone access. The report also criticized private firefighting equipment operators who showed up to the fire in hopes of being hired on the spot, causing confusion among Cal Fire officials who did not want responsibility for potentially unqualified operators. On the other hand, the committee report noted that 60% of the homes in the area of the Fountain Fire fell short of state standards for wildfire safety, including construction, brush clearance, and water access. The fire could not have been stopped given the windy conditions, most of the homes destroyed were indefensible, and the area was "a disaster waiting to happen", the report concluded. === Audit of effort === In 1994, director of Cal Fire Richard A. Wilson ordered a series of state audits of the agency's spending on wildfires, prompted by an expensive fire season in the state in 1994–95. The first audit focused on the Fountain Fire. Some news articles seized on purchases made during the fire that were deemed extravagant, such as an order for more than 1,800 pounds of honey, as well as large bills for coffee, hotel rooms for firefighters, paperwork, and other goods and services. More systematically, the audit criticized the use of large and expensive helicopters and air tankers, and the disparity in compensation between very low-paid inmate firefighters (who did much of the difficult and dangerous physical labor on the fire line), and their correctional officers and supervisors. == Impacts == === Casualties === No deaths were directly caused by the fire itself. However, three loggers—Steve Horton Tyler, Melvin Bentley, and Donald Hendrickson—were killed in separate incidents during salvage logging operations after the fire; they are commemorated on a Fountain Fire historical marker. On October 15, Bentley was killed when he was struck by a partially-burned limb that fell from a tree as he took a break beneath it. On November 2, Hendrickson, a skidder operator, was hit by a snag and died after being airlifted to a Redding hospital. Tyler died almost a year later, on July 15, 1993, after being run over by a tractor he was operating. At least two other workers were seriously injured during Fountain Fire salvage logging, both of them struck in the head by trees that snapped back after being pinned down by other falling trees. There were also at least 11 firefighter injuries sustained during the fire itself. One firefighter was struck by a falling branch, and another broke an ankle. The firefighter injuries also included at least 3 state prison inmates, 1 with a broken leg. Additionally, one firefighter was forced to deploy their fire shelter when overcome by flames while trying to protect a house, but whether they were injured was not reported. There were also substantial livestock losses, with entire herds of swine and cattle killed. === Closures and evacuations === Highway 299 was closed from Oak Run in the west to Four Corners in the east, and Highway 89 was closed from Highway 44 in the south to Interstate 5 in the north. Highway 299 reopened on August 29, following the removal of hazardous trees and the replacement of around 300 burned guard rail posts. McArthur-Burney Falls Memorial State Park, home to Burney Falls, was closed when the evacuation warning for Burney was issued and thereafter used as a camp for firefighters. In total, more than 7,500 people were forced to evacuate because of the Fountain Fire. At least two Shasta County residents were convicted of burglary for looting a home in Oak Run while it was under evacuation. === Damage === The fire destroyed 636 structures. Homes accounted for 330 of them, with the remainder being commercial structures and outbuildings, such as barns or sheds. Another 78 homes were damaged. The fire burned part of the elementary school in Round Mountain, including its auditorium and library. The Hill Country Community Clinic also burned down, leaving the nearest physician 30 miles away in Redding. The California Office of Emergency Services (OES) preliminarily estimated the cost of the Fountain Fire's damage to private property at $105.6 million. This estimate—made the day the fire was contained—included almost $18 million in residential losses, almost $2 million in commercial losses, and $86 million in timber losses. At the time, the Fountain Fire was the third most destructive wildfire in recorded California history (after the Oakland firestorm of 1991 and the 1990 Painted Cave Fire in Santa Barbara), though as of 2022 it no longer ranks among the top 20 most destructive California wildfires. The communities affected were already economically vulnerable before the fire; as much as 90% of the populations of Round Mountain, Montgomery Creek, and nearby areas relied on some sort of public assistance. Jobs were often seasonal or dependent on tourism. The Red Cross estimated that 3/4ths of all those who lost their homes in the fire lacked insurance. The fire also temporarily damaged much of rural Shasta County's basic infrastructure. More than 150,000 feet of telephone cable operated by Citizens Utilities was burned, and PG&E; was forced to replace 45,000 feet of electrical distribution lines, repair 150 miles of transmission lines, and replace approximately 300 wooden power line poles that had burned. All of eastern Shasta County had lost power when the Fountain Fire burned the Cedar Creek PG&E; substation in Round Mountain. At the time, fire officials highlighted the Fountain Fire as a "fire of the future", connecting the destruction of the wildfire to California's growing population, particularly in the wildland-urban interface. By 1992, more than 1,000 building permits were being issued every year outside of cities and towns in Shasta County. Firefighters recalled having to defend structures in the path of the Fountain Fire when it was still a small incident, instead of suppressing the fire directly. Firefighters also emphasized the lack of sufficient vegetation clearance around most structures in the fire's path. An article ran in the Paradise Post two weeks after the Fountain Fire, noting that the city of Paradise, California was susceptible to a similar wind-driven wildfire, with its comparable geography, fuels, and climate. In 2018 most of Paradise burned to the ground in an urban firestorm when the Camp Fire blew through, fueled by strong winds, killing 85 people and destroying more than 18,000 structures in California's deadliest and most destructive wildfire ever recorded. === Environmental impacts === The smoke plume from the Fountain Fire gradually drifted southwest over the Bay Area and California coast, including Sonoma, Mendocino, Lake, and Napa counties: enough so that it prompted calls to firefighters from people who thought there was a local fire. On August 22 and 23 fire departments in Santa Cruz, Scotts Valley, and elsewhere received hundreds of calls about the smoke. Various local species were threatened by the fire. The fire approached critical habitat for the endangered and protected northern spotted owl and California Spotted Owl. The fire also threatened the only known populations of the Shasta snow-wreath, a rare deciduous shrub that was only recognized as an undiscovered species by botanists in May 1992, just months before the Fountain Fire—however, the plants survived. A state biologist for the Department of Fish and Game predicted potential major impacts on local fish populations. In a report for the Forest Foundation that advocated for thinning and post-fire replanting, retired forestry professor Thomas M. Bonnicksen used a Forest Carbons And Emissions Model (FCEM) to calculate that more than 13 million tons of carbon dioxide were released through combustion and decay in the Fountain Fire—equivalent to more than 17% of annual passenger vehicle emissions in California in 2005. However, the report received pushback: it was never peer- reviewed, and California Air Resources Board and Forest Service officials critiqued the report as probably overestimating the amount of emissions. Other critics noted Bonnicksen's alignment with the timber industry. === Political impacts === Shasta County Sheriff Jim Pope declared a local emergency because of the Fountain Fire on August 21, the day after the fire had begun and burned through Round Mountain. On the same day, Governor of California Pete Wilson declared a state of emergency in Shasta County. On August 22, U.S. House Representative Wally Herger toured the disaster area and called for a federal disaster declaration from President George H. W. Bush. President Bush then authorized federal relief for Shasta County on August 29. Additionally, Shasta County and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) agreed to drop all fees for fire victims seeking to rebuild their homes, and the agency funded an additional building inspector specifically for rebuilding efforts in the fire area for 18 months. Then the Democratic Party U.S. Senate candidate, Dianne Feinstein visited Redding on September 1 for her campaign, receiving a briefing at the incident command post in Anderson followed by a tour of the fire's footprint via helicopter. == Post-fire landscape == Before the Fountain Fire, the predominating forest cover type was Sierra Nevada mixed conifer, with Pacific Ponderosa pine cover at lower elevations. Tree species present included ponderosa pine, sugar pine, Douglas fir, white fir, incense-cedar, and California black oaks, while the understory was dominated by manzanita and ceanothus species. However, the fire largely burned at a high severity, and killed much of the vegetation within its footprint. In the weeks after the fire, Cal Fire conducted reseeding operations via helicopter, spreading 42 tons of native grass seeds over more than 5,000 acres of the fire footprint most prone to erosion. Timber companies built stream buffers and check dams in vulnerable waterways. Erosion concerns were borne out when a large autumn storm at the end of October brought rockslides and debris down onto Highway 299 in the burn area, temporarily blocking the roadway. The following spring, rain on the hydrophobic soil (ash leaving it unable to absorb water) allowed water to run off, carving deep gullies, carrying off topsoil, and washing out roads across the county. === Salvage logging === Most of the area burned by the Fountain Fire was privately owned. Of the nearly 64,000 acres burned, 41% (more than 25,000 acres) belonged to Roseburg Forest Products, 15% (more than 9,000 acres) to Sierra Pacific Industries, and 9% to Fruit Growers Supply. 34% belonged to small private landowners, and 1% belonged to state or federal agencies. In total, 41,300 acres of the burn area were under industrial ownership. California's Forest Practices Act permits timber companies to quickly harvest burned trees in a practice called salvage logging without the usual thorough timber harvest plans that they are usually required to submit to the state. Salvage logging is a environmentally controversial but profitable enterprise for timber companies. After the Fountain Fire, Roseburg was able to keep open multiple sawmills in Northern California to process the salvaged wood, temporarily saving hundreds of jobs and prolonging the mills' lives by months when they had previously been slated to close over new environmental restrictions on logging public lands. By the end of the salvage logging effort in 1993, 600 million board feet of timber had been harvested from the burned trees, as well as 913,000 tons of wood chips for biomass power plant fuel. ==== Native land dispute ==== In 1977, 10 families belonging to the Pit River Tribe of Native Americans occupied Smith Camp (a defunct logging camp), claiming ancestral rights to the surrounding land. Roseburg Forest Products, which acquired the land in 1979 from another logging company, left the group undisturbed in the hopes that they would eventually leave. When the Fountain Fire burned through the area, it also destroyed the structures at Smith Camp, and Roseburg refused to authorize FEMA to place trailers there for the Native group to live in while they rebuilt. Roseburg also sought to conduct salvage logging operations on the land, and was resisted. The Native Americans demanded the legal title to the Smith Camp property, supported by the Pit River Tribal Council. === Herbicide application and replanting === Roseburg and the other timber companies sprayed the land slated for replanting with herbicides, such as hexazinone, intended to suppress brush growth that might compete with the replanted conifer saplings. Local residents organized a rally at a creek in the proposed spraying area with more than 100 attendees, worried about potential environmental contamination and side effects of the herbicides. Company officials dismissed concerns, arguing that the chemicals were known to be safe. Logging companies began to replant in the spring of 1993, about 7 months after the fire, and those efforts continued for 5 years. Roseburg planted "a combination of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and white fir with 10-ft spacing." The scale of the replanting was significant: Roseburg Forest Industries planted 10 million seedlings, Sierra Pacific Industries planted 3 million, and Fruit Growers Supply Co. and W.M. Beaty and Associates planted the remaining 4 million, for a total of 17 million seedlings replanted in the burn area. The replanted trees are estimated to reach maturity at 100 feet in height by 2065, although the growing forest is less varied than the second-growth forest that burned in the fire. === Fountain Wind Project concerns === Wildfire concerns in the Fountain Fire's former footprint also helped sink a large and controversial wind farm project proposed for timberland property west of Burney and north of Highway 299. Known as the Fountain Wind project and proposed by energy firm ConnectGEN LLC, the project would have included up to 71 wind turbines, 679 feet tall, with the capacity to generate 216 megawatts of electricity. The project's location within a high wildfire hazard zone, as evidenced by the Fountain Fire, was cited by residents opposed to the project as a reason to not approve the project. Residents argued that the turbines could be a potential ignition source (either through malfunctions or by attracting lightning), would require significant vegetation clearance, and would make aerial firefighting more difficult. Officials with the Fountain Wind project argued that it would serve as a large-scale fuel break between the communities along Highway 299. A report by Shasta County's fire chief noted that the turbines would present a challenge for aerial firefighting operations, but would not prevent them. It also described the help that the access roads cleared of vegetation would provide to crews. Other wildfire concerns centered around the risks posed by new electrical equipment, an issue heightened by the fatal Camp and Zogg fires, both caused by malfunctioning PG&E; equipment. In 2021, the Shasta County Planning Commission voted unanimously to reject the project's use permit, followed by an appeal to the Shasta County Board of Supervisors that similarly resulted in a 4–1 vote to deny the appeal. Wildfire risks and firefighting challenges, among other issues, were given as a primary reason for the rejection of the project. == Cause == Investigators pinpointed the precise spot where the fire started, using forensic techniques that even included examining the "pattern of charring on cow patties". They used satellite data to confirm that there had been no recent lightning strikes nearby, and traffic patterns to rule out a hot catalytic converter or sparks from car exhaust. Ground crews had found no downed power lines at the site; nor indeed was any ignition source found at the site of the fire's origin, including any match, cigarette butt, or exhaust carbon from machinery. These methods led investigators to announce on August 25 that the cause of the Fountain Fire was probable arson. A Cal Fire spokesperson declared that "The probability is that someone used a match or cigarette lighter to ignite the fire and took it with them." Secret Witness, a non-profit organization, offered a $10,000 reward for information leading to the arrest and conviction of anyone responsible. Cal Fire fire prevention officer Paul Bertagna said that investigators followed about 50 leads, with none leading to an arrest. The statute of limitations for prosecuting the hypothetical act of arson expired three years later in 1995, though Cal Fire said then that it would continue investigating, with a spokesperson noting that "If a person has ignited one fire, they may have lit them before or they may light them later." A new arson statute with harsher penalties and a longer statute of limitations was enacted in 1994 in California, but did not apply retroactively to the Fountain Fire. No precise motive or perpetrator was ever determined, though one federal prosecutor in 1994 told the Sacramento Bee he believed it was economic arson committed by someone intending to make money from the fire suppression effort. This was a motive linked to several other fires in Northern California at the time, some of which resulted in indictments. == See also == Other notable arson-caused and/or destructive wildfires in Shasta County: * Ponderosa Fire (2012) * Clover Fire (2013) * Salt Fire (2021) * Fawn Fire (2021) == References == Category:Wildfires in Shasta County, California Category:California wildfires caused by arson Category:August 1992 events in the United States Category:1992 meteorology Category:1990s wildfires in the United States Category:1992 in California Category:1992 natural disasters in the United States |
Skylab 4 (also SL-4 and SLM-3) was the third crewed Skylab mission and placed the third and final crew aboard the first American space station. The mission began on November 16, 1973, with the launch of Gerald P. Carr, Edward Gibson, and William R. Pogue in an Apollo command and service module on a Saturn IB rocket from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and lasted 84 days, one hour and 16 minutes. A total of 6,051 astronaut-utilization hours were tallied by the Skylab 4 astronauts performing scientific experiments in the areas of medical activities, solar observations, Earth resources, observation of the Comet Kohoutek and other experiments. The crewed Skylab missions were officially designated Skylab 2, 3, and 4. Miscommunication about the numbering resulted in the mission emblems reading "Skylab I", "Skylab II", and "Skylab 3" respectively. ==Launch== thumb|The Skylab 4 Saturn 1B space vehicle is launched from Pad B, Launch Complex 39 NASA's launch center was located in an area called Cape Kennedy since May 15, 1964. Cape Kennedy was restored to its former name of Cape Canaveral officially on October 9, 1973.Lethbridge, Clifford J. Spaceline.org "Cape History". Spaceline.org. Retrieved on March 23, 2011. The Saturn V launch facilities at LC-39A and LC-39B were still located at the Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island. The Skylab 4 mission was the first crewed launch since the area changed its name back to Cape Canaveral. The Skylab 4 mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center's LC-39B pad on November 16, 1973. ==Crew== With three rookies, Skylab 4 was the largest all-rookie crew launched by NASA. Following the all rookie Mercury program, there were only four all-rookie NASA flights – Gemini 4, Gemini 7, Gemini 8, and Skylab 4. ===Backup crew=== ===Support crew=== *Robert L. Crippen *Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr *Bruce McCandless II *F. Story Musgrave *Russell L. Schweickart *William E. Thornton *Richard H. Truly ==Mission parameters== *Mass: *Maximum altitude: (November 16, 1973) *Total distance traveled: 34.5 million miles (55,500,000 km) *Launch Vehicle: Saturn IB *Epoch: January 21, 1974 *Perigee: *Apogee: *Inclination: 50.04° *Period: 93.11 min ===Docking=== *Docked: November 16, 1973 – 21:55:00 UTC *Undocked: February 8, 1974 – 02:33:12 UTC *Time Docked: 83 days, 4 hours, 38 minutes, 12 seconds ===Space walks=== ;Gibson and Pogue – EVA 1 :Start: November 22, 1973, 17:42 UTC :End: November 23, 00:15 UTC :Duration: 6 hours, 33 minutes ;Carr and Pogue – EVA 2 :Start: December 25, 1973, 16:00 UTC :End: December 25, 23:01 UTC :Duration: 7 hours, 01 minute ;Carr and Gibson – EVA 3 :Start: December 29, 1973, 17:00 UTC :End: December 29, 20:29 UTC :Duration: 3 hours, 29 minutes ;Carr and Gibson – EVA 4 :Start: February 3, 1974, 15:19 UTC :End: February 3, 20:38 UTC :Duration: 5 hours, 19 minutes ==Mission highlights== thumb|upright|One of the dummies left behind by the Skylab 3 crew to be found by the Skylab 4 crew. thumb|upright|Bill Pogue (left) and Gerald Carr pass trash through an airlock to Skylab's waste disposal tank thumb|upright|alt=Kohoutek-uv|False color image of Comet Kohoutek photographed with the far-ultraviolet electrographic camera during a Skylab spacewalk on December 25, 1973. The all-rookie astronaut crew arrived aboard Skylab to find that they had company – three figures dressed in flight suits. Upon closer inspection, they found their companions were three dummies, complete with Skylab 4 mission emblems and name tags which had been left there by Al Bean, Jack Lousma, and Owen Garriott at the end of Skylab 3. Things got off to a bad start after the crew attempted to hide Pogue's early space sickness from flight surgeons, a fact discovered by mission controllers after downloading onboard voice recordings. Astronaut office chief Alan B. Shepard reprimanded them for this omission, saying they "had made a fairly serious error in judgement." The crew had problems adjusting to the same workload level as their predecessors when activating the workshop. The crew's initial task of unloading and stowing the thousands of items needed for their lengthy mission also proved to be overwhelming. The schedule for the activation sequence dictated lengthy work periods with a large variety of tasks to be performed, and the crew soon found themselves tired and behind schedule. Seven days into their mission, a problem developed in the Skylab gyroscopic attitude control system, which threatened to bring an early end to the mission. Skylab depended upon three large gyroscopes, sized so that any two of them could provide sufficient control and maneuver Skylab as desired. The third acted as a backup in the event of failure of one of the others. The gyroscope failure was attributed to insufficient lubrication. Later in the mission, a second gyroscope showed similar problems, but special temperature control and load reduction procedures kept the second one operating, and no further problems occurred. On Thanksgiving Day, Gibson and Pogue accomplished a 6 hour spacewalk. The first part of their spacewalk was spent deploying experiments and replacing film in the solar observatory. The remainder of the time was used to repair a malfunctioning antenna. During the experience, Gibson remarked, "Boy if this isn't the great outdoors! Inside, you're just looking out through a window. Here, you're right in it." The crew reported that the food was good, but slightly bland. The quantity and type of food consumed was rigidly controlled because of their strict diet. Although the crew would have preferred to use more condiments to enhance the taste of the food, and the amount of salt they could use was restricted for medical purposes, by the third mission the NASA kitchen had increased the availability of condiments, and salt and pepper was in liquid solutions (granular salt and pepper brought aboard by the second crew was little more than "air pollution").Erling, John (2013) Interview with William Pogue . Voices of Oklahoma. p. 33. On December 13, the crew sighted Comet Kohoutek and trained the solar observatory and hand-held cameras on it. They gathered spectra on it using the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph. They continued to photograph it as it approached the Sun. On December 30, as it swept out from behind the Sun, Carr and Gibson spotted it as they were performing a spacewalk. As Skylab work progressed, the astronauts complained of being pushed too hard, and ground controllers complained they were not getting enough work done. NASA determined major contributing factors were a large number of new tasks added shortly before launch with little or no training, and searches for equipment out of place on the station. There was a radio conference to air frustrations which led to the workload schedule being modified, and by the end of their mission the crew had completed even more work than originally planned. Skylab 4 was noted for several important scientific contributions. The crew spent many hours studying the Earth. Carr and Pogue alternately crewed controls, operating the sensing devices which measured and photographed selected features on the Earth's surface. Gibson and the other crew made solar observations, recording about 75,000 new telescopic images of the Sun. Images were taken in the X-ray, ultraviolet, and visible portions of the spectrum.Edward G. Gibson Biographical Data. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center As the end of their mission drew closer, Gibson continued his watch of the solar surface. On January 21, 1974, an active region on the Sun's surface formed a bright spot which intensified and grew. Gibson quickly began filming the sequence as the bright spot erupted. This film was the first recording from space of the birth of a solar flare. The crew also photographed the Earth from orbit. Despite instructions not to do so, the crew (perhaps inadvertently) photographed Area 51, causing a minor dispute between various government agencies as to whether the photographs showing this secret facility should be released. In the end, the picture was published along with all others in NASA's Skylab image archive, but remained unnoticed for years.Secret Apollo. The Space Review. November 26, 2007 The Skylab 4 astronauts completed 1,214 Earth orbits and four EVAs totaling 22 hours, 13 minutes. They traveled 34.5 million miles (55,500,000 km) in 84 days, 1 hour and 16 minutes in space. Skylab 4 was the last Skylab mission; the station fell from orbit in 1979. The three astronauts had joined NASA in the mid-1960s, during the Apollo program, with Pogue and Carr becoming part of the likely crew for the cancelled Apollo 19. Ultimately none of the crew of Skylab 4 flew in space again, as none of the three had been selected for Apollo–Soyuz and all of them retired from NASA before the first Space Shuttle launch. Gibson, who had trained as a scientist- astronaut, resigned from NASA in December 1974 to do research on Skylab solar physics data, as a senior staff scientist with The Aerospace Corporation of Los Angeles, California. ==Communications break== An unplanned communications break occurred during the Skylab 4 mission: its crew did not communicate with mission control for the portion of one orbit during which Skylab had line of sight to its tracking stations. Before the midpoint of the mission, the Skylab 4 crew had started to become fatigued and behind on the work. In order to catch up, they decided that only one crew member needed to be present for the daily briefing instead of all three, allowing the other two to complete ongoing tasks. At one point, according to both Carr and Gibson, the crew forgot to turn their radios on for the daily briefing, leading to a lack of communications between the crew and ground control during that orbit's period of communications availability. By the next planned period, the crew had reaffirmed radio contact with ground control. Both Carr and Gibson stated that this event partially contributed to a discussion on December 30, 1973, in which the crew and ground control capsule communicator Richard H. Truly revisited the astronauts' schedule in light of their fatigue. Carr called this meeting "the first sensitivity session in space". NASA agreed to assign the crew a more relaxed schedule, and productivity for the remaining mission significantly increased, surpassing that of the prior Skylab 3 mission. ===Consequences=== thumb|300px|Figure 3–2. Performance lapses for time in bed (TIB) over 14 days of sleep restriction. While the lack of communications was unintentional, NASA still spent time to study its causes and effects as to avoid its replication in future missions. At the time, only the crew of Skylab 3 had spent six weeks in space. It was unknown what had happened psychologically. NASA carefully worked with crew's requests, reducing their workload for the next six weeks. The incident took NASA into an unknown realm of concern in the selection of astronauts, still a question as humanity considers human missions to Mars or returning to the Moon. Among the complicating factors was the interplay between management and subordinates (see also Apollo 1 fire and Challenger disaster). On Skylab 4, one problem was that the crew was pushed even harder as they fell behind on their workload, creating an increasing level of stress. Even though none of the astronauts returned to space, there was only one more NASA spaceflight in the decade and Skylab was the first and last American space station. NASA was planning larger space stations but its budget shrank considerably after the Moon landings, and the Skylab orbital workshop was the only major execution of Apollo Applications projects. Though the final Skylab mission became known for the incident, it was also known for the large amount of work that was accomplished in the long mission. Skylab orbited for six more years before its orbit finally decayed in 1979 due to solar activity that was higher than expected. The next U.S. spaceflight was the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project conducted in July 1975, and after a human spaceflight gap, the first Space Shuttle orbital flight STS-1 in April 1981. The event, which the involved astronauts have joked about, has been extensively studied as a case study in various fields of endeavor including space medicine, team management, and psychology. Man-hours in space were, and continued to be into the 21st century, an expensive undertaking; a single day on Skylab was worth about $22.4 million in 2017 dollars, and thus any work stoppage was considered inappropriate due to the expense. According to Space Safety Magazine, the incident affected the planning of future space missions, especially long-term missions. The described events were considered a significant example of "us versus them" syndrome in space medicine. Crew psychology has been a point of study for Mars analog missions such as Mars-500, with a particular focus on crew behavior triggering a mission failure or other issues. One of the impacts of the incident is the requirement that at least one member of the International Space Station crew be a space veteran (not be on a first flight). The 84-day stay of the Skylab 4 mission was a human spaceflight record that was not exceeded for over two decades by a NASA astronaut. The 96-day Soviet Salyut 6 EO-1 mission broke Skylab 4's record in 1978. ===The strike or mutiny myth=== The communications failure was treated by the media as a deliberate act and became known as the Skylab strike or Skylab mutiny. One of the first accounts reporting that a strike aboard Skylab had occurred was published in The New Yorker on August 22, 1976, by Henry S. F. Cooper, who claimed that the crew were alleged to have stopped working on December 28, 1973. Cooper also published similar claims in his book A House in Space that same year. The Harvard Business School published a 1980 report, "Strike in Space", also claiming that the astronauts had gone on strike, but without citing any sources. Subsequently, enough media gave weight to the popular notion that there was a Skylab strike on December 28, 1973, to ensure the narrative was established. NASA, the astronauts involved, and spaceflight historians have confirmed that no strike occurred. NASA has suggested the events of December 28 may have been confused with a day off that was given to the crew on December 26 following the completion of a long spacewalk by Carr and Pogue the day before. NASA added that there may also have been confusion with a known ground equipment failure on December 25; this left them unable to track Skylab for one orbit, but the crew were notified of this issue ahead of time. Both Carr and Gibson have affirmed that it was a series of misjudgments and not the crew's intent that caused them to miss the briefing. Spaceflight history author David Hitt also disputed that the crew deliberately ended contact with mission control, in a book written with former astronauts Owen K. Garriott and Joseph P. Kerwin. Despite these reports, the notion of a deliberate action persists in the media. ==Gallery== File:S74-17305.jpg|Commander Gerald Carr flies a Manned Maneuvering Unit prototype. File:Carr i Pogue..jpg|Carr "balances" Bill Pogue as a demonstration of zero-G. File:SL4-150-5074.jpg|Ed Gibson floats out of the Multiple Docking Adapter connecting the station to the crew's Command Module. File:Skylab looking down.jpg|Carr and Gibson look through the length of the station from the trash airlock. File:SL4-150-5075.jpg|Carr floats with limbs outstretched to show the effects of zero-G. File:Seiko Automatic-Chronograph Cal. 6139 mit gelbem Zifferblatt, die sogenannte „Pogue Seiko“.jpg|The Pogue Seiko, a 'Seiko Automatic- Chronograph' Cal. 6139, the first automatic chronograph in space, used by Bill Pogue.William Pogue's Seiko 6139 Watch Flown on Board the Skylab 4 Mission, from his Personal Collection... The First Automatic Chronograph to be Worn in Space. Heritage AuctionsThe "Colonel Pogue" Seiko 6139. dreamchrono.com. File:Gibson przy ATM.jpg|Gibson at the controls of the Apollo Telescope Mount. File:S74-15064 Lobus Kohoutek.jpg|Dr. Lubos Kohoutek, discoverer of the Comet Kohoutek, speaks to the Skylab 4 crew via radio-telephone in the Mission Operations Control Room in the Mission Control Center during a visit to JSC. File:Skylab4 - February 1974 astronaut Edward Gibson.jpg|Gibson during an EVA. ==Command Module legacy== thumb|The Skylab 4 command module on display at the National Air and Space Museum. The Skylab 4 command module was transferred to the National Air and Space Museum in 1975.Skylab 4 Command Module . U.S. National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved on August 5, 2020. This module is the Command and Service Modules CSM-118 and it spent 84 days in Earth orbit as part of the Skylab mission. As of September 2020 it is on display at the Oklahoma History Center. The module rolled upside down after splashdown, which happened in about half the Apollo CSM splashdowns; in this situation spheres were inflated on top of the CSM to right the module. The windows of the Skylab 3 and 4 spacecraft modules were studied for micrometeoroid impacts. The module was painted white on half its side to help with spacecraft thermal management. Whereas Block II Apollo CSM had Kapton coated with aluminium and silicon monoxide, later Skylab modules had white paint for the sunward side. The Skylab 4 Command Module held the record for the longest single spaceflight for an American spacecraft for nearly 50 years until it was broken by Crew Dragon Resilience flying the SpaceX Crew-1 mission on February 7, 2021. To commemorate the event, the four person crew of Crew-1 spoke live with Edward Gibson from the International Space Station. The capsule is now on display at the Oklahoma History Center in Oklahoma City. ==Mission insignia== The triangular emblem features a large number 3 and a rainbow circling three areas of study the astronauts pursued. At the time of the flight, the astronauts issued the following description: "The symbols in the patch refer to the three major areas of investigation in the mission. The tree represents man's natural environment and refers to the objective of advancing the study of earth resources. The hydrogen atom, as the basic building block of the universe, represents man's exploration of the physical world, his application of knowledge, and his development of technology. Since the sun is composed primarily of hydrogen, the hydrogen symbol also refers to the Solar Physics mission objectives. The human silhouette represents mankind and the human capacity to direct technology with a wisdom tempered by his regard for his natural environment. It also relates to the Skylab medical studies of man himself. The rainbow, adopted from the Biblical story of the Flood, symbolizes the promise that is offered to man. It embraces man and extends to the tree and hydrogen atom, emphasizing man's pivotal role in the conciliation of technology with nature by a humanistic application of our scientific knowledge." Some versions of the patch included a comet in the top curve because of studies made of the comet Kohoutek. == See also == * Extra- vehicular activity * List of spacewalks * Splashdown (spacecraft landing) * Timeline of longest spaceflights * Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight * Team composition and cohesion in spaceflight missions * Effects of sleep deprivation in space == References == == Further reading == * Gilles Clement, Fundamentals of Space Medicine, Microcosm Press, 2003. pp. 212\. * Lattimer, Dick (1985). All We Did was Fly to the Moon. Whispering Eagle Press. . == External links == * Skylab: Command service module systems handbook, CSM 116 – 119 (PDF) April 1972 * Skylab Saturn 1B flight manual (PDF) September 1972 * NASA Skylab Chronology * Marshall Space Flight Center Skylab Summary * Skylab 4 Characteristics SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK * Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident * Skylab, "The Third Manned Period", NASA History (History.nasa.gov ) *Voices of Oklahoma interview with William Pogue. First person interview conducted with William Pogue on August 8, 2012. Original audio and transcript archived with Voices of Oklahoma oral history project. Category:1973 in spaceflight Category:Extravehicular activity Category:Human spaceflights Category:Skylab program Category:Spacecraft launched in 1973 Category:Spacecraft which reentered in 1974 Category:Individual spacecraft in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution Category:Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets |
The ; PQ; ) is a sovereignist * * * * * * and social democratic provincial political party in Quebec, Canada. The PQ advocates national sovereignty for Quebec involving independence of the province of Quebec from Canada and establishing a sovereign state. The PQ has also promoted the possibility of maintaining a loose political and economic sovereignty-association between Quebec and Canada. The party traditionally has support from the labour movement, but unlike most other social democratic parties, its ties with organized labour are informal. Members and supporters of the PQ are nicknamed péquistes (), a French word derived from the pronunciation of the party's initials in Quebec French. The party is an associate member of COPPPAL. The party has strong informal ties to the Bloc Québécois (BQ, whose members are known as "Bloquistes"), the federal party that has also advocated for the secession of Quebec from Canada, but the two are not linked organizationally. As with its federal counterpart, the Parti Québécois has been supported by a wide range of voters in Quebec, from large sections of organized labour to more conservative rural voters. ==History== ===Formation=== The PQ is the result of the 1968 merger between former Quebec Liberal Party cabinet minister René Lévesque's Mouvement Souveraineté-Association and the Ralliement national. Following the creation of the PQ, the Rassemblement pour l'Indépendance Nationale held a general assembly that voted to dissolve the RIN. Its former members were invited to join the new Parti Québécois. The PQ's primary goals were to obtain political, economic and social autonomy for the province of Quebec. Lévesque introduced the strategy of referendums early in the 1970s.https://montrealgazette.com/news/echoing/6255813/story.html#ixzz1oMhu9Q2n ===Lévesque and the PQ's first government=== The PQ faced its first electoral test in the 1970 provincial election, winning seven seats. However, Lévesque was unable to get into the renamed National Assembly. Although it lost one seat in 1973, the decimation of the other parties, particularly the Union Nationale, allowed it to become the official opposition even though Lévesque was still unable to win a seat. In the 1976 provincial election, the Parti Québécois won government for the first time, taking 71 of the 110 seats available. Lévesque became the Premier of Quebec. This provided cause for celebration among many French-speaking Quebecers, while it resulted in an acceleration of the migration of the province's Anglophone population and related economic activity toward Toronto. The first PQ government was known as the "republic of professors" because of the large number of scholars in Lévesque's cabinet. The PQ was the first government to recognize the rights of Aboriginal peoples to self-determination, insofar as this self-determination did not affect the territorial integrity of Quebec. The PQ passed laws on public consultations and the financing of political parties, which ensured equal financing of political parties and limited contributions by individuals to $3000. However, the most prominent legacy of the PQ is the Charter of the French Language (Bill 101), a framework law which defines the linguistic primacy of French and seeks to make French the common public language of Quebec. It allowed the advancement of francophones towards management roles, until then largely out of their reach. Despite the fact that 85% of the population spoke French and most of them did not understand English, the language of management was English in most medium and large businesses. Critics, both Francophone and Anglophone, have however criticized the charter for restraining citizens' linguistic school choice, as it forbids immigrants and Quebecers of French descent from attending English-language schools funded by the state (private schools remained an option for those who could afford tuition). The Parti Québécois initiated the 1980 Quebec referendum seeking a mandate to begin negotiation for sovereignty-association."Quebec and the Constitution: A Timeline of Dead Ends", Montreal Gazette, June 1, 2017. It was rejected by 60 per cent of voters. The party was re-elected in the 1981 election, but in November 1984 it experienced the most severe internal crisis of its existence. Lévesque wanted to focus on governing Quebec rather than sovereignty, and also wanted to adopt a more conciliatory approach on constitutional issues. This angered the more ardent sovereigntists, known as the purs et durs. Lévesque was forced to resign as a result. In September 1985, the party leadership election chose Pierre-Marc Johnson as his successor. Despite its social-democratic past, the PQ failed to gain admission into the Socialist International, after the membership application was vetoed by the federal New Democratic Party. ===1985 defeat=== The PQ led by Johnson was defeated by the Quebec Liberal Party in the 1985 election that saw Robert Bourassa return as premier. The Liberals served in office for two terms and attempted to negotiate a constitutional settlement with the rest of Canada but with the failure of the Meech Lake Accord and the Charlottetown Accord, two packages of proposed amendments to the Canadian constitution, the question of Quebec's status remained unresolved and the Quebec sovereignty movement revived. ===Return to power under Parizeau=== The PQ returned to power under the leadership of hardline sovereigntist Jacques Parizeau in the 1994 Quebec election. This saw the PQ win 77 seats and 44% of the vote, on a promise to hold an independence referendum within a year. The following year, Parizeau called the 1995 Quebec referendum proposing negotiations on sovereignty. Again, the sovereigntists lost the vote. The final count showed 49.42% of voters supported negotiations that could eventually lead to sovereignty. On the night of the defeat, an emotionally drained Premier Parizeau stated that the loss was caused by "money and ethnic votes" (which led to accusations that Parizeau was racist) as well as by the divided votes amongst francophones. Parizeau resigned the next day (as he is alleged to have planned beforehand in case of a defeat). ===Bouchard government=== Lucien Bouchard, a former member of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Cabinet and later founder of the Bloc Québécois, a federal-level sovereigntist party, succeeded Parizeau as PQ leader, but chose not to call another referendum due to the absence of "winning conditions". Bouchard's government then balanced the provincial budget – a feat achieved in Canada only by the federal government and a few of the ten Canadian provinces at that point – by reducing government spending, including social programs. The PQ was re-elected in the 1998 election, despite receiving fewer votes than the Quebec Liberal Party led by former federal deputy prime minister Jean Charest. Bouchard resigned in 2001, and was succeeded as PQ leader and Quebec Premier by Bernard Landry, a former PQ Finance minister. Under Landry's leadership, the party lost the 2003 election to Jean Charest's Liberals. ===Return to opposition=== Mid-late 2004 was difficult for Landry's leadership, which was being contested. A vote was held during the party's June 2005 convention to determine whether Landry continued to have the confidence of the party membership. Landry said he wanted at least 80% of approval and after gaining 76.2% approval on the confidence vote from party membership on 4 June 2005, Landry announced his intention to resign. Louise Harel had been chosen to replace him until a new leader, André Boisclair, was elected 15 November 2005, through the party's 2005 leadership election. At the time of Boisclair's election, the PQ was as much as 20 percent ahead of the Liberals in opinion polls, suggesting that Boisclair would lead them to a landslide majority government in the next election. ===Splintering on the right and the left=== Progressives on the left wing of the PQ perceived a rightward move by the party towards neoliberalism under Bouchard, Landry and Boisclair. In 2006, a new left-wing party, Québec solidaire, was formed which included many activists who likely would formerly have been members or supporters of the PQ. Over subsequent elections, the QS attracted increasing support from left-wing sovereigntists disillusioned with the PQ. At the same time on the right, the ADQ and later the Coalition Avenir Québec attracted the votes of right-wing and soft sovereigntists who eventually become Quebec autonomists and Canadian federalists while retaining their Quebec nationalist identities. These political developments resulted in the PQ being squeezed from both sides. ===Third place=== The PQ was unable to maintain the momentum it briefly had under Boisclair, and in the 2007 provincial election, the party fell to 36 seats and behind the conservative Action démocratique du Québec (ADQ) in number of seats and the popular vote: this was the first time since 1973 that the party did not form the government or the Official Opposition. Boisclair said that the voters clearly did not support a strategy of a rapid referendum in the first mandate of a PQ government. Instead of a policy convention following the election, the party held a presidents' council. The party caucus in the provincial legislative assembly was said to have supported Boisclair continuing as leader. On 8 May 2007 Boisclair announced his resignation as leader of the PQ. This was effective immediately, although Boisclair confirmed he would remain within the PQ caucus for the time being. He was replaced by veteran MNA François Gendron, pending a leadership race and convention. thumb|right|Former PQ leader Pauline Marois greets voters in Quebec City on the eve of the 2012 general election. Former Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe was the first to announce his intention to run for party leadership, on 11 May 2007. He was followed the same day by Pauline Marois. In a surprise move, Duceppe withdrew on the 12th – leaving Marois the only declared candidate. No other candidates came forward, and on 26 June 2007, Marois won the leadership by acclamation. In June 2011, the party was shaken when four of its most prominent MNAs — popular actor Pierre Curzi, former cabinet minister Louise Beaudoin, and Lisette Lapointe, the wife of former premier Jacques Parizeau, and Jean-Martin Aussant — quit the party to sit as independents. They disagreed with Marois's support for a bill changing the law to permit an agreement between the City of Québec and Quebecor Inc. concerning the management of the new sports and entertainment complex in Quebec City. Unrest continued later in the month when a fifth MNA, Benoit Charette, also quit, citing his dissatisfaction with the party's sole focus being sovereignty. Beaudoin rejoined the PQ caucus in 2012. ===Marois minority government=== The party won a minority government under Marois in the 2012 provincial election with 54 of 125 seats in the National Assembly. It embarked on a program of "sovereigntist governance" in relations with the rest of Canada, to return Quebec to balanced budgets through higher taxes and debt reduction, to increase the use of French in public services, and to address resource development in Northern Quebec. However the PQ's 'new Bill 101' did not pass. The centrepiece of the government's program was a Quebec Charter of Values which would have curtailed minority religious identity by banning the wearing of religious symbols by those in the employ of the government, particularly Sikh turbans, Muslim veils and Jewish kippahs. ===2014 defeat=== Based on the charter's growing popularity among francophones, Marois called an early election for 7 April 2014 in an attempt to win a majority government. Despite leading in the polls when the writ was dropped, the campaign went badly due to several mishaps. The recruitment of star candidate Pierre Karl Péladeau, whose comments made sovereignty and the prospect of another referendum a focus of the campaign, as well as feminist Janette Bertrand suggesting that wealthy Muslim men were taking over swimming pools, among other incidents badly hurt the PQ. Marois' government was defeated by the Liberals, led by Philippe Couillard, in the 2014 provincial election which resulted in a Liberal majority government. The PQ won 25% of the vote and 30 seats, its worst result in terms of popular vote since 1970. Marois lost her own seat, and announced her intention to resign as PQ leader that night. Stéphane Bédard was chosen interim parliamentary leader by the PQ caucus on 10 April 2014. On 20 October 2014 Lévis by-election, PQ candidate Alexandre Bégin came in third place, with 8.28% of the popular vote, only narrowly beating Québec Solidaire. ===Péladeau leadership=== On 27 November 2014, Pierre Karl Péladeau announced his intentions to run for PQ's leadership, joining Bernard Drainville, Martine Ouellet, Jean-François Lisée, Alexandre Cloutier, and Pierre Céré. Despite a fiercely contested race, Péladeau was the frontrunner for much of the campaign, causing Jean-François Lisée to drop out in January 2015, Bernard Drainville to drop out on 22 April 2015, and Pierre Céré to follow Drainville only five days before the leadership election. On 15 May 2015, Pierre Karl Péladeau was elected permanent leader. On 2 May 2016, Péladeau announced that he was retiring from politics to dedicate more time to his family. ===Jean-François Lisée leadership=== Jean-François Lisée was elected leader of Parti Québécois on 7 October 2016. Lisée charged Manon Massé with reneging in unsuccessful deliberations for a putative electoral alliance between the Parti Québécois and Québec Solidaire in 2017.Quebec election: PQ's Lisée defends rogue attack on Québec solidaire," by Marian Scott, Montreal Gazette, 26 September, 2018. ===Collapse and brief loss of official party status=== For the 2018 provincial election, the PQ ruled out holding a referendum on sovereignty until 2022 at the earliest. With the sovereignty issue taken off the table for the first time in almost half a century, the 2018 election unfolded in a historic way, being the first time in a half century a party other than the Parti Québécois or Liberals were elected to power, with a Coalition Avenir Québec majority win. It also marked, for the first time in 42 years, that the Parti Québécois failed to win a sufficient number of seats to maintain its official party status. With only 10 seats won, not only did it lose official status, but was relegated to third place (tied with Québec solidaire). The PQ was reduced to its smallest presence in the National Assembly since its first election in 1970. In this election the Parti Québécois only garnered 17% of the popular vote, the lowest score in party's history at the time. With few exceptions, its support bled to the CAQ, which took several ridings that had been in PQ hands for 40 years or more, by large margins in many cases. A number of longtime PQ supporters defected to the CAQ because they no longer believed sovereignty was a realistic goal. Notably, the party was completely shut out of Montreal for the first time in memory, including its traditional stronghold in the heavily francophone eastern portion. Historically, when the PQ won government, the eastern half of the Island of Montreal was coated light blue. Many younger sovereigntists defected to Québec Solidaire. Leader Jean-François Lisée was defeated in his own riding and resigned thereafter, accepting the blame for his party's failure and collapse. After 50 years in the forefront of Quebec politics, the Parti Québécois had been pushed into marginal status. According to The Globe and Mail, within hours of the results being known, there was speculation that the party's very survival was in doubt; there were concerns that it was no longer capable of attracting enough support "to justify its political usefulness". Christian Bourque of Montreal-based pollster Léger Marketing suggested that the PQ was likely finished in its present form, and would have to merge with another sovereigntist party to avoid fading into irrelevance. On 27 November 2018, the CAQ granted both the PQ and Québec Solidaire official status in the legislature, despite the parties being short on seats and percentage of the popular vote in order to qualify. However, on 11 March 2019, Catherine Fournier, the current youngest MNA in the party and the province and the only PQ MNA from Greater Montreal, resigned from the Parti Québécois to sit as an independent, claiming the party had lost its way. At the same time, several members of the PQ's youth wing expressed concern that the party might not have a future. Fournier's defection dropped the party into fourth place, losing its standing as second opposition and potentially, losing their official party status once again. The next leadership election occurred on 9 October 2020, with lawyer Paul St-Pierre Plamondon being elected as the tenth Parti Québécois leader. ===Fading out and loss of official party status=== The 2022 provincial election saw even further erosion and an unprecedented loss of support for the Parti Quebecois. Not only did the party once again not form government or the official opposition, but saw its lowest number of elected seats in the history of the PQ's existence–only 3 seats won (the previous lowest, the 1973 election, was six seats). Although new party leader Paul St- Pierre Plamondon managed to win his seat, the PQ lost its official party status and came in a distant fourth place. With just over 14% of the popular vote, it broke a new record low score for the party, resulting in the PQ's smallest presence ever in the National Assembly. The movement of most voter support over to the CAQ and other nationalist parties put into question the party's relevance and its ability to survive in future. ===Barred from Quebec legislature=== On December 1, 2022, the PQ's 3 newly elected members were barred from the Quebec legislature following their refusal to swear an oath to the King, as required by the Constitution Act, 1867. In response, on December 9, 2022, the CAQ passed a bill abolishing the requirement, allowing the PQ into the legislature by early 2023, however its legality is being questioned. After the 2022 provincial election, the PQ held a leadership confidence vote in March 2023. Plamondon broke a record for the PQ votes of confidence, with 98.51% support. Since the 2022 elections PQ saw an increase in its support in polls with them polling as the second largest party. ==Relationship with the Bloc Québécois== The Bloc Québécois (BQ) is a federal political party founded in 1990 by former Progressive Conservative MP Lucien Bouchard. It has traditionally had close ties to the Parti Québécois and shares its principal objective of sovereignty. The two parties have frequently shared political candidates, and have supported each other during election campaigns. The two parties have a similar membership and voter base. Prominent members of either party often attend and speak at both organizations' public events. Gilles Duceppe, the former Bloc leader, is also the son of Jean Duceppe, a Quebec actor who helped found the PQ after having been a founding member of the New Democratic Party. In June 2014, Mario Beaulieu, a former PQ riding president and Bloc candidate, was elected leader of the Bloc Québécois. Notwithstanding his previous ties to both parties, Beaulieu has been critical of what he sees as a too timid approach to sovereignty by both the Bloc and PQ. Beaulieu's election as Bloc leader was more warmly received by the PQ's rival party, Option nationale, than by the PQ. ===Ties to far right groups=== In 2018, the Montreal Gazette reported on an investigation into two closed Facebook groups, whose stated aim is to bolster the PQ, by anti-racist activist Jeff Ray. Ray found that many participants, while supporters of the PQ, were also members of far-right groups like La Meute and Storm Alliance. This included "grassroots activists to aspiring candidates to officials on the executive council" on the PQ side, and "key personalities of the far right" on the other. ==Logo== thumb|left|125px|Logo of the party from 1985 to 2007 thumb|left|125px|Logo of the party from 2007 to 2021 The party's distinctive logo was designed in 1968 by painter and poet Roland Giguère. It consists of a stylised letter Q, represented by a blue circle broken by a red arrow. The creator meant it as an allegory of the Parti Québécois breaking the circle of colonialism which he claimed Canada was imposing on Quebec and opening Quebec upon the world and the future. The PQ has made very few significant modifications to its logo during its history. In 1985 it made the circle and arrow slightly thicker, and placed the tip of the latter at the centre of the circle. The original saw it span the whole diameter. When placed upon a blue background instead of a white one, the circle was commonly turned to white, the single main design variation currently observed. The party revealed a new logo on 21 February 2007, at the beginning of the 2007 provincial election campaign. While maintaining the basic style of past logos, the Q was redesigned and modernized. In addition, the tail of the Q was recoloured green. This logo was replaced in 2021 with a new logo that incorporated the fleur-de-lis into the letter "Q". ==Party policy== The Parti Québécois centres on the protection of the Franco-Québécois identity, up to or including the ultimate result of sovereignty-association. Sovereigntism, however, is 'Article 1' in its party program. After then-French President Nicolas Sarkozy rejected the long-standing "non-interference, non- indifference" stance towards Quebec should it seek sovereignty in 2009, PQ leader and Premier Pauline Marois' visit to France in October 2012 saw her reinstate it with French President François Hollande. Also during her visit, Marois commented that "Canada's current foreign policy corresponds to neither our values nor our interests". The PQ delivered a brief to the reasonable accommodation commission on minorities, which conducted hearings across the province. The commission briefing looked to reformulate the relations between Quebec's francophone and minority populations. Its task was to be a platform for the PQ's protectionism of French. Marois stated there is nothing dogmatic in Francophones wishing to declare their existence even if it includes developing legislation requiring newcomers to have a basic understanding of French before becoming citizens of Quebec. (Note that there are no official citizens of Quebec; residents of Quebec are citizens of Canada.) Further to her desire to protect French in Quebec, during Marois' visit to France in October 2012, she recommended that the "French elite" conduct themselves only in French on the international scene. However, some of Marois' international critics scoffed at her pretension that the "French elite" were Québécois. Marois stated the PQ understands the arrival of newcomers is attractive and they "contribute greatly" to Quebec's growth, but she stated that does not imply that to better assimilate them that "we must erase our own history." As of 2014, the PQ electoral program describes the party's main commitment: "Aspiring to political liberty, the Parti Québécois has as its first objective to achieve the sovereignty of Quebec after consulting the population by a referendum to be held at the moment that the government judges appropriate." Other electoral issues were the Quebec Charter of Values, and language. Like the Coalition Avenir Québec, the PQ supported the Quebec ban on face covering but also argued the ban is not extensive enough.M.D. and Erasmus, "Quebec's ban on face-coverings risks inflaming inter-communal tensions", The Economist, October 20, 2017. ==Slogans== These are the slogans used by the Parti Québécois in general election campaigns throughout its history. They are displayed with an unofficial translation. The elections in which the PQ won or remained in power are in bold. * 1970: OUI – Yes * 1973: J'ai le goût du Québec – I have a taste for Quebec * 1976: On a besoin d'un vrai gouvernement – We need a real government * 1981: Faut rester forts au Québec – We must remain strong in Quebec * 1985: Le Québec avec Johnson – Québec with Johnson * 1989: Je prends le parti du Québec – I'm choosing Quebec's party / I'm taking Quebec's side (double meaning) * 1994: L'autre façon de gouverner – The other way of governing * 1998: J'ai confiance – I am confident / I trust * 2003: Restons forts – Let us stay strong * 2007: Reconstruisons notre Québec – Let us rebuild our Quebec * 2008: Québec gagnant avec Pauline – Quebec winning with Pauline * 2012: À nous de choisir – The choice is ours * 2014: Plus prospère, plus fort, plus indépendant, plus accueillant – More prosperous, stronger, more independent, more welcoming * 2018: Sérieusement – Seriously * 2022: Le Québec qui s'assume. Pour vrai. – A Quebec that accepts itself. For real ==Party leaders== Until 5 June 2005, the office of Leader of the Parti Québécois was known as President of the Parti Québécois. Party leader Years as party leader Years as Premier René Lévesque 1968–85 1976–85 Nadia Brédimas- Assimopoulos 1985 (interim) None Pierre-Marc Johnson 1985–87 1985 Guy Chevrette 1987–88 (interim) None Jacques Parizeau 1988–96 1994–96 Lucien Bouchard 1996–2001 1996–2001 Bernard Landry 2001–05 2001–03 Louise Harel 2005 (interim) None André Boisclair 2005–07 None François Gendron 2007 (interim) None Pauline Marois 2007–14 2012–14 Stéphane Bédard 2014–15 (interim) None Pierre Karl Péladeau 2015–16 None Sylvain Gaudreault 2016 (interim) None Jean- François Lisée 2016–18 None Pascal Bérubé 2018–2020 (interim) None Paul St- Pierre Plamondon 2020–present None ==Leaders in the legislature== When a Parti Québécois leader does not have a seat in the National Assembly, another member leads the party in the legislature. Parliamentary leader Years as parliamentary leader Comments René Lévesque 1968–70 René Lévesque sat as an Independent member until 29 April 1970 election. Camille Laurin 1970–73 René Lévesque did not have a seat from 29 April 1970 to 29 October 1973. Jacques- Yvan Morin 1973–76 René Lévesque did not have a seat from 29 October 1973 to 15 November 1976. René Lévesque 1976–85 Pierre-Marc Johnson 1985–87 Guy Chevrette 1987–89 Became Leader of the Opposition when Johnson resigned on 10 November 1987. Remained parliamentary leader after Jacques Parizeau became party leader from 19 March 1988 until Parizeau won a seat on 25 September 1989. Jacques Parizeau 1989–96 Lucien Bouchard 1996–2001 Lucien Bouchard did not have a seat from 27 January 1996 to 19 February 1996. Bernard Landry 2001–05 Louise Harel 2005–06 André Boisclair did not have a seat from 15 November 2005 to 14 August 2006. André Boisclair 2006–07 François Gendron 2007 Pauline Marois 2007–14 Pauline Marois lost her seat on 7 April 2014 and announced her resignation as leader. Stéphane Bédard 2014–15 Interim leader between Marois' defeat and Péladeau's election Pierre Karl Péladeau 2015–16 Sylvain Gaudreault 2016 Interim leader following Péladeau's resignation Jean- François Lisée 2016–18 Lost his seat in the general election Pascal Bérubé 2018–21 Interim leader following Lisée's resignation, remains legislative leader, as current leader, Paul St-Pierre Plamondon does not have seat in National Assembly Joël Arseneau 2021–present ==Party presidents== Until 5 June 2005, the office of President of the Parti Québécois was known as First Vice- president of the Parti Québécois. Party president Years as party president Comments Gilles Grégoire 1968–71 Camille Laurin 1971–79 Louise Harel 1979–81 Sylvain Simard 1981–84 Nadia Assimopoulos 1984–88 Nadia Assimopoulos served as acting leader (then known as president) from 20 June 1985 to 29 September 1985. Pauline Marois 1988–89 Bernard Landry 1989–94 Monique Simard 1994–96 Fabien Béchard 1996–2000 Marie Malavoy 2000–05 Monique Richard 2005–09 Jonathan Valois 2009–11 Raymond Archambault 2011–2017 Gabrielle Lemieux 2017–2019 Dieudonné Ella Oyono 2019–present ==Leadership elections== * Parti Québécois leadership elections * 1985 Parti Québécois leadership election * 2005 Parti Québécois leadership election * 2007 Parti Québécois leadership election * 2015 Parti Québécois leadership election * 2016 Parti Québécois leadership election * 2020 Parti Québécois leadership election ==General election results== General election Leader # of seats won Change +/- % of popular vote Result 1970 René Lévesque 7 23.06% 1973 René Lévesque 1 30.22% 1976 René Lévesque 65 41.37% 1981 René Lévesque 9 49.26% 1985 Pierre-Marc Johnson 57 38.69% 1989 Jacques Parizeau 6 40.16% 1994 Jacques Parizeau 48 44.75% 1998 Lucien Bouchard 1 42.87% 2003 Bernard Landry 29 33.24% 2007 André Boisclair 9 28.35% 2008 Pauline Marois 15 35.17% 2012 Pauline Marois 3 31.95% 2014 Pauline Marois 24 25.38% 2018 Jean-François Lisée 20 17.06% 2022 Paul St- Pierre Plamondon 7 14.61% ==See also== * SPQ Libre * Parti Québécois Crisis, 1984 * Politics of Quebec * History of Quebec * List of political parties in Quebec * Sovereigntist events and strategies * Secessionist movements of Canada * Parti Québécois leadership elections ==References== ==Further reading== * Lévesque, Michel and Pelletier, Martin (Sept. 2007). Le Parti québécois : bibliographie 1968–2007, Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale du Québec, 244 pages * Dubuc, Pierre (2003). L'autre histoire de l'indépendance : de Pierre Vallières à Charles Gagnon, de Claude Morin à Paul Desmarais, Trois- Pistoles: Éditions Trois-Pistoles, 288 pages * Fraser, Graham (2001). René Lévesque & the Parti Québécois in Power, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 434 pages [First Ed. Toronto: Macmillan, 1984] * Godin, Pierre (1997). René Lévesque, Héros malgré lui, Éditions Boréal * Lévesque, René (1986). Memoirs, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 368 pages [translated by Philip Stratford] * Poitras, Annick, L'État du Québec 2015, Montréal, Institut du Nouveau-Monde, Delbusso, 2015, 288 p. (). * Bernier Arcand, Philippe, Le Parti québécois : d'un nationalisme à l'autre, Montréal, Poètes de brousse, 2015, 160 p. (). * Panneton, Jean-Charles, Le gouvernement Lévesque, t. 1 : De la genèse du PQ au 15 novembre 1976, Québec, Septentrion, 2016. * Panneton, Jean- Charles, Le gouvernement Lévesque, t. 2 : Du temps des réformes au référendum de 1980, Québec, Septentrion, 2017. * Montreal Gazette, 15 October 2012. ==External links== * * Parti québécois' parliamentary group website (archived) Category:Secessionist organizations in Canada Category:Pro-independence parties Category:Quebec sovereignty movement Category:Quebec nationalism Category:Social democratic parties in Canada Category:Republicanism in Canada Category:Organizations based in Montreal Category:Provincial political parties in Quebec Category:Political parties established in 1968 Category:1968 establishments in Quebec |
Chemical looping reforming (CLR) and gasification (CLG) are the operations that involve the use of gaseous carbonaceous feedstock and solid carbonaceous feedstock, respectively, in their conversion to syngas in the chemical looping scheme. The typical gaseous carbonaceous feedstocks used are natural gas and reducing tail gas, while the typical solid carbonaceous feedstocks used are coal and biomass. The feedstocks are partially oxidized to generate syngas using metal oxide oxygen carriers as the oxidant. The reduced metal oxide is then oxidized in the regeneration step using air. The syngas is an important intermediate for generation of such diverse products as electricity, chemicals, hydrogen, and liquid fuels. The motivation for developing the CLR and CLG processes lies in their advantages of being able to avoid the use of pure oxygen in the reaction, thereby circumventing the energy intensive air separation requirement in the conventional reforming and gasification processes. The energy conversion efficiency of the processes can, thus, be significantly increased. Steam and carbon dioxide can also be used as the oxidants. As the metal oxide also serves as the heat transfer medium in the chemical looping process, the exergy efficiency of the reforming and gasification processes like that for the combustion process is also higher as compared to the conventional processes. == Description == The CLR and CLG processes use solid metal oxides as the oxygen carrier instead of pure oxygen as the oxidant. In one reactor, termed the reducer or fuel reactor, the carbonaceous feedstock is partially oxidized to syngas, while the metal oxide is reduced to a lower oxidation state as given by: :CHaOb \+ MeOx → CO + H2 \+ MeOx-δ where Me is a metal. It is noted that the reaction in the reducer of the CLR and CLG processes differs from that in the chemical looping combustion (CLC) process in that, the feedstock in CLC process is fully oxidized to CO2 and H2O. In another reactor, termed the oxidizer, combustor or air reactor (when air is used as the regeneration agent), the reduced metal oxide from the reducer is re-oxidized by air or steam as given by: : MeOx-δ \+ O2 (air) → MeOx \+ (O2 depleted air) : MeOx-δ \+ H2O → MeOx \+ H2 The solid metal oxide oxygen carrier is then circulated between these two reactors. That is the reducer and the oxidizer/combustor are connected in a solids circulatory loop, while the gaseous reactants and products from each of the two reactors are isolated by the gas seals between the reactors. This streamlining configuration of the chemical looping system possesses a process intensification property with a smaller process footprint as compared to that for the traditional systems. == Oxygen carriers == thumb|600px|right|Fig 1. Modified Ellingham diagram:(a) to determine metal oxide performance in chemical looping processes; (b) with sections indicated for chemical looping applications. The Ellingham diagram that provides the Gibbs free energy formation of a variety of metal oxides is widely used in metallurgical processing for determining the relative reduction-oxidation potentials of metal oxides at different temperatures. It depicts the thermodynamic property of a variety of metal oxides to be used as potential oxygen carrier materials. It can be modified to provide the Gibbs free energy changes for metals and metal oxides under various oxidation states so that it can be directly used for the selection of metal oxide oxygen carrier materials based on their oxidation capabilities for specific chemical looping applications. The modified Ellingham diagram is given in Fig 1a. As shown in Fig 1b, the diagram can be divided into four different sections based on the following four key reactions: :Reaction line 1: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2 :Reaction line 2: 2H2 \+ O2 → 2H2O :Reaction line 3: 2C + O2 → 2CO :Reaction line 4: 2CH4 \+ O2 → 2CO + 4H2 The sections identified in Fig 1b provide the information on metal oxide materials that can be selected as potential oxygen carriers for desired chemical looping applications. Specifically, highly oxidative metal oxides, such as NiO, CoO, CuO, Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 belong to the combustion section (Section A) and they all lie above the reaction lines 1 and 2. These metal oxides have a high oxidizing tendency and can be used as oxygen carriers for the chemical looping combustion, gasification or partial oxidation processes. The metal oxides in Section E, the small section between the reaction lines 1 and 2, can be used for CLR and CLG, although a significant amount of H2O may present in the syngas product. The section for syngas production lies between reaction lines 2 and 3 (Section B). Metal oxides lying in this region, such as CeO2, have moderate oxidation tendencies and are suitable for CLR and CLG but not for the complete oxidation reactions. Metal oxides below reaction line 3 (Sections C and D) are not thermodynamically favored for oxidizing the fuels to syngas. Thus, they cannot be used as oxygen carriers and are generally considered to be inert. These materials include Cr2O3 and SiO2. They can, however, be used as support materials along with active oxygen carrier materials. In addition to the relative redox potentials of metal oxide materials illustrated in Fig 1b, the development of desired oxygen carriers for chemical looping applications requires to consider such properties as oxygen carrying capacity, redox reactivity, reaction kinetics, recyclability, attrition resistance, heat carrying capacity, melting point, and production cost. == Process configurations == The CLR and CLG processes can be configured based on the types of carbonaceous feedstocks given and desired products to be produced. Among a broad range of products, the CLG process can produce electricity through chemical looping IGCC. The syngas produced from the CLR and the CLG can be used to synthesize a variety of chemicals, liquid fuels and hydrogen. Given below are some specific examples of the CLR and CLG processes. === Steam methane reforming with chemical looping combustion (CLC-SMR) === thumb|600px|right|Fig 2. CLC-SMR system for H2 production: (a) SMR reactor inside the reducer (fuel reactor) (b) SMR reactor inside the combustor (air reactor) Hydrogen and syngas are currently produced largely by steam methane reforming (SMR). The main reaction in SMR is: :CH4 \+ H2O → CO + 3H2 Steam can be further used to convert CO to H2 via the water-gas shift reaction (WGS): :H2O + CO → CO2 \+ H2 The SMR reaction is endothermic, which requires heat input. The state-of-art SMR system places the tubular catalytic reactors in a furnace, in which fuel gas is burned to provide the required heat. In the SMR with chemical looping combustion (CLC-SMR) concepts shown in Fig 2, the syngas production is carried out by the SMR in a tubular catalytic reactor while the chemical looping combustion system is used to provide the heat for the catalytic reaction. Depending on which chemical looping reactor is used to provide the SMR reaction heat, two CLC-SMR schemes can be configured. In Scheme 1 (Fig 2a), the reaction heat is provided by the reducer (fuel reactor). In Scheme 2 (Fig 2b), the reaction heat is provided by the combustor (air reactor). In either scheme, the combustion of metal oxide by air in the chemical looping system provides the heat source that sustains the endothermic SMR reactions. In the chemical looping system, natural gas and the recycled off-gas from the pressure swing adsorption (PSA) of the SMR process system are used as the feedstock for the CLC fuel reactor operation with CO2 and the steam as the reaction products. The CLC-SMR concepts have mainly been studied from the perspective of the process simulation. It is seen that both schemes do not engage directly the chemical looping system as a means for syngas production. === Chemical looping reforming (CLR) === thumb|250px|right|Fig 3. CLR using a circulating fluidized bed configuration thumb|250px|right|Fig 4. CLR system with a moving bed reducer Chemical looping systems can directly be engaged as an effective means for syngas production. Compared to the conventional partial oxidation (POX) or autothermal reforming (ATR) processes, the key advantage of the chemical looping reforming (CLR) process is the elimination of the air separation unit (ASU) for oxygen production. The gaseous fuel, typically natural gas, is fed to the fuel reactor, in which a solid metal oxide oxygen carrier partially oxidizes the fuel to generate syngas: :CH4 \+ MeOx → CO + 2H2 \+ MeOx-δ Steam can be added to the reaction in order to increase the generation of H2, via the water-gas shift reaction (WGS) and/or steam methane reforming. The CLR process can produce a syngas with a H2:CO molar ratio of 2:1 or higher, which is suitable for Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, methanol synthesis, or hydrogen production. The reduced oxygen carrier from the reducer is oxidized by air in the combustor: : MeOx-δ \+ O2 (air) → MeOx The overall reaction in the CLR system is a combination of the partial oxidation reaction of the fuel and the WGS reaction: :CH4 \+ O2 \+ a H2O → CO + (2+a) H2 It is noted that the actual reaction products for such reactions as those given above can vary depending on the actual operating conditions. For example, the CLR reactions can also produce CO2 when highly oxidative oxygen carriers such as NiO and Fe2O3 are used. The carbon deposition occurs particularly when the oxygen carrier is highly reduced. Reduced oxygen carrier species, such as Ni and Fe, catalyze the hydrocarbon pyrolysis reactions. Fig 3 shows a CLR system that has been studied experimentally by Vienna University of Technology. The system consists of a fluidized bed reducer and a fluidized bed combustor, connected by loop seals and cyclones. Commonly used oxygen carriers are based on NiO or Fe2O3. The NiO-based oxygen carriers exhibit excellent reactivity, as shown by the high conversion of natural gas. The Fe2O3-based oxygen carriers have a lower material cost while their reactivity is lower than that of the NiO-based ones. Operating variables such as temperature, pressure, type of metal oxide, and molar ratio of metal oxide to gaseous fuel will influence the fuel conversion and product compositions. However, with the effects of the back mixing and distributed residence time for the metal oxide particles in the fluidized bed, the oxidation state of the metal oxide particles in the fluidized bed varies that prevents a high purity of the syngas to be produced from the reactor. The moving bed reactor that does not have the effects of back mixing of the metal oxide particles is another gas-solid contact configuration for CLR/CLG operation. This reactor system developed by Ohio State University is characterized by a co-current gas-solid moving bed reducer as given in Fig 4. The moving bed reducer can maintain the uniform oxidation state of the exit metal oxide particles from the reactor. thereby synchronizing the process operation to achieve the thermodynamic equilibrium conditions. The CLR moving bed process applied to the methane to syngas (MTS) reactions has the flexibility of co-feeding CO2 as a feedstock with such gaseous fuels as natural gas, shale gas, and reducing tail gases, yielding a CO2 negative process system. The CLR-MTS system can yield a higher energy efficiency and cost benefits over the conventional syngas technologies. In a benchmark study for production of 50,000 barrels per day of liquid fuels using the natural gas as the feedstock, the CLR - MTS system for syngas production can reduce the natural gas usage by 20% over the conventional systems involving the Fischer–Tropsch technology. === Chemical looping gasification (CLG) === Chemical looping gasification (CLG) differs from the CLR in that it uses solid fuels such as coal and biomass instead of gaseous fuels as feedstocks. The operating principles for the CLG is similar to CLR. For solid feedstocks, devolatilization and pyrolysis of the solid fuel occur when the solid fuels are introduced into the reducer and mixed with the oxygen carrier particles. With the fluidized bed reducer, the released volatiles, including light organic compounds and tars, may channel through the reducer and exit with the syngas. The light organic compounds may reduce the purity of the syngas, while the tars may accumulate in downstream pipelines and instruments. For example, the carbon efficiency using the coal CLG fluidized bed reducer may vary from 55% to 81%, whereas the carbon efficiency using the coal moving bed reducer can reach 85% to 98%. The syngas derived from the biomass CLG fluidized bed reducer may consist of up to 15% methane, while the syngas derived from the biomass CLG moving bed reducer can reach a methane concentration of less than 5%. In general, increasing the temperature of the CLG system can promote volatile and char conversion. This may also promote the full oxidation side reaction resulting in an increased CO2 concentration in the syngas. Additional equipment for gas cleanup including scrubber, catalytic steam reformer and/or tar reformer may be necessary downstream of the CLG system in order to remove or convert the unwanted byproducts in the syngas stream. Char, the remaining solid from the devolatilization and reactions, requires additional time for conversion. For a fluidized bed reducer with particle back mixing, unconverted char may leave the reducer with the reduced metal oxide particles. A carbon stripper may be needed at the solid outlet of the fluidized bed reducer to allow the unconverted char to be separated from the oxygen carriers. The char can be recycled back to the reducer for further conversion. thumb|300px|right|Fig 5. Chemical looping three-reactor system for hydrogen production In a similar operating scheme to the CLR - MTS system given in Fig 4, chemical looping gasification (CLG) of solid fuels carried out in a co- current moving bed reducer to partially oxidize solid fuels into syngas can reach an appropriate H2/CO ratio for downstream processing. Coal ash is removed through in-situ gas-solid separation operation. The moving bed prevents the channeling or bypassing of the volatiles and chars, thereby maximizing the conversion of the solid fuel. The full oxidation side reactions can be impeded through the control of the oxidation state formed for the oxygen carriers in the moving bed reactor. The CLR moving bed process applied to the coal to syngas (CTS) reactions also has the flexibility of co-feeding CO2 as a feedstock with coal yielding a CO2 negative process system with a high purity of syngas production. In a benchmark study for production of 10,000 ton/day of methanol from coal, the upstream gasification capital cost can be reduced by 50% when the chemical looping moving bed gasification system is used. == Broader context == In a general sense, the CLR and CLG processes for syngas production are part of the chemical looping partial oxidation or selective oxidation reaction schemes. The syngas production can lead to the hydrogen production from the downstream water-gas shift reaction. The CLG process can also be applied to electricity generation, resembling the IGCC based on the syngas generated from the chemical looping processes. The chemical looping three-reactor (including reducer, oxidizer and combustor) system using a moving bed reducer for metal oxide reduction by fuel followed by a moving bed oxidizer for the water splitting to produce hydrogen is given in Fig 5. For coal-based feedstock applications, this system is estimated to reduce the cost for electricity generation by 5-15% as compared to conventional systems. The selective oxidation based chemical looping processes can be used to produce directly in one step value-added products beyond syngas. These chemical looping processes require the use of designed metal oxide oxygen carrier that has a high product selectivity and a high feedstock conversion. An example is the chemical looping selective oxidation process developed by DuPont for producing maleic anhydride from butane. The oxygen carrier used in this process is vanadium phosphorus oxide (VPO) based material. This chemical looping process was advanced to the commercial level. Its commercial operation, however, was hampered in part by the inadequacies in the chemical and mechanical viability of the oxygen carrier VPO and its associated effects on the reaction kinetics of the particles. Chemical looping selective oxidation was also applied to the production of olefins from methane. In chemical looping oxidative coupling of methane (OCM), the oxygen carrier selectively converts methane into ethylene. == References == Category:Chemical looping technologies Category:Chemical processes Category:Chemical process engineering Category:Industrial gases Category:Synthetic fuel technologies |
The fourth season of The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills, an American reality television series, aired on Bravo from November 4, 2013 to April 7, 2014, and is primarily filmed in Beverly Hills, California. The season focuses on the personal and professional lives of Kim Richards, Kyle Richards, Lisa Vanderpump, Brandi Glanville, Yolanda Hadid, Carlton Gebbia and Joyce Giraud. The season consisted of 23 episodes. Gebbia and Giraud were not asked back after the fourth season. The seasons executive producers are Andrew Hoegl, Barrie Bernstein, Lisa Shannon, Pam Healy and Andy Cohen. ==Production and crew== The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills was officially renewed for a fourth season in June 2013, with the full cast, premiere date and trailer being announced in September 2013. The season premiere "A Catered Affair to Remember" was aired on November 4, 2013, while the nineteenth episode "Are You My Friend?" served as the season finale, and was aired on March 10, 2014. It was followed by a three-part reunion that aired on March 17, March 24 and March 31, 2014 and a "Secrets Revealed" episode on April 7, 2014, which marked the conclusion of the season. Alex Baskin, Chris Cullen, Douglas Ross, Greg Stewart, Toni Gallagher, Dave Rupel and Andy Cohen are recognized as the series' executive producers; it is produced and distributed by Evolution Media. ==Cast and synopsis== ===Cast=== Five of the seven wives from season three returned for the fourth installment. Adrienne Maloof was let go from the series during the reunion from season three, due to her lack of attendance. At the reunion, host and Executive Producer, Andy Cohen, had announced that her not attending would be her last act as a housewife saying, "This season was hard on Adrienne- as you know all know a secret about her family was revealed by Brandi [Glanville] and from that moment on, Adrienne refused to speak directly about it... Not only is she absent tonight, but she won't be on the show next season." Despite Maloof's dismissal during the reunion, she has claimed she left on her own terms as well as describing the series as an "amazing platform". She has also continued to guest star in later seasons. Also leaving after the third season is Taylor Armstrong. In June 2013, Armstrong's former castmate Glanville had revealed that Armstrong did not return due to not being asked back. Armstrong continued to guest star from season four to six. In May 2015, Armstrong stated she wouldn't be opposed to returning to the series in a larger capacity as she is a lot happier now. Besides the two full-time cast member not returning, three recurring cast members also didn't return for season four, Camille Grammer, Faye Resnick and Marisa Zanuck. Grammer who was full-time in season one and two and recurred in season three didn't return for season four by her own choice saying, "there were some good times and some not so good times, but it's very hard to live your life out on the screen." Grammer has continued to guest star in later seasons and shortly in July 2016, Grammer expressed interest in returning saying, "Oh, I love being a part of it for what, it's gonna be six, seven seasons?" as well as saying it's up to Cohen and the higher-ups. Resnick has not revealed why she didn't return in a recurring capacity but since has also returned in guest appearances in later seasons. Zanuck had hinted that she was no longer interested in the show, in her Bravo blog shortly after the finale saying, "in truth, I have moved past all of the drama, and I don’t want to acknowledge it anymore." The following month Zanuck revealed that she was let go from the series after not being asked to return for season four. Zanuck has not returned to the series since. With the departure of two full-time cast member and three recurring, season four introduced two new full-time cast members, Carlton Gebbia and Joyce Giraud de Ohoven. Gebbia grew up in South Africa and London prior to moving to Los Angeles to pursue acting, who later went on to have roles in The Young and the Restless and Suddenly Susan. Gebbia is very spiritual with her faith, Wicca, and identifies as a practicing witch. Gebbia grew up in a very spiritual home and has been involved with Wicca since she was seven years old, as her grandmother was a practicing pagan and her mother was psychic. Her faith goes hand-in-hand with her love of nature and animals, so much that she works with Wildlife WayStation, a non-profit Sanctuary in Los Angeles that raises money for exotic and wild animals. Gebbia works closely with her husband David who runs his family multi-faceted business with his father and brothers. The businesses includes Rival Sports Group, managing NBA and NFL players, StockCross Financial Services and Gebbia Custom Estates which is a developer building high-end custom homes in Beverly Hills and Hidden Hills which Gebbia is the interior architectural designer. When Gebbia and her husband aren't working they live in their Gothic-inspired home raising their three children; Destiny, 11, Mysteri, 10, and Cross, 2. Gebbia is currently keeping herself busy writing a horror script as well as writing a children's book with an unusual twist. Giraud de Ohoven is a Puerto Rico native who started her career at the age of fifteen after she was scouted while working at KFC. Giraud de Ohoven focused on her education prior to pursuing modeling, by earning two separate degrees in Social Work and Special Education. She later went on to competing in pageants with holding notable titles such as, Miss World Puerto Rico, Miss Universe Puerto Rico and was the second runner-up at the Miss Universe Pageant in 1998. Her passion of beauty pageants and inspiring other lead to her creating the annual Queen of the Universe pageant, with benefits the programs of the UNESCO Foundation for Children in Need. Besides being a beauty queen, Giraud de Ohoven is an actress, producer and philanthropist. Giraud de Ohoven established herself as an actress by appearing is films such as Dude, Where's My Car? and The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. Giraud de Ohoven has also made a name for herself on the television by starring in Tyler Perry's House of Payne, Baywatch as well as Siberia, which she also produces. She has also produced other films with her husband, such as Capote and Texas Killing Fields. When she isn't working she is living happily with her husband, Academy Award-nominee producer Michael Ohoven, and raising their two children together; Leo, 3, and Val, 2. ===Synopsis=== The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills season four begins with Yolanda Foster overseeing a photo shoot for her daughter and successful model, Gigi Hadid. Brandi Glanville explores new properties to lease, after the success of her book, Drinking and Tweeting: And Other Brandi Blunders, she wants to live in a house that is more fancy. Lisa Vanderpump begins dancing practice for her new role on Dancing with the Stars with her younger, attractive, partner Gleb Savchenko. Later in Kyle Richard's kitchen, Vanderpump addresses the gossip magazines about Kyle's husband Mauricio Umansky cheating. Vanderpump makes a jokes about the younger woman Umansky had allegedly been seeing was his daughter, which Kyle doesn't find funny. Kim Richards struggles with the training and teaching of her dog that she has now had for a year. Kyle, after joining the Chamber of Commerce, throws an extravagant cocktail party with catering from Vanderpump's restaurant, SUR. Drama soon ensues with a star from Vanderpump Rules, Kristen Doute, giving attitude to Vanderpump and being sent home. Fellow members of the chamber of commerce, Carlton Gebbia and Joyce Giraud de Ohoven arrive at the party. Gebbia and Vanderpump initially bond over both being British, while Giraud de Ohoven and Glanville remember that have met previously at a mutual friend's baby shower. At the party, Kyle attempts to put aside her issues with Foster and Vanderpump tries to ease the tension between Brandi Glanville and another employee of hers, Scheana Shay. At the party, Giraud de Ohoven makes a joke about her husband being naked which Gebbia doesn't find pleasant due to her vivid imagination. The tension between the two worsens when Giraud de Ohoven makes a comment on Gebbia's son's name and after Kyle's comments on Vanderpump's nipple, Gebbia questions Kyle's intentions. Vanderpump continues to compete on Dancing with the Stars and Glanville and the Richards sister attend to support her. The following week, Vanderpump faints during rehearsal and continues to perform anyway but some of the ladies question the integrity of the faint. Vanderpump finds herself taken aback after Giraud de Ohoven makes an accusation, that also leaves everyone else confused. In Puerto Rico, Vanderpump is confront by the ladies about their doubts in the friendship. The confrontation continues at dinner, which result in Vanderpump husband calling Foster stupid and couple leaving the table after feeling like it was a sabotage attack. . The next day they rest of the women learn that Vanderpump and her husband had left in the middle of the night. Vanderpump heads back to Beverly Hill and informs Gebbia, who wasn't invited on the trip, about what happened. At the Beverly Hilton hotel for the Beverly Hills 100th anniversary, Vanderpump comes face-to-face with the ladies for the first time since Puerto Rico. She finds herself in many arguments. Glanville and Vanderpump come to the conclusion that they are no longer friends. Kyle hosts a lunch for her new friends on the chamber of commerce, Gebbia and Giraud de Ohoven, but after she kills a bee she has offended Gebbia. Kyle finds herself in the hot seat at Gebbia's luncheon after Glanville brings up the tabloid accusations about her husband's cheating. Kyle gets into a heated argument with Glanville in Palm Springs after Glanville riles Giraud de Ohoven up. On the trip after Foster attempts to help resolve Glanville and Kyle's issue, Kyle is left in tears and leaves the table. Kyle hosts a fashion show at her boutique and worries that Glanville and Giraud de Ohoven will cause drama as they are both walking the runway and has some important guess coming such as her former costar from Halloween, Jamie Lee Curtis and Lisa Rinna. Kyle attends Gebbia's annual pool party despite their shaky friendship and offends Gebbia after mistakenly sees her new tattoo as the Jewish star. Kyle co-host a joint party with Vanderpump for their husband. At the dinner Kyle is confronted by Gebbia on her alleged ignorance and uses a word that fires Gebbia up. Kyle continue to grow closer to Glanville and the two strengthen their bond when Glanville confides in Kyle over her doubts in her and her friendship with Vanderpump. Kyle reveals to Giraud de Ohoven that she think Gebbia has cast a spell on her because she received some strange, spooky words on her computer. Kyle breaks Giraud de Ohoven's trust after she reveals some information about her father to the rest of the group. Kim and her sister Kyle catch up to watch the recent episode of Vanderpump on Dancing with the Stars, after witnessing the faint the pair deem it insincere and claim it was staged. Kim and her sisters, Kyle and Kathy, attend her daughter's high school graduation. Unable to teach her dog discipline, Kim sends her dog, Kinglsey, off to doggy boarding school. Kim hosts a luau for her daughter who is leaving to go to college, but isn't happy by the state that Gebbia and Glanville arrive in- tipsy and nauseous. During the reunion, Kim confronts Vanderpump on her feelings and takes side with Glanville and Foster. Glanville continues to move into her new home and her mom arrives from Sacramento to help her settle in. At Gebbia's luncheon Glanville brings up the tabloids in regards to Kyle's marriage. At a circus school with Kim, Glanville reveals she believes Kyle is calling her a bully in the tabloids. During a day of shopping, Glanville reveals to Vanderpump that her and Gebbia had kissed. In Palm Springs, Glanville reveals to all the ladies about the kiss, which Gebbia isn't happy about and later, Glanville provokes Giraud de Ohoven by calling her a bunch of names which results to Glanville getting into an argument with Kyle. During the trip, Foster insists on the Kyle and Glanville resolving their issues, which result in Kyle leaving the table in tears. Still on the trip, Glanville receives an unexpected phone calls and is informed her beloved dog is missing. Glanville in infuriated after Giraud de Ohoven relates it to her. During a fine-dining night at Fosters, Glanville begins to insult Giraud de Ohoven. Glanville is confronted by Giraud de Ohoven at Vanderpump's restaurant, which involved a lot of swearing and leaves Vanderpump's staff in awe. After drinking and pole- dancing, Glanville arrives nauseous at Kim's luau for he daughter's leaving for college. Glanville takes a trip to Sacramento to promote her book, but invites Foster along as she is nervous about seeing her estranged father. Glanville who has grown closer to Kyle, reveals to both Richards sisters that is having doubts with her friendship with Vanderpump and they all discuss that Vanderpump isn't easy to be friends with. At Foster's going away party for her daughter, Glanville begins to a void Vanderpump. Glanville and Foster confront Vanderpump on their feeling in Puerto Rico, which doesn't go well resulting in both Vanderpump and her husband leaving. At the Beverly Hills 100th anniversary, Glanville once again confronts Vanderpump which results in some honest truth that may prevent the friendship from moving forward. With the ending of the friendship, Glanville is emotional as she has also lost the friendship with Vanderpump's husband. Foster, who has recently been diagnosed with Lyme disease faces a surgical procedure in order to battle her new diagnosis. Foster's mother and brother arrive from the Netherlands and just in time to witness Foster's husband, David Foster, receive his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. During the Palm Springs trip, Foster inserts herself between Kyle and Glanville and encourages the two to resolve their issues. Kyle leaves the able in tears and Foster follows and comforts her. Foster hosts a night of fine-dining with music supplied by The Tenors and divides the group in two with her "dream team" place cards. After the intense dinner at Vanderpump's restaurant, Foster reprimands Glanville on her behavior. Foster joins Glanville for a trip to Sacramento, to help mediate Glanville and her estranged father. Foster invites the ladies to her Malibu home for some sentimental painting but after Vanderpump cancels last minute, she begins to question their friendship. In Puerto Rico, Foster and Glanville confront Vanderpump on the doubt in the friendship, Foster then fins herself in an argument with Vanderpump's husband after he calls her stupid. At the Beverly Hills 100th anniversary, Foster is once again in argument with Vanderpump's husband Ken. She confronts him on his behavior and gets defensive when he touches her arm. Gebbia is offended by Kyle at a lunch after Kyle kills a bee. Hosts a luncheon at her Gothic-inspired home and invites the ladies to attend. She reveals she is practicing which, but Kyle's curiosity by asking too many question upset her. During a trip to Palm springs, Gebbia confronts Kyle on a list of issues she has with her, and later receives a lot of eye rolls from the ladies when talking about her faith. Gebbia takes her mother-in-law lingerie shopping for her husband. Gebbia attends a pole-dancing class under the influence and later goes to Kim's luau for her daughter tipsy. Gebbia hosts her annual pool part with the women invited . She shows Kyle her new tattoo of the pentagram on the back of her neck but is taken aback when Kyle thinks it's the Jewish star. Later at Foster's home for some painting, Gebbia finds herself in a heated discussion with Giraud de Ohoven over her lack of belief in witch craft. Gebbia warns her that she will believe once she sees which results in the accusations that Gebbia has cursed Giraud de Ohoven's family but Gebbia denies her accusations. During a joint birthday dinner for Kyle and Vanderpump's husband, Gebbia confronts Kyle on the way she has offend, including the ignorance in regarding her faith and her ignorance with her tattoo. The argument is intensified when Kyle uses the term "anti- Semitic". Gebbia co-hosts a business party with her husband and has uninvited Kyle. Gebbia once again is accused of casting spells when Kyle reveals her screensaver on her computer acted weird, which results in Kyle and Giraud de Ohoven not inviting her on the trip to Puerto Rico. Gebbia who wasn't invited on the trip to Puerto Rico, console an emotional Vanderpump after she unexpectedly return early. Giraud de Ohoven is invited by Kyle to attend a lunch with Gebbia, Kyle and Giraud de Ohoven bond but it's clear that Gebbia is the odd one out after the two rejoice in killing a bee. Giraud de Ohoven gets in to an argument with Glanville after Glanville calls her "Jaclyn" because her name Joyce sounds like "a big, fat pig." After being insulted by Glanville at Foster's night of fine-ding, Giraud de Ohoven and her husband express their anger and contempt for Glanville on the limo ride home. During a dinner ad Vanderpump's restaurant, Glanville and Giraud de Ohoven get into a yelling match involving a lot of curse words over Glanville's recent behavior. The two later attempt to resolve their issues at Kim's luau but leave with mixed results. During a day of painting at Foster's she reveals she doesn't believe in witch craft, and after Gebbia's warnings, she starts to believe them when she thinks Gebbia has cursed her husband. Giraud de Ohoven bond with Kyle over feeling like Gebbia has cast a spell on them both. Giraud de Ohoven reveals to Kyle that her father has died, but when Kyle reveals that the group Giraud de Ohoven ends up feeling betrayed. RHOBH S4 Reunion Seating Arrangement Viewer's Left HOST Viewer's Right Andy Cohen ==Reception== ===U.S. television ratings=== The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills season four premiered to 1.59 million total viewers and was surpassed on December 2, 2013, with episode five which aired to 1.9 million viewers, that marked a season-to- date high in all key demographics. Season four saw a new ratings high with episode seven, which earned over 2 million total viewers and 1.1 rating (18–49 aged viewers), that was a 9 percent increase. Episode nine, that aired on December 30, 2013, marked the highest-rated episode of the season with 1.7 rating (18–49 aged viewers) and 3 million total viewers. During its run, season four was averaging 2.5 million total viewers, but by the end of the season it increased to 2.7 million total viewers (1.6 million 18–49 aged viewers). ==Episodes== ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:2013 American television seasons Category:2014 American television seasons Beverly Hills (season 4) |
Scrabble is an American television game show based upon the Scrabble board game. Muriel Green of Exposure Unlimited developed the idea for a television game show based upon the board game concept. During 1983, Green convinced Selchow and Righter, who at that time owned the Scrabble board game, to license Exposure Unlimited to produce the game show. Exposure Unlimited co- produced the show with Reg Grundy Productions, and licensed the show to NBC. Scrabble aired on NBC from July 2, 1984, to March 23, 1990, and again from January 18 to June 11, 1993. Chuck Woolery hosted the program. Jay Stewart was the announcer for the first year. Charlie Tuna replaced him in the summer of 1985 and remained through the original run and the entirety of the 1993 revival. ==Game play== All words used in the game were between five and nine letters in length. For each word, Woolery gave a clue that often involved a pun or play on words (e.g., "Some people want him to get off their case" for "detective"). Viewers could win a Scrabble T-shirt by submitting a word and clue and having them selected for use in the show's opening title sequence. ===Crossword Round=== The first round of every game was the Crossword round, in which two contestants competed to guess words as they were laid out on a computer-generated Scrabble board. Each matchup in Crossword was always male vs. female and was played until one contestant won by solving three words. Originally, the Crossword round was played to determine who would face the show’s returning champion, if there was one, in the Scrabble Sprint. In cases where there was no returning champion, two Crosswords were played and the winners faced each other in the Sprint to determine the new champion. Beginning on September 29, 1986, as part of a broader format change, the show began featuring two Crossword rounds per episode. The winners would square off in the Sprint to determine the winner. The change was made as part of a special tournament that was taking place at the time. Once the show returned to regular play in December 1986, the first Crossword of the day began featuring the returning champion. A horizontal or vertical row of squares was outlined to indicate the number of letters, with one already filled in and referred to as the letter the contestants were "building on". The first word of each game was oriented horizontally and built on a letter placed in the center square of the board. Each subsequent word built on one of the letters in the previous word and was laid out perpendicular to it (i.e., the first word was played horizontally, the second vertically, and so on). If a game went on so long that the board became too crowded to hold any more words, it was cleared and the next was played horizontally from a letter in the center square. Initially, the winner of a backstage coin toss got to start each game. When the second Crossword was introduced and the champion was inserted into the first game, his/her opponent started. The second game used a coin toss to determine who began. The contestant with initial control of a word could either try to guess it immediately or draw two numbered tiles from a rack. Each tile represented a letter, which was revealed on a screen when the contestant inserted it into a slot at his/her desk. Once a contestant had drawn, he/she could only guess after playing at least one of the two letters. The number of tiles available for any given word was always two more than the number of letters it contained. These tiles represented all of the remaining letters in the word, plus three "stopper" letters that did not belong in it. When a contestant played a letter that belonged in the word, it appeared in its proper place. Playing a stopper or giving an incorrect guess ended the turn, and the opponent could either guess or draw enough tiles to put a total of two letters in play. Once all but one letter had been filled in, the contestant in control had to guess. A miss gave the opponent a chance to solve the word; if he/she also missed, the last letter was filled in and neither player scored the word. For each word after the first, the trailing contestant had initial control. If the score was tied, control went to the contestant who had not solved the previous word. If all three stoppers were revealed during a word, the contestant that had not played the last one was given a chance to guess. If he/she declined to do so, a rapid-fire game called Speedword was played. The remaining letters would be automatically placed, one at a time, until someone rang in with a correct guess; however, a miss locked that contestant out of the rest of the word. If both contestants missed, or if neither one rang in after every letter but one had been placed, the word was revealed and thrown out. If a contestant gave an incorrect guess after his/her opponent played the third stopper, the opponent was allowed to play Speedword alone. Speedword was also played if a match went to a fifth word without a winner. Later, once the format changed, Speedword would be played if time ran short during a match. During the original show format, each match was played to its conclusion. A match could begin at any time and resume on the next episode. Originally, when this happened a fresh board would always be used when the match resumed. This later changed to having the same board in place for an entire match regardless of whether or not it straddled. ====Pot==== In the first week of the show, a cumulative money pot was used in the Crossword round. Each letter placed in a normal square was worth $25, with blue squares adding $50 and pink squares $100. The winner of the round collected all the money in the pot. After that week, the Crossword winner received a flat $500. ====Bonus squares==== Beginning in October 1984, contestants could win a cash bonus by placing a letter in a colored square and immediately solving the word. Blue squares awarded $500, while pink squares awarded $1,000. Beginning in 1985, the bonus rule was added to Speedword, provided a contestant guessed the word right after a letter was placed into a bonus square. Also, if a word was being built on a letter in a bonus square, the contestant who started the word could win the bonus with an immediate solve. If a contestant either placed a letter in a bonus square and gave an incorrect guess, or could not solve the word after placing the next-to-last letter in a bonus square, the opponent could win the bonus with a correct guess. Both contestants kept any bonus money they won, regardless of who won the Crossword round. For the 1993 version, money won from bonus squares was added to the Bonus Sprint jackpot instead of being awarded directly to the contestant. ====Spelling format==== The Crossword rules and payout structure were changed for approximately three months in 1985. Once the contestant in control believed they could solve a word, they hit their buzzer and then had to fill in all the missing letters in order, one at a time. A mistake turned control over to the opponent and left all correctly given letters on the board; the opponent could then either draw/play tiles or try to complete the solution. The accumulating pot from the earliest episodes returned, but money was added to it only while a contestant was giving letters after buzzing in. Regular, blue, and pink squares respectively added $50, $100, and $200 (later $500), and the first contestant to solve three words won the entire pot. While it likely had little to nothing to do with the eventual dropping of the spelling format after three months, one match played during this time featured two contestants who made repeated errors while trying to spell the word “mosquitos”. A clip of the incident has made the rounds on various blooper specials over the years. ===Scrabble Sprint=== The Scrabble Sprint round was the second part of the game and determined the show's champion. In this round, the goal was to solve a set of words of increasing length as quickly as possible. There were two different formats. From the premiere until September 26, 1986, the Crossword rounds were played to determine who faced the reigning champion in the Sprint Round. If there was no champion, two Crossword rounds were played and the winners of those rounds faced off to determine a new champion. ====First format==== In the first format, both the champion and the Crossword winner played separate sets of words against the clock. The Crossword winner played first and chose one of two envelopes, leaving the other for the champion. A row of blanks was shown, and Woolery read a clue. Once the contestant stated that he/she was ready, the clock began to count up from zero and two letters were displayed, which the contestant called one at a time to place in the word. Additional letters were then displayed one at a time, but as in Crossword, the last letter was not given. Every displayed letter appeared in the word; no stoppers were used in the Sprint. Before trying to guess the word, the contestant had to press a plunger in order to stop the clock. If the guess was correct, the remaining letters were filled in; if not, or if the contestant did not immediately offer a guess, a 10-second penalty was added to the clock and play continued with the same word. Once all but one of the letters were placed, the contestant had five seconds to guess. If he/she either missed the word or did not press the plunger, the word was thrown out and an alternate was played. Once the Crossword winner correctly solved three words, the champion took his/her turn with the unused envelope. The clock counted toward zero, starting at the Crossword winner's final time, and any penalties were deducted from it. If the champion completed his/her words before time ran out, he/she won the Scrabble Sprint; if not, the opponent became the new champion. The prize for winning was originally three times the pot from the preceding Crossword round, but was changed to a flat $1,500 after the first week. A contestant received a $20,000 bonus for winning five consecutive Sprints, and a further $20,000 for winning 10; in the latter case, the contestant also retired as an undefeated champion. In March 1985, both contestants began using the same set of words. The champion was placed in isolation while the Crossword winner played, then tried to beat the time set. In addition, after a contestant called one of the two displayed letters, the other one disappeared and two new letters were presented as long as there were at least three blanks left in the word. The contestant was shown only one letter when there were two blanks. This change remained in place for the remainder of the series run, and a fourth word was later added to the Sprint. In addition to the contestants now using the same set of words, the Sprint bonus rules changed. Champions had their total winnings increased to $20,000 for five Sprint victories, or to $40,000 for 10, still retiring undefeated in the latter case. ====Second format==== On September 29, 1986, Scrabble began a 13-week-long contest titled The $100,000 All-American Scrabble Tournament. This tournament was conducted with a different format from usual Scrabble matches, and these changes were eventually made permanent. A total of 188 contestants were selected via a nationwide search, with four competing on each episode in preliminary matches from Monday through Thursday over the first 12 weeks. Two Crossword rounds were played, each worth $500 and with the bonus square payouts in effect, and each was followed by a four-word Scrabble Sprint. The first Crossword winner set a time for the second one to beat, and the Sprint winner received $1,000 and advanced to a quarterfinal match played on Friday of that week. The winner of the Sprint round in that match received an additional $5,000 and advanced to the semifinals, held during the 13th and final week of the tournament. Only three episodes were broadcast during the week of November 24-28, due to the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade and a special block of Saturday morning cartoons airing on Thursday and Friday of that week, respectively. A quarterfinal match was held on the following Monday (December 1) to choose a semifinalist from those three preliminary winners; over the remainder of that week (December 2-5), three more preliminary matches and a quarterfinal were played in similar fashion. Four wild-card semifinalists were chosen from the eliminated contestants, and they and the 12 quarterfinal winners competed in four semifinal matches on Monday through Thursday of the final week. The four winners advanced to a final match that Friday; the winner of the Sprint received a grand prize of $100,000, while the runner-up received $10,000. With slight adjustments, this tournament structure became the new permanent Scrabble format on December 29, 1986. As noted above, each episode now featured four contestants and two Crossword games worth $500 each. The champion played in the first Crossword, whose winner set a Sprint time for the second winner to beat, and the Sprint winner received $1,000 and took or retained the championship. With this format change, each episode of Scrabble became a self-contained competition and straddling games were eliminated. ===Bonus Sprint=== With the adoption of the new format came a new final round, the Bonus Sprint, which gave the day's champion a chance to win a cash jackpot. The champion played two words, one each of at least six and seven letters, under the standard Sprint rules and was given 10 seconds to solve them both. Doing so awarded the jackpot, which began at $5,000 and increased by $1,000 for every game it went unclaimed. If the champion gave an incorrect guess or failed to respond immediately after pressing the plunger, the round ended. Champions remained on the show until they lost in either the Crossword or Sprint round or had played the Bonus Sprint five times. When the series returned in 1993, the Bonus Sprint jackpot began at $1,000 and increased only if a contestant landed on a blue or pink square in the Crossword game and solved the word immediately, adding either $500 or $1,000 respectively. No cash bonuses were given directly to contestants in this version. ==Licensed merchandise== A board game based on this version was released by Selchow & Righter as TV Scrabble in 1987. It was the only home version which was originally a board game itself until Trivial Pursuit: Game Show released by Parker Brothers in 1993 and Celebrity Name Game released by Playmonster (formerly Patch) in 2016. ==Broadcast history== Scrabble premiered in the 11:30 am time slot on July 2, 1984. The time slot had been occupied by the Bob Eubanks-hosted game show Dream House for the past 20 months. The show went up against the highly-rated CBS game show The Price Is Right and four ABC game shows (Family Feud, All-Star Blitz, Double Talk, and Bargain Hunters) in its time slot during the first three years of its run. On September 7, 1987, Scrabble was moved to the 12:30p.m. time slot in order to make room for the daytime version of Win, Lose or Draw (replacing Wordplay, which had been canceled by NBC earlier that summer). The competitors in that time slot were the soap operas The Young and the Restless and Loving. The show lasted years in that time slot, as it was moved to the 10:00a.m. time slot on March 27, 1989 after both Sale of the Century and Super Password ended their runs. The 12:30p.m. time slot was taken over by the soap opera Generations. Scrabble aired against the CBS version of Family Feud in that time slot, and remained there until its final episode aired on March 23, 1990. Three days later, the show's time slot was occupied by reruns of 227. In late 1992, NBC announced that it would return the 3:00p.m. time slot to its affiliates as a result of the cancellation of the soap opera Santa Barbara. After Santa Barbara aired its final episode on January 15, 1993, NBC took back the 12:00p.m. hour from its affiliates and decided to program a revival of Scrabble and the new game show Scattergories in that hour. Both shows began airing three days later. Most affiliates of the Big Three networks had aired local newscasts or other syndicated programs in the noon hour since the mid-1970s, and as a result both Scrabble and Scattergories were not cleared by all NBC affiliates. Both shows did not perform well against local newscasts, The Young and the Restless, and Loving on affiliates that aired both shows in the noon hour. As a result, NBC canceled both Scrabble and Scattergories after twenty-one weeks of episodes were produced. The final episodes for both programs aired on June 11, 1993. ==International versions== ===Germany=== *RTL plus (as phone-in quiz show.) ===Netherlands=== *RTL4 (as phone-in quiz show.) ===Indonesia=== *Global TV (Indonesia) (as Main Kata (2011), Masih Main Kata (2012) & Main Kata Indonesia (2019)) ==References== ==External links== * Category:1984 American television series debuts Category:1990 American television series endings Category:1993 American television series debuts Category:1993 American television series endings Category:1980s American game shows Category:1990s American game shows Category:English-language television shows Category:NBC original programming Category:Scrabble on television Category:Television shows based on board games Category:Television series by Fremantle (company) Category:Television series by Reg Grundy Productions Category:American television series revived after cancellation Category:Television shows based on Hasbro toys |
thumb|upright=1.1|Jahnsfelde manor-house The German ancient noble family of Pfuel (also Pfuhl or Phull) arrived in Brandenburg in the year 926 and later widened their influence to Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Württemberg, Westphalia, Eastern Europe and Sweden. Its members today bear the name "Grafen Bruges-von Pfuel". == Family line == Ancestors' list for direct paternal main line:Der Mannesstamm * Henricus de Puele, c. 1215 * Heino de Puele (1282–1307) * Heino von Pule (1306–1349) * Strassen von Pfuel (died 1375) * Otto von Pfuel (1375–1420) * Bertram von Pfuel (born. c. 1405–1410, died 1482), 1440 to 1477 documented * Friedrich von Pfuel (1460–1527) * Bertram von Pfuel (born 1510/1515, died 1574), 1531 to 1574 documented * Friedrich von Pfuel (1545–1594), 1577 to 1587 documented * Bertram von Pfuel (1577–1639), 1597 to 1638 documented * Friedrich Heino von Pfuel (1620–1661) * Christian Friedrich von Pfuel (1653–1702 near Kaiserswerth), Killed in action * Hempo Ludwig von Pfuel (1690–1770 in Gielsdorf) * Ludwig von Pfuel (1718 in Gielsdorf – 1789 in Berlin) * Friedrich von Pfuel (1781 in Jahnsfelde – 1846 in Karlsbad) * Alexander von Pfuel (1825 in Berlin – 1898 in Jahnsfelde) * Heino von Pfuel (1871 in Jahnsfelde – 1916 in Berlin), DOW)Verlustliste: 1. Brandenburgisches Dragoner- Regiment Nr. 2. * Curt Christoph Graf Bruges-von Pfuel (1907 in Berlin – 2000 in Bonn) * Christian Friedrich Graf Bruges-von Pfuel (born 1942 in Jahnsfelde) * Frederic Alexander Graf Bruges-von Pfuel (born 1978 in Munich) == Estates == === Brandenburg === * 1367 Falkenberg * 1375 Werftpfuhl, Altranft * pre-1413 Frankenfelde, Bliesdorf, Reichenow, Möglin, Wollenberg, Schönfeld, Reichenberg, Biesow * 1445 Wriezen * 1449 Jahnsfelde * 1450 Gielsdorf, Grünthal, Leuenberg, Schulzendorf * 1472 Trebnitz * 1480 Quilitz (Neuhardenberg) * pre-1500 Tempelfelde, Torgelow, Tiefensee, Steinbeck, Quappendorf, Ruhlsdorf, Garzau, Garzin * 1529 Friedersdorf * 1536 Wilkendorf * pre-1663 Buckow, Hohenfinow, Prötzel, Hasenholz, Dahmsdorf, Obersdorf, Kienitz, Münchehofe === Berlin === * Strausberg * 1472 Biesdorf * 1609 Marzahn * 1655 Dahlem === Saxony-Anhalt === * 1641 Helfta * 1654 Polleben * 1664 Eisleben, Wimmelburg * 1668 Seeben, Muldenstein * 1680 Nedlitz === Baden-Württemberg === * 1787 Obermönsheim === Pomerania === * 1827 Schwerin * 1838 Elmershagen === Bavaria === * 1991 Tüßling * 1991 Gut Mamhofen (Starnberg) File:JahnsfeldeSchloss.JPG|Jahnsfelde manor-house (1449–1945) File:Jahnsfelde, Schlosskirche.jpg|Family burial ground, Jahnsfelde File:Schloss Altranft.jpg|Altranft castle (1375–1652) File:Rittergut Schulzendorf Sammlung Duncker.jpg|Schulzendorf castle (1450–1837) File:Schloss Friedersdorf Sammlung Duncker.jpg|Friedersdorf castle (1529–1652) File:Altlandsberg asv2022-09 img15 Wilkendorf Luftbild.jpg|Wilkendorf castle (1536–1900) File:Helfta, Klosterkirche St. Maria.jpg|Helfta Convent (1641–1712) File:Buckow Schloss.jpg|Buckow castle, built in 1663 by Georg Adam von Pfuel, 1688 inherited by his son-in-law, Field-Marshal Heino Heinrich Graf von Flemming File:Klosterkirche Wimmelburg.JPG|Wimmelburg monastery (1664–1798) File:Rittergut Muldenstein Sammlung Duncker.jpg|Muldenstein manor (1668–1822) File:Schloss Obermönsheim (Schloss Hohengeissberg), Schloss der Freiherren von Gaisberg, Freiherr Eduard von Phull-Rieppur starb auf Schloss Obermönsheim im Januar 1918 - panoramio.jpg|Obermönsheim castle, Baden- Württemberg (1787–1918) File:Tüßling Schloss Gartenseite.JPG|Tüßling castle, Bavaria (since 1991) File:Mamhofen, Kirche St. Jakob und Philipp- HB-01.jpg|Mamhofen estate, Starnberg, Bavaria (since 1991) == Members == Notable members of the family include: * Adam von Pfuel (1604–1659), Swedish General, later Privy Councillor and General-War commissar in Danish service; son of Adam I. (1562–1626) * Adam Dietrich von Pfuhl, electoral Colonel, Domherr to the Prince-elector of Brandenburg (until 1671), member of the Fruitbearing Society. * Adam Friedrich von Pfuhl (1643–c. 1707), electoral Colonel, owner of the Salt evaporation pond in Kötzschau. * Adam Heinrich Christoph, electoral Colonel, as well as service at the court of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha; hereditary lord of Polleben and Stedern. * Alexander Friedrich von Pfuel (1825–1898), royal Prussian Ritterschaftsrat, Knight of Justice of the Order of Saint John, Lord of Jahnsfelde; married to Anna (1835–1918), daughter of Carl Graf von Brühl, the Superintendent general of the Prussian royal theatres; son of Lieutenant General Friedrich Heinrich Ludwig von Pfuel, as well as father of dragoon officer Heino Friedrich (1871–1916), Lord of Jahnsfelde, DOW in World War I (1916). * Anna-Elisabeth von Pfuel (1909–2005), aunt of Prince Claus of the Netherlands, great-aunt of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands; wife of Julius Freiherr von dem Bussche-Haddenhausen (1906–1977), who was the brother of Baroness Gösta von dem Bussche- Haddenhausen (1902–1996); sister of Curt-Christoph von Pfuel. * Anna Katharine von Pfuel († 1657), daughter of Adam I. (1562–1626); mother of Georg Friedrich von Creytzen; great-grandmother of Countess Katharina Dorothea Finck of Finckenstein (1700–1728), progenitrix of several European imperial and royal families; great-great-grandmother of Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig- Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, father of King Christian IX of Denmark. * Anna Maria von Phul (1786–1823), American artist * Arndt Friedrich von Pfuel (1603–1673), Prussian lieutenant colonel; Lord of Schulzendorf, Schmöckwitz and Jahnsfelde. * August Karl von Pfuhl (1794–1874), royal Prussian major general; father of Lieutenant General Emil von Pfuhl * August von Phull (* 1769), royal Wurttembergian Chamberlain, Premier Captain of the Palace Guard (Ober-Schloßhauptmann); son of General of the Artillery (Generalfeldzeugmeister) Friedrich August Heinrich Leberecht von Pfuhl (1735–1818) * August Christoph Adolf von Pfuhl (* 1768), royal treasurer, later senior forestry official (Oberforstmeister) near Trier; son of General Ernst Ludwig von Pfuhl (1716–1798) thumb|Children of the Pfuel family, mid 17th century * Barbara von Pfuel († 1637), mother of Field Marshal Heino Heinrich Graf von Flemming who was married to Dorothea Elisabeth von Pfuel († 1740), daughter of General Georg Adam von Pfuel (1618–1672); grandmother of Adam Friedrich von Flemming, Chamberlain to Augustus II the Strong, and General Johann Georg von Flemming, Saxon electoral Chamberlain. * Carl Ludwig von Pfuel (1725−1804), royal Prussian major general. * Carl Ludwig Wilhelm August von Phull (1723–1793), general of the infantry, Kingdom of Württemberg; father of Lieutenant General Karl Ludwig von Phull (1757–1826) * Catharina Elisabeth von Pfuel (1598–1636), Lady-in-waiting of Maria Eleonora of Sweden; wife of Johan Banér (1596–1641), Swedish Field Marshal in the Thirty Years' War. (see Friedrich Schiller: Wallenstein's Death); sister of Adam von Pfuel (1604–1659) * Christian Friedrich von Pfuel (1653–1702), royal Prussian colonel, Lord of Gielsdorf, Wilkendorf and Jahnsfelde. Killed in action near Kaiserswerth during the War of the Spanish Succession. * Christian-Friedrich von Pfuel, (born 1942), lawyer, protagonist in Sky du Monts 2003 novel Prinz und Paparazzi; grandson of Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg, General der Panzertruppe, Commander-in-chief of Panzer Group West, as well as Inspector General of the Armoured Forces during World War II. * Christian Ludwig von Pfuel (1696–1756), royal Prussian major general of the Infantry. * Curt Christoph von Pfuel (died 1781), High Treasurer (Oberkämmerer) to the Elector of Saxony, highest Privy Councillor and General-War commissar. * Curt- Christoph von Pfuel (1907–2000), Dr.jur., Prussian assessor, member of the Council of Europe, last Fideikommiss, Lord of Jahnsfelde. Married to Blanche Freiin Geyr von Schweppenburg; daughter of Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg. Character in Marie Vassiltchikov's Berlin Diaries, 1940-1945. * Curt Wolf von Pfuel (1849–1936), royal Prussian general of the cavalry, first aide-de-camp to Wilhelm II, German Emperor, Military attaché to Spain, Inspector-General of Military education and training, Chairman of the Central Committee of the German National Red Cross during World War I. * Emil Karl von Pfuel (1821–1894), royal Prussian lieutenant general. * Ernst von Pfuel (1609/10–1659), Doctor of Law, Imperial Count Palatine of Berlin, Advocate at the Kammergericht. * Ernst von Pfuel (1779–1866), royal Prussian general of the infantry, governor of the Canton of Neuchâtel, Governor of Berlin, Cologne and the Prussian sector of Paris, member of the Prussian National Assembly, Prussian Minister of War as well as Prime Minister of Prussia. * Ernst von Pfuhl (1768–1828), Minister of State of the Kingdom of Württemberg. * Ernst Ludwig von Pfuhl (1716−1798), royal Prussian General of the Infantry, Governor of Spandau Citadel, Inspector-General of the Brandenburg Infantry. * Frank (Francis) von Phul (1835–1922), captain of the Confederate States Army serving as a staff officer to the generals Lewis Henry Little, Daniel M. Frost, John Bullock Clark and John S. Marmaduke, as well as Aide-de-camp of general Braxton Bragg. * Franz Wilhelm von Pfuel (1733−1808), royal Prussian major general and Commander of Danzig, later General in russian service. * Friedrich von Pfuel (1462–1527), knight and electoral state-captain, as well as Privy Councillor to the Dukes of Mecklenburg. * Friedrich August Heinrich Leberecht von Pfuhl (died 1818), royal Wurttembergian General of the Artillery (Generalfeldzeugmeister), Governor of Stuttgart. * Friedrich Heino von Pfuel (1620–1661), Rittmeister, service at the royal Court of Christina, Queen of Sweden. * Friedrich Heinrich Ludwig von Pfuel (1781–1846), royal Prussian lieutenant general, Commanding officer of Saarlouis, as well as Commanding officer of Spandau. * Friedrich von Phull (Karl August Friedrich Freiherr von Phull; 1767–1840), general of the infantry, Commander-in-chief of the Kingdom of Württemberg during the French Revolutionary Wars. * Georg Adam von Pfuel (1618–1672), royal Prussian General of the Cavalry, Governor of Spandau Citadel, Lord of Groß- und Klein-Buckow (Märkische Schweiz). *Georg Dietrich von Pfuhl (1723–1782), Royal Prussian Colonel, Commanding officer of the 13. Infantry Regiment, Knight of the Order of the Pour le Mérite (1762); married to Leopoldine Anne of Anhalt-Dessau (1738–1808), daughter of Prince William Gustav of Anhalt-Dessau, heir to the principality of Anhalt-Dessau and eldest son of Leopold I. * George Ehrenreich von Pfuhl (born 1646), Landdrost of the Principality of Lippe, Lord of Helfta and Polleben. * George von Phul Jones (1872–1968), American politician (Republican Party), Representative from Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania House of Representatives * Gustav von Pfuel (1829–1897), Prussian Junker and politician, member of the Prussian House of Lords, father-in-law of Reichskanzler Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg. Senior civil servant of the Kingdom of Hanover; from 1868–1872 district president (Kreishauptmann) and Chief Constable of the district of Celle; Prefect of the department Seine-Maritime in Rouen, as well as Civil Commissioner (Zivilkommissar) of the departments Aisne and Ardennes during the Franco- Prussian War. * Gustav Adolf von Pfuhl, member of the Fruitbearing Society. * Gustav Adolph von Pfuel (1632–1683), Valet de chambre of William III of England; judge of Nödlitz * Hans Emil Reinhold von Pfuel (* 1819), royal Prussian Chamberlain. * Heino de Pule (1282–1307), hereditary Knight and Vogt in service to the Margraves of Brandenburg. * Heino von Pfuel, in the year 1440 electoral Chancellor in service to Frederick of Altmark, Margrave of the Brandenburg, as well as to Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg; Captain of Oderberg. * Heino von Pfuel (1550–1602), electoral Colonel appointed by John George, Prince-elector of Brandenburg. * Hempo Ludwig von Pfuel (1690–1770), royal Prussian Privy Councillor and Major, President of the Kriegs- u. Domänenkammer Halberstadt, Lord of Jahnsfelde. * Henne de Pul, in the year 1337 Knight in the retinue of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor. * Henne wan den Pule, in the year 1343 Dengesmann Advocatus. * Henning von Pfuhl, Privy Councillor of Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg(1505–1571) and "known as a well-deserved hero". thumb|The Steamer Henry Von Phul (1860) * Henry von Phul (1784–1874), American pioneer businessmen in St. Louis' early history; son of Johann Wilhelm von Phull (Phul) (1739–1793), Brother of Anna Maria von Phul (1786–1823), father of Frank (Francis) von Phul (1835–1922); von Phul married in 1816 Rosalie Saugrain (1797–1787), daughter of Antoine Saugrain (1763–1820) * Heyno Dietloff von Pfuel (1652–1734), Dike-reeve of the Oderbruch. * Hildbrandt von Pfuel, in the year 1260 mayor of Wismar. * Johanna Christina von Pfuel (1675–1735), great-great-grandmother of Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden; great-grandmother of Louise Caroline of Hochberg, second wife of Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden (see: Kaspar Hauser) * Johann Ernst von Pfuel (1640–1705), Lutheran Doctor Theologiae, Prof. eloquentiae et poeseos in Greifswald, Rector of the "Fürstliche Pädagogium" Stettin, court chaplain to the Duke of Mecklenburg, member of the ecclesiastical council of Mecklenburg-Güstrow. * Johann Gottlieb von Pfuel (1653–1681) Lieutenant colonel; Sohn des Adam von Pfuel (1604–1659) * Juliane Sophie von Pfuel (1688–1749), great-grandmother of Reichskanzler Otto von Bismarck; married to Jobst Ernst von Schönfeld (1680–1725) * Johann Wilhelm von Phull (1739-1793), Captain in general George Washington's staff, emigrated to America in 1764; father of the American artist Anna Maria von Phul (1786-1823) and Henry von Phul (1784-1974); son of Johann Phillip von Pfuel (1713-1748) and Wilhelmina Louisa von Hoff (1705-1780). * Karl Ludwig von Phull (1757–1826), Prussian general who served as chief of the General Staff of King Frederick William III of Prussia in the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt. In Russian service, Phull successfully advocated for a scorched earth policy during Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Character in Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace. * Kurt Bertram von Pfuel (1590–1658), statesman and politician. Valet de chambre to George William, Prince-elector of Brandenburg, General-War commissar and highest Privy Councillor to Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg – Duke of Prussia. * Ludwig von Pfuel (1718−1789), royal Prussian major general und Hofmarschall to Frederick William I of Prussia. * Ludwig Dietrich von Pfuhl (1669–1745), field marshal and commander of Kehl Fortress during the War of the Polish Succession; grandson of Adam von Pfuel (1604–1659). * Martha von Pfuel (1865–1914), wife of Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg (1856–1921), German politician and statesman who served as Chancellor of the German Empire from 1909 to 1917. * Maximilian von Pfuel (1854–1930), royal Prussian lieutenant general. * Melchior von Pfuel (died 1548), "the Alchemist and Necromancer", (online) Doctor of Law, electoral Captain at Zossen, Chancellor and Privy Councillor to the Prince-elector of Brandenburg. * Nickel von Pfuel (died 1492), Dr. iuris utriusque, Schloßhauptmann and Privy Councillor to the Prince-elector of Brandenburg, Knight and military commander, Vogt of Wriezen, judge at the Kammergericht, owner of Berlin castle. * Otto-Friedrich von Pfuel (1731–1811), royal Prussian Haupt-Ritterschaftsdirektor. * Richard Balduin Ernst von Pfuel (1827–1900), royal Prussian legation councilor, German Consul- General and Ambassador; 1872–1876 German Consul-General in Bucharest, 1876–1888 Imperial Ambassador at the Swedish royal court; Lord of Gielsdorf. * Stephanie von Pfuel, née Michel von Tüßling (born 1961), mayor of Tüßling (CSU); daughter of Karl Freiherr Michel von Tüßling, Schutzstaffel (SS) officer who served in the Nazi government of German dictator Adolf Hitler, in the staff of Heinrich Himmler and the SS Main Office; ex-wife of Christian- Friedrich von Pfuel, (born 1942). * Valtin von Pfuel (1587–1661), General-War commissar to the Prince-elector of Brandenburg, as well as High-Commissioner of the Barnim. * Werner von Pfuel (died 1482), Hofmarschall to the princely court, later Vogt of Küstrin and Privy Councillor (Geheimrat) to the Prince- elector of Brandenburg, judge at the Royal Courts, Knight of the Dominican Order. * Wolf Kurt von Pfuel (1809–1866), royal Prussian major general. ADAM- VON-PFUEL.jpg|Adam von Pfuel (1604–1659) Anna Maria von Phul.jpg|Anna Maria von Phul (1786–1823) Christian FriedrichPfuel1653.jpg|Christian Friedrich von Pfuel (1653–1702) ChristianLudwig-VON-PFUEL1696.jpg|Christian Ludwig von Pfuel (1696–1756) GeneralKurtvonPfuel.jpg|Curt von Pfuel (1849–1936) Emilvonpfuel.JPG|Emil von Pfuhl (1821–1894) ErnstPfuel.jpg|Ernst von Pfuel (1779–1866) Erstludwigpfuel.jpg|Ernst Ludwig von Pfuhl (1716−1798) FriedrichHeinrichLudwigvonPfuel.jpg|Friedrich Heinrich Ludwig von Pfuel (1781–1846) GeorgAdamvonPfuel.jpg|Georg Adam von Pfuhl (1618–1672) HEINO-VON- PFUEL.jpg|Heino von Pfuel (1550–1602) Henry von Phul (1784-1874).jpg|Henry von Phul (1784–1874) Jacob von Pfuel (född 1625), löjtnant - Nationalmuseum - 39264.tif|Jacob von Pfuel (1621–1704) Kflavonphull.jpg|Karl Ludwig von Phull (1757–1826) Kurtbertrampfuel.jpg|Kurt Bertram von Pfuel (1590–1658) Ernstludwigpfuel.jpg|Ludwig von Pfuel (1718−1789) VON-PFUEL-1.jpg|Ernst Friedrich von Pfuel (1548/49–1613) VON-PFUEL-2.jpg == Literature == * Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels, Adelslexikon Band X, pp. 336f., Band 119, C. A. Starke, Limburg (Lahn) 1999, * Bernhard von Gersdorff: Preußische Köpfe – Ernst von Pfuel. Stappverlag, 1981, * Stephanie von Pfuel: Wenn schon, denn schon. LangenMüller, 2007, * Marco Schulz: Jahnsfelde Schlösser und Gärten der Mark. Freundeskreis Schlösser und Gärten der Mark, Sibylle Badstübner-Gröger (Publisher). == References == ==External links== Category:German noble families Category:Military families of Germany |
Ava Clayton Spencer (born December 15, 1954) is an American attorney and is the eighth president of Bates College. She previously served as the vice president for institutional policy at Harvard University from 2005 to 2012. Her tenure over Bates has seen a marked increase in financial assets, major campus expansion, and increased academic competitiveness. She has, however, been criticized for failing to quell biases in higher education and socioeconomic inequality. Spencer has publicly criticized U.S. president Donald Trump, Maine Governor Paul LePage, and numerous members of the U.S. Congress. ==Early life and education== Ava Clayton Spencer was born on December 15, 1954, in Concord, North Carolina, the daughter of Ava Clark Spencer and Samuel Reid Spencer, one of four children. Her father was history professor who served as the president of Mary Baldwin College from 1957 to 1968 and Davidson College from 1968 to 1983. He attended Davidson and was trained at Harvard University. Growing up, Spencer used to "sneak across campus to watch commencements as a kid" and spent her dinners "[discussing] the issues facing the college". From an early age she decided to drop the "Ava" from her name and go by "Clayton" as her mother had the same name. Her parents were progressive Southerners who raised Spencer during a time of widespread segregation. When Spencer was two, her family moved to Virginia for her father's first college presidency; she to North Carolina at age 13 for his second presidency. She graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in 1973. In 1977, Spencer earned her bachelor's degree from Williams College, magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa, with highest honors in history and German, then earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in theology from Oxford University in 1979. She received a Master of Arts in religion from Harvard University in 1982 and a Juris Doctor from Yale Law School in 1985, where she was an editor of the Yale Law Journal and winner of the Moot Court competition. == Career == ===Government=== Upon graduating law school, she clerked for Judge Rya W. Zobel of the U.S. District Court in Massachusetts from 1985 to 1986 and then practiced law at the Boston firm of Ropes & Gray from 1986 to 1989. Spencer served as an Assistant U.S. Attorney in Boston from 1989 to 1993 until becoming chief education counsel to the U.S. Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources from 1993 to 1997 under U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy's chairmanship. She spoke highly of Kennedy stating, "He was hugely progressive and relentless in pursuing his goals, but very pragmatic. That was formative. You can be idealistic and get nothing done; or you can be idealistic, keep your eye on the ball, and take a set of practical steps to advance your goals.". ===Harvard University=== Spencer joined Harvard in February 1997 as a consultant for federal policy issues. The following year, she was appointed associate vice president for higher education policy reporting to the president, and quickly rose through the ranks to become the vice president for institutional policy. In January 2003, Spencer's profile, along with other Harvard faculty was filtered into then-student Mark Zuckerberg's newly created "Facemash", the site was shut down by Harvard's administration because it overloaded network switches and limited internet access. ====Crimson Summer Academy==== In 2003, Spencer co-founded the Harvard University Crimson Summer Academy (CSA) as a "a University program that draws local high-achieving, economically disadvantaged students to study at Harvard for six weeks each summer". The program has continued its original purpose, uninterrupted, for 20 years and is funded by the President's Office at Harvard University. ====Harvard Financial Aid Initiative==== According to the Harvard Magazine, one of Spencer's most notable accomplishments is her involvement in the 2004 Harvard Financial Aid Initiative. Her initial contributions spanned the formulation of the program and subsequently expanded the initiative across all of Harvard's outlets. ====Harvard-Radcliffe merger==== In this capacity she advocated for the merger of Harvard College and former women's college, Radcliffe College. Spencer and the executive board of the college merged the two institutions and founded the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. She became the executive dean of the newly founded institute and frequently lectured at Harvard's Graduate School of Education. While at Harvard, Spencer ended the Early Action Program, initiated the Task Force on the Arts along with Harvard president Drew Faust, and increased financial aid dramatically. Already widely considered as one of the most influential figures at Harvard, in 2005 she was appointed vice president for policy at Harvard University, serving until her appointment as president of Bates College in 2012. ===Bates College=== ===Tenure=== On October 26, 2012, Spencer was installed as the eighth and second female President of Bates College, in Lewiston, Maine. Her inauguration speech, "Questions worth asking" drew 2,500 students, faculty, alumni, and members of the American collegiate educational system to Merrill Gymnasium. In her address, Spencer said, "At Bates, we claim this union of excellence and opportunity as a core element of our identity, and we need to continue to build on this deep aspect of who we are. As a practical matter, this means redoubling our efforts to recruit students from a wide range of backgrounds, and it means maintaining an unwavering commitment to financial aid." Spencer assumed the presidency after the first female and 7th president of college–Elaine Tuttle Hansen–stepped down after a nine-year tenure to take a leadership position at Johns Hopkins University. ====Endowment and fundraising==== Endowment Value AUM Donations 2012 $216.0 million 0.0% $432.8 million 0.0% $12.2 million 0.0% 2013 $233.8 million $449.9 million $12.0 million 2014 $263.8 million $539.8 million $16.0 million 2015 $261.5 million $541.8 million $21.6 million 2016 $250.9 million $542.5 million $28.2 million 2017 $293.8 million $638.4 million $27.0 million Total gains Total gains Total gains Sources: NACUBO: 2012 - 2017; Audited Financial Statements: 2012 - 2017http://www.bates.edu/accounting/files/2011/06/FY2013-Bates-Audited- Financial-Statements.pdf http://www.bates.edu/accounting/files/2011/06/Bates- College-FY14-Audited-Financial-Statements.pdf Spencer assumed an endowment that was heavily impacted by the 2007 to 2008 financial crisis and market volatility, thus reporting negative returns in the first two years. During her first year as president, 2012, Spencer raised $12.2 million in donations. At the conclusion of the second semester of the 2012/13 academic year, the Bates College Board of Trustees announced a totaled pool donation of $11.5 million to start the Catalyst Fund. Spencer would go on to expand the financial aid program by expending more of the college's endowment and indirect funding. In the 2013 fiscal year, the college reported Spencer's fundraising totaled $12 million. In 2014, Spencer introduced the option to donate capitalized securities, and saw a total of $16 million donated in the completed fiscal year. In May 2015, Spencer's fundraising prompted Moody's Investors Service to upgrade the college's $24 million revenue bonds to an A1 rating. During the capital cycle of 2015, Spencer raised $21.6 million, $5.6 million more than the year before. On March 31, 2015, Spencer raised $250,000, the most ever secured in 24 hours by the college. With the start of the 2016 academic year, she appointed committees to expand the college's curriculum, after a donation of $19 million was given to fund new areas of study and support incoming professors in the computer sciences. In the 2016 fiscal year, Spencer's team in the Office of College Advancement raised $28.2 million, which broke the 2006 record and marked the third year the college's fundraising has increased by 30 percent annually. In May 2017, she launched the "Bates+You" fundraising campaign–the largest ever undertaken by the college–totaling $300 million to fund facilities, financial aid, the operational fund, and the endowment. The campaign was met with a $50 million donation from Michael Bonney, and has reached $160 million toward its total goal as of May 2017. ====Public policy and outreach==== At the 2014 White House Summit on College Opportunity, Spencer joined other U.S. higher education executives to meet with President Obama. She used the event to highlight the college's financial aid program, and recent donations, as well as calling for educational and financial reform. A year later in her comments on a proposed college ranking system was profiled in an article by the Wall Street Journal. Spencer was profiled by Inside Higher Education in February 2016, where she stressed the college's established Digital and Computational Studies program and the importance of computer science in a liberal arts education. The announcement of the new area of study was profiled by Maine Public Broadcasting Network earlier that month. In April 2016, she was interviewed by Time magazine, along with dean of admission and financial aid, Leigh Weisenburger. The two outlined college admissions in the coming academic years. In June 2016, Spencer was interviewed on New England Cable News' CEO Corner, where she outlined the college's history and the importance of a liberal arts education in a knowledge-based economy. On November 21, 2016, Spencer signed along with 250 other university presidents, a statement to the U.S. Congress and other elected officials to continue the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program at universities. The statement was prompted after President Donald Trump asserted that his administration would terminate the programSpencer noted the DACA as "both a moral imperative and a national necessity." In December 2017, she criticized the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 for "constrict[ing] access to education", and undermining "the engine of innovation that has driven the national economy since the end of World War II." ====Student life==== Bates students had a Halloween tradition of participating in a late-night social event where seniors hosted themed parties in their off-campus houses which included underclassman touring the different houses and sampling various drinks. Spencer banned the tradition in 2014, citing "hundreds of noise complaints", student safety, underage drinking, multiple instances of destruction of property, student arrests, and student-police violence". Her choice to do so was widely criticized by student newspapers in the NESCAC. Spencer went on to announce that more funding was to be allocated for late- night programming stating, "part of the job is figuring out what the alternatives are." In March 2015, the Bates College Student Government passed a nearly unanimous vote-of-no-confidence against Spencer and her Vice- President of Student Affairs, Joshua McIntosh. The vote was in response to her decision to suspend and eventually terminate an employment contract with a member of the college's staff. Students representatives charged the administration with violating the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Spencer noted the student's withdrawal of confidence and stated, "recent events confirm what I know to be true — that students care deeply about this college, as do faculty and staff on campus, and alumni of every generation. Students also rightly want and expect to be included in the discussions and decisions that shape their own experience and the way the college moves forward." On November 7, 2016, a day before the 2016 U.S. presidential election, a Bates student discovered that Lewiston townspeople were distributing flyers at the college which asserted that in order to vote in the upcoming election, students were required to change their driver's license to feature a Lewiston residency and re-register any vehicles students had in the city. Under 2016-17 Maine State law, this was not required, which lead Spencer to label the situation as "a deliberate attempt at voter suppression". The Governor of Maine, Paul LePage asserted the flyer's validity stating "Democrats for decades have encouraged college students from out of state to vote in Maine, even though there is no way to determine whether these college students also voted in their home states." Spencer's comments were reiterated and supported by the Maine Democratic Party leader, Phil Bartlett, and Maine Secretary of State Matt Dunlap. ===Other work=== In April 2015, Spencer was appointed to the American Council on Education, "the nation's largest and most influential advocacy organization representing colleges and universities." Her appointment was commented on by the council's president saying: "[Spencer] has been a part of almost every major discussion involving higher education policy over the last 20 years, her work on Capitol Hill, at Harvard and now at Bates gives her a unique and important perspective — particularly during this time of dynamic change in higher education. We are extremely pleased to have Clayton join the board and greatly appreciate her commitment to helping guide the work of ACE." Her term on the board is set to expire in 2018. Spencer has been elected numerous boards and committees, most notably Williams College and Phillips Exeter Academy. ==Public image== Spencer was profiled by the Williams College institutional magazine; when asked about her attendance of Williams she said: > My notion was very naiive, my 18-year-old self was thinking, "Thank God > we've got this equality problem solved" [referring to her attendance of > Williams in its first year of being coeducational], college had opened up > for me just in the nick of time, and I thought that when I got older, > everything would be even-steven, split right down the middle. This was my > fundamental error, thinking that a switch had been flipped rather than > understanding that feminism was a broad cultural movement that would require > decades. In her capacity as an academic administrator at Harvard University, Spencer has been noted for her collaborative approach and effectiveness by The Harvard Crimson. Referred to as the "Right Hand Woman", she was considered one of the most influential figures at Harvard, after President Drew Gilpin Faust. However, upon her assumption of the vice-presidency of policy in 2011, she was considered "the most powerful woman at Harvard" charged with "developing strategic priorities for Harvard on behalf of the president, directing policy analysis, overseeing the office of institutional research, as well as the management of the offices of the president and provost." In 2014, Spencer was named among "Maine's 50 Most Influential People" list by Maine, the magazine. The publication noted that at Bates she was able to "contribute to the remarkable heritage of an institution that has stood for the ideals of opportunity and justice since the time of its founding," later commenting: "there could be no more perfect match." ==Personal life== Spencer resides in Lewiston, Maine. Spencer was married to United States Secretary of Defense Ash Carter, with whom she has two children, William and Ava Carter. ==Awards and honors== * In 1979, Spencer received the Williams College's Carroll A. Wilson Fellowship * In 1997, Spencer won Williams College's Bicentennial Medal; for "[her] contributions that have helped countless students fulfill their dreams and have strengthened America." * In 2014, she was mentioned among "Maine's 50 Most Influential People" by Maine, the magazine. * In 2014, Spencer was ranked among CEOWORLD Magazine "List of Top 17 Women in Colleges and Universities" * In 2015, she received a Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) honorary degree from Bishop's University in Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada. * In 2017, she received the Harvard Medal from the Harvard Alumni Association (HAA) of Harvard University. ==References== ==External links== Official links *Clayton Spencer - The Office of the President of Bates College Institutional profiles *Clayton Spencer at Harvard Graduate School of Education *Clayton Spencer at Williams College News and publication profiles * Clayton Spencer at Bloomberg * Clayton Spencer in The Bates Student Category:1954 births Category:Alumni of the University of Oxford Category:Harvard University alumni Category:Harvard University faculty Category:Living people Category:People from Concord, North Carolina Category:Presidents of Bates College Category:Williams College alumni Category:Yale Law School alumni Category:20th-century American academics Category:21st-century American academics Category:American women academics Category:Women heads of universities and colleges |
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