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Munslow is a civil parish in Shropshire, England. It contains 40 listed buildings that are recorded in the National Heritage List for England. Of these, one is listed at Grade I, the highest of the three grades, five are at Grade II*, the middle grade, and the others are at Grade II, the lowest grade. The parishMunslow Parish Council contains villages and smaller settlements. including Aston Munslow, Beambridge, Broadstone, Hungerford, and Munslow, and the surrounding countryside. Most of the listed buildings are in the settlements, many of which are houses, cottages, farmhouses and farm buildings, the earliest of which are timber framed. The largest building is a country house, which is listed, together with associated structures and farm buildings, and there is also a mansion and a former manor house. The other listed buildings include a church with a 12th-century origin, an isolated chapel, a public house, a former mill house and mill buildings, a former smithy, and a war memorial. __NOTOC__ ==Key== Grade Criteria I Buildings of exceptional interest, sometimes considered to be internationally important II* Particularly important buildings of more than special interest II Buildings of national importance and special interest ==Buildings== Name and location Photograph Date Notes Grade St Michael's Church centre The oldest part of the church is the nave, the tower was added later in the 12th century, the chancel in the 13th century, the aisle and the porch in the 14th century, a stage was added later to the tower, and the church was restored in 1869–70 by S. Pountney Smith. The church is built in stone, and consists of a nave with a south porch, a north aisle, a chancel with a south vestry (originally a chapel), and a west tower. The tower has four stages and a plain parapet, and the porch is timber framed with cruck construction. Forester's House The house has been subsequently altered, and in about 1730 a farmhouse was built at right angles to the southeast. The original part has very think stone walls with quoins on a moulded plinth. The gable ends are timber framed with brick infill and the roof is tiled. There is a central doorway that has a round-arched head with ball flower decoration. The windows vary; some are mullioned, there are staircase slits, and later casement windows. The later house is in brick and has a hipped roof, with two storeys, three bays, a central gabled porch, and casement windows. Broadstone Chapel centre The chapel, which stands in an isolated position in a field, was restored in 1843. It is built in stone with quoins, and has a tile roof. The church consists of a nave and a chancel in one cell, and there is a bellcote on the west gable. The windows are lancets, and all the openings date from the restoration. The White House centre Originally a manor house, it was first a timber framed aisled great hall with base-cruck construction, to which a gabled two-storey cross-wing was added, probably in the late 16th century. The south half of the house was absorbed in the building of another range in the 18th century. This south range has two storeys, and elsewhere there is one storey and attics. It is rendered and has a symmetrical front of three bays, with a hipped roof, a central doorway and sash windows; elsewhere the windows are casements. To the right is the original hall, stone-clad, and at the rear is a gabled wing with exposed timber framing. Inside the original great hall is a full cruck truss. Aston Hall, wall and gate piers Originating as a mansion, the earliest part is the rear wing, with the main part dating from about 1665. The rear wing is timber framed on a stone plinth, the main part is in stone, and the roofs are tiled. The main part has two storeys and an attic, and an E-shaped plan, with a main three-bay range, projecting cross-wings at the ends, and a central two-storey porch. Most of the windows are mullioned or mullioned and transomed, the porch has a round- arched opening, and there are gabled dormers on the left front. In front of the house is a brick garden wall and brick gate piers with stone bases and corniced caps. The gate piers are surmounted by urns, and the wall pier by an obelisk. 8 and 9 Aston Munslow centre A farmhouse that was extended in the 20th century and divided into two dwellings. The earlier part is timber framed with rendered infill, the later part is in stone, and the roof is slated. The house has one storey and attics, and a T-shaped plan, consisting of a main range and a cross-wing on the left, both parts with jettied gables, and there is a single-storey extension on the left containing a doorway. The windows are casements. Lower Farm Farmhouse The farmhouse, later a private house, has been altered and extended. The original part is timber framed with brick and rendered infill, the extensions are in brick and stone, and the roofs are tiled. It originated as a hall and cross-wing, and since have been added a parallel two-bay range with a single- bay cross-wing, and two smaller gabled wings. There are two storeys. The central gable contains a doorway with pilasters and a flat canopy on brackets, and sash windows; elsewhere the windows are casements. Stable block, The White House The stable block and barn, now used for other purposes, has a timber framed core. Its exterior is partly in stone and partly in brick on a stone plinth, with some weatherboarding and a tile roof. There are three bays, and it contains doorways, ventilation holes, and a loft opening. Thonglands A farmhouse on a moated site, the oldest part is the hall, with the cross-wing added in the 17th century, giving a T-shaped plan. The hall is timber framed and enclosed in stone, and the cross-wing has exposed timber framing with brick infill, and the roofs are tiled. There is a two-storey single-bay extension in red brick on the left, and a lean-to on the cross-wing. The farmhouse has two storeys and a attic, and the upper floor and gables are jettied with moulded bressumers. Some windows are sashes and others are casements. Swan Inn Public House centre The public house, which has been altered and extended, is partly timber framed and partly in stone and brick, which is partly rendered, and has tile roofs. The gables have bargeboards and finials; one gable is jettied. The building is partly in two, and partly in one, storey, and has attics and cellars. The windows are casements, and inside the building are timber framed partitions. Barn, Malthouse Farm centre Originally a malthouse, later used as a farm building, it is in stone with a tile roof, hipped at the west end. There is one storey and a loft, with stone steps leading up to the loft door. On the front is a mullioned and transomed window, a doorway, and three gabled dormers. At the west end is a re-used cruck truss. The Chains and outbuilding The house and attached outbuilding are in stone with a tile roof, and form a U-shaped plan. Th main range of the house has one storey and an attic, and the gabled cross-wing projecting to the left has two storeys and an attic. The windows are casements, and there is a dormer with a timber framed gable. Attached to the right of the main range is an outbuilding with steps leading up to a loft door in a timber framed gable, a doorway, and an open bay on the right. At the end of this range is another gabled cross-wing with contains doors, loft doors, and thin ventilation slits. Tudor Cottage The house, which was later extended, is timber framed with brick infill on a brick plinth. The original part has a slate roof, and the roof of the extension is tiled. There are two storeys and originally two bays, with one bay added later. On the front is a slate-roofed gabled porch, the windows are casements, and in the extension is a dormer. Arbour Cottages centre 1632 Two houses, later combined into one, it is timber framed with brick and rendered infill on a stone plinth, with a stone left gable end, and a slate roof. There are two storeys, extensions with a single storey and an attic, and a central projecting dated gabled wing. The windows are casements, and there is a gabled dormer to the left of the gable, and a porch with a pentice roof. The Old School House 1658 Originally a timber framed house, it was encased or rebuilt in stone by the 18th century, converted into a school by the addition of a schoolroom in the late 19th century, and has since reverted to being a private house. The roof is tiled, there are two storeys and attics, and an L-shaped plan, consisting of a hall range, a cross-wing to the right, and a parallel wing added to this. At the rear is a stair turret and attached outbuildings. On the front are three bays, the gable of the cross-wing in the centre, the main range to the left, and the larger gable of the schoolroom to the right. The windows are mullioned or mullioned and transomed, and at the rear is a gabled porch. Munslow Farmhouse A farmhouse, later a private house, the earliest part is the right wing, with the rest of the house added in the 18th century. The right wing is in brick with a gabled tile roof, the addition is in stone with a hipped tile roof. There are two storeys and an attic, and a T-shaped plan. In the original wing are sash windows, and in the addition the windows are mullioned and transomed, those in the ground floor with segmental-arched lintels. Washwell Cottage Check The cottage, which was extended in the 19th century, is in pink sandstone with a corrugated iron roof. There are two storey, and a single- storey extension to the northwest. On the front is a gabled porch, and the windows are casements. Crown Inn Public House centre The public house has an earlier, probably 17th-century, core, it is in brick with storey bands, painted timber frame at the ends and rear, and extensions in stone. The roofs are tiled and have coped parapeted gables. The main block has three storeys and six bays, and there are various extensions. On the front is a gabled porch, a flight of steps leading up to a doorway in the middle floor, sash windows and blocked windows with segmental heads, and to the right is a projecting gabled extension. Barn, Hungerford Mill centre A tannery and barn, later a store, it is partly in stone and partly timber framed with weatherboarding, and has a tile roof. There are two storeys and three bays, the bays divided by stone piers. The bays are weatherboarded above, and open below. On the left is a loft door. Workshop, Hungerford Mill centre A tannery and barn, later a workshop, it has two storeys and a tile roof. The upper storey is timber framed with weatherboarding, and the lower storey is in stone with brick piers. There are five bays, loft doors with steps leading up to them, and the lower storey is mainly open. Farm buildings, Munslow Farm A range of farm buildings in red brick and stone with some weatherboarding, and tile roofs. They have a U-shaped plan,with a barn on the left, a curving cattle shed in the meddle and a stable range on the right. There are various openings, including doors, windows, ventilation holes, and a flight of steps leading up to a granary doorway. Memorial south of the porch The memorial in the churchyard of St Michael's Church consists of a headstone in ashlar stone. It has a carved top and a fleur-de-lys border. There is an inscription to John Child, and a later inscription on the reverse. Privy and garden wall, Aston Hall The privy and garden wall are to the north of the hall. The wall is in stone with brick coping. The privy is in stone with a corrugated sheet roof, and a gable at the front with moulded oak bargeboards. It has a square plan, a doorway with a moulded oak frame, ogee-chamfered windows, and a rear gable with two round-arched openings. Inside is a range of three seats with hinged lids. Temple, Millichope Park centre 1770 The building is a memorial, and is built in stone with a lead domed roof. It has a cylindrical form on a circular platform, and consists of eight Ionic pilasters surrounded by eight Ionic columns carrying an entablature with a moulded dentil cornice. The doorway has pilasters, and above it is a dated plaque. Inside is a pedestal memorial. Hungerford Mill centre Originally a millhouse, later a farmhouse, and then converted into flats, it is in stone with quoins, a band, and a hipped tile roof. There are three storeys and three bays, the central bay projecting and containing a canted porch with pilasters and an entablature, and a doorway with a radial fanlight. Above the porch is a Venetian window, the other windows on the front are sashes, and on the two-bay right return they are casements, those in the middle floor with segmental heads. Outbuilding, Hungerford Mill centre Probably originally a mill, later used as a store, it is in stone with a tile roof. There are two storeys, two bays, and a lean-to extension to the left. It has doorways in the ground floor, openings above and in the extension, all with segmental-arched lintels. Memorial south of the nave The memorial in the churchyard of St Michael's Church consists of a raised slab tomb in ashlar stone on a brick plinth. It consists of an inscribed slab with moulded edges, and commemorates a former rector of the parish. Munslow House A rectory, later a private house, it was altered in the 19th century. The house is in stone with a brick rear wing and a hipped slate roof. There are three storeys, and three bays, the middle bay projecting slightly. On the front is a portico with two pairs of Ionic columns, an entablature and a pediment, and a doorway with pilasters, a radial fanlight, and an open pediment. On the front the windows are sashes that have lintels with keystones. Elsewhere are round-headed windows with Gothick tracery, and a two- storey canted bay window. Smithy The smithy, later used as a store, is in stone with tile roofs, hipped at the rear. It has one storey and an L-shaped plan, with two parallel ranges. On the front facing the road are two gables, each containing a wooden window with a pointed arch and containing Gothick tracery. Elsewhere there are doorways and windows with segmental-arched lintels. Outbuildings, Swan Inn Originally stables, the building is in stone and has a tile roof. There is one storey and a loft, and a T-shaped plan consisting of a two-bay range and a cross-wing. Most of the openings have segmental heads. Miller House The house is in stone with corbelled eaves and a hipped roof, partly tiled and partly slated. There are two storeys, attics and a basement, the south front has three bays, with a single-storey extension to the right, and a rear extension. The central doorway has pilasters, a semicircular fanlight, and an open pediment. The windows on the front are sashes, and at the rear are multi- paned windows and flat-roofed dormers. Rushbury Lodge centre The lodge is at the entry to the north drive of Millichope Park. It is in stone with pilasters and a band forming an entablature. The roof is tiled with gable verges and linking cornices forming pediments. There is one storey and an attic, and a T-shaped plan, consisting of a range and a cross-wing, and there is a lean-to extension. A portico is formed by pairs of pilasters on front of the doorway. The windows are mullioned and transomed. Millichope Park and terrace balustrade centre 1835–40 A country house designed by Edward Haycock, it is built in Grinshill sandstone with corner pilasters, a corniced parapet, and a hipped slate roofs behind a balustrade. There are two storeys, and a basement. The east front has five bays, the middle three bays slightly projecting that has a pedimented portico with six fluted Ionic columns. The portico is raised on a terrace and is flanked by balustrading. The original entrance is below the portico, and has two short Tuscan columns. The windows are sashes, some with moulded hoods on brackets. 1, 2 and 3 Estate Yard Cottages, Beambridge Clubroom and 61 Upper Millichope Part of an estate village, these are two ranges consisting of four houses, a store and a hall, forming an L-shaped plan. They are in stone with tile roofs, and two storeys. In the centre is a pedimented gable and a segmental-headed archway. The windows are casements. Barn, Estate Yard Cottages The barn is part of an estate village, and is in stone with a tile roof. There are pilasters on the northeast side, and gable heads with weatherboarding. Cartshed, Estate Yard Cottages The cartshed is part of an estate village, and is in stone with a tile roof. It has a rectangular plan, one storey and four bays. It contains doorways, one bay is open, and there is a brick segmental-arched opening in the right gable end. Dovecote, Estate Yard Cottages The dovecote is part of an estate village, and is in stone with a hipped tile roof. It has a square plan, and on three sides pilasters divide them into three recessed panels containing doorways and loft doors with segmental-arched lintels. On the fourth side is a lean-to with a gabled pediment containing a roundel in the tympanum. On the top is a cupola with pedimented faces each containing three slits. Keepers Cottage A house and store, part of an estate village, in stone with pilasters, a band forming an entablature, a series of gabled pediments, and a tile roof. There are two storeys, a lean-to porch, casement windows, dormers and half-dormers. The Bakery A brick house, rendered on the side, with a tile roof, and two gables facing the road. There are two storeys and an attic, the windows are casements with hood moulds, and the doorway has a plain surround. There is a two-storey extension to the left. War memorial centre The war memorial stands at a road junction and is in granite. It consists of a cross finial on a tapering shaft. This is on a square plinth with chamfered corners, on two steps, the upper square, the lower polygonal. The plinth carries inscriptions and the names of those lost in the two World Wars. The memorial is on a circular podium approached by steps at the sides, and in front of it is a wall that is bowed in the centre. ==References== ===Citations=== ===Sources=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Lists of buildings and structures in Shropshire |
Williamson County is a county in the U.S. state of Tennessee. As of the 2020 United States census, the population was 247,726. The county seat is Franklin, and the county is located in Middle Tennessee. The county is named after Hugh Williamson, a North Carolina politician who signed the U.S. Constitution. Adjusted for relative cost of living, Williamson County is one of the wealthiest counties in the United States. Williamson County is part of the Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro–Franklin, TN Metropolitan Statistical Area. In the 19th century, tobacco and hemp were cultivated here, and planters also raised blooded livestock, including horses and cattle. ==History== ===Pre- Civil War=== The Tennessee General Assembly created Williamson County on October 26, 1799, from a portion of Davidson County. This territory had long been inhabited by at least five Native American cultures, including the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Shawnee. It is home to two Mississippian-period mound complexes, the Fewkes site and the Old Town site, built by people of a culture dated to about 1000 CE, which preceded such historic tribes. European-American settlers arrived in the area by 1798, after the Revolutionary War. Fur traders had preceded them. Scots traders had intermarried with Native American women and had families with them. Both sides thought these relationships could benefit them. Most of the settlers were migrants from Virginia and North Carolina, part of a western movement across the Appalachian Mountains after the American Revolutionary War. Others came after living for a generation in Kentucky. Many brought slaves with them to cultivate the labor-intensive tobacco crops, as well as to care for livestock In 1800, Abram Maury laid out Franklin, the county seat, which was carved out of a land grant he had purchased from Major Anthony Sharp. "The county was named in honor of Dr. Hugh Williamson of North Carolina, who had been a colonel in the North Carolina militia and had served three terms in the Continental Congress." Many of the county's early inhabitants were veterans who had been paid in land grants after the Revolutionary War. Many veterans chose not to settle in the area and sold large sections of their land grants to speculators. These in turn subdivided the land and sold off smaller lots. In the antebellum years, the county was the second-wealthiest in the state. As part of the Middle Tennessee region, it had resources of rich soil, which planters developed with slaves for a diversity of crops including rye, corn, oats, tobacco, hemp, potatoes, wheat, peas, barley, and hay. This diversity, plus timber resources, helped create a stable economy, as opposed to reliance on one cash crop. Slavery was an integral part of the local economy. By 1850, planters and smaller slaveholders in the county held 13,000 enslaved African Americans, who made up nearly half the population of more than 27,000 (see table below). ===Civil War=== Williamson County was severely affected by the war. Three battles were fought in the county: the Battle of Brentwood, the Battle of Thompson's Station, and the Battle of Franklin, which had some of the highest fatalities of the war. The large plantations that were part of the county's economic foundation were ravaged, and many of the county's youth were killed. Many Confederate casualties of the Battle of Franklin were buried in the McGavock Confederate Cemetery near the Carnton plantation house. Containing the bodies of 1,481 soldiers, it is the largest private Confederate cemetery in America. ===Post-Reconstruction to present=== The county continued to be agricultural and rural into the early 1900s. "Most residents were farmers who raised corn, wheat, cotton and livestock." In the post- Reconstruction era and the early 20th century, white violence against African Americans increased in an effort to assert dominance. Five African Americans were lynched by white mobs in Williamson County.Lynching in America/ Supplement: Lynchings by County , Equal Justice Initiative, 2017, 3rd edition, p. 6 Among them was Amos Miller, a 23-year-old black man taken from the courtroom during his 1888 trial as a suspect in a sexual assault case, and hanged from the balcony of the county courthouse. The sexual assault victim was a 50-year-old woman."Old Williamson County Courthouse - Public Square", Visit Franklin website In 1924, 15-year-old Samuel Smith was lynched in Nolensville for shooting and wounding a white grocer. He was taken from a Nashville hospital by a mob and brought back to the town to be murdered. He was the last recorded lynching victim in the Nashville area. Numerous blacks left Williamson County from 1880 through 1950 as part of the Great Migration to industrial cities in the North and Midwest for work and to escape Jim Crow oppression and violence. County population did not surpass its 1880 level until 1970, when it began to develop suburban housing in response to growth in Nashville. One of the first major manufacturers to establish operations in the county was the Dortch Stove works, which opened a factory in Franklin. The factory was later developed as a Magic Chef factory, producing electric and gas ranges. (Magic Chef was prominent in the Midwest from 1929.) When the factory was closed due to extensive restructuring in the industry, the structure fell into disuse. The factory complex was restored in the late 1990s in an adaptation for offices, restaurants, retail and event spaces. It is considered a "model historic preservation adaptive reuse project." The completion of the Interstate Highway System contributed to Nashville's rapid expansion in the mid-20th century, stimulating tremendous population growth in Williamson County. As residential suburban population has increased, the formerly rural county has invested in infrastructure and schools, and its character is rapidly changing. Between 1990 and 2000, the county's population increased 56.3 percent, mostly in the northern part, including Franklin and Brentwood. As of census estimates in 2012, Franklin has more than 66,000 residents (a five-fold increase since 1980), and is the eighth-largest city in the state. Its residents are affluent, with a high median income. The southern part of the county is still primarily rural and used for agriculture. Spring Hill is a growing city in this area. In addition, Williamson County's overall affluence is also due to an abundance of musicians and celebrities with part- time or full-time residences in it. ==Geography== right|thumb|150px|Natchez Trace Parkway Bridge According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (0.2%) is water. The Harpeth River and its tributary, the Little Harpeth River, are the county's primary streams. ===Adjacent counties=== *Davidson County (north) *Rutherford County (east) *Marshall County (southeast) *Maury County (south) *Hickman County (southwest) *Dickson County (northwest) *Cheatham County (north) ===National protected area=== * Natchez Trace Parkway ===State protected areas=== * Carter House State Historic Site * Haley-Jaqueth Wildlife Management Area ==Demographics== The county population decreased from a high in 1880 over most of the next several decades, due in large part to African Americans moving to towns and cities for work, or out of the area altogether. The oppression of Jim Crow and related violence and the decline in the need for farm labor in the early 20th century, as mechanization was adopted, resulted in many blacks leaving Tennessee for industrial cities of the North and Midwest in the Great Migration. The total 1880 county population was not surpassed until 1970. Combined with the rapid increase in white newcomers in new suburban developments in the county since the late 20th century, African Americans now constitute a small minority. ===2020 census=== Williamson County racial composition Race Number Percentage White (non-Hispanic) 200,408 80.9% Black or African American (non-Hispanic) 9,709 3.92% Native American 393 0.16% Asian 12,879 5.2% Pacific Islander 115 0.05% Other/Mixed 9,961 4.02% Hispanic or Latino 14,261 5.76% As of the 2020 United States census, there were 247,726 people, 84,393 households, and 68,001 families residing in the county. The population increase of 64,544, or 35.2% over the 2010 figure of 183,182 residents, represents the largest net increase in the county's history. ===2010 census=== As of the census of 2010, there were 183,182 people, 64,886 households, and 51,242 households residing in the county. The population density was . The housing unit density was . The racial makeup of the county was 90.05% White, 4.34% African American, 3.01% Asian, 0.22% Native American, 0.04% Pacific Islander, and 1.32% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origins constituted 4.46% of the population. Williamson County is estimated to be the county in Tennessee with the highest percentage of Asian residents. Of all of the households, 41.11% had children under the age of 18 living in them, 68.08% were married couples living together, 2.67% had a male householder with no wife present, 8.22% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.03% were non-families. 17.73% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.85% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.20. The age distribution was 29.28% under the age of 18, 61.00% ages 18 to 64, and 9.72% age 65 and older. The median age was 38.5 years. 51.23% of the population were females and 48.77% were males. ===Economic data=== Williamson County is ranked as the wealthiest county in Tennessee, as well as among the wealthiest counties in the country. In 2006 it was the 17th- wealthiest county in the country according to the U.S. Census Bureau, but the Council for Community and Economic Research ranked Williamson County as America's wealthiest county (1st) when the local cost of living was factored into the equation with median household income.Cost of Living Can Significantly Affect “Real” Median Household Income , Council for Community and Economic Research website. Retrieved December 9, 2007. In 2010, Williamson County is listed 17th on the Forbes list of the 25 wealthiest counties in America. By 2006 Williamson County had a population of 160,781 representing 27.0% population growth since 2000. The census bureau lists Williamson as one of the 100 fastest-growing counties in the United States for the period 2000–2005. == Government and politics== Since 1980, Republicans have won Williamson County with large majorities in presidential elections. In 2020, Joe Biden obtained the highest percentage of the Democratic vote since 1980. Before 1964, Williamson County was a classic "Solid South" county. However, as seen in the table on county voting in presidential elections, from 1964 to 1972 the majority of voters shifted from the Democratic Party, which had long dominated county and state politics, to the Republican Party. Since the 1970s, Williamson County has been one of the most Republican suburban counties in the country. Jimmy Carter is the last Democrat to garner even 40 percent of the county's vote. As a measure of the county's Republican bent, it rejected Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996 even with Tennessean Al Gore on the ticket as his running mate, and Gore only got 32 percent in his own run for president in 2000. The chief executive officer of Williamson County's government is the County Mayor, who is popularly elected at-large to a four-year term. The mayor is responsible for the county's fiscal management and its day-to-day business. Rogers C. Anderson has been mayor since 2002. The county mayor is assisted by directors of the Agricultural Exposition Park, Animal Control, Budget & Purchasing, Community Development, County Archives, Employee Benefits, Human Resources, Information Technology, Parks & Recreation, Emergency Management, Public Safety, Property Management, Risk Management, Solid Waste Management and WC-TV.Williamson County Organizational Plan, Williamson County official website. Retrieved: 20 November 2013. The mayor works closely with the 24-member Board of County Commissioners, two members popularly elected to four-year terms from each of the 12 voting districts of roughly equal populations. A chairman of the board is elected by the membership annually. The Board of Commissioners appoints the members of the Planning Commission, Highway Commission, Beer Board, Board of Zoning Appeals, Building Board of Adjustments, County Records Committee, Library Board and others. Dist. Commissioner Dist. Commissioner Dist. Commissioner 1 Lisa Lenox 5 Mary Smith 9 Chas Morton 1 Ricky D. Jones 5 Greg Sanford 9 Matt Williams 2 Elizabeth C. "Betsy" Hester 6 Paul Webb 10 Meghan Guffee 2 Judy Herbert 6 Erin Nations 10 David Landrum 3 Jennifer Mason 7 Chris Richards 11 Sean Aiello 3 Jeff Graves 7 Tom Tunnicliffe 11 Brian Beathard 4 Pete Stresser 8 Barb Sturgeon 12 Brian Clifford 4 Gregg Lawrence 8 Drew Tores 12 Steve Smith Office Office Holder Office Office Holder County Mayor Rogers C. Anderson County Clerk Jeff Whidby Property Assessor Brad Coleman Register of Deeds Sherry Anderson Trustee Karen Paris Sheriff Dusty Rhoades Circuit Court Clerk Debbie Barrett Chancery Court Clerk Elaine Beeler Juvenile Court Judge Sharon Guffee Juvenile Court Clerk Brenda Hyden General Sessions Judge Denise Andre General Sessions Judge Tom Taylor Highway Superintendent Eddie Hood Election Administrator Chad Gray The county's Assessor of Property, County Clerk, Circuit Court Clerk, Juvenile Court Clerk, Register of Deeds, Sheriff, Trustee and two judges of the General Sessions Court are popularly elected to four-year terms. Other officials, including the Chancery Court Clerk, Election Administrator, and Highway Superintendent, are appointed for four-year terms. The latter two are appointed by the Election Commission and Highway Commission respectively, and the Chancery Court Clerk is appointed by the elected judges of Tennessee's 21st Judicial District. == Education == Williamson County Schools, which operates 50 schools, has K-12 education for most of the county. A portion of the city of Franklin is under the Franklin Special School District for K-8 and the Williamson County district for high school. \- Text list === Higher education === * Belmont University, Williamson County Campus * Columbia State Community College, Franklin Campus * King University, Nashville Campus * O'More College of Design * University of Phoenix, Franklin Learning Center * Williamson College ==Communities== right|thumb|225px|Franklin right|thumb|225px|Nolensville ===Cities=== *Brentwood *Fairview *Franklin (county seat) *Spring Hill (partly in Maury County) ===Towns=== *Nolensville *Thompson's Station ===Unincorporated communities=== * Allisona (partial) * Arrington * Bethesda * Boston * Brush Creek * Burwood * College Grove * Cool Springs * Duplex * Fernvale * Kirkland * Leiper's Fork * Liberty Hill * Peytonsville * Rudderville * Triune ==See also== *National Register of Historic Places listings in Williamson County, Tennessee ==Further reading== * Holladay, Robert, "'Dangerous Doctrines': The Rise and Fall of Jacksonian Support in Williamson County, Tennessee," Southern Studies, 16 (Spring–Summer 2009), 90–121. ==References== ==External links== * Official site * Williamson County Chamber of Commerce * Williamson County Schools * Williamson County Visitors Bureau *Genealogical "Fact Sheets" About Tennessee Counties > Williamson County, Tennessee State Library and Archives Category:1799 establishments in Tennessee Category:Populated places established in 1799 Category:Nashville metropolitan area Category:Middle Tennessee |
Indian country jurisdiction, or the extent which tribal powers apply to legal situations in the United States, has undergone many drastic shifts since the beginning of European settlement in America. Over time, federal statutes and Supreme Court rulings have designated more or less power to tribal governments, depending on federal policy toward Indians. Numerous Supreme Court decisions have created important precedents in Indian country jurisdiction, such as Worcester v. Georgia, Oliphant v. Suquamish Tribe, Montana v. United States, and McGirt v. Oklahoma. ==History== There have been many shifts in policy towards Indian Jurisdiction in the history of the United States. There are six major periods of policy regarding American Indians. The first is the British Colonial and Early U.S. Era, which was followed the Removal Era. The next period was the Allotment Era. The Reorganization Era was next and then the Termination Era. The last era is the one we are currently in, the Self-Determination Era. Different U.S. Supreme Court cases and Congressional rulings have shifted United States policy regarding Indian Jurisdiction, creating the different eras. ===Colonial and early U.S. policy=== The British passed the Proclamation of 1763 which created a boundary line between the British colonies and the American Indians lands west of the Appalachian Mountains. The proclamation forbade the British colonists from moving beyond the proclamation line into Indian Territory. Important legislations passed by the United States Congress in early United States history were the Indian Intercourse Acts. They were passed in 1780, and then they expired and were renewed every two years until 1802, when permanent legislation was passed. The final Indian Intercourse Act was passed in 1834. These acts did many things, including regulating relations between Indians and non-Indians living on Indian land and defining "Indian Country." ===Removal=== After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the United States began to extensively negotiate with the Indians in this newly acquired territory. U.S. citizens saw the land as being very fertile and as if it was theirs for the taking and because of this many land disputes arose between Indians and non-Indians in this region.Canby 2004, p. 14 The first case that allowed the American seizure of Indian lands was Johnson v. McIntosh, which stated that when a European nation discovered land in the new world, that it also gained the right to take the land from the natives by purchase or by conquest.Canby 2004, pp. 14–15 At this time, states wanted to remove Indians from their territory, which led to more treaties and the establishment of the controversial policy of U.S. ethnic cleansing. These feelings resulted in the Indian Removal Act, when Congress authorized President Andrew Jackson to take land away from Indians and give them land in the West. It was the Indian Removal Act that helped Jackson set into place the Trail of Tears in 1831. thumb|250 px | left | Alice Fletcher is seen here talking with Chief Joseph at the Nez Perce Indian Reservation in Idaho. She arrived in 1889 to implement the Dawes Act. The man kneeling is Fletcher's interpreter. ===Allotment=== In the 1870s and 1880s there was an increasing amount of disapproval in regard to the government's reservation policy. People were seeing the Indians in two different ways. One group saw the Indians as a group of people living in poverty and shambles, while another group saw the Indians as a group of people causing large tracts of land to be excluded from white settlers.Canby Jr., William C. American Indian Law. St. Paul: West, 2004. Print. Page 20 The combination of the two groups of people and their points of view led to the production of the General Allotment Act of 1887, also known as the Dawes Act. Allotments of 160 acres were handed out to each head of a family. Double amounts were handed out if the land was to be used for grazing.Canby 2004, p. 21 could also be given to each additional member of the household. The government would retain the title handed out through the General Allotment Act for 25 years.Canby 2004, p. 21 This time period intended on doing two things. First, it would protect the allottee from immediately having to pay state taxes. Second, the land owner would learn how to manage his land and affairs.Canby 2004, p. 22 However, after the 25 years was up, many Indians found themselves subject to excessive state property taxes, which resulted in the sale of much of the land which Indians received through the Dawes Act.Canby 2004, p. 22. Very soon after many of the Indians losing the land which they earned through the Dawes Act, white settlers moved in on these open lots. This created a checkerboard effect, and made it nearly impossible to have sizable gains in farming and grazing.Canby 2004, p. 23. The Indian Allotment Act had disastrous effects on the Native Americans. During the Allotment Act, the Native American population reached its lowest point in history. in 1900, the Native American population in the United States was only 250,000."Native Americans of North America." Encarta. 2009. Web. 16 Oct. 2009. There was also a substantial decrease in the amount of land owned by Native Americans. In 1887 the Indians had held . By 1934, the amount of land held by Indians had dropped to , and of that over was desert.Canby 2004, p. 22 ===Reorganization=== The Allotment period was coming to a close in 1924 when Congress passed a statute granting citizenship to all Indians born within the United States.Canby 2004, p. 23 In 1928 the famous Meriam Report was released. The Meriam Report documented the utter failure of the Dawes Act and the allotment policy. The passage of the Indian Reorganization Act in 1934 officially marks the beginning of the Reorganization period. The Indian Reorganization Act ended the practice of allotment. It sought to protect the tribes and allow them to establish the legal structures for their own self- governments.Canby 2004, p. 24 The tribes were now authorized to create their own constitutions and laws, which could be ratified by a vote among the tribal members. After decades of misfortune and loss of culture and property, the Indian Reorganization Act put a stop to the destruction of the tribes.Canby 2004, p. 25 ===Termination, 1953-1964=== Unclear jurisdictional boundaries between states and tribes prompted the beginning of the Indian termination policy era.Philip, Kenneth R. Termination Revisited. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1999, 140-149. The termination era began when Congress passed House Concurrent Resolution 108 in 1953, which stated: > Whereas it is the policy of Congress, as rapidly as possible, to make the > Indians within the territorial limits of the United States subject to the > same laws and entitled to the same privileges and responsibilities as are > applicable to other citizens of the United States, to end their status as > wards of the United States, and to grant them all the rights and > prerogatives pertaining to American citizenship.... The policy of termination has been seen as a direct attack on the sovereignty of Indian nations - without being considered a reservation or a nation, Indian tribes lost jurisdiction, taxation protection, and emerged into a different world. The Bureau of Indian Affairs attempted to prevent termination for some tribes by insisting the need for governmental assistance for tribes such as the Potawatomi Tribe of Kansas: > They ... have failed to acquire the necessary ambition, providence, and > sense of responsibility to rise above their economic level.Orfield, Gary. A > Study of the Termination Policy. Denver, Colorado: National Congress of > American Indians, 1964, 6. Efforts from the BIA did not stop the process of termination. In the twelve years of this policy, 109 tribes were terminated, with severe effects on education, health care, and economic stability. Cold War policies likely affected the policy of termination. Several reservations and nations enacted social programs, such as health care, on their citizens and socialism was easily connected with the Soviet Union. This fear likely drove Congress to move towards termination.Philip, Kenneth R. Termination Revisited. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1999, 171. Termination might have been seen as a method of "freeing" tribes from the BIA and other governmental programs, but the policy likely hindered the efforts of Native Americans for tribal self-rule. Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon would lead the nation away from termination into self-determination. ===Self- determination=== The policy of termination was ultimately recognized as a failure by the late 1960s, and federal policy regarding Indians shifted toward that of self-determination, or the right of a group or nation to independently govern themselves. The legislation that has arisen from this policy of self- determination, which has been in effect since the late 1960s to the present day, has greatly influenced modern-day Indian country jurisdiction. One example of this legislation is the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968, which imposed most of the requirements of the Bill of Rights on the tribes and amended Public Law 280.Canby 2004, p. 30 This legislation both broadened and restricted tribal jurisdiction. The passage of the Act rejected the termination policy by requiring constitutional procedure by the tribal government, but it also limited tribal jurisdiction by limiting the independence of tribal government.Canby 2004, pp. 30, 137 The Civil Rights Act of 1968 also amended Public Law 280 so that states no longer held civil and criminal jurisdiction over Indian country unless the tribes consented at certain elections.Canby 2004, p. 30 Also, in relation to the extension of state law into Indian country, in the 1983 Supreme Court case, New Mexico v. Mescalero Apache Tribe (462 U.S. 324, 334, 1983), it is held that state jurisdiction is permitted to interfere in tribal self-government in circumstances where "the state interests at stake are sufficient to justify the assertion of state authority".Canby 2004, p. 144 In National Farmers Union Ins. Cos. v. Crow Tribe (471 U.S. 845 1885), a case involving civil jurisdiction in Indian country, the Supreme Court held that parties must first exhaust tribal court remedies before seeking federal court review of such questions.Canby 2004, p. 147 The 2001 case Nevada v. Hicks (533 U.S. 355) further limited Indian country jurisdiction by holding that inherent tribal jurisdiction does not extend to state officials who commit crimes on reservation trust lands.Duthu 2008, p. xix == Present day jurisdiction == thumb|300px|right|This map shows Indian reservations in the United States. These territories are defined as Indian country. Contemporary Indian country jurisdiction has been shaped over the years by the rulings of many Supreme Court cases and federal statutes involving criminal and civil jurisdiction within Indian country. Today, the jurisdiction of Federal, state, or tribal courts usually depends upon whether the parties involved are considered to be Indians or tribal members, the nature of the offense, and whether the events of the case took place in Indian country.Canby 2004, p. 125 Though the definition varies, people are usually considered an Indian with some Indian blood and considered an Indian by the community. Blood requirements may vary from state to state, but often it is enough to have a parent, grandparent, or great-grandparent qualify as an Indian. To be identified as an Indian for federal and statutory purposes, however, a person must be a member of a federally recognized tribe.Canby 2004, pp. 8–9 Indian Country, as defined by Congress in 1948 (18 U.S.C.A. 1151) is: a) "all land within the limits of any Indian reservation under the jurisdiction of the United States government, notwithstanding the issuance of any patent, and including rights-of way running through the reservation, b) all dependent Indian communities within the borders of the U.S. whether within the original or subsequently acquired territory thereof, and whether within or without the limits of a state, and c) all Indian allotments, the Indian titles to which have not been extinguished, including rights of way running through the same." This definition of Indian country includes all territory within an Indian reservation, even land owned by non-Indians in fee simple. Reservation land opened to settlement by non- Indians is still considered Indian country, unless Congress explicitly states its decision to remove the lands from reservation status and hence diminish the Indian country boundaries. Diminishment may occur in other ways, yet retain the meaning of Indian Country. For example, when the Devils Lake Sioux litigated the question of tribal authority against the North Dakota Public Service Commission, which was operating within reservation borders, the court, relying in part on interpretations of 'Indian Character', ruled that the tribe had no authority over privately held lands even though more Indians than non- Indians lived on the reservation, yet more acreage was held in non-Indian ownership. Many tribes, such as the Yakama in Washington state, have designated 'open' and 'closed' areas, reflecting this difference in the interpretation of jurisdiction. All of the political and legal interpretations of this situation may not eliminate the meaning of Indian Country, but as such they obscure the increasing diminishment of tribal sovereignty within reservation borders.Wishart, David J., and Froehling, Oliver, "Land Ownership, Population and Jurisdiction: the Case of the Devils Lake Sioux Tribe v. North Dakota Public Service Commission," American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 20(2): 33–58 (1996). === Division of criminal and civil jurisdiction in Indian country === ==== Federal jurisdiction ==== Some federal criminal statutes are applicable throughout the entire nation, including Indian country, and apply to both Indians and non-Indians, such as treason, theft involving the U.S. mail, the Organized Crime Control Act, Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO), and the Contraband Cigarette Trafficking Act. The General Crimes Act (18 U.S.C. § 1152) and the Major Crimes Act, (18 U.S.C. § 1153) encompass other crimes and determine the jurisdiction when concerning particular cases.Canby 2004, p. 153 The General Crimes Act of 1817 provides for the prosecution of crimes by non-Indians against Indians and of non-major crimes by Indians against non-Indians through the application of federal law. There are three exceptions to the Act, in which it does not apply to the following: crimes by Indians against Indians, crimes by Indians that received punishment through the tribe, and crimes in which a treaty gives exclusive jurisdiction to the tribeCanby 2004, p. 156 The Major Crimes Act of 1885 establishes federal jurisdiction in the prosecution of serious crimes committed by Indians in Indian country.Duthu, Bruce N. American Indians and the Law. New York, NY. Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 2008 pg. xvi In 2020, the United States Supreme Court ruled in McGirt v. Oklahoma that the tribal statistical area (and former reservation) of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation remains under the tribal sovereignty of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation for the purposes of the Major Crimes Act. Federal civil jurisdiction is very limited in Indian country. Federal courts have jurisdiction in claims that arise under federal law and in cases of diversity of citizenship.Canby 2004, p. 217 Federal courts have no jurisdiction in civil cases involving divorce, adoption, child custody, or probate.Canby 2004, p. 224 ==== Tribal jurisdiction ==== Tribal criminal jurisdiction over Indians in Indian country is complete and exclusive unless there is a federal statute deeming it otherwise or limiting it in some way.Canby 2004, p. 170 Exclusive jurisdiction is given to the tribal courts over non-major crimes committed by Indians against Indians in Indian country, as well as victimless Indian crimes. Jurisdiction is also granted, though not exclusively, to tribal courts over non-major crimes by Indians against non-Indians. In these cases, federal courts also have jurisdiction through the General Crimes Act, so jurisdiction is shared.Canby 2004, p. 171 Tribal courts have exclusive jurisdiction in civil cases against any Indian in Indian country. This includes cases brought against an Indian by a non-Indian in Indian country, and all cases between tribal members that arise in Indian country.Canby 2004, p. 199 Exclusive jurisdiction over tribal subject matter also belongs to the tribal courts. In divorce cases, tribal courts have exclusive jurisdiction over divorces between Indians living in Indian country.Canby 2004, p. 211 In some divorce cases involving Indians living outside Indian country, the tribal and state courts may have concurrent jurisdiction.Canby 2004, p. 212 The Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 provides for tribal jurisdiction in adoption and custody cases of Indian children who are domiciled in Indian country. Children ultimately take the domicile of their parents, and children born to unwed parents take the domicile of their mother.Canby 2004, p. 214 Tribal courts also exercise jurisdiction in adoption and custody matters of Indian children who are tribal members. In cases involving probate, tribal courts have exclusive jurisdiction over non-trust movable assets of Indians residing in Indian country.Canby 2004, p. 215 ==== State jurisdiction ==== States have limited criminal jurisdiction in relation to crimes committed in Indian country.Canby 2004, pp. 178-179 In general, states exercise limited civil jurisdiction in cases involving non-Indians, and sometimes non-tribal members, when these cases arise in Indian country. In divorce cases, states have jurisdiction if both parties are non-Indian and living in Indian country.Canby 2004, p. 194 In matters involving adoption and child custody proceeding between parents, the division of jurisdiction is very similar. The states only have jurisdiction over cases involving the adoption and custody of Indian children not domiciled in Indian country.Canby 2004, p. 196 In probate cases, states have jurisdiction regarding cases of non-trust estates of Indians who died while they were domiciled outside of Indian country and also in cases dealing with any land outside of Indian country.Canby 2004, p. 198 ==See also== *Aboriginal title in the United States *Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma *Indian country *Indian Child Welfare Act *Native American reservation politics *Off- reservation trust land *Oklahoma Tribal Statistical Area *Tribal sovereignty in the United States ==Notes== ==References== *Canby Jr., William C. American Indian Law. St. Paul: West, 2004. Print. *Duthu, Bruce N. American Indians and the Law. New York, NY. Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 2008 Category:Native American law Category:Jurisdiction Category:Aboriginal title in the United States |
The Company A, Arizona Rangers (also known as "Oury's Company, Herbert's Battalion, Arizona Cavalry") was a cavalry formation of the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. == Origin of the Arizona Rangers == After the establishment of the Confederate Arizona Territory, Governor John Robert Baylor decided he needed to supplement existing militia companies with a regiment of Rangers like the Texas Rangers. He intended this regiment would consist of several companies of cavalry. On January 25, 1862, its first company, Company A, Baylor's Regiment of Arizona Rangers commanded by Captain Sherod Hunter, was mustered into the Confederate service at the town of Dona Ana located just north of modern Las Cruces, New Mexico.Martin Hardwick Hall, The Confederate Army of New Mexico, Austin, Texas: Presidial Press, 1978, pp. 353–55, 367–69. Hunter's Company consisted of about 75 men for the most part residents of the Confederate Territory of Arizona. They were armed with revolvers and Model 1847 smoothbore musketoons, probably taken from Fort Fillmore after it surrendered in August 1861. The company was enlisted for three years, or the duration of the war. They were picked for their skills and experience with the hardships of frontier life. Many were former members of the three local Arizona Militia companies from Pinos Altos and Messila.L. Boyd Finch, Confederate Pathway to the Pacific: Major Sherod Hunter and Arizona Territory, C.S.A., Tucson, AZ: Arizona Historical Society, 1996, p. 171. == Arizona Campaign against the California Column == 300px|right|thumb|Confederate Arizona and New Mexico Territories On February 10, 1862 Company A was ordered to occupy Tucson, the largest town in the western Confederate Territory of Arizona. Tucson was located on the Butterfield Overland Mail road, the only one between California and the Rio Grande and Mesilla valleys, and an ideal location for an advanced post to observe and delay the advance of Union forces gathering under Col. James Henry Carleton at Fort Yuma. By taking possession of Tucson, Baylor would also protect the citizens and secure the Confederate claim to possession of western Arizona, which had been abandoned by Union troops in 1861. Company A arrived in Tucson on February 28, with the loss of only one life; Corporal Benjamin Mayo who had died of exposure at San Simon Stage Station on the 25th. The invasion of Arizona by the California Column would have come much sooner but for the tactics of Captain Hunter and Company A. At White's Mill, near the Pima Villages, about twenty miles south of present Phoenix, Captain Hunter captured without firing a shot, a scouting party of nine men of Company A, 1st Regiment California Volunteer Cavalry under Captain William McCleave. Following their surprise of McCleave they destroyed caches of hay stored at the Butterfield stage stations along the barren route from Fort Yuma to the Gila River. At the villages of the Pima Indians on the Gila River, (about 30 miles south of present-day Phoenix, Arizona), Hunter also discovered 1,500 sacks of flour from wheat purchased from the Pima by federal purchase agent Ammi M. White. It had been ground into flour and stored in his mill in anticipation of the advance of the Union forces. Hunter's men arrested White, disabled the mill and confiscated the flour. However, because of insufficient transport Hunter could not remove the flour, so Sherod gave it back to the Pima for them to use. When news of the capture of McCleave got back to Fort Yuma, a larger force under Captain William Calloway was sent along the same route with orders to find and free Captain McCleave and his men. Calloway's force clashed with elements of Company A burning hay at Stanwix Station and after a brief skirmish, the Arizona Rangers retreated to Tucson. Afterward Calloway reached the Pima Villages, the main supply point between Fort Yuma and Tucson and after a short rest, set out toward Tucson. As they approached Picacho Pass, Indian scouts brought in information that Confederate pickets were just ahead. Lieutenant James Barrett and a small group of his Company A, First Cavalry were ordered to make a wide detour to strike them on the flank, while Calloway would make a frontal attack with the main party. In the following Battle of Picacho Pass the Barret's California cavalry engaged alone and suffered defeat in a brisk engagement. The Confederates watched the California cavalry retreat, then they fell back to Tucson, to warn Tucson's garrison of the approaching Union army. Captain Calloway returned to the Pima Villages and started work on a permanent camp, throwing up earth works around the flour mill of Ammi White, who had been taken away with McCleve to Mesilla by the rebels a few weeks before. This earth work was named "Fort Barrett" in honor of their comrade killed at Picacho Pass. Confiscation of the wheat and burning of hay now forced a halt at the villages while new supplies were gathered. It required several weeks for the main elements of the "Column" to get to Pima Villages, due to the time needed to gather more hay along the route. Further delay occurred because only detachments of less than four companies could move over the desert routes within twenty-four hours of each other, due to the scarcity of water. The net effect of the Arizona Rangers' actions was to delay the advance of the California Column for over a month, which probably saved the Confederate Army of New Mexico, now retreating back to Mesilla from its defeat at the Battle of Glorietta Pass, from being intercepted and destroyed by the California Column during April 1862. After the battle at Picacho Pass, Captain Hunter wrote to Governor Baylor, requesting a reinforcement of at least 250 men, with which he felt he could hold Tucson. When no reinforcements were forthcoming, Hunter decided to evacuate Tucson. Company A left Tucson on May 14, leaving behind a small detachment under the command of Lieutenant James Henry Tevis to watch for the approach of Union forces. Unknown to the Confederates, on that same day, the Union California Column finally left its bivouac at the Pima Villages for its final advance on Tucson. On May 15, Colonel West and his advance California detachment moved out of the Pima Villages for Tucson, going through Rattlesnake Springs to old Fort Breckenridge, and camped that night in the "Canyon de Oro". The next day, May 19, a short march of fifteen miles was made, and the party camped within ten miles of Tucson. Early on the morning of the 20th, the command moved forward until it arrived within two miles of the town. Captain Emil Fritz, Company B, 1st Cavalry, was ordered take his first platoon to make a detour and come in on the east side of the town; the second platoon, under Juan Francisco Guirado, was to charge in on the north side, while the four companies of infantry were to come in on the road from the west. Lieutenant Tevis and his detachment were surprised and almost captured when the Yankee cavalry charged into town on May 20. The three California columns arrived at the plaza at the same moment, the cavalry at the charge and the infantry at the double quick, but found no enemy. Tevis and his men had managed to escape, and rejoined the main body of Company A a few days later. During the retreat to Messilla, Company A clashed twice with the Apache. First, in the Battle of Dragoon Springs, where four of its soldiers were killed and some of its stock were lost. In the Second Battle of Dragoon Springs they had the best of the encounter. == With the Army of New Mexico and the Sibley Brigade == After Hunter's Company A retreated from Tucson and arrived in Mesilla on May 27, 1862, it was organized with two Arizona militia companies, the Arizona Guards of Pinos Altos and the Arizona Rangers of Mesilla, under Herbert's Battalion of Arizona Cavalry under the command of Lt. Colonel Philemon T. Herbert. It served as rearguard to the remnants of the Army of New Mexico as it withdrew from El Paso to San Antonio, in July 1862. After their arrival in San Antonio, Herbert's Battalion was formally assigned to the "Sibley Brigade", the name given the former Army of New Mexico. Colonel Thomas Green was in command in place of Brigadier General Henry Hopkins Sibley, who was away in Richmond until December, 1862. On October 2, 1862, Sherod Hunter was promoted major and joined Second Cavalry Regiment, Arizona Brigade under Colonel George Wythe Baylor. First Lieutenant Robert L. Swope, was promoted to captain and assumed command of the Company A. On December 2, 1862, General Sibley was ordered to New Iberia, Louisiana, to take over command of his Brigade. On December 25 he found that most of the brigade had been ordered to Galveston, but Herbert's Battalion was there in Louisiana actively scouting in the vicinity of Plaquemine and the Mississippi River. In February 1863, shortly after the arrival of the Sibley Brigade in Louisiana, Captain Robert L. Swope resigned as commander of Company A. First Lieutenant James Henry Tevis took command, but was not promoted to the rank of captain at the time. In April 1863, the Sibley Brigade including Herbert's Arizona Battalion was among the men with which General Taylor confronted the Yankee army under General Nathaniel Banks at Fort Bisland, on the Bayou Teche. The Battle of Fort Bisland was a defeat for the Confederates, and General Taylor ordered a retreat. General Sibley, in command of the rear guard, nearly lost his command at Franklin, Louisiana, when he ordered the last bridge across the Bayou burned before his men had made their escape. Fortunately for them, they saw the flames behind them and quickly disengaged and fled across the bridge before it was fully engulfed in flames. Sibley was court-martialed for this and removed from command of the Brigade. Colonel Thomas Green, who had led the brigade, was promoted to Brigadier General and placed in command of the Brigade. == Arizona Scout Company in Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas == By the end of May 1863 the Arizona Battalion had been reduced by losses and it was broken up. Company A still had enough men to continue as a viable company, and was kept in being but renamed as the independent Arizona Scout Company, attached to Green's Brigade. The other two companies of the Battalion were disbanded and the men consolidated with those of Company A to form the Arizona Scout Company. In June 1863 the Scouts participated in the Bayou Teche Campaign. The surrender of the Confederate bastion at Port Hudson, Louisiana in July 1863 led to the retreat of Green's Brigade to the region of Shreveport, Louisiana. In November 1863, the Arizona Scouts fought with Green's Brigade against a Union invasion up the Bayou Teche. In early December 1863 the brigade was recalled to Texas, in response to a threatened assault on Galveston which never materialized. In late December 1863, while near Galveston, the Second and Third Texas–Arizona Cavalry Regiments were reassigned to the Texas Cavalry Brigade commanded by Brigadier General James Patrick Major and the Scouts were assigned to that brigade also, However, in February 1864, the Arizona Scouts were among the companies detached from Texas Cavalry Brigade to form a Scouting Battalion under the command of Major William Saufley. Captain Tevis's Arizona Scout Company became Company E of the Battalion. During January and February 1864 the company operated as part of a command under Colonel James Duff 33rd Texas Cavalry near Indianola, Texas. During the Red River Campaign, the Arizona Scouts again fought as part of Major's Texas Cavalry Brigade which was combined with Green's Brigade, and a brigade of Louisiana regiments to form a Cavalry Division under Major General Tom Green. The Arizona Scouts fought in the major battles at Wilson's Farm (April 7, 1864), Mansfield and Pleasant Hill, and in numerous other skirmishes throughout the campaign. On May 1, 1864 the Arizona Scouts under Lt. John M. Smith assisted in the capture Union transport, the U.S.S. Emma near Wilson’s Landing on the Red River. Captain Tevis wounded earlier in the campaign, served under the command of First Lieutenant John M. Smith for the rest of the campaign. After the Red River Campaign, the Texas Cavalry Division, under Major General John A. Wharton, was among the units ordered northward into Arkansas. Arizona Scouts, went with them and for the rest of 1864 fought minor skirmishes and conducted routine picket duty and scouting. In November 1864, Captain Tevis (who by that time had recovered from his wounds) returned to command of the Arizona Scouts until General Edmund Kirby Smith, surrendered all Confederate forces west of the Mississippi River on May 26, 1865. ==See also== * List of Arizona Territory Civil War units ==References== ==Sources== * L. Boyd Finch, "Sherod Hunter and the Confederates in Arizona," Journal of Arizona History, Spring 1969. * L. Boyd Finch, "The Civil War in Arizona: The Confederates Occupy Tucson," Arizona Highways, January 1989. * L. Boyd Finch, "Arizona in Exile: Confederate Schemes to Recapture the Southwest," Journal of Arizona History, Spring 1992. * L. Boyd Finch, Confederate Pathway to the Pacific: Major Sherod Hunter and Arizona Territory, C.S.A., Tucson, Arizona: Arizona Historical Society, 1996. * Calvin P. Horn and William S. Wallace, Confederate Victories in the Southwest, Albuquerque, New Mexico: Horn and Wallace, 1961. * Martin Hardwick Hall, The Confederate Army of New Mexico, Austin, Texas: Presidial Press, 1978. * The California Military Museum; The California Column ==External links== * "Confederate Frontiersmen, The Story of Company A, Baylor's Regiment of Arizona Rangers by Robert Perkins * Company A "Arizona Rangers", Roster ca. 1862 Category:1862 establishments in New Mexico Territory Category:Units and formations of the Confederate States Army from Arizona Territory Category:Military units and formations established in 1862 Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1865 |
Dynamics Explorer 1 (DE-1 or Explorer 62) was a NASA high-altitude mission, launched on 3 August 1981, and terminated on 28 February 1991. It consisted of two satellites, DE-1 and DE-2, whose purpose was to investigate the interactions between plasmas in the magnetosphere and those in the ionosphere. The two satellites were launched together into polar coplanar orbits, which allowed them to simultaneously observe the upper and lower parts of the atmosphere. == Mission == thumb|upright=1.0|left|An aurora as seen by the Spin Scan Auroral Imager on Dynamics Explorer 1 The Dynamics Explorer mission's general objective is to investigate the strong interactive processes coupling the hot, tenuous, convecting plasmas of the magnetosphere and the cooler, denser plasmas and gases corotating in the Earth's ionosphere, upper atmosphere, and plasmasphere. Two satellites, DE-1 and DE-2, were launched together and were placed in polar coplanar orbits, permitting simultaneous measurements at high and low altitudes in the same field-line region. The DE-1 spacecraft (high-altitude mission) uses an elliptical orbit selected to allow: (1) measurements extending from the hot magnetospheric plasma through the plasmasphere to the cool ionosphere; (2) global auroral imaging, wave measurements in the heart of the magnetosphere, and crossing of auroral field lines at several Earth radii; and (3) measurements for significant periods along a magnetic field flux tube. == Spacecraft == The spacecraft approximated a short polygon in diameter and high. The antennas in the X-Y plane measured tip-to-tip, and on the Z-axis are tip-to-tip. Two booms are provided for remote measurements. Power is supplied by a solar cell array, mounted on the side and end panels. The spacecraft is spin-stabilized, with the spin axis normal to the orbital plane, and the spin rate at 10 ± 0.1 rpm. A pulse-code modulation (PCM) telemetry data system is used that operates in real time or in a tape recorder mode. Data have been acquired on a science-problem-oriented basis, with closely coordinated operations of the various instruments, both satellites, and supportive experiments. Data acquired from the instruments are temporarily stored on tape recorders before transmission at an 8:1 playback- to-record ratio. Additional operational flexibility allows a playback-to- record ratio of 4:1. The primary data rate is 16,384 bits per second. Since commands are stored in a command memory unit, spacecraft operations are not real time, except for the transmission of the wideband analog data from the Plasma Wave Instrument (1981-070A-02). On 22 October 1990, the science operations were terminated. On 28 February 1991, Dynamics Explorer 1 operations were officially terminated. == Experiments == === Auroral Physics Theory === The primary goal of this investigation was to use the results from other experiments, particularly 1981-070A-03, to test theoretical models and to develop new ones, with emphasis on research areas related to auroral arcs, field-aligned currents, plasma wave turbulence associated with anomalous resistance, generation of auroral electron beams, production of kilometric and VLF hiss radiation. In addition, correlation studies were organized by selecting events that were interesting to the various investigators, and data reduction procedures were suggested to facilitate comparison and interpretation of the data. === Controlled and Naturally Occurring Wave Particle Interactions Theory === This investigation used a ground-based very- low-frequency/low-frequency (VLF/LF) (0.5–200-kHz) transmitter located at Siple Station, Antarctica, at an L value of about 4, and the broad-band magnetic field detector from experiment 1981-070A-02. The primary objective of the investigation was to determine the relationship between VLF/LF waves and energetic electrons in the magnetosphere, with emphasis on wave growth, stimulated emissions, and wave-induced perturbations of the energetic electrons. Other objectives were: (1) to determine how wave propagation from both ground and magnetospheric sources was affected by field-aligned plasma structures such as the plasmapause and ducts of enhanced ionization, (2) to use the wave data to describe the structure of the plasmapause and the distribution of ionization along field-aligned ducts, and (3) to study the effects of Earth power-line radiation and other VLF wave activity. The spacecraft instrumentation for this experiment consisted of the Linear Wave Receiver (LWR) provided by the Plasma Wave Instrument (1981-070A-02). The LWR provided a waveform output with a 30-dB linear amplitude response for bands of 1.5-3.0, 3.11 ± 7.5%, 3–6, or 10–16-kHz for a selected magnetic or electric sensor. This receiver was used to measure growth rates for waves stimulated by the Siple station VLF transmitter or by natural wave phenomena. === Energetic Ion Composition Spectrometer (EICS) === The Energetic Ion Composition Spectrometer (EICS) had high sensitivity and high resolution, and covered the energy range from 0 to 17 keV per unit charge and the mass range from less than 1 to greater than 150 u/Q. This investigation provided data used in investigating the strong coupling mechanism between the magnetosphere and the ionosphere that results in large fluxes of energetic O+ ions being accelerated from the ionosphere and injected into the magnetosphere during magnetic storms. The properties of the minor ionic species such as He+ and He++ relative to the major constituents of the energetic magnetosphere plasma were also studied in order to evaluate the relative importance of the different sources of the plasma and of various energization, transport, and loss processes that may be mass-or charge-dependent. One of the primary objectives was to measure the energy and pitch angle distributions of the principal mass constituents (O+ and H+) of the upward flowing ions from the auroral acceleration region. An important area for study was the cusp region. The instrument was similar to one flown on the ISEE-1 satellite, and consisted of a curved-plate electrostatic energy analyzer, followed by a combined cylindrical electrostatic-magnetic mass analyzer. Open electron multipliers were used with pulse-amplitude discrimination as the mass analyzer detectors in order to improve the mass separation characteristics of the spectrometer. The energy resolution, (delta E)/E (internal), was 5%. The mass resolution M/(delta M) was less than or equal to 10 on the focus line. Time resolution was 32 samples per second. === High Altitude Plasma Instrument (HAPI) === The High Altitude Plasma Instrument (HAPI) consisted of an array of five electrostatic analyzers capable of making measurements of the phase-space distributions of electrons and positive ions in the energy/charge range from 5 eV to 32 keV as a function of pitch angle. This investigation provided data contributing to the studies of (1) the composition and energy of Birkeland current charge carriers, (2) the dynamic configuration of high-latitude magnetic flux tubes, (3) auroral particle source regions and acceleration mechanisms, (4) the role of E parallel to B and E perpendicular to B in the magnetosphere-ionosphere system, (5) the sources and the effects of polar cap particle fluxes, (6) the transport of plasma within and through the magnetospheric clefts, (7) wave-particle interactions, and (8) hot-cold plasma interactions. This instrument consisted of five identical detector heads, each having an electrostatic analyzer (of the ISIS-2 type) and two sensors (one electron channel and one ion channel). The detector heads were mounted on the main body. One of the detector heads was mounted in the spin plane, two were offset by ± 12°, and two were offset by ± 45°. One detector swept within a few degree of the field line during each rotation of the spacecraft, except when the magnetic field was greatly deformed from its meridian plane. The basic mode of operation provided a 32-point energy spectrum from each sensor, but the voltages on the electrostatic analyzers were programmable to allow for operation over limited portions of the energy spectrum, or at higher time resolution with reduced energy resolution. The energy resolution was 32%. The angular resolution was 2.5° Full width at half maximum (FWHM) (in the plane of detection) by 10° (polar angle). The sampling rate was 64 per second, and the total acceptance angle was 5° by 20°. Due to a failure in the high voltage power supply for the detectors, the instrument ceased operation on 1 December 1981. === Magnetic Field Observations Triaxial Fluxgate Magnetometer (MAG-A) === This investigation used a triaxial fluxgate magnetometer (MAG-A), similar to one on board DE-2, to obtain vector magnetic field data needed to study the magnetosphere-ionosphere-atmosphere coupling. The primary objective of this investigation was to obtain measurements of field-aligned currents in the auroral oval and over the polar cap at two different altitudes. This was accomplished using the two spacecraft and correlations of these measurements with observations of electric fields, plasma waves, suprathermal particles, thermal particles, and auroral images obtained from investigation 81-070A-03. Ultra low frequency (ULF) waves were also studied. The magnetometer incorporated its own 12-bit analog-to-digital converter, a 4-bit digital compensation register for each axis, and a system control to generate a 48-bit data word consisting of a 16-bit representation of the field measured along each of the three magnetometer axes. Track and hold modules were used to obtain simultaneous samples on all three axes. Instrument bandwidth was 25-Hz. The instrument dynamic range was ± 6.2E4 nT, and the resolution was ± 1.5 nT in the 6.2E4 nT region, ± 0.25 nT in the 1.E3 nT region, and ± 0.02 nT in the 80 nT region. The magnetometer's digital compensation of the ambient field was nominally in 8.E3 nT increments. === Plasma Waves Instrument (PWI) === The Plasma Wave Instrument (PWI) measured AC electric fields over the frequency range from 1-Hz to 2-MHz, and an amplitude range of 0.03 microvolt per meter to 100 mV per meter. Magnetic fields were measured from 1-Hz to 400-kHz over an approximately 100-dB range. The objectives of this investigation were to measure the spatial, temporal, spectral, and wave characteristics (particularly the Poynting vector component along the magnetic field line) and the wave polarization for extremely low frequency (ELF), very low frequency (VLF), and High frequency (HF) noise phenomena. Of special interest were the auroral kilometric radiation and VLF hiss, and a variety of electrostatic waves that may cause field-aligned acceleration of particles. The investigation made use of the long dipole antennas in the spin plane and along the Z-axis, and a magnetic loop antenna. A single-axis search coil magnetometer and a short electric antenna were included for low-frequency measurements and electrostatic noise measurements at short wavelengths. The electronics consisted of: (1) a wideband/long baseline receiver with a bandwidth of 10- or 40-kHz in the range 0-2-MHz; (2) a sweep-frequency correlator, containing two sweep-frequency receivers and phase detectors, sweeping 100-Hz to 400-kHz in 32 seconds, and giving the phase between magnetic and electric components of the field; (3) a low-frequency correlator containing two filter receivers and phase detectors (eight filters in the range 1.78–100-Hz were swept in 8 seconds); (4) DC monitors that measured the voltage difference between the two sets of long dipole antennas; and (5) a linear wideband receiver, selectable from 1.5 to 3.0, 3 to 6, or 10 to 16-kHz bands. The wideband receiver was flown to transmit wideband waveform signals to the ground via an analog transmitter, so that detailed high-resolution frequency-time analysis could be performed. Since 23 June 1984, a malfunction in the spacecraft data-handling system has prevented access to some PWI data. Digital measurements from the sweep frequency receiver system were no longer accessible. === Retarding Ion Mass Spectrometer (RIMS) === The Retarding Ion Mass Spectrometer (RIMS) consisted of a retarding potential analyzer for energy analysis in series with a magnetic ion-mass spectrometer for mass analysis. Multiple sensor heads permitted the determination of the thermal plasma flow characteristics. This instrument was designed to operate in two basic commandable modes: a high-altitude mode in which the density, temperature, and bulk-flow characteristics of principally H+, He+, and O+ ions were measured; and a low-altitude mode that concentrated on the composition in the 1- to 32-units range. This investigation provided information on: (1) the densities of H+, He+, and O+ ions in the ionosphere, plasmasphere, plasma trough, and polar cap (including the density distribution along the magnetic vector in the vicinity of the satellite apogee); (2) the temperature of H+, He+, and O+ ions in the ionosphere, plasmasphere, plasma trough, and polar cap (energy range 0-45 eV); (3) the bulk flow velocities of H+, He+, and O+ in the plasmapause, plasma trough and polar cap; (4) the changing character of the cold plasma density, temperature, and bulk flow in regions of interaction with hot plasma such as at the boundary between the plasmasphere and the ring current; and (5) the detailed composition of ionospheric plasma in the 1-to 32-units range. He++ and O++ were also measured. The instrument consisted of three detector heads. One looked out in the radial direction, and the other two were along the plus and minus spin-axis directions. Each detector had a 55° half-cone acceptance angle. The detector heads had a gridded, weakly collimating aperture where the retarding analysis was performed, followed by a parallel plate ceramic magnetic mass analyzer with two separate exit slits corresponding to ion masses in the ratio 1:4. Ions exiting from these slits were detected with electron multipliers. In the apogee mode, the thermal particle fluxes were measured while the potential on a set of retarding grids was stepped through a sequence of settings. In the perigee mode, the retarding grids were grounded and the detector utilized a continuous acceleration potential sweep that focused the mass ranges from 1 to 8, and 4 to 32 units. Time resolution was 16 msecond. === Spin Scan Auroral Imager (SAI) === The Spin-Scan Auroral Imager (SAI) provided global auroral imaging at visible and ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths. It acquired: (1) images at several visible wavelengths; (2) images within a vacuum ultraviolet "window", which allowed usable imaging of the aurora in the sunlit ionosphere; and (3) photometric measurements of the hydrogen corona. This investigation provided data that advanced the knowledge of: (1) the spatial and temporal character of the entire auroral oval at both visible and vacuum ultraviolet wavelengths (with good time resolution); (2) the association of auroral and magnetospheric plasmas with the diverse auroral emission features; (3) the relationship of the auroral emissions with field-aligned currents; (4) the energy deposited in the auroral ionosphere by charged particles; (5) the acceleration mechanism responsible for "inverted-V" precipitation events; (6) the role of the polar cap and magnetotail in auroral and magnetospheric dynamics; and (7) the time- dependent distribution of neutral hydrogen in the ring current and polar regions. Of the three photometers, two measured radiation in the visible wavelength range and one measured it in the UV. A full image was 36° by 120°. Some of the wavelengths were 3914, 5577, 6300, 3175, 1304, 1216, 1400–1600, and 1400-1700 Angstrom (A). The spatial resolution of a pixel (picture element) at auroral altitudes in the nadir direction was at a spacecraft altitude of 1 Earth radius (RE). At 3.9 (RE) altitude this resolution was . For each photometer, the time resolution was 3 to 12 minutes per image. For visible wavelengths, the photometers had a wide-angle collimator; a super- reflecting scanning mirror; a mirror-drive motor; a quartz field lens; an image-viewing assembly of field-stop, pinhole and collimating lens; a filter wheel with narrow-band interference filters; and a small photomultiplier tube with an extended red photocathode. The vacuum ultraviolet imaging photometer was a spin-scan Newtonian telescope. The first optical element was an aluminum scanning mirror with a magnesium fluoride (MgF2) overcoat. The collimation and mirror drive were similar to that used for the visible imaging photometer. A filter wheel with MgF2, calcium fluoride (CaF2), and barium fluoride (BaF2) filters allowed global imaging from 1370 to 1700, and at 1304, 1356, and 1216 A. The detector was a photomultiplier tube with a caesium iodide (CsI) photocathode and a MgF2 window. == Launch == Explorer 62 was launched on 3 August 1981, at 09:56 UTC from Vandeberg Air Force Base. == Mission results == As a result of a malfunction in the Thor-Delta 3913 launch vehicle in which its main engine shut off slightly early, Dynamics Explorer 2 reentered in 1983. Dynamics Explorer 1, being in a higher orbit, continued to collect data until 28 February 1991, when the mission was officially terminated, though it remains on orbit. == See also == * Dynamics Explorer 2 * Explorer program == References == == External links == * Dynamics Explorer image gallery Category:NASA satellites orbiting Earth Category:Geospace monitoring satellites Category:Twin satellites |
The is a kei car produced by Mitsubishi Motors mainly for the Japanese domestic market from 1962 to 2011. It was first built by Shin Mitsubishi Heavy-Industries, one of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries' three regional automotive companies until they were merged in 1964, and as such predates MMC itself. In Japan, it was sold at a specific retail chain called Galant Shop. In 2007 and 2011, the car was replaced with the Mitsubishi eK and the Mitsubishi i. __TOC__ ==First generation== ===Mitsubishi 360=== The precursor of the Minica was the Mitsubishi 360, a series of light trucks introduced in April 1961. Designed for the lowest kei car vehicle tax classification, it was powered by an air-cooled 359 cc, engine, providing a lowly top speed but with a fully syncromeshed four-speed transmission. After the successful 1962 introduction of the passenger car version, called Minica, the 360 van and pickup continued alongside the Minica, sharing its development.360cc Light Commercial Truck, pp. 84-85 The Mitsubishi 360/Minica competed with the established Subaru 360, Daihatsu Fellow Max, and the Suzuki Fronte in the late sixties. The somewhat unexpected success of the 360/Minica led Mitsubishi to end production of three-wheeled vehicles. Originally available as a panel van or light van (really a Station Wagon, but registered as a commercial vehicle for tax purposes), with a pickup version added in October, the Mitsubishi 360 was rather quaintly styled. Suicide doors and a swage line which continued across the hood were often accented by whitewall tires and lace curtains (both standard on the Light Van DeLuxe, introduced in April 1962) to complete the picture. The 360 and Minica were given a thorough facelift in November 1964, with an entirely new front clip with a pressed metal chrome grill. The more modern look was accompanied by the new, somewhat more powerful ME24 engine, affording a top speed of . The four-seat version of the light van (LT21-4) could carry , while the strict two-seater (LT20) could take a full . The Pickup was rated for carrying . In August 1966, the Mitsubishi Minicab cab- over pickup truck was launched to complement the Mitsubishi 360 light truck. Powered by the same air-cooled two-stroke 359 cc engine as the Minica, it came with cargo gates on three sides to simplify loading and unloading. In December, the 360 received a less ornate grille. In May 1967, the 360 and Minica were both updated with the new 21 PS ME24D, increasing top speed to . In September 1968 a Super Deluxe version of the light van was added, featuring a new plastic grille and more modern interior. At the same time, the pickup dropped the "360" model name and was from now on sold as the "Minica Pick" (ミニカピック, Minika Pikku). By 1969, the new Minica Van had superseded the LT23 and it was no longer produced, although the LT25 pickup continued to be built until September 1972. These late models have the air-cooled ME24E engine with , although the claimed top speed remained . It also has the same blacked-out plastic grille as fitted to the Super Deluxe and late first-generation Minicas. ===Minica Sedan=== The first Minica (LA20) was first introduced in October 1962 as a two-door sedan based on the Mitsubishi 360 light truck, sharing its front-mounted ME21 359 cc twin-cylinder air-cooled engine driving the rear wheels, transverse leaf springs in front and beam axle/leaf springs at the rear.360cc: Nippon Kei Car Memorial, p. 60 Top speed was marginally higher at . Initially featuring tailfins and a scalloped rear windshield, in November 1964 the Minica (and 360) received a facelift and the improved ME24 engine (LA21). Power output was up by one, to , with the new "Auto Mix" system removing the need for premixing oil and gasoline. In December 1966, along with a slightly different grille and new badging, a basic "Standard" Minica sedan was added, while the regular version was promoted to "Deluxe". Prices were ¥340,000 and ¥368,000 respectively.360cc: Nippon Kei Car Memorial, p. 63 In May 1967, the Minica was given another minor update, with a modified dashboard and a padded center to steering wheel. The engine was also upgraded, with the new reed valve ME24D providing a useful 21 PS.360cc: Nippon Kei Car Memorial, p. 66 In September of the following year, a Super Deluxe grade was added, using the new water-cooled 2G10 engine developed for the next-generation Minica.Ozeki (2007), p. 101 This (the LA23) also featured a full vinyl interior and a new plastic grille (as on the Mitsubishi 360 van pictured above). With the July 1969 introduction of the second-generation Minica, the LA series was discontinued. ==Second generation== The second-generation Minica 70 was introduced in July 1969 with coil springs front and rear, a five-link rigid rear axle, and a three-door sedan body. The new styling featured rear hatch, a Kei class first. Two 359 cc 2G10 water-cooled two-stroke powerplants were optionally available (A101), either the Red engine (Super Deluxe, Sporty Deluxe) or the Gold engine fitted with twin SU carburetors developing .60s Car Archive, p. 21 The Gold engine, introduced in December 1969, was fitted as standard to the SS and GSS sport models introduced at the same time. The basic Standard and Deluxe versions (A100) were still fitted with the old ME24E air- cooled engine Yellow engine, for a top speed of .70s Car Archive, pp. 69-70360cc: Nippon Kei Car Memorial, pp. 72-73 The better equipped Hi-Deluxe version also appeared in December 1969.Ozeki (2007), pp. 30, 97, 102-108 A two-door wagon body was also added in December 1969 and was to remain in production until its eventual replacement by the Minica Econo in 1981. In October 1970 the ME24F Yellow engine gained four horsepower for a total of (the Van did not receive this upgrade) while the Red engine went up to . The GSS version gained integrated foglights and four round headlight, while the SS was discontinued at the same time. A luxurious GL version was also introduced for 1971, featuring high-back bucket seats in front. In February 1971 a very minor facelift meant the car was now called Minica 71. Revised styling featured wider taillights and trim changes, and the water-cooled 2G10 engine was available in the lower priced Family Deluxe.360cc: Nippon Kei Car Memorial, p. 78 The Minica Skipper (A101C) was introduced in May 1971 as a two-door coupé with liftable rear window, and a choice of Red or Gold 2G10 engines. The Skipper was available either as the S/L, L/L or GT. This also meant that the GSS sedan was gradually becoming obsolete, as the focus of the sportier Minicas shifted to the coupé versions. Styling wise, the Skipper represented a miniature version of the seminal hardtop Mitsubishi Galant GTO. To allow for a combination of fastback styling with rearward visibility, the rearmost panel featured a small window. The top rear window opened for access to the luggage area, which featured a folding rear seat. Besides chassis and internals, the Skipper shared the front clip and lower door panels with the sedan.70s Car Archive, p. 73. By September 1971, with the introduction of the Minica 72, the sedan versions were no longer available with the powerful Gold engine. Changes were limited to a new honeycomb grille, taillights (incorporating amber turnsignals) and a new dash similar to that of the Skipper.360cc: Nippon Kei Car Memorial, p. 81 The Sporty Deluxe version was also discontinued. In October 1972 the 2nd-generation Minica received its last facelift, becoming the Minica 73 as a low-cost alternative to the new F4. Marketed either as a Standard or a Deluxe, only the de-tuned 31 PS (2G10-5) Red engine also used in the Van versions was now available, placing the "73" firmly at the bottom of the Minica lineup, and air-cooled engines were nolonger available. One year later, a Van Custom was added, with four headlights and more extensive equipment. In late 1974 or early 1975 the Van was updated to accept new larger license plates that were now required. The Van continued with the two-stroke 2G10-5 engine until being replaced by the bigger-engined Minica 5 Van (A104V) in March 1976. thumb|right|1973 Minica Skipper IV Also in October 1972 the renamed Skipper IV (A102) received the new four-stroke 2G21 engine from the Minica F4, with either 32 or 36 PS. A new F/L replaced the S/L in the lineup. Along with some safety improvements in October 1973 both engines were replaced by the "Vulcan S" engine, as the Skipper IV lineup was further narrowed. The coupé continued in production until July (or perhaps December) 1974, and was more restricted by emissions regulations. Mitsubishi revived the "Skipper" nameplate in 1996 on a special, "town" version of the Pajero Mini. ===The Van lives on=== The Minica Van, based on the 1969 Minica 70, was subsequently replaced by the Minica Econo in 1981. Starting with the air-cooled A100V, it was replaced by the water-cooled A101V in late 1972. There was no A102 nor A103 van, as the A101V remained available only with the air-cooled "Red" two-stroke engine until the introduction of the Minica 5 Van (A104V) in March 1976. This was soon followed by the bigger engined "Minica 55 Van" (A105V), which has the newer 2G23 engine with at 5500 rpm. The 55 Van was available in a few different equipment levels, from the Standard at the bottom to the Super Deluxe on top. ==Third generation== The third-generation Minica was introduced as the Minica F4 (A103A) in October 1972 with a 359 cc OHC engine in the same layout, but featuring a liftable clam-shell rear window as on the coupé. The Skipper continued in production, as of October 1973 with the new engine (becoming the Minica Skipper IV). The new four-stroke Vulcan 2G21 MCA engine (Mitsubishi Clean Air) was much cleaner than, but not as smooth running as its two-stroke predecessors. The six single-carb-engined versions provided while the twin-carb version listed for the GS and GSL models offered . The Van range continued to use the previous body. thumb|left|1972-1973 Mitsubishi Minica F4 Custom In late 1973, facing shrinking Kei-car sales, Mitsubishi narrowed the Minica F4 range down to four equipment levels (Hi-Standard, Deluxe, GL and SL), with the cheaper versions featuring a new grille. The sporty versions were discontinued, as the twin- carb engine fell foul of new emissions regulations. The modified Vulcan S engine came equipped with a balance shaft (later baptised "Silent Shaft") and was cleaner yet, hence the "MCA-II" tag. Power, however, was down to 30 PS. Top speed was . In December 1974, the lineup was again revamped, with the GL and SL becoming the Super Deluxe and Custom.360cc: Nippon Kei Car Memorial, p. 90 Mitsubishi also lightly redesigned the Minica to accept the new, bigger license plates now required for Kei cars. On 12 April 1976 (March for the Minica 5 Van), corresponding to revised kei car regulations of January 1976 (length up to 3.2 m, width to 1.4 m and engine size to 550 cc) both the sedan and the van received a new long-stroke 471 cc engine, a small increase in length (entirely due to new, larger bumpers), and a new name, the Minica 5. The Minica 5 was the first kei passenger car to meet the new regulations. Both models were also lightly facelifted, featuring new grilles, while equipment levels remained the same. While power output of the new Vulcan 2G22 did not change for the sedan (A104A), the van (A104V) received a lower powered version thereof. The Minica 5 was a mere interim model, anticipating the more thoroughly revised Minica Ami 55 which was soon to arrive. ==Fourth generation== In June 1977 the car and engine grew once again, creating the Minica Ami 55. While the side body panels remained the same, length increased yet a little more (3175 mm) and the entire car was widened by . The updated 546 cc Vulcan 2G23 engine provided for the A105A. Its sibling, the Minica 55 Van (A105V) was updated in March 1977 and was almost impossible to distinguish from the previous Minica 5 Van, aside from badging and a slightly less plasticky front end. The bigger engine provided some useful additional torque, but the sporting Minicas of the early seventies were now a memory. The traditional (and unusual amongst Kei cars) Panhard layout remained. thumb|left|Minica Ami 55 XL (1977-1981 model) September 1978 brought another engine upgrade: The new "Vulcan II" G23B featured the lean burn MCA-Jet emissions control system with a hemispherical head, aluminium rocker arms and three valves per cylinder, but power outputs remained static. The model code became A106, with A106V used for the van which continued to use the bodywork of the second generation. In September 1981 the car received another redesign. An entire new rear end meant a slightly longer wheelbase (up to 2,050 mm) and a somewhat longer and taller body. The somewhat boxy rear end, still with a clamshell rear window, looked a bit incongruous paired with the original Minica F4 front wings and doors. The new Minica was renamed the Minica Ami L (A107A), but bigger news was that the Minica 55 Van, based on the 1969 A100V, was finally retired. The new A107V Minica Econo ("Econo" hinting at its primary use as a private economy car rather than as a commercial vehicle) looked very similar to the Ami L but featured a proper rear hatch and folding rear seat, allowing it to be registered as a light commercial vehicle like its competitors the Daihatsu Mira, Suzuki Alto and Subaru Rex. Cargo capacity, compared to the more workmanlike Minica 55 Van, was reduced from 300 to . A two-speed, semi-automatic gearbox was also available on all models, while the standard four-speed manual received lower gearing for the Econo model. The engine was more quiet than before, featuring a milder cam profile. Power output of the G23B remained the same, although the Econo was stuck with a version of the old 2G23 engine. Top speed of the Ami was . In December 1981 a strict two-seater version of the Econo was added. One year later, the Minica was sold with the new "MMC" logo rather than the old "three diamonds". In March 1983 the Minica Ami L Turbo became the first kei car to be offered with a turbocharger, offering and glitzy graphics. This proved short-lived, as by January 1984 production of the A107 Minicas had ended, with Mitsubishi preparing for the release of an all new, front-wheel drive Minica. ==Fifth generation== The fifth-generation Minica was introduced in February 1984 as a front engined, front wheel drive vehicle for the first time. It offered three- and five-door configurations, increased size and a torsion beam/coil spring rear suspension. With its "tall-boy" design it was much more spacious inside. It retained the G23B engine, but modernized with a timing belt rather than the old noisy timing chain. The Minica sedan had , the sparsely trimmed Econo commercial version , and the Turbo gained an intercooler and now offered . Air conditioning finally became an option. Reflecting the design improvements, Mitsubishi advertised the car as a worthy competitor for the considerably larger cars of the one-litre class. A considerable improvement on the old model, sales of the passenger model tripled year-on-year in its first month on the market. Sales of the Econo doubled. thumb|left|Mitsubishi Minica Econo Turbo ZEO (H14V) In September 1985 a four-wheel drive model with a live rear axle was introduced. In January 1988, as the bubble economy and the kei-class horsepower war were both heating up, an aero-kit version of the Turbo was introduced to compete with Suzuki's Alto Works and Daihatsu's Mira Turbo TR- XX. Called the Turbo ZEO it was equipped with the same carburetted engine as the regular Turbo model; sales were low. There was also a low-priced, well- equipped version of the Minica Econo called the Tico, as well as a new top-of- the-line five-door sedan called the Minica Exceed. This generation was the first to reach export markets, usually labelled Mitsubishi Towny, originally with a two-cylinder 783 cc engine and a four-speed manual transmission. Beginning in March 1985, the Towny was also locally manufactured by CMC in Taiwan, only as a five-door. In 1987 a three-cylinder 796 cc engine with and a five-speed gearbox replaced the earlier drivetrain; a three-door panel van was also marketed abroad. ==Sixth generation== In January 1989 the sixth- generation Minica (H21/H26 for front- and four-wheel-drive models respectively) was officially introduced, although the engine, wheelbase, and suspension remained unchanged. In addition to the three-door vans (hatchbacks presumably intended for commercial use) and five-door "sedans" (hatchbacks for private use), a variant with a single door on the right side, two doors on the passenger side, and a liftgate was introduced, named the Minica Lettuce. This was originally a van with a foldable rear seat and flat loading floor, to meet special tax breaks available. In May 1989 the tax benefits were lowered and the Lettuce became classified as a sedan. A three-door passenger car version was introduced at the same time. The asymmetric Minica Lettuce was developed together with the Seiyu supermarket chain, which also sold the car directly. It was meant specifically to simplify the loading of children and shopping. thumb|left|The Minica Lettuce (H21V), notice the two doors on the left side and a single door on the right The pace of development in the Japanese automobile industry was relentless in the 1980s, leaving the fifth generation Minica looking rather outmoded towards the decade's end. Sales of the fifth generation had dropped to under 27,000 cars in 1988, while almost 77,000 Minicas were sold in 1989 (nearly all being of the new generation). An advanced new turbocharged engine with double overhead cams and the world's first mass-produced five-valve-per-cylinder engine was introduced for the Dangan ZZ model, producing . The Dangan was originally a commercial vehicle, but became a passenger car in August 1989. It was later made available in naturally aspirated form as well, as the Dangan Si and Dangan Ri. In May 1991 an automatic option was added to the Dangan ZZ. The van models gradually lost importance as their tax advantages were whittled away, with buyers increasingly going for the passenger models. In August 1989, however, a new commercial use model appeared in the form of the Minica Walk-Through Van. This version took full advantage of the maximum 2-metre height limitation on kei cars at . The Kei car standards were altered for 1990, allowing for a increase in length and an increase in displacement to 660 cc. The Minica's engine was now 657 cc, while the front bumper gained and the rear bodywork was altered to grow by . The wheelbase remained unchanged, while a black plastic element was added behind the rear windows to fill the extra space. Chassis codes changed to H22 and H27. A tall three-door MPV model with optional four-wheel drive, the Minica Toppo, was also introduced in February 1990 - the Toppo, being developed before the new regulations were finalized, did not take full advantage of them and ended up shorter than other kei cars. The Dangan Turbo only received its increase in displacement and increase in length in August 1990, six months after the rest of the range had been updated. In January 1992 the range received a light facelift, along with some new models. New were the Piace and Milano sedans, celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of the Minica, and the Dangan ZZ-Limited which has standard ABS brakes. In January 1993, shortly before the line was replaced, the Milano Limited and Milano four- wheel-drive were added. Export versions were still usually carrying the "Towny" label and featured an 800 cc engine. File:Mitsubishi Minica Dangan 001.JPG|1989 Mitsubishi Minica Dangan ZZ (van) File:Mitsubishi Minica Toppo 1990.JPG|Mitsubishi Minica Toppo ==Seventh generation== In September 1993, the seventh-generation three- and five-door Minica and Minica Toppo were introduced, with longer wheelbase. The five-valve-per-cylinder three-cylinder engines were replaced with a pair of 659 cc four-cylinder engines; one normally aspirated with single overhead cam and four valves per cylinder, and one turbocharged with double overhead cam and five valves per cylinder. The Toppo continued to use the rear bodywork of the original Minica Toppo, combined with the new front-end design. A version of the Toppo with two doors on the passenger side, similar to the "Lettuce", was made available, along with a limited edition RV version. In January 1997, versions of the Minica and Toppo with retro-styled front ends were introduced as the "Town Bee" model. File:Mitsubishi Minica Town Bee 721.JPG|Mitsubishi Minica Town Bee File:Mitsubishi Minica 702.JPG|Mitsubishi Minica Van Lyra File:Mitsubishi Minica Toppo Town Bee.jpg|The retro-styled Minica Toppo Town Bee ==Eighth generation== thumb|left|Rear view The enlarged eighth-generation Minica was introduced in October 1998 to take advantage of the new regulations, as a pair of three-door and five-door sedans with torsion beam rear suspension and optional four-wheel drive, with the only available engine the 657 cc three- cylinder single overhead cam unit, now equipped with four valves per cylinder. This version is at the maximum exterior dimensions and engine displacement limits as defined in Japanese government regulations for cars classified as kei cars. A five-door MPV built on this platform but with a four-cylinder double overhead cam five-valve-per-cylinder turbocharged engine, known as the "Mitsubishi Toppo BJ" was also introduced. Front-wheel-drive models carry the H42 chassis code, four-wheel-drives are H47. This is followed by an "A" for passenger models and a "V" for commercials. In January 1999, the retrostyled Town Bee version of this generation of Minica and the "Mitsubishi Toppo BJ Wide" were introduced. In October 1999, a 659 cc four-cylinder single overhead cam four-valve-per-cylinder turbocharged engine was introduced, and in December 1999, a limited edition of 50 "Mitsubishi Pistachios" with a 1094 cc double overhead cam four-valve-per-cylinder direct-injection engine was made available only to organizations working to protect the environment. In October 2001, a five-door wagon version of the Minica was introduced as the Mitsubishi eK Wagon, and now serves as Mitsubishi's primary product in the "kei" class. Passenger versions were discontinued in 2007, while the models intended for commercial use continued to be built until 2011. The Mitsubishi eK is a kei- car which is the successor of the Minica. ==Legacy== *The Filipino tongue twister Minekaniko ng mekaniko ni Monico ang makina ng Minica ni Monica (lit. "Monico's mechanic fixed the engine of Monica's Minica") refers to the Minica, which gained popularity in the Philippines during the Marcos dictatorship. ==Notes== ==References== * GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica（first generation） * GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica（second generation） * GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica（third generation） * GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica（fourth generation） * GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica（fifth generation） * GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica（sixth generation） * GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica（seventh generation） * GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica（eighth generation） * * * * * * * * This entry incorporates information from the equivalent entry in the Japanese Wikipedia at 9 January 2010. * This entry incorporates information from the Mitsubishi 360 entry in the Japanese Wikipedia at 9 January 2010. ==External links== *Mitsubishi Minica *History of Mitsubishi Kei Jidosha Minica Category:1960s cars Category:1970s cars Category:1980s cars Category:1990s cars Category:2000s cars Category:All-wheel-drive vehicles Category:Front-wheel- drive vehicles Category:Hatchbacks Category:Kei cars Category:Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Category:Sedans Category:Station wagons Category:Cars introduced in 1962 |
Paškal Buconjić (2 April 1834 - 8 December 1910) was Herzegovinian Croat Franciscan and a prelate of the Catholic Church who served as the first bishop of Mostar-Duvno from 1881 to 1910, as the apostolic administrator of Trebinje- Mrkan from 1890 to 1910, as the apostolic vicar of Herzegovina from 1880 to 1881, and as custos of the Franciscan Custody of Herzegovina between 1874 and 1879. Buconjić, who was born in Drinovci, Herzegovina, during the Ottoman rule, joined the Franciscans in 1851 and after a year of novitiate, he became a full member of the newly established Franciscan Custody of Herzegovina in 1852. He attended theological studies in Ferrara, at the time in Austrian Empire, and was ordained a priest there in 1856. Buconjić then lectured at Antonianum in Rome between 1860 and 1866, when he returned to Herzegovina, where he lectured at the seminary of the Franciscan friary in Široki Brijeg. Buconjić became a chaplain in 1871 and in 1873 a parish priest in Drinovci. He was elected Custos of the Franciscan Custody of Herzegovina 1874, a position he held until 1879. During the Herzegovina Uprising of 1875-1877, Buconjić with Bishop Anđeo Kraljević helped to pacify the Catholic population and supported the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary. In 1875, Buconjić published a booklet titled "The Main Reasons for the Uprising of the Christian Population in Herzegovina" and sent it to the representatives of several European countries, which raised awareness among the European powers regarding the position of Christians. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, it was decided Bosnia and Herzegovina would be occupied by Austria- Hungary. Buconjić was an important figure in Croatian politics during the Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1880, after the Austrian- Hungarian occupation, Buconjić was appointed Apostolic Vicar of Herzegovina and a titular bishop of Magydus, and was consecrated in Zagreb the same year. With the restoration of the regular Church hierarchy in 1881, Buconjić was appointed the first Bishop of the newly established Diocese Mostar-Duvno. As a bishop, he favored his Franciscan Custody over the interests of the diocese. He tried to postpone the restoration of the regular Church hierarchy until 1889, when Pope Leo XIII issued Decisia allowing Franciscans to retain some parishes and designating others to the diocesan clergy. The Franciscans largely ignored Decisia. In 1890, the Diocese of Trebinje-Mrkan, to whose northern and northern-eastern parts Bishop Paškal pretended, was exempted from the administration of Bishop of Dubrovnik and was given to Bishop of Mostar- Duvno for administration; after this, the whole of Herzegovina was under Buconjić's jurisdiction. Buconjić died in Mostar on 8 December 1910 and was buried in the Church of Saint Peter and Paul in Mostar. He was succeeded in his post by Alojzije Mišić in 1912. == Early life == Paškal Buconjić was born in Drinovci near Grude, Herzegovina, which at the time was part of the Ottoman Empire, to father Stjepan and mother Vida (née Šimić). Buconjić's family originated in Ošalj near Ston and were known as Vodopić while their family name was translated as Bevillacqua in Italian. Part of that family moved to Neum, where Buconjić's father Stjepan was born. After entering into a conflict with the local Ottoman governor, Stjepan fled to Mostar and worked for some families there. He later traded in livestock and bought land in Drinovci, where he married Vida Šimić. They had six sons and five daughters. Buconjić was christened as Stjepan on 16 August 1834 in Slivno, where Christians had fled due to inter-Muslim violence during the Bosnian uprising. In January 1846, his father took him to Franciscans in Čerigaj for education and to become a friar, where the Herzegovinian Franciscans moved in an attempt to establish their own Custody and separate from the Franciscan Province of Bosnia. Buconjić remained in Čerigaj until 1849 when the Franciscans built the first wing of the friary in Široki Brijeg, where he moved with the rest of the friars. Buconjić became a friar on 13 October 1851. After a year in the novitiate, he took solemn vows before Custos Anđeo Kraljević on 10 November 1852, and changed his name to Paškal. == Education and professorship in Italy == By Kraljević's decision, Buconjić continued his education at the Franciscan school in Ferrara, at the time under the control of the Austrian Empire. After finishing his studies, Buconjić was ordained a priest there on 21 December 1856. He celebrated his first mass on Christmas. While in Ferrara, under the influence of the pro-Austrian Croat military officers, Buconjić became a supporter of the Croatian cause and the Austrian monarchy. After finishing his studies, Buconjić wanted to return to Herzegovina, however, the heads of the Custody opposed his decision and wanted him to become a lecturer or professor. Even General of the Franciscan Order Bernardino Trionfetti intervened to persuade him. On 18 December 1858, Buconjić passed the professor exam in Bologne, where he discussed natural law and was awarded the highest grades. When Trionfetti saw his grades, he invited Buconjić to Rome to lecture at Antonianum, where Buconjić was appointed professor on 8 June 1860. While lecturing in Rome, Buconjić connected with the members of the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome, then a student at the Collegium Germanicum et Hungaricum Josip Stadler, who would become his good friend (and who later become the archbishop of Vrhbosna) as well as Cardinal Alessandro Barnabò, the Prefect of the Propaganda, which would influence his later life and help him become a bishop. Buconjić also befriended the Croatian nationalist revolutionary Eugen Kvaternik, and was influenced by his ideas, which he discussed with Stadler. His other Roman friends included Franjo Rački and Menci Clement Crnčić. Buconjić's lecturing drafts during his tenure were not preserved but the speech he gave before the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome was published under the title "Speech on the Occasion of the Millennial Celebration of the SS Slavic Apostles Cyril and Methodius" in 1863. Apostolic Vicar of Herzegovina Rafael Barišić died on 14 August 1863, and many saw the young Buconjić as his successor. However, Buconjić rejected such a possibility. After Bosnian Franciscans tried to take the vacant position for one of their own, and thus reclaim the Herzegovinian Custody, Buconjić acted to prevent them. He visited Pope Pius IX at his residence in Castel Gandolfo and asked him to appoint a Herzegovinian Franciscan as the apostolic vicar. The Pope conceded and appointed Kraljević the titular bishop of Motella and apostolic vicar of Herzegovina. == Custos of the Franciscan Custody of Herzegovina == thumb|St. Michael's Church in Drinovci built by Buconjić with a monument in front of it dedicated to him After several requests to return to Herzegovina, Buconjić's appeals were accepted. He lectured in Rome until 20 December 1866, when he returned to the Franciscan friary in Široki Brijeg to teach dogma and morals. In 1871 he gained the highest Franciscan academic title of jubilee lecturer. The Custody's administration decided already in 1865 to establish new parishes, including the one in Buconjić's home village Drinovci. Buconjić helped them to find a lot for the construction of a new parochial residence. In 1871 Drinovci became at first a chaplaincy, while Buconjić was named its chaplain, and in 1873 it was elevated to the status of a parish, with Buconjić as its first parish priest. While in Drinovci, Buconjić finished the construction of the parochial residence and helped constructing a parochial church. Buconjić was elected Custos of the Franciscan Custody of Herzegovina on 31 May 1874 for a three-year term. === Herzegovina uprising === thumb|Franciscan friary in Humac where Buconjić moved for safety during the uprising In April 1875, during the turmoil between Christians and the Ottoman authorities in Herzegovina, Austrian-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph visited neighboring Dalmatia, where he received two Franciscan delegations in Imotski on 24 April and in Vrgorac the next day. Buconjić led the delegation of nine Franciscans in Imotski and presented the emperor with a memorandum about the hardships of Christians in Herzegovina. On that occasion, the emperor decorated him with the Commander's Star of the Order of Franz Joseph. The Ottoman authorities viewed this as an act of treason, and Friar Petar Bakula learned of their intentions to kill Buconjić and two other friars, Anđeo Ćurić and Lovro Karaula. Buconjić became suspicious to the Ottoman authorities and for safety, he decided to move his residence from Široki Brijeg to the Franciscan friary in Humac near Ljubuški, so he can be closer to Dalmatia for escape. Karaula was eventually murdered on 20 July 1875. In June 1875, Christians started the Herzegovina uprising; Catholics of Gabela, led by Ivan Musić—who was Kraljević's nephew—were the first to rebel. The Ottoman authorities asked Kraljević to help them to pacify the rebels but this bid failed and the Ottoman authorities allowed foreign powers to find a peaceful solution. The representatives of the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy and France arrived in Mostar. Buconjić issued a booklet in Italian called "The Main Reasons for the Uprising of the Christian Population in Herzegovina" and gave it to six foreign consuls. In this booklet, Buconjić stated high taxes were the main factor in the uprising. On 30 June 1876, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Ottoman Empire, requestion annexation of Bosnia to Serbia and Herzegovina to Montenegro. After finding Serbia and Montenegro had requested the annexation of these regions, Kraljević and Buconjić wrote to the Austrian-Hungarian authorities in July 1876 asking them not to allow this, stating Bosnia and Herzegovina should be annexed by Austria-Hungary— to whom the Catholics are connected by their "historical past, and many other moral and material interests"—if the Ottoman authorities must leave. The Austrian-Hungarian public and authorities received the protestation very positively. Herzegovinian Franciscans, led by Kraljević, also sent a letter to the Ottoman government fiercely opposing this request. Kraljević and Buconjić helped pacify the Catholics who participated in the uprising because the Catholic leadership viewed the unrest in Herzegovina as a potential struggle for the annexation of these regions to Serbia and Montenegro respectively. They were successful in their mission; on 19 February 1877, Kraljević informed the Propaganda in Rome the Catholics of Herzegovina enjoyed "peace and rest". Meanwhile, the uprising spread to the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina and culminated with the Russo-Turkish War that ended with the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878. During Buconjić's tenure as Custos, the theological education and novitiate were transferred from Široki Brijeg to Humac. On 1 September 1875, Buconjić asked the General Minister of the Franciscan Order to proclaim the seminary a friary, which was approved on 5 March 1876. The decree arrived in Herzegovina only a month later, on 19 April 1876, when it was proclaimed to the Herzegovinian Franciscans. === Conflict with Bishop Kraljević === The Franciscans of Herzegovina were on bad terms with Bishop Kraljević, claiming he did not give them enough of the collected alms for the construction of the friary in Humac. The conflict between the bishop and the Franciscans reached its peak during Buconjić's tenure because Franciscans controlled all of the parishes in Herzegovina while the bishop, even though a Franciscan himself, wanted to have diocesan clergy at his disposal. An anonymous letter was sent to Emperor Franz Joseph claiming the bishop was giving donations sent to him by Austria-Hungary to the Ottomans and accusing him of being a turkophile. The Franciscan Custody barred itself from this letter. In February 1877, Kraljević asked the Propaganda to send an apostolic visitor to Herzegovina and accused Buconjić of neglecting the parishes and the Herzegovinian Franciscans of taking the payment for maintenance by force from the believers during the Easter Communion. The Congregation appointed Bishop Kazimir Forlani the apostolic visitor; he arrived in Mostar in February the next year. Forlani finished his report in May 1878; he advised the Bishop to act in agreement with the Franciscans, to record revenues and expenditures, and to help the construction of the friary in Humac. The question of the parishes remained unresolved. === Austrian- Hungarian occupation === Austria-Hungary and the United Kingdom were unsatisfied with the Treaty of San Stefano and insisted that the new territorial organisations in the Balkans should be discussed internationally. The Treaty of San Stefano was revised at the Congress of Berlin held on 13 July 1878. With the help from the United Kingdom and Germany, Austria-Hungary received a mandate to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. When Austrian-Hungarian General Stjepan Jovanović entered Herzegovina via Vrgorac on 31 August 1878 to occupy the territory, Buconjić received him in the Humac friary and helped him to enter Ljubuški and the rest of West Herzegovina without resistance. Not long after the occupation, Buconjić sent a telegram to Emperor Franz Joseph expressing his hope for the unification of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia. Buconjić was also a member of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian delegation that went to Budapest to bow down before the Emperor, presenting him a memoranda authored by Buconjić. With the Austrian-Hungarian occupation, the Herzegovinian Franciscan Custody saw a decrease in financial revenues. They stopped receiving monetary donations from the Austrian-Hungarian Emperor, which he sent during the Ottoman occupation, and the new authorities relinquished all of their privileges given to them by the Ottomans, including tax exemption. Since they were no longer considered missionaries, the Franciscans stopped receiving donations from various societies, especially those from the Society for the Propagation of the Faith in Lyon. While Bishop Forlani was still in the official visitation, Buconjić's term was coming to an end. The General of the Franciscan Order advised not to elect the new leadership until the end of the visitation; he asked Forlani to make a list of suitable candidates and sent it to the Propaganda in Rome. Forlani proposed Marijan Zovko for the position of Custos, which the Propaganda approved on 20 June 1879. Buconjić read the Propaganda's decision on 4 August; upon receiving the news, Zovko refused his appointment due to illness. Zovko's resignation was refused and he was appointed Custos against his will. The new administration named Buconjić guardian of the Humac friary on 18 August 1879. == Apostolic Vicar of Herzegovina == thumb|Bishop Paškal Buconjić after his episcopal consecration in 1880 The Apostolic Vicar of Herzegovina, Bishop Anđeo Kraljević died on 27 July 1879 while on a visit to distribute chrism oils to Konjic. Herzegovinian Franciscans chose Buconjić as his successor. Due to his loyalty to Austria-Hungary, the Austrian-Hungarian authorities lobbied for Buconjić to succeed Bishop Kraljević with a recommendation from the apostolic vicar of Bosnia, Bishop Paškal Vuičić. His appointment was approved by both, the Austrian-Hungarian government as well as Apostolic Nuncio to Austria-Hungary Domenico Jacobini. Pope Leo XIII approved Buconjić's nomination and issued two decrees on 30 January 1880 appointing Buconjić the apostolic vicar and a titular bishop of Magydus. To enhance the connection between Herzegovina and Croatia, Buconjić chose Zagreb as a place for his episcopal consecration. Buconjić was consecrated a bishop by the Archbishop of Zagreb Cardinal Josip Mihalović in Zagreb on 19 March 1880, after which Buconjić visited the emperor in Vienna and the pope in Rome. Buconjić was finally installed as the apostolic vicar on 25 April 1880. His episcopal motto was "All for the faith and homeland". Buconjić's choice to be consecrated in Zagreb rather than by some neighboring bishops enabled Herzegovina to eliminate the dominance of the Bosnian Franciscans who, together with the Bishop of Đakovo Josip Juraj Strossmayer, tried to control it. Strossmayer, who also held the traditional title Bishop of Bosnia, tried to take the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina under his jurisdiction. Buconjić worked steadily on his career. After the Austrian-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, the chances for Buconjić to become a residential bishop with the restoration of the regular Church hierarchy became palpable, unlike those of Paškal Vuičić. In March 1880, Cardinal Mihalović and Buconjić discussed the organization of the Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Early the same year in Vienna, Buconjić met with Jacobini, who later consulted Mihalović about the organization of the Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Both of them became impressed with Buconjić. == Bishop of Mostar-Duvno == After the Austrian- Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, and the signing of the Convention between Austria-Hungary and the Holy See on 8 June 1881, the ground for episcopal nominations was established. According to the Convention, the emperor had an exclusive right to appoint bishops in the territories. From 5 July 1881, Pope Leo XIII with the apostolic bull Ex hac augusta restored the regular Church hierarchy in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The pope established the Archdiocese of Vrhbosna with a seat in Sarajevo and subordinated to it the newly established Diocese of Banja Luka, the already existing Diocese of Trebinje-Mrkan—which was under the apostolic administration of the Bishop of Dubrovnik—and the Diocese of Mostar-Duvno, to which he added the title of Bishop of Duvno. The Diocese of Mostar-Duvno included the territory of the Apostolic Vicariate of Herzegovina, which was abolished. Due to his previous pro-Austrian stance, Minister of Finances Josip Szlávy nominated Buconjić for the post of Bishop of Mostar-Duvno to the emperor, who agreed and appointed Buconjić the new residential bishop on 9 October 1881. The emperor's appointment was sent to Rome for official confirmation and Pope Leo XIII confirmed the appointment on 18 November 1881, absolving Buconjić of the title of Bishop of Magydus. Buconjić was enthroned on 30 April 1882. As a bishop, Buconjić favored the Franciscan Custody more than his diocese. Rather than opening seminaries for the education of the diocesan clergy, Buconjić helped found two Franciscan seminaries; one as a gymnasium in Travnik that opened in 1882 and the other in Sarajevo as a theology seminary that opened in 1893. Only five diocesan priests were ordained during Buconjić's episcopate, compared with the ordination of over 70 Franciscans. Buconjić gave away some of the diocesan property to the Custody. Buconjić agreed to make the diocesan cathedral a Franciscan friary church while the new cathedral church was to be built with help from the imperial government. Buconjić informed the Propaganda about this on 14 May 1885. He approved the construction of the Franciscan friary near the redesignated cathedral on 30 April 1886. Buconjić consecrated the cornerstone of the Franciscan friary, which was built on the site of a former parochial residence on 19 March 1889. Buconjić bought land for a new cathedral church in the Rondo quarter of Mostar. The land for the new cathedral was later put under a lien in benefit of the Franciscan Custody of Herzegovina due to debt; at that time, Buconjić was bedridden. The cathedral was never built, and the lend was later confiscated by the Yugoslav communist authorities, who constructed House of Culture on its place. After the Austrian-Hungarian occupation in 1878, many Muslims, from whom Bishop Buconjić bought lands around Nevesinje and Bijelo Polje left the country. Buconjić helped Catholic Croats from areas around Ljubuški and Mostar, where they were overpopulated, to settle there. He also helped a number of his relatives to move near Nevesinje. The authorities obstructed these internal migrations and encouraged migration from outside Bosnia and Herzegovina. Buconjić helped to establish higher education in Mostar, helping with the establishment of the Franciscan Seminary of Theology at the Franciscan friary in Mostar. He officially opened the seminary on 7 October 1895. By establishing the Seminary of Theology, the Franciscan Custody of Herzegovina provided for the education of its cadets. Buconjić built the Bishop's Ordinariate in Glavica, Mostar, from 1905 to 1909, and moved into it on 24 March 1909. Buconjić brought the Franciscan nuns from Maribor to Mostar in 1899. He built an orphanage that same year in Bijelo Polje that they controlled, and he bought them land in Nevesinje. Buconjić wanted the Franciscan sisters to dedicate themselves to raising poor female children. The Sisters of Mercy, who were already present in Herzegovina when Buconjić became a bishop, were granted a house and a yard in Ljubuški. Buconjić had a leading role in the Croatian national movement in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the new Austrian-Hungarian authorities forbade the use of the Croatian and Serbian names. The National Musical-Singing Society founded by the people of Mostar in 1889, gathered youth and had a goal of promoting Croatian national conciseness was sponsored by Buconjić. During Buconjić's reign, Glas Hercegovca (the Voice of a Herzegovinian), a political magazine was established, and was supported by Buconjić and the Herzegovinian Franciscans. The publishing of Glas Hercegovca stopped dute to hardship in 1896. The next year, the Franciscans established the Croatian Joint-stock Printing House in Mostar that published Osvit (the Daybreak), another political magazine supported by Buconjić. However, this magazine as well stopped its publishing after ten years. Buconjić was one of the initiators of the establishment of a society dedicated to aiding poor Croat students in 1897. Provincial Augtustin Zubac and others sent a request to the government to allow the foundation of such a society in January 1902, which the government approved on 5 July. The founding session of the Croatian Support Society for the Needs of Students and University Students from Bosnia and Herzegovina was held on 14 September 1902, and Buconjić was named its sponsor. The Croatian Support Society would grow to become HKD Napredak. === Administrative organisation === On 10 May 1883, Buconjić divided the Diocese of Mostar-Duvno into five deaneries - Mostar, Ljubuški, Bekija, Duvno, and Široki Brijeg. He also established several parishes - Vinica on 7 May 1885, Posuški Gradac on 28 April 1887; Tihaljina on 19 May 1889, Medjugorje on 1 May 1892, and Nevesinje in 1899. He named Marijan Kelava, a diocesan priest, as a parish priest in Neveinje, and built a parochial residence and a church. In 1908 he established the Parish of Studenci. The main issue during Buconjić's episcopate diocese was the division of parishes between the diocesan clergy and the Franciscans, who tried to confirm their dominance in Herzegovina with Rome. Even though the papal bull Ex hac augusta ended the privileges the Franciscans enjoyed in their missionary work, they still wanted to retain all of the parishes in the diocese. The Franciscans were confident Buconjić, who himself was a Franciscan, would not disturb their possession of parishes. In December 1881, however, Custos Zovko wrote to the General of the Order about the parishes in Herzegovina. The General asked Zovko about the right of possession of those parishes, to which Zovko replied in February 1882 the Franciscans had established and controlled those parishes and therefore had patronage over them. That December, Zovko again asked the General about the situation with the parishes in Herzegovina; the General responded that Herzegovinian Franciscans have nothing to be afraid of since Buconjić loved the Franciscan Custody. Buconjić confirmed to the General he would not take the parishes from the Franciscans but would retain the newly-established parishes for the diocese. The new Custos Luka Begić, who was elected in May 1883, became concerned the position of the Franciscans would be endangered, even if only the diocese controlled only the newly-established parishes, and insisted even those parishes should belong to the Franciscan Custody. He talked to Buconjić about the issue; Buconjić complied with his concerns and agreed the newly-established parishes should belong to the Custody. Begić informed the General about the agreement in July 1883; he received no reply so he wrote again in March 1885, when Buconjić was supposed to visit Rome and settle the issue. That May, the General's deputy Andrea Lupori replied, asking Buconjić to take with him the contract about the parishes he signed and the definitors of the Custody. The Custody decided Begić should follow Buconjić to Rome with the instruction the Franciscans should retain the parishes west of the Neretva River while the bishop should dispose of those on the eastern bank; in the case, this would not be accepted, Begić was instructed to give in "as least as possible". Buconjić and Begić arrived in Rome on 12 May 1885. The Propaganda received Begić's request in June 1885 and they informed the State Secretariate about the issue. Secretary of State Cardinal Luigi Jacobini asked Nuncio Cardinal Serafino Vannutelli in Vienna to ask Buconjić about the parishes the Franciscans were supposed to retain and those that were at his disposal. In December 1885, Vannutelli asked Buconjić whether he agreed with Begić's proposal or to write which parishes the Franciscans should retain and which should be at his disposal. In January 1886, Buconjić informed Vannutelli he would not take the parishes from the Franciscans. Upon receiving Buconjić's answer, Vannutelli informed Jacobini the agreement between the Franciscans and Buconjić should not be confirmed and that the parishes should be divided as in Bosnia, where the situation was the same as in Herzegovina. Vannutelli proposed at least one-third of the parishes should be under the disposal of the bishop but because Buconjić was a Franciscan himself, Vannutelli considered it would be impossible to bring a new solution and that the Herzegovinian Custos should be informed Rome did not want to make any new decrees because there was a harmony between the bishop and the friars. Jacobini accepted Vannutelli's position. Thus, Rome kept the issue unresolved. Friar Lujo Radoš fruitlessly urged the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs in March 1888. Lupori advised Friar Nikola Šimović to explain the Franciscans' position on the matter to the Nuncio in Vienna and to try to get a confirmation for their proposal. At the end of October 1889, he visited the Nuncio, who told him he would try to resolve the matter in the interest of the Franciscans. After returning to Mostar, Šimović again wrote to the Nuncio, reminding him of Radoš's proposal from 1888. The Nuncio replied in December 1889, promising to support such a proposal. The issue, however, remained unresolved for years. In 1892, the Franciscan Custody of Herzegovina was elevated to a province. After Begić was elected Provincial in 1898, he tried to broker any deal he could, rather than to hold the insecure status quo. Buconjić was supposed to visit Rome after Easter in 1899, which Begić saw as an opportunity to resolve the issue of parishes. Custos Rafael Radoš was supposed to join Buconjić in Rome but he died in March 1899. In April that year, Begić wrote to the General of the Order to represent the Franciscan Province in Herzegovina. Buconjić discussed the issue with Begić; both men wanted to preserve the strong Franciscan presence in the Diocese of Mostar- Duvno. Buconjić proposed 25 parishes should belong to the Franciscans while 12 would be at the bishop's disposal. Buconjić also proposed the establishment of 12 additional parishes that would be at the bishop's disposal. Pope Leo XIII confirmed the Decisia on 17 July 1899; 14 parishes were designated to the diocesan clergy while others were left to the Franciscans. Buconjić postponed the publication of the pope's decision until 1908; both Buconjić and the Franciscans were unsatisfied with the decision. The beginning of this publication states; "We considered it adequate to present before the eyes of the priests of our dioceses, and especially to the young ones, the copies of the solemn Decisia in relation to the parishes established or those ought to be established. This Decisia must remain solid and constant to avoid any dissent or changeability of wishes." He asked the pope for permission to trust certain dioceses to the Franciscans because he lacked the diocesan priests. With time, however, the Deceisa remained neither solid nor constant, and "the dissent and changeability of wishes" were not avoided. The will of Buconjić about the division of the parishes was not respected. == Apostolic Administrator of Trebinje-Mrkan == thumb|Provicar of Trebinje-Mrkan Lazar Lazarević The Diocese of Trebinje-Mrkan suffered heavily during the Herzegovina uprising between 1875 and 1877; many Catholics and priests fled the area, and houses and churches were destroyed. At the time, Trebinje-Mrkan was administered by the Bishop of Dubrovnik. After the Austrian-Hungarian occupation, the situation improved and the refugees returned to their homes. The churches and schools were renovated and rebuilt, and the number of Catholics in the territory increased. During the talks about the organization of the Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Governor of Dalmatia General Gavrilo Rodić and Bishop of Dubrovnik Ivan Zaffron opposed the idea Trebinje-Mrkan should be exempted from the Bishop of Dubrovnik but the Catholic population and clergy wanted their own bishop. Zaffron later supported the initiative and proposed Apostolic Vicar of Egypt Bishop Ljudevit Ćurčija as a new bishop of Trebinje-Mrkan. The Austrian-Hungarian government, however, could not meet these requests due to financial obligations and the consideration for the Eastern Orthodox. The government could not allow the Catholics, who were fewer in numbers, to have more bishops than the Eastern Orthodox so they agreed in the Convention of 1881 to leave Trebinje-Mrkan under the administration of the bishop of Dubrovnik. The Catholics of Trebinje-Mrkan became frustrated with the lack of material aid from the new authorities and the inactivity of the new Bishop of Dubrovnik Mato Vodopić. Buconjić systematically usurped northern and north-eastern parts of the Diocese of Trebinje-Mrkan for his own diocese of Mostar-Duvno. According to Ex hac augusta, the borders of the Diocese of Mostar-Duvno reached Novi Pazar while the northern border between the Dioceses of Mostar-Duvno and Trebinje-Mrkan remained unclear. Provicar of Trebinje- Mrkan Lazar Lazarević wrote to the Propaganda in Rome on 11 June 1887, again requesting the appointment of a new bishop and protection of Catholics from the new authorities. In mid-1887, Lazarević also wrote to the Austrian- Hungarian government in Sarajevo about Buconjić's encroachment in Trebinje- Mrkan but his petition drew no positive response. Lazarević also warned Vodopić about his duties as Apostolic Administrator but Vodopić showed little interest. Head of the Propaganda Cardinal Giovanni Simeoni asked the State Secretary Cardinal Mariano Rampolla to help with the improvement of the condition of Catholics in Trebinje-Mrkan. Rampolla informed the pope about the situation; the pope requested new negotiations with the Austrian-Hungarian government. Cardinal Luigi Galimberti, the new Nuncio in Vienna, started negotiations with Foreign Minister Count Gustav Kálnoky and showed him Rampolla's letter. Kálnoky informed the Minister of Finances Béni Kállay about the situation and in June 1888, Kállay ordered an investigation into the Buconjić's pretensions to Trebinje-Mrkan. Buconjić's predecessor Apostolic Vicar Barišić also requested subordination of Trebinje-Mrkan to him in 1846. On 5 September 1888, the clergy of Trebinje-Mrkan again asked Nuncio Galimberti for the new bishop and for Buconjić to respects the boundaries of Trebinje-Mrkan as established in the 1881 bull Ex hac augusta. On 17 June 1889, the Austrian-Hungarian government in Sarajevo and the Joint Ministry of Finance presented their proposal to Galimberti, in which they suggested the Bishop of Mostar-Duvno should administer Trebinje-Mrkan. The main motive for the proposal was not to dissatisfy the Eastern Orthodox population. The Austrian-Hungarian government also requested the Bishop of Mostar-Duvno, even though just an apostolic administrator, should have a regular jurisdiction in Trebinje-Mrkan and that he could appoint Franciscans to priestly duties. Cardinals Simeoni and Rampolla agreed with the first proposal but rejected the others. The Austrian-Hungarian government was informed about their decision on 23 September 1889. On 16 June 1890, the Propaganda decreed the bishop of Mostar-Duvno would administer Trebinje-Mrkan and the pope confirmed this decision on 8 July the same year. With the new decree, Buconjić's jurisdiction was extended to the whole of Herzegovina. In 1885, Buconjić proposed a change in the borders of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian dioceses to the Holy See. Buconjić and other two Bosnian-Herzegovinian bishops, Stadler and the apostolic administrator of Banja Luka Marijan Marković proposed the changes to the Holy See's Secretariate of State. The proposal was brought before Pope Leo XIII on 10 February 1891, who approved it. The secretary of the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs Domenico Ferrata sent the proposal to the Propaganda on 18 February 1891. The Propaganda made the proposal a decree on 24 March 1891, which changed the border between the Diocese of Mostar-Duvno and the Diocese of Trebinje-Mrkan, which was confirmed by the Pope on 24 March 1891. == Death and succession == thumb|Alojzije Mišić succeeded Buconjić as Bishop of Mostar-Duvno and Apostolic Administrator of Trebinje-Mrkan In the last years of his life, Buconjić was often sickly. Even though the new episcopal residence was erected, Buconjoć refused to move and lived in the old residence in Vukodol. His advisor, friar Radoslav Glavaš, the bishop's secretary, used Buconjić's weak condition to remain in power and kept him uninformed and thus dependent. Glavaš directed the financial resources of the diocese to the Franciscan Province of Herzegovina and no decisive steps could be expected in the dioceses. This was noticed by the Archbishop of Vrhbosna Josip Stadler, who, with the aim of improving the situation in the dioceses, asked Rome to appoint his auxiliary bishop Ivan Šarić as Bishop Coadjutor of Mostar-Duvno with the right of succession. The new Joint Finance Minister Stephan Burián von Rajecz, a Hungarian nationalist, did not support the appointment of clergy that were not close to Hungary and thus disapproved of Šarić's appointment. The authorities supported the Franciscans and Šarić undiplomatically explained to the government in Vienna he should be appointed because there were no good candidates among the Herzegovinian Franciscans, Burián ordered a candidate for Buconjić's replacement be found among the Bosnian Franciscans. Influential members of the Austrian-Hungarian government in Sarajevo concluded Alojzije Mišić, a former Hungarian student and a person of trust of the pro-Hungarian members of the government in Sarajevo, should be the new bishop in Mostar. On 19 February 1910, the Sarajevo government proposed Mišić for the post of Bishop Coadjutor in Mostar but the government in Vienna postponed the decision for a few months due to the preparations for the imperial visit to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Buconjić saw the proposals for the bishop coadjutor as his own dismissal and staunchly opposed them. Buconjić's stance so annoyed the elder Herzegovinian Franciscans the new Provincial Begić proposed himself as the bishop coadjutor during Emperor Franz Joseph's stay in Mostar on 3 June 1910. Buconjić, learning about the intentions of the governments in Sarajevo and Vienna, and Begić's proposal to the emperor, wrote to Pope Pius X and proposed Frane Lulić, a Dalmatian Franciscan; and two Herzegovinian Franciscans Špiro Špirić and David Nevistić, as candidates for his successor. Buconjić became disappointed with the Herzegovinian Franciscans, who saw his first choice, a Dalmatian Lulić, as an insult. After being warned only the emperor had the right of appointment, and the Pope of confirmation, Buconjić proposed the same candidates to Franz Joseph and asked him for the appointment of the bishop coadjutor. The government in Sarajevo considered Lulić to be unfit because he was living in Rome and as a Dalmatian would not handle a Herzegovinian diocese. The Austrian-Hungarian authorities were repulsed by anyone from Rome and who did not adopt the monarchy's liberal policies of Josephinism. The government in Sarajevo considered Mišić to be more qualified than the other two candidates. The government in Vienna informed Rome about its intention to name Mišić as the bishop coadjutor but Rome was balanced between the suggestions of the Austrian-Hungarian authorities and of Buconjić, and opted to wait until Buconjić's death to resolve the issue. Buconjić died in Mostar on 8 December 1910 and was buried in the city's Church of Saint Peter and Paul. As requested by the canon law, on 19 December 1910, the Metropolitan Archbishop Stadler named Lazarević administrator in spiritual matters of the two Herzegovinian dioceses. The material care of the dioceses was given to Glavaš, who used his position to further enrich the Franciscan Province of Herzegovina. Stadler informed the government in Vienna about his appointments and proposed Ivan Šarić, Tomo Igrc and Ivan Dujmušić as candidates for the new bishop in Mostar, noting he also considered Herzegovinian Franciscans but in his conscientiousness could not propose any of them. His proposals were quickly dismissed because the Austrian-Hungarian authorities preferred Franciscans over diocesan clergy and wanted a Franciscan to be the new bishop. Even though Rome supported Buconjić's first choice Lulić, after his death, the Austrian- Hungarian authorities did not consider Lulić a serious candidate. Rome did not support Vienna's choice of Mišić because of his conflict with Archbishop Stadler and started to seek its own candidates. After the friction about the candidates for bishop in Mostar, the Austrian-Hungarian authorities officially proposed Mišić to Rome for the post for the second time on 5 January 1912. The pope accepted the proposal so Burián asked the emperor to appoint Mišić, which the emperor did on 14 February. The pope proclaimed Mišić the new bishop on 29 April 1912. During the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, Serb forces destroyed Buconjić's tombstone and the Church of Saint Peter and Paul. His remains were transferred to a cemetery in Šoinovac. == Notes == == References == === Books === * * * * * * * * * === Journals === * * * * * * * * * * * * === Web-sites === * Category:1834 births Category:1910 deaths Category:People from Grude Category:Croat Roman Catholic clergy from Bosnia and Herzegovina Category:Franciscans of the Franciscan Province of Herzegovina Category:Bishops of Mostar-Duvno Category:Apostolic Administrators of Trebinje-Mrkan Category:Franciscan bishops Category:19th-century Roman Catholic titular bishops Category:Apostolic vicars Category:Bishops appointed by Pope Leo XIII Category:19th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Bosnia and Herzegovina Category:20th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Bosnia and Herzegovina Category:Commanders of the Order of Franz Joseph Category:Christian clergy from the Ottoman Empire |
A Series of Unfortunate Events is a series of thirteen children's novels written by American author Daniel Handler under the pen name Lemony Snicket. The books follow the turbulent lives of orphaned siblings Violet, Klaus, and Sunny Baudelaire. After their parents' death in a fire, the children are placed in the custody of a murderous villain, Count Olaf, who attempts to steal their inheritance and later, causes numerous disasters with the help of his accomplices as the children attempt to flee. As the plot progresses, the Baudelaires gradually confront further mysteries surrounding their family and deep conspiracies involving a secret society. Characterized by Victorian Gothic tones and absurdist textuality,Olson, Danel. 21st-Century Gothic: Great Gothic Novels Since 2000. Retrieved 13 January 2017.Cross, Julie. Humor in Contemporary Junior Literature. Retrieved 13 January 2017. the books are noted for their dark humour, sarcastic storytelling, and anachronistic elements, as well as frequent cultural and literary allusions.Noah Cruickshank and Kevin McFarland (October 25, 2012). Dissecting the repetition and hidden messages of A Series Of Unfortunate Events. The A. V. Club. Retrieved 13 January 2017.Charney, Maurice. Irony in Children's Literature. Comedy: A Geographic and Historical Guide, Volume 2. Retrieved 13 January 2017. They have been classified as postmodern and metafictional writing, with the plot evolution throughout the later novels being cited as an exploration of the psychological process of the transition from the innocence of childhood to the moral complexity of maturity.Sadenwasser, Tim. The Gothic Fairy Tale in Young Adult Literature: Essays on Stories from Grimm to Gaiman. Retrieved 13 January 2017.Austin, Sara (May/June 2013). Performative Metafiction: Lemony Snicket, Daniel Handler and The End of A Series of Unfortunate Events. The Looking Glass: New Perspectives on Children's Literature, Vol 17, No 1 (2013). Retrieved 13 January 2017. As the series progresses, the Baudelaires must face the reality that their actions have become morally ambiguous, blurring the lines between which characters should be read as "good" or "evil".Pugh, Tison. Innocence, Heterosexuality, and the Queerness of Children's Literature. What, Then, Does Beatrice Mean?: Hermaphroditic Gender, Predatory Sexuality, and Promiscuous Allusion in Daniel Handler/Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events. Retrieved 19 January 2017.Ahlin, Charlotte (February 18, 2016). What A Series Of Unfortunate Events Taught Me About Justice. Bustle.com. Retrieved 19 January 2017. Since the release of the first novel, The Bad Beginning, in September 1999, the books have gained significant popularity, critical acclaim, and commercial success worldwide, spawning a film, a video game, assorted merchandise, and a television series. The main thirteen books in the series have collectively sold more than 60 million copies and have been translated into 41 languages.Spangler, Todd. (July 6, 2015). Fake Trailer for Netflix's 'Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events' Lights Up YouTube. Variety. Retrieved 26 November 2016.Lemony Snicket Sneaks Back with 'File Under: 13 Suspicious Incidents'. Publishers Weekly. Retrieved July 11, 2014. Several companion books set in the same universe of the series have also been released, including Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography, The Beatrice Letters, and the noir prequel tetralogy All the Wrong Questions, which chronicles Snicket's childhood.R. della Cava, Marco (October 22, 2012). Daniel Handler's new Snicket series dives into noir. USA Today. Retrieved 13 January 2017. == Background == Prior to the publication of A Series of Unfortunate Events, Handler had never written for children. According to an interview with Handler, he was encouraged to try writing children's books by his friend and editor, Susan Rich. In a separate author interview, Daphne Merkin wrote that Handler adapted a manuscript for a "mock- gothic" book originally intended for adults into a series more suited for children. Handler invented the pseudonym "Lemony Snicket" as an inside joke among friends years before the publication of A Series of Unfortunate Events. Handler acknowledges Edward Gorey and Roald Dahl as influences for his writing style in the series. The first book in the series, The Bad Beginning was released on September 30, 1999. == Series overview == === Plot === The series follows the adventures of three orphaned siblings. Lemony Snicket documents their lives and explains to the readers that very few positive things happen to the children. The series begins when the orphans are alone at a beach, where they receive news that their parents have been killed in a fire that also destroyed the family mansion. In The Bad Beginning, they are sent to live with a distant relative named Count Olaf after briefly living with Mr. Poe, a banker in charge of the orphans' affairs. The siblings discover that Count Olaf intends to get his hands on the enormous Baudelaire fortune, which Violet is to inherit when she reaches the age of eighteen. In the first book, Olaf attempts to marry Violet to steal the Baudelaire fortune, doing so by pretending that the marriage is the storyline for his latest play. The plan falls through when Violet uses her non-dominant hand to sign the marriage document, thus causing the marriage to be invalidated. After the crowd realizes, Olaf manages to escape with his henchmen. In the following six books, Olaf disguises himself, finds the children, and, with help from his many accomplices, tries to steal their fortune, committing arson, murder, and other crimes. In books eight through twelve, the orphans adopt disguises while on the run from the police after Count Olaf frames them for a murder he has committed. The Baudelaires routinely try to get help from Mr. Poe, but he, like many of the adults in the series, is oblivious to the dangerous reality of the children's situation. As the books continue, another running plot is revealed concerning a mysterious secret organization known as the Volunteer Fire Department (V.F.D.). From The Austere Academy onwards, the connections between the Baudelaires, the V.F.D., and their parents' deaths are slowly revealed, leading the siblings to question their previous lives and family history. The siblings become increasingly involved with the organization until they are forced to flee with Count Olaf to an island where Olaf accidentally causes the deaths of himself and possibly the idyllic colonists of the island, whose fates are left unknown. Having finally found a safe place to live, the children spend the next year raising the baby of one of their parents' friends from V.F.D. who died giving birth to the child. After a year, the siblings decide to try to return to the mainland to continue their lives. === Setting === The books seem to be set in an alternate, "timeless" world with stylistic similarities to both the 19th century and the 1930s, though with contemporary, and seemingly anachronistic scientific knowledge. For instance, in The Hostile Hospital, the Baudelaire children send a message via Morse code on a telegraph, yet the general store they are in has fiber-optic cable for sale. An "advanced computer" appears in The Austere Academy. Danielle Russell, a professor at Glendon College, argues that the settings are reflective of familiar places, but are "bizarre" enough that young readers feel distanced from the world of the Baudelaires. The setting of the world has been compared to Edward Scissorhands in that it is "suburban gothic". While the film version sets the Baudelaire mansion in the city of Boston, Massachusetts, real places rarely appear in the books, though some are mentioned. For example, in The Ersatz Elevator, a book in Jerome and Esmé Squalor's library was titled Trout, in France They're Out. There are also references to the fictional nobility of North American regions, specifically the Duchess of Winnipeg and the King of Arizona. === Characters === Violet Baudelaire, the oldest child in the series, uses her inventive mind to create various helpful items, showcasing her talent and resourcefulness. Klaus Baudelaire, the middle child, is twelve when the series begins; he loves all types of books and is an extraordinary speed reader with a photographic memory. Sunny Baudelaire is a baby at the beginning of the series and enjoys biting things with her abnormally large and sharp teeth; she develops a love for cooking later in the series. In most books, the children's skills are used to help them defeat Count Olaf's plots; for instance, Violet invents a lockpick in The Reptile Room. Occasionally, the children must switch roles, such as when Klaus must try inventing and Violet reading in The Miserable Mill. Other characters (usually other children) also have particular skills that they use to assist the Baudelaires, for example, Duncan Quagmire used his journaling skills to remember important information, Isadora wrote poems to pass notes, and Quigley Quagmire's cartography skills help Violet and Klaus in The Slippery Slope. Snicket translates for the youngest Baudelaire orphan, Sunny, who in the early books almost solely uses words or phrases that make sense only to her siblings. As the series progresses, her speech often contains disguised meanings. Some words are spelled phonetically: 'Suruchi' in The Slippery Slope and 'Kikuchi?' in The End; some are spelled backwards: '' in The Carnivorous Carnival, and '' in The Miserable Mill. Others contain references to culture or people: for instance, when Sunny says "Busheney" (combining the last names of George W. Bush and Dick Cheney, presumably), it is followed by the definition of "you are a vile man who has no regard for anyone else". Some words Sunny uses are foreign, such as "Shalom", "Sayonara", or "Arrête". Some are more complex, such as when she says "Akrofil, meaning, 'they were not afraid of heights'", which phonetically translates to acrophilia, meaning one who loves heights. She begins to use standard English words towards the end of the books, one of her longer sentences being "I'm not a baby" in The Slippery Slope. When asked in a Moment Magazine interview about the Baudelaire children and Snicket's own Jewish heritage he replied, "Oh yeah! Yes. The Baudelaires are Jewish! I guess we would not know for sure, but we would strongly suspect it, not only from their manner but from the occasional mention of a rabbi or bar mitzvah or synagogue. The careful reader will find quite a few rabbis." == Literary analysis and themes== === Allusions === While the books are marketed primarily to children, the series features numerous references that adults or older children are more likely to understand. Many of the characters' names allude to other fictional works or real people with macabre connections. For example, The Reptile Room includes allusions to Monty Python (the Baudelaire children's uncle Monty has a large snake collection that includes a python, and a reference to the "Self-Defence Against Fresh Fruit" sketch). The Baudelaire orphans are named after Charles Baudelaire; Violet's name also comes from the T. S. Eliot's poem The Waste Land, specifically its verses concerning the "violet hour", and Sunny and Klaus take their first names from Claus and Sunny von Bülow, while Mr. Poe is a reference to Edgar Allan Poe (his sons are named Edgar and Albert).Kramer, Melody Joy (October 12, 2006). A Series Of Unfortunate Literary Allusions. National Public Radio. Retrieved 13 January 2017. In the seventh installment, The Vile Village, Count Olaf's disguise, Detective Dupin, is an allusion to C. Auguste Dupin, a fictional detective created by Edgar Allan Poe. Isadora and Duncan Quagmire are named after Isadora Duncan, a notorious dancer also remembered for her unusual death by strangulation when her scarf entangled around the wheels of the open car in which she was a passenger. In the fourth book, The Miserable Mill, Dr. Georgina Orwell is a reference to British author George Orwell. Orwell finished his famous book 1984 in 1948, and in the sixth book, The Ersatz Elevator, it is not clear if the skyscraper in which Esmé and Jerome Squalor live has 48 or 84 stories. The Squalors' names reference Jerome David "J. D." Salinger and his short story For Esmé – with Love and Squalor, while in an auction on which the plot hinges, Lot 49 is skipped, i.e. not cried, an allusion to Thomas Pynchon's The Crying of Lot 49. Both Salinger and Pynchon were reputed not to be actual persons at one time. The ninth book in the series, The Carnivorous Carnival, takes place at Caligari Carnival; the carnival's name is a nod to the 1920 silent horror film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. Also in the ninth book, Hugo the Hunchback's name is an allusion to French author Victor Hugo, who wrote the famous book The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Subsequently, many of the inhabitants of the island in which the Baudelaires find themselves on in The End are named after characters from The Tempest, a play by William Shakespeare, while some are named after characters from Robinson Crusoe, Moby-Dick and others after general nautical or island- based literature. The Fire and the Sugar Bowl was inspired by We Have Always Lived in the Castle by Shirley Jackson. The name of Beatrice, Snicket's dedicatee, may be an allusion to the poem La Beatrice by Charles Baudelaire. The poem references an "actor without a job", like the actor Count Olaf. The poem also begins with the line "In a burnt, ash-grey land without vegetation", similar to the Baudelaire mansion burning down at the beginning of the series. The name Beatrice could also be an allusion to Italian poet Dante. Dante dedicated all of his works to "Beatrice", with whom he was obsessed, and who was also dead, like Snicket's Beatrice.Weldy, Lance. Crossing Textual Boundaries in International Children's Literature. Retrieved 13 January 2017. In the final book, in an allusion to the Book of Genesis, a snake offers the children a life-giving apple (which the other characters in The End refuse to eat despite the fact that it is a cure for a fatal illness). === Genre === This series is most commonly classified as children's fiction, but the book has also been classified in more specific genres such as gothic fiction, or some variety thereof, whether it is mock-gothic, a satire of gothic literature, neo-Victorian or "suburban gothic". The series has been described as absurdist fiction, because of its strange characters, improbable storylines, and black comedy. The books can be categorized as mystery novels. According to Chris McGee, the Baudelaires spend the series trying to uncover the truth about their parents’ deaths. He also likens the series to noir fiction. Danielle Russell argues that mysteries are solved for the reader by their end. So, the lack of clear answers in The End does not align with this genre. Although the series does not neatly fit into the genres of fantasy or science fiction, it does feature occasional instances of whimsy, the supernatural, and steampunk technology. There is a constant theme of some form of fate guiding the characters throughout the books. The Baudelaires are capable of communicating with their infant sister, as well as with reptiles. The Reptile Room houses a variety of fantastical reptiles, including the Incredibly Deadly Viper, which is extremely intelligent and seems to have a humanoid consciousness. There is a mysterious aquatic monster known as the Bombinating Beast. In a paper for the Maria Curie-Sklodowski University, Barbara Kaczyńska claims that "realism" is absent within the series. Russell disputes this, noting that throughout the novels the narrator insists that the stories he recounts are completely true. She believes that this strong level of realism discredits any argument that the books can be classified as fantasies. === Morality in the series === Social commentary is a major element in the books, which often comment on the seemingly inescapable follies of human nature. The books consistently present the Baudelaire children as free- thinking and independent, while the adults around them obey authority and succumb to mob psychology, peer pressure, ambition, and other social ills. A high account is given to learning: those who are "well-read" are often sympathetic characters, while those who shun knowledge are villains. Tison Pugh argues that the central issue of the series is whether the Baudelaires are morally good and distinct from the villains of the story, or whether their actions make them as morally ambiguous as the so-called evil characters. The books have strong themes of moral relativism. Evil characters are shown to have sympathetic characteristics. Similarly, good characters' flaws become major problems. The books highlight the inevitability of temptation and moral decision-making, regardless of the external situation. This indicates that regardless of one's outside influences, one always has the final choice in whether to be good or bad. Characters that make brave decisions to fight back and take charge are almost always "good", and characters that just go along end up as "bad." However, some characters suggest that people are neither good nor bad, but a mix of both. Rebecca-Anne C. Do Rozario notes the nihilistic tone of the series, claiming the lines between good and evil acts become blurred to the point where they become meaningless. === Narration style === The series is narrated by Lemony Snicket, the pseudonym of Daniel Handler. He dedicates each of his works to his deceased love interest, Beatrice, and often attempts to dissuade the reader from reading the Baudelaires' unfortunate story. Handler has referred to Lemony Snicket as a "character" who also doubles as the series' narrator. Some details of his life are explained somewhat in a supplement to the series, Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography. When Snicket describes a word, the reader may be unfamiliar with, he typically prefaces it with the saying "a word which here means . . . ." He sometimes follows this phrase with a humorous definition, or one that is relevant only to the events at hand (for example, he describes "adversity" as meaning "Count Olaf"). Lemony Snicket continuously maintains that the story is true and that it is his "solemn duty" to record it. Snicket often goes off into humorous or satirical asides, discussing his opinions or personal life. Lemony Snicket's narration and commentary are characteristically cynical and despondent. In the blurb for each book, Snicket warns of the misery the reader may experience in reading about the Baudelaire orphans and suggests abandoning the books altogether. However, he also provides ample comic relief with wry, dark humor. Snicket's narration has been described as "self-conscious" and "post-modern".Cruz, Lenika (October 23, 2014). Postmodernism — for Kids. The Atlantic. Retrieved 10 January 2017. Daphne Merkin characterizes Snicket's narration style as "droll and detached." When describing a character whom the Baudelaires have met before, Snicket often describes the character first and does not reveal the name of the character until they have been thoroughly described. Lemony Snicket starts each book with a "post-modern dissection of the reading experience" before linking it back to how he presents the story of the Baudelaires and what their current situation is. Snicket often uses alliteration to name locations, as well as book titles, throughout the story. Many of the books start with a theme being introduced that is continually referenced throughout the book—such as the repeated comparisons of the words "nervous" and "anxious" in The Ersatz Elevator, the consistent use of the phrase "where there's smoke, there's fire" in The Slippery Slope, and the descriptions of the water cycle in The Grim Grotto. === Repetition === The plots of the first seven books follow the same basic pattern: the Baudelaires go to a new guardian in a new location, where Count Olaf appears and attempts to steal their fortune. The books following pick up where the previous book ended. There are thirteen books in the series and each book has thirteen chapters. The last book in the series, The End, contains two stories: The End, which has 13 chapters, and a separate "book" that is titled Chapter Fourteen. The location of each book's events is usually identified in the book's title; the first twelve book titles are generally alliterative. === Secrets in the series === frameless|right|upright=.66 After the fourth book, Barbara Kaczyńska argues that secrets play a more important role in the story. In the final book, The End, the concept is especially important, as demonstrated by a several-page-long discussion of the phrase "in the dark." The children hear of a massive schism within the organization of V.F.D., which was once noble but became filled with corruption and split into two sides, "volunteers" and "villains." While many of the critical plot points are given answers, Snicket explains that no story can be fully devoid of questions as every story is intertwined with numerous others and every character's history is shared in a great web of mysteries and unfortunate events that make up the world's legacy, making it impossible for anyone to know all the answers to every question. The Baudelaire children and Count Olaf's story is said to be merely a fragment of a much bigger story between numerous characters with the central connection being the organization of V.F.D. === Transtextuality === There is a full-page picture at the end of each book, showing a hint or clue about the content of the next book. This may show a flyer or piece of paper drifting by, though sometimes by a significant object: a snake appears at the end of The Bad Beginning, referring to Montgomery's snake collection in the following book. The same picture is used at the start of the succeeding book. This practice continued at the end of The End which shows a boat sailing off into the sunset and at the start of Chapter Fourteen. The picture at the end of Chapter Fourteen includes a shape of a question mark. Following the picture is a letter to the editor, which explains to the editor how to get a manuscript of the next book. Snicket is writing from the location of the next book and usually reveals its title. Snicket notes that the editors will find various objects along with the manuscript, all of them having some impact in the story. Starting with the fourth book (which previews the fifth), each letter has a layout relating to the next book, such as torn edges, fancy stationery, sopping wet paper, or telegram format. The letters change dramatically starting with the letter at the end of The Hostile Hospital—for this preview letter, the letter is ripped to shreds and only a few scraps remain. The remaining letters are difficult to read, and some do not reveal the title. The final letter appears at the end of The End and simply has "The end of THE END can be found at the end of THE END." There is no letter after Chapter Fourteen. Each book begins with a dedication to a woman named Beatrice, and references to her are made by Snicket throughout the series, describing her as the woman he still loves while emphasizing the fact that she apparently died long ago. At the end of the Chapter Fourteen epilogue, it is revealed that Beatrice was the Baudelaires' late mother, who married their father after an unknown event caused her to return Snicket's engagement ring, alongside a two- hundred-page book explaining all the reasons she could not marry him. == Distribution == === Books === The series includes thirteen novels as follows below: # The Bad Beginning (1999) # The Reptile Room (1999) # The Wide Window (2000) # The Miserable Mill (2000) # The Austere Academy (2000) # The Ersatz Elevator (2001) # The Vile Village (2001) # The Hostile Hospital (2001) # The Carnivorous Carnival (2002) # The Slippery Slope (2003) # The Grim Grotto (2004) # The Penultimate Peril (2005) # The End (2006) === Appearance === In an article about children's literature, Bruce Butt describes the hardcover books as "elegant" and "collectible." He notes that the endpapers and overall book design resemble Victorian-era novels. Danielle Russell argues that the visual stylization of the books adds to their sense of timelessness. The hardcover books were printed with a deckle edge. There was an initial paperback release of the series, featuring restyled covers, new illustrations, and a serial supplement entitled The Cornucopian Cavalcade with The Bad Beginning: or, Orphans!, The Reptile Room: or, Murder!, and The Wide Window: or, Disappearance!. However, the release was stopped after the third. === Accompanying books === There are books that accompany the series, such as The Beatrice Letters, Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography, and The Puzzling Puzzles; journals The Blank Book and The Notorious Notations; and short materials such as The Dismal Dinner and 13 Shocking Secrets You'll Wish You Never Knew About Lemony Snicket. Humorous quotes from the series were used in a book published under the Snicket name, Horseradish: Bitter Truths You Can't Avoid. === All the Wrong Questions === Lemony Snicket's All the Wrong Questions is a four-part young adult series focused on the character, Snicket's childhood working for V.F.D. It is set in the same universe as A Series of Unfortunate Events and features several of the same characters and locations. The first book was titled Who Could That Be at This Hour?, and was released in October 2012. The second, When Did You See Her Last?, was released in October 2013, and the third, Shouldn't You Be in School?, was released in September 2014. The final book, Why Is This Night Different from All Other Nights?, was released on September 29, 2015. == In other media == === Television === Netflix, in association with Paramount Television, announced in November 2014 its plans to adapt the books into an original TV series with 25 total episodes spanning 3 seasons, with 2 episodes dedicated to each book, with the exception of the 13th book, The End. Author Daniel Handler serves as a writer and executive producer. On September 4, 2015, it was announced that filmmaker Barry Sonnenfeld and True Blood showrunner Mark Hudis had agreed to helm the series. Hudis would serve as showrunner, Sonnenfeld as director, and both as executive producers with Daniel Handler penning the scripts. On December 3, 2015, an open casting call was announced for the roles of Violet and Klaus Baudelaire, with the casting call confirming that the series would begin production in March 2016. In January 2016, Netflix announced that Hudis had left the project. However, it was announced that Sonnenfeld and Handler were both still on board, and that Neil Patrick Harris had been cast as Count Olaf and Malina Weissman and Louis Hynes as Violet and Klaus. In March 2016, K. Todd Freeman and Patrick Warburton were cast as Mr. Poe and Lemony Snicket respectively. The first season, consisting of eight episodes that cover the first four books, was released worldwide on Netflix on January 13, 2017. A Series of Unfortunate Events was renewed for a second season, which was released on March 30, 2018, and consisted of ten episodes that adapt books five through nine of the novel series. The television series was also renewed for a third and final season, which was released on January 1, 2019, consisting of seven episodes that adapted the final four books. The last book, The End, was adapted into one episode instead of the standard two episodes. === Film === Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events is a film adaptation of the first three titles in the series, mixing the various events and characters into one story. It was released in United States on December 17, 2004 by Paramount Pictures and Internationally by DreamWorks Pictures. Directed by Brad Seiberling, it stars Jim Carrey as Count Olaf, Meryl Streep as Aunt Josephine, Billy Connolly as Uncle Monty, Emily Browning as Violet, Liam Aiken as Klaus, Timothy Spall as Mr. Poe, and Jude Law as the voice of Lemony Snicket. The film was financially successful, but received criticism over its comical tone. Considering the success of the movie, the director and some of the lead actors hinted that they were keen on making a sequel, but no script was written. Browning has said that further films would have to be produced quickly, as the children do not age much throughout the book series. In 2008, Daniel Handler stated in a Bookslut Interview that another film was in the works, but had been delayed by corporate shake-ups at Paramount Pictures. In June 2009, Silberling confirmed he still talked about the project with Handler, and suggested the sequel be a stop motion film because the lead actors have grown too old. "In an odd way, the best thing you could do is actually have Lemony Snicket say to the audience, 'Okay, we pawned the first film off as a mere dramatization with actors. Now I'm afraid I'm going to have to show you the real thing.'" === Video game === Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events is a video game based on the film that was released in 2004 by Adenium Games and Activision for PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, Game Boy Advance, and PC. The player plays as all three orphans at points in the game, and encounters characters such as Mr. Poe, Uncle Monty and Aunt Josephine, along with villains such as Count Olaf, the Hook-Handed Man, the White-Faced Women, and the Bald Man. The game, like the movie, follows only the first three books in the series. A separate casual game titled A Series of Unfortunate Events was published by Oberon Media the same year as a different tie-in to the books. Set in Count Olaf's house, the game involves his six associates and many objects they use in Olaf's efforts to capture the children. Gameplay includes three difficulty levels and two game modes: Deduction Junction and Swap Monster. === Board games === A board game based on the books was distributed by Mattel in 2004, prior to the movie. The Perilous Parlor Game is for 2–4 players, ages 8 and up. One player assumes the role of Count Olaf, and the other players play the Baudelaire children. Count Olaf's objective in the game is to eliminate the guardian, while the children try to keep the guardian alive. The game employs Clever Cards, Tragedy Cards, Secret Passage Tiles, and Disguise Tiles in play. === Card games === The Catastrophic Card Game is the second game based on the books. In this card game, players are looking to complete sets of characters. There are 4 different sets: The Baudelaire Orphans, Count Olaf in Disguise, Olaf's Henchmen, and the Orphans Confidants. Players take turns drawing a card from either the draw pile or the top card from the discard pile in hopes of completing their sets. For 2–4 players, ages 14 and under. === Audio === ==== Audio books ==== Most of the series of unabridged audiobooks are read by British actor Tim Curry, though Handler as Lemony Snicket reads books 3 to 5. Of narrating the audiobooks, Handler has said: "It was very, very hard. It was unbelievably arduous. It was the worst kind of arduous." As such, future narrating duties were handed back to Curry, of whom Handler states: "he does a splendid job". The "Dear Reader" blurb is usually read by Handler (as Snicket) at the beginning, although it is missing in The Hostile Hospital. Handler usually reads the "To my Kind Editor" blurb about the next book at the end. Starting at The Carnivorous Carnival, there is another actor who replaces Handler in reading the two blurbs, although they are skipped entirely in The Grim Grotto. All of the recordings include a loosely related song by The Gothic Archies, a novelty band of which Handler is a member, featuring lyrics by Handler's Magnetic Fields bandmate Stephin Merritt. ==== Album ==== In October 2006, The Tragic Treasury: Songs from A Series of Unfortunate Events by The Gothic Archies was released. The album is a collection of thirteen songs written and performed by Stephin Merritt (of The Magnetic Fields), each one originally appearing on one of the corresponding thirteen audiobooks of the series. Two bonus songs are included. == Reception == === Reviews === Reviews for A Series of Unfortunate Events have generally been positive, with reviewers saying that the series is enjoyable for children and adults alike, and that it brings fresh and adult themes to children's stories. The Times Online refer to the books as "a literary phenomenon", and discuss how the plight of the Baudelaire orphans helps children cope with loss—citing the rise in sales post September 11, 2001 as evidence. Mackey attributes the series' success to the "topsy-turvy moral universe." Langbauer feels that the series "offers a critique of the pieties" of earlier generations and imparts "its own vision of ethics." In a May 2000 article for Publishers Weekly, Sally Lodge notes kids and educators' enthusiasm for the first four books in the series. === Criticism === thumb|Czech translation The series has come under criticism from some school districts for its dark themes. Access to the books was similarly restricted at Katy ISD Elementary School in Katy, Texas. Similarly, a school in Decatur, Georgia criticized The Reptile Room for its inclusion of the word "damn", canceling an author event with Handler in protest. Criticisms include the suggested incest in Olaf's attempt to marry his distant cousin Violet in The Bad Beginning. The series has also been criticized for its formulaic and repetitive storytelling. For example, Bruce Butt criticizes the series for its formulaic and predictable nature, likening the first eight books to "junk food" for children. === Sales === thumb|French translations Within a year of The Bad Beginning's publication, the first four books in the series had a combined printing of 125,000 copies. A Series of Unfortunate Events has been printed in 41 different languages, selling at least sixty-five million copies as of 2015. === Awards === The Bad Beginning won multiple literary awards, including the Colorado Children's Book Award, the Nevada Young Readers Award and the Nene Award. It was also a finalist for the Book Sense Book of the Year. Its sequels have continued this trend, garnering multiple awards and nominations. Among these are three IRA/CBC Children's Choice Awards, which it received for The Wide Window, The Vile Village, and The Hostile Hospital. The Penultimate Peril won a best book prize at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards, and a 2006 Quill Book Award. === Book lists === While not technically awards, The Ersatz Elevator was named a Book Sense 76 Pick, and The Grim Grotto is an Amazon.com Customers' Favorite. == See also == * Lemony Snicket bibliography * Charles Baudelaire - French poet == References == ==Bibliography== * == External links == * Official website * * Daniel Handler's official website * A Series of Unfortunate Events on Netflix Category:Book series introduced in 1999 Category:Absurdist fiction Category:Black comedy books Category:British Book Award-winning works Category:American children's novels Category:Novels about orphans Category:Series of children's books Category:HarperCollins books Category:Postmodern novels |
The maritime history of Florida describes significant past events relating to the U.S. state of Florida in areas concerning shipping, shipwrecks, and military installations and lighthouses constructed to protect or aid navigation and development of the Florida peninsula. A long and flat peninsula surrounded by the Gulf of Mexico, the Florida Straits and the Atlantic Ocean, Florida has a long and rich maritime history. The size and shape of Florida, along with its natural features like reefs, shoals, water depth, currents, locations of rivers and inlets and the weather, have affected where people lived and where vessels wrecked. Florida has some of the best natural harbors in the country, resulting in the state becoming an international maritime crossroads. Humans have inhabited Florida for at least twelve thousand years, and perhaps more. The earliest inhabitants would not recognize their home today, because the sea level is twenty to fifty fathoms higher and has covered nearly half of the Florida peninsula. Many people lived near springs and sinkholes and along rivers and near the coasts in areas like present-day Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve, relying on fresh and saltwater fish and shellfish as important parts of their diet. The archeological remains at some of the earliest places they lived now are underwater and on the bottom of rivers and springs and offshore on the continental shelf. From at least six thousand years ago, the native people of Florida traveled the waterways and coasts by canoe, facilitating communication and trade among the tribes. About three hundred prehistoric canoes have been found in more than two hundred sites in Florida. ==European exploration== In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, looking for a faster way to Asia by sea, European explorers sailed west and ran into the Americas. Seeing new resources to exploit, people to convert and lands to claim, the Spanish, the French and the English sent militaries, missionaries and colonists to establish a foothold and expand their areas of control. The first evidence of a European encounter in Florida is the arrival of Spaniard Juan Ponce de León in the vicinity of present-day St. Augustine in 1513. Ponce de León named the land "La Florida" and attempted to circumnavigate what he thought was an island, sailing south to the Keys, naming a cluster of islands "Las Tortugas" and sailing north to present-day Tampa. Ponce de León was followed by fellow Spaniard Pánfilo de Narváez who landed near Tampa Bay in 1528 and proceeded north to the area now known as Apalachee. Only four members of the Narváez expedition survived, including Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, who wrote an account of their travels. A fifth member of the expedition, Juan Ortiz lived as a slave in the Tampa Bay area for nearly twelve years before being rescued in 1539 by Hernando de Soto. He landed in Tampa Bay with nine ships and over 600 soldiers. He spent five months around what is today Tallahassee, and his explorations of southern North America are commemorated at De Soto National Memorial. In 1559, Spaniard Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a short-lived colony at Pensacola Bay but lost all except three of his supply ships to a hurricane. He sailed away after two years, a broken and beaten man. The Emanuel Point shipwreck site discovered in 1992 by the Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research is believed to be one of his lost ships. In 1562, the French sent Jean Ribaut to the New World intending to found a Huguenot colony. His expedition first arrived in Florida, and marked a spot on the St. Johns River for future settlement and then headed north to establish Charlesfort in present-day Parris Island, South Carolina. The colony failed, and in 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière led the settlers back to Florida and established Fort Caroline in what is now Jacksonville. In 1565, Spaniard Pedro Menéndez de Avilés captured Fort Caroline in a brutal fight with the French and established St. Augustine, the first permanent European colony in the continental United States. In 1568, Frenchman Dominique de Gourgues recaptured Fort Caroline. In 1569, the Spanish built a watchtower at Matanzas Inlet to watch the horizon and warn St. Augustine of approaching ships, a strategy that failed them in 1586, when English privateer Sir Francis Drake attacked and looted St. Augustine. The French effort to establish a colony in Florida is memorialized today at Fort Caroline National Memorial. St. Augustine, which had aids-to- navigation (wooden watchtowers which may have been lit at night) established as early as the 1580s, and saw ships come and go on an annual basis through the present day, is considered the nation's oldest port. From the late 16th through the 18th centuries, the Spanish sent annual convoys of merchant and military escort vessels from Cuba to Spain. Referred to as the Spanish plate fleets, the ships carried gold, silver and gemstones from the mines of Mexico and Peru, and porcelains, silks, pearls, spices and other highly sought goods from Asia that reached the Americas via the Spanish Manila Galleon fleet that crossed the Pacific. The homeward bound Spanish plate fleets followed the Gulf Stream through the Straits of Florida and up the coast of North America before heading east for the Azores and Spain. The Spanish built Castillo de San Marcos and other coastal forts and settlements in Florida to provide protection from French and British raiders and pirates, and assist in saving survivors and salvaging cargoes from vessels that wrecked along Florida's shores as a result of hurricanes and mishaps. ==17th and 18th centuries== Over the years, many Spanish ships were lost off the Florida coast with the greatest disasters suffered by the fleets of 1622, 1715 and 1733. In 1622, eight ships were lost in a hurricane as they entered the Florida straits. During the 20th century, the remains of a number of lost ships have been found, including from the 1622 fleet, from the 1715 fleet and San Pedro from the 1733 fleet. Eleven Spanish galleons were lost in the hurricane of 1715, wrecking on the shallow reefs between Sebastian Inlet and Fort Pierce. More than seven hundred men perished in the storm, including the Spanish Commander. The McLarty Treasure Museum at the southern end of Sebastian Inlet State Recreation Area takes an in-depth look at the history surrounding this disaster. The 11 lost ships were part of the Spanish Plate Fleet. The Mel Fisher Maritime Heritage Society Museum in Key West has displays of treasure and other artifacts from Nuestra Señora de Atocha and Santa Margarita, which was lost in 1622. thumb|right|200px|Fort Matanzas—view of fort's western and southern facades. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Spanish, French and English continued to fight over territory and religion in Florida. The British in Georgia and South Carolina attempted to push southward and the French moved eastward along the Gulf Coast from the Mississippi River valley. The Spanish relied not only on Castillo de San Marcos to protect St. Augustine, but began construction of Fort Matanzas in 1740 for additional protection from the south. During the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739 through 1748) between Spain and Great Britain, the Royal Navy patrolled the Caribbean and the North American coastline. One ship that was lost during this time was , the wreck of which is located within the boundaries of Biscayne National Park and which has been extensively studied by the National Park Service and Florida State University. In 1763, under the Treaty of Paris, Spain gave Britain control of Florida in exchange for Havana, Cuba, which the British had captured during the Seven Years' War (1756 through 1763). That same year, the British built a fort overlooking the entrance to Pensacola Bay. Almost the entire population of St. Augustine moved to Cuba at the end of the war. 275px|thumb|left|Biscayne National Park, home to Spain captured Pensacola in 1781 and regained control of the rest of Florida in 1783, when Britain gave Florida to Spain in exchange for the Bahamas and Gibraltar. Around 1797, Spain built two forts at Pensacola Bay in the vicinity of the earlier British fort. Little physical evidence of these forts remains but what does remain is preserved at Gulf Islands National Seashore. thumb|right|200px|Gulf Islands National Seashore, near Pensacola Although Britain's control of Florida was brief, its effect on the economy and settlement was substantial. As the British population increased and slaves were brought in, colonial plantations and other industries sprouted and flourished, exporting their products to other British colonies and trading illegally with Spanish Louisiana and Mexico. This was made possible because surveyors mapped the landscape, land grants were given out, the first road was built and a packet system of shipping by rivers and along the coasts was introduced. This economic prosperity and maritime trade continued after Britain ceded Florida to Spain, with exports to neighboring Gulf Coast and Eastern seaboard areas, the Northeast and as far away as Europe. It was during Florida's second Spanish period that folklore claims that shipping in the Gulf of Mexico was ravaged by the pirate José Gaspar (also known as Gasparilla) from his "regal" base in Charlotte Harbor. Though Gaspar is a well-known figure along Florida's Gulf coast and is celebrated at Tampa's annual Gasparilla Pirate Festival, there is no archival or physical evidence that he ever existed. ==18th and 19th centuries== thumb|left|200px|Alligator Reef Lighthouse, east of Indian Key. Completed on November 25, 1873, it became automated in 1963 Spain ceded Florida to the United States as part of the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, and Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821. Coastal trade with other markets continued to expand and towns like Jacksonville, Pensacola and Tampa became important ports. After becoming a U.S. territory, the federal government began building a series of lighthouses as aids to navigation along the coasts of Florida to mark dangerous headlands, shoals, bars and reefs. Florida's first coastal navigational aid was a 1586 Spanish watchtower at St. Augustine, but the first true lighthouse was a seventy three-foot harbor light built there in 1824. Masonry towers proved vulnerable to storms and erosion—the lighthouse built in Key West in 1825 and the lighthouse built in 1827 on Sand Key, near Key West, both collapsed in an 1846 hurricane, killing a total of twenty people who had sought refuge in the two towers. Other Florida lighthouses had to be abandoned or moved when the sand around their foundations washed away. Information about historic lighthouses in Florida has been recorded by the National Park Service in its Inventory of Historic Light Stations and by the United States Coast Guard (see List of the 1733 Spanish Plate Fleet Shipwrecks). As large parts of the Florida coast remained unprotected by lighthouses until late in the 19th century, ships frequently wrecked along coast, particularly along the Florida Keys, where for a while wrecking made Key West the largest and richest city in Florida. The U.S. Navy has played a prominent role in Florida's maritime history. In the 1820s, the U.S. Navy was called upon to protect ships off Florida's coasts from pirates that plagued merchant ships in the Caribbean. One of the patrol ships was , lost near Islamorada while escorting a merchant convoy. thumb|right|200px|Artist illustration of USS Alligator, which ran aground on a reef near Islamorada on November 18, 1822 In 1826, construction began on the Pensacola Navy Yard and four forts to defend it. What remains of Fort Pickens, Fort Barrancas and Fort McRee, which were built overlooking Pensacola Bay in the vicinity of the earlier British and Spanish forts, is preserved today within Gulf Islands National Seashore. Near the end of the 19th century, and as a result of the Spanish–American War, Tampa and other Florida ports became staging areas for tens of thousands of U.S. troops and supplies headed to Cuba. With the advent of manned controlled flight and the building of aircraft carriers and seaplanes, an aviation training station was established by the U.S. Navy at Pensacola in 1913 and another in Jacksonville in 1940. Following statehood in 1845, Florida's economy became stronger and the principal ports shipped vast quantities of citrus, cotton, lumber and other products to the Atlantic states, the Caribbean and Europe. The Federal government began construction of coastal forts including Fort Taylor in Key West and Fort Jefferson on Garden Key in the Dry Tortugas to better control navigation through the Florida Straits. Although Fort Jefferson was never finished, construction continued for 30 years, and vast quantities of bricks were shipped to the key in flat-bottomed steamboats like that found at the Bird Key wreck, which was lost while transporting bricks. Florida seceded from the Union in 1861 and joined the Confederacy. During the Civil War, Florida's ports were blockaded by the Union and blockade runners delivered supplies needed by the Confederacy in exchange for Florida products. Although there were some vessel casualties on both sides, the major naval battles took place in states north of Florida. One unfortunate casualty in Florida waters was the Union transport ship that struck a Confederate mine. After the Civil War, tenant farmers and sharecroppers took over plantation lands, and agriculture, cattle ranching, lumber, manufacturing and extractive industries like phosphate mining became important, prompting improvements in transportation. Railroads expanded across the state connecting the ports and the interior, and steamboats like , and began providing regular passenger and freight service on inland waterways like the St. Johns River and ocean service to international destinations. Tourism flourished with steamboat tours and hotels near rail lines. In 1900, during the daytime, SS Copenhagen was heading south close to the Florida coast—to avoid the northerly Gulf Stream current—when it suddenly crashed into a reef offshore of present-day Pompano Beach at full speed. In 1994, the remains became the fifth Underwater Archaeological Preserve in the state. 300px|left|thumb|Underwater artifact with sea life off the coast of Florida During the late 19th century, the federal government and local port authorities made improvements to channels and harbors and charted and mapped Florida's waters. These improvements, along with technological advances in navigation and shipbuilding during the 20th century, helped propel Florida's ports to global prominence in trade and commerce and the cruise industry and marine recreation. Florida may well hold the record for the number of pleasure boats used by sport fishermen, jet skiers, wind-surfers, power boaters, sail boaters, water-skiers and scuba divers. The Florida Keys contain the only coral reefs in the continental United States, making it a haven for fish and coral. These same reefs are hazards to navigation. Thousands of ships have wrecked over the centuries in the Keys and elsewhere in the waters of Florida. The most famous Spanish wreck found west of the Florida Keys was the above- mentioned Nuestra Señora de Atocha, found after a sixteen-year search by Mel Fisher in 1985. The value of the ship's treasure has been estimated at $300,000,000. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the U.S. Coast Guard had to deal with thousands of Cubans trying to make it to the shores of Florida. More than 2,700 were stopped in 2005. Often crossing the strait in home-made rafts and boats, it is unknown how many have lost their lives in the attempt. Under U.S. and Cuban law, emigration is illegal, and any Cuban attempting to reach the U.S. found at sea will be deported. Under a 1995 migration accord between the two nations, Cubans who make it to the shores of Florida or other states are generally allowed to remain. ==See also== *History of Florida *List of lighthouses in Florida ==References== *Alligator Reef, Florida – *De Soto National Memorial (National Park Service) – *Florida, DK Eyewitness Travel Guides, 2004, pgs. 26, 27, 110 & 200 *Florida Maritime Heritage Trail – *Florida's Shipwrecks and Treasures – *Heraldtribune.com – *Mel Fisher Maritime Heritage Society – *Naval Historical Center – USS Alligator – *St. Augustine-America's Ancient City – *The Legend of Gasparilla: Myth and History on Florida's West Coast – (PDF) *The Pensacola Maritime Site – *This article contains text from the National Park Service, which is in the Public domain. The text is from the essay Brief Maritime History of Florida in the National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary Florida Shipwrecks: 500 Years of Maritime History – ==External links== *Florida Maritime Historical Society *Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime Program (LAMP), St. Augustine—Maritime Archaeology in America's Oldest Port *Abandoned Shipwreck Act Guidelines *National Park Service Shipwreck map Florida |
Spatial cloaking is a privacy mechanism that is used to satisfy specific privacy requirements by blurring users’ exact locations into cloaked regions. This technique is usually integrated into applications in various environments to minimize the disclosure of private information when users request location- based service. Since the database server does not receive the accurate location information, a set including the satisfying solution would be sent back to the user. General privacy requirements include K-anonymity, maximum area, and minimum area. == Background == With the emergence and popularity of location-based services, people are getting more personalized services, such as getting the names and locations of nearby restaurants and gas stations. Receiving these services requires users to send their positions either directly or indirectly to the service provider. A user's location information could be shared more than 5000 times in two weeks. Therefore, this convenience also exposes users’ privacy to certain risks, since the attackers may illegally identify the users’ locations and even further exploit their personal information. Continuously tracking users' location has not only been identified as a technical issue, but also a privacy concern as well. It has been realized that Quasi-identifiers, which refer to a set of information attributes, can be used to re-identify the user when linked with some external information. For example, the social security number could be used to identify a specific user by adversaries, and the combined disclosure of birth date, zip code, and gender can uniquely identify a user. Thus, multiple solutions have been proposed to preserve and enhance users’ privacy when using location-based services. Among all the proposed mechanisms, spatial cloaking is one of those which has been widely accepted and revised, thus having been integrated into many practical applications. == Location privacy == Location privacy is usually considered falling into the category of information privacy, though there is little consensus on the definition of location privacy. There are often three aspects of location information: identity, location (spatial information), and time (temporal information). Identity usually refers to a user's name, email address, or any characteristic which makes a user distinguishable. For example, Pokémon Go requires a consistent user identity, since users are required to log in. Spatial information is considered as the main approach to determine a location. Temporal information can be separated into real-time and non-real time and is usually described as a time stamp with a place. If a link is established between them, then the location privacy is considered violated. Accessing personal location data has been raised as a severe privacy concern, even with personal permission. Therefore, privacy- aware management of location information has been identified as an essential challenge, which is designed to provide privacy protection against abuse of location information. The overall idea of preserving location privacy is to introduce enough noise and quantization to reduce the chances of successful attacks. Spatial crowdsourcing uses devices that has GPS (global positioning system) and collects information. Data retrieved includes location data that can be used to analyze maps and local spatial characteristics. In recent years, researchers have been making a connection between social aspects and technological aspects regarding location information. For example, if co- location information is considered as the data which potential attackers would get and take into consideration, the location privacy is decreased by more than 60%. Also, by a constant report of a user's location information, a movement profile could be constructed for this specific user based on statistical analysis, and a large amount of information could be exploited and generated from this profile such as user's office location, medical records, financial status, and political views. Therefore, more and more researchers have taken account of the social influence in their algorithms, since this socially networked information is accessible to the public and might be used by potential attackers. == History == In order to meet user's requirements for location privacy in the process of data transportation, researchers have been exploring and investigating models to address the disclosure of private information. The secure-multi-party model is constructed based on the idea of sharing accurate information among n parties. Each party has access to a particular segment of the precise information and at the same time being prevented from acquiring the other shares of the data. However, the computation problem is introduced in the process, since a large amount of data processing is required to satisfy the requirement. The minimal information sharing model is introduced to use cryptographic techniques to perform join and intersection operations. However, the inflexibility of this model to fit into other queries makes it hard to be satisfying to most practical applications. The untrusted third-party model is adopted in peer-to-peer environments. The most popular model right now is the trusted third-party model. Some of the practical applications have already adopted the idea of a trusted third party into their services to preserve privacy. For example, Anonymizer is integrated into various websites, which could give anonymous surfing service to its users. Also, when purchasing through PayPal, users are not required to provide their credit card information. Therefore, by introducing a trusted-third-party, users’ private information is not directly exposed to the service providers. == Approaches for preserving location information == The promising approach of preserving location privacy is to report data on users' behavior and at the same time protect identity and location privacy. Several methods have been investigated to enhance the performances of location-preserving techniques, such as location perturbation and the report of landmark objects. === Location perturbation === The idea of location perturbation is to replace the exact location information with a coarser grained spatial range, and thus uncertainty would be introduced when the adversaries try to match the user to either a known location identity or external observation of location identity. Location perturbation is usually satisfied by using spatial cloaking, temporal cloaking, or location obfuscation. Spatial and temporal cloaking refers to the wrong or imprecise location and time reported to the service providers, instead of the exact information. For example, location privacy could be enhanced by increasing the time between location reports, since higher report frequencies makes reidentification more possible to happen through data mining. There are other cases when the report of location information is delayed until the visit of K users is identified in that region. However, this approach could affect the service reported by the service providers since the data they received are not accurate. The accuracy and timelessness issues are usually discussed in this approach. Also, some attacks have been recognized based on the idea of cloaking and break user privacy. === Landmark objects === Based on the idea of landmark objects, a particular landmark or a significant object is reported to the service provider, instead of a region. === Avoid location tracking === In order to avoid location tracking, usually less or no location information would be reported to the service provider. For example, when requesting weather, a zip code instead of a tracked location would be accurate enough for the quality of the service received. == Environment == === Centralized scheme === A centralized scheme is constructed based on a central location anonymizer (anonymizing server) and is considered as an intermediate between the user and the service provider. Generally, the responsibilities of a location anonymizer include tracking users' exact location, blurring user specific location information into cloaked areas and communicate with the service provider. For example, one of the methods to achieve this is by replacing the correct network addresses with fake-IDs before the information are forward to the service provider. Sometimes user identity is hidden, while still allowing the service provider to authenticate the user and possibly charge the user for the service. These steps are usually achieved through spatial cloaking or path confusion. Except in some cases where the correct location information are sent for high service quality, the exact location information or temporal information are usually modified to preserve user privacy. Serving as an intermediate between the user and location-based server, location anonymizer generally conducts the following activities: * Receiving users’ exact location information and private profile * Blurring the location into cloaked areas based on the specific privacy requirements * In most of the times, removing user identities from the location information * Reporting the cloaked area to the service provider and receiving a list of solutions, which is referred to as a candidate list, from the service provider which satisfies user's requests * Deciding the most appropriate solution based on the user's exact location and returning the accurate solution information back to the user ( Some location anonymizer may not adopt this step) The location anonymizer could also be considered as a trusted-third party since it is trusted by the user with the accurate location information and private profile stored in the location anonymizer. However, this could also expose users’ privacy into great risks at the same time. First, since the anonymizer keeps tracking users' information and has access to the users’ exact location and profile information, it is usually the target of most attackers and thus under higher risks Second, the extent to which users trust the location anonymizers could be essential. If a fully trusted third party is integrated into the algorithm, user location information would be reported continuously to the location anonymizer, which may cause privacy issues if the anonymizer is compromised. Third, the location anonymizer may lead to a performance bottleneck when a large number of requests are presented and required to be cloaked. This is because the location anonymizer is responsible for maintaining the number of users in a region in order to provide an acceptable level of service quality. === Distributed scheme (decentralized scheme) === In a distributed environment, users anonymize their location information through fixed communication infrastructures, such as base stations. Usually, a certification server is introduced in a distributed scheme where users are registered. Before participating in this system, users are required to obtain a certificate which means that they are trusted. Therefore, every time after user request a location-based service and before the exact location information is forward to the server, the auxiliary users registered in this system collaborate to hide the precise location of the user. The number of assistant users involved in cloaking this region is based on K-anonymity, which is usually set be the specific user. In the cases where there are not enough users nearby, S-proximity is generally adopted to generate a high number of paired user identities and location information for the actual user to be indistinguishable in the specific area. The other profiles and location information sent to the service provider are sometimes also referred to as dummies. However, the complexity of the data structure which is used to anonymize the location could result in difficulties when applying this mechanism to highly dynamic location-based mobile applications. Also, the issue of large computation and communication is posed to the environment. === Peer-to-peer environment === A peer-to-peer (P2P) environment relies on the direct communication and information exchange between devices in a community where users could only communicate through P2P multi-hop routing without fixed communication infrastructures. The P2P environment aims to extend the scope of cellular coverage in a sparse environment. In this environment, peers have to trust each other and work together, since their location information would be reported to each other when a cloaked area is constructed to achieve the desired K-anonymity during the requesting for location-based services. Researchers have been discussing some privacy requirements and security requirements which would make the privacy-preserving techniques appropriate for the peer-to-peer environment. For example, authentication and authorization are required to secure and identify the user and thus making authorized users distinguishable from unauthorized users. Confidentiality and integrity make sure that only those who are authorized have access to the data transmitted between peers, and the transmitted information cannot be modified. Some of the drawbacks identified in a peer-to-peer environment are the communication costs, not enough users and threats of potential malicious users hiding in the community. === Mobile environments === Mobile devices have been considered as an essential tool for communication, and mobile computing has thus become a research interest in recent years. From online purchase to online banking, mobile devices have frequently been connected to service providers for online activities, and at the same time sending and receiving information. Generally, mobile users can receive very personal services from anywhere at any time through location-based services. In mobile devices, Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most commonly used component to provide location information. Besides that, Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and WiFi signals could also help with estimating locations. There are generally two types of privacy concerns in mobile environments, data privacy and contextual privacy. Usually, location privacy and identity privacy are included in the discussion of contextual privacy in a mobile environment, while the data transferred between various mobile devices is discussed under data privacy. In the process of requesting location-based services and exchanging location data, both the quality of data transferred and the safety of information exchanged could be potentially exposed to malicious people. == Privacy requirements == No matter what the specific privacy-preserving solution is integrated to cloak a particular region in which the service requester stays. It is usually constructed from several angles to satisfy different privacy requirements better. These standards are either adjusted by the users or are decided by the application designers. Some of the privacy parameters include K-anonymity, entropy, minimum area, and maximum area. === K-anonymity === The concept of K-anonymity was first introduced in relational data privacy to guarantee the usefulness of the data and the privacy of users, when data holders want to release their data. K-anonymity usually refers to the requirement that the information of the user should be indistinguishable from a minimum of k-1 people in the same region, with k being any real number. Thus, the disclosed location scope would be expected to keep expanding until kusers could be identified in the region and these kpeople form an anonymity set. Usually, the higher the K-anonymity, the stricter the requirements, the higher the level of anonymity. If K-anonymity is satisfied, then the possibility of identifying the exact user would be around 1/k which subjects to different algorithms, and therefore the location privacy would be effectively preserved. Usually, if the cloaking region is designed to be more significant when the algorithm is constructed, the chances of identifying the exact service requester would be much lower even though the precise location of the user is exposed to the service providers, let alone the attackers' abilities to run complex machine learning or advanced analysis techniques. Some approaches have also been discussed to introduce more ambiguity to the system, such as historical K-anonymity, p-sensitivity, and l-diversity. The idea of historical K-anonymity is proposed to guarantee the moving objects by making sure that there are at least k-1 users who share the same historical requests, which requires the anonymizer to track not only the current movement of the user but also the sequence location of the user. Therefore, even user's historical location points are disclosed, the adversaries could not distinguish the specific user from a group of potential users. P-sensitivity is used to ensure that the critical attributes such as the identity information have at least pdifferent values within kusers. Moreover, l-diversity aims to guarantee the user is unidentifiable from l different physical locations. However, setting a large K value would also requires additional spatial and temporal cloaking which leads to a low resolution of information, which in turn could lead to degraded quality of service. === Minimum area size === Minimum area size refers to the smallest region expanded from the exact location point which satisfies the specific privacy requirements. Usually, the higher the privacy requirements, the bigger the area is required to increase the complicity of distinguishing the exact location of users. Also, the idea of minimum area is particularly important in dense areas when K-anonymity might not be efficient to provide the guaranteed privacy-preserving performance. For example, if the requestor is in a shopping mall which has a promising discount, there might be a lot of people around him or her, and thus this could be considered a very dense environment. Under such a situation, a large K-anonymity such as L=100 would only correspond to a small region, since it does not require a large area to include 100 people near the user. This might result in an inefficient cloaked area since the space where the user could potentially reside is smaller compared with the situation of the same level of K-anonymity, yet people are more scattered from each other. === Maximum area size === Since there is a tradeoff relationship between quality of service and privacy requirements in most location-based services, sometimes a maximum area size is also required. This is because a sizable cloaked area might introduce too much inaccuracy to the service received by the user, since increasing the reported cloaked area also increases the possible satisfying results to the user's request. These solutions would match the specific requirements of the user, yet are not necessarily applicable to the users’ exact location. == Applications == The cloaked region generated by the method of spatial cloaking could fit into multiple environments, such as snapshot location, continuous location, spatial networks, and wireless sensor networks. Sometimes, the algorithms which generate a cloaked area are designed to fit into various frameworks without changing the original coordinate. In fact, with the specification of the algorithms and well-establishment of most generally adopted mechanisms, more privacy-preserving techniques are designed specifically for the desired environment to fit into different privacy requirements better. === Geosocial applications === Geosocial applications are generally designed to provide a social interaction based on location information. Some of the services include collaborative network services and games, discount coupons, local friend recommendation for dining and shopping, and social rendezvous. For example, Motion Based allows users to share exercise path with others. Foursquare was one of the earliest location-based applications to enable location sharing among friends. Moreover, SCVNGR was a location-based platform where users could earn points by going to places. Despite the privacy requirements such as K-anonymity, maximum area size, and minimum area size, there are other requirements regarding the privacy preserved in geosocial applications. For example, location and user unlinkability require that the service provider should not be able to identify the user who conducts the same request twice or the correspondence between a given cloaked area and its real-time location. Also, the location data privacy requires that the service provider should not have access to the content of data in a specific location. For example, LoX is mainly designed to satisfy these privacy requirements of geosocial applications. === Location-based services === With the popularity and development of global positioning system (GPS) and wireless communication, location-based information services have been in high growth in recent years. It has already been developed and deployed in both the academia and the practical sphere. Many practical applications have integrated the idea and techniques of location-based services, such as mobile social networks, finding places of interest (POI), augmented reality (AR) games, awareness of location- based advertising, transportation service, location tracking, and location- aware services. These services usually require the service providers to analyze the received location information based on their algorithms and a database to come up with an optimum solution, and then report it back to the requesting user. Usually, the location-based services are requested either through snapshot queries or continuous queries. Snapshot queries generally require the report of an exact location at a specific time, such as “where is the nearest gas station?” while continuous queries need the tracking of location during a period of time, such as “constantly reporting the nearby gas stations.” With the advancement of global positioning systems and the development of wireless communication which are introduced in the extensive use of location-based applications, high risks have been placed on user privacy. Both the service providers and users are under the dangers of being attacked and information being abused. It has been reported that some GPS devices have been used to exploit personal information and stalk personal locations. Sometimes, only reporting location information would already indicate much private information. One of the attacks specific to location- based services is the space or time correlated inference attacks, in which the visited location is correlated with the particular time, and this could lead to the disclosure of private life and private business. Some of the popular location-based services include: * Location-aware emergency service * Location-based advertisement * Live traffic report * Location-based store finders * Map and navigation system Continuous location-based service Continuous location-based services require a constant report of location information to the service providers. During the process of requesting a continuous location-based service, pressure has been recognized on privacy leakage issues. Since the a series of cloaked areas are reported, with the advancing technological performances, a correlation could be generated between the blurred regions. Therefore, many types of research have been conducted addressing the location privacy issues in continuous location-based services. Snapshot location-based services While snapshot location generally refers to the linear relation between the specific location point and a point in the temporal coordinate. Some mechanisms have been proposed to either address the privacy-preserving issues in both of the two environments simultaneously or concentrate on fulfilling each privacy requirement respectively. For example, a privacy grid called a dynamic grid system is proposed to fit into both snapshot and continuous location-based service environments. == Other privacy mechanisms == The existing privacy solutions generally fall into two categories: data privacy and context privacy. Besides addressing the issues in location privacy, these mechanisms might be applied to other scenarios. For example, tools such as cryptography, anonymity, obfuscation and caching have been proposed, discussed, and tested to better preserve user privacy. These mechanisms usually try to solve location privacy issues from different angles and thus fit into different situations. * Cryptography *Anonymity *Obfuscation *Caching *Pseudonymous technique == Concerns == Even though the effectiveness of spatial cloaking has been widely accepted and the idea of spatial cloaking has been integrated into multiple designs, there are still some concerns towards it. First, the two schemes of spatial cloaking both have their limitations. For example, in the centralized scheme, although users' other private information including identity has been cloaked, the location itself would be able to release sensitive information, especially when a specific user requests service for multiple times with the same pseudonym. In a decentralized scheme, there are issues with large computation and not enough peers in a region. Second, the ability of attackers requires a more in-depth consideration and investigation according to the advancement of technology such as machine learning and its connection with social relations, particularly the share of information online. Third, the credibility of a trusted-third-party has also been identified as one of the issues. There is a large number of software published on app markets every day, and some of them have not undergone a strict examination. Software bugs, configuration errors at the trusted-third-party and malicious administrators could expose private user data under high risks. Based on a study from 2010, two-thirds of all the trusted-third-party applications in the Android market are considered to be suspicious towards sensitive information. Fourth, location privacy has been recognized as a personalized requirement and is sensitive to various contexts. Customizing privacy parameters has been exploring in recent years since different people have different expectations on the amount of privacy preserved and sometimes the default settings do not fully satisfy user needs. Considering that there is often a trade-off relation between privacy and personalization and personalization usually leads to better service, people would have different preferences. In the situations where users can change the default configurations, accepting the default instead of customizing seems to be a more popular choice. Also, people's attitudes towards disclosing their location information could vary based on the service's usefulness, privacy safeguards, and the disclosed quantity etc. In most situations, people are weighing the price of privacy sharing and the benefits they received. Fifth, there are many protection mechanism proposed in literature yet few of them have been practically integrated into commercial applications. Since there is little analysis regarding the implementation of location privacy-preserving mechanisms, there is still a large gap between theory and privacy. === Attack === During the process of exchanging data, the three main parties—the user, the server, and the networks—can be attacked by adversaries. The knowledge held by adversaries which could be used to carry out location attacks includes observed location information, precise location information, and context knowledge. The techniques of machine learning and big data have also led to an emerging trend in location privacy, and the popularity of smart devices has led to an increasing number of attacks. Some of the adopted approaches include the virus, the Trojan applications, and several cyber-attacks. * Man-in-the- middle attack Man-in-the-middle attacks usually occur in the mobile environment which assumes that all the information going through the transferring process from user to the service provider could be under attacks and might be manipulated further by attackers revealing more personal information. * Cross-service attack Cross-servicing attacks usually take place when users are using poorly protected wireless connectivity, especially in public places. * Video-based attack Video-based attacks are more prevalent in mobile devices usually due to the use of Bluetooth, camera, and video capacities, since there are malicious software applications secretly recording users’ behavior data and reporting that information to a remote device. Stealthy Video Capture is one of the intentionally designed applications which spies an unconscious user and further report the information. * Sensor sniffing attack Sensor sniffing attacks usually refer to the cases where intentionally designed applications are installed on a device. Under this situation, even adversaries do not have physical contact with the mobile device, users’ personal information would still under risks of being disclosed. * Context linking attack In a localization attack, contextual knowledge is combined with observed location information to disclose a precise location. The contextual knowledge can also be combined with precise location information to carry out identity attacks. * Machine/deep learning attack Integrating learning algorithms and other deep learning methods are posing a huge challenge to location privacy, along with the massive amount of data online. For example, current deep learning methods can come up with predictions about geolocations based on the personal photos from social networks and performs types of object detection based on their abilities to analyze millions of photos and videos. == Regulations and policies == Policy approaches have also been discussed in recent years which intend to revise relevant guidelines or propose new regulations to better manage location-based service applications. The current technology state does not have a sufficiently aligned policies and legal environment, and there are efforts from both academia and industry trying to address this issue. Two uniformly accepted and well- established requirements are the users' awareness of location privacy policies in a specific service and their consents of sending their personal location to a service provider. Besides these two approaches, researchers have also been focusing on guarding the app markets, since an insecure app market would expose unaware users to several privacy risks. For example, there have been identified much malware in the Android app market, which are designed to carry cyber attacks on Android devices. Without effective and clear guidelines to regulate location information, it would generate both ethical and lawful problems. Therefore, many guidelines have been discussed in years recently, to monitor the use of location information. === European data protection guideline === European data protection guideline was recently revised to include and specify the privacy of an individual's data and personally identifiable information (PIIs). These adjustments intend to make a safe yet effective service environment. Specifically, location privacy is enhanced by making sure that the users are fully aware and consented on the location information which would be sent to the service providers. Another important adjustment is that a complete responsibility would be given to the service providers when users’ private information is being processed. === European Union's Directive === The European Union's Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data specifies that the limited data transfer to non-EU countries which are with "an adequate level of privacy protection". The notion of explicit consent is also introduced in the Directive, which stated that except for legal and contractual purpose, personal data might only be processed if the user has unambiguously given his or her consent. European Union's Directive 2002/58/EC on privacy and electronic communication explicitly defines location information, user consent requirements and corporate disposal requirement which helps to regulate and protect European citizens' location privacy. Under the situation when data are unlinkable to the user, the legal frameworks such as the EU Directive has no restriction on the collection of anonymous data. === The electronic communications privacy act of 1986 === The electronic communications privacy act discusses the legal framework of privacy protection and gives standards of law enforcement access to electronic records and communications. It is also very influential in deciding electronic surveillance issues. === Global system for mobile communication association (GSMA) === GSMA published a new privacy guideline, and some mobile companies in Europe have signed it and started to implement it so that users would have a better understanding of the information recorded and analyzed when using location-based services. Also, GSMA has recommended the operating companies to inform their customers about people who have access to the users’ private information. == Cases == === Corporate examples=== Even though many privacy preserving mechanisms have not been integrated into common use due to effectiveness, efficiency, and practicality, some location-based service providers have started to address privacy issues in their applications. For example, Twitter enables its users to customize location accuracy. Locations posted in Glympse will automatically expire. Also, SocialRadar allows its users to choose to be anonymous or invisible when using this application. ==== Google==== It has been stated that Google does not meet the European Union’s data privacy law and thus increasing attention has been placed on the advocation of guidelines and policies regarding data privacy. ==== Facebook==== It has been arguing that less than a week after Facebook uses its “Places” feature, the content of that location information has been exploited by thieves and are used to conduct a home invasion. === Court cases === ==== United States v. Knotts case==== In this case, the police used a beeper to keep track of the suspect's vehicle. After using the beeper alone to track the suspect, the officers secured a search warrant and confirmed that the suspect was producing illicit drugs in the van. The suspect tried to suppress the evidence based on the tracking device used during the monitoring process, but the court denied this. The court concluded that “A person traveling in an automobile on a public has no reasonable expectation of privacy in his movement from one place to another.” Nevertheless, the court reserved the discussion of whether twenty-four-hour surveillance would constitute a search. However, the cases using GPS and other tracking devices are different with this case, since GPS tracking can be conducted without human interaction, while the beeper is considered as a method to increase police's sensory perception through maintaining visual contact of the suspect. Police presence is required when using beepers yet is not needed when using GPS to conduct surveillance. Therefore, law enforcement agents are required to secure a warrant before obtaining vehicle's location information with the GPS tracking devices. ==== United States v. Jones ==== In this case (https://www.oyez.org/cases/2011/10-1259), the police had a search warrant to install Global Positioning System on a respondent wife's car, while the actual installation was on the 11th day in Maryland, instead of the authorized installation district and beyond the approved ten days. The District Court ruled that the data recorded on public roads admissible since the respondent Jones had no reasonable exception of privacy in public streets, yet the D.C. Circuit reversed this through the violation of the Fourth Amendment of unwarranted use of GPS device. === Practical applications === == Popular culture == * In George Orwell's novel 1984, a world where everyone being watched is depicted, practically at all time and places. * Brønnøysund Register Center(https://www.brreg.no) in Norway provides a free public register service, where people can register and specify that they do not want to receive direct marketing, or sale phone calls or mails. == See also == * Location obfuscation * location-based service * Public key cryptography * Spoofing attack * Mobile phone tracking * Ubiquitous computing * Cloaking device == References == Category:Internet privacy Category:Internet geolocation |
Star Raiders is a first-person space combat simulator for the Atari 8-bit family of computers. It was written by Doug Neubauer, an Atari employee, and released as a cartridge by Atari in March 1980. The game is considered the platform's killer app. It was later ported to the Atari 2600, Atari 5200, and Atari ST. The game simulates 3D space combat between the player's ship and an invading fleet of alien "Zylon" vessels. Star Raiders was distinctive for its graphics, which, in addition to various map and long range scan views, provided forward and aft first-person views, with movement conveyed by a streaming 3D starfield as the player engaged enemy spacecraft. While there had already been target-shooting games using the first-person perspective (including 1978's Cosmic Conflict), Star Raiders had considerably higher quality visuals and more complex gameplay. It inspired imitators throughout the 1980s as well as later-generation space combat simulation games including Elite, Wing Commander, and Star Wars: X-Wing. In 2007, Star Raiders was included in a list of the 10 most important video games of all time, as compiled by Stanford University's History of Science and Technology Collections. ==Gameplay== Like the text-based Star Trek games, in Star Raiders the player's ship maneuvers about a two-dimensional grid fighting a fleet of enemy spaceships. In Star Raiders, this part of the game takes the form of a "Galactic Chart" display dividing the game's large-scale world into a grid of sectors, some of which are empty, while others are occupied by enemy ships or a friendly "starbase". The Galactic Map is the equivalent of the earlier Star Trek's Long Range Scan. Flying about in the 3D view with the ship's normal engines is sufficient for travel within a sector; travel between sectors is via "hyperspace", accomplished through an elaborate and noisy "hyperwarp" sequence with graphics loosely reminiscent of the Star Wars and Star Trek films in which the stars seemed to stretch to radial lines. On the higher difficulty levels, hyperwarp has a skill element; the player has to keep a wandering cross hair roughly centered during the sequence in order to arrive precisely at the desired destination. ===Combat, damage and resources=== right|upright=2.5|thumb|Two Zylon fighters attack. Below the crosshair is a Patrol ship. A Fighter is in the upper right. To the Star Trek formula, the game added real-time 3D battles as a space combat simulator. In the main first-person display, the player can look out of the ship and shoot "photons" at Zylon ships, which come in three different varieties reminiscent of ships from Star Wars, Star Trek, and Battlestar Galactica (whose villains were the similarly titled Cylons). A small targeting display in the lower right corner gives a general indication of a distant enemy or starbase's position relative to the player's ship, and also indicates when weapons are locked on the enemy, at which point the player's weapons will fire two torpedoes simultaneously. There is also a "long-range scan" screen showing the surrounding region in a third-person overhead view centered on your ship, operating like a long-range radar display. Enemy ships come in three types. The standard Fighters resemble the TIE fighter. The Patrol ships, which do not fire until fired upon, loosely resemble the front-on view of a Cylon Raider or Klingon Battlecruiser. The most powerful Zylon ship, the Basestar, has a pulsating orange glow and resembles a Cylon Basestar. It also has shields, which protect it from incoming fire, thus requiring the player to either hit it multiple times in rapid succession at close range or get it into a Target Lock, which results in two torpedoes being fired simultaneously and tracking the target until impact. The game has four difficulty levels; on all but the lowest "Novice" level players must steer the ship into hyperspace and collisions with random meteoroids and enemy fire can cause damage to the player's ship. Such damage includes malfunctioning or nonfunctional shields, engines, weapons or information displays. Any collision when shields are down destroys the ship and ends the game. Running out of energy likewise ends the game. The player has to manage finite energy reserves as well as damage to the ship; it can be repaired and restocked by rendezvous with a friendly starbase. The enemy can also destroy a starbase if allowed to surround its Galactic Chart sector for too long, so the starbases have to be defended. All this lends Star Raiders a degree of complexity and a sense of player immersion that was rare in action games of the era. ===Scoring=== In contrast to many games of the era, the player can actually win the game by destroying all enemy ships in the galaxy. However, there is no running score display; only upon winning, dying or quitting the game will the player receive a "rating", which is a quasi- military rank accompanied by a numerical class with particularly bad play earning a rank of "Garbage Scow Captain" or "Galactic Cook". The rating depends on a formula involving the game play level, energy and time used, star bases destroyed (both by player or the enemy), the number of enemies destroyed, and whether the player succeeded in destroying all enemies, was destroyed, or aborted (quit or ran out of energy) the mission. Some possible ratings reach from Rookie to Star Commander. ==Development== Wanting to make an action-oriented Star Trek-type game, Doug Neubauer designed Star Raiders in about eight to ten months while working for Atari. He left the company while the game was still a prototype to return home to Oregon and join Hewlett- Packard, and reported that it took him six months to reach the highest player- level during development. Star Raiders was unusual at the time for Atari, as it made relatively few game cartridges for its computers, with most being adaptations of Atari 2600 titles. ===Technical details=== thumb|Atari 8-bit computer cartridge; early releases had a typo on the label: Star Raider. The main simulation continues running even when the user is interacting with other displays. For instance, one might be attacked while examining the Galactic Map. This was unusual for the time, if not unique. The primary playfield/star field is drawn in the graphics mode that provides 160×96 bitmapped pixels utilizing four color registers at a time out of a palette of 128 colors provided by the CTIA chip in the early Atari computers. This is called ANTIC mode D, but accessed in Atari BASIC by use of the "GRAPHICS 7" command. The Atari's use of an indirect palette means that color changes associated with the presence or absence of energy shields, emergency alarms, and the screen flash representing destruction of the ship can be accomplished by simply changing the palette values in memory registers. Enemy ships, shots, and most other moving objects use Atari's variant of hardware sprites, known as player- missile graphics, which have their own color registers independent of the current screen graphics mode. The radar display in the lower right of screen is drawn using the background graphics, and updated less frequently than the sprites. The debris particles emitted when an enemy ship is destroyed are calculated as 3D points. Since the 6502 processor in the Atari 8-bit family does not have a native multiply or divide command, the game slows down considerably when several of these particles are active. When rotating the view of the player's ship, the new positions of enemy ships, shots, and other moving objects are computed in 3D, applying a variation of the CORDIC algorithm using only addition, subtraction, and bitshift operations.Lorenz Wiest: Reverse Engineering Star Raiders. PoC||GTFO 0x13, Oktober 2016, S. 5–20. The Atari 8-bit family allows different graphics modes and color palettes to be used in different horizontal bands on the screen, by using a simple display list and a type of horizontal blank interrupt. While other games make more extensive use of these techniques, Star Raiders uses them in a relatively simple fashion to combine text displays and graphics; the cockpit display uses a custom character set to display futuristic-looking characters and symbols reminiscent of MICR. Star Raiders' sounds of engines, shots, explosions, alarms, etc. are algorithmically synthesized directly using the POKEY sound chip's capabilities. Neubauer was involved in the design of POKEY. The entire game, code and data, fits into 8K (8192 bytes) of ROM, and requires only 8K of RAM for its working data and display visuals; thus it can run on any Atari 8-bit computer. ==Ports== thumb|right|The Atari 2600 version shipped with the Video Touch Pad controller. Versions of Star Raiders were created for the Atari 2600, Atari 5200, and Atari ST series of computers. The Atari 5200 version was done by programmer Joe Copson and released in autumn 1982. This version is nearly identical to the computer version, but takes advantage of the 5200's analog joystick by allowing for variable speed turning, and puts all the game functions in the player's hand via the controller's 12-button keypad. Other changes are graphical improvements to the Sector Scan mode by displaying small images of enemy ships and objects instead of pinpoints, alterations to some of the text responses to be more specific to the game- ending action, and automatically switching to Forward View when Hyperspace is engaged. The Atari 2600 version was programmed by Carla Meninsky and released in 1982. It suffers somewhat due to the 2600's weaker graphics and sound capabilities. It shipped with a special keypad controller, the Video Touch Pad, to take the place of the computer keyboard. The Video Touch Pad was the Atari Keypad redesigned for Star Raiders. Although the Video Touch Pad was designed to accept overlays for compatibility with multiple games, Star Raiders was the only commercially released game to use it. In this version the Zylons are renamed "Krylons". The Atari ST version was designed and programmed by Robert Zdybel with graphics and animation by Jerome Domurat and released by Atari Corporation in 1986. It is a very different game in many ways, with more enemy ship types, different weapons, slower action, and a map featuring a triangular grid instead of a square one, which makes it much easier for the Zylon ships to surround starbases. ==Reception== While criticizing the violent gameplay, after seeing a demonstration Ted Nelson wrote: "The Atari machine is the most extraordinary computer graphics box ever made, and Star Raiders is its virtuoso demonstration game". Compute! in 1980 wrote that Star Raiders is "incredibly exciting to play and just about as much fun to watch!" It praised the game's use of color and sound to alert the player, and warned that "THIS GAME IS ADDICTIVE!". The magazine InfoWorld wrote: "This game is absolutely guaranteed to put calluses on your trigger-finger". The magazine reported that Star Raiders complexity encouraged cooperative gameplay, and that "over twenty hours of grueling tests by a battery of ingenious children" had proven that it was free of bugs. BYTE wrote in 1981 that it was the Atari's killer app: "What can you say about a game that takes your breath away? There are not enough superlatives to describe Star Raiders. Just as the VisiCalc software ... has enticed many people into buying Apple II computers, I'm sure that the Star Raiders cartridge ... has sold its share of Atari 400 and 800 computers". It concluded: "To all software vendors, this is the game you have to surpass to get our attention". Electronic Games agreed, reporting that it "is the game that, in the opinion of many, sells a lot of 400 computers systems", and "has established the standards prospective software marketed will be trying to surpass over the next year or so". Softline in 1982 called Star Raiders "quite a game ... stands repeat play well and remains quite difficult". In 1983 the magazine's readers named it "The Most Popular Atari Program Ever", with 65% more weighted votes than second-place Jawbreaker, and in 1984 they named the game the most popular Atari program of all time. The Addison-Wesley Book of Atari Software 1984 gave it an overall A rating, praising the realistic graphics and sound. The book concluded that "the game is simply great" and that despite imitations, "Star Raiders remains the classic". Antic in 1986 stated that "it was the first program that showed all of the Atari computer's audio and visual capabilities. It was just a game, yes, but it revolutionized the idea of what a personal computer could be made to do". Jerry Pournelle of BYTE named the Atari ST version his game of the month for August 1986, describing it as "like the old 8-bit Star Raiders had died and gone to heaven. The action is fast, the graphics are gorgeous, and I've spent entirely too much time with it". In 2004, the Atari 8-bit version of Star Raiders was inducted into GameSpot's list of the greatest games of all time. On March 12, 2007, The New York Times reported that Star Raiders was named to a list of the ten most important video games of all time, the so-called game canon. The Library of Congress took up a video game preservation proposal and began with the games from this list, including Star Raiders. In 1995, Flux magazine ranked the game 46th on their "Top 100 Video Games." ==Reviews== *Games ==Legacy== ===Sequels=== ==== Star Raiders II (1986) ==== The Star Raiders II that was released in 1986 by Atari Corp. had no relationship to the original other than the name, and was, in fact, merely a rebranded game originally developed as a licensed tie-in for the movie The Last Starfighter. ==== Unreleased Star Raiders II ==== In 2015, Kevin Savetz, host of the ANTIC Podcast, was contacted by former Atari, Inc. programmer Aric Wilmunder. Wilmunder mentioned he had been part of a team working on 8-bit computer games and decided to make a sequel to Star Raiders. This version of Star Raiders II is faithful to the original gameplay, but designed to make use of new 32 kB cartridges. The torpedoes were replaced with a laser-like weapon that can be aimed semi-independently of the ship's motion. The enemies are now 3D wireframe ships instead of 2D sprites. The gridded galactic map was replaced with a free-form version. In this rendition, the player's home planet is in the upper left of the map, and the enemy ships are ultimately attempting to attack it. A number of planets can also be attacked on the surface in a view based on the Star Wars arcade game, which was being developed down the hall from Wilmunder's office. The main part of the game was complete by early 1984, but Atari was in disarray and undergoing a continual downsizing. Eventually, he was laid off, but kept the source code when he left. He later unsuccessfully tried to interest the new Atari Corporation in the project. The game, in an untuned but functionally complete and playable state, was added to the Internet Archive along with basic documentation and Wilmunder's telling of the history of the game. ====2011 remake==== A re-imagining of Star Raiders, developed by Incinerator Studios and published by Atari SA, was released for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows on May 11, 2011. ===Clones and influenced games=== Many games heavily inspired by Star Raiders appeared, such as Starmaster (Atari 2600), Space Spartans (Intellivision), Moonbeam Express (TI-99/4A), Codename MAT (ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC), Star Voyager (Atari 2600) and Star Luster (Famicom–Japan only). Neubauer's own Solaris, for the Atari 2600, is both similar and in some ways more sophisticated than his earlier game, despite the difference in technology between the two systems. Star Raiders inspired later space combat games like Elite, the Wing Commander series and BattleSphere. Star Rangers, an homage to Star Raiders, was released in 2010 for the iPhone. It was written by former 8-bit game programmer Tom Hudson, who was at one time a technical editor for Atari hobbyist magazine ANALOG Computing. As of October 2014, possibly earlier, Star Rangers is no longer in the iOS App Store. ===In popular culture=== In 1983 DC Comics published a graphic novel inspired by the game; it was the first title of the DC Graphic Novel series. It was written by Elliot S! Maggin and illustrated by José Luis García-López. Early production copies of the Atari 2600 version of the game were accompanied by an Atari Force mini-comic (published by DC Comics). This particular issue was #3 in the series, preceded by mini-comics accompanying the Defender and Berserk games. Two final mini-comics followed with the games Phoenix and Galaxian. === Source code === A scan of the original assembly language source code became available in October 2015 via the Internet Archive.AtariStarRaidersSourceCode (October 16, 2015) It was used to create a text-file version in GitHub.Star Raiders (Version 25.1/Stardate "26-JUL-79") on github.com/XioNYC ==References== ==External links== * * *Interview with Doug Neubauer, October 1986 issue of ANALOG Computing *Reverse engineered source code with documentation Category:1980 video games Category:Atari 2600 games Category:Atari 5200 games Category:Atari 8-bit family games Category:Atari ST games Category:Science fiction video games Category:Space combat simulators Category:Video games adapted into comics Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:Commercial video games with freely available source code |
Alfred (Alfred Ernest Albert; 6 August 184430 July 1900) was sovereign Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha from 1893 to 1900. He was the second son and fourth child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. He was known as the Duke of Edinburgh from 1866 until he succeeded his paternal uncle Ernest II as the reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in the German Empire. ==Early life== Prince Alfred was born on 6 August 1844 at Windsor Castle to the reigning British monarch, Queen Victoria, and her husband, Prince Albert, the second son of Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Nicknamed Affie, he was second in the line of succession to the British throne behind his elder brother, the Prince of Wales. Alfred was baptised by the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Howley, at the Private Chapel in Windsor Castle on 6 September 1844. His godparents were his mother's first cousin, Prince George of Cambridge (represented by his father, the Duke of Cambridge); his paternal aunt, the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (represented by his maternal grandmother, the Duchess of Kent); and Queen Victoria's half-brother, the Prince of Leiningen (represented by the Duke of Wellington, Conservative Leader in the Lords). Alfred remained second in line to the British throne from his birth until 8 January 1864, when his older brother Edward and his wife Alexandra of Denmark had their first child, Prince Albert Victor. Alfred became third in line to the throne and, as Edward and Alexandra continued to have children, Alfred was further demoted in the order of succession. ==Entering the Royal Navy== thumb|180px|left|Alfred in 1856 In 1856, when he reached age 12, it was decided that Prince Alfred, in accordance with his own wishes, should enter the Royal Navy. A separate establishment was assigned to him, with Lieutenant J.C. Cowell, RE, as governor. He passed a special entrance examination in July 1858, and was appointed as a naval cadet in at the age of 14. In July 1860, while on this ship, he paid an official visit to the Cape Colony, and made a very favourable impression both on the colonials and on the native chiefs. He took part in a hunt at Hartebeeste-Hoek, resulting in the slaughter of large numbers of game animals."Progress of His Royal Highness, Prince Alfred Ernest Albert, through the Cape Colony, British Kaffraria, the Orange Free State, and Port Natal in the year 1860" On the abdication of King Otto of Greece, in 1862, Prince Alfred was chosen to succeed him, but the British government blocked plans for him to ascend the Greek throne, largely because of the Queen's opposition to the idea. She and her late husband had made plans for him to succeed to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg. Prince Alfred remained in the navy, and was promoted to lieutenant on 24 February 1863, serving under Count Gleichen on the corvette .Heathcote, p. 9. He was promoted to captain on 23 February 1866 and was appointed to the command of the frigate in January 1867. Lord Charles Beresford described him as having "a great natural ability for handling a fleet" and noted that he "would have made a first-class fighting admiral."Julia P. Gelardi, From Splendor to Revolution, p.32 ==Duke of Edinburgh== thumb|upright=0.7|Duke of Edinburgh, Alfred Ernest Albert, Sydney, ca. 1868, by Montagu Scott In the Queen's Birthday Honours on 24 May 1866, the Prince was created Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Ulster, and Earl of Kent with an annuity of £15,000 granted by Parliament. He took his seat in the House of Lords on 8 June. While still in command of the Galatea, the Duke of Edinburgh started from Plymouth on 24 January 1867 for his voyage around the world. On 7 June 1867, he left Gibraltar, reached the Cape of Good Hope on 24 July, on 5 August 1867 the island of Tristan da Cunha, and paid a royal visit to Cape Town on 24 August 1867 after landing at Simon's Town a while earlier. He landed at Glenelg, South Australia, on 31 October 1867. Being the first member of the royal family to visit Australia, he was received with great enthusiasm. During his stay of nearly five months he visited Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Tasmania. Several institutions, including Prince Alfred College, The Alfred Hospital, and Royal Prince Alfred Hospital were named in his honour. On 12 March 1868, on his second visit to Sydney, he was invited by Sir William Manning, President of the Sydney Sailors' Home, to picnic at the beachfront suburb of Clontarf to raise funds for the home. At the function, he was wounded in the back by a revolver fired by Henry James O'Farrell. Alfred was shot just to the right of his spine. He was tended to for the next two weeks by six nurses, trained by Florence Nightingale and led by Matron Lucy Osburn, who had just arrived in Australia in February 1868. In the violent struggle during which Alfred was shot, William Vial had managed to wrest the gun away from O'Farrell until bystanders assisted. Vial, a master of a Masonic Lodge, had helped to organise the picnic in honour of the Duke's visit and was presented with a gold watch for securing Alfred's life. Another bystander, George Thorne, was wounded in the foot by O'Farrell's second shot. O'Farrell was arrested at the scene, quickly tried, convicted and hanged on 21 April 1868. On the evening of 23 March 1868, the most influential people of Sydney voted for a memorial building to be erected, "to raise a permanent and substantial monument in testimony of the heartfelt gratitude of the community at the recovery of HRH". This led to a public subscription which paid for the construction of Royal Prince Alfred Hospital. Alfred soon recovered from his injury and was able to resume command of his ship and return home in early April 1868. He reached Spithead on 26 June 1868, after an absence of seventeen months. He visited Hawaii in 1869 and spent time with the royal family there, where he was presented with leis upon his arrival. He was also the first member of the royal family to visit New Zealand, arriving in 1869 on , where he spent a month living in Pakuranga. He also became the first European prince to visit Japan and on 4 September 1869, he was received at an audience by the teenaged Emperor Meiji in Tokyo. The Duke's next voyage was to India, where he arrived in December 1869, and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), which he visited the following year. In both countries and at Hong Kong, which he visited on the way, he was the first British prince to set foot in the country. The native rulers of India vied with one another in the magnificence of their entertainments during the stay of three months. In Ceylon a reception was given for him, by the request of the British, by Charles Henry de Soysa, the richest man in Ceylon, at his private residence which was consequently renamed, by permission, Alfred House. Alfred reportedly ate off gold plates with gold cutlery inlaid with jewels. ==Potential matches== In 1862, Queen Victoria wrote to Victoria, Princess Royal that she wanted Alfred to marry Princess Dagmar of Denmark. She wrote: "I hear that the Emperor of Russia has not given up his intention of asking for Alix or Dagmar for his son. I should be very sorry if any thing were decided for Dagmar before you had seen her, as it would be one chance less for Affie."Julia P. Gelardi, From Splendor to Revolution, p.23 However, she decided against the match because of Germany's anger towards Denmark over the disputed territories of Schleswig-Holstein, especially since Alfred was the heir to Coburg. She wrote to Victoria, Princess Royal "Respecting Dagmar, I do not wish her to be kept for Affie. Let the Emperor have her." Dagmar later married Alexander III and became the Empress of Russia. Queen Victoria considered Grand Duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia as a potential wife for Alfred. She wrote to Victoria, Princess Royal, "It is a great pity that Sanny's charming daughter is a Greek [Orthodox]– she would do so well".Julia P. Gelardi, From Splendor to Revolution, p.32 In 1867, Queen Victoria told Victoria, Princess Royal that "I had thought and hoped at one time for dear little Olga, who is now to marry King George".Julia P. Gelardi, From Splendor to Revolution, p. 32 ==Marriage== During a visit to his sister Princess Alice, in August 1868 he met Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, then fourteen years old.Abrash, A Curious Royal Romance, p. 389Van der Kiste, The Romanovs 1818–1959, p. 58Sullivan, A Fatal Passion, p. 13Papi, Jewels of the Romanovs: Family & Court, p. 93 Princess Alice was married to Maria Alexandrovna's first cousin. The Grand Duchess was visiting her maternal relatives, the Princes of Battenberg, at Jugenheim. On 23 January 1874, the Duke of Edinburgh married the Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, the second (and only surviving) daughter of Emperor Alexander II of Russia and his first wife Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine, daughter of Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine and Princess Wilhelmine of Baden, at the Winter Palace, St Petersburg. To commemorate the occasion, a small English bakery made the now internationally popular Marie biscuit, with the Duchess' name imprinted on its top. The Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh made their public entry into London on 12 March. The marriage, however, was not a happy one, and the bride was thought haughty by London Society.Van der Kiste, John. The Romanovs 1818–1959. Sutton Publishing, 1999. p.64. . She was surprised to discover that she had to yield precedence to the Princess of Wales and all of Queen Victoria's daughters and demanded that she take precedence before the Princess of Wales (the future Queen Alexandra) because she considered the Princess of Wales's family (the Danish royal family) to be inferior to her own. Queen Victoria refused this demand, yet granted her precedence immediately after the Princess of Wales. Her father gave her the then-staggering sum of £100,000 as a dowry, plus an annual allowance of £32,000.Wimbles, John. The Daughter of Tsar Alexander II. Published in The Grand Duchesses. Eurohistory.com, 2014. p. 46. ==Flag rank== Alfred was stationed in Malta for several years and his third child, Victoria Melita, was born there in 1876. Alfred's last command prior to promotion to flag rank would be as captain of in 1878, when he represented the crown during the installation of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, as Governor General of Canada. Alfred was subsequently promoted rear-admiral upon his return to London and relief on 30 December 1878, becoming admiral superintendent of naval reserves, raising his flag aboard the corvette in November 1879.Heathcote, p. 10. Promoted to vice-admiral on 10 November 1882, he was given command of the Channel Squadron, with his flag aboard the armoured ship , in December 1883. He became Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet, with his flag aboard the armoured ship , in March 1886, and having been promoted to admiral on 18 October 1887, he went on to be Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth in August 1890. He was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 3 June 1893. Percy Scott wrote in his memoirs that "as a Commander-in-Chief, the Duke of Edinburgh had, in my humble opinion, no equal. He handled a fleet magnificently, and introduced many improvement in signals and manoeuvring." He "took a great interest in gunnery."Fifty Years in the Royal Navy, p. 61. "The prettiest ship I have ever seen was the [Duke of Edinburgh's flagship] HMS Alexandra. I was informed that £2,000 had been spent by the officers on her decoration."Fifty Years in the Royal Navy, p. 61. In those days "the Admiralty did not supply sufficient paint or cleaning material for keeping the ship up to the required standard, the officers had to find the money for buying the necessary housemaiding material." Alfred was very fond of music and took a prominent part in establishing the Royal College of Music, created in 1882. He was a keen violinist, but had little skill. At a dinner party given by one of his brothers, he was persuaded to play. Sir Henry Ponsonby wrote: 'Fiddle out of tune and noise abominable.'Kenneth Rose: King George V. Macmillan, 1983. ==Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha== On the death of his uncle, Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, on 22 August 1893, the duchy fell to the Duke of Edinburgh, since his elder brother (the Prince of Wales) had renounced his right to the succession before he married. Alfred thereupon surrendered his British allowance of £15,000 a year and his seats in the House of Lords and the Privy Council, but he retained the £10,000 granted on his marriage to maintain Clarence House as his London residence. At first regarded with some coldness in the Duchy as a "foreigner", he gradually gained popularity. By the time of his death in 1900, he had generally won the good opinion of his subjects. Alfred and Maria's only son, Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, became involved in a scandal involving his mistress and apparently shot himself in January 1899, in the midst of his parents' twenty-fifth wedding anniversary celebrations at the Schloss Friedenstein in Gotha. He survived, but his embarrassed mother sent him off to Meran to recover, where he died two weeks later, on 6 February. His father was devastated. Alfred died of throat cancer on 30 July 1900 in a lodge adjacent to Schloss Rosenau, the ducal summer residence just north of Coburg. He was buried at the ducal family's mausoleum in the in Coburg. As his younger brother, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn and nephew Prince Arthur, had renounced their succession rights to the ducal throne, Alfred was succeeded by his nephew, Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany (1884–1954), the posthumous son of his youngest brother, Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany.Beéche, Arthur E. The Coburgs of Europe. Eurohistory.com, 2014. p. 120 He was survived by his mother, Victoria, who had already outlived two of her children, Alice and Leopold. She died six months later. Victoria dedicated a memorial in the form of a Celtic cross to Alfred in the grounds of Balmoral Castle which was erected shortly before her death. Alfred was a keen collector of glass and ceramic ware, and after his death his widow gave his collection, valued at half a million marks, to the Veste Coburg, the enormous fortress on a hill top above Coburg. ==Legacy== ===Australia=== Royal Prince Alfred Hospital in Sydney, The Alfred Hospital in Melbourne, Prince Alfred College in Adelaide, Prince Alfred Park in Sydney, Prince Alfred Square in Parramatta, and the Royal Prince Alfred Yacht Club, now in the Sydney suburb of Newport, are named in his honour. The Alfred Hall in Ballarat was built in 1867 for his visit, and one of the city's suburbs was renamed Alfredton. Many streets, avenues, roads, halls, parks and schools bear his name in other parts of Australia. He laid the corner stones of new town halls in the two biggest cities, Sydney and Melbourne, and those buildings continue in use today. ===Barbados=== Prince Alfred Street in Bridgetown, the capital of Barbados, was named in his honour. It begins at the junction with Chapel Street and proceeds southward until reaching a car park along the Constitution river in the vicinity of the former James Fort. ===Canada=== Prince Alfred Bay, Nunavut, was named in his honour, as was Cape Prince Alfred in the North West Territories. Two islands in Ontario are named for Prince Alfred, one in the St Lawrence River near Brockville, and the other in Lake Nipigon north of Thunder Bay. The Prince Alfred Arch, a monument in Tangier, Nova Scotia, marks the spot Prince Alfred visited in 1861. === New Zealand === The name of the small township of Alfredton (near Eketahuna in the lower North Island of New Zealand) honours the Prince. Alfred Street in central Auckland was named in his honour. The Bay of Plenty settlement of Galatea is named after his ship. Mt Alfred in Wellington - adjacent to Mount Victoria named after his mother and Mt Albert after his father - is named after him. ===South Africa=== Prince Alfred sailed into Port Elizabeth on 6 August 1860 as a midshipman on HMS Euryalus and celebrated his 16th birthday among its citizens. Seven years later he sailed into Simon's Town as the Captain of HMS Galatea. In Port Elizabeth there is a Prince Alfred's Terrace. The Alfred Rowing Club was established in 1864 and was housed under the pier at Table Bay. It was named after Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, who visited the Cape in 1860. It is the oldest organised sporting club in South Africa. The opening ceremony of the South African Library was performed by Prince Alfred in 1860. An impressive portrait of the Prince hangs in the main reading room.The Commodore: Business Accommodation, Cape Town, South Africa(Legacy Hotels & Resorts International) thumb|Prince Alfred Pass in the Western Cape, South Africa Port Alfred, on the Kowie River in the Eastern Cape, was originally known as Port Frances after the daughter-in-law of the Governor of Cape Colony, Lord Charles Somerset. Of all the passes built in South Africa by the famous Andrew Geddes Bain and his son, Thomas, Prince Alfred's Pass remains, for many people, a favourite because of its lavish variety winding through some of the world's most unspoiled scenery. In Simon's Town, the Prince Alfred Hotel was built in 1802 and renamed after the prince visited Cape Province in 1868. For more than two centuries Simon's Town has been an important naval base and harbour (first for the Royal Navy and now the South African Navy). The former hotel now houses the Backpackers' Hostel, opposite the harbour in the main street. In Cape Town during his visit in 1868, Prince Alfred ceremonially tipped the first load of rock to commence the building of the Breakwater. This was built by convict labour and formed the protective seawall for the new Cape Town Harbour, now redeveloped as the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront and a popular tourist and shopping destination. A Prince Alfred Street can be found in Pietermaritzburg, Queenstown, Grahamstown and Caledon. The Port Elizabeth Chapter of the Memorable Order of Tin Hats, a veterans association, is known as the Prince Alfred Shellhole. Prince Alfred Hamlet, a small town in the Western Cape province, is named after Alfred. ===United Kingdom=== One of the stamp collectors in the British royal family, Prince Alfred won election as honorary president of The Philatelic Society, London in 1890. He may have inspired his nephew George V, who benefited after the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) bought his brother Prince Alfred's collection. The merging of Alfred's and George's collections gave birth to the Royal Philatelic Collection.Courtney, Nicholas (2004). The Queen's Stamps. , pp. 28–29. Edinburgh of the Seven Seas, the settlement on Tristan da Cunha, a British Overseas territory, was named after Alfred after he visited the remote islands in 1867 while Duke of Edinburgh. Manta alfredi is commonly known as Prince Alfred's manta ray. ==Honours and arms== ===Honours=== ;British honours *KG: Royal Knight of the Garter, 10 June 1863Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, p. 62 *KT: Extra Knight of the Thistle, 15 October 1864Shaw, p. 85 *KP: Knight of St. Patrick, 14 May 1880Shaw, p. 104 *GCB: Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (military), 25 May 1889Shaw, p. 199 *GCSI: Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India, 7 February 1870Shaw, p. 309 *GCMG: Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George, 29 June 1869Shaw, p. 336 *GCIE: Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire, 21 June 1887Shaw, p. 401 *GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 24 May 1899Shaw, p. 418 *PC: Privy Counsellor, 18661893 *KStJ: Knight of Justice of St. John, 27 March 1896 *ADC: Personal aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria, 9 December 1882 ;Foreign honours ===Arms=== Prince Alfred gained use of the royal arms of the United Kingdom, charged with an inescutcheon of the shield of the Duchy of Saxony, representing his paternal arms, the whole differenced by a label argent of three points, the outer points bearing anchors azure, and the inner a cross gules. When he became the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, his Saxon arms were his British arms inverted, as follows: the ducal arms of Saxony charged with an inescutcheon of the royal arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label argent of three points, the outer points bearing anchors azure, and the inner a cross gules. 150px Prince Alfred's coat of arms as a British prince 108px Prince Alfred's heraldic shield as a British prince 150px Alfred's arms as Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 108px Heraldic shield as Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ==Issue== Image Name Birth Death Notes 90px Prince Alfred 15 October 1874 6 February 1899 Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha from 22 August 1893 90px Princess Marie 29 October 1875 18 July 1938 married, 10 January 1893, King Ferdinand I of Romania (1865–1927); had issue 90px Princess Victoria Melita 25 November 1876 2 March 1936 married (1), 19 April 1894, Ernst Ludwig, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine; had issue; divorced 21 December 1901 (2) 8 October 1905, Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich of Russia; had issue 90px Princess Alexandra 1 September 1878 16 April 1942 married, 20 April 1896, Ernst II, Prince of Hohenlohe- Langenburg; had issue Unnamed son 13 October 1879 13 October 1879 stillborn 90px Princess Beatrice 20 April 1884 13 July 1966 married, 15 July 1909, Infante Alfonso, Duke of Galliera; had issue ==Archives== Alfred's letters to his third daughter, Alexandra, (as well as her sisters) are preserved in the Hohenlohe Central Archive (Hohenlohe-Zentralarchiv Neuenstein) in Neuenstein Castle in the town of Neuenstein, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. ==Ancestry== ==Footnotes== ==References== * * McKinlay, Brian The First Royal Tour, 1867–1868, (London: Robert Hale & Company, c1970, 1971) 200p. * Reed, Charles Royal Tourists, Colonial Subjects, and the Making of a British World, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016) * Sandner, H., Das Haus Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha, (Coburg: Neue Presse, 2001). * Van der Kiste, John, & Jordaan, Bee Dearest Affie, (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1984) * Van der Kiste, John Alfred, (Stroud: Fonthill Media, 2013) ==External links== * [CC-By-SA] * * |- |- Category:1844 births Category:1900 deaths Category:19th-century British people Category:People from Windsor, Berkshire Category:Dukes of Saxe- Coburg and Gotha Category:Dukes of Edinburgh Alfred Category:Protestant monarchs Category:House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom) Category:Royal Navy admirals of the fleet Category:People associated with the Royal College of Music Category:People associated with the Royal National College for the Blind Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George Category:Knights of St Patrick Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Category:Knights of the Thistle Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary Category:Knights of Justice of the Order of St John Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour 3 3 3 Category:Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus Category:Deaths from esophageal cancer Category:Deaths from cancer in Germany Category:Burials at the Ducal Family Mausoleum, Glockenburg Cemetery, Coburg Category:British philatelists Category:British shooting survivors Category:Fathers of philately Category:Earls of Ulster Category:British princes Category:Children of Queen Victoria Category:Edinburgh Militia officers |
Kerry Weaver is a fictional character, a physician, from the NBC television series from the NBC television series ER. The role was portrayed by Laura Innes, who debuted as a recurring character in the second-season episode "Welcome Back, Carter!", which aired on September 21, 1995. Innes was promoted to the role of series regular as of the third-season episode "Dr. Carter, I Presume", which aired on September 26, 1996, and made her last regular appearance in the thirteenth-season episode "A House Divided", which aired on January 11, 2007. During the series' fifteenth season, Innes made guest appearances in the episodes "Heal Thyself", which aired on November 13, 2008, and the series finale, "And in the End...", which aired on April 2, 2009. Very little of Weaver’s background was revealed to the audience in her early episodes. The character exhibits a limp in her gait, which is aided by the use of a forearm crutch. This was later revealed to be caused by congenital hip dysplasia in episode 14 of season 11, in addition to the fact that she had lived for a period in Africa. Weaver arrived at County General as Chief Resident, and later became an attending physician, was promoted to Chief of Emergency Medicine, and finally became the Hospital Chief of Staff. Her administrative position often forced her to make unpleasant decisions that drew hostility from her fellow physicians, as when she fired Jeanie Boulet in Season 4. Although an excellent physician, she is often portrayed as the villain in many episodes, prioritizing herself and her career over the well- being of other ER workers and even patients. Her behavior is often hypocritical, condescending, and arrogant. Although Weaver had been involved in some heterosexual relationships, she eventually came out as a lesbian. Her sexual orientation was a key point in some episodes, particularly when she fought in court to keep her son, Henry. She was included in AfterEllen.com's Top 50 Lesbian and Bisexual Characters. == Seasons two through six == During Innes' first five seasons on the show, little was revealed about the details of Weaver's background which would later become some of her defining traits: her sexual orientation, political beliefs, and even the precise nature of her disability. These were closely guarded secrets for a woman who wanted to succeed professionally, but feared discrimination. She was also unable to fully deal with her internalized homophobia and regretted that she never knew her birth parents. When she was first hired by Mark Greene as chief resident in 1995, this disappointed much of the ER staff who didn't care for her micro- management in trauma rooms. Early in her position, she would often clash with Doug Ross and resident Susan Lewis over most of the procedures in patient care. In addition, her strong belief in administrative policies would be dragged out into every unnecessary aspect in the workplace (in one episode, Jerry, the desk clerk, brought cake celebrating her day off). In Season 3, Kerry became an ER attending physician alongside Mark Greene, whom she would always manage to compete with or maneuver to catch the eye of her superiors. As a result, it was difficult for anyone — the audience or any of the other characters — to really know Weaver beyond her tough and bureaucratic professionalism. In an early glimpse into her soul, Weaver defended Jeanie Boulet, played by Gloria Reuben, a physician assistant who contracted HIV from her adulterous husband. Later Boulet contracts Hepatitis C from a needle stick accident involving an infected patient. She fought to keep her job and dignity, while some doctors worried about the liability involved in having an HIV-positive employee in the ER. Weaver was the first person in a position of power to side with Jeanie, and the two remained friends until Jeanie's budget- related firing and her successful pressure campaign to get her job back. They reconciled and were close friends again when Jeanie left the ER to be with her new husband and raise her adopted HIV-positive son, Carlos. Weaver demonstrated a great deal of compassion and a moral commitment to civil rights, and that helped her and Dr. Greene draft an ER policy for HIV-positive employees. This storyline developed Weaver's character beyond that of a stoic, abrasive professional. In future episodes, she agreed to look the other way when Dr. John Carter helped a teenage runaway escape her homophobic parents who sent her away to an ex-gay camp. In 1997, Weaver went through a brief relationship with Ellis West (played by Clancy Brown), an M.D. working for the Synergix Group, which was under consideration by County for a general management contract of the ER. Despite his claims to the contrary, she eventually came to the conclusion that West had begun a relationship with her in order to gain her approval of the contract. West said she was wrong and withdrew the proposal. After Carter was fired from his RA position and had nowhere to live, he followed an ad which led him to Dr. Weaver's house; she had been renting out her basement apartment to college students. For the first time, the audience saw the inside of her city home, and noted that she was single and independent, lived in a nice home, and had a particular taste in music. Weaver also hired a private investigator to locate her birth mother, an effort that initially failed and revealed Weaver's fear that she was raised by adoptive parents because her mother could not accept a disabled daughter. In 1998, during Season 4, Kerry was briefly debilitated when an explosion at chemical plant sent victims flooding in, creating a toxic benzene spill in the ER. Weaver suffered a convulsive (Generalized Tonic Clonic or Grand Mal) seizure from the effects of the toxins. She was treated by Dr. Carter and Dr. Anna Del Amico. With Weaver debilitated and Dr. Greene out of town, Carter was forced to take charge of the ER for the first time. Ever since her arrival at County General, Kerry had been very ambitious in pursuing higher administrative titles, such as Chief of Emergency Medicine. This was after Dr. Morgenstern's long, extensive absence, that a new position needed to be filled. For a short period she was made interim acting chief of emergency medicine until a suitable replacement was found. Yet, after an incident involving the hiring of a doctor who turned out to be a very accomplished if bizarre non-physician, Kerry's chances were luckily left open. However, she discovered that the hospital wasn't really considering her for the position. When she found out, she immediately quit as interim chief of the ER and Dr. Robert Romano jumped at the opportunity to become interim chief of the ER. At the start of Season 6, word spread that Romano might be up to the position as Chief of Staff, an event that both Kerry and Mark Greene resented and tried to prevent. However, in the end Kerry backed Dr. Romano for Chief of Staff and in return she was given the position of Chief of Emergency Medicine. This would be the first and last time Romano and Weaver completely agreed on administrative policy; in later seasons they were always involved in power struggles, despite both of them favoring administrative matters much more than the rest of the staff In 1999, Weaver welcomed the chance to hire Dr. Gabe Lawrence (played by Alan Alda), who had been her mentor. She initially refused to accept Dr. Mark Greene's assertion that Lawrence was suffering from the early stages of Alzheimer's disease, but she ultimately faced facts and said goodbye to her role model. == Season seven == In mid-season, Weaver fell in love with staff psychiatrist Kim Legaspi (played by Elizabeth Mitchell), but was afraid to admit it to Legaspi or herself. While Legaspi was openly lesbian and willing to pursue a romantic relationship with Weaver, she became frustrated that Weaver was not only in the closet, but also suffered from internalized homophobia and thus the relationship got off to a slow start. Once Weaver was able to admit to herself that she was gay, she was still uncomfortable about her coworkers finding out and the discriminatory consequences it might have on her career. This was despite their relationship becoming an "open secret" among most of the people in the ER. During that story, we also learned that Kerry had been married to a surgical resident before her career at County General started. The first coworker Weaver came out to was Dr. Robert Romano, who planned to fire Legaspi over trumped up allegations that she sexually harassed a female patient. Weaver's act of courage kept Romano from firing Legaspi, but it also emotionally drained Weaver, whose fears of discrimination ruining her career resurfaced. She was therefore unable to provide emotional support to Legaspi, who kept her job, but at the cost of seeing the entrenched homophobia of the hospital administration and her own girlfriend, who remained in the closet. Legaspi broke up with Weaver and decided to take a job offer in San Francisco rather than face the homophobia from Romano or the lack of emotional support she received from Weaver. Kerry also ran afoul of Elizabeth Corday in Season 7 when she had Mark Greene evaluated for professional competency after he showed noticeable personality changes after returning from brain tumor surgery. As a result, Kerry was not invited to Elizabeth and Mark's wedding, and while she and Mark seem to mend fences in Season 8, she and Elizabeth remained mostly unfriendly. Elizabeth sympathized and the two doctors were on better terms until Dr. Corday departed the show in Season 11. They were never close friends though. In fact, Elizabeth's departure came when she deliberately performed an illegal, life-saving transplant from an HIV+ donor into an HIV+ individual and did so in large part because she knew it would anger Kerry, leading Kerry to offer a demotion that Elizabeth declines before quitting. == Season eight == Weaver still had not come out to any of her coworkers except Romano and Luka Kovač. She was still quite anxious about anyone discovering her true status even though her sexual orientation was already known to some of her coworkers. Weaver did, however, begin a new relationship with firefighter Lt. Sandy Lopez (played by Lisa Vidal) whom she met in a rainstorm while trying to rescue a pregnant woman from a crashed ambulance. As the two became close, Lopez told Weaver she refused to date a woman who was in the closet. Lopez forcibly outed Weaver with a passionate kiss in front of her coworkers. What followed was a groundbreaking story for American network television as the development of the romance between the two women was treated with the courtship, passion and arguments often reserved for heterosexual couples. Lopez said, "I did you a huge favor," after the kiss in the ER; a few episodes later, Weaver admitted to her that she was right. At the season's end, Weaver accepted herself as a lesbian, and became eager to combat homophobia wherever it appeared. In Season Eight's second episode "The Longer You Stay", Weaver failed to answer repeated pages from Drs. Malucci & Chen when a patient being tended to by them had complications. Weaver was finally hauled in by Dr. Carter when he ran from the ER to get her personally from Doc Magoo's, sustaining a painful fall in the process. But after the patient died and she flatly said to the three "you killed him", she was seen back at Doc Magoo's where she found the pager she left in the bathroom stall. Desperate to cover up her irresponsibility when the hospital was sued by the patient's family, Weaver fired Malucci in the third episode "Blood, Sugar, Sex, Magic" on a charge of misconduct, and by the fourth episode "Never Say Never", she pinned the malpractice on Malucci and Chen. In "Bygones", Weaver was stunned when she realized a lonely young woman murdered her roommate because of unrequited love. She then reconciled with Lopez and the two of them made their first social appearance at an impromptu drinking party after Mark Greene died. Weaver was visibly saddened by Greene's death and broke down after hearing the news of his passing. She later told Sandy she knew his demise was coming but never thought it would affect her as deeply as it did. She realized she had lost a friend and regretted the years they spent in competition for various ER posts and promotions. == Season nine == Weaver and Lopez were still together and had on-going arguments about the future of their relationship. Weaver wanted to have a child, but after suffering a miscarriage felt Lopez should carry the child. Lopez, however, did not want to get pregnant, because it would impact her firefighting career. The couple did not get much screen time that season, and Weaver was given another story thread about the consequences she faced when she failed to report a local politician who tested positive for syphilis; Alderman Johnathan Bright provided funding for County and a plum position for Kerry, but forced her to do an off-the-record treatment of his closeted gay lover that ended with the lover's accidental death from an allergic reaction to penicillin. Later, Dr. Anspaugh became fed up with Dr. Romano's attitude and neglect on the job. Anspaugh offered to lighten Romano's work load by sharing his administrative duties with Kerry Weaver. When Romano refused this, he was replaced with a somewhat surprised Weaver, who offered Romano the Chief of Emergency Medicine position. == Season ten == Kerry settled into her chief administrative position but ran into various challenges that arose day by day from hospital staffing to the ER's hectic renovation. These obstacles included her constant run-ins with Dr. Romano, whom at one point she threatens to fire. When he was killed in a helicopter accident, Kerry, like many others, was not saddened, though she acknowledged that his presence was an important contribution to the hospital. Later in early 2004, Weaver dedicated a Center of LGBT healthcare in the memory of Romano, which secretly served as post-mortem payback, since Romano was not a supporter of gay rights. In her personal life, Lopez changed her mind about having a baby and gave birth to baby Henry in the hospital. Later on in the season, however, Lopez died from injuries she suffered while fighting a fire; Kerry was devastated by the loss. Abby Lockhart and (surprisingly) Elizabeth Corday were particularly supportive towards her following this tragedy. Sandy's parents (who had never approved of her sexual orientation) took custody of Henry and for the remainder of the season, Weaver's storyline focused on a child custody battle between herself and Lopez's parents. The custody situation was eventually settled when the Lopezes and Weaver agreed to her having primary custody, with the Lopezes taking care of Henry while Kerry was at work. == Season eleven == In the 2005 episode titled "Just As I Am," Weaver finally met her biological mother, Helen Kingsley, who turned out to be a conservative Christian, originally from Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and currently living in Terre Haute, Indiana. Kingsley (Frances Fisher) explained to Weaver that, as an unmarried, teenage mother with limited options for raising a child, she gave Weaver up for adoption when she was 14 days old in hopes of her having a better life. She was in town for a Christ Crusade and decided to meet her daughter since Kerry's biological father, Cody Boone, had recently died. When Kingsley learned her daughter was a lesbian, she and Weaver clashed over faith and sexuality, with Weaver insisting that her mother love and accept her. Kingsley said she could love her daughter, but because she could not accept homosexuality as moral, she could not accept her daughter. This episode not only ended the mystery behind Weaver's mother, it also revealed for the first time the reason for Weaver's crutch: Helen inquired about Weaver's limp, and Weaver explained that she suffered from congenital hip dysplasia, a birth defect. Weaver was surprised to learn that Helen knew nothing about it, and her long-held fear that the birth defect was the reason she was given up for adoption was resolved. Aside from this episode, Kerry Weaver almost exclusively played supporting roles and was frequently absent from entire episodes. A negative contribution was that she played a major role in forcing Elizabeth Corday to leave County, though Corday deliberately provoked her into doing so because she could not work with Lucien Dubenko, a new surgeon that Weaver had hired. == Season twelve == Kerry continued to play the background in most of the episodes this season. Even though she stayed very busy with her administrative meetings and tasks, Kerry occasionally took shifts in the ER to keep her emergency skills sharp. In the episode "Out on a Limb" Kerry finally underwent surgery to fix her hip dysplasia. In the episode "No Place To Hide," Kerry walked for the first time on the series without the aid of her forearm crutch. Kerry asked Abby (who was expecting a child with Luka) to be Henry's legal guardian in the event that something happened to her, but her surgery was entirely successful. (Reportedly, this storyline was done, at least in part, because Laura Innes really was starting to develop hip and back problems after ten years of walking with a fake limp for the sake of her role.) Laura Innes described this arc as the character "shedding some of her hardness and moving on in her life."https://www.tvguide.com/News-Views/Interviews- Features/Article/default.aspx?posting=%7B9821887D-1FDE-46AE-B412-D6247FF1C1C9%7D At the end of the season, Kerry faced criticism for hiring Dr. Victor Clemente (John Leguizamo) as an attending physician, who compromised patient care leading to possible liability and lawsuits to the hospital. Despite being responsible for hiring him (and for defending him against Luka's protests when Clemente began causing trouble), Kerry tried to divert the fire towards Dr. Luka Kovač (Goran Visnjic), the Chief of Emergency Medicine, risking his job as a result. == Season thirteen == After saving Luka and Abby in the season premiere, Kerry realized that her constant attempts to protect her career had cost her friendships; she owned up to her responsibility for the Clemente incident in order to save Luka from being fired. She was demoted from Chief of Staff as a result and was back to being an attending physician. Though she clearly struggled to adjust to her new position, especially with the current ER chief Luka Kovač now being her boss, Kerry was pleased to practice medicine full-time again; she also developed a more friendly relationship with Greg Pratt. Working back in the ER, Weaver caught the eye of a TV producer filming a news segment with Dr. Morris and literally steals the show. She's offered a job by the executives for news reporting. Shortly afterwards, Kerry and her producer Courtney (Michelle Hurd) developed a close relationship, one Kerry had not felt since her partner Sandy Lopez died. Courtney told Kerry how her great news broadcasting could open a successful career for her. Kerry decided to leave County General when ER chief Luka Kovač had to enact budget cuts and eliminate an attending position. Kerry accepted a television show offer at WTVJ in Miami, despite Kovač's last-minute efforts to convince her to stay. Kerry Weaver's last regular appearance on ER was in the Season 13 episode called "A House Divided" Episode 280 in which Abby Lockhart expressed to Dr. Weaver that if it had not been for her, she'd never have become a doctor or a mother; she and Kerry shared a tearful farewell moment. As Kerry packed up and walked out of County General's doors for the last time, she only asked Luka to take care of the place for her and advised him not to make her mistake of getting involved in hospital politics, indicating that she forgave him. Luka took her advice and stepped down as Chief towards the end of the season, just before he married Abby. Laura Innes' last appearance as a series regular on the show was on January 11, 2007. Following her departure from the program, NBC received some pressure from GLAAD to introduce more LGBT characters. == Return to the series in the fifteenth season and the end == Weaver appeared in a flashback sequence in the Season 15 episode titled "Heal Thyself", which was set back in 2002, just months before Greene's death. In her scene, she walked into Trauma 1 and expressed how worried she was about Dr. Mark Greene, because of his treatment for brain cancer. She told him to step down and take a break from treating Catherine Banfield's son. After he refused, Dr. Weaver reluctantly left the room. At the end of the Season 15 episode "The Book of Abby," long-serving nurse Haleh Adams showed the departing Abby Lockhart a closet wall where all the past doctors and employees had put their locker name tags. Among them, the tag "Weaver" was seen. During Season 15 episode 19, former co-worker Dr. Doug Ross asked both Sam Taggart and Neela Rasgotra about Weaver (as he found out that they were from County), curious if she was still working there. In the series finale, she flew from Florida to attend the dedication and opening of the Carter Center. She met up with Elizabeth Corday, Susan Lewis, John Carter, and Peter Benton after Carter's opening. The old colleagues went out to eat at an old tavern and catch up with each other. At the end of the night, she then told the group that she couldn't stay any longer, as she needed to catch a flight back to Florida. Kerry gave everyone a hug and left Chicago. == Positions held at County General == == References == Category:ER (TV series) characters Category:Fictional lesbians Category:Adoptee characters in television Category:Television characters introduced in 1995 Category:Fictional female doctors Category:Fictional characters with musculoskeletal system disorders |
This is a list of notable alumni of Tonbridge School. ==Academics and scientists== * Robert McNeill Alexander, Professor of Zoology at the University of Leeds * Sir Derek Harold Richard Barton, chemist and Nobel Laureate * William Thomas Clifford Beckett (1862–1956) brigadier-general in British Army and notable civil engineer * Herbert Edward Douglas Blakiston, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford (1917–1920)Clare Hopkins, Blakiston, Herbert Edward Douglas (1862–1942), in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004 * Roland Bond, locomotive engineer * Henry Burton, physician and chemist * Ian Bradley, writer, academic and theologian * James Burton, Egyptologist * Owen Chadwick, Vice Chancellor of University of Cambridge, Master of Selwyn Cambridge, Regius Professor of Modern History, Dixie Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Chancellor of University of Anglia, President of British Academy, and a Rugby Union international * John George Children, British chemist, mineralogist and zoologist * Homersham Cox (mathematician), mathematician * Sir John Crofton, respiratory physician and expert on treatment of Tuberculosis * David Emms, teacher and rugby union player * Peter Fisher, personal physician to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II * W. D. Hamilton, devisor of Red Queen Theory * Norman Heatley, the man who, having been on the team of Oxford scientists which discovered penicillin, turned it into a usable medicine * Norman Gerald Horner, physician and medical journalist * R. J. B. Knight, naval historian * Sir Arthur Marshall, aviation engineer * Edward Nicholson, author and head of the Bodleian library * Walter Fraser Oakeshott, Vice Chancellor of the University of Oxford * Jack Ogden, archaeologist and historian focusing on the development of jewellery materials and techniques * Carl Pantin, , professor of Zoology, Cambridge University * Colin Patterson, palaeontologist and reformer of the fossil record * Sir David Randall Pye, mechanical engineer and Provost of University College London * W. H. R. Rivers, Cambridge neurologist, psychologist, anthropologist and World War One psychiatrist * Sir Anthony Seldon, historian, political commentator and educationalist (current Master of Wellington College) * Claud Buchanan Ticehurst, ornithologist * Ernest Basil Verney, pharmacologist and Fellow of the Royal Society * Thomas Dewar Weldon philosopher * Maurice Frank Wiles, Regius Professor Emeritus of Divinity at Oxford and one of the leading theologians of the Church of England * E. T. C. Werner, diplomat and China scholar ==Actors, directors, producers & screenwriters== * Maurice Denham (1909–2002), prolific character actor, known for voicing all the animal characters in the animated feature Animal Farm and also for the part of Maigret in the 1970s radio production of that name * Tristan Gemmill (born 1967), actor, known for playing Adam Trueman in the BBC medical drama Casualty * Will Hislop, actor and comedian * Ronald Howard (1918–1996) actor, son of Leslie Howard * John Howlett (born 1942), screenwriter & film director, co- wrote the feature film If.... with fellow Tonbridge schoolmate David Sherwin * Adrian Rawlins (born 1958), actor, known for playing James Potter in the Harry Potter film series * Paul Rutman, producer and writer, including TV series Indian Summers and eight episodes of Vera * Dan Stevens (born 1982), actor, known for playing Matthew Crawley in the ITV period drama Downton Abbey * David Sherwin (born 1942), screenwriter, co-wrote the feature film If.... with fellow Tonbridge schoolmate John Howlett * David Tomlinson (1917–2000), actor, known for playing George Banks in Mary Poppins * Benjamin Whitrow (born 1937), actor, known for playing Mr. Bennett in the 1995 mini-series Pride and Prejudice ==Armed forces== * Lieutenant General Sir Richard Anderson * Clifford Thomason Beckett, major-general in British Army * Colonel Hamish de Bretton-Gordon, chemical weapons expert * Rear Admiral David Cooke, submarine and defence procurement officer * William Sholto Douglas, 1st Baron Douglas of Kirtleside, Commander-in-Chief of Fighter Command after the Battle of Britain * Eric Stuart Dougall, recipient of the Victoria Cross, First World War * Lieutenant General Sir Arthur Dowler * Air Chief Marshal Sir William Elliot * John Everard Gurdon, WW1 flying ace with 28 kills * Rear Admiral Frederick Hervey, 4th Marquess of Bristol, nobleman, naval officer and Conservative politician * John Holman, brigadier in British Army * Squadron Leader Hilary Hood, Battle of Britain fighter pilot * Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside, Chief of the Imperial General Staff * Edmund Ironside, 2nd Baron Ironside * Major-General Sir Millis Jefferis, developer of unusual weapons during WW2 * Harold Stephen Langhorne (1877–1878), brigadier-general in the British Army in the First World War * James Archibald Dunboyne Langhorne (1893–1896), brigadier in the British Army * Gyles Longley, awarded the Military Cross for actions in Italy * Charles Mordaunt, 3rd Earl of Peterborough, a brilliant soldier and notorious eccentric who captured Barcelona in the war of Spanish Succession * Lieutenant-Commander Harold Newgass, recipient of the George Cross * Wing Commander Eric James Brindley Nicolson, Battle of Britain fighter pilot and recipient of the Victoria Cross * Major Sandy Smith (British Army officer), awarded the Military Cross for action at Pegasus Bridge * Admiral Sir William Sidney Smith, the British admiral of whom Napoleon Bonaparte said, "That man made me miss my destiny" * Trevor Sidney Wade Battle of Britain fighter pilot and ace * Air Chief Marshal Sir Andrew 'Sandy' Wilson, Former Air Member for Personnel and last C-in-C RAF Germany * Robert Charles Zaehner, British academic, wartime SOE agent and post war MI6 agent ==Business== * Sir John Bond, former chairman of HSBC and current chairman of Vodafone * Roy Brown, former chairman of GKN * Gerald Corbett, businessman * Sir Brian Garton Jenkins, chairman of Woolwich plc * Sir David Kirch, businessman * Bevil Mabey, chairman of Mabey Group * Michael Marriott, head of the British stock exchange * Alex Proud (born 1969), founder and CEO of The Proud Group * Sir Tim Waterstone (born 1939), founder of Waterstones bookshops ==Church leaders== * William Alexander (bishop) (1824–1911) poet, theologian and Anglican Primate of All Ireland * George Austen, clergyman and father of Jane Austen * Harry Blackburne, Dean of Bristol * Gerald Brooks, Anglican Bishop * Philip Stanhope Dodd, Anglican clergyman * Timothy Dudley-Smith, Bishop and hymn writer * Charles Escreet, Archdeacon of Lewisham * Edward Lewis Evans, Bishop of Barbados * Andrew Graham, Bishop of Newcastle * Sidney Faithorn Green, Ritualist clergyman * John Halliburton, theologian * Joseph Charles Hoare, an eminent Anglican priest in Hong Kong * Bishop Frederick Ridgeway * Arthur Tooth, Anglo-Catholic clergyman prosecuted for using ritualist liturgical practices * Hugo Ferdinand de Waal, Principal of Ridley Hall, Cambridge and Bishop of Thetford * Henry Russell Wakefield was an Anglican Bishop and author * Geoffrey Warde, Anglican Bishop * Kenneth Warner, Bishop of Edinburgh * Cecil Wilson, Bishop of Melanesia ==Politicians== * Austen Albu, Labour MP * Geoffrey Bing, Labour MP * John Bowis, former Conservative MP and MEP, a Health Minister 1993-96 and a Transport Minister 1996-97 * Iain Coleman, Labour MP * Charles Conybeare, radical Liberal politician * Harold Cox, Liberal MP * Sampson Gideon, later Eardley, 1st Baron Eardley, Jewish- born 18th century Tory MP, created a Baronet in 1759 while a schoolboy * John Ganzoni, 1st Baron Belstead, Conservative MP * Ben Gummer, Conservative MP for Ipswich * Sir Reginald Hanson, 1st Baronet, Kt, JP, DL, FSA was Lord Mayor of London and a British Conservative Party politician. * Sir Anthony Hart, Lord Chancellor of Ireland 1827-1830 * Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke, Lord Privy Seal * Edward Brodie Hoare, British Conservative politician * Sir Norman Hulbert, RAF officer and Conservative politician * Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan, (politician), signatory to the Indian Constitution * Lord Mayhew of Twysden, Queen's Counsel, barrister and Conservative politician * Ralph Neville, Liberal Unionist politician * Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier (1859–1943), , colonial civil servant and Cabinet Minister * Thomas Pelham, 1st Baron Pelham, aristocrat, Whig Party politician, father of two Prime Ministers * Sir Julian Ridsdale, Conservative politician and intelligence officer * George Smythe, 7th Viscount Strangford, Conservative politician * Sir Peter Tapsell, Conservative politician, MP for Louth & Horncastle * Charles Wardle, Conservative politician ==Diplomats and civil servants== * Sir Sherard Cowper- Coles, diplomat * Sir Henry Mortimer Durand diplomat, former Ambassador to the United States *Sir Walter Egerton, colonial governor‘EGERTON, Sir Walter’, in Who Was Who (London: A. & C. Black, 1920–2014); online edition by Oxford University Press, April 2014, accessed 6 May 2014 (subscription site) * Sir Basil Engholm, civil servant * Dominic Jermey, British Ambassador to Afghanistan * Sir John Leahy, British Ambassador to South Africa * Sir William Marwood, civil servant * Henry Thoby Prinsep, English official of the Indian civil service * Robert Rogers, Baron Lisvane, Clerk of the House of Commons *Sir Leslie Rowan, civil servant"Rowan, Sir (Thomas) Leslie (1908–1972), civil servant and industrialist", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: OUP, 2004) * Sir David Trench, Governor of Hong Kong (1964–1971) * David Williamson, Baron Williamson of Horton, Secretary General of the European Commission * Charles Whitworth, 1st Earl Whitworth, British Ambassador to Paris during the treaty of Amiens ==Entertainers and musicians== * Robert Ashfield Organist of Southwell Minster and Rochester Cathedral * Bill Bruford, Drummer for Yes, King Crimson and others (musician) * Justin Chancellor, bassist, Tool * Tom Chaplin, Keane musician * Julian Clifford, Conductor * Kit Hesketh-Harvey, musician * Richard Hughes, Keane musician * Joseph McManners left in 2011, Singer and actor * Tim Rice-Oxley, Keane musician * King Palmer, composer * Dominic Scott, musician, founding member of the band Keane * Andy Zaltzman, stand-up comedian ==Journalists and writers== * Andy Bell, journalist * Mark Church, sports commentator * Harry Cole, journalist * Homersham Cox, author and county judge * Rupert Croft-Cooke, author * Albany Fonblanque, journalist * E. M. Forster, novelist * Frederick Forsyth, novelist * Sidney Keyes, poet * Nicholas Ostler, linguist * Matthew Parker, author * Christopher Reid, poet * Vikram Seth, novelist * Jonathan Street, novelist * Arthur Watkyn, author and Secretary of the British Board of Film Censors"WATKINS, Arthur Thomas Levi, BA, secretary British Board of Film Censors; b. 1907; ed. Tonbridge and Christ Church, Oxford" in Kinematograph Year Book (Odhams Press, 1954), p. 101 * Ken Wiwa, journalist and author. Son of Nigerian campaigner, Ken Saro-Wiwa. * William Woodfall, (at the school in 1760), pioneer of the (then illegal) practice of reporting Parliamentary debates ==Miscellaneous== * William Adams, lawyer * Khalid bin Sultan Al Qasimi, fashion designer * Aleister Crowley, occultist, mystic, sexual revolutionary * Ranulph Bacon, senior police officer * Sir Herbert Baker, architect * Murray Beauclerk, 14th Duke of St Albans * Martin Beddoe, judge * Sir Rupert de la Bère, 1st Baronet * Decimus Burton, 19th century architect * Hugh Cecil, 1920s society photographer * Gerald Cock, British broadcasting executive * Julius Cowdrey, musician, reality television personality * Peter Fincham, Director of TV at ITV, former Controller of BBC One * Harold Gilman, painter * Adrian Greenwood, historian and art dealer * Sir Robert Heath, Attorney-General under King Charles I * Chris Hollins - BBC Breakfast sports presenter, son of footballer John Hollins * William Hughes-Hughes, stamp- collector * George Percy Jacomb-Hood, artist * Vikram Jayanti, documentary film maker * Sir Guy Newey, Lord Justice of Appeal. * Sir John Nott-Bower, Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis * Jasper Rootham, civil servant, soldier, central banker, merchant banker, writer and poet * Tim Severin, explorer * Colin Smith, judge * George Smythe, 7th Viscount Strangford * Paul Tanqueray - society photographer * Francis Thynne, herald (his father was Chaucer's editor, and Master of the Household for Henry VIII) * David Trubridge, furniture designer * Anthony Whishaw, Royal Academician * Dr. Edward Whitehead Reid, surgeon and aviator * Roger Yates, Organ builder * Keith Young, hospital and school sanatoria architect ==Sportsmen== * John Abercrombie, cricketer * David Aers, cricketer * William Albertini (1913–1994), English cricketer * Mark Allbrook, cricketer and Head at Bloxham School * Jonathan Arscott, cricketer and schoolmaster * Randolph Aston, rugby union international who represented England * Matthew Banes, cricketer * Jack Barley, cricketer * James Body, rugby union international who represented England * Thomas Bourdillon, cricketer * Frederick Capron, cricketer * William Cave, England rugby union player * Sir Colin Cowdrey, Baron Cowdrey of Tonbridge (1932–2000), Kent CCC and England cricketer and cricket administrator * C. S. Cowdrey (born 1957), Kent Glamorgan and England cricketer and broadcaster * Fabian Cowdrey, Kent cricketer * G. R. Cowdrey (born 1964), Kent cricketer * Tom Crawford, cricketer * Zak Crawley, Kent and England cricketer * John Dale, cricketer * Charles Daniel-Tyssen, cricketer * Jack Davies, cricketer who bowled Sir Donald Bradman out for a duck * David Day, cricketer * John Dew, cricketer * Ben Earl, Saracens and England Rugby Union player * Tom Elliott, cricketer * Charles Ellison, cricketer * Richard Ellison (born 1959), Kent CCC and England cricketer * Edward Estridge, cricketer * Thomas Francis, cricketer * Peter Graham, cricketer * Alexander Grimes, cricketer * Johnny Hammond, rugby player * Lionel Hedges, cricketer * Anthony Henniker-Gotley, England rugby union captain * Alexander Hore, cricketer * Mark Hickson, cricketer * John Holman, first-class cricketer * Maurice Holmes, cricketer * C. W. H. Howard (born 1904), Middlesex CCC cricketer * Frederick Hutchings, county cricketer * Kenneth Hutchings, England cricketer and Wisden cricketer of the year * William Hutchings, county cricketer * Edward Hyde, Cambridge sportsman * Nick Kemp, county cricketer * Francis Luscombe (1849–1926), rugby union international who represented England and was on the first Rugby Football Union committee * David Marques, England and British Lions rugby player and member of 1964 America's Cup challenger team aboard the yacht Sovereign. * James Mason (1876–1938), cricketer * Tom May, rugby union player, Newcastle Falcons and England * Richard O'Grady, cricketer * Marcus O'Riordan, cricketer * Frank Orr, cricketer * Jamie Parker, cricketer * Toby Pettman, cricketer * Charles Pillman , England Rugby player * Roger Prideaux, cricketer * James Pyemont, cricketer * Ben Ransom, Rugby union player for Saracens * Henry Reade, cricketer * Henry Richardson, cricketer * Septimus Ridsdale, cricketer * James Rowe, cricketer * Ronald Rutter, cricketer * George Arbuthnot Scott, cricketer * Walter Slade, (1854–1919), former world amateur record holder for the mile * Noel Sherwell, cricketer * James Short (rugby union), Rugby union player for Saracens. * Leonard Shuter, cricketer * Colin Smith, cricketer * E. T. Smith (born 1977), Middlesex CCC, Kent and England cricketer * John Thompson, cricketer * David Toft, cricketer * John Vigurs, Olympic rower * John Vernon (1922–1994), first-class cricketer and Royal Navy sailor * Luke Wallace, Rugby player for Harlequins RFC * Chris Walsh, cricketer * Alfred Wilkins, cricketer ==References== Category:Lists of people by English school affiliation Old Tonbr |
The Acura TL is an executive car that was manufactured by Acura, the luxury division of Honda. It was introduced in 1995 to replace the Acura Vigor and was badged for the Japanese-market from 1996 to 2000 as the Honda Inspire and from 1996 to 2004 as the Honda Saber. The TL was Acura's best-selling model until it was outsold by the MDX in 2007. In 2005, it ranked as the second best-selling luxury sedan in the United States behind the BMW 3 Series, but sales decreased after the 2008 model year. Four generations of the Acura TL were produced, with the final fourth generation TL premiering in 2008 as a 2009 model and ending production in 2014, when it was replaced together with the TSX by the TLX. ==First generation (UA1–UA3; 1996–1998)== The TL "Touring Luxury" debuted as 1996 model, first with the 1996 2.5 TL available with the 2.5 L 176 hp (131 kW) SOHC 20-valve 5-cylinder engine from the Vigor. The 3.2 TL used the 3.2 L 200 hp (149 kW) SOHC 24v V6 from the second generation Acura Legend. The debut of the TL signaled Acura's shift from traditional vehicle names to alphanumeric designations. By replacing recognizable names such as Vigor and Legend with a two-letter designation, the luxury maker hoped to focus consumer attention on the Acura name. The TL was the first Acura model to adopt the new naming scheme. The 2.5 TL was positioned as the sporty model and the 3.2 focused more upon a luxurious ride. There were minimal styling differences between the two, but the 3.2 TL had larger tires despite the 2.5 TL's more sporty marketing. Moreover, the added power in the 3.2 TL gave it better acceleration. Both engines were mounted in a front-rear, or longitudinal position. This contrasted with the more typical transverse engine mount style, and was intended to provide better weight distribution and reduce nose dive. The engine mount design resulted in an elongated hood for the first generation TL, a shorter front overhang and longer wheelbase, fitting for a near-luxury car. The inline-5 engine in the 2.5 TL competed with similar 5-cylinder engines offered in Audi and Volvo models. The first 1996 Acura TL was manufactured at Sayama, Japan on March 28, 1995. Sales of the 2.5 TL began in spring 1995, but the 3.2 TL was delayed until fall because of a U.S.-Japan trade dispute. The U.S. government had threatened to impose 100% tariffs on higher-priced Japanese cars in response a growing U.S.-Japan trade deficit. Ultimately a deal was reached which avoided the tariffs. The first generation Acura TL had standard features including dual airbags, antilock brakes, automatic climate control, a cassette/CD player sound system, and power windows and locks. Leather was standard on the more upscale 3.2 TL, while the 2.5 TL featured a firmer suspension setup. Like its predecessor, the Vigor, this generation TL was a 4-door pillared hardtop, with frameless windows. ===1997=== In 1997, Acura added a standard power moonroof to all TL models. Additionally, all Acura TLs received a variable-speed intermittent wiper setting. The 3.2 TL had 205/65/15 tires and a V6 motor. The sport-targeted, 5-cylinder 2.5 TL was further fitted with new alloy wheels. ===1998=== For 1998, Acura made several previously optional features standard on the 2.5 TL. 1998 was the last year of TL production in Japan, as the model was being redesigned for production in the United States. ==Second generation (UA4–UA5; 1999–2003)== In 1998, Honda revealed the TL-X concept car, showing a preview of the second-generation TL which would debut in fall that year. The second- generation TL (now called 3.2 TL) was released in 1998 and was now derived off the US-market Honda Accord platform. It was available with a newly designed 3.2 L 225 hp (168 kW) SOHC VTEC J32 V6 mated to a four-speed electronic automatic transmission with SportShift. thumb|left|Acura TL The second- generation 3.2 TL (the 2.5 was dropped) was built in Marysville, Ohio, alongside the Honda Accord, at Marysville Auto Plant. These cars were imported into Japan and sold as Honda Inspire in the Honda Clio dealer network, and as Honda Saber in the Honda Verno dealer network. The main difference between the two cars were the front grille; the Inspire and Saber were also available with a 2.5 L Honda J-series V6 exclusive to the Japanese market. The very first 1999 Acura TL (2G) was assembled on August 4, 1998. The only option on the sedan was a CD-based navigation system. The 1999 TL's navigation system stored the maps in zones; there were 5 different zones for the U.S. Starting with this generation, cabin air filters (also known as pollen filters) were installed as standard equipment and are located behind the glove compartment. ===2000=== In the second year of production, the Acura TL was given a few more features, including a 5-speed automatic transmission with SportShift. The added gear allowed for slightly better fuel economy and acceleration when compared to the previous 4-speed automatic transmission with SportShift. With this model, if the driver forgets the 1-2 shift the computer will take over when in sport mode and do the 1-2 up and down shifts, unlike the 4-speed 1999 model. In many vehicles, the 5-speed automatic transmission was very unreliable: as the third clutch pack wore, particles blocked off oil passages and prevented the transmission from shifting or holding gears normally. The transmission would slip, fail to shift, or suddenly downshift and make the car come to a screeching halt, even at freeway speeds. This problem was highlighted in the Los Angeles Times in September 2002. Consumer Reports took note and gave the TL and CL the black spot, the worst rating for transmission reliability. In response to the recurring problem, the manufacturer extended the warranty covering the transmission to 7 years or on U.S.A. models. A class-action lawsuit was settled to extend the transmission warranty for U.S.A. owners or entities to 7.75 years for all models made from 1998 to 2002 and some 2003 models by VIN; however, Canadian owners warranties were not extended. Transmissions replaced prior to March 2005 usually fail again. Transmissions replaced from March 2005 and later include a redesigned third gear clutch pack reported to fix the problem. Other notable changes include the addition of side impact airbags for the front passengers and a change of format for the navigation system. The 2000 TL switched from a CD database to a DVD-based navigation system. The entire continental United States became accessible with the navigation system; it was possible to drive from one coast to the other with the new navigation system. ===2001=== For the 2001 model year, a redesigned coupe version of the TL was introduced, the 3.2CL. While it was mechanically identical to the TL, its sales never came close to that of its sibling model, and as a result, it was discontinued in May 2003. The 2001 model received a redesigned cupholder insert. The automatic transmissions in these cars were also defective. In response to the recurring problem, the manufacturer extended the warranty covering the transmission to or 7.75 years for all 1999 - 2002 and 2003 partial per VIN. Acura dealers replace the transmissions under warranty. Transmissions replaced prior to March 2005 usually fail again. Transmissions replaced in March 2005 and later include a redesigned third gear clutch pack reported to fix the problem. Several models in the 2002–2003 years were the subject of a safety recall in July 2009 for injuries reported by faulty driver's side airbag inflators. In February 2010, another recall was issued for the same problem. ===2002=== thumb|left|2002-2003 refreshed Acura 3.2 TL thumb|left|Acura 3.2 TL A-Spec In March 2001 for the 2002 model year, the TL got a minor makeover, with a refreshed front fascia, redesigned taillights, a 6 CD in-dash changer as well as a few other features. A Type-S model was also added, adding 35 hp (26 kW) for a total of at 6100 rpm and of torque at 3500-5500 rpm. It also featured wheels, firmer seats and suspension. A large percentage of these vehicles exhibited problems with the automatic transmission necessitating replacement. In response to the recurring problem, the manufacturer extended the warranty covering the transmission to or 7.75 years for all 1999 - 2002 models and 2003 partial per VIN. Acura dealers replace the transmissions under warranty. Transmissions replaced prior to March 2005 usually fail again. Transmissions replaced March 2005 and later include a redesigned third gear clutch pack reported to fix the problem. ===2003=== Only minor changes occurred in that year in order to make way for a redesign. But one odd and notable addition to only the 2003 model year was the addition of General Motors OnStar subscription cellular telephone and navigation assistance service to the DVD GPS navigation system option. These were separate independent systems, each with their own GPS receivers.https://owners.acura.com/vehicles/information/2003/TL/specs#mid%5EUA5663JTW 2003 Acura TL options The OnStar system was based on a dated Motorola analog cellular technology operating over 1G AMPS. Because of this and the failure of Acura to offer a digital upgrade, the TL OnStar system became defunct in 2009 when US carriers were allowed to turn off analog AMPS cell tower equipment.https://web.archive.org/web/20071227084522/http://www.alltel.com/wps/wcm/connect/Personal/home/p/customerservice/annoucements/announcements_analog_sunset_p.html/ AMPS sunset 2008 == Third generation (UA6–UA7; 2004–2008) == === 2004 === thumb|left|2004–2006 Acura TL (USA) In October 2003, the third generation Acura TL (the 3.2 moniker was dropped) was released for sale in North America. Developed mainly in the United States by a team led by Erik Berkman, with bodywork by American Honda designer Jon Ikeda, the new TL was built in Marysville, Ohio, and was derived from the seventh generation US-market Honda Accord. The car itself is praised for its sharp design, and is said to have aged well. Starting with this generation, this model was not sold in Japan, with the Honda Inspire holding the position of entry level luxury sedan below the Honda Legend in Japan. The Inspire of this era was instead sold as the seventh generation North American spec Honda Accord. It is powered by a 270 hp (201 kW); later revised to , based on the new SAE measurement standard for horsepower and of torque, 3.2 L 24 valve SOHC VTEC V6 engine mated to either a "SportShift" manually controllable 5-speed automatic with or 6-speed manual. Manual transmission models featured Brembo 4-Piston front brake calipers, a Torsen-type limited slip differential, stiffer anti-roll bars front and rear and performance tires at no additional cost. As of March 2004, Honda offers to the public a factory-sanctioned "tuner package" version of the TL called the TL A-SPEC. This version features a suspension tuned by Makoto Tamamura, an indication of the TL A-SPEC's aggressive engineering. In addition, an underbody kit, spoiler, limited edition A-SPEC steering wheel, "A-SPEC" badge on the back, and wheels are standard issue on the A-SPEC package. When installed at purchase, the car's 4 year/ warranty applies to the package as well. The third generation TL was also the first car in the American market to include a 6-disc DVD-Audio system, output through an 8-speaker 225-watt system, engineered by Panasonic and tuned by Grammy Award-winning sound engineer Elliot Scheiner. The system also plays back regular audio CDs as well as DTS audio discs, CD-Audio, CD-Rs and CD-RWs but not MP3s. In the United States, all models were also equipped with a Bluetooth HandsFree Link (HFL) system, integrated with the audio system, to allow for hands-free usage of one's cell phone (provided the phone also supports Bluetooth and is compatible with the HFL's hands-free profile). In Canada, the HFL feature was not available on the base model (standard with A-Spec, Technology, and Navigation packages), though the 2005 model year saw HFL becoming standard in all Canadian models. With the built-in XM Radio tuner, owners can elect to pay a monthly subscription after the complimentary 3 months subscription expires from Acura for XM radio, which provides over 100 digital channels via satellite. With the optional Alpine-designed navigation system, the third generation TL can also accept voice commands like "find nearest police station" or "go home." The DVD navigation system features an touchscreen LCD, which allows for easy viewing of the road ahead. DVDs with new road information for the navigation system were made annually until 2014. The JDM Honda Inspire debuted around four and a half months earlier (on June 11, 2003) and marked the branching out of the TL line from the Inspire. The Inspire is basically a seventh-generation US-market Honda Accord V6 with minor trim changes, and the addition of Variable Cylinder Management, which shuts off half of the engine when not needed to boost fuel economy. The Saber was discontinued and the new Inspire is being sold at Clio, Primo, and Verno dealerships. The TL became Acura's best-selling luxury sedan in 2004 with more than 79,000 sold that year. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) found the Acura TL had the second lowest fatality rates among midsize luxury cars. ===2005=== The 2005 TL received a passenger airbag cut-off switch and indicator and extra stitching on the front seats. There were several minor changes made (such as changes in seat belt anchor mounts) which are not published. ===2006=== thumb|right|2006 TL A-SPEC The 2006 TL received the Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS) and a new engine management system to help reduce torque steer. The new horsepower rating of is due to a change in testing procedures, with the engine remaining the same technically since 2004. ===2007=== The 2007 Acura TL features a slightly revised exterior as well as a revised interior with a new steering wheel, redesigned gauges, and footwell lighting, in addition to new interior and exterior colors. The 2007 TL (non Type-S) received suspension changes to improve ride comfort. Also new for the 2007 model year were LED turn signal repeaters on the side mirrors and fog lamps in the bumper. Prior to 2007, the fog lamps were integrated into the headlight housing; Daytime Running Lights now occupy that space (Canadian models have had DRLs there rather than fog lamps since 2004). TL with navigation models sport a new rear view camera with image displayed on the navigation screen as well as XM NavTraffic. In addition to the new standard auxiliary audio jack, the sound system is now MP3/WMA compatible and offers Dolby Pro Logic II decoding and speed-sensitive volume compensation. The manual transmission option had been dropped from the base TL due largely to extremely low sales (roughly 1 out of 40 TLs sold across America were equipped with a manual gearbox). The most notable revision is the return of the Type-S edition of the TL. The Acura TL Type-S received the Acura RL's 3.5-liter V6 tuned to with either a 5-speed automatic with F1 style paddle shifters or a 6-speed manual transmission. The manual transmission includes a limited slip differential. Exterior differences include quad exhaust pipes, restyled rear lamps and front fascia, lip spoiler, wider side sills, Brembo brakes, dark silver 10-spoke wheels, a "black chrome" grille rather than the standard glossy grille, and exclusive Type-S badging, plus an exclusive new color option, Kinetic Blue Pearl. The interior has Type-S badging on the steering wheel and headrests, more highly bolstered front seats, two-tone seats (only with the Ebony/Silver interior), metal racing pedals, carbon fiber trim, and red interior lighting (as opposed to blue in the base TL). Touch screen navigation is standard and the suspension has been firmed up. The only options are the aforementioned transmission and high performance summer tires (Bridgestone Potenzas) rather than the standard all-season tires (Michelin Pilot MXM4s). Acura also introduced a new 5-speed automatic transmission for the 2007 and 2008 model year TLs. Changes include downshift "rev matching", slightly altered gear ratios, and a different bellhousing. The transmission is identical between the base model and Type-S. The block on the base model's 3.2-liter engine was changed to accommodate for the new bellhousing. File:07-08 Acura TL.jpg|2007-2008 Acura TL (USA) File:07-Acura-TL-S.jpg|2007 Acura TL Type-S File:Interior Acura TL 2008.JPG|2008 Acura TL interior gauges ===2008=== The 2008 TL features an improved new immobilizer system, and a separate Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS) warning lamp. The navigation system has been updated to work in Hawaii, and the AcuraLink satellite capability has been expanded to incorporate 76 markets (up from 38 markets for the 2007 model). ===Performance=== *Zero to : (3.5L V6) 5.7sec, (3.2L V6 MT) 5.9sec & (3.2L V6 AT) 6 sec *Zero to : 10.9 sec *Zero to : 19.6 sec *Standing -mile (~400 m): 14.1 sec @ *Top speed (governor limited): *Braking, 70–0 mph: *Roadholding, -dia skidpad: 0.93 g ===Awards=== * The 2006 Acura TL won ConsumerSearch's "Sports sedan with luxury touches" in Luxury Cars Reviews in September 2006. * The 2006 Acura TL won ConsumerSearch's "Best blend of sport and luxury" in its list of Sports Sedan Reviews in June 2006.. == Fourth generation (UA8–UA9; 2009–2014) == thumb|left|2009–2011 Acura TL (USA) The first fourth-generation Acura TL rolled off the assembly line on September 23, 2008. Debuted for the 2009 model year, the Acura TL featured a more aggressive interpretation of Acura's latest styling vocabulary, known as "Keen Edge Dynamic." Featured prominently on the front is Acura's controversial "Power Plenum" upper grille. The size of the car has increased slightly, and as a consequence the wheelbase has been stretched to . The car is also longer overall, wider and taller. Rear legroom improves by and rear shoulder room increases by . Structural rigidity was increased due to the use of high- strength steel in 47.6 percent of the chassis. The base TL is front-wheel drive and is powered by a 3.5-liter V6 that makes and of torque, an increase of and over the previous 3.2-liter V6. The new TL SH-AWD ("Super-Handling All- Wheel Drive") replaces the previous TL Type-S and is powered by a 3.7-liter V6 that produces and of torque, an increase of (Acura originally advertised the car as having , but revised that claim without any explanation after a few months on the market) and over the 3.5-liter V6 of the Type-S. The 3.7L engine also uses VTEC variable-lift timing on both the intake and exhaust valves (the base TL and previous models only applied VTEC to the intake valves). SH-AWD ("Super Handling" All Wheel Drive) is a multi-vectoring all wheel drive system designed more for performance than for simply providing traction in adverse circumstances. While cruising, the system sends 90% of the power to the front wheels and 10% to the rear wheels. Acceleration puts more torque on the rear wheels. The car can put up to 70% of the total available power to the rear wheels to assist with rapid acceleration, and of that 70%, 100% can be pushed to either the left or right wheel in order to assist the vehicle through a corner. The brakes on the new TL have been increased in size, from the older front disc and rear disc to the now Ridgeline-sized front discs and rear disc, still incorporating an internal rear drum e-brake while maintaining hydraulic discs for the foot applied brakes. The bolt pattern on the car is no longer a 5 x but a 5 x for this generation. The SH-AWD model also includes some interior refinements over the base model and is tuned for slightly firmer suspension and steering feedback. It is visually distinguishable from the base model on the exterior by its SH-AWD badge on the trunk, quad exhaust pipes (as opposed to dual exhaust on the base model) and larger air ducts in the front bumper to cool the larger brakes (the base model's turn signal indicators in the bumper extend all the way to the center.) The TL rides on 245/50R17 tires, while the TL SH-AWD has 245/45R18 tires with optional 245/40ZR19 summer performance tires. Both models use electric power steering rather than hydraulic, and a revised five-speed automatic transmission (2012+ models received the 6-speed automatic) featuring shift paddles on the steering wheel is standard equipment for both models. For the 2010 model year, Acura announced that a 6-speed close-ratio manual transmission would be available for the SH-AWD model. For this manual transmission model, Acura designed a new self-adjusting dual-mass clutch system for increased holding power and improved modulation compared to the previous generation. Additional differences from the automatic transmission SH-AWD model include more aggressively tuned front dampers and springs, stiffer engine and transmission mounts, unique Electric Power Steering (EPS) tuning, hill start assist, and improved front/rear weight distribution. The fourth generation Acura TL adds further electronic convenience items, now including a central multifunction display, an eight-speaker 276-watt audio system with a six-disc CD changer, XM Satellite Radio, USB port connectivity (including full iPod control support), and Bluetooth Audio (for streaming music from a cell phone). Both models offer an optional Technology Package, which includes premium Milano leather seats; Keyless Access ( unlock the doors, and start the engine without ever having to use your key, as long as it's in your pocket or purse, or within range of the vehicle.), a joystick-based (no longer touchscreen) navigation system updated with a new full VGA display and the ability to provide weather information and traffic-based rerouting, and the Acura/ELS audio system with 10 speakers, 440 watts of power, DTS CD compatibility for 5.1 surround sound, DVD-A, as well as an internal hard drive with 13 GB of storage dedicated for audio. With the ELS audio system, audio CDs are automatically ripped to the hard drive upon insertion for future playback. The navigation system also stores its map data on the hard drive (as opposed to the previous model's DVD-based storage), producing faster boot times. ===Technology Package=== ====Audio==== =====Hard Drive===== *13GB *Only the contents of an Audio CD may be ripped to the HDD. Copying to the HDD from other recordable media or storage devices is not supported. *Album, Title and Artist information is provided by an updatable Gracenote file. =====USB===== *FAT32 Format Supported *Limited to 700 folders existing at the root of the storage device. Folder names appear as album names. Sub-folder navigation is not supported. *Limited to 15,000 files ===2012=== thumb|left|2012–2014 Acura TL (US; facelift) thumb|right|Acura TL (China; facelift) For the 2012 model, Honda offered new front and rear styling on the Acura TL. Acura updated the controversial "beak" insert in the front grille, replacing it with a smaller insert that flows better with the headlights and creates a sleeker profile. Aside from cosmetic changes, the 2012 TL was equipped with Honda's 6-speed automatic transmission to improve performance and efficiency. This transmission features downshift rev-matching with throttle blip and the ability to downshift two gears at a time. Additional new features include ventilated seats, new 60GB HDD, blind-spot information system, and upgraded wheels. The 2012 TL retains both the base 3.5L and the SH-AWD models' 3.7L engines but now gets two mpg more in the city () and three mpg more on the highway (), thanks to less engine friction and the 6-speed automatic transmission. The 6-speed manual transmission will continue to be offered. The 2012 model is also 3dB quieter on the highway. ===2013 Acura TL Special Edition=== It is a version of front-wheel-drive 2013 Acura TL with distinctive 10-spoke 18-inch alloy wheels, a color-matched deck lid spoiler, trunk-mounted Special Edition badging, Keyless Access System with Keyless Access Remote, pushbutton start, choice of 4 body colors (Bellanova White Pearl, Crystal Black Pearl, Graphite Luster Metallic and Silver Moon Metallic) matched with an Ebony interior leather upholstery with contrast stitching, Sequential SportShift 6-speed automatic transmission with paddle shifter system, 10-way adjustable power driver's seat, an 8-way adjustable power front passenger's seat, power moonroof, 276-watt audio system with eight speakers, dual-zone dual-mode automatic climate control system with automatic humidity control. The vehicle was produced using domestically and globally sourced parts at Honda of America Mfg., Inc., in Marysville, Ohio. ===Safety=== The Acura TL uses Honda's Advanced Compatibility Engineering front end. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) found the 2009-11 front-wheel drive TL models (SH-AWD models not included in study) to have an overall driver death of five deaths per million registered years. IIHS testing: Moderate overlap frontal offset Good Small overlap frontal offset Good* Side impact Good Roof strength (2012–14) Good :* vehicle structure rated "Acceptable" ===Production=== Honda announced it was replacing the TL with a new Acura TLX sedan. Production of the TL ceased towards the end of 2014, with the replacement model 2015 TLX going on sale in the fall of that same year.2015 Acura TLX Prototype to Debut at the 2014 North American International Auto Show ==Sales figures== Calendar year US sales 1995 16,539 1996 24,700 1997 23,151 1998 31,883 1999 56,566 2000 67,033 2001 69,484 2002 60,764 2003 56,770 2004 77,895 2005 78,218 2006 71,348 2007 58,545 2008 46,766 2009 33,620 2010 34,049 2011 31,237 2012 33,572 2013 24,318 2014 10,616 2015 88 ==References== * 2004 Acura TL A-spec "2004 Acura TL A-SPEC: No assembly required to enjoy this factory-spec tuner package", an article by John Kiewicz on page 136 of the March 2004 issue of Motor Trend * "Honda's Unexpected Gear Shift", an article by John O'Dell in the September 11, 2002 edition of the Los Angeles Times ==External links== * Acura USA - Official Site * Acura TL - Official US Site TL Category:Cars introduced in 1995 Category:2000s cars Category:2010s cars Category:Compact executive cars Category:Sedans Category:Front-wheel-drive vehicles Category:All-wheel-drive vehicles Category:Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States |
The former Royal Air Force Far East Air Force, more simply known as RAF Far East Air Force, was the Command organisation that controlled all Royal Air Force assets in the east of Asia (Far East). It was originally formed as Air Command, South East Asia in 1943 during the Second World War. In 1946, this was renamed RAF Air Command Far East, and finally Far East Air Force in June 1949. The command was disbanded on 31 October 1971. ==Early history== The RAF's Far East Command was formed in January 1930 and its first officer commanding, Group Captain Henry Cave-Browne-Cave, was double-hatted as Officer Commanding RAF Singapore. This was upgraded to Headquarters Air Force Far East Command in 1933. During the Second World War, when Malaya, Singapore, Burma and Hong Kong were overrun by the Japanese, the command retreated to India, there receiving the name Air Headquarters Bengal. The true ancestor of the postwar Far East Air Force was formed on 16 November 1943, under Lord Louis Mountbatten, Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command (SEAC). It was initially called South East Asia Air Command, but became Air Command, South East Asia (ACSEA) on 30 December 1943.Overseas Commands - Iraq, India and the Far East On 1 July 1944 ACSEA comprised No. 222 Group RAF, No. 225 Group, No. 229 Group RAF, and Eastern Air Command, under U.S. Lieutenant General George E. Stratemeyer, itself being made up of the Strategic Air Force (7th Bombardment Group USAAF and No. 231 Group RAF, under Brigadier General Howard C. Davidson of the United States Army Air Force); the U.S. Tenth Air Force (80th Fighter Group, 311th Fighter Group, and 443rd Troop Carrier Group); the RAF Third Tactical Air Force (Nos 221 and 224 Groups, No. 177 Wing RAF, 3d Combat Cargo Group USAAF, and 12th Bombardment Group USAAF); the Photographic Reconnaissance Force (No. 171 Wing RAF and U.S. 8th Photographic Reconnaissance Group); and No. 293 Wing RAF.APPENDIX XII Order of Battle, Air Command, South-East Asia, 1st July 1944 By January 1945 ACSEA's subsidiary Base Air Forces South East Asia, under Air Marshal Sir Roderick Carr, comprised No. 223 Group RAF on the North West Frontier at RAF Peshawar, No. 225 Group RAF (responsible for the "air defence of southern India and the whole coastline from Bengal to Karachi," by January 1943 controlling Nos 172 and 173 Wings), No. 226 Group RAF, No. 227 Group RAF, and No. 230 Group RAF, carrying out maintenance, training, and administration.HyperWar, RAF in January 1945 The four major RAF formations under HQ ACSEA in India and Ceylon at the end of the war were HQ BAFSEA; AHQ Burma; HQ 222 Group at Columbo, controlling all operational squadrons in Ceylon, largely carrying out maritime duties; and 229 Group, a Transport Command group located in New Delhi. 222 Group disbanded by being renamed AHQ Ceylon on 15 October 1945; it inherited six Liberator squadrons (Nos 99, 356, 203, 8, 160, and 321 RNLAF); four Sunderland squadrons (205, 209, 230, and 240); and No. 136 Squadron with Spitfires. After HQ BAFSEA was merged with AHQ India, twelve RAF squadrons (225 Group: Nos 5, 30 at Bhopal, 45 at St Thomas Mount; 227 Group: 298 Squadron at Samungli with a detachment at Chaklala; No. 228 Group RAF: 176, 658 AOP, 355 at Digri, 159 at Salbani; 229 Group: 353 and 232 at Palam; and 10 and 76 with Dakotas at Poona) remained in India after 1 April 1946, and AHQ India was placed under joint command of the Indian Government and the Air Ministry (Lee Eastward 65-69, Appendix B, 261). No. 223 Group was disbanded at Peshawar by being redesignated No 1 (Indian) Group on 15 August 1945; No. 225 Group disbanded at Hindustan near Bangalore by being redesignated No 2 (Indian) Group on 1 May 1946; No. 226 Group disbanded at Palam on 31 July 1946, with its units being transferred to No.2 (Indian) Group; No. 227 Group disbanded at Agra on 1 May 1946 by becoming No. 4 (Indian) Group. In May 1945 No. 228 Group had moved to Barrackpore and absorbed No. 230 Group, and then on 1 May 1946 becoming No. 3 (Indian) Group. No. 229 Group disbanded on 31 March 1947 and its responsibilities were taken over by No. 1 (Indian) Group; and No. 231 Group ceased operations on 1 August 1945, with by that time no units assigned, and disbanded on 30 September. In 1946, ACSEA was renamed RAF Air Command Far East, and finally Far East Air Force in June 1949. The tri-service headquarters remained in place after the war over to coordinate re-occupation of territory within the bounds of the command that had not yet been liberated from the Japanese. That included parts of Burma; the other British colonies of Singapore, Malaya, British North Borneo and Brunei; the independent nation of Siam, the French colony of French Indo-China up to the 16th parallel, and most of the Dutch colony of the Dutch East Indies. After the completion of the re- occupation duties, SEAC was disestablished in November 1946. However, the benefits of a supreme commander were not forgotten, and a tri-service headquarters was revived in 1962, when the Far East Command was formed. The Far East Command was also disestablished in 1971. ==Postwar Occupation Duties== Unlike in Europe, war ended very unexpectedly in the Far East. The dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, combined with the American blockade of Japan, and the Soviet entry into the war on 9 August 1945 finally shocked the Japanese into suing for peace. Once peace came, there was a period of euphoria within the RAF units, but the forces in the region came back down to earth with a bump a few days later. Instead of the end to operations that a great many of the conscripts had naively thought would occur, if anything, operations in some parts of the forces increased in tempo. South-East Asia Command had been increased in size from the day after the surrender, taking in south French Indo-China, and much of the Dutch East Indies. The command was now half as big again in area as it had been during the war. The strain imposed by the high operations tempo that occupation duties, when combined with the downsizing of the command due to demobilisation and return of American aircraft provided under lend-lease aircraft was very great, and it manifested itself in a series of mutinies around the command in early 1946. The first of these was at Mauripur in Karachi, India. Enlisted airmen downed tools and refused to work until their grievances about demobilisation had been met. Given the nature of the times, this was impossible, although their complaints were passed up the chain of command. The stoppages were non-violent almost to a fault, and since the personnel involved were hostilities-only conscripts, rather than regular professional members of the RAF, the stoppages were not formally treated as mutinies. Had they been so, punishments up to and including execution by firing squad could have been imposed on those responsible. Other mutinies occurred in Ceylon, elsewhere in India and Singapore. They also spread to units of the Royal Indian Air Force for a short while. ===Siam=== The easiest of the occupation tasks was in Siam. Unlike elsewhere in the region, Siam had retained a functioning civil government throughout the war, and thus British troops did not have to deploy to restore order over most of the country. RAF forces set a headquarters in Bangkok, at Don Muang airfield, under Group Captain D O Finlay on 9 September 1945. The headquarters was from No. 909 Wing RAF. The Wing left its previously controlled aircraft, Republic P-47 Thunderbolts in Burma. Three squadrons were represented in Siam during the occupation, No. 20 Squadron RAF with Spitfire VIII aircraft, No. 211 Squadron RAF with de Havilland Mosquito VI aircraft, and a detachment of No. 685 Squadron RAF with Mosquito photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The airfield was defended by No. 2945 Squadron RAF Regiment. In addition to the resident forces, Douglas Dakota transport aircraft were frequent users of Don Muang. They made supply runs to the airport, stopped over on trips to and from French Indo-China, and evacuated prisoners of war and internees who had been imprisoned in Siam at the end of the war. The job in Siam was completed very quickly, with almost all of the RAF personnel at Don Muang being gone by January 1946. ===Burma=== Burma was also relatively straightforward to deal with, although more complicated than Siam. Much of the colony had been conquered several months before the war ended, in the big British offensive of summer 1945. That gave ACSEA crucial breathing space to start getting the colony back on its feet before the massive increase in occupation duties postwar occurred. Air Headquarters Burma was well established under Air Marshal Sir Hugh Saunders. At the end of the war, it had 28 squadrons under its control. This quickly reduced as the demobilisation really kicked in. Again, the transport squadrons saw the largest amount of work, evacuating POWs and internees and supplying garrisons and the civilian population. Second to the transport squadrons in workload were the photo reconnaissance aircraft. The opportunity was taken to complete the process of surveying SE Asia from the air, and using the survey to bring maps up to date. The survey was not completed until August 1947. After the clean-up immediately postwar, came the task of preparing Burma for independence. AHQ Burma moved out of Rangoon to Mingaladon on 1 January 1947. The headquarters was disbanded on 31 December 1947, and three months later Burma became independent. ===French Indo-China and Dutch East Indies=== The most prickly tasks in the entire command were the temporary occupations of the colonies of other European powers. One was the occupation of part of French Indo-China, and the other was the occupation of part of the Dutch East Indies. The easier of the two was French Indo-China. Resentment against the French was strong, with Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh movement beginning to become a real problem. British forces were responsible for the southern part of the country, south of the 16th parallel, while Chinese forces dealt with the north. An RAF headquarters was set up near Saigon on 8 September, at Tan Son Nhut airfield. However, the main occupation forces were slow to arrive. Thus Mountbatten had to use Japanese forces still in the area for internal security duties for a short while. One aspect of the occupation that was smaller in magnitude than in other areas of the command was the prisoners of war. Only about 5,000 prisoners of war were in French Indo-China, and thus that part of the repatriation problem was small. At Tan Son Nhut, a large amount of space was available for transport aircraft; it had hard standings (all-weather concrete supports for landed aircraft) for about 70 Dakotas. This was fortunate since a great number of transport aircraft was required in the country, despite the low population of POWs. The other aircraft at the airfield were Spitfires of No. 273 Squadron RAF and a detachment of photo-reconnaissance Mosquitoes. The situation in French Indo-China and the Netherlands East Indies was particularly tricky because of the hostility of the locals to the returning colonial powers. French Indo-China was handed back to French control a great deal faster than the Dutch East Indies reverted back to Dutch control. This meant that in French Indo-China RAF aircraft did not have to get involved in suppressing any revolts in the area, apart from one occasion when Spitfires attacked enemy forces with cannon fire to support French ground troops. The RAF provided some spare Spitfires in the command to French Air Force pilots who were being sent to the colony, and more Spitfires were sent from Europe. The main RAF presence was withdrawn in mid-February 1946, when the Air Headquarters was disbanded. However, a small RAF presence was retained for a few more months to help direct military transport aircraft using the airfield. == Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation == The Indonesian–Malaysian Confrontation during 1962–1966 was Indonesia's political and armed opposition to the creation of Malaysia. It is also known by its Indonesian/Malay name Konfrontasi. The creation of Malaysia was the amalgamation of the Federation of Malaya (now West Malaysia), Singapore and the crown colony/British protectorates of Sabah and Sarawak (collectively known as British Borneo, now East Malaysia) in September 1963. The confrontation was an undeclared war with most of the action in the border area between Indonesia and East Malaysia on the island of Borneo (known as Kalimantan in Indonesia). Sabah and Sarawak were ethnically, religiously and politically diverse and there was some local opposition to joining Malaysia that Indonesia attempted to exploit, although with little success. The terrain in Borneo was challenging and there were very few roads. Both sides relied on light infantry operations and air transport, although rivers were also used. There was almost no use of offensive airpower. The British and Malaysian Armed Forces provided a significant element of the effort with assistance from the other member nations (Australia and New Zealand) from the combined Far East Strategic Reserve stationed then in West Malaysia and Singapore. Initial Indonesian attacks into East Malaysia relied heavily on local volunteers trained by the Indonesian Army. The main military forces backing Malaysia were British and initially their activities were low key. The British responded to increased Indonesian activity by expanding their own. This included, starting in 1965, covert operations into Indonesian Kalimantan under the code name Operation Claret. In 1965 there were several Indonesian operations into West Malaysia, but without military success. By August 1966, following Indonesian President Suharto's rise to power, a peace agreement finally took effect as Indonesia accepted the existence of Malaysia. == Drawdown and departure == RAF units and forces in Burma, the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and Siam/Thailand left in 1945–1947. Forces in India departed in 1947, though many RAF officers and other personnel stayed on for a time with the Royal Pakistan Air Force and the Indian Air Force. Air Headquarters Malaya (AHQ Malaya) was disbanded on 31 August 1957. No. 222 Group RAF was raised to command status as AHQ Ceylon on 16 Oct 1945. This was in turn disbanded on 1 November 1957., accessed July 2012. Its stations, including RAF Negombo, 22 miles north of Columbo, had been handed over to the Royal Ceylon Air Force in the course of 1955–56. ==Subordinate Formations== === Air Command, South East Asia === * No. 222 Group RAF \- partial listing of squadrons only ** 17, No. 273 Squadron RAF (Spitfire) ** No. 8 Squadron RAF (Vickers Wellington under AHQ Aden 1 July 1944 for administration and local operational control) ** No. 321 Squadron RAF, No. 413 Squadron RCAF (Catalina) ** No. 230 Squadron RAF (Sunderland) ** No. 89 Squadron RAF ** No. 160 Squadron RAF (Liberator) * No. 231 Group RAF ** No. 175 Wing RAF *** No. 99 Squadron RAF (Wellington) *** No. 292 (A.S.R.) Squadron (Warwick) ** No. 184 Wing RAF *** Nos 353, No. 356 Squadron RAF (Liberator) ** No. 185 Wing RAF *** No. 159 Squadron RAF (Liberator) * No. 225 Group RAF ** No. 5 Squadron RAF (Hurricane) ** No. 27 Squadron RAF, 47 Squadron, Beaufighter ** Nos. 200, 354 Squadrons (Liberator) ** No. 203 Squadron RAF (Wellington) ** No. 191 Squadron RAF, Nos 212, 240 Squadrons (Catalinas) * No. 229 Group * Eastern Air Command ** Photographic Reconnaissance Force *** No. 171 Wing RAF **** No. 681 Squadron RAF (disbanded by being renumbered as 34 Squadron, 1 August 1946 ) **** No. 684 Squadron RAF ** Third Tactical Air Force - partial listing only *** No. 177 Wing RAF **** Nos 31, 62, 117, 194 Squadrons (Dakota) **** 3d Combat Cargo Group (to be activated, Sylhet Airfield, 5 June 1944) (to include four combat cargo squadrons) *** No. 221 Group RAF **** No. 168 Wing RAF ***** No. 60 Squadron RAF (Hurricane); No. 81 Squadron RAF (Spitfire); No. 84 Squadron RAF (Vengeance) **** No. 170 Wing RAF ***** Nos. 1 (I.A.F.), No. 11 Squadron RAF, Nos 42, 113 Squadrons (Hurricane); ***** Nos. 607, 615 Squadrons (Spitfire) **** No. 243 Wing RAF ***** Nos 28 and 34 Squadrons RAF (Hurricane) *** No. 224 Group RAF, with Nos 165, 166, and 167 Wings RAF and their squadrons === Other AHQs and groups === * Air Headquarters Burma between 20 September 1945 and 15 December 1947 * AHQ Ceylon – the AHQ continued after Ceylon became independent, moving from Katurkuruda to RAF Negombo on 23 February 1948 (see Lee, Eastward, 86-87). The AHQ was disbanded 1 November 1957 . * AHQ Hong Kong – included as part of British Forces, Hong Kong in 1967 * AHQ India formed 16 August 1939 at Simla – disbanded 15 August 1947 ** Detachments from No. 22 Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Unit RAF from July 1944. ** AHQ Bengal was initially formed at Calcutta, operational between 20 April 1942 and 23 March 1943. It was reformed on 1 August 1944 at Barrackpore, it was disbanded on 4 December 1944 *** No. 221 Group RAF *** No. 224 Group RAF ** No. 223 Group RAF ** No. 225 Group RAF ** No. 226 Group RAF ** No. 227 Group RAF * AHQ Malaya – previously No. 224 Group, formed 30 September 1945, disbanded 31 August 1957 to become No. 224 Group * AHQ Netherlands East Indies formed 1 October 1945 and disbanded 30 November 1946See Chapter 4, "Occupation of the Netherlands East Indies," in Air Chief Marshal Sir David Lee, Eastward: A History of the Royal Air Force in the Far East, HMSO 1984, pp38-63. Squadrons involved includ Nos 60, 81 in 904 Wing; Nos 47 and 84 (Mosquito); 155; 321 Squadron RNLAF; 27 Squadron (Beaufighter). Nos 31 and 155 Squadrons were disbanded in place in August-September 1945 (p.62). * AHQ Saigon – disbanded 14 February 1946 * AHQ Siam formed at Bangkok and was operational between 1 October 1945 and April 1946, it was previously No. 909 Wing RAF * AHQ Singapore was operational between 16 February 1953 and 1 January 1958, it was previously No. 230 Group RAF ** No. 81 Squadron RAF ** No. 390 Maintenance Unit RAF * No. 224 Group RAF – disbanded 30 September 1945, reformed 31 August 1957, disbanded again 1 October 1968 ** No. 20 Squadron RAF ** No. 34 Squadron RAF * No. 45 Squadron RAF * No. 52 Squadron RAF * No. 60 Squadron RAF * No. 81 Squadron RAF * No. 110 Squadron RAF * No. 209 Squadron RAF ===Flying squadrons=== ===Other units=== ==Stations== ==Commanders== Commanders included:Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation – Overseas Commands – Iraq, India and the Far East === Far East Command === ? (1933–1938) Air Vice Marshal John Tremayne Babington (1938–1941) later known as Sir John Tremayne. Air Vice Marshal C. W. H. Pulford (1941– 1942) died of malaria on active service Air Vice Marshal Paul Maltby (1942) captured; POW ===Air Command South East Asia=== * Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse (16 November 1943 – 26 November 1944) * Air Marshal Sir Guy Garrod (26 November 1944 – 25 February 1945) – Temporary appointment * Air Chief Marshal Sir Keith Park (25 February 1945 – 30 April 1946) * Air Marshal Sir George Pirie (30 April – 30 September 1946) ===Air Command Far East=== * Air Marshal Sir George Pirie (30 September 1946 – 18 November 1947) * Air Marshal Sir Hugh Lloyd (18 November 1947 – 1 June 1949) ===Far East Air Force=== * Air Marshal Sir Hugh Lloyd (1 June – 26 November 1949) * Air Marshal Sir Francis Fogarty (26 November 1949 – 11 June 1952) * Air Marshal Sir Clifford Sanderson (11 June 1952 – 12 November 1954) * Air Marshal Sir Francis Fressanges (12 November 1954 – 13 July 1957) * Air Marshal The Earl of Bandon (13 July 1957 – 30 June 1960) * Air Marshal Sir Anthony Selway (30 June 1960 – 31 May 1962) * Air Marshal Sir Hector McGregor (31 May 1962 – 10 June 1964) * Air Marshal Sir Peter Wykeham (10 June 1964 – 8 August 1966) * Air Marshal Sir Rochford Hughes (8 August 1966 – 11 February 1969) * Air Marshal Sir Neil Wheeler (11 February 1969 – 1 October 1970) * Air Vice Marshal N M Maynard (1 October 1970 – 31 October 1971) ==See also== * List of Royal Air Force commands ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * * * == Further reading == * Sir David Lee, 'Eastward: History of the Royal Air Force in the Far East, 1945–72,' Stationery Office Books; 1st Edition (April 1984), . ==External links== * Overseas commands rafweb.org Far East Air Force, RAF Category:Military units and formations established in 1949 Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1971 |
This is the order of battle for Chinese People's Volunteer Army during major periods of hostilities in the Korean War. After the People's Republic of China entered the Korean War in October 1950 by designating the People's Liberation Army (PLA) North East Frontier Force as the People's Volunteer Army (PVA),. the PVA spent the next two years and nine months in combat operations and five years and three months in garrison duties. Its last elements did not leave Korea until as late as 1958.. During this period, China paid a huge price for its involvement in the Korean War. According to Chinese archives, about 73 percent of Chinese infantry forces, 67 percent of Chinese artillery forces, 100 percent of Chinese armored forces and 52 percent of Chinese air forces were deployed in Korea at one point or another, alongside 600,000 civilian laborers – in total more than three million civilian and military personnel.. Out of those forces, around 152,000 were killed, 383,500 were wounded, 450,000 were hospitalized, 21,300 were captured and 4,000 were missing. Of the captured 14,190 defected to Taiwan after the ceasefire. China had also consumed 5.6 million tons of war materiel, 399 aircraft and 12,916 vehicles for its war efforts. About a third of the Chinese government's annual budget was spent on the military between 1950 and 1953, totaling 10 billion RMB by the war's end..Equivalent to 3.3 billion USD. See . All in all, the Korean War was the largest foreign war in Chinese military history, despite the fact that no declaration of war ever existed between China and United Nations forces. For many years, historians found it difficult to provide an accurate order of battle for Chinese troops in Korea because most of the information could only be obtained from prisoner interrogations or captured documents. The constant Chinese troop movements and the reattachment of units between different commands further added to the confusion.. By the 1980s, however, a large number of primary documents, memoirs and scholarly works on Chinese involvement in the Korean War began to appear in China, enabling historians to make a more comprehensive and accurate assessment of Chinese military operations during the war.. As the term "Corps" does not exist in Chinese military terminology, the term "Army" (军) technically means "Corps" in PLA nomenclature, while the term "Army Group" (集团军 or 兵团) means "Army".. For example, the US X Corps is always referred to as the "US 10th Army" (美第10军) among Chinese sources.. As such, this article uses the term "Corps" and "Army" to denote Chinese Army and Army Group formations. ==First Phase Campaign (October 25 – November 5, 1950)== Although the Chinese leadership did not make the decision to enter the Korean War until United Nations (UN) forces crossed the 38th Parallel in October 1950,. it had been preparing for the possibility ever since United States intervened in Korea in June 1950... On July 13, 1950, and soon after UN forces entered the Korean War, Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao Zedong, ordered the People's Liberation Army (PLA) 13th Army—China's strategic reserve stationed in southern China—to form the PLA North East Frontier Force (NEFF) in Manchuria.. Aside from the 38th, 39th and 40th Infantry Corps originally belonged to the 13th Army, the NEFF also included the 42nd Infantry Corps, three artillery divisions, one anti-aircraft regiments and three transport regiments—in total more than 250,000 men.. On October 19, 1950, and under strict secrecy, the NEFF officially crossed the Yalu River under the name Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA),. although advance scouting parties had been spotted by UN forces as early as October 13.. On October 23, the PLA 50th and 66th Corps were attached to the PVA 13th Army in order to reinforce the defenses at Sinuiju and Chongju area.. At the same time, the 13th Army Headquarters was disbanded to increase coordination between PVA Headquarters and its field units.. ===Chinese People's Volunteer Army Headquarters=== Commander Peng Dehuai. Commissar Peng Dehuai Chief of Staff Xie Fang Political Director Du Ping ===Frontline=== 30px PVA Headquarters Subordinate Corps Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes 38th Corps Commander Liang Xingchu Commissar Liu Xiyuan *112th Division *113th Division *114th Division Entered Korea on October 19, 1950.. 39th Corps Commander Wu Xinquan Commissar Xu Binzhou *115th Division *116th Division *117th Division Entered Korea on October 19, 1950. Responsible for the destruction of ROK 15th Infantry Regiment and US 8th Cavalry Regiment at the Battle of Unsan.. 40th Corps Commander Wen Yucheng Commissar Yuan Shengping *118th Division *119th Division *120th Division Entered Korea on October 19, 1950, and the first Chinese unit to make contact with UN forces in Korea.. Responsible for the destruction of ROK 6th Infantry Division at the Battle of Onjong.. 42nd Corps Commander Wu Ruilin Commissar Zhou Biao *124th Division *125th Division *126th Division Entered Korea on October 19, 1950. Its 124th Division was reportedly decimated during the November 2–5 engagement with US 1st Marine Division at the south of Chosin Reservoir. UN intelligence indicated the division did not recover as late as January 1951.. 50th Corps Commander Zeng Zesheng Commissar Xu Wenlie *148th Division *149th Division *150th Division Entered Korea on October 26, 1950.. 66th Corps Commander Xiao Xinhuai Commissar Wang Zifeng *196th Division *197th Division *198th Division Entered Korea on October 27, 1950.. ===Supports=== Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes Artillery Command Commander Kuang Yumin Commissar Qiu Chuangcheng *1st Artillery Division *2nd Artillery Division *8th Artillery Division *1st Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment Engineer Command Bureau Director Chen Zhengfeng *4th Engineer Regiment *6th Engineer Regiment Frontline Logistics Command Bureau Director Zhang Mingyuan Commissar She Zheheng *1st Detachment *2nd Detachment Formerly PLA Northeast Military Region Logistics Department Forward Command Bureau. Formed in November 1950.. ==Second Phase Campaign (November 25 – December 24, 1950)== On August 26, 1950, the Chinese Central Military Commission concluded that PVA will eventually be composed of the PLA 9th, 13th and 19th Army—totaling 700,000 men—by the spring of 1951... On October 11, 1950, Mao authorized the PLA 9th Army to be moved from Shandong province to Manchuria as reserves to the 13th Army in Korea.. On November 10, 1950, the PLA 9th Army entered Korea in order to reinforce Chinese forces on the east side of Taebaek Mountains... This development brought the total PVA strength to 450,000,. including 380,000 combat personnel. ===Chinese People's Volunteer Army Headquarters=== Commander Peng Dehuai. Commissar Peng Dehuai Chief of Staff Xie Fang Political Director Du Ping ===Frontline=== 30px PVA Headquarters Subordinate Corps Unit. Commander. Sub-units Notes 38th Corps Commander Liang Xingchu Commissar Liu Xiyuan *112th Division *113th Division *114th Division Responsible for the destruction of ROK II Corps, Turkish Brigade and US 2nd Infantry Division at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River.. Received the title "Ten Thousand Years Corps" for its achievement.. 39th Corps Commander Wu Xinquan Commissar Xu Binzhou *115th Division *116th Division *117th Division 40th Corps Commander Wen Yucheng Commissar Yuan Shengping *118th Division *119th Division *120th Division 42nd Corps Commander Wu Ruilin Commissar Zhou Biao *124th Division *125th Division *126th Division Responsible for the destruction of ROK II Corps.. Failed in its attempt to encircle the entire US Eighth Army at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River.. 50th Corps Commander Zeng Zesheng Commissar Xu Wenlie *148th Division *149th Division *150th Division UN intelligence also indicated that the 167th Division of the PLA 56th Corps was attached to the 50th Corps during the campaign, but this is not corroborated by Chinese records.. 66th Corps Commander Xiao Xinhuai Commissar Wang Zifeng *196th Division *197th Division *198th Division 30px 9th Army Commander: Song Shi-Lun. Commissar: Song Shi-Lun Unit Commander Sub-units Notes 20th Corps Commander and Commissar Zhang Yixiang *58th Division *59th Division *60th Division *89th Division Entered Korea on November 10, 1950.. Destroyed during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir and pulled off the frontline for rest and refit... 26th Corps Commander Zhang Renchu Commissar Li Yaowen *76th Division *77th Division *78th Division *88th Division Entered Korea on November 12, 1950.. Its 78th and 88th Division did not arrive in time to participate in the Battle of Chosin Reservoir.. Pulled off the frontline for rest and refit in the aftermath of Chosin Reservoir battle. 27th Corps Commander Peng Deqing Commissar Liu Haotian *79th Division *80th Division *81st Division *94th Division Entered Korea on November 10, 1950, and responsible for the destruction of Task Force Faith.. Destroyed during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir and pulled off the frontline for rest and refit. Its 94th Division was often misidentified as the 90th Division by UN intelligence.. ===Supports=== Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes Artillery Command Commander Wan Yi Commissar Qiu Chuangcheng. *1st Artillery Division *2nd Artillery Division *8th Artillery Division Chinese records and UN intelligence did not indicate any artillery formations were deployed during the campaign.. Engineer Command Bureau Director Chen Zhengfeng. *4th Engineer Regiment *5th Engineer Regiment *6th Engineer Regiment *8th Engineer Regiment Frontline Logistics Command Bureau Director Zhang Mingyuan Commissar She Zheheng *1st Detachment *2nd Detachment *3rd Detachment *4th Detachment Railway Engineers Commander Li Shouxuan * 1st Railway Engineer Division * Bridging Regiment * Independent Regiment Entered Korea in November 1950. In total composed of three bridging regiments, one track regiment and one independent regiment. ==Third Phase Campaign (December 31, 1950 – January 8, 1951)== Although the PVA succeeded in expelling UN forces from North Korea during the Second Phase Campaign, about a quarter of its original 450,000 men became casualties in the aftermath of the campaign.. On December 17, Mao ordered the PVA 9th Army to be removed from the front for rest and refit, reducing the PVA combat personnel to 230,000 by the end of December 1950.. UN intelligence, on the other hand, estimated that only 171,117 combat personal were actually available for the PVA on January 1, 1951.. By the end of 1950, however, the North Korean People's Army returned to the front and brought about 75,000 men to make up for the Chinese losses.. ===Chinese People's Volunteer Army Headquarters=== Commander Peng Dehuai. Commissar Peng Dehuai Chief of Staff Xie Fang Political Director Du Ping ===Frontline=== 30px PVA Headquarters Subordinate Corps Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes 38th Corps Commander Liang Xingchu Commissar Liu Xiyuan *112th Division *113th Division *114th Division 39th Corps Commander Wu Xinquan Commissar Xu Binzhou *115th Division *116th Division *117th Division First Chinese unit to enter Seoul on January 4, 1951.. 40th Corps Commander Wen Yucheng Commissar Yuan Shengping *118th Division *119th Division *120th Division 42nd Corps Commander Wu Ruilin Commissar Zhou Biao *124th Division *125th Division *126th Division 50th Corps Commander Zeng Zesheng Commissar Xu Wenlie *148th Division *149th Division *150th Division Responsible for the destruction of British 1st Battalion, Royal Ulster Rifles during the Third Battle of Seoul... UN intelligence also indicated that the 167th Division of the PLA 56th Corps was attached to the 50th Corps during the campaign, but this is not corroborated by Chinese records. 66th Corps Commander Xiao Xinhuai Commissar Wang Zifeng *196th Division *197th Division *198th Division ===Supports=== Unit Commander Sub-units Notes Artillery Command Commander Wan Yi Commissar Qiu Chuangcheng *1st Artillery Division *2nd Artillery Division *8th Artillery Division Elements of 1st, 2nd and 8th Artillery Division were under direct control of PVA Headquarters Subordinate Corps for the duration of campaign. Engineer Command Bureau Director Chen Zhengfeng *4th Engineer Regiment *5th Engineer Regiment *6th Engineer Regiment *8th Engineer Regiment Frontline Logistics Command Bureau Director Zhang Mingyuan Commissar She Zheheng *1st Detachment *2nd Detachment *3rd Detachment *4th Detachment Railway Engineers Commander Li Shouxuan * 1st Railway Engineer Division * Bridging Regiment * Independent Regiment Composed of three bridging regiments, one track regiment and one independent regiment. ==Fourth Phase Campaign (January 30 – April 21, 1951)== By the end of the Third Phase Campaign, the PVA had become completely exhausted after fighting nonstop since the start of the Chinese intervention,. and its combat personnel was further reduced to 217,000.. According to PVA Deputy Commander Han Xianchu's evaluation of PVA, "many regiments and battalions are completely combat ineffective, with some divisions only half strength".. On February 7, 1951, Mao decided that PLA 3rd, 19th, 20th Army and 47th Corps—from Sichuan, Gansu, Hebei and Hunan provinces respectively—would enter Korea to replace the PVA 13th Army currently on the front... But despite the massive mobilization effort, only the 26th Corps from the recovering PVA 9th Army actually arrived at the front during March 1951... ===Chinese People's Volunteer Army Headquarters=== Commander Peng Dehuai. Commissar Peng Dehuai Chief of Staff Xie Fang Political Director Du Ping ===Frontline=== 30px PVA Headquarters Subordinate Corps Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes 38th Corps Commander Liang Xingchu Commissar Liu Xiyuan *112th Division *113th Division *114th Division Decimated during Operation Thunderbolt in February 1951.. Pulled off the frontline for rest and refit in March 1951. 39th Corps Commander Wu Xinquan Commissar Xu Binzhou *115th Division *116th Division *117th Division Responsible for the destruction of ROK 8th Infantry Division at the Battle of Hoengsong... Failed in its attempts to break through the UN front at the Battle of Chipyong-ni.. 40th Corps Commander Wen Yucheng Commissar Yuan Shengping *118th Division *119th Division *120th Division Responsible for the destruction of ROK 8th Infantry Division at the Battle of Hoengsong. Failed in its attempts to break through the UN front at the Chipyong-ni and Wonju battles.. 42nd Corps Commander Wu Ruilin Commissar Zhou Biao *124th Division *125th Division *126th Division Participated in the Battle of the Twin Tunnels and responsible for the destruction of ROK 8th Infantry Division at the Battle of Hoengsong.. Failed in its attempts to break through the UN front at the Chipyong-ni and Wonju battles. Pulled off the frontline for rest and refit in March 1951. 50th Corps Commander Zeng Zesheng Commissar Xu Wenlie *148th Division *149th Division *150th Division Mostly composed of Chinese Nationalist soldiers surrendered to the Communist side during the Chinese Civil War. Its complete destruction during Operation Thunderbolt in February 1951 sparked controversies over the treatment of Nationalist POWs impressed into Communist service... Returned to Manchuria in March 1951 for rest and refit. 66th Corps Commander Xiao Xinhuai Commissar Wang Zifeng *196th Division *197th Division *198th Division Responsible for the destruction of ROK 8th Infantry Division at the Battle of Hoengsong. Failed in its attempts to break through the UN front at the Chipyong-ni and Wonju battles. Returned to Northern China in March 1951.. 30px 9th Army Commander: Song Shi-Lun. Commissar: Song Shi-Lun Unit Commander Sub-units Notes 26th Corps Commander Zhang Renchu Commissar Li Yaowen *76th Division *77th Division *78th Division *88th Division The first element of the 9th Army to recover from the Chosin Reservoir battle.. Returned to the battlefield in March 1951. ===Supports=== Unit. Commander Sub-units. Notes Artillery Command Department Director Kuang Yumin. *1st Artillery Division *2nd Artillery Division *8th Artillery Division Chinese records indicated only 1st Artillery Division had participated in combat actions against UN forces during the campaign. Engineer Command Bureau Director Chen Zhengfeng. *3rd Engineer Regiment *4th Engineer Regiment *5th Engineer Regiment *6th Engineer Regiment *8th Engineer Regiment *10th Engineer Regiment *18th Engineer Regiment *22nd Engineer Regiment Frontline Logistics Command Bureau Commander Zhang Mingyuan Commissar She Zheheng. *1st Detachment *2nd Detachment *3rd Detachment *4th Detachment *5th Detachment *6th Detachment *7th Detachment Composed of nine truck regiments, three transport regiments plus seven battalions, three security regiments plus one battalion, two Public Security regiments plus one battalion, one Secret Service regiment and one Battlefield Logistics battalion.. Railway Command Bureau Director Li Shouxuan * 1st Railway Engineer Division * 2nd Railway Engineer Division * 3rd Railway Engineer Division In total composed of six bridging regiments and three track regiments. 2nd Railway Engineer Division enter Korea in April 1951, while the 3rd Railway Engineer Division entered Korea in February 1951.. ==Fifth Phase Campaign (April 22 – June 10, 1951)== In the aftermath of the Fourth Phase Campaign, the PVA 13th Army's 38th and 42nd Corps were forced to leave the frontline for rest and refit, while its 50th and 66th Corps were evacuated back to China.. Following Mao's orders, however, the PLA 3rd and 19th Army began to enter Korea in February 1951,. alongside four field artillery divisions, two long range artillery divisions, four anti-aircraft divisions, one multiple rocket launcher division and four tank regiments.. The PVA 9th Army had also returned to the front in April 1951 after four months of rest. Those development soon brought the total PVA strength to over one million men, including 548,000 combat personnel and 180,000 logistics personnel... On April 21, 1951, the 39th and 40th Corps of the PVA 13th Army were placed under 9th Army's control.. On April 22, 1951, the reorganized PVA launched a full-scale offensive in Korea, and the resulting clashes between Chinese and UN forces is often described as the largest battle of the entire Korean War.. ===Chinese People's Volunteer Army Headquarters=== Commander Peng Dehuai. Commissar Peng Dehuai Chief of Staff Xie Fang Political Director Du Ping ===Frontline=== 30px 3rd Army Commander: Chen Geng. Acting Commander: Wang Jinshan Commissar: Chen Geng Unit Commander. Sub-units Notes 12th Corps Commander Zeng Shaoshan Commissar Li Zhen *31st Division *34th Division *35th Division Entered Korea on March 25, 1951.. Routed during the Battle of the Soyang River.. 15th Corps Commander Qin Jiwei Commissar Gu Jingsheng *29th Division *44th Division *45th Division Entered Korea in February 1951. 60th Corps Commander Shu Jie Commissar Yuan Ziqin *179th Division *180th Division *181st Division Entered Korea on March 20, 1951. Routed during the Battle of the Soyang River with its 180th Division suffering 7,000 casualties, majority of them captured by UN force. This incident is often cited as the worse Chinese defeat during the entire Korean War... 2nd Artillery Division Commander Zhu Guang Commissar Zhang Bailing *28th Artillery Regiment *29th Artillery Regiment *30th Artillery Regiment 30px 9th Army Commander: Song Shi-Lun Commissar: Song Shi-Lun Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes 20th Corps Commander and Commissar Zhang Yixiang *58th Division *59th Division *60th Division Its 89th Division was disband in February 1951. Recovered from Chosin Reservoir battle around April 1951.. 26th Corps Commander Zhang Renchu Commissar Li Yaowen *76th Division *77th Division *78th Division *88th Division 27th Corps Commander Peng Deqing Commissar Zeng Ruqing *79th Division *80th Division *81st Division Its 94th Division was disband in February 1951. Recovered from Chosin Reservoir battle around April 1951.. 39th Corps Commander Wu Xinquan Commissar Li Xuesan *115th Division *116th Division *117th Division Misidentify by UN intelligence as a part of the 13th Army.. 40th Corps Commander Wen Yucheng Commissar Yuan Shengping *118th Division *119th Division *120th Division Misidentify by UN intelligence as a part of the 13th Army. 1st Artillery Division Commander Wen Ji Commissar Zhang Ying * 25th Artillery Regiment * 26th Artillery Regiment * 27th Artillery Regiment 7th Artillery Division Commander Yan Fu Commissar Zhu Li * 20th Artillery Regiment 30px 19th Army Commander: Yang Dezhi Commissar: Li Zhimin Unit Commander Sub-units Notes 63rd Corps Commander Fu Chongbi Commissar Long Daoquan *187th Division *188th Division *189th Division Entered Korea on February 18, 1951.. Responsible for the destruction of British 1st Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment at the Battle of the Imjin River.. 64th Corps Commander Zeng Siyu Commissar Wang Zhao *190th Division *191st Division *192nd Division Enter Korea in February 1951. Decimated during the Battle of the Imjin River.. Failed to achieve its mission of capturing Seoul and encircle the US I and IX Corps.. 65th Corps Commander Xiao Yingtang Commissar Wang Daobang *193rd Division *194th Division *195th Division Entered Korea on February 23, 1951.. Decimated during the Battle of the Imjin River. 8th Artillery Division Commander Wang Heng Commissar Li Zhenbang *31st Artillery Regiment *43rd Artillery Regiment Its 31st Artillery Regiment was under the operational control of 65th Corps. ===Supports=== Unit. Commander Sub-units. Notes Armor Command Bureau Director Huang Huxian. * 1st Tank Regiment * 2nd Tank Regiment * 3rd Tank Regiment * 6th Independent Tank Regiment Formed in March 1951 from elements of the PLA 1st Tank Division. Entered Korea near the end of Fourth Phase Campaign. Artillery Command Bureau Director Kuang Yumin. *21st Rocket Artillery Division *31st Anti-Tank Artillery Division *32nd Rocket Artillery Division *61st Anti- Aircraft Artillery Division *62nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division *63rd Anti- Aircraft Artillery Division *64th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division All divisions entered Korea near the end of Fourth Phase Campaign.. Engineer Command Bureau Director Chen Zhengfeng. *3rd Engineer Regiment *7th Engineer Regiment *10th Engineer Regiment *14th Engineer Regiment *15th Engineer Regiment *16th Engineer Regiment *17th Engineer Regiment *18th Engineer Regiment *22nd Engineer Regiment Logistics Command Commander Hong Xuezhi Commissar Zhou Chunquan. *1st Detachment *2nd Detachment *3rd Detachment *4th Detachment *5th Detachment *7th Detachment Reorganized from Frontline Logistics Command Bureau on May 19, 1951.. Composed of 22 service stations, 10 truck regiments, six transport regiments and six security regiments.. Railway Command Bureau Director Li Shouxuan Commissar Cui Tianmin *1st Railway Engineer Division *2nd Railway Engineer Division *3rd Railway Engineer Division Composed of six bridging regiments and three track regiments. ==UN limited offensives (June 11 – December 3, 1951)== The Fifth Phase Campaign ended as a complete operational disaster for the PVA.. About 12 divisions from the PVA 3rd and 19th Army were rendered combat ineffective, and between 85,000 and 110,000 men became casualties in the aftermath.. With the frontline on the verge of collapse in the face of UN attacks,. the 42nd and 47th Corps were sent as reinforcements on May 27, 1951. But the UN forces soon broke off their pursuit on June 1, and armistice negotiations started on July 10, 1951.. The presence of UN forces at the north of the 38th Parallel, however, prompted the PVA to plan a limited offensive dubbed the "Six Phase Campaign".. Although the offensive was cancelled on September 4, 1951, it allowed the PLA 20th Army to be deployed in the Kumsong area by early September.. The PVA had also decided to assume defensive posture on September 4 while postponing all major offensive operations, and the West Coast and East Coast Commands were created to guard against UN amphibious landings as the result.. Finally, the Chinese Central Military Commission authorized the PLA Air Force to join the war in September 1951 as a response to Operation Strangle II conducted by the US Far East Air Force... By the end of October 1951, the total PVA strength in Korea reached 1.15 million men, including 19 infantry corps, nine artillery divisions, five tank regiments, 12 air force divisions, four railway engineering divisions and eight logistical corps.. ===Chinese People's Volunteer Army Headquarters=== Commander Peng Dehuai. Commissar Peng Dehuai Chief of Staff Xie Fang (nominal)Xie Fang served as a representative in the armistice negotiation until the breakdown of armistice talks on October 8, 1952. See and . Zhang Wenzhou (acting) Political Director Gan Siqi ===Frontline=== 30px PVA Headquarters Subordinate Corps Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes 42nd Corps Commander Wu Ruilin Commissar Zhou Biao *124th Division *125th Division *126th Division Returned to the front in early June 1951.. 30px 3rd Army Commander: Chen Geng. Commissar: Chen Geng Unit Commander Sub-units Notes 12th Corps Commander Zeng Shaoshan Commissar Li Zhen *31st Division *34th Division *35th Division Reserve unit. 15th Corps Commander Qin Jiwei Commissar Gu Jingsheng *29th Division *44th Division *45th Division Reserve unit. 60th Corps Commander Shu Jie Commissar Yuan Ziqin *179th Division *180th Division *181st Division Reserve unit. 30px 9th Army Commander: Song Shi-Lun. Commissar: Song Shi-Lun Unit Commander Sub-units Notes 26th Corps Commander Zhang Renchu Commissar Li Yaowen *76th Division *77th Division *78th Division Returned to China in June 1952.. 30px 19th Army Commander: Yang Dezhi Commissar: Li Zhimin Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes 47th Corps Commander Cao Lihuai Commissar Li Renlin *139th Division *140th Division *141st Division Entered Korea on April 11, 1951, as airfield construction labor... Did not participate in the Fifth Phase Campaign.. 63rd Corps Commander Fu Chongbi Commissar Long Daoquan *187th Division *188th Division *189th Division Reserve unit. 64th Corps Commander Zeng Siyu Commissar Wang Zhao *190th Division *191st Division *192nd Division 65th Corps Commander Xiao Yingtang Commissar Wang Daobang *193rd Division *194th Division *195th Division 30px 20th Army Commander: Yang Chengwu Commissar: Zhang Nansheng Unit Commander Sub-units Notes 67th Corps Commander Li Xiang Commissar Kuang Fuzhao *199th Division *200th Division *201st Division Entered Korea in June 1951.. 68th Corps Commander Chen Fangren Commissar Li Chengrui *202nd Division *203rd Division *204th Division Reserve unit. Entered Korea in June 1951.. ===West coast defense=== 30px West Coast Command Commander: Han Xianchu. Unit Commander Sub-units Notes 38th Corps Commander Liang Xingchu Commissar Liu Xiyuan *112th Division *113th Division *114th Division Reserve unit. Did not return to the front until May 1952.. 39th Corps Commander Wu Xinquan Commissar Li Xuesan *115th Division *116th Division *117th Division Reserve unit. 40th Corps Commander Wen Yucheng Commissar Yuan Shengping *118th Division *119th Division *120th Division Reserve unit. 50th Corps Commander Zeng Zesheng Commissar Xu Wenlie *148th Division *149th Division *150th Division Reentered Korea around July–August 1951... ===East coast defense=== 30px East Coast Command Commander: Song Shi-Lun. Unit Commander Sub-units Notes 16th Corps Commander Yin Xianbing Commissar Chen Yunkai *47th Division Reserve unit. Stationed in Manchuria during this period. 20th Corps Commander and Commissar Zhang Yixiang *58th Division *59th Division *60th Division Reserve unit. 27th Corps Commander Peng Deqing Commissar Zeng Ruqing *79th Division *80th Division *81st Division Reserve unit. ===Air=== 30px Air Force Command Commander: Liu Zhen Unit. Commander Sub-unitsFollowing the Soviet model, a typical Chinese air force division is only composed of two regiments. See Notes 2nd Aviation Division Commander Zhang Qinhe Commissar Zhang Baichun * 4th Regiment * 6th Regiment Mixed La-11/MiG-15 fighter unit.. Entered combat in October 1951 and returned to China in January 1952.. 3rd Aviation Division Commander Yuan Bin Commissar Gao Houliang * 7th Regiment * 9th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit. Entered combat in October 1951 and returned to China in January 1952. 4th Aviation Division Commander Fang Ziyi Commissar Xie Xiyu * 10th Regiment * 12th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit. Elements of the division were assigned to the Soviet 64th Aviation Corps for training purposes and engaged UN air forces from December 1950 to July 1951 under Soviet command.. Officially entered combat as an independent unit in September 1951 and returned to China in October 1951.. 5th Aviation Division Commander Ma Yong Commissar Ma Zeying * 13th Regiment * 15th Regiment Il-10 ground attack unit and a part of the short-lived Ground Attack Command.. It did not enter combat in Korea due to the lack of Korean airfields and returned to China in November 1951. 6th Aviation Division Commander Bei Sha Commissar Zhang Zhiyong * 16th Regiment * 18th Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Entered combat in November 1951 and returned to China in March 1952.. 7th Aviation Division Commander Han Cesan Commissar Qiu Renhua * 19th Regiment * 21st Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. It did not enter combat in Korea and returned to Northern China in November 1951.. 8th Aviation Division Commander Wu Kai Commissar Ge Zhenyue * 22nd Regiment * 24th Regiment Tu-2 bomber unit and a part of the short-lived Bomber Command.. After entering combat in Korea in October 1951, it was involve in a bombing campaign against South Korean outposts on the Pansong archipelago... The campaign ended with a disastrous bombing mission to the Taehwado island which resulted in four Tu-2 bombers, three La-11 fighters and one MiG-15 fighter being shot down by the US 4th Fighter Wing on November 30, 1951.. All Chinese bomber units in Korea were grounded in the aftermath of this disaster.. Returned to China in March 1952.. 9th Aviation Division Commander He Jilin Commissar Xu Xinghua * 25th Regiment * 27th Regiment La-9 fighter unit and a part of the short-lived Ground Attack Command. It did not enter combat in Korea due to the lack of Korean airfields and returned to China in November 1951. 10th Aviation Division Commander Liu Shanben Commissar Wang Xuewu * 28th Regiment * 30th Regiment Tu-2 bomber unit and a part of the short-lived Bomber Command. After entering combat in Korea in October 1951 it was grounded due to the Taehwado island disaster. Returned to China in March 1952. 11th Aviation Division Commander Zhang Qiangsheng Commissar Huang Feng * 31st Regiment * 33rd Regiment Il-10 ground attack unit and a part of the short-lived Ground Attack Command. It did not enter combat in Korea due to the lack of Korean airfields and returned to China in November 1951. 14th Aviation Division Commander Wang Yuhuai Commissar Xie Jiyou * 40th Regiment * 42nd Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Entered combat in November 1951 and returned to China in February 1952. 15th Aviation Division Commander Huang Yuting Commissar Cui Wenbin * 43rd Regiment * 45th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit. Did not enter combat during this period. 30px 23rd Army Commander: Jin Qiwu. Commissar: Gao Kelin Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes 36th Corps Commander Wang Jianye Commissar Kang Jianmin *106th Division *107th Division *108th Division Entered Korea in September 1951 and tasked with constructing airfields in Korea for bomber and ground attack aircraft. Returned to China in November 1951 after UN bombings made the construction efforts impossible.. 37th Corps Commander Zhang Shizhen Commissar Gu Jingsheng *109th Division *110th Division *111th Division Entered Korea in September 1951 and tasked with constructing airfields in Korea for bomber and ground attack aircraft. Returned to China in November 1951 after UN bombings made the construction efforts impossible. ===Supports=== Unit. Commander Sub-units. Notes Armor Command Bureau Director Huang Huxian * 1st Tank Regiment * 2nd Tank Regiment * 3rd Tank Regiment * 6th Independent Tank Regiment * Independent Motorized Infantry Regiment Artillery Command Bureau Director Kuang Yumin *1st Artillery Division *2nd Artillery Division *7th Artillery Division *8th Artillery Division *21st Rocket Artillery Division *31st Anti-Tank Artillery Division *61st Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division *62nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division *63rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division *64th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division Engineer Command Bureau Director Chen Zhengfeng * 1st Engineer Regiment * 3rd Engineer Regiment * 4th Engineer Regiment * 7th Engineer Regiment * 10th Engineer Regiment * 14th Engineer Regiment * 15th Engineer Regiment * 16th Engineer Regiment * 17th Engineer Regiment * 18th Engineer Regiment * 21st Engineer Regiment * 22nd Engineer Regiment Subordinate of Logistics Command.. Logistics Command Commander Hong Xuezhi Commissar Zhou Chunquan * 1st Detachment * 2nd Detachment * 3rd Detachment * 4th Detachment * 5th Detachment * 6th Detachment *18th Public Security Division Composed of 28 service stations, 19 supply regiments, 15 temporary truck regiments, three security regiments plus one battalion, five Public Security regiments and one Public Order regiment. Also in control of Engineer Command Bureau.. Railway Transport Command Commander He Jinnian Commissar Zhang Mingyuan *1st Railway Engineer Division *2nd Railway Engineer Division *3rd Railway Engineer Division *4th Railway Engineer Division Composed of eight bridging regiments and four track regiments.. ==Collapse of armistice negotiation (September 18 – November 25, 1952)== With the end Operation Commando on October 23, 1951, signaling the end of UN limited offensives,. the Korean front had settled into a period of stalemate... Although the Chinese had lost 36,000 ground troops from the UN offensives, the losses were mostly replaced by the summer of 1952.. The PVA Air Force, on the other hand, suffered major setbacks in constructing airfields in Korea. By late December 1951, all PVA Air Force personnel were stationed back to China due to the lack of airfields, and its ground support missions were soon abandoned. With the front stabilized and no major offensives in planning, the PVA focused its attentions on logistics build up, troop rotations and political controls.. In the area of logistics, the Railway Transport Forward Command was established in August 1951, and its Anti-Aircraft Artillery Command Bureau was organized in December 1951.. This allowed four additional anti-aircraft artillery regiments to be deployed in Korea.. The PVA headquarters had also planned to rotate all troops in Korea by the end of 1953, and the Chinese Central Military Commission authorized the PLA 23rd, 24th and 46th Corps to replace 20th, 27th and 42nd Corps by September 1952.. Finally, the political mobilization programs strengthened the Communist Party's hold on the field units, and mass purges were carried out against undesirables while award systems were established for role models.. The armistice negotiations at Panmunjom began to fall apart in September 1952, primarily due to Sino-Korean insistence that all prisoners of war be repatriated to their respective original countries, regardless of their personal preferences.. As a significant number of Chinese and North Korean POWs had expressed their desire to defect permanently to South Korea or Taiwan, the demand was met with strong opposition from the United States and South Korea.. Feeling that the negotiations would soon fail, military commanders on both sides approved numerous tactical plans as means of applying pressure on their opponents.. In late September, the PVA authorized its frontline troops to conduct tactical strikes against more than 20 UN outposts... The armistice negotiations officially ceased on October 8, 1952.. ===Chinese People's Volunteer Army Headquarters=== Commander Peng Dehuai (nominal).Recalled back to China in April 1952 for medical reasons. Peng served the rest of the war by administering daily operations in the Central Military Commission. See . Deng Hua (acting) Commissar Peng Dehuai (nominal) Deng Hua (acting) Chief of Staff Xie Fang (nominal) Zhang Wenzhou (acting) Political Director Gan Siqi ===Frontline=== 30px PVA Headquarters Subordinate Corps Unit. Commander. Sub-units Notes 38th Corps Commander Jiang Yonghui Commissar Wu Dai *112th Division *113th Division *114th Division 39th Corps Commander and Commissar Wu Xinquan *115th Division *116th Division *117th Division 40th Corps Commander Wen Yucheng Commissar Yuan Shengping *118th Division *119th Division *120th Division 46th Corps Commander Xiao Quanfu Commissar Wu Baoshan *133rd Division *136th Division *137th Division Entered Korea in September 1952. 47th Corps Commander Cao Lihuai Commissar Liu Xianquan *139th Division *140th Division *141st Division Reserve unit.. 30px 3rd Army Commander: Wang Jinshan.Cheng Geng briefly commanded PVA in June 1952, then left for China in July 1952 to build the PLA Military Academy of Engineering and Technology. See . Commissar: She Yide Unit Commander. Sub-units Notes 12th Corps Commander Zeng Shaoshan Commissar Li Zhen *31st Division *34th Division *35th Division 15th Corps Commander Qin Jiwei Commissar Gu Jingsheng *29th Division *44th Division *45th Division 60th Corps Commander Zhang Zuliang Commissar Yuan Ziqin *179th Division *180th Division *181st Division 30px 19th Army Commander: Han Xianchu.Yang Dezhi became the Deputy Commander of PVA in July 1952. See . Commissar: Li Zhimin Unit. Commander. Sub-units Notes 63rd Corps Commander Fu Chongbi Commissar Long Daoquan *187th Division *188th Division *189th Division Reserve unit.. 65th Corps Commander and Commissar Wang Daobang *193rd Division *194th Division *195th Division 30px 20th Army Commander: Zheng Weishan.Formerly the Deputy Commander of 19th Army. Zheng Weishan replaced Yang Chengwu in July 1952. See . Commissar: Zhang Nansheng Unit. Commander. Sub-units Notes 67th Corps Commander Qiu Wei Commissar Kuang Fuzhao *199th Division *200th Division *201st Division Reserve unit. 68th Corps Commander Chen Fangren Commissar Li Chengrui *202nd Division *203rd Division *204th Division ===West coast defense=== 30px West Coast Command Commander: Liang Xingchu (acting) Unit. Commander Sub-units Notes 42nd Corps Commander: Wu Ruilin Commissar: Guo Chengzhu. *124th Division *125th Division *126th Division Reserve unit. Returned to China in November 1952. 50th Corps Commander Zeng Zesheng Commissar Xu Wenlie. *148th Division *149th Division *150th Division 64th Corps Commander Tang Zian Commissar Wang Zhao. *190th Division *191st Division *192nd Division Reserve unit. ===East coast defense=== 30px 9th Army Commander: Wang JiananSong Shi-Lun returned to China in July 1952. See . Commissar: Wang Jianan Unit Commander. Sub-units. Notes 20th Corps Commander Zhang Yixiang Commissar Tan Youming *58th Division *59th Division *60th Division Reserve unit. Returned to China in October 1952. 23rd Corps Commander Zhong Guochu Commissar Lu Sheng *67th Division *69th Division *73rd Division Entered Korea in September 1952. 24th Corps Commander and Commissar Pi Dingjun *70th Division *72nd Division *74th Division Entered Korea in September 1952. 27th Corps Commander Peng Deqing Commissar Zeng Ruqing *79th Division *80th Division *81st Division Reserve unit. Returned to China in October 1952. ===Air=== 30px Air Force Command Commander: Nie Fengzhi (acting)Liu Zhen returned to China around early July 1952. See . Unit. Commander. Sub-units Notes 3rd Aviation Division Commander Yuan Bin Commissar Luo Ping * 7th Regiment * 9th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit. Reentered combat in May 1952 and returned to China in January 1953. 4th Aviation Division Commander Fang Ziyi Commissar Ye Songsheng * 10th Regiment * 12th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit and started its third tour in December 1952.. Previously entered combat during January–May 1952 as part of its second tour. 6th Aviation Division Commander Bei Sha Commissar Zhang Zhiyong * 16th Regiment * 18th Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Reentered combat in December 1952. 12th Aviation Division Commander Wang Mingli Commissar Li Minggang * 24th Regiment * 36th Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Entered combat in March 1952 and returned to China in March 1953. 15th Aviation Division Commander Liu Chengqi Commissar Cui Wenbin * 43rd Regiment * 45th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit and started its second tour in October 1952.. Previously entered combat during January–May 1952 as part of its first tour. 17th Aviation Division Commander Li Shurong Commissar Luo Bin * 49th Regiment * 51st Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit.. Entered combat in March 1952. 18th Aviation Division Commander Wang Dinglie Commissar Li Zhensheng * 52nd Regiment * 54th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit. Entered combat in March 1952 and returned to China in March 1953. 30px 3rd Aviation Corps Commander: Zeng Guohua. Commissar: Li Zaishan Unit Commander Sub-units Notes 5th Aviation Division Commissar Yu Yinglong * 13th Regiment * 15th Regiment Il-10 ground attack unit and under the control of the PLA North East Military Region Air Force. Did not enter combat during this period.. 8th Aviation Division Commander Wu Kai Commissar Sun Cunfeng * 22nd Regiment * 24th Regiment Tu-2 bomber unit and under the control of the PLA North East Military Region Air Force. Did not enter combat during this period. 9th Aviation Division Commander He Jili Commissar Xie Jiyou * 25th Regiment * 27th Regiment La-9 fighter unit and under the control of the PLA North East Military Region Air Force. Did not enter combat during this period. ===Railway=== 30px Railway Transport Forward Command Commander: Liu Juying. Commissar: Liu Juying Unit. Commander Sub-units. Notes Railway Repair Command Bureau Commander Peng Min *1st Railway Engineer Division *2nd Railway Engineer Division *3rd Railway Engineer Division *4th Railway Engineer Division Composed of eight bridging regiments, four track regiments and four independent regiments. Anti-Aircraft Artillery Command Bureau Commander Wu Changchi * 502nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 509th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 511th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 512th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 523rd Anti- Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 533rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * Anti- Aircraft Machine-Gun Regiment * 101st Searchlight Regiment Also assumes control of 62nd, 63rd and 64th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division from the Artillery Director Office.. ===Supports=== Unit. Commander Sub-units. Notes Armor Command Bureau Commander Zhao Jie Commissar Li Zhizhou. * 1st Independent Tank Regiment * 2nd Independent Tank Regiment * 4th Tank Regiment * 5th Tank Regiment * 6th Tank Regiment Elements of PLA 3rd Tank Division arrived in Korea in June 1952. Its 4th, 5th and 6th Tank Regiments relieved 1st, 2nd and 3rd Tank Regiments in June, while its 2nd Independent Tank Regiment relieved 1st Independent Tank Regiment in October. Artillery Director Office Director Kuang Yumin *1st Artillery Division *2nd Artillery Division *7th Artillery Division *8th Artillery Division *21st Rocket Artillery Division *31st Anti-Tank Artillery Division *61st Anti- Aircraft Artillery Division *62nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division *63rd Anti- Aircraft Artillery Division *64th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division Its 62nd, 63rd and 64th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Divisions were under the operational control of Railway Transport Forward Command Anti-Aircraft Artillery Command Bureau.. Engineer Command Bureau Commander Tan Shanhe * 4th Engineer Regiment * 7th Engineer Regiment * 10th Engineer Regiment * 12th Engineer Regiment * 14th Engineer Regiment * 15th Engineer Regiment * 16th Engineer Regiment * 17th Engineer Regiment * 18th Engineer Regiment * 21st Engineer Regiment * 22nd Engineer Regiment Logistics Command Commander Hong Xuezhi Commissar Zhou Chunquan. * 1st Detachment * 2nd Detachment * 3rd Detachment * 4th Detachment * 5th Detachment * 18th Public Security Division Composed of 30 service stations, 13 truck regiments, 16 hospitals, five security regiments, three Public Security regiments and one Public Order regiment.. ==Signing of armistice agreement (May 13 – July 27, 1953)== The fighting that followed the collapse of the armistice negotiation were some of the worst of 1952.. The Battle of White Horse had crippled four regiments from the PVA 38th Corps, while Operation Showdown resulted in 11,500 Chinese casualties.. Despite the heavy losses, the Chinese managed to exhaust the UN forces through two months of attrition warfare, and the United Nations Command soon renounced all major ground operations for the rest of the war.. The front was stabilized once again by November 1952.. Despite the success on the ground, the PVA Air Force was unable to challenge the air supremacy of the US Air Force.. By May 1953, the US Air Force was able to launch 22,639 sorties per month against North Korean targets, while the PVA Air Force could only respond with 1,164 sorties during the same time period.. The situation was further worsen when the Soviet Union withdrew 40 percent of its aircraft in the spring of 1953. The North Korean Premier Kim Il Sung began to sue for peace under the constant UN bombardment,. and the PVA could only counter by encouraging the North Koreans to continue night bombing missions with Po-2 biplanes.. Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected as the President of the United States on November 4, 1952.. After being elected, Eisenhower promised to end the Korean War with "deeds", not "words", while amphibious exercises were carried out around Korea. Although Eisenhower had no plans to end the war through military victory,. the Chinese leadership interpreted those signs as an impending amphibious attack.. As the result, the PLA 1st, 16th, 21st, 54th Infantry Corps, 33rd Infantry Division and 1st Tank Division were ordered into Korea on December 17, 1952.. Those new reinforcements soon brought the total PVA strength to 1.35 million men by the summer of 1953.. To the surprise of Chinese leadership, the expected UN attack did not occur, and the armistice negotiations was later resumed on April 26, 1953... In order to end the war on favorable terms to the Communist, the reinforced PVA struck 10 UN outposts in early May 1953, while two major offensives were carried out against South Korean forces on June 10 and July 13 respectively.. The resulting clashes soon produced 124,912 Chinese casualties against 60,360 UN losses from May to July.. The armistice was signed at 10:12 on July 27, 1953,. and the PVA ended the war with a total of 1.35 million men, including 19 infantry corps, 15 artillery divisions, 9 air force divisions, 10 railway engineer divisions and one Public Security division.. The last Chinese formations left Korea on October 26, 1958... ===Chinese People's Volunteer Army Headquarters=== Commander Peng Dehuai (nominal) Deng Hua (acting) Commissar Peng Dehuai (nominal) Deng Hua (acting) Chief of Staff Li DaRelieved Xie Fang in May 1953. See . Political Director Li ZhiminRelieved Gan Siqi in May 1953. See . ===Frontline=== 30px 9th Army Commander: Wang Jianan. Commissar: Wang Jianan Unit. Commander. Sub-units Notes 16th Corps Commander Yin XianbingYin was soon removed from command on charges of sexual misconduct and abuse of authority. See . Commissar Chen Yunkai *32nd Division *46th Division *47th Division Reserve unit.. Entered Korea in January 1953 and left Korea in April 1958.. 23rd Corps Commander Zhong Guochu Commissar Lu Sheng *67th Division *69th Division *73rd Division Left Korea in March 1958. 24th Corps Commander and Commissar Zhang Zhen *70th Division *72nd Division *74th Division Left Korea in April 1955. 47th Corps Commander Zhang Tianyun Commissar Chen Fahong *139th Division *140th Division *141st Division Reserve unit.. Left Korea in September 1954. 30px 19th Army Commander: Huang YongshengRelieved Han Xianchu in May 1953. See . Unit Commander. Sub-units Notes 1st Corps Commander Huang Xinting Commissar Liang Renjie *1st Division *2nd Division *7th Division Enter Korea on February 2, 1953.. Last Chinese unit stationed in Korea before its withdrawal in October 1958. 46th Corps Commander Xiao Quanfu Commissar Wu Baoshan *133rd Division *136th Division *137th Division Left Korea in October 1955. 63rd Corps Commander Fu Chongbi Commissar Long Daoquan *187th Division *188th Division *189th Division Reserve unit.. Left Korea in September 1953. 64th Corps Commander Tang Zian Commissar Huang Wenming *190th Division *191st Division *192nd Division Reserve unit.. Left Korea in August 1953. 65th Corps Commander and Commissar Wang Daobang *193rd Division *194th Division *195th Division Left Korea in October 1953. 30px 20th Army Commander: Yang YongRelieved Zheng Wishan in May 1953. See . Commissar: Wang PingRelieved Zhang Nansheng in May 1953. See . Unit. Commander. Sub-units Notes 21st Corps Commander Wu Yongxiang Commissar Xie Fulin *61st Division *62nd Division *63rd Division Entered Korea in March 1953.. Left Korea in August 1958. 54th Corps Commander Ding Sheng Commissar Xie Ming *130th Division *134th Division *135th Division Entered Korea around May 1953.. Left Korea in August 1958. 60th Corps Commander Zhang Zuliang Commissar Zhao Tian *179th Division *180th Division *181st Division Left Korea in October 1953. 67th Corps Commander Qiu Wei Commissar Kuang Fuzhao *199th Division *200th Division *201st Division Left Korea in September 1954. 68th Corps Commander Chen Fangren Commissar Li Chengrui *202nd Division *203rd Division *204th Division Left Korea in April 1955. ===West coast defense=== 30px West Coast Command Commander: Deng Hua Unit Commander. Sub-units. Notes 38th Corps Commander Jiang Yonghui Commissar Wu Dai *112th Division *113th Division *114th Division Left Korea on July 10, 1953. 39th Corps Commander Zhang Jiecheng Commissar Shi Ying *115th Division *116th Division *117th Division Reserve unit. Left Korea in May 1953. 40th Corps Commander and Commissar Wen Yucheng *118th Division *119th Division *120th Division Reserve unit. Left Korea in July 1953. 50th Corps Commander Zeng Zesheng Commissar Xu Wenlie *148th Division *149th Division *150th Division Left Korea in April 1954. 2nd Armor Command Bureau Director Luo Jie Commissar Mao Pengfei *1st Tank Regiment *2nd Tank Regiment *3rd Independent Tank Regiment *Artillery Regiment Naval Office Unknown *Navy Fast Attack Craft Group Formed in December 1952. ===East coast defense=== 30px 3rd Army Commander: Xu ShiyouRelieved Wang Jinshan in May 1953. See . Commissar: She Yide Unit Commander. Sub-units. Notes 12th Corps Commissar Li Zhen *31st Division *34th Division *35th Division Reserve unit. Left Korea in April 1954. 15th Corps Commander Li Chengfang Commissar Gu Jingsheng *29th Division *44th Division *45th Division Reserve unit. Left Korea in May 1954. 33rd Independent Division Commander Tong Guogui Commissar Shi Jingban *97th Regiment *98th Regiment *99th Regiment *Artillery Regiment *Tank Regiment Entered Korea in December 1952. Left Korea in September 1954.. ===Air=== 30px Air Force Command Commander: Nie Fengzhi (acting) Unit. Commander. Sub-units Notes 3rd Aviation Division Commander Yuan Bin Commissar Luo Ping * 7th Regiment * 9th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit. Reserve unit and did not enter combat during this period.. 4th Aviation Division Commander Fang Ziyi Commissar Ye Songsheng * 10th Regiment * 12th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit. Ended its third combat tour in July 1953. 6th Aviation Division Commander Bei Sha * 16th Regiment * 18th Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Ended its second combat tour in July 1953. 12th Aviation Division Commander Wang Mingli Commissar Kang Yushan * 34th Regiment * 36th Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Reserve unit and did not enter combat during this period. 14th Aviation Division Commander Wang Yuhuai Commissar Zhao Shaochang * 42nd Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Started its second combat tour in April 1953 and ceased combat in July 1953. 15th Aviation Division Commander Liu Chengqi Commissar Cui Wenbin * 43rd Regiment * 45th Regiment MiG-15 fighter unit. Ended its second tour in July 1953. 16th Aviation Division Commander Sun Tongsheng Commissar Zhang Yonggeng * 46th Regiment * 48th Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Entered combat in January 1953 and ceased combat in July 1953. 17th Aviation Division Commander Li Shurong Commissar Luo Bin * 49th Regiment * 51st Regiment Mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Ceased combat in July 1953. 30px Dandong Air Defense District CommandSubordinate of PVA Air Force Command, it was created on April 6, 1953 by combining all anti-aircraft troops in Korea and along the Yalu River. See . Commander: Cheng Jun. Unit Commander Sub-units. Notes Forward Command Bureau Director Wu Changchi * 502nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 507th Anti- Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 509th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 510th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 512th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 515th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 523rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 533rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 542nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 401st Searchlight Regiment * 402nd Searchlight Regiment * 205th Sentry Regiment 62nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division Commander Wang Xing Commissar Qiu Tiexiong * 604th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 605th Anti- Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 606th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment 63rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division Commander Wu Zhongtai Commissar Li Yunlong * 607th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 608th Anti- Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 609th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment Left Korea in September 1955. 64th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division Commander Lu Rui Commissar Peng Danling * 610th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 611th Anti- Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 612th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment Left Korea in August 1954. 65th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division Commander Yuan Jinli Commissar Shi Youhe * 613th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 614th Anti- Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 615th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment Entered Korea in June 1953. Left Korea in December 1954. 102nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division Unknown * 501st Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 504th Anti- Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 506th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment * 411th Searchlight Regiment Responsible for air defense north of the Yalu River.. ===Railway=== 30px Railway Transport Forward Command Commander: Liu Juying Commissar: Cui Tianmin Unit Commander. Sub-units Notes Railway Repair Command Bureau Commander Liu Ke *1st Railway Engineer Division *2nd Railway Engineer Division *3rd Railway Engineer Division *4th Railway Engineer Division All Chinese railway unit left Korea by September 25, 1955.. Railway Construction Command Bureau Director Guo Weicheng *5th Railway Engineer Division *6th Railway Engineer Division *7th Railway Engineer Division *9th Railway Engineer Division *10th Railway Engineer Division *11th Railway Engineer Division All Chinese railway unit left Korea by September 25, 1955. Railway Military Administration Bureau Director Liu Juying * 1st Sub-Bureau * 2nd Sub-Bureau * 3rd Sub-Bureau * 4th Sub-Bureau * 5th Sub-Bureau All Chinese railway unit left Korea by September 25, 1955. ===Supports=== Unit. Commander. Sub-units Notes 1st Armor Command Bureau Commander Zhao Jie Commissar Li Zhizhou * 2nd Independent Tank Regiment * 4th Tank Regiment * 5th Tank Regiment * 6th Tank Regiment Left Korea in May 1954.. Artillery Command Bureau Commander Gao Cunxin Commissar Liu He *1st Artillery Division *2nd Artillery Division *3rd Artillery Division *7th Artillery Division *8th Artillery Division *21st Rocket Artillery Division *22nd Rocket Artillery Division *33rd Anti-Tank Artillery Division *61st Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division 33rd Anti-Tank Artillery Division entered Korea in early 1953 with two regiments of the 31st Anti-Tank Artillery Division transferred under its command. 22nd Rocket Artillery Division entered Korea in June 1953. 3rd Artillery Division entered Korea in July 1953. All Chinese artillery units left Korea by February 1957.. Engineer Command Bureau Commander Tan Shanhe * 3rd Engineer Regiment * 4th Engineer Regiment * 6th Engineer Regiment * 7th Engineer Regiment * 9th Engineer Regiment * 10th Engineer Regiment * 12th Engineer Regiment * 14th Engineer Regiment * 17th Engineer Regiment * 18th Engineer Regiment * 21st Engineer Regiment * 22nd Engineer Regiment Logistics Command Commander Hong Xuezhi * 1st Detachment * 2nd Detachment * 3rd Detachment * 4th Detachment * 5th Detachment *1st Public Security Division Composed of 23 service stations, 15 truck regiments, 21 hospitals, five security regiments and six Public Security regiments.. == Notes == == References == === Citations === === Sources === * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Korean War orders of battle Category:Military units and formations of the People's Volunteer Army |
Kim Jong-hak (November 5, 1951 – July 23, 2013) was a South Korean television director and producer, best known for the seminal and highly rated Korean dramas Eyes of Dawn (1991) and Sandglass (1995). After financial losses incurred by the big-budget fantasy series The Legend (2007) and Faith (2012), Kim was under investigation when he committed suicide in 2013. ==Career== ===Beginnings=== Kim Jong-hak was born on November 5, 1951 in Jecheon, North Chungcheong Province, the fourth son of seven siblings. While attending Whimoon High School, he won an Excellence Award at the National High School Theater Competition in 1966. ===MBC training=== After he graduated from Kyung Hee University with a Journalism degree, he joined the broadcasting network MBC in 1977. This was a period when the South Korean television industry was undergoing a creative transition with the launch of color broadcasts and ENG cameras, and the new format of short dramas adapted from famous novels, MBC's Bestseller Theater (베스트셀러극장). Like most newbie production directors (called by the title "PD" in Korea), Kim slowly climbed up the ranks by assisting veterans, getting the occasional producer credit on Chief Inspector (수사반장), the 1981 landmark police procedural starring Choi Bool-am. ===Early works=== Kim became an assistant director on one of the historical dramas (called sageuk in Korean) of his mentor Lee Byung-hoon, Royal Emissary (암행어사). In the following years, Kim would direct in all sorts of genres and formats, building versatility that would come in handy about a decade later. In 1983, he told the story of legendary pansori pioneer Shin Chae-hyo in 1983's The Jester (광대가) by Lee Eun-seong, one of the many three-episode experiments that would eventually lead to the birth of miniseries in 1987; he again worked with Lee the same year in the short Gosanja Kim Jeong-ho (고산자 김정호, 1983), a biopic of the notorious late Joseon cartographer, and then moved on to Dasan Jeong Yak- yong (다산 정약용, 1983), written by another sageuk pioneer, Im Choong; he was even entrusted the June 25 special (commemorating the Korean War) which adapted Jo Jung-rae's The Gates of Men (인간의 문) for the small screen, a tale of a left- wing partisan's guilt 20 years after his war crimes. It would take him until 1986 to debut as a bonafide director for an entire series, by taking over for Lee Byung-hoon in MBC's sageuk franchise 500 Years of Joseon (조선왕조 500년), of which Kim directed The Hoechun Gate (회천문; he shared co-directing credits with Lee) and Namhan Fortress (남한산성). But 1987 and 1988 were the years that cemented him as one of Yeouido's most important young directors, not only because of his style and versatility but also his eclectic choices. He helmed the first of many Kim Seong-jong adaptations with Beautiful Affair (아름다운 밀회), about the power struggle that ensues after the death of a powerful company chairman. ===Collaboration with Song Ji-na=== That same year he met Song Ji- na, a former radio drama scripter, and they would famously collaborate on eight dramas. Their first work together was The Last Station (퇴역전선), an eight- episode miniseries (one of the first of the format) set in the 1970s and adapted from a Huh Young-man manhwa, followed by their second series Teacher, Teacher, Our Teacher (선생님 선생님 우리 선생님). But their partnership blossomed with Human Market (인간시장), adapted from Kim Hong-shin's bestseller and which became one of the classics of 1980s Korean TV (SBS would later remake it in 2004). Among the cast of Human Market was actor Park Sang-won, who would continue to work with Kim and Song through the years. ====Eyes of Dawn==== But Kim's true breakthrough came with Eyes of Dawn. To celebrate MBC's 30th anniversary, Song and Kim adapted Kim Seong-jong's 10-volume novel (published in 1981), embarking on a drama that would make Korean television history. Eyes of Dawn began filming in advance in June 1990, with overseas shoots in the Philippines and Harbin (despite the fact that Korea and China hadn't yet established diplomatic relations), a budget of (five- to ten-times the cost of an average drama at the time), over 270 actors and 21,000 extras. Starring Choi Jae-sung, Park Sang-won and Chae Shi-ra, the series depicted young Koreans caught in the maelstrom of turbulent history, from World War II, to the Japanese colonial period and the Korean War. When it aired from 1991 to 1992, it reached a peak viewership rating of 58.4%. ====Sandglass==== 1991 was also the year SBS was launched, forming the three major Korean networks still existing in the present. The new station catalyzed fierce competition towards quantity and quality, and SBS began scouting writers and PDs from its rival stations. Kim had left MBC in 1992 and become a freelance producer, with his production shingle (which he co-founded with Song Ji-na) initially called Jcom. In 1995, he and Song moved to SBS to make Sandglass, which revolved around the tragic relationship between three friends affected by the political and civilian oppression of the 1970s and 80s. Sandglass was controversial because it doubled as a commentary on painful moments of Korea's contemporary history, such as the 1980 Gwangju Massacre (interspersed with its reenactment was archival video footage). It also became one of the most-watched dramas in the country's history, and the streets of Seoul were reportedly deserted whenever it aired. With average ratings of 50.8% and a peak rating at 64.5% (the third highest of all time), Sandglass made Choi Min-soo, Go Hyun-jung, Park Sang-won and Lee Jung-jae A-list stars, and Kim into one of the most influential figures in Korean television. Eyes of Dawn and Sandglass were the peak of the Kim-Song collaboration, and their succeeding dramas, both with each other and with other collaborators, would not reach the same heights of critical and commercial success. ===1996 to 2002=== From 1996 to 1997, Kim took a break from the small screen and produced four films, including Push! Push! starring Hwang Shin-hye and Bang Eun-jin. He returned to television in 1998, directing the action drama White Nights 3.98 which starred Choi Min-soo, Lee Byung-hun and Shim Eun-ha. Adapted by screenwriter Kang Eun-kyung from a novel by Han Tae-hoon, White Nights 3.98 was not as successful in the ratings as Kim's previous series. In 1999, Kim renamed his company Kim Jong-hak Production. (As of 2018, the company is now a subsidiary of ESA Co., Ltd.) He collaborated with Song Ji-na for the sixth time in 2002's Great Ambition (대망, Daemang), a period drama starring Jang Hyuk, Lee Yo-won, Han Jae-suk and Son Ye-jin. ===Fantasy epics=== ====The Legend==== His next project with Song took five years of planning. The 2007 historical-fantasy-epic The Legend (also known as Taewangsasingi, or "The Four Guardian Gods of the King") was highly anticipated for being Korean Wave superstar Bae Yong-joon's first TV series in five years, and also starred Lee Ji-ah, Moon So-ri, Choi Min-soo, Park Sang- won and Lee Phillip. But despite excellent ratings (its peak was 35.7%) and solid overseas sales. ====Faith==== Kim's last drama was Faith (also known as The Great Doctor), his eighth and last collaboration with Song Ji-na. A fantasy epic about a 21st-century plastic surgeon who time travels to the Goryeo era and falls for royal bodyguard Choi Young, the series initially cast Lee Joon-gi and Kim Hee-sun as the protagonists. But Lee was drafted for mandatory military service, and he was replaced by Kang Ji-hwan, who then became embroiled in a legal dispute with his agency, and the role eventually went to Lee Min-ho. The casting changes stalled production for three years, and budget constraints forced Kim to modify his original plan to shoot in 3D. Given its budget and low ratings (around the 10% range), Faith was considered the biggest television flop of 2012. Kim, who hadn't recovered from the financial setbacks of The Legend, became mired in even greater debt. This resulted in him being ousted from Kim Jong-hak Productions, though the company retained his name under new leadership. Several months after the drama ended, members of the Faith cast and crew filed a lawsuit in February 2013 against Kim over unpaid wages amounting to (), under the charge that he had misappropriated for personal use. Furthermore, Kim was accused of double- contracting Faith's soundtrack rights to two separate companies. In May 2013, Kim was placed under investigation for fraud, embezzlement and professional negligence. In China at the time filming a Chinese television drama, Kim was summoned back home on account of the lawsuit, then issued an overseas travel ban. Devastated, he told his friends that his own life appeared to have become a soap opera. He continued to deny any allegations of wrongdoing. ==Death== On July 23, 2013, the 61-year-old director was found dead in a small rented room in Bundang-gu, Gyeonggi Province. The cheap goshitel room (costing ) had been recommended to him by a longtime confidant, his barber, as a refuge before a questioning session at the prosecutor's office scheduled that day. In an apparent charcoal-burning suicide by asphyxiation, police officials said Kim had duct taped the doorways and windows, and half-burned charcoal briquettes were found near his body. There were no signs of forced entry, Kim's body didn't have any external injuries, and he left behind a four-page suicide note apologizing to his family and criticizing the prosecutors, one of them he identified with the surname "Kim". Kim Jong-hak said on his suicide note about his prosecution, ===Reactions=== The Korea Broadcasting Actors Union called Kim as both "a perpetrator and a victim of a flawed outsourced production system" in a statement, wherein it stated that “such tragedies will continue unless the outsourcing system that benefits only the broadcasters is eradicated.” Writer Song Ji-na, a long-time collaborator of Kim, revealed that Faith lead actress Kim Hee-sun was approached by staff and rookie actors of the series for help in filing the lawsuits against the drama's production company, and that she and the other cast felt guilty upon Kim Jong-hak's death. ==Legacy== Despite his legal troubles late in life, Kim's legacy remains his work. Kim Seung-soo at the Seoul Institute of the Arts praised his eye for detail, saying, "He was a true master of his craft who insisted on perfection, and this passion had run into a brick wall." Kim revolutionized Korean dramas and changed the visual paradigm of the industry, which heralded a Golden Age that would last nearly a decade. Both critically acclaimed and massively popular, Eyes of Dawn and Sandglass are currently considered iconic masterpieces of Korean television. ==Filmography== ===As TV Director=== *Faith (SBS, 2012)† *The Legend (MBC, 2007)† *Great Ambition (SBS, 2002)† *White Nights 3.98 (SBS, 1998) *Sandglass (SBS, 1995)† *Eyes of Dawn (MBC, 1991-1992)† *Fifth Column (MBC, 1989) *To the Emperor (MBC, 1989) *Human Market (MBC, 1988)† *Our Town (MBC, 1988) *Teacher, Teacher, Our Teacher (MBC, 1988)† *The Last Station (MBC, 1987)† *Beautiful Affair (MBC, 1987) *Namhan Fortress (MBC, 1986) *The Hoechun Gate (MBC, 1986) *북으로 간 여배우 (MBC, 1986) *The Age of Heroes (MBC, 1985) *Seven Roses (MBC, 1984) *Kingdom of Dongto (MBC, 1984) *Government-General of Joseon (MBC, 1984) *The Gates of Men (MBC, 1984) *Gosanja Kim Jeong-ho (MBC, 1983) *Dasan Jeong Yak-yong (MBC, 1983) *The Jester (MBC, 1983) *Chief Inspector (MBC, 1981) †denotes collaborations with screenwriter Song Ji-na. ===As TV Producer=== *Beethoven Virus (MBC, 2008) *One Mom and Three Dads (KBS2, 2008) *Insoon Is Pretty (KBS2, 2007) *Yi San (MBC, 2007-2008) *The Legend (MBC, 2007) *H.I.T (MBC, 2007) *Behind the White Tower (MBC, 2007) *Dal-ja's Spring (KBS2, 2007) *The Person I Love (SBS, 2007) *The Vineyard Man (KBS2, 2006) *Look Back With a Smile (KBS2, 2006) *Which Star Are You From (MBC, 2006) *Hello God (KBS2, 2006) *Special of My Life (MBC, 2006) *Ballad of Seodong (SBS, 2005-2006) *Princess Lulu (SBS, 2005) *Love Hymn (MBC, 2005) *Fashion 70's (SBS, 2005) *Sad Love Story (MBC, 2005) *Emperor of the Sea (KBS2, 2004-2005) *Oh Feel Young (KBS2, 2004) *When a Man Loves a Woman (SBS, 2004) *Full House (KBS2, 2004) *Sunlight Pours Down (SBS, 2004) *A Problem at My Younger Brother's House (SBS, 2003-2004) *Rosemary (KBS2, 2003) *Good Person (MBC, 2003) *First Love (SBS, 2003) *Shoot for the Stars (SBS, 2002-2003) *Great Ambition (SBS, 2002) *Glass Slippers (SBS, 2002) *Present (MBC, 2002) *Legend (MBC) *Beautiful Days (SBS, 2001) *Golden Era (MBC, 2000-2001) *Ghost (SBS, 1999) *White Nights 3.98 (SBS, 1998) ===As Film Producer=== *3pm Paradise Bath House (1997) *Push! Push! (1997) *Barricade (1997) *Insh'allah (1996) ==Awards== *2003 Korean Producers and Directors' (PD) Association Awards: Best Drama (Great Ambition) *2003 CCEJ Viewers' Drama of the Year: Great Ambition *2003 Baeksang Arts Awards: Best TV Director (Great Ambition) *1995 Baeksang Arts Awards: Best TV Director, Best Drama, Grand Prize for TV (Sandglass) *1992 Korea Broadcasting Awards: Best Drama (Eyes of Dawn) *1992 Baeksang Arts Awards: Best TV Director, Best Drama, Grand Prize for TV (Eyes of Dawn) *1984 Korea Broadcasting Awards: Best Drama (Kingdom of Dongto), Best Director (The Gates of Men) *1984 Baeksang Arts Awards: Best TV Director (Kingdom of Dongto) ==References== ==External links== * Kim Jong-hak Production * Kim Jong-hak at Daum * Kim Jong-hak at Naver * Category:South Korean television directors Category:Whimoon High School alumni Category:Kyung Hee University alumni Category:1951 births Category:2013 deaths Category:Suicides by carbon monoxide poisoning in South Korea Category:2013 suicides |
The following is a timeline of the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson from January 1, 1967, to December 31, 1967. == January == * January 5 – President Johnson attends a meeting of the Lyndon B. Johnson Australian Science Scholars in the Cabinet Room. * January 5 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11322, effectively prohibiting measures related to trade and other transactions with Southern Rhodesia. * January 6 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3760, inviting Americans to participate in the observance of February 1967 as "American History Month" and partake in activities of recognition of the occasion. * January 10 – President Johnson delivers the 1967 State of the Union Address to a joint session of Congress. * January 10 – President Johnson issues a statement on the death of Rhode Island representative John E. Fogarty. * January 11 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3761, intended to correct errors on tariff schedules and terminations of increases on watch movements. * January 11 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3762, reducing duties on sheet glass imports. * January 12 – In a statement, President Johnson announces "one of our most distinguished statesmen and economists – Senator Paul H. Douglas –will head a Commission of distinguished citizens to make the thorough study of our cities and urban areas I recommended to the Congress in my 1965 message on the American city and which the Congress approved in 1966." * January 16 – Alan Stephenson Boyd is sworn in as the 1st United States Secretary of Transportation in the East Room. * January 17 – President Johnson attends a White House dinner in honor of the Vice President, Speaker of the House, Chief Justice, and Majority and Minority leaders in the Senate in the State Dining Room. * January 17 – President Johnson holds his ninety-fourth news conference in his White House office, answering questions on the budget and economic messages, cutbacks in programs and expenditures, highway program, the purchase of mortgages, corps of engineers, public works, HEW projects, agriculture projects, highways, housing credits, reasons for cutbacks, the tax increase, proposals to Chairman Mills, centers for heart, cancer, and strokes, Federal Reserve action, the Ways and Means Committee, and the Defense Department budget. * January 18 – In a letter, President Johnson accepts the resignation of John T. Connor as United States Secretary of Commerce. * January 19 – President Johnson presents the Medal of Honor to Air Force officer Bernard F. Fisher in the East Room. * January 19 – In a message to Congress, President Johnson transmits the second annual report on the operation of the International Coffee Agreement. Johnson speaks on the accomplishments of the program and warns that "countries heavily dependent on earnings from their production of coffee will face a continuing threat of instability" in the event that demand and production are not balanced. * January 24 – At noon, President Johnson submits a 21.9 billion bill to Congress that brings the cost of the war to 46.2 billion. * January 30 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3765, designating "March 1967 as Red Cross Month" and urging "all Americans to give this voluntary organization their full support for the benefit of all our citizens." * January 30 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11325, imposing regulations on the Selective Service that will constitute "Part 1643 of Chapter XVI of Title 32 of the Code of Federal Regulations". * January 31 – President Johnson delivers remarks on the accepting of a portrait of late U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in an East Room ceremony attended by members of the Roosevelt family. * January 31 – In a letter to Chairman of the Cleaning House Association Robert C. Baker, President Johnson reiterates his message to Congress from January 25 and expresses how the budget he wishes implemented will benefit the District of Columbia. * January 31 – In a message to Congress, President Johnson reflects on past legislative action toward service members and proposes the Vietnam Conflict Servicemen and Veterans Act of 1967 "to remove the inequities in the treatment of veterans of the present conflict in Vietnam", "enlarge the opportunities for educationally disadvantaged veterans", "expand educational allowances under the G.I. Bill", "increase the amount of Servicemen's Group Life Insurance", "increase the pensions now received by 1.4 million disabled veterans, widows and dependents", and "to make certain that no veteran's pension will be reduced as a result of increases in Federal retirement benefits, such as social security." * January 31 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that he has submitted six proposals to Congress to meet the needs of American service members and veterans and outlines them while stating that the proposals will show the resolve of the United States to help its service members past and present in their hour of need. * January 31 – President Johnson transmits the annual report on United States aeronautics, and space activities to Congress in a message. President Johnson touts the space record of the US and writes that no achievements would have been possible without American involvement. * January 31 – President Johnson delivers remarks to members of the United States Jaycees Governmental Affairs Seminar in the Cabinet Room. == February == * February 1 – In a letter to United States Secretary of Commerce John T. Connor, President Johnson confirms he has read Connor's report "on the fine progress that has been made in implementing Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1965" and commending him along with "ESSA management, and all ESSA employees for the efficiency and sensitivity which have contributed to carrying out this reorganization." * February 1 – President Johnson attends a ceremony commemorating the effective date of minimum wage increases in the Cabinet Room. * February 1 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey and House Speaker McCormick, President Johnson advocates for including the proposed San Rafael Wilderness in the Wilderness System and transmits "a letter and report from Secretary of Agriculture Orville L. Freeman recommending the establishment of this Wilderness area." * February 2 – President Johnson holds his ninety-fifth news conference in the East Room. President Johnson beings the conference with an address on consular convention with the Soviet Union and answers questions from reporters on Vietnam, his relationship with the press, the new session of Congress, American relations with Eastern Europe, communism since World War II, and the Democratic Party. * February 2 – President Johnson reports on progress "in organizing the war against hunger" and lists several steps to address the issue of hunger. * February 2 – President Johnson attends the Presidential Prayer Breakfast at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington. * February 6 – President Johnson presents the National Medal of Science Awards for 1966 in the East Room. * February 6 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Safe Streets and Crime Control Act of 1967 "calls for the most comprehensive attack on crime ever undertaken" and asserts the federal government can assist with training better police departments as well as provide better equipment in order to prevent "the rising tide of organized crime, to stop the illegal flow of narcotics, to keep lethal weapons out of the wrong hands, guarantee the right of privacy of every American citizen." * February 6 – President Johnson sends a special message to Congress on crime in the United States and speaks on his receiving the report of the National Crime Commission before offering proposals to better "the caliber and training of enforcement, judicial and officials", better "the capability of police detect crimes and apprehend commit them", an expansion of "the range and quality of treatment services", fully using "advanced scientific methods in the courtroom, to reduce frustrating and unfair delays and to make available to the sentencing judge all necessary information about the defendant", "provide better counsel for juveniles and for adults who cannot afford to provide their own", and better "communication and understanding between law enforcement authorities and the urban poor." * February 6 – President Johnson meets with RFK and Walt Rostow in the Oval Office. * February 7 – President Johnson transmits the first Treaty on Outer Space to the Senate in a message. President Johnson recommends "that the Senate act promptly in giving consent to the ratification of this Treaty." * February 8 – In a reply to Pope Paul VI, President Johnson says the governments of the United States and the Republic of Vietnam are working to end the Vietnam War and preparations by both parties to discuss a diplomatic solution to the war. * February 8 – President Johnson addresses Boy Scouts following their presentation of "Report to the Nation" in the Cabinet Room. * February 8 – In a statement, President Johnson says he has asked Congress "to enact a new charter for the young people of America" that would include strengthening Head Start, "a lunch program for undernourished preschool children", improving "health services for children and for expectant mothers", tackling juvenile delinquency, and providing summer recreation of a healthy variety. * February 8 – In a special message to Congress, President Johnson transmits "a 12-point program for the children and youth of America" and equates preparation of American youth with good economics, reciting a quote by Franklin D. Roosevelt in which Roosevelt stated that "the destiny of American youth is the destiny of America." * February 9 – President Johnson and King Hassan II of Morocco deliver toasts at a dinner in the State Dining Room. * February 9 – In a statement, President Johnson says he has "asked the Congress to help chart a new course for American foreign aid. We know that aid is indispensable to our quest for world order" and that the United States needs to adopt an objective of helping regions that want to help themselves. * February 9 – In a special message to Congress, President Johnson proposes the Foreign Assistance Act of 1967 and says the legislation "will contain a clear statement of the philosophy which underlies our programs and the criteria to be used in this Administration." * February 9 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the welcoming ceremony of King Hassan II of Morocco in the East Room on how both the United States and Morocco "are dedicated to the ideals of freedom – freedom for ourselves and freedom for all others" and "are devoted to orderly progress and to equal justice for all people." * February 23 – President Johnson attends a ceremony marking the ratifying of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution in the East Room. * February 24 – President Johnson issues a statement on the death of Roy Roberts. * February 27 – President Johnson transmits the Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1967 to Congress in a message, saying the plan would transfer "authority to approve the surrender of certain ship documents" from the Commerce Secretary to the Transportation Secretary. * February 27 – President Johnson attends a briefing by David Lilienthal and Robert Komer after they returned from Vietnam in Johnson's White House office. * February 27 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey and House Speaker McCormick, President Johnson attaches a copy of Executive Order 11322 and says the order "implements the action of the United Nations Security Council reflected in its Resolution No. 232, adopted on December 16, 1966, on which the Representative of the United States voted affirmatively." * February 27 – President Johnson sends a special message to Congress on the United States Capitol. * February 27 – President Johnson holds his ninety-sixth news conference in his White House office. President Johnson answers questions from reporters on Vietnam, the Attorney General appointment, the inter-American meeting in Buenos Aires, intent to visit other Latin America countries, the economy, views of Secretaries Rusk and McNamara, prospects for peace, Vietnam tactics, and political criticisms. * February 28 – President Johnson announces his selection of Ramsey Clark to serve as the next United States Attorney General to the press and notes the nomination is a problem for Clark's father Associate Justice Tom C. Clark when asked by a reporter in his White House office. * February 28 – In a statement, President Johnson says "Congress has received my fourth message on education and health" and that the goal of America "is the healthiest and the best educated society the world has ever known." * February 28 – President Johnson sends a special message to Congress on the subject of health and education in America and advocates for Americans to "encourage states and localities to plan more effectively and comprehensively for their growing needs and to measure their progress towards meeting those needs." * February 28 – President Johnson issues a statement on the death of Henry Luce, calling him "a pioneer of American journalism" and crediting him with having "a sense of history in the making, and so helped millions of men and women in this country and abroad to understand the forces that shape the society in which they live." * February 28 – In a statement, President Johnson says he has sent Congress "a 1968 budget amendment totaling $149.8 million for three significant scientific project" and that he is "recommending appropriations of $91 million in the coming fiscal year for nuclear rocket development." == March == * March 1 – President Johnson issues a memorandum to department and agency leadership on his "directing the relevant agencies in the Executive Branch to begin at once a major and coordinated effort to review our readiness to make the economic adjustments which a termination of hostilities in Vietnam might require." * March 2 – President Johnson delivers remarks on the centennial of the United States Office of Education reflecting on its establishment by President Andrew Johnson in 1867 and its rise in concerns over the decades in the Office of Education Plaza. * March 2 – In a letter to Senator Henry M. Jackson, President Johnson relates the continued bombing of North Vietnam by the United States was caused by North Vietnam's violation of two international agreements and says this policy will persist "until those who launched this aggression are prepared to move seriously to reinstall the agreements whose violations has brought the scourge of war to Southeast Asia." * March 2 – In a statement, President Johnson notes the fiftieth anniversary of the granting of United States citizenship to Puerto Rico and says "the people of the United States and the people of Puerto Rico share an equal dedication" in the cause of justice and human dignity. * March 2 – President Johnson attends a ceremony marking the centennial of Howard University in the physical education building at Howard. * March 2 – President Johnson holds his ninety-seventh news conference in the Fish Room. President Johnson begins the conference with a remark on the Soviet Union reply confirming "the willingness of the Soviet Government to discuss means of limiting the arms race in offensive and defensive nuclear missiles" and answers questions from reporters on House action toward Clayton Powell, Vietnam, Soviet Union discussions, and the New Orleans challenge on the Warren Commission. * March 2 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11329, establishing a "Board of Inquiry, consisting of Mr. J. Keith Mann, Chairman, Mr. George E. Reedy and Mr. Paul D. Hanlon, whom I appoint to inquire into the issues involved in this dispute" that will "have powers and duties as set forth in Title II of such Act." * March 3 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that he is appointing "a commission of 15 distinguished American citizens to make a thorough study of the Federal budget and the manner in which it is presented to the Congress and the public" and says he is asking "the commission to prepare its recommendations by September." * March 4 – In a statement, President Johnson announces "a series of actions to reinforce the welcome recovery of housing construction that is already underway" that "are aimed to encourage the construction of housing for families of low and moderate incomes." * March 4 – In a statement, President Johnson says the National Advisory Council's appointment "is further proof of our determination that the war on poverty will be a citizen's war" and that the council "will recommend to the Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity changes and improvements which should be made in our antipoverty programs, and report to me and to the Congress concerning its findings and recommendations." * March 4 – In a statement, President Johnson announces "the appointment of Miss Betty Furness as Special Assistant for Consumer Affairs" who "will also serve as Chairman of the Committee on Consumer Interests and as Executive Secretary of the Consumer Advisory Council." * March 4 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3769, proclaiming "the week beginning March 5, 1967, as Save Your Vision Week" and inviting "the Governors of the States, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and officials of other areas subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to issue similar proclamations." * March 5 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11330, establishing the membership of the President's Council on Youth Opportunity, its functions such as seeking the aid of department heads whenever a matter resonating with a particular agency surfaces and they do not have that topic as one of their areas of concern, and both establishing the Citizens Advisory Board on Youth Opportunity in addition to its membership. * March 6 – In a message to Congress, President Johnson transmits the fifth annual report of the Peace Corps. He states the intent of the Peace Corps during the upcoming year of 1968 and his confidence in the report being a "gratifying reading to all who are interested in this pioneering and humane endeavor." * March 6 – In a message to Congress, President Johnson transmits a report "on the Community Work and Training Program authorized by the Public Welfare Amendments of 1962" and urging the states "to study the lessons we have learned and to avail themselves fully of the promise which these programs hold." * March 6 – In a message to Congress, President Johnson discusses the Selective Service, relating the new legislation enacted by Congress on the Selective Service following the conclusion of World War II and its qualifications. * March 6 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11331, establishing the creation of the Pacific Northwest River Basins Commission under the request of governors from multiple states. * March 7 – President Johnson attends the Seventh Annual Federal Woman's Award Ceremony in the Cabinet Room. * March 7 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11333, suspending "until June 29, 1968, the provisions of section 6374 of title 10 of the United States Code, but only with respect to a brigadier general on the active list of the Marine Corps whose second failure of selection for promotion to the grade of major general occurred during the same fiscal year as his first failure of selection for such promotion." * March 7 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11334, designating the Asian Development Bank "as a public international organization entitled to enjoy the privileges, exemptions, and immunities conferred by the International Organizations Immunities Act" and amending Executive Order 11269 by adding terms that the Council and Treasury Secretary shall abide by. * March 7 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11332, ordering "that any income, excess profits, estate, or gift tax return for the years 1947 to 1968, inclusive, shall, during the Ninetieth Congress, be open to inspection by the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, or any duly authorized subcommittee thereof, in connection with its studies of the operation of Government activities at all levels with a view to determining the economy and efficiency of the Government." * March 8 – President Johnson transmits the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 to the Senate for its advice and consent. * March 8 – In a letter to Chairman of Federal Woman's Award Study Group Penelope H. Thunberg, President Johnson confirms he "considered the initial report of the Federal Woman's Award Study Group and have approved the recommendations you have made" and that he has asked "Secretary Wirtz to have the Interdepartmental Committee on the Status of Women give early consideration to the form of issuance of the proposed Executive Order" and "Chairman Macy to initiate immediate action on the other recommendations of the Study Group and to report to me by the first of July the progress made." * March 8 – President Johnson transmits the third annual report on the status of the National Wilderness Preservation System to Congress. President Johnson notes his past submission of "legislation to authorize the first addition to the Wilderness System since its establishment – the San Rafael Wilderness, Los Padres National Forest, California" and states his intent to continue making recommendations later in the year. * March 8 – James J. Reynolds is sworn in as Under Secretary and Thomas R. Donahue as Assistant Secretary of Labor in the East Room. * March 9 – In a statement, President Johnson says he has transmitted to Congress "a fiscal year 1968 budget amendment involving a decrease in the amount of $14.9 million for the Atomic Energy Commission" and that the Atomic Energy Commission "will terminate the current development work on the heavy-water-moderated, organic- cooled reactor (HWOCR) concept for civilian power but will continue a research and development program on heavy water reactor technology." * March 9 – President Johnson transmits the Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1967 to Congress in a message. President Johnson endorses the plan as "a step toward fulfilling my pledge to the American people that Government must be reshaped to meet the tasks of today. It underscores my conviction that progress can be achieved by building upon what is strong and enduring, but that we shall never hesitate to discard what is inefficient or outmoded." * March 9 – President Johnson holds his ninety eighth news conference in the East Room. President Johnson begins the conference with an address on his sending a message to Congress "asking it to act speedily to restore the investment credit and the use of accelerated depreciation for buildings" and answers questions from reporters on differing beliefs on the Vietnam War, income tax increase, Vietnam, meeting with General Westmoreland and Ambassador Lodge, CIA activities, the Russian view of Vietnam, the Federal Reserve Board, Vietnam settlement conditions, relations with the Soviet Union, procedure for the Selective Service, the upcoming presidential election, another war in Vietnam about establishing a constitutional democracy, the West Coast shipyard strike, the effect of the Apollo tragedy on the space program, and the sales of rifles to Singapore. * March 9 – President Johnson awards the Medal of Honor to Specialist 6 Lawrence Joel on the South Lawn. * March 9 – President Johnson transmits the twentieth annual report on United States participation in the United Nations in a message to Congress. The report covers 1965 and President Johnson writes that the year "gave new evidence of our country's vigorous commitment to the world organization, and to the cause of peace which it serves. All of the American efforts recorded here – whether political, economic, social, legal or administrative – were designed solely to further that commitment." * March 9 – President Johnson transmits a report "on the marine science activities of the Federal Government" in a message to Congress. * March 9 – President Johnson issues Executive Order 11335, amending Executive Order 11248 to include "(12) Commissioner, Property Management and Disposal Service, General Services Administration." * March 10 – Ramsey Clark is sworn in as the 66th United States Attorney General in the Great Hall at the Department of Justice. * March 10 – President Johnson awards the Presidential Unit Citation to the 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group of the United States Military Airlift Command in the Cabinet Room. * March 10 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3770, requesting the observance of "Monday, May 1, 1967, as Law Day in the United States of America" and urging "the people of the United States to observe Law Day with appropriate ceremonies and by reaffirming their commitment to freedom and the supremacy of law in our lives." * March 11 – In a message to Constantine II of Greece, President Johnson reflects on the Truman Doctrine's call for preservation of freedom for the Greek people and says he is "proud of the fact that throughout that period, the United States and Greece have worked together in close partnership toward common goals." * March 11 – In a message to President of Turkey Cevdet Sunay, President Johnson extends best wishes to the president and the Turkish people on the twentieth anniversary of the Truman Doctrine. * March 11 – In a letter to former President Truman, President Johnson reflects on Truman pitching the Truman Doctrine to Congress and credits Truman with helping to the teach the lessons of freedom not being divisible, world order is vital to national interest, and high costs are paid by those who ignore their responsibilities. * March 13 – President Johnson transmits a message on the upcoming meeting of American leaders in Punta del Este in Uruguay to Congress. He says the meeting "represents another link in the bond of partnership which joins us with more than 230 million neighbors to the south" and "a review of the progress we have made together in a great adventure which unites the destinies of all of us." * March 14 – President Johnson transmits a message to Congress on urban and rural poverty in the United States. * March 14 – President Johnson and Prime Minister of South Korea Chung Il-kwon deliver toasts at a luncheon in the State Dining Room at the White House. * March 14 – President Johnson meets with South Korea Prime Minister Chung II-kwon in which President Johnson expressed "the continuing admiration of the American people for the courage and prowess of the Korean forces on the field of battle in Vietnam and for their effective endeavors to promote the welfare of the Vietnamese populace." * March 14 – President Johnson delivers remarks to Korean Prime Minister Chung during the welcoming ceremony on the South Lawn. * March 15 – President Johnson attend the dedication of Columbia State Community College in Columbia, Tennessee. * March 15 – President Johnson delivers on American policy in Vietnam in the House Chamber of the Tennessee State Capitol at Nashville, Tennessee. * March 15 – President Johnson delivers remarks at Hermitage ceremonies on the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Andrew Jackson. * March 16 – President Johnson signs S. 665 into law. President Johnson says the legislation authorizes funds "necessary for the procurement of missiles, aircraft, and tracked combat vehicles, for research, development and evaluation, and for military construction." * March 16 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Senate agreeing to the ratification of the Consular Convention was an event in which the chamber "acted in the best tradition of American government" and that the convention "will provide important measures to protect Americans traveling in the Soviet Union. Last year more than 18,000 of our citizens visited the U.S.S.R." * March 17 – President Johnson transmits a report on the Communications Satellite Act of 1962 to Congress in a message. President Johnson says American space technology is assisting in the creation of world peace and that the people of the world understand "the potential for completely new, heretofore unimagined ways of peaceful cooperation for expanding world trade, for enhancing educational opportunities, for uplifting the spirit and enriching the lives of people everywhere." * March 17 – President Johnson sends a message to Congress on the topic of the federal government's quality. He reflects on Franklin D. Roosevelt and the 75th United States Congress "still harnessing the resources of government to continue the rout of the great depression which had threatened to overwhelm the country" and efforts made by the Hoover Commission to reorganize the government during the administration of Harry S. Truman. * March 17 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that he is "instructing Federal agencies to release $791 million of those deferred funds." * March 18 – President Johnson delivers a toast at a dinner for governors reflecting on the tradition of the Governors' conference beginning in 1908 when Theodore Roosevelt requested American governors to meet with him in Washington. * March 18 – President Johnson attends the Governors' Luncheon in the State Dining Room. * March 18 – President Johnson attends a White House Conference With the Governors in the Fish Room. * March 20 – President Johnson and Chairman Thieu deliver toasts at a dinner at President Johnson's Guam home of Nimitz House. * March 20 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the opening session of the Guam Conference at Nimitz Hill, Guam headquarters of U.S. Naval Forces Marianas. * March 20 – In a statement, President Johnson says he is "deeply pleased to hear from Prime Minister Ky that the Directorate has agreed to the new Constitution just adopted by the Constituent Assembly of the Republic of Vietnam", adding that the Constitution "marks the most important step in Vietnam's progress toward representative government" and "establishes an executive branch and endows it with wide powers, but subjects it, at the same time, to strong measures of control by the legislature." * March 20 – President Johnson delivers remarks upon his arrival at Guam International Airport confirming that Guam was selected "for its convenience to those who are conducting the military and peaceful development campaign in Vietnam." * March 20 – President Johnson delivers welcoming remarks to Chairman Thieu and Prime Minister Ky at Guam International Airport stating his "hope that this conference will be of value to both of us in charting the course for the future of the struggle for freedom in Vietnam." * March 21 – President Johnson delivers remarks at Andrews Air Force Base over the seven areas of major American concern that were discussed in Guam and says the nature of the war "requires courage, perseverance, and dedication" while confirming that there was no new policy achieved during the meeting. * March 21 – In a letter to President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam Ho Chi Minh, President Johnson writes of his hope that the Vietnam War can come to an end and states that he is "prepared to order a cessation of bombing against your country and the stopping of further augmentation of U.S. forces in South Viet-Nam as soon as I am assured that infiltration into South Viet-Nam by land and by sea has stopped. These acts of restraint on both sides would, I believe, make it possible for us to conduct serious and private discussions leading toward an early peace."136 – Letter to Ho Chi Minh Proposing Bilateral Discussions on the Vietnam War. (March 21, 1967) * March 21 – In a statement, President Johnson expresses regret in not being able to personally visit the Pacific Islands due to time constraints but "that Commissioner Norwood's impressive analysis has given me a vivid sense of the progressive spirit now at work in Micronesia." * March 21 – President Johnson delivers remarks at Andersen Air Force Base on the aims of the administration in Vietnam and outlines the seven major concerns the United States has toward Vietnam. * March 21 – President Johnson holds his ninety-ninth news conference in Top O' The Mar. President Johnson begins the conference with a report on the Vietnam discussions and answers questions from reporters on Vietnam's prognosis, enemy sanctuaries in Cambodia and Laos, military decisions at the conference, Komer's performance in Vietnam, the pace of pacification, obstacles to peace discussions, American troops in relation to the pacification program, U.N. diplomatic activities, Hanoi's assessment of American public opinion, and plans and remarks by Ambassador Lodge. * March 21 – The United States and Vietnam release a joint statement on Guam detailing that the completed meeting between President Johnson, Chairman Thiệu, Prime Minister Ky, and party leadership of the American mission in Saigon on "their joint determination with their allies, to defend freedom in South Vietnam and at the same time to continue the earnest search for an honorable peace" as well as talks regarding "the military front, where the initiative lies increasingly with the allied forces and where the leaders of North Vietnam must recognize the futility of their effort to seize control of South Vietnam by force." * March 22 – President Johnson issues a memorandum to department and agency leadership on air traffic in the vicinity of airports before directing them "to take into explicit and due account aircraft noise whenever it is relevant to any of their programs or to action in which they may 'participate, and to cooperate with the Secretaries of the Department of Transportation and the Department of Housing and Urban Development in efforts to control and reduce the problems of aircraft noise." * March 22 – President Johnson transmits the first annual report on the operation of the Automotive Products Trade Act of 1965 to Congress in a message. President Johnson says the agreement is a "joint undertaking by the United States and Canada to create a broader market for automotive products, to liberalize automotive trade between the two countries, and to establish conditions conducive to the most efficient patterns of investment, production and trade in this critical industry." * March 22 – In a statement, President Johnson reflects on his last State of Union Address calling for concern for American Indians and states that he is pleased to "provide the means for rapid assistance to those needy Indians whose plight is compounded by acts of nature beyond their control." * March 22 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11336, designating power to the United States Secretary of Agriculture "to exercise, without the approval, ratification, or other action of the President, the authority vested in the President by clause (1) of the fifth sentence of section 407 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended (7 U.S.C. 1427), to the extent prescribed in subsection (b) of this section." * March 23 – In a statement, President Johnson says he is sending Congress "a supplemental request for $479 million to cover the additional cost of the fiscal 1967 pay increase authorized last year for some Federal employees and military personnel" and that the appropriations "together with the $339 million supplemental appropriation requested last week, amounts to $818 million – $262 million less than the full cost of the increases." * March 23 – President Johnson sends a birthday message to General William Westmoreland. * March 24 – William M. Roth is sworn in as Special Representative for Trade Negotiations. * March 24 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3771, proclaiming "the week beginning May 21, 1967, as World Trade Week" and requesting "the appropriate Federal, State, and local officials to cooperate in the observance of that week." * March 24 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3772, proclaiming "the week beginning April 23, 1967 as Youth Temperance Education Week" and inviting "the Governors of the States, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and officials of other areas subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to issue similar proclamations." * March 25 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11337, ordering "that any income, excess-profits, estate, or gift tax return for the years 1948 to 1966, inclusive, shall, during the Ninetieth Congress, be open to inspection by the Senate Committee on Government Operations or any duly authorized subcommittee thereof, in connection with its studies of the operation of Government activities at all levels with a view to determining the economy and efficiency of the Government." * March 27 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11338, adding "(13) Deputy Under Secretary, Department of Transportation" to section 2 of Executive Order 11248. * March 28–30 – President Johnson meets with Prime Minister of Afghanistan Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal in which the Afghanistan leader discusses his efforts "to build and strengthen democratic institutions and to press economic and social progress." * March 28 – President Johnson delivers remarks to delegates of the National Conference on Crime Control at a dinner at the Willard Hotel in Washington. * March 29 – President Johnson delivers remarks to Directors of the State Departments of Commerce regarding the benefits of enacting the proposed Intergovernmental Manpower Act in the Cabinet Room. * March 30 – President Johnson attends a dinner for Democratic State Chairmen at the Washington Hilton Hotel. * March 30 – In a statement, President Johnson says Executive Order 11340 will start the Department of Transportation on April 1 and "consolidate 35 programs previously dispersed through 7 departments and independent agencies" in addition to uniting close to "100,000 employees, and annual expenditures of more than $6 billion." * March 30 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3773, designating May 1967 as "Senior Citizens Month" and calling for government and private and voluntary organizations to comply with the observance. * March 31 – President Johnson arrives at Randolph Air Force Base in Texas and delivers remarks on his intent there with Latin American ambassadors. == April == * April 1 – In a statement, President Johnson says Congressional approval of H.J. Res. 267 has shown the willingness of Congress to address critical food needs in India and that the United States is partnering with other countries to support ending the food plight in India. * April 3 – President Johnson and President of Turkey Cevdet Sunay deliver toasts at a dinner in the State Dining Room. * April 3 – In a statement, President Johnson reports "that action has been taken or is now in progress in fields covered by about three- fourths of the more than 400 recommendations" with regards to the White House Conference on International Cooperation. * April 3 – President Johnson transmits the second annual report of the National Capital Transportation Agency for calendar year 1966 to Congress in a message. * April 3 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the welcoming ceremony at Turkey President Sunay on the South Lawn. * April 3 – President Johnson attends a ceremony marking the fiftieth anniversary of the Federal Land Banks in the Rose Garden. * April 4 – President Johnson delivers remarks to Directors and Managers of the Veterans Administration in the Rose Garden. * April 4 – President Johnson attends a ceremony commemorating the winners of the Fourth: Annual Physical Fitness Leadership Awards in the Cabinet Room. * April 4 – In a statement, President Johnson says H.R. 7123 is an appropriation of "12,196,520,000 for the support of operations in Southeast Asia" while implementing mandatory restrictions on the deactivation of certain airlift and troop carrier units in both the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard. * April 5 – In a statement, President Johnson announces funds being allocated to college students for education opportunities and says the investment "will be returned many times over when they take their places as highly trained and contributing members of our society." * April 5 – President Johnson sends a special message to Congress on the topics of federal pay and postal rates, arguing in favor of government employees having pay increases in addition to an increase in postal rates and improving postal services. * April 6 – President Johnson posthumously rewards the Medal of Honor to Specialist 4 Daniel Fernandez in the Rose Garden. * April 6 – President Johnson transmits the 16th Annual Report of the National Science Foundation to Congress in a message. President Johnson says the report "tells a proud story of continuing progress on many scientific frontiers – of bold and creative men and women pitting their skill and imagination against the challenges and opportunities posed by Nature" and lays out steps for maintaining the promise of the report. * April 6 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3775, calling "upon the people of the United States, and upon all patriotic, civic, and educational organizations, to observe Monday, May 1, 1967, as Loyalty Day, with appropriate ceremonies in which all of us may join in a reaffirmation of our loyalty to the United States of America." * April 7 – President Johnson delivers remarks on the meeting with NATO Nuclear Planting Group and answers questions from reporters on whether troop reduction was discussed during the meeting and nuclear land mines mentioned by Turkey in his White House office. * April 7 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3776, proclaiming "the month of April 1967 as Cancer Control Month" and inviting "the Governors of the States, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and other areas subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to issue similar proclamations." * April 7 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3777, proclaiming "the week beginning May 1, 1967, as National CARIH Asthma Week" and inviting "the Governors of the States, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and officials of other areas subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to issue similar proclamations." * April 8 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that he has "called upon 10 distinguished Americans to conduct the most searching and exhaustive review ever undertaken of the structure and organization of the Post Office Department" and "asked the Commission to determine whether the high quality postal service which Americans have come to expect can better be performed by a Cabinet department, a Government corporation, or some other form of organization." * April 8 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11341, establishing the President's Commission on Postal Organization in addition to its functions, the cooperation of executive departments and agencies, commpensatio0n and personnel, and its Executive Director "who shall be designated by the President and shall receive such compensation as may hereafter be specified". * April 8 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3778, calling "upon all the people of the United States to observe the month of May in this and each succeeding year as Steelmark Month with appropriate proceedings and ceremonies." * April 10 – President Johnson sends a special message to Congress on the impending nationwide railroad strike and recommending "that Congress approve a joint resolution to extend the 60-day "no strike" period in this case/or an additional 20 days." * April 10 – President Johnson delivers remarks to Vice President Humphrey following his return from Europe on the South Lawn. * April 10 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3779, modifying Proclamation 3279 to include, "The Secretary of the Interior shall keep under review the supply-demand situation with respect to asphalt in District I, Districts II–IV, District V, and Puerto Rico, and, as he determines to be consonant with the objectives of this proclamation, he may in his discretion (1) establish, without respect to the levels of imports prescribed in section 2, a maximum level of imports of asphalt for District I, or Districts II–IV, or District V, or Puerto Rico and, notwithstanding the provisions of subparagraph (4) of paragraph (b) of this section 3, establish a special system of allocation of such imports, or (2) permit the entry for consumption or the withdrawal from warehouse for consumption of asphalt in District I, or Districts II–IV, or District V, or Puerto Rico, without allocations or licenses, notwithstanding the provisions of section 1." * April 10 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11342, establishing the Quetico–Superior Committee including its composition and its function to "advise and consult with the appropriate executive departments and agencies of the Government of the United States and of the State of Minnesota, and shall from time to time make such recommendations as it deems proper." * April 11 – In a statement, President Johnson expresses approval for the Congress decision to extend the no strike period in the railroad dispute and urges "both the carriers and the workers to use every hour of these 20 days to negotiate in earnest in an attempt to reach an equitable decision in the American way of true collective bargaining. * April 11 – President Johnson delivers a toast at a dinner in Punta del Este, Uruguay attended by Central American Presidents in the Hall of the Americas at the San Rafael Hotel. * April 11 – President Johnson delivers remarks at Carrasco Airport on the progress of the alliance between American heads of state as well as the purpose of their meeting in Punta del Este. * April 12 – In a statement, President Johnson recalls the program increasing financial assistance to Central American countries in the areas of "economic integration, multinational projects, agriculture, education, and health" that he proposed to Congress the previous month and reports on progress made since then. * April 12 – President Johnson signs S.J. Res. 65 into law, extending the no strike period of the railroad dispute and announces he is "appointing a special panel of three judicious Americans: Judge Charles Fahy, recently retired Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, George Taylor, professor of industry, University of Pennsylvania, and John Dunlop, professor of economics, Harvard University" that he is requesting "to help the parties mediate their differences, and if the parties should fail to reach agreement, to recommend whatever additional action may be necessary." * April 12 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11343, creating "a board of three members" to investigate the dispute between the Long Island rail road and its employees. * April 13 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the public session of the meeting of American heads of state in the Hall of the Americas at the San Rafael Hotel. * April 14 – In a statement, President Johnson reflects on the American heads of state meeting as having a goal "to demonstrate that freedom and economic development are not enemies – that massive social and political transformations can be accomplished without the lash of dictatorship, or the spur of terror." * April 14 – President Johnson delivers remarks at an airport in Paramaribo, Surinam after returning from the American heads of state meeting. * April 15 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3780, proclaiming "the period of April 16–22, 1967, to be DISCOVER AMERICA PLANNING WEEK" and urging "all individuals, businesses, industries, and civic and other organizations to give the observance their fullest cooperation and support." * April 15 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11344, creating "a board of inquiry, consisting of Mr. Leo C. Brown, Chairman, Mr. James C. Hill and Mr. Clyde W. Summers, whom I appoint to inquire into the issues involved in" the dispute between Avco Corporation and employees at the Lycoming Division Plant. * April 17 – President Johnson transmits the 1966 Annual Report of the National Capital Housing Authority to Congress in a message. * April 17 – President Johnson transmits the 1965 Annual Report of the Department of Housing and Urban Development to Congress in a message. * April 19 – President Johnson issues a statement on the death of Konrad Adenauer, who Johnson asserts "will always be a symbol of the vitality and courage of the German people." * April 19 – President Johnson presents the National Teacher of the Year Award in the Rose Garden. * April 20 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Teacher Corps "has made a strong beginning" and "offers bright promise for substantial improvement in the education of disadvantaged children, and it should be continued." * April 20 – In a statement, President Johnson reflects on his asking Congress "to increase the salaries of Government employee" and "to increase postal rates and improve postal services" before mentioning the benefits of the executive order he is signing later that day. * April 20 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11348, a five-part addition to the training of government employees. * April 20 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11345, establishing the Great Lakes Basin Commission and granting the commission jurisdiction over "the Great Lakes Basin Commission referred to in section 1 of this order (hereinafter referred to as the Commission) shall extend to those portions of the eight Great Lakes States of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin that are drained by the St. Lawrence River system". * April 20 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11346, adding "(14) Deputy Assistant Secretary for Mortgage Credit, Department of Housing and Urban Development" to section 2 of Executive Order 11248. * April 20 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11347, amending Executive Order 11210 to establish a temporary commission "composed of the Attorney General, the Postmaster General, the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Labor, the Secretary of Transportation, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Administrator of General Services, the Chairman of the Commission of Fine Arts, the Chairman of the National Capital Planning Commission, the Director of the National Gallery of Art, the President of the Board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and such other members as may be appointed by the President." * April 21 – President Johnson transmits the first annual report of the National Advisory Council on Extension and Continuing Education in a message to Congress. * April 21 – In a memorandum to department and agency heads, President Johnson discusses air pollution and writes that he is "directing Secretary Gardner to inform the Congress that an additional $2.7 million in the 1967 supplemental request will be devoted to research on controlling pollution from sulfur oxides." * April 22 – In a statement, President Johnson reflects on his appointing "an emergency board under the Railway Labor Act to investigate the dispute between virtually all of the Nation's railroad carriers and six shopcraft unions representing 137,000 employees" and that the panel has reported to him that an agreement has still not been reached. President Johnson says his decision to make the panel's report public is "because it is important that the American people and the parties weigh the impact of a rail strike against the narrow issues that separate the parties. I have also directed the special panel to continue to use every minute of every hour to get the parties to achieve a voluntary settlement through collective bargaining." * April 22 – In a statement, President Johnson notes the damage caused by the Midwest tornadoes and says he has "asked Farris Bryant, the Director of the Office of Emergency Planning, and other agencies of the Federal Government to render all possible assistance to Governor Kerner and the local authorities so that the resources of the Federal Government can quickly respond to the needs of the people in their time of crisis" and "directed Governor Bryant to dispatch immediately emergency teams to the areas hardest hit to provide on-the-scene assistance." * April 24 – President Johnson sends a telegram to governors inviting them to the luncheon honoring General Westmoreland while admitting that he is aware they were in Washington a short time ago and saying that the meeting will see an exchange of views from those present. * April 24 – In a message to Presidium of the Supreme Soviet Nikolai Podgorny, President Johnson says the death of Vladimir Komarov is an international tragedy and extending the condolences of the American people to the Soviet Union. * April 26 – President Johnson delivers remarks on his discussions with Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger at the German Chancellery in Bonn. * April 26 – President Johnson delivers remarks to American Physical Society members in the Main Ballroom at the Sheraton-Park Hotel in Washington. * April 27 – President Johnson attends the dedication ceremony for the Crossland Vocational Center at Crossland Senior High School in Camp Springs, Maryland. * April 27 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3781, designating "April 28–29, 1967, as Rush-Bagot Agreement Days" and inviting "the Governors of the several States, the chief officials of local governments, and the people of the United States to observe these days with appropriate ceremonies and activities." * April 28 – President Johnson delivers remarks on the career and service of Martha Raye in the East Room. * April 28 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey and House Speaker McCormick, President Johnson writes that a rail strike "would disrupt our commerce, cripple our industries, create shortages of food. It would adversely affect the lives of every man, woman, and child in this country" and that since he returned from Germany he has "consulted with the bipartisan leadership of the Congress, and with ranking members of the Senate Labor and House Commerce Committees." * April 28 – President Johnson delivers remarks on the progress of the American military in Vietnam while attending a luncheon for General Westmoreland in the East Room. * April 29 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that he is authorizing "the Secretary of Transportation to sign the contracts for the prototype construction of a commercial supersonic transport" while he personally sends Congress "a request for $198 million to finance the Government's share of the next phase of the development of this transport aircraft." * April 29 – In a statement, President Johnson reflects on the "United States joined 50 other nations in contributing funds to preserve the great Abu Simbel Temples, in Egypt's Nubia" three years ago and the "task of saving Abu Simbel is unfinished – $3.5 million more is needed to reassemble the remaining two temples and restore them to a new site." == May == * May 1 – President Johnson attends a reception for the 1966–1967 White House Fellows in the East Room. * May 1 – Betty Furness is sworn in as Special Assistant to the President for Consumer Affairs in the East Room. * May 1 – President Johnson transmits the fifth report under the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 to Congress in a message. President Johnson advocates for building more apprenticeship and work experience into employment, establishing more education opportunities, and creating a system where education and work experience are brought together to provide the youth with preparation fitting society's needs and mentions that to achieve this, he is "directing the Secretary of Labor and the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to make a thorough study of the relationship between our educational programs and our manpower programs, between learning and earning in America." * May 1 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11349, amending Executive Order 11136 to change functions of the President's Commission on Consumer Interests and the Consumer Advisory Council. * May 2 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey, President Johnson transmits a request for a $75 million fiscal 1967 supplemental appropriation for the Office of Economic Opportunity, saying the request will enable the federal government "to respond to plans which have been developed by local communities across the land" and urging Congress to act on the matter. * May 2 – President Johnson presents the Medal of Honor posthumously to Staff Sergeant Peter S. Connor in the Rose Garden. * May 3 – President Johnson attends a dinner honoring Speaker of the House of Representatives John W. McCormack in the Regency Room at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington. * May 3 – President Johnson delivers remarks to the State Directors of the Selective Service System in the Rose Garden. * May 3 – President Johnson holds his one-hundredth news conference in his White House office, answering questions from reporters on American troops in Vietnam, troop deployment in Germany, the proposed nuclear nonproliferation agreement, the railroad labor dispute, the six percent surcharge proposal, draft opposition, campaign financing legislation, the Republican policy on Vietnam, pessimism over Vietnam, Russian offensive missiles in Vietnam, dissent on Vietnam, Communist leadership in antiwar dissent, the potential threat to his primary and secondary education bill in the House, and comments by Senator George Aiken regarding the Republican report on Vietnam. * May 3 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11350, amending regulations on the Selective Service. * May 4 – In a message to Congress, President Johnson transmits "the reports of the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Transportation on cash awards made during Fiscal Year 1966 to members of the Armed Forces for suggestions, inventions, and scientific achievements." * May 4 – President Johnson sends a special message to Congress listing his recommendation of procedures that can be used to resolve the railroad labor dispute. * May 5 – In a statement, President Johnson discusses the plight of disadvantaged children in cities that cannot enjoy summers due to their location and that Americans can assist with their participation in the Share Your Summer campaign. * May 6 – President Johnson attends the bust unveiling of former Mayor of Austin Tom Miller at the Municipal Auditorium in Austin, Texas. * May 8 – President Johnson attends a reception for participants in the Conference on Women in the War on Poverty in the East Room. * May 9 – President Johnson and Vice President of the Republic of China C. K. Yen deliver toasts during a luncheon in the State Dining Room. * May 9 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Worldwide Drug Reaction Monitoring System "will be a vital health protection measure for people everywhere" and "a big step forward in protecting all people from these unforeseen hazards." * May 9 – In a letter to Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare John W. Gardner, President Johnson authorizes Gardner "to perform the functions vested in the President under the provisions of sections 5 (b) and (c) of that Act, as may be required to provide assistance by the United States in the World Health Organization International System to Monitor and Report Adverse Reactions to Drugs." * May 9 – President Johnson attends the Democratic Congressional Dinner in the International Ballroom at the Washington-Hilton Hotel in Washington. * May 9 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the welcoming ceremony of Vice President of the Republic of China Yen on the South Lawn. * May 9 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3782, urging "the people of the United States to honor our American Merchant Marine on Monday, May 22, 1967, by displaying the flag of the United States at their homes and other suitable places" and requesting "that all ships sailing under the American flag dress ship on that day in tribute to the American Merchant Marine." * May 9 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3783, designating "the week beginning May 21, 1967, as Small Business Week" and urging "industrial and commercial organizations, chambers of commerce, boards of trade, and other public and private organizations to participate in ceremonies recognizing the significant contributions, past and present, of small business to our land, our culture, and our ideals." * May 10 – In a statement, President Johnson says he is "submitting to Congress an amendment to the 1968 budget, requesting $500,000 to finance architectural studies and plans for the Center's facilities" and estimates that by the early 1970s "the full program of the Center, including scholarships, stipends, and travel awards, will cost an estimated $12 million annually – including $1.2 million now spent each year for exchange programs of the Institutes." * May 10 – President Johnson signs S. 303 into law. The legislation acts as an amendment to the previous law authorizing funds to the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands government. President Johnson reports that he "already asked that the Congress appropriate additional funds, both this year and next, so that among other projects we can build schools, hospitals, roads, airfields, and communication facilities, hire teachers and doctors and nurses, and provide for the economic development of the area." * May 10 – President Johnson and Vice President of the Republic of China Yen release a joint statement detailing their meeting the previous day. * May 10 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3784, requesting "that Sunday, May 14, 1967, be observed as Mother's Day" and directing "the appropriate officials of the Government to display the flag of the United States on all Government buildings on that day." * May 11 – President Johnson transmits a "report of continued progress in the Nation's space program" to Congress in a message. President Johnson says the achievements listed in the report "reflect not only our progress in space flight, but also new steps taken toward the real objective of all our efforts in space – the application of new knowledge to bettering the lives of all people" and that the United States space program "continues to exemplify our Nation's conviction that the road to peace, progress, and abundance is through continued cooperation among all nations." * May 13 – President Johnson addresses the Lawyers Conference on Crime Control in the Colonial Room at the Mayflower Hotel in Washington. * May 15 – President Johnson attends a press briefing with governors in the auditorium of the National Guard Building at Bradley Field, Connecticut. * May 15 – President Johnson attends the New England Governors Conference at Bradley Field, delivering remarks on the needs of Americans. * May 16 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that a general agreement "has been reached on all the major issues in the trade negotiations" and states his hope that the final agreement meets the expectations of the Trade Extension Act of 1962. * May 18 – President Johnson holds his one hundredth and first news conference in his White House office, answering questions from reporters on the cities' forecast, the Vietnam Pacification Program, the budget, objectives in Vietnam, congressional remarks on Vietnam, the United Nations and Vietnam, polls on his popularity, the imminence of World War III, the reassignment of General Lewis W. Walt, concessions to Southern members of Congress, action on the rent supplement bill in the House, domestic legislative program, Vietnam support and dissent, on becoming a grandfather, the nonproliferation treaty, relations with Red China, the upcoming presidential election and fundraising, pace of the Vietnam War, discussions with New England governors, and the government for the District of Columbia. * May 19 – President Johnson delivers remarks to the State Committeemen and Executive Directors of the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service in the East Room. * May 19 – President Johnson signs S. 270 into law in the East Room. The legislation authorizes a desalting plant in Southern California and President Johnson says the administration "will outline plans as soon as that distinguished Californian, the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, gets them ready for any other ventures that some of you want to take." * May 19 – President Johnson awards the Presidential Unit Citation to the 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry, 1st Infantry Division of the United States. * May 22 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3785, designating "Memorial Day, Tuesday, May 30, 1967, as a day of prayer for permanent peace" and urging "all of the people of this Nation to join me in prayer to the Almighty for the safety of our Nation's sons and daughters around the world, for His blessing on those who have sacrificed their lives for this Nation in this and all other struggles, and for His aid in building a world where freedom and justice prevail, and where all men live in friendship, understanding, and peace." * May 22 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11351, an amendment to Executive Order 11318 with the submission of "This order shall be effective as of May 31, 1966." * May 22 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11352, suspending "the provision of section 5751 (b) of title 10 of the United States Code which relates to the service-in-grade requirement for officers of the Marine Corps in the grade of lieutenant colonel for eligibility for consideration by a selection board for promotion to the next higher grade." * May 23 – In a statement, President Johnson discusses the rising tension between Israel and its Arab neighbors as a situation concerning the international community and support by the community for "all efforts, in and outside the United Nations and through its appropriate organs, including the Secretary General, to reduce tensions and to restore stability." * May 23 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that he is "signing an Executive order creating a Council on Cost Reduction in Government" that he is asking "to explore further opportunities for economy and better management." * May 23 – President Johnson presents the Presidential "E" Awards for Excellence in Developing New Markets for Exports in the Rose Garden. * May 23 – President Johnson delivers remarks to delegates of the International Conference on Water for Peace in the Grand Ballroom at the Sheraton Park Hotel in Washington. * May 23 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11354, an amendment to Executive Order 11030 in regards to presidential proclamation preparations. * May 23 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11353, forming the President's Advisory Council on Cost Reduction in addition to specifying membership and its functions. * May 24 – President Johnson issues a statement on presenting the Distinguished Service Medal to Major General James W. Humphreys, Jr. * May 24 – President Johnson delivers remarks to Japanese Governors on the development of the United States and Japan in the Cabinet Room. * May 24 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3786, designating "the period beginning September 17 and ending September 23, 1967, as Constitution Week" and urging "the people of the United States to observe that week with appropriate ceremonies and activities in their schools and churches, and in other suitable places, to the end that our citizens, whether they be naturalized or natural-born, may have a better understanding of the Constitution and of the rights and responsibilities of United States citizenship." * May 25 – President Johnson presents the United States Gift to the Canadian people at the United States Pavilion during a visit to the Canadian Universal and International Exhibition in Montreal. * May 25 – President Johnson and Prime Minister of Canada Lester B. Pearson attend a press briefing in which President Johnson reflects on the content of the meeting at Uplands R.C.A.F. Base in Ottawa. * May 25 – President Johnson delivers remarks in Montreal upon attending EXPO '67 reflecting on Canada being the first country he visited after becoming U.S. President at the Place des Nations. * May 25 – President Johnson sends a message to Congress on the subject of the American political process, proposing reforms in election campaign financing "to assure full disclosure of contributions and expenses, to place realistic limits on contributions, and to remove the meaningless and ineffective ceilings on campaign expenditures", providing "a system of public financing for Presidential election campaigns", enlarge "the base of public support for election campaigns, by exploring ways to encourage and stimulate small contributions", end "the loopholes in the Federal laws regulating lobbying", and assuring "the right to vote for millions of Americans who change their residences." * May 26 – President Johnson issues a memorandum to the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of Transportation on oil pollution in coastal waters and asking them "to undertake, on an urgent basis, a study to determine how best to mobilize the resources of the Federal Government and the Nation to meet this problem." * May 26 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11355, amending subsection 305 (a) of Executive Order 10647 to read "At least once every twelve months the Chairman of the Civil Service Commission shall survey appointments made under section 710 (b) (1) of the Act." * May 27 – President Johnson attends the christening of the U.S.S. John F. Kennedy at Newport News, Virginia with members of the Kennedy family including Jacqueline Kennedy and Senators Robert F. Kennedy and Ted Kennedy. * May 27 – President Johnson signs S. 1161 into law, establishing the John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site. * May 29 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3787, proclaiming "October 15, 1967, as White Cane Safety Day" and calling "upon all our citizens, our civic and service organizations, schools, public bodies and the media of public information in every community to join in observing White Cane Safety Day, so that blind persons in our society may increasingly enjoy the greatest possible measure of personal independence." * May 30 – President Johnson and President of the Republic of Vietnam Nguyễn Văn Thiệu exchange messages on the observance of Memorial Day. * May 30 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11356 in response to the dispute between the National Railway Labor Conference and its employees, forming "a board of three members, to be appointed by me, to investigate these disputes" that will "report its findings to the President with respect to the disputes within thirty days from the date of this order." * May 31 – President Johnson transmits the annual report of the Railroad Retirement Board for Fiscal Year 1966 in a message to Congress. President Johnson says "increases in retirement and survivor benefits reported here represent increased comfort and security in the retirement years of many worthy citizens" and urges "the Congress to take this vital step toward our goal of providing every elderly citizen an adequate income and a meaningful retirement." * May 31 – President Johnson transmits the fourth annual report on Special International Exhibitions conducted during fiscal year 1966 under the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961 in a message to Congress. == June == * June 1 – President Johnson and Prime Minister of Australia Harold Holt attend a dinner in the State Dining Room. * June 1 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the welcoming ceremony of Australian Prime Minister Holt on the South Lawn. * June 1 – President Johnson transmits Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1967 to Congress in a message. President Johnson says the intent of the plan is to bring "Twentieth Century government to the Capital of this Nation: to strengthen and modernize the government of the District of Columbia; to make it as efficient and effective as possible." * June 2 – President Johnson attends a dinner in the State Dining Room honoring Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Harold Wilson. * June 2 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the welcoming ceremony for United Kingdom Prime Minister Wilson on the South Lawn. * June 3 – President Johnson attends the New York State Democratic Dinner in the Imperial Ballroom at the Americana Hotel in New York City. * June 3 – In a statement, President Johnson announces "the formation of that committee, which will draw upon the talents and the experience of a group of distinguished industrialists, bankers, labor leaders, and specialists in urban affairs" and that it will be led by Edgar F. Kaiser. * June 5 – The Six Day War is a massive victory for Israel over its Arab neighbors. * June 6 – In a statement, President Johnson cites the urgency of enacting legislation that would "strengthen the reliability of the power systems" in the United States. * June 6 – In a statement, President Johnson says the cease fire of the United Nations Security Council "pens a very hopeful path away from danger in the Middle East" and "reflects responsible concern for peace on the part of all who voted for it." * June 6 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11357, ordering "that the provisions of the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966, as amended (80 Stat. 718, 943), shall be carried out through the National Highway Safety Bureau and the Director thereof." * June 6 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11358, ordering "that any income, excess- profits, estate, or gift tax return for the years 1948 to 1967, inclusive, shall, during the Ninetieth Congress, be open to inspection by the Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, or any duly authorized subcommittee thereof, for the purpose of carrying on those investigations of subversive and un-American activities and propaganda authorized by clause 18 of Rule XI of the Rules of the House of Representatives, agreed to January 10, 1967." * June 7 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that he is "establishing a Special Committee of the National Security Council" in response to the "continuing crisis and the effort to help build a new peace". * June 8 – In a letter to Mike Mansfield, President Johnson says that the most pressing concern of the United States "is to find a way to bring the fighting in the Middle East to an end" and the continuation of policies by the Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy administrations. * June 8 – President Johnson and President of Malawi Hastings Banda deliver toasts at a luncheon in the State Dining Room. * June 9 – In a memorandum, President Johnson cites the need for the United States to focus on Mexican American and asks "the Secretary of Labor, the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the Secretary of Agriculture and the Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity to serve on an interagency committee on Mexican American affairs." * June 9 – Vicente T. Ximenes is sworn in as a member of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in the East Room. * June 10 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3788, designating "the week beginning June 11, 1967, as National Flag Week" and directing "the appropriate Government officials to display the flag on all Government buildings during that week." * June 12 – President Johnson transmits the eleventh annual report of the Surgeon General on the Health Research Facilities Program for 1966 in a message to Congress. * June 12 – President Johnson delivers remarks to the National Legislative Conference, Building and Construction Trades Department in the International Ballroom at the Washington Hilton Hotel. * June 13 – In a statement, President Johnson notes rising accident rates and charges "every administrator in the Federal Government with personal responsibility to see that the causes of accidents in his operation are found and eliminated." * June 13 – President Johnson attends a reception for the Presidential Scholars in the East Room. * June 13 – President Johnson attends the graduation ceremony of Capitol Page School in the Rose Garden. * June 13 – In the Rose Garden, President Johnson announces that he "shall send to the Senate this afternoon the nomination of Mr. Thurgood Marshall, Solicitor General, and the first African American, to the position of Associate Justice of the Supreme Court made vacant by the resignation of Justice Tom C. Clark of Texas." * June 14 – President Johnson delivers remarks to delegates of National Rural Electric Cooperative Association Youth Conference on the South Lawn. * June 14 – Alexander B. Trowbridge is sworn in as the 17th United States Secretary of Commerce in the Rose Garden. * June 15 – While addressing reporters in his White House office, President Johnson announces the nomination of Warren Christopher as United States Deputy Attorney General. * June 15 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3789, designating "the week of June 18–24, 1967, as National Coal Week" and calling "upon citizens throughout the Nation to participate in observance of that week, in honor of the National Coal Association". * June 16 – President Johnson attends a Democratic Party Dinner in the Civic Auditorium in Austin, Texas. * June 27 – President Johnson delivers remarks to delegates to the National Convention of the United States Jaycees at the Civic Center in Baltimore, Maryland. * June 29 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Education Professions Development Act of 1967 "is a basic building block for our schools and for our Nation. For no school – no matter how fine the building or how fancy its equipment – means as much as the men and women who work in it." * June 29 – President Johnson and the King of Thailand release a joint statement detailing Johnson's expressed admiration "for the rapid economic development and improvement in education and social services that have taken place in Thailand under His Majesty's leadership" during the meeting between the two. * June 29 – President Johnson addresses the Opportunities Industrialization Center on a spirit that has aided in the building of the center through domestic programs imposed during his administration. * June 29 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11359, an amendment of Executive Order 11278 that adds "the Secretary of Transportation" after "the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development". * June 30 – In a statement, President Johnson confirms he has received the first annual report of the Citizens' Advisory Committee on Recreation and Natural Beauty and announces that he is directing "Secretary Trowbridge, as Chairman of the President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty, and Director Schultze of the Budget Bureau to review carefully the Committee report and within 90 days to make recommendations to me on steps which could be taken to implement it." * June 30 – In a statement, President Johnson announces he has "signed a proclamation which will reduce dairy imports to the normal level which prevailed before 1966. On the basis of these new quotas, annual imports will be approximately 1 billion pounds of milk equivalent." * June 30 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3790, amending part 3 of the Appendix to the Tariff Schedules of the United States. * June 30 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11360, serving to amend regulations for the Selective Service. == July == * July 1 – President Johnson signs the Older Americans Act Amendments of 1967 into law. President Johnson reflects on the intervention of President Franklin D. Roosevelt with the passing of the initial Social Security Act and notes that it has been a year since Medicare passed, saying the amendments are the highest increase in assistance in more than 30 years. * July 1 – In a statement commemorating the anniversary of Medicare, President Johnson says the program "is fulfilling the promise that older Americans and their families will be free of the fear of major financial hardship because of illness" and calls it "a powerful force in upgrading the level of health care available to all Americans" while insisting that the forces behind its passage have formed "a partnership for a healthier America." * July 1 – President Johnson holds his one hundred and third news conference at the Mayfair Hotel in St. Louis, Missouri. President Johnson begins the conference with an introduction from Governor of Iowa Harold Hughes and answers questions from reporters on the Middle East, support from the American people and governors, relationships between federal, state, and local governments, the Republican Governors Conference, crime and law enforcement, congressional ethics, a review of discussions with governors, the effectiveness of the poverty program, unity in the Democratic Party, Vietnam elections, the upcoming presidential election, and attitudes of the governors. * July 1 – President Johnson delivers remarks to the Conference of Democratic Governors at the Mayfair Hotel in St. Louis. * July 3 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey and House Speaker McCormick, President Johnson transmits " to the Congress the report of the Secretary of the Interior resulting from the National Study of Strip and Surface Mining" and adds that the report "shows that much of the land which has been surface mined in the United States is now causing damage to our environment" in addition to also indicating "that present surface mining practices can and must be improved. Each year some 150,000 additional acres are being surface mined." He requests "all Federal agencies immediately review their policies dealing with surface mining on lands under their jurisdiction, and with contracts for the procurement of surface mined mineral commodities and fuels." * July 3 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3791, proclaiming "July 10, 1967, as World Law Day" and calling "upon all public and private officials, members of the legal profession, citizens, and all men of good will to demonstrate the importance of the law in mankind's quest for world peace by appropriate observances and ceremonies in courts, schools, universities, and other public places." * July 4 – President Johnson issues a statement on the observance of Independence Day, calling on Americans to recall the battles of the past while they celebrate their freedoms of the present. * July 6 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that the United States and Mexico governments "have concluded an agreement for the construction, operation, and maintenance of an international flood control project for the Tijuana River in California and in Baja California, Mexico" and thanks "the many Members of Congress who supported the legislation last year to authorize this project, and particularly Senator Kuchel and Representative Van Deerlin for their valuable leadership." * July 6 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11361, suspending "the provision of Section 5751(b) of Title 10 of the United States Code which relates to the service-in-grade requirement for officers of the Marine Corps in the grade of first lieutenant for eligibility for consideration by a selection board for promotion to the next higher grade." * July 8 – In a statement, President Johnson states the report on the number of students assisted through the federal government "are dramatic evidence of the desire and ability of this country to help its young people attain their aspirations" and that the statistics "suggest that in only one generation we can attain a once impossible goal: that every American boy and girl will have the opportunity to move up the educational ladder as far as individual desire and ability permit." * July 11 – In a statement, President Johnson states the need for the District of Columbia government to be reorganized and urges support from Congress on his plan. * July 11 – President Johnson transmits the annual report of the Commodity Credit Corporation for fiscal year 1966 in a message to Congress. * July 11 – President Johnson and Chancellor of Germany Ludwig Erhard deliver toasts at a luncheon in the State Dining Room. * July 12 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3792, proclaiming "where the work was subject to copyright under the laws of the United States of America on or after September 3, 1939, and on or before May 5, 1956, by an author or other owner who was then a German citizen; or where the work was subject to renewal of copyright under the laws of the United States of America on or after September 3, 1939, and on or before May 5, 1956, by an author or other person specified in Sections 24 and 25 of the aforesaid Title 17, who was then a German citizen, there has existed during several years of the aforementioned period such disruption and suspension of facilities essential to compliance with conditions and formalities prescribed with respect to such works by the copyright law of the United States of America as to bring such works within the terms of Section 9(b) of the aforesaid Title 17". * July 12 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3793, designating "the week beginning July 16, 1967 as Captive Nations Week" and inviting "the people of the United States of America to observe this week with appropriate ceremonies and activities, and I urge them to give renewed devotion to the just aspirations of all peoples for national independence and human liberty." * July 13 – President Johnson holds his one hundred and fourth news conference in the living quarters of the White House. President Johnson begins an address on discussions concerning Vietnam and answers questions from reporters on the number of troops, the South Vietnamese effort, the basis for troop requests, impact of draft calls, tour of duty, the military situation, additional units, the position of North Vietnam, the request of General Westmoreland, North Vietnam forces, and if additional forces will be from other countries outside of the United States. * July 13 – President Johnson presents the Distinguished Service Medal to Admiral David L. McDonald in the East Room. * July 16 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11362, constituting "a finding in pursuance of section 101(b) of the Defense Production Act of 1950, as amended, with respect to the exercise, as directed by section 2 of this order, of the powers vested in me by section 101(a) of that Act." * July 17 – In a letter to House Speaker McCormick and Senate Majority Leader Mansfield, President Johnson recounts the meeting held the previous day as well as the current state of the railroad strike. * July 17 – President Johnson signs SJ. Res. 81 into law. President Johnson says the legislation "brings a hopeful solution to this Nation in an hour of industrial crisis" and enables "the products of our farms and factories to move freely once more" and "the mails to be delivered once again." * July 17 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3794, amending Proclamation 3279 to state that the "maximum level of imports of residual fuel oil to be used as fuel into District 1, Districts II–IV, and District V for a particular allocation period shall be the level of imports of that product into those districts during the calendar year 1957 as adjusted by the Secretary as he may determine to be consonant with the objectives of this proclamation." * July 20 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11363, designating "the International Secretariat for Volunteer Service as a public international organization entitled to enjoy the privileges, exemptions, and immunities provided by the International Organizations Immunities Act." * July 21 – President Johnson delivers remarks in the Auditorium of the Clinical Center at the National Institutes of Health on the attempts by the administration "to build a society which guarantees good health for all". * July 22 – President Johnson issues a statement on the death of Carl Sandburg, hailing him as "more than the voice of America, more than the poet of its strength and genius." * July 24 – President Johnson delivers remarks in the White House Theater on his sending federal troops to Detroit, Michigan in response to riots there. * July 24 – In response to telegram from Governor of Michigan George Romney, President Johnson says he is deploying troops "to proceed at once to Selfridge Air Force Base, Michigan." * July 24 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3795, commanding "all persons engaged in such acts of violence to cease and desist therefrom and to disperse and retire peaceably forthwith." * July 24 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11364, authorizing and directing the United States Secretary of Defense "to take all appropriate steps to disperse all persons engaged in the acts of violence described in the proclamation and to restore law and order" and "call into the active military service of the United States, as he may deem appropriate to carry out the purposes of this order, any or all of the units of the Army National Guard and of the Air National Guard of the State of Michigan to serve in the active military service of the United States for an indefinite period and until relieved by appropriate orders." * July 26 – President Johnson delivers remarks to delegates to Boys Nation in the Rose Garden. * July 27 – President Johnson delivers an address in his White House office in which he announces that he is "appointing a special Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders" for the purpose of investigating the causes behind recent disorders in cities while making recommendations on measures that would either prevent or contain future incidents. * July 27 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the Department of Defense Cost Reduction ceremony in the East Room. * July 27 – President Johnson sends telegrams to Michigan Governor Romney and Mayor of Detroit Jerome Cavanagh on federal government assistance to the 12th Street riot. * July 27 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 379, setting "aside Sunday, July 30, 1967, as a National Day of Prayer for Peace and Reconciliation" and calling "on every Governor, every Mayor, every family in the land to join in this observance." * July 29 – President Johnson delivers remarks on the establishment of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders in the Fish Room. * July 29 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11365, establishing the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders in addition to its membership and functions. * July 31 – President Johnson holds his one hundredth and sixth news conference in his White House office. President Johnson begins the conference with an address on David Ginsburg accepting the position of Executive Director of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders and answers questions from reporters on the Gallup poll on the administration's Vietnam policy, a speech by Secretary General U Thant, if he sees merit in a suggestion by Mayor Cavanagh for a 1,000-man Federal riot force, criticism he's received from the Democratic National Convention, the effect of riots on legislation, tax increase, the Taylor-Clifford mission, selection of the Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, the position of the Philippines, President of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito, the effects of riots on Vietnam and space spending, what the administration plans for a national airport plan, proposals by Senator Morton giving Johnson "the power of transferability to take 10 percent of the long- range urban spending programs and apply it immediately to the problems of the cities", doubt on a summit meeting between the United States and allies occurring, executive action to prevent riots, disaster relief for Detroit, Michigan, the timing of the tax proposal, national spending priorities, the nuclear nonproliferation treaty, and discussions on the anti-ballistic missile. == August == * August 1 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3797, proclaiming "Tuesday, October 24, 1967, as United Nations Day" and urging "the citizens of this Nation to observe that day by means of community programs that will contribute to a realistic understanding of the aims, problems, and achievements of the United Nations and its associated organizations." * August 2 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3798, designating "the week beginning October 8, 1967, as Fire Prevention Week" and bidding "all citizens earnestly to support the fire prevention and control efforts of their community fire departments" while urging "State and local governments, the National Fire Protection Association, business and civic groups, and public information agencies to observe Fire Prevention Week, to provide useful fire safety information to the public, and to enlist the active participation of all citizens in year-round fire prevention programs." * August 3 – President Johnson delivers remarks to the press on his meeting with Cyrus Vance and General Throckmorton in the Fish Room. * August 3 – President Johnson holds his one hundred and seventh news conference in the Fish Room. President Johnson begins the conference with an announcement of the tax message going to Congress and answers questions from reporters on troop levels in Vietnam, the attitude of the Ways and Means Committee, the needed surtax size, effective dates and other possible formulas, the reaction of the business community and labor, revenue estimates in the tax message, and his reaction to opposition of the administration tax message by the Republican Coordinating Committee. * August 3 – President Johnson sends a special message to Congress reflecting on the budget by the administration for the fiscal year of 1968 and his "directing each Department and Agency head to review every one of his programs, to identify reductions which can be made and to report to the Director of the Budget in detail on the actions he is taking to put those reductions into effect." * August 4 – Clifford L. Alexander is sworn in as Chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in the East Room. * August 4 – President Johnson delivers remarks to the delegates to the Girls Nation on the accomplishments of American women through their participation in varying eras of United States history in the Rose Garden. * August 4 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11366, authorizing the Defense Secretary "to exercise the authority vested in the President by section 673a of title 10 of the United States Code, to order to active duty any member of the Ready Reserve of an armed force" that is not serving in a unit of the Ready Reserve. * August 5 – Warren Christopher is sworn in as United States Deputy Attorney General in the Cabinet Room. * August 8 – In a letter to House Speaker McCormick, President Johnson says the House of Representatives will be able to "strike the antiquated shackles from the government of the District of Columbia" the following day and reflects on the proposals of the reorganization plan for the District of Columbia that he submitted to Congress. * August 8 – In a message to Congress, President Johnson transmits the third annual report of the Atlantic-Pacific Interoceanic Canal Study Commission. * August 9 – In a statement, President Johnson says "the House of Representatives has voted to replace the rusted gears of government in the Nation's Capital with an efficient city management" and provided the United States with proof that its capitol belongs to Americans in supporting the reorganization plan legislation. * August 9 – In letters to Chairman of the Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare Lister Hill and Chairman of the House Committee on Education and Labor Carl D. Perkins, President Johnson addresses the Guaranteed Loan Program, authorized under Tide IV-B of the Higher Education Act of 1965, entering its second full year of operation and reiterates problems that were identified within the program during its first year. * August 11 – President Johnson reports that he has had a "very satisfactory and hopeful meeting" with Ambassador William C, Foster in the Fish Room. * August 11 – In a statement, President Johnson reiterates the appointments of City Council members brought upon by the reorganization plan for the District of Columbia and calls for those "who are interested in the membership of the City Council to submit to me names of those individuals whom they consider qualified to sit on the Council and the reasons for their judgment." * August 11 – In a statement, President Johnson says the United States has "seen the greatest advances in the Nation's history on behalf of the American consumer" in the last three years and reiterates several pieces of legislation that he wanted passed in the first session of the 90th United States Congress. * August 12 – President Johnson vetoes H.R. 11089. President Johnson says he is returning the legislation without his approval "because it places too heavy a burden and levies too heavy a charge on the American taxpayer by providing private insurance out of public funds" and "sets an unwise precedent at a critical time in our history." * August 12 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3799, designating "the period of November 5 through November 11, 1967, as American Education Week" and calling "upon the American people to celebrate the achievements of their educational system, and to dedicate themselves to making it still more responsive to our Nation's needs." * August 14 – President Johnson send a special message to Congress on the United States communications policy and relates activities surrounding the policy up to that point and reflects on the passage of the Communications Satellite Act of 1962. * August 14 – In a message to Congress, President Johnson transmits "the Annual Report on the International Educational and Cultural Exchange Program conducted during fiscal year 1966 under the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-256, the Fulbright-Hays Act)." * August 14 – In a statement, President Johnson says the administration "has provided, through expanded veterans benefits, sound and substantial financing for advancing the education of those who have served in the Armed Forces" and that he has "directed the Secretary of Labor, in cooperation with the Secretary of Defense, to extend this activity nationwide in order to assure each returning veteran the greatest help possible in obtaining meaningful, rewarding employment." * August 15 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the White House welcoming ceremony for Chancellor of Germany Kurt Georg Kiesinger on the South Lawn. * August 15 – President Johnson and Germany Chancellor Kiesinger address the contents of their meeting while speaking with reporters in the Rose Garden. * August 15 – President Johnson and Germany Chancellor Kiesinger deliver toasts at a dinner in the State Dining Room. * August 16 – In a letter to Senate Majority Leader Mansfield, President Johnson reflects on the 662 million he had proposed for aiding model cities that had been reduced by the House of Representatives to 237 million while urging that it be restored to its entirety and mentions that Congress also has "a number of other programs proposed by the Administration which are concerned entirely or significantly with the urban problems of our nation." * August 16 – In a statement, President Johnson speaks on the history of Labor Day and the need of the federal government to address the contemporary issue of one in every seven Americans living in poverty. * August 16 – President Johnson and German Chancellor Kiesinger issue a joint statement on their meeting in Washington and shared conviction "that these regular, frank and far-reaching discussions of the international situation as well as of questions which are of particular concern to our two countries will solidify and strengthen the friendly relationship and trust that exists between us and between our two nations." * August 16 – President Johnson presents the Vietnam Civilian Service Awards in the East Room. * August 16 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey and House Speaker McCormick, President Johnson suggests legislation that would create a school board of eleven members where three are elected and the rest are selected by neighbors in school districts as part of a reform on the education system in the District of Columbia. * August 17 – President Johnson delivers remarks at a ceremony marking the sixth anniversary of the Alliance for Progress at the Pan American Union in Washington. * August 17 – President Johnson issues a memorandum to United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Robert C. Weaver regarding a report from the President's Committee on Urban Housing and requesting Weaver "institute immediately a project of the type recommended by the Commission so that the desirability of a large scale program along these lines can be determined as soon as possible." * August 17 – President Johnson and President of Côte d'Ivoire Félix Houphouët-Boigny deliver toasts during a luncheon in the State Dining Room. * August 18 – President Johnson holds his one hundred and eighth news conference in the East Room. President Johnson answers questions from reporters on his current assessment of the Vietnam War, fairness of Vietnamese elections, domestic programs, a family that had lost a son in the war and had rejected his sympathetic letter as rhetoric for a senseless war, a proposal for a bombing pause after the Vietnamese elections, no stalemate in Vietnam, new bombing targets not being a threat to China, programs for the ghettos, farm prices, the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, oil shale development and the crisis in the Middle East, and methods of reducing the deficit. * August 18 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3800, proclaiming "August 20, 1967, as Bonneville Project Day" and urging "State and local public officials, industrial leaders, the press, and all private citizens in the Pacific Northwest and around the Nation to join in observing the Bonneville anniversary." * August 18 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11367, inserting "(5) Assistant Director for Executive Management, Bureau of the Budget, Executive Office of the President" into section 1 of Executive Order 11248. * August 19 – President Johnson signs S. 1762 into law, extending the range of the Urban Studies Fellowship program. President Johnson admits the program by itself will not solve the issue of "manpower gap of qualified professionals in urban affairs" and that "awards were made for study in such fields as municipal administration, urban sociology, city and regional planning, urban law, and urban affairs with an emphasis on the social and economic problems of urban development." * August 21 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey and House Speaker McCormick, President Johnson urges "the Congress to join me in taking a further step toward self-determination for the 93,000 Micronesian people who live in the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands that comprise the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands." * August 21 – President Johnson presents the Medal of Honor to Gunnery Sgt. Jimmie E. Howard in the East Room. * August 21 – President Johnson signs S. 1296 into law. President Johnson says the legislation is "a $4.86 billion authorization for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration for fiscal 1968" and that the administration and Congress must address the issue of the space program. * August 22 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the welcoming ceremony for Mohammad Reza Pahlavi on the South Lawn. * August 22 – President Johnson and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi deliver toasts at a dinner in the State Dining Room. * August 23 – President Johnson and the Shah of Iran issue a joint statement on the content of their meeting including their reviews of "preliminary plans for cooperation in studying the development of water resources in certain areas of Iran" and "the world situation and particularly the situation in the Middle East, and they agreed that a solution to the current tensions in the area should be sought in strict compliance with the principles of the United Nations Charter." * August 23 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the 12th Annual Program of the Council of International Programs for Youth Leaders and Social Workers in the State Dining Room. * August 24 – In a statement, President Johnson says "Geneva the United States and the Soviet Union as Cochairmen of the Eighteen-Nation Disarmament Committee are submitting to the Committee a draft treaty to stop the spread of nuclear weapons" and that the treaty "must reconcile the interests of nations with our interest as a community of human beings on a small planet" and "be responsive to the needs and problems of all the nations of the world-great and small, aligned and nonaligned, nuclear and nonnuclear." * August 25 – President Johnson issues a statement on the death of Henry J. Kaiser, saying Kaiser's "energy, imagination, and determination gave him greatness". * August 25 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3801, proclaiming a national "Stay in School" campaign and calling on Americans to make the campaign successful through their participation. * August 28 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Senate Appropriations Committee has reaffirmed the pledge of the United States to bring "new hope and progress" to American cities after the committee voted for the full $40 million that he had supported. * August 28 – President Johnson says the "plan for creation of a new reserve facility at the International Monetary Fund marks the greatest forward step in world financial cooperation in the 20 years since the creation of the International Monetary Fund itself" and addresses the details of the plan that had been agreed to in London in the Fish Room. * August 28 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey and House Speaker McCormick, President Johnson transmits "the sixth and final semi-annual report of Federal agency activity under the authority of Public Law 88-451 to assist Alaska to recover from the earthquake which she suffered in 1964." * August 28 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3802, "designating the first full week of October of each year as National Employ the Physically Handicapped Week" and urging "all public and private organizations and all citizens to renew their dedication to this volunteer effort to further job opportunities for the handicapped." * August 28 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11368, designating the "tax imposed by section 4911 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 on the acquisition of a debt obligation shall be equal to a percentage of the actual value of the debt obligation measured by the period remaining to its maturity and determined in accordance" with a table and amending Executive Order 11211. * August 29 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11369, amending section 2 of Executive Order 11248 to include "(15) Administrator, Social and Rehabilitation Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare" and "(16) Chief, Children's Bureau, Social and Rehabilitation Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare." * August 30 – In a statement, President Johnson says the spacious open tract "can become a new, attractive, and well-balanced community at a major gateway to the Nation's Capital" while also providing "comfortable and urgently needed housing, built and operated under the new 'Turnkey' concept." * August 30 – President Johnson attends a meeting with the President's Committee on Mental Retardation To Receive the Committee's First Report in the Rose Garden. * August 30 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3803, calling upon Americans "to observe the week beginning October 8, 1967, as National School Lunch Week, with ceremonies and activities designed to increase public understanding and awareness of the significance of the National School Lunch Program to the child, to the home, to the farm, to industry, and to the Nation." * August 30 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11370, ordering "that any income, estate, or gift tax return for the years 1956 to 1968, inclusive, shall, during the Ninetieth Congress, be open to inspection by the Committee on Public Works, House of Representatives, or any duly authorized subcommittee thereof, in connection with its investigation of the policies, procedures, and practices involved in the administration of the Federal-Aid Highway Program, pursuant to House Resolution 203, 90th Congress, agreed to February 27, 1967." * August 31 – President Johnson signs the Veterans' Pension and Readjustment Assistance Act of 1967 into law in the East Room. President Johnson says the legislation "gives returning servicemen more money to help them pursue their education, or train for jobs and skills under the new GI bill that we signed last year." == September == * September 8 – In a memorandum to department and agency leadership, President Johnson announces the establishment of a committee that will review the effects of Executive Order 10988 and that he is requesting "the review committee to proceed immediately with its study and to report to me its findings and recommendations as soon as practicable." * September 13 – President Johnson delivers remarks on the American city being the most promising opportunity and "urgent domestic problem in America" during remarks in the Cabinet Room. * September 13 – President Johnson delivers remarks at a dinner honoring Japanese foreign ministers in the State Dining Room. * September 14 – President Johnson delivers remarks at a meeting of the International Association of Chiefs of Police at the Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, Missouri. * September 15 – President Johnson speaks on the unanimous report from the Special Railroad Board during a press briefing in the Fish Room. * September 15 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey and Speaker McCormick, President Johnson reflects on how much time has passed since the University of Texas tower shooting and Congress still not having acted on the State Firearms Control Act of 1967 while advocating for the law. * September 15 – President Johnson awards the Presidential Unit Citation to the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) and Attached Units on the South Lawn. * September 17 – President Johnson attends a memorial service for Carl Sandburg at the Lincoln Memorial. * September 18 – President Johnson attends an Employer of the Year ceremony to honor handicapped employees in the Cabinet Room. * September 18 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the White House welcoming ceremony for President of Italy Giuseppe Saragat on the South Lawn. * September 18 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11372, designating "the Lake Ontario Claims Tribunal as a public international organization entitled to enjoy the privileges, exemptions, and immunities conferred by the International Organizations Immunities Act." * September 18–19 – President Johnson and Italian Presiden Saragat meet in Washington for "a broad and thorough exchange of views on the international situation" and a "review of issues of bilateral concern, with a view to strengthening further the close relations between the two countries in accordance with the long-standing ties of friendship and alliance which exist between Italy and the United States." * September 19 – President Johnson and Italy President Saragat deliver toasts at a dinner in the State Dining Room. * September 20 – In a letter to United States Secretary of Transportation Alan S. Boyd, President Johnson asks Boyd "to develop a long-range comprehensive plan for the facilities, equipment and personnel" that would meet the needs of those having to pay additional expenditures as it relates to the air traffic control system and that the plan "should be accompanied by a proposal for financing the improvements through a system of charges by which the users of the Nation's airways bear their fair share of its costs." * September 20 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11373, authorizing transfers from the National Capital Transportation Agency to the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority. * September 22 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Education Professions Development Act of 1967 "will greatly contribute to the Nation's ability to solve one of the key problems of education: the development and enlistment of better equipped teachers for our schools and colleges." * September 22 – President Johnson addresses representatives of National Fraternal Organizations in the East Room. * September 22 – President Johnson delivers remarks at a luncheon honoring foreign ministers attending a meeting of American heads of state in the State Dining Room. * September 22 – President Johnson signs H.R. 9547 into law in the East Room. President Johnson says the legislation "authorizes a United States contribution of some $900 million to the Inter-American Development Bank over the next 3 years." * September 22 – President Johnson delivers remarks to voluntary organizations on the net financial wealth of American families having increased by 150 billion and the 7 million Americans presently working as well as problems that have occurred in the midst of these statistics in the Rose Garden. * September 23 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3804, proclaiming "the week beginning September 24, 1967, as National Highway Week" and urging "Federal, State and local officials, as well as highway industry and other organizations, to hold appropriate ceremonies during that week in recognition of what highway transportation means to our Nation." * September 25 – President Johnson submits the annual report of the St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation for the year ending December 31, 1966 in a message to Congress. President Johnson urges Congress to approve of the report's measures. * September 25 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3805, urging Americans to join in "commemorating Saturday, November 11, 1967, as Veterans Day with suitable observances" and directing "the appropriate officials of the Government to arrange for the display of the flag of the United States on all public buildings on that day" while requesting "the officials of Federal, State, and local governments, and civic and patriotic organizations to give their enthusiastic leadership and support to appropriate public ceremonies throughout the Nation." * September 25 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3806, designating "Monday, October 2, 1967, as Child Health Day" and inviting "all persons and all agencies and organizations interested in the health and welfare of children to unite on that day in observances that will bolster our efforts to foster their growth into full participants in our society." * September 26 – In a statement, President Johnson says the United Community Campaigns of America offers "every American a personal opportunity to help shape a better America" and calls for Americans to make donations to assist those being aided by the campaigns. * September 26 – In a special message to Congress, President Johnson proposes "that the Congress authorize a United States contribution of up to $200 million to new Special Funds of the Asian Development Bank" and that the authorization will not involve budget expenditures from the fiscal year of 1968. * September 26 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the welcoming ceremony for President of Niger Diori Hamani on the South Lawn. * September 26 – President Johnson and Niger President Diori deliver toasts at a dinner in the State Dining Room. * September 26 – In a letter to Chairman of the Committee on the District of Columbia Alan Bible, President Johnson writes that "the House of Representatives acted to bring democracy closer to the citizens of the District of Columbia by making them responsible for the election of their own school board" through its overwhelming approval of "the much needed modernization of the District's educational system" that he submitted to Congress the previous month. * September 26 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3807, designating "Wednesday, October 11, 1967, as General Pulaski's Memorial Day" and directing "the appropriate Government officials to display the flag of the United States on all Government buildings on that day" and inviting "the people of the United States to observe the day with appropriate ceremonies in honor of the memory of General Pulaski and his dedication to the defense of liberty." * September 27 – President Johnson says his discussion with United Kingdom Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs George Brown, Baron George-Brown was an exchange of views while declining to divulge further details while speaking to reporters in his White House office. * September 27 – During a ceremony in the Rose Garden attended by Senators George D. Aiken, Robert Byrd, Allen J. Ellender, and J. Caleb Boggs and House members Leonor K. Sullivan, Graham Purcell, and W. R. Poage, President Johnson signs S. 953, an extension of the Food Stamp Act of 1964. President Johnson asks the Agriculture Secretary "to help America's 300 poorest counties which do not now have food assistance to start a community distribution program to be available for the low-income families." * September 27 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3808, designating "Monday, October 9, 1967, as Leif Erikson Day" and directing "the appropriate Government officials to display the flag of the United States on all Government buildings on that day" while inviting "the people of the United States to honor the memory of Leif Erikson on that day by holding appropriate exercises and ceremonies in schools and churches, or other suitable places." * September 28 – Walter E. Washington and Thomas W. Fletcher are sworn in as Commissioner of the District of Columbia and Assistant to the Commissioner in the East Room. * September 28 – President Johnson presents the Medal of Honor to Sgt. David C. Dolby in the East Room. * September 28 – President Johnson says the administration was "very proud that our neighboring country of Mexico, through its President, could work so cooperatively with the United States in meeting the common problem" of damage resulting from Hurricane Beulah while speaking at the Harlingen Industrial Airport. * September 28 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3809, designating "the week of November 17 through November 23, 1967, as National Farm–City Week" and requesting "that leaders of farmers' organizations, business groups and labor unions, youth and women's clubs, civic associations, and all consumers join in this observance to increase public appreciation of agriculture as the vital base of our Nation's economy and of our individual well-being." * September 29 – President Johnson delivers an address on Vietnam to the National Legislative Conference at the Villita Assembly Hall in San Antonio, Texas. * September 30 – President Johnson signs the Department of Defense Appropriation Act, 1968 into law. President Johnson says the legislation "appropriates nearly $70 billion" to preserve freedom and strength in the United States and notes several provisions that he does not agree with including the 1.6 billion below his January budget. * September 30 – President Johnson holds his one hundred and eleventh news conference at the LBJ Ranch. President Johnson begins the conference with an announcement that Stephen Pollak will be returning to the Justice Department and answers question from reporters on communications between the Pope and U Thant, his speech in San Antonio, the response from Southeast Asia since the speech, Dean Griswold, his plans to run for re- election, specific cuts in programs, and the need for a tax increase. == October == * October 2 – President Johnson issues a memorandum to department and agency heads on the launch of a "major test program to mobilize the resources of private industry and the Federal Government to help find jobs and provide training for thousands of America's hard-core unemployed" and the need of "the concerted action and involvement of the private sector, working closely with the Federal Government" to succeed. * October 2 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3810 calling on "the people of the United States to observe the week beginning October 15, 1967, as National Forest Products Week, with activities and ceremonies designed to direct public attention to the essential role that our forest resources play in stimulating the advancement of our economy and the continued prosperity of the entire Nation." * October 3 – President Johnson signs the Vocational Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1967 into law in the East Room. President Johnson says the legislation "extends rehabilitation service to migrant laborers – the poorest among us, the most needy among us" and "increases Federal support for rehabilitation here in our Nation's Capital." * October 3 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3811 calling "upon the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the people of the United States to join, during the week of October 1 through October 7, 1967, in commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of the Langley Research Center at Hampton, Virginia, with appropriate ceremonies and activities." * October 4 – In a statement, President Johnson announces he has asked "the United States Tariff Commission to report to me by January 15, 1968, in the fullest detail possible on the economic condition of the United States textile and apparel industries." * October 4 – President Johnson delivers remarks to the National Conference of Cooperative Organizations in the Departmental Auditorium. * October 5 – In a statement, President Johnson expresses delight "with the cordial reception given Dr. Hornig and his colleagues by the Chinese Government and by the interest shown in their mission." * October 5 – President Johnson holds his one hundredth and twelfth news conference in his White House office. President Johnson begins the conference with remarks on the appropriations enabled by his signing of House Joint Resolution 853 and his relations with Congress before answering questions from reporters on how much can be squeezed out of the often called inflatable 21 billion, the cost of the inflation tax, and his reply to the Ways and Means Committee. * October 6 – President Johnson addresses officials of the Federal Home Loan Bank System on the thirty-fifth anniversary of its founding in the Cabinet Room. * October 6 – In a statement, President Johnson announces that he is "appointing a National Advisory Commission on Health Facilities to undertake a thorough study and to make recommendations" and that the commission will be chaired by Atlanta, Georgia native Boisfeuillet Jones. * October 6 – In a letter to Senate President Humphrey and House Speaker John McCormack, President Johnson says the Wilderness Act of 1964 would give the federal government the authority to preserve the San Rafael Wilderness and his proposal for "three additional areas – in California, Oregon, and Wyoming – also be proclaimed wilderness areas." * October 6 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3812, setting the upcoming October 18 as "National Day of Prayer". * October 7 – President Johnson attends the Salute to the President Democratic Party dinner in the International Ballroom at the Washington Hilton Hotel. * October 8 – President Johnson issues a statement on the death of Clement Attlee, who he hails as one of the greatest leaders of the United Kingdom and having devoted himself to a career in public service. * October 8 – President Johnson delivers remarks to delegates to the International Conference on the World Crisis in Education at the Conference Center in Williamsburg, Virginia. * October 9 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3813, designating "Thursday, October 12, 1967, as Columbus Day" and inviting the American people "to observe that day in schools, churches, and other suitable places with appropriate ceremonies in honor of the great explorer." * October 10 – President Johnson and President of Ghana Joseph Arthur Ankrah deliver remarks at a luncheon in the State Dining Room. * October 10 – President Johnson delivers remarks announcing the United States has entered into the Outer Space Treaty in the East Room. President Johnson says the treaty "outlaws the weapons of mass destruction from man's newest frontier", "forbids military bases and fortifications on the moon and other celestial bodies", "prohibits the testing of weapons in space", and "means that when man reaches the moon, he will land in a field of peace – not a new theater of war." * October 11 – President Johnson signs the Small Business Act Amendments of 1967 into law. Johnson says the legislation "continues and expands the many worthwhile programs administered by SBA", "allows SBA to make more loans from its own funds, up $650 million to a new high of $2 .65 billion", "extends from 10 to 15 years the repayment time for construction and renovation loans", "improves the small business investment companies which provide a vital flow of private capital to small businesses", and "enlists the services of more retired businessmen, so that their still valuable skills and knowledge can be made available to greater numbers of small concerns." * October 11 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11374, abolishing the Missile Sites Labor Commission while transferring its functions and responsibilities to the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service. * October 11 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3814, proclaiming "the week of December 10 through 17, 1967, to be Human Rights Week and the year 1968 to be Human Rights Year" and calling "upon all Americans and upon all Government agencies – federal, state and local – to use this occasion to deepen our commitment to the defense of human rights and to strengthen our efforts for their full and effective realization both among our own people and among all the peoples of the United Nations." * October 11 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3815, authorizing an extension of duty being increased on carpet and rug imports. * October 11 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3816, proclaiming "that the remaining increased rates of duty on imports of sheet glass provided for in items 923.31 through 923.77 in Subpart A of Part 2 of the Appendix to the Tariff Schedules of the United States are extended to articles entered, or withdrawn from warehouse, for consumption during the period beginning on October 12, 1967, and ending at the close of December 31, 1969, unless the President proclaims otherwise pursuant to Section 351(c) (1) or (2) of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962." * October 12 – President Johnson attends a meeting with the President's Committee on Consumer Interests in the Cabinet Room. * October 12 – President Johnson reaffirms the intent of the administration to "eliminate any unnecessary barriers to the freer flow of trade" prior to stating his intent to authorize the escape clause tariff "on typewriter ribbon cloth and stainless steel flatware to terminate" and requests the federal departments try "to maintain surveillance over these industries to determine if other assistance is appropriate at a later date." * October 12 – President Johnson issues telegrams to the two final teams, the Red Sox and the Cardinals of the 1967 World Series. * October 13 – President Johnson presents the Harmon International Aviation Trophies in the Rose Garden. * October 13 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11375, serving as an amendment to Executive Order 11246 that changes Section 101 of Part I to read, "It is the policy of the Government of the United States to provide equal opportunity in Federal employment for all qualified persons, to prohibit discrimination in employment because of race, color, religion, sex or national origin, and to promote the full realization of equal employment opportunity through a positive, continuing program in each executive department and agency. The policy of equal opportunity applies to every aspect of Federal employment policy and practice." * October 16 – In a statement, President Johnson says the administration offers "civilian job opportunities or training to these service men and women and we help to meet the demand for the best in medical care and service." * October 17 – President Johnson and Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew deliver toasts at a dinner in the Family Dining Room. * October 17 – President Johnson delivers remarks welcoming Prime Minister Lee on the South Lawn. * October 17 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11376, amending Executive Order 11022 to state that the President's Council on Aging "shall be composed of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, who shall be Chairman, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the Secretary of Labor, the Secretary of Transportation, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Chairman of the Civil Service Commission, the Administrator of Veterans' Affairs and the Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity." * October 21 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Military Construction Authorization Act for fiscal year 1968 "authorizes $2.3 billion for the construction of such projects as air bases, hospitals, barracks, and naval depots" and "the brick and mortar to modernize our military installations not only in Southeast Asia, but throughout the world." * October 23 – In a memorandum, President Johnson states his satisfaction with the performance of American troops during peace demonstrations at Lincoln Memorial and the Pentagon. * October 23 – President Johnson delivers remarks to employees of the International Federation of Commercial, Clerical, and Technical in the Regency Room at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington. * October 23 – Erwin N. Griswold is sworn in as the 34th Solicitor General of the United States in the Cabinet Room. * October 23 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11377, ordering that "the United States Tariff Commission shall keep under review developments with regard to whiskbrooms of a kind provided for in items 750.26 to 750.28, inclusive, of the tariff schedules, and other brooms of a kind provided for in items 750.29 to 750.31, inclusive, of such schedules, and shall annually report to the President, as early as practicable in each calendar year, its judgment as to the estimated annual consumption of each such kind of brooms during the immediately preceding calendar year, together with the basis therefor." * October 24 – President Johnson and President of Cameroon Ahmadou Ahidjo deliver remarks at a luncheon in the State Dining Room. * October 25 – President Johnson transmits the eleventh annual report on the Trade Agreements Program in a message to Congress. * October 25 – President Johnson presents the Medal of Honor to Maj. Howard V. Lee in the East Room. * October 26 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the welcoming ceremony for President of Mexico Diaz Ordaz on the South Lawn regarding the intent by Mexico to follow through on promises made to partnering nations. * October 26 – President Johnson and Mexican President Ordaz attend a ceremony in which the two receive honorary degrees in the Rose Garden. * October 26 – President Johnson and Mexican President Ordaz delivers a toast at a dinner in the State Dining Room. * October 27 – President Johnson attends the dedication of the Theodore Roosevelt Memorial at the site of the memorial on Theodore Roosevelt Island in the Potomac River. * October 27 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3817, proclaiming "October 31, 1967, and October 31 in each subsequent year, as National UNICEF Day." * October 28 – President Johnson attends the Chamizal Ceremony at the Chamizal Monument at Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico reflecting on his past experiences with issues pertaining to the Chamizal dispute. * October 28 – President Johnson delivers remarks to Delegates to the Mexican-American Conference at the Hilton Inn in El Paso, Texas. * October 30 – In a letter to Chairman of the ABA Special Committee on Crime Prevention and Control Leon Jaworski, President Johnson says he is "encouraged to know that the American Bar Association is focusing on law enforcement as a primary area of its activity." * October 31 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11378, granting Postmaster at San Antonio Daniel J. Quill an exemption from compulsory retirement from age. == November == * November 1 – Mahendra of Nepal begins a state visit to the United States at the invitation of President and First Lady Johnson. * November 1 – President Johnson and Mahendra of Nepal attend a dinner in the State Dining Room in which they discuss diplomatic relations conducted during the day. * November 1 – President Johnson delivers remarks welcoming Mahendra of Nepal and speaking of the new version of Nepal envisioned by its contemporary leadership on the South Lawn. * November 1 – President Johnson holds his one hundred and thirteenth news conference in the Cabinet Room. President Johnson begins with an address on a Cabinet meeting, the impact of economic progress, the report on social and economic progress of blacks in the United States, and congressional actions on urban programs and proceeds to answer questions from reporters on the possibility of a tax increase, pending legislation, pending legislation, inflation, effects of peace demonstrations, assessment of the Vietnam situation, American policy in Southeast Asia, urban problems, new government in Vietnam, the stock market and the economy, Vietnam policy, and congressional action on administration programs. * November 2 – President Johnson delivers remarks to the Delegates to the 1967 Consumer Assembly in the Regency Room at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington. * November 2 – In a statement, President Johnson says the report Social and Economic Conditions of Negroes in the United States "backs up neither of the extreme positions that emerged in the wake of the summer disturbances. It does not confirm the diagnosis of bleakness and despair: that there has been no recent progress for Negroes in America and that violence is therefore a logical remedy." * November 2 – In a message to members of the Foreign Service on Foreign Service Day, President Johnson says the ability of the federal government "to employ our vast resources to best advantage rests – in large measure – on the skill and dedication of those principally responsible for our foreign relations" and "Americans in foreign service carry the major burden of representing the American people and their interests abroad." * November 3 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Independent Offices and HUD Appropriation Act for fiscal year 1968 "represents a cut from the budget request of January of more than $600 million" and notes Republican opposition to the measure. * November 3 – Members of the New District of Columbia Council are sworn in during a morning ceremony in the East Room. President Johnson delivers remarks on what he calls a historic days and states the objectives of the council. * November 6 – In a statement, President Johnson confirms that he has been informed "by the Chairman of the Trustees of the National Gallery, Chief Justice Earl Warren, that a gift of $20 million has been made to the National Gallery of Art." * November 6 – President Johnson transmits "a report of our food aid programs during calendar year 1966" to Congress in a message. He notes that the report "marks a year in which the productivity of American agriculture and the generosity of the American people have done much to help others to help themselves" while stating the six main elements of the new strategy. * November 6 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3818, a termination of interim agreements between the United States and Canada, the United Kingdom, and Japan. * November 7 – In a statement on the death of former Vice President John Nance Garner, President Johnson notes the longevity of Garner and notes his contributions to public service as being matched by few. * November 7 – In a statement, President Johnson extends "cordial greetings and best wishes to the peoples of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the occasion of their national holiday, which this year marks the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the Soviet Government." * November 7 – President Johnson reaffirms American support for the Multinational Program for Science and Technology in Latin America in a statement. * November 7 – President Johnson signs the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967 in the East Room. President Johnson says the legislation "will give a wider and, I think, stronger voice to educational radio and television by providing new funds for broadcast facilities" and "launch a major study of television's use in the Nation's classrooms and their potential use throughout the world" while establishing the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. * November 8 – President Johnson announces that "Acting Secretary of Agriculture John Schnittker has today signed the new International Grains Arrangement on behalf of the United States Government" and promotes it as establishing "new minimum prices in world trade for 14 major wheats. For U.S. wheats, the new minimums are generally about 23 cents a bushel higher than under the old International Wheat Agreement" and "a new program under which developed wheat exporting and importing nations will provide 4.5 million tons of food grain or cash equivalent annually to less developed countries – the first time this has ever been done on a regular and continuing basis." * November 8 – President Johnson transmits the Surgeon General's first report on Regional Medical Programs, as required by the Heart Disease, Cancer and Stroke Amendments of 1965 to Congress in a message. * November 8 – In a statement, President Johnson cites his need for "the coordinated advice and help of every Federal agency with major responsibilities in science and technology." * November 15 – President Johnson answers questions from reporters on if he discussed protectionism and quota legislation with Prime Minister Sato and if the topic of Communist China came up. * November 15 – President Johnson transmits the annual report on United States Participation in the United Nations for the calendar year 1966 to Congress in a message. * November 15 – President Johnson signs the Foreign Assistance Act of 1967 into law. President Johnson says the legislation "reaffirms the basic principles which have guided America's foreign economic policy for two decades" and "proclaims our readiness to help those who help themselves in mankind's unrelenting struggle against poverty, ignorance, and disease." * November 16 – President Johnson presents the Medal of Honor to Staff Sgt. Charles B. Morris in the East Room. * November 17 – President Johnson holds his one hundred and fourteenth news conference in the East Room. President Johnson answers questions from reporters on force level of Vietnam, appraising criticism of the president, the bombing of North Vietnam, the willingness of the Vietcong to negotiate, his re-election campaign, his assessment of the Vietnam situation, Hanoi's interpretation of public opinion of the United States, prospect for passing a tax bill, the intentions of Senator McCarthy, public opinion of Vietnam, cutback in foreign aid, Vietnam dissenters, and American arms in Vietnam. * November 18 – In a statement responding to the decision of the United Kingdom to change the par value of the pound sterling from $2.80 to $2.40, President Johnson says "this decision was made with great reluctance, and I understand the powerful reasons that made it necessary under the circumstances." * November 18 – President Johnson delivers telephonic remarks to the Centennial Convention of the National Grange from the Cabinet Room. * November 20 – President Johnson delivers remarks to members of the press on the National Advisory Commission on Health Manpower report becoming public in the East Room. * November 20 – President Johnson attends a ceremony commemorating the birth of the 200 Millionth American in the main lobby at the Department of Commerce. * November 20 – President Johnson signs S.J. Res. 33 into law in the East Room. President Johnson says the legislation, which establishes the National Commission on Product Safety, has three primary duties including spotting dangerous products, the effectiveness of present laws, and stopping tragedies before they strike. * November 20 – President Johnson attends a dinner for Senator Everett Dirksen in the Main Ballroom at the Mayflower Hotel in Washington. * November 21 – President Johnson signs the Air Quality Act of 1967 into law in the East Room. * November 22 – In a memorandum, President Johnson addresses the return of Small Business Administration representatives in procurement operations of several government agencies and states his hope for agency heads to "accept the challenge and make the coming fiscal year the best yet for small business in terms of proportionate share in dollar awards." * November 22 – In a statement, President Johnson says "100 million Americans won a major victory" after the Senate passed a Social Security benefits bill and that the legislation "marks the greatest dollar increase – and one of the most sweeping improvements in the program – since President Roosevelt launched social security 32 years ago." * November 24 – In a statement, President Johnson says H.R. 5784, 5787, and 5788 "authorize the sale of surplus materials – bismuth, molybdenum, and rare earths – no longer needed in our national stockpiles." * November 24 – In a statement, President Johnson says H.R. 13048 will "make it possible for communities to buy and remodel existing buildings for use as libraries" and continue "the 100-percent Federal share for 1 additional year." * November 27 – President Johnson transmits a copy of the multilateral trade agreement signed in Geneva on June 30, 1967, to Congress in a message. * November 28 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11382 which serves as an amendment to previous executive orders pertaining to the Department of Transportation. * November 29 – In a statement, the White House says President Johnson "wants to compliment the magnificent efforts of NEED's founders as well as of the many hundreds of private organizations and individual citizens who have shared in this outpouring of human concern." * November 29 – In a statement, President Johnson says he "could not justify asking Secretary McNamara indefinitely to continue to bear the enormous burdens of his position, nor could I in justice to him and to this Nation's obligations to the World Bank, refrain from recommending that he be selected as President of the Bank." * November 29 – In a statement, President Johnson says Americans and Iranians "are pleased that the American AID mission that has long channeled much of America's economic assistance to Iran will close its doors tomorrow." * November 30 – Howard J. Samuels is sworn in as Under Secretary of Commerce in the East Room. * November 30 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11383, ordering "that any income, excess-profits, estate, or gift tax return for the years 1948 to 1968, inclusive, shall, during the Ninetieth Congress, be open to inspection by the Senate Select Committee on Standards and Conduct, or any duly authorized subcommittee thereof, in connection with its investigation of allegations that members, officers, or employees of the Senate have engaged in improper conduct, violated the law, or violated the rules and regulations of the Senate in connection with the performance of their duties, pursuant to Senate Resolution 338, 88th Congress, agreed to July 24, 1964." == December == * December 1 – In a statement after the death of Alan T. Waterman, President Johnson says the federal government has "lost a trusted counselor" and credits him with having "left an indelible stamp of achievement on one of the most vital areas of American life." * December 1 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11384, an amendment to section 2 of Executive Order 11248 that adds "(17) Director, United States Secret Service, Treasury Department." * December 2 – President Johnson issues a statement on the death of Francis Spellman. Johnson reflects on Spellman's devotion to God as well as service to the United States and calls him a "good and gallant servant of our world". * December 2 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the White House via closed-circuit television to a group of senior scientists gathered in Chicago to commemorate the twenty-fifth anniversary of the First Nuclear Reactor. * December 2 – President Johnson delivers remarks by telephone while in the Cabinet Room to the Regional Democratic Conference held at Charleston, West Virginia, speaking highly of Vice President Humphrey as well as reporting on his recent activities and responding to a newspaper editor that criticized the seven years of Democrats controlling the White House. * December 4 – President Johnson holds his one hundred and fifteenth news conference in the Cabinet Room. President Johnson begins the conference with an announcement of his intent to send the nomination of General Leonard Chapman to be the Commandant of the Marine Corps to the Senate as well as other nominations that are up and answers questions from reporters on the military budget for 1969, the resignation of Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, level of non-Vietnam spending, selection of Marine Corps commandant, the peace talks with North Vietnam, alternatives to tax increase, the possible visit of Prime Minister Wilson, the presidential candidacy of Eugene McCarthy, the Senate resolution on Vietnam, the replacement for Defense Secretary McNamara, the views of former President Dwight D. Eisenhower on Vietnam, meeting with Cyrus Vance, status of members of the cabinet, his campaign plans, steel price increase, and plans for an Asian summit meeting. * December 4 – President Johnson addresses the Foreign Policy Conference for Business Executives in the Benjamin Franklin Room at the Department of State, speaking on American involvement with Vietnam and Asia. * December 4 – President Johnson signs the Mental Retardation Amendments of 1967 in the East Room. President Johnson says the legislation is an achievement to the United States and "a signal of hope for millions of Americans and it is addressed to at least 2 million seriously retarded children." * December 5 – In a statement, President Johnson says the meat inspection bill passed by Congress "will help guarantee to every American family that the meat on their table and in their stores and supermarkets will be safe and fit for human consumption." * December 5 – President Johnson issues a statement on the observance of peace in Cyprus. He warns that "peace could not have been preserved without the good will of the governments concerned and their desire for peace or without the prompt and energetic action of the United Nations Secretary General and Security Council." * December 5 – President Johnson signs the Partnership for Health Amendments of 1967 in the East Room. President Johnson notes the legislation as the thirty-first health bill he has signed during his tenure as president and says it contains a three-part strategy to help the Public Health Service fight against diseases. * December 6 – President Johnson issues a statement of the death of President of Uruguay Oscar Gestido. He credits Gestido with having a "long record of public service to his country earned him a special place in the hearts of his fellow citizens." * December 6 – President Johnson delivers remarks on international money problems, balance of payments, and expanding American exports to the Business Council at the Mayflower Hotel in Washington. * December 6 – President Johnson issues a Proclamation 3821 to observe Wright Brothers Day on the upcoming December 17 "with appropriate ceremonies and activities, both to recall the accomplishments of the Wright brothers and to provide a stimulus to aviation in this country and throughout the world." * December 7 – A recording of President Johnson addressing the importance of farming and achievements made since the formation of the National Advisory Commission on Food and Fiber is broadcast by the National Educational Television Network. * December 8 – President Johnson delivers remarks at a White House briefing on the topic of civil programs in Vietnam in his White House office. * December 8 – President Johnson signs H.R. 12910, establishing a Judge Advocate General's Corps in the Navy. * December 8 – President Johnson vetoes H.R. 162, saying the legislation "could seriously endanger private financing for ship construction" and "could lead to far greater government subsidies for the merchant fleet – and place an undue and unnecessary financial burden on the American taxpayer." * December 9 – An interview of President Johnson discussing his activities at the bachelors' dinner and his thoughts on the younger generation is broadcast. * December 11 – President Johnson mentions that the Attorney General and FBI Director announced the local police departments report a 16-percent increase in crime during the first 9 months of 1967 and says the "increase underscores the urgency of my request 10 months ago for the most comprehensive anticrime legislation in the Nation's history: the Safe Streets and Crime Control Act." * December 12 – In a statement accompanying his signing of S. 343, President Johnson says Senator Patrick McNamara "embodied the best of the American labor movement" and that it is correct for the Federal Office Building in Detroit to bear his name. * December 12 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the Michoud Assembly Facility on the progress that has been made in the nine years since he first introduced the Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. * December 12 – President Johnson delivers remarks to the National Convention of the AFL-CIO and speaks on Republican efforts to stop bills on Medicare, poverty, education, civil rights, funds for model cities, and funding for housing and rent supplements. * December 12 – President Johnson attends the dedication of Central Texas College in Killeen, Texas. * December 12 – In a statement, President Johnson says the "Federal Government will cooperate fully with private enterprise and State and local government to transform these surplus and idle lands into new communities" and that the American people "want to see government and private enterprise join together to build decent homes for citizens who have never known their comfort, and to provide new training opportunities for those who want to improve their lives." * December 13 – President Johnson delivers remarks at a press briefing by Colonel Daniel James, Jr. in the Cabinet Room. * December 13 – President Johnson signs S. 1085, an amendment of the Federal Credit Union Act of 1934, in the Cabinet Room. President Johnson says the legislation eases lending and pay dividends are twice as often. * December 14 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the Museum of History and Technology of the Smithsonian Institution commemorating the 200th Anniversary of the Encyclopædia Britannica. * December 14 – President Johnson signs S. 1003 in the East Room. The legislation is an amendment to U.S. Flammable Fabrics Act. * December 14 – President Johnson attends the presentation of President Andrew Johnson in the Cabinet Room. * December 15 – President Johnson signs H.R. 12144 into law in the East Room. The legislation is an amendment to the Federal Meat Inspection Act and is said by President Johnson to include giving the state two years "to develop a meat inspection program that is equally as good as" that of the Federal Government, offering "the States Federal help to set up those inspection systems", raising "the quality standards for all imported meats", and giving "the Secretary of Agriculture – for the first time – the power to inspect State plants." * December 15 – In a statement, President Johnson announces the federal government is becoming involved in trying to assist the New Haven Railroad in running and that they are acting on behalf of "40,000 commuters who use it daily to get to their jobs" and "5 million people for whom the New Haven provides the only available railway service." * December 15 – President Johnson issues a statement on the retirement of Prime Minister of Canada Lester Pearson. * December 15 – President Johnson attends the lighting of the United States Christmas Tree at the 14th annual Pageant of Peace ceremonies on the Ellipse near the White House. * December 16 – President Johnson signs H.R. 480, a bill extending "authority to appropriate up to $105 million for the acquisition of land for migratory waterfowl refuges" by eight years. * December 16 – In a statement, President Johnson says the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 "gives the vital part of our labor force between 40 and 65 a better chance to go on working productively and gainfully. The country will gain as well from making better use of their skills and experience." * December 16 – President Johnson issues a Christmas message to service members on sacrifices made by service members in the centuries and decades preceding them. * December 16 – President Johnson signs H.R. 7977 and H.R. 13510 into law which he says "have given a 15.2 percent increase to Federal workers and an 18.1 percent raise to postal workers" and "have been among the proudest moments of my Presidency." * December 16 – President Johnson signs the Kennedy Round Trade Negotiations Proclamation in the Cabinet Room. Johnson says the negotiations have "a very special significance for our relations with Western Europe because for the first time we negotiated directly with the European Common Market as an institution." * December 16 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11385, adding "(6) Deputy Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, Department of Transportation" to Level IV of the Federal Executive Salary Schedule. * December 16 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3822, carrying out the Geneva protocol for agreements on trade, tariffs, and other shared arrangements between countries. * December 18 – President Johnson issues a statement on the death of Prime Minister of Australia Harold Holt. President Johnson says Holt "fought with rare courage, tenacity, and vision to assure that men would live safe from peril in the promise of freedom" and "was generous with the gift of a warm and wise heart." * December 18 – President Johnson participates in an interview with the Australian Broadcasting Company on his relationship with Prime Minister Holt, his recollections of his first impression of Holt, and if there was one special event that he would remember Holt by. * December 18 – In a statement, President Johnson says the United States "has been saddened by the Silver Bridge tragedy and I express deepest sympathy to you and through you to the stricken families and the people of West Virginia and Ohio." * December 19 – In a statement, President Johnson expresses satisfaction with the ratifying on Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space and says the agreement "will help to ensure that nations will assist astronauts in the event of accident or emergency" and "would carry forward the purpose of this administration to promote international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space." * December 19 – President Johnson signs H.J. Res. 888 into law which he credits with carrying out his request "to the Congress that I be authorized and directed to cut Government spending this year by some $4.3 billion – $2.5 billion over and above the expenditure reductions already made by the Congress", "requires every civilian agency to reduce its budgeted obligations by an amount equal to a percent of payroll, plus 10 percent of other controllable obligations", and "provides for a reduction in the obligations of the Defense Department by an amount equal to 10 percent of non-Vietnam programs." * December 19 – President Johnson delivers remarks at the Honolulu International Airport on relations between the United States and Australia and Harold Holt's vision of Asia. * December 19 – President Johnson signs S. 814 into law, establishing the National Park Foundation. President Johnson says the legislation "provides a simple and direct way for individual Americans and corporations to forward the work of conservation." * December 19 – An interview of President Johnson is aired in which he answers questions about new ideas regarding the Vietnam War, a growing impression throughout the world that the United States will not settle for anything in Vietnam other than a military victory, if the United States was willing to "accept Communists in a coalition government", if he believes the United States has made its proposition and that others are left to react, Hanoi's attitude at that point in the war, negotiations pertaining to parties outside of the United States, the lack of contributions to the war on the part of the South Vietnam forces, and why the Russians continue arming North Vietnam if they are committed to peace. * December 19 – In a memorandum, President Johnson states that he is vetoing H.R. 1670 on the grounds that the Congressional Committees did not assert that Dr. George H. Edler was self-employed and that he did not "identify anything in the record which would distinguish Dr. Edler's case from these others." * December 20 – President Johnson signs H.R. 6111, establishing the Federal Judicial Center and in doing so giving the United States its first "instrument to assure an efficient, smooth-running judiciary – a system equal to the modern and changing society it must serve." * December 20 – President Johnson delivers remarks at Tafuna International Airport directed toward Governor of American Samoa Owen S. Aspinall. * December 20 – In a statement, President Johnson notes the collapse of the Ohio River bridge and announces he is "establishing a task force, chaired by the Secretary of Transportation, to begin immediately an intensive study of the Ohio River bridge tragedy and to conduct a national survey of bridge safety." * December 21 – President Johnson meets with President of the Republic of Vietnam Nguyễn Văn Thiệu for an informal working dinner for "a full exchange of views on all aspects of South Vietnam's struggle to defend its freedom from external force" and congratulates Thiệu "on the completion of a constitution, the holding of successful national elections, and the installation of a constitutional government." * December 21 – President Johnson meets with President of South Korea Park Chung-hee in which Pak described "the agent and sabotage activities being conducted against his country by the regime in North Korea, and the measures being taken to ensure that this threat continued to be dealt with effectively" and the two "exchanged views on all aspects of the Vietnam situation, reaffirming their respective policies of strong and unswerving support for the independence of South Vietnam and the freedom of its people to determine their future without external interference." * December 21 – President Johnson delivers remarks at Fairbairn Royal Australian Air Force Base on his intent to "pay my personal respects to a man who was my cherished friend and who led a nation which is the trusted friend of the United States." * December 21 – President Johnson meets with Prime Minister of Australia John McEwen "to exchange views on a range of current matters." * December 23 – In a statement, President Johnson says he met with Pope Paul VI to call on him in keeping with the latter's call for "unarmed cooperation ... towards the reestablishment of true peace" and the possibility of peace in Paris by noting failed efforts in the past. * December 23 – President Johnson signs S. 1785 into law, an increase of benefits for service members in hazardous duty posts that allows them to rejoin their families twice a year, provides a year of convalescent leave to those injured that will not be charged on sick leave or their annual, and provides free transportation home in the event of a family emergency. * December 23 – Karachi, Pakistan issues a joint statement on the meeting between President Johnson and President Ayub in which the two discussed "Pakistan's additional needs of wheat and vegetable oils and agreed to ask a staff study to be made available at an early date" and Johnson congratulating Ayub "on Pakistan's continuing progress, and especially for the success of Pakistan in introducing new wheat strains, expanding human consumption of maize, and expanding both irrigation and chemical fertilizer application." * December 23 – President Johnson delivers remarks to Senior Unit Commanders on their objective of peace and the determination of the United States forces to not yield after setting their course in Cam Ranh Bay, Vietnam. * December 23 – President Johnson delivers remarks to service personnel and award of distinguished service medal and medal of freedom to military and civilian leaders in Cam Ranh Bay, Republic of Vietnam. * December 23 – President Johnson delivers remarks to American combat pilots of the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing at the Royal Thai Air Force Base in Khorat, Thailand. * December 24 – A message from President Johnson detailing the contents of his global trip is nationally broadcast. * December 27 – President Johnson signs H.R. 10964 into law. President Johnson says the legislation enables senior citizens residing in Washington to be eligible for "hospital benefits under Medicare for treatment in publicly-owned hospitals and health facilities." * December 27 – President Johnson signs the District of Columbia Crime Bill into law. President Johnson notes his discontent with a crime bill for the District of Columbia the previous year and notes his disagreement with a provision requiring minimum sentence requirements which he says "are a backward step in modern correctional policy" which serve to deprive judges "of the discretion- traditional in our system of law – to fix sentences on the basis of an individual's record and character." == References == ==External links== * Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library Timeline * Miller Center Johnson Presidential Timeline Category:1967 in the United States 1967 |
thumb|America McCutchen Drennan America McCutchen Drennan (also, America McCutchen Witherspoon; July 23, 1830 – June 26, 1903) was an American educator and pioneer missionary to Japan. She did not acquire the Japanese language, and from the beginning of her career as a missionary, she was met with opposition and discouragement but it did not dissuade her. Yet, she organized classes in English language for young men; the Chautauqua Circle was formed and a periodical started; children's meetings and old women's meetings were held; Sunday schools were introduced; a Christian Endeavor Society was organized; and orphanage was started; and a girls' school was opened. ==Biography== America Missouri McCutchen was born in Pilot Grove Township, Cooper County, Missouri, July 23, 1830. Her father, John McCutchen, a Virginian by birth, soon after the close of the American Revolutionary War moved to southern Kentucky and located in what is known as the "Cumberland Country". Her mother, Annie Motherel, was born in North Carolina, but in early childhood, moved with her parents to Wilson County, Tennessee, and settled near where the city of Nashville, Tennessee, now stands. She married Mr. McCutchen in 1806, and they made their home in Kentucky. Mrs. McCutchen was a convert of the "great revival of 1800", that religious awakening that swept over Kentucky and Tennessee, resulting in the organization of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. Mrs. McCutchen was a member of the Woman's Missionary Society organized at Russellville, Kentucky. When about eight years old, Drennan attended school in the neighborhood, accompanied by a male cousin, whose father was Rev. Robert Bell (1770-1853). She was educated at the Missouri Female College in Boonville, Missouri. After graduating, she returned to the same school for a post-graduate course. ==Career== ===Teacher=== In 1848, while attending the post-graduate course, she became engaged to be married to Rev. Finis Anderson Witherspoon (1826-1863), a young minister of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. They married on September 18, 1850. Mr. Witherspoon was pastor at Kinmundy, Illinois, where he died on October 26, 1863. Subsequently, she returned to her home in Missouri. She had the care of two orphan children, the son and daughter of Mr. Witherspoon's brother, and Drennan's father was growing feeble, so she felt it necessary to stay near him. She secured a position as a teacher in the Missouri Female College. Here, her influence was such that, in a short time, everyone connected with it was converted to Christianity, and a revival started which reached many in the town outside of the school. After the American Civil War, which ended in 1865, she stopped teaching to devote herself to the care of her aged father and the two adopted children. After her father's death, she married Rev. James Alexander Drennan, on January 28, 1868. He was pastor of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church at Lexington, Missouri. He died October 31, 1869. A month later their only child, a son, thirteen months old, died, too. She then began teaching at Lexington, having to provide for the education of two daughters, Mary (b. 1856) and Jane (b. 1863), of Mr. Drennan. With some variation she continued for several years as a teacher, part of the time at Oxford, Mississippi. ===Development of the Women's Board of Missions=== In the year 1880, when the call came through the papers for the women of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church to organize a Board of Missions, Drennan responded to the call, and met with other women of the church in Evansville, Indiana, for the purpose of considering the matter. The organization was established, and Drennan was made chairman of the committee to select the location of the Board. Not long after this, a member of the Assembly's Board suggested that they ask Drennan to go to the foreign field. Before she accepted, one of the women said, "Oh, what good can one of your age do there?" One more year passed, and Drennan attended the second meeting of the Board, which convened at Bowling Green, Kentucky. At this meeting, Drennan suggested the organization of synodical and presbyterial societies. She also suggested the circular letter plan that was adopted and used successfully in many of our presbyteries. She was appointed synodical vice president of Missouri, which office she accepted, hoping to find satisfaction in this work. She organized some societies, but the work did not prosper. Again, at McMinnville, Tennessee, she returned to teaching, but this work, formerly something she enjoyed doing, had now become irksome to her. She gave up the school and determined to offer herself to the Board of Missions, with the knowledge that she would have gone even had her application to the Board been rejected. After due consideration by the members of the Board she was accepted. The consecration service was held in the lecture room of the First Cumberland Presbyterian church at Evansville in March, 1883. From there, Drennan hastened on to Missouri to say goodbye to relatives, having already said good-bye to Kentucky friends; her visit to Missouri was saddened by the unexpected death of her oldest sister. After a few days spent with each member of her family, she headed to Kansas City, Missouri, and then spent a week in San Francisco. ===Missionary to Japan=== ====Osaka==== Drennan sailed away on April 19, 1883, reaching Osaka, Japan on May 5, 1883. She was then 53 years old. Though she was thrilled to be in Japan, she was unable speak the language. As soon as her trunks arrived and her room was arranged, she began to look for something to do. Three days after her arrival, three young men came to her and asked to learn English. One of them already had some knowledge of the language, and through him she taught the others. She gave them a book on physiology. In studying this, they were led to talk of the human body and its structure; and from there, she led the conversation to Christianity. The students advanced so rapidly that by June 1st, they had completed the work on physiology, and she put them on the regular Chautauqua course, the book they had studied being the first book of the course for that year. This was the beginning of the Chautauqua work in Japan. She had no idea at the time of its reaching beyond the circle of students in her own room, but within five months after she reached Japan, in October 1883, she had regularly organized the Chautauqua Circle. Knowing that through the young men in her class, she could reach other people, she devoted much time to them, providing them with entertainment and preparing a pleasant room where they could come for recreation. The Chautauqua Circle continued to widen, including men and women, in a short time numbering 1,200 members. Through the influence of this work, many were prompted to send for Bibles. "The Mission", in speaking of this branch of the work, said: "It is of incalculable worth in the work." On July 20, 1883, a Japanese festival was held in the city. Drennan was persuaded by her pupils to go with them to see the exhibit, which was indeed a unique sight to American eyes. It was the festival of the god of that section. All this was extremely interesting to Drennan, and she remained on the streets so long that she was overcome by the heat, and forced to resort to the ever-ready and convenient jinrikisha, to be brought back to her boarding house. She was so prostrated from the sun exposure and crowd that it became necessary for her to leave the city; accordingly, on the last of July she went to the mountains for rest. The stay in the mountains not proving beneficial, she remained only one week, but spent the remainder of the vacation as Kobe, by the seaside. It was a good place to rest. Miyoshi San and others of her pupils visited her at Kobe, and the time was spent in teaching English and learning what she could of the Japanese language. In August 1883, the mission bought a lot on the Concession in Osaka for the purpose of beginning a school. There were three houses on this lot, which were used for dwelling-, boarding-, and schoolhouses. In September, Drennan moved into one of these houses and resumed her classes of young men. These classes increased so rapidly that it became necessary to have afternoon and night sessions. Three times each week during the fall and winter, she held children's meetings in different parts of the city. The three young men who were her first pupils assisted in this work. She first taught the young men the Bible lesson, a picture story, and the songs to sing, and they afterward repeated it all to the children. The rooms were often filled with children, and many grown people stood about the doors, eager to see what it was that pleased the children so much. This work was kept up until stopped by the priests. thumb|O Yone Hara San (Daisy) & Drennan The second week of October 1883, Drennan was requested to take for her own a baby who was one year old. She was teaching her Bible class when the parents came to her house with two of their children. The baby, Drennan called Daisy. The boy, whom the parents brought as nurse for the baby, was six years old, and too small, Drennan thought, for such a task, so a nurse was hired. But the boy, Shozo, was allowed to remain and go to school until he grew too large for a girls' school. Then Drennan sent him to his father, who had prospered in business. Daisy was bright, and soon learned to speak English, and to sing and play on the organ. In the fall of 1883, while waiting for the opening of the girls' school, which took place in January, 1884, Drennan organized a Christian Endeavor Society. She was assisted in this work by Nishi San, who was an elder in the church at Osaka. The society grew very rapidly, and soon published a paper for free distribution, called Words of Life. Four hundred copies each month were published. The meetings were held in her rooms. This was the first Christian Endeavor Society in Japan. =====Wilmina School for Girls===== On January 8, 1884, the Wilmina School for Girls was opened with four pupils, three girls and the little boy, Shozo San. By June, seventeen pupils were enrolled. For some reason, the English-speaking teacher, Drennan's interpreter, was removed, and Drennan was left with no one in the house who could speak to her in English. As she only knew a few Japanese words, she was forced to govern chiefly by signs. The need of more room was of even greater necessity than an interpreter, but it was some time before a new school building was erected to accommodate the rapidly increasing patronage. It was finished and they moved into it on May 19, 1887. From this time, under her management, the school not only paid all expenses, including teachers' salaries, and for all needed furniture and repairs, but at the close of the year, paid a small sum into the treasury of the mission. The following year, she enrolled 45 boarding pupils and 105 day pupils. She began a night class for men in the spring of 1887 on Dojima Island this being one of the many small islands into which the city of Osaka is divided by the two rivers and numerous canals which pass through it. She had a large number of pupils every night studying the Bible after English lessons. She was at this place the night that the school building was burned, on February 8, 1888. She was not permitted to continue work at this place very long on account of the accumulation of school duties, caused by the sickness and retirement of Miss Renzer from the school. There was a fine prospect for building up a good church at Dojima. The Baptists took it soon after Drennan left. Drennan lost everything by the fire, but she had many influential friends, who secured her a home in the city where she lived as their guest, and the next week after the fire, she resumed her school work. By this fire, the school was well advertised, so that there were more day-pupils than before, and notwithstanding the great loss sustained and the want of room which compelled her to give up some of her boarders, it was more than self-sustaining. She kept a strict financial record of the school's standing. Drennan's school work in Osaka ended in 1888. =====Woman's class and orphanage===== In September, 1885, Drennan organized a woman's class. She first taught them English, cooking, and fancy work, but they soon became interested in Christianity, and came regularly for Bible study. They were chiefly the wives of officers. At first, this class was small, but it grew until it numbered 40. On New Year's Day, 1887, Mr. Soto, who was president of the government revenue department, came to thank her for teaching his wife, and the next week engaged her to teach in the revenue department office. She had 30 pupils among the officers of this department, Mr. Soto being among the number. They were all deeply interested in Christianity. She taught them until the close of the school in 1888. It had long been her wish to establish an orphanage, to be supported by the married women's class, which by now had 30 members. The women worked with Drennan to prepare bedding and clothes for this purpose. They put up a considerable sum of money. Drennan secured government permission, and 13 orphans were brought to the orphanage through legal channels. She had the assurance of the support and assistance of the men in Osaka, who had proffered all the aid she needed in the enterprise. However, this work was deemed inexpedient by the Woman's Board in America, and was abandoned. ====Nagoya==== The accumulation of care and work, together with crowded sleeping apartments and bad water, caused her health to fail, and she was compelled to resign from the school. She went to Nagoya with her helper in October 1888, where she engaged in direct evangelistic work. At first there was great opposition to Christianity' in Nagoya because the people thought it was Roman Catholicism, which the government forbade them to believe. But Drennan's tactful plan soon weakened the old prejudice. She obtained permission to organize a women's school. This work began in November with only two pupils, but she knew not discouragement, and very soon, through Bible classes for young men, and inquiry meetings for all, a little church grew, which was organized with ten members in January, 1889. In Nagoya, she left a little church of 30 members, and 13 yen in the bank. Five native preachers grew out of her work. About March 7, 1889, the president of the government school sent an urgent request to Drennan to come to Yokkaichi, a station about from Nagoya. For years, this had been a sealed city, the people saying that no Christian should live there. Drennan responded to the call. The result of this one visit was a class of ten names signed for Bible study. She made weekly visits until a preaching place was opened, and an earnest class of Bible students formed. Miss Rezner then took charge of the work. ====Ueno and Tsu==== After the union of all the Presbyterian bodies in Japan, it was thought best that Drennan's church of 30 members, which was now meeting its own running expenses, should unite with the other Presbyterians in Nagoya. Her school was also turned over to them, and Drennan was transferred to Iga-Ueno, a city of 15,000 inhabitants in the interior of Japan. There was no Christian in the province of Iga. She first selected a location for her home, and fitted up a room near-by for a church. Immediately she set about organizing Sunday schools, Bible classes, English classes, and working classes. The people of Ueno did not know of Christianity, but they did know of Drennan's aptness in teaching English, and that was what they wished. At this time, the study of English was quite popular among the upper classes of Japanese. In response to their call she said to them: "I will teach you English, because through that I hope to be able to win you to listen to the teachings of the Bible." Her two boys, as she sometimes styled the young men who were her first student in Japan, and whom she had placed in school, helped her whenever they could get a day out of school. These two young men, Kimmura San and Matsuda San, were both studying for the ministry. Work was carried on in five other parts of the city. In September, 1891, with money sent her by two young me from Kentucky, she rented a house in the best part of the city, where the people were wealthy but hard to reach. She had a Sunday school there every Sunday, and preaching every Saturday night, with a woman's meeting on Sunday afternoons. The interest grew, and in a few months, some of the men in high office were interested. It was at this point that she organized what she called her second church. It was named the Mukaijima Church. In May, 1892, the Christian women of Ueno united with Drennan to hold the first annual woman's meeting. In June, 1892, Matsuda San having graduated, he at once became pastor of the church at Ueno. Drennan, at her own expense, had kept him in school six years. She was now relieved of the responsibility of the Ueno work. Instead of going to the mountains for rest, she and her helper secured passports and started for Hida Province. It was three days' travel by jinrikisha after leaving the railroad to the capital of the province, Takayama, and they were detained four days in travel by the breaking of 0 Yone San's jinrikisha. The day that she was sixty-two years old, July 23, 1892, Drennan walked much of the way up the steep mountain side in the rain. There were frequent earthquakes, preceded by rumblings, and ending in explosions. She was the only foreign woman who had ever been in this province, and although the people were very curious, they were never uncivil. The chief of police sent an escort with her when she wished to go out on the streets, lest she might receive rudeness. They seemed to think that she had greatly honored them by her visit. Even the Roman Catholics had never reached this point, and to her it seemed a much neglected but important field. She expected to remain there one month looking over the field, but very soon news came of sickness in the church at Ueno. The young pastor had been called away to see his mother, who was dying, so, without having time to rest from her journey, she was compelled to return to Ueno, feeling that the duty lying nearest now was to comfort her troubled people at home. The result of this visit to Takayama is seen in the establishment of a mission there by the Episcopal Church, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church not feeling able to undertake the work at that time. She returned to Ueno, taking up the work there in the absence of Matsuda San. There were now 12 places for holding service in that city and a church of 60 members. The preachers there were Matsuda San, Ohira, and a licentiate. In September, 1893, she began work at Tsu, the capital of Ise Province. She placed Mr. Kimura in charge of the work at Tsu, while she divided her time, spending half here and half at Ueno. These cities were 60 miles apart. When at Tsu, she slept and ate in Japanese fashion, and had no fire in her room; the winter was intensely cold, and the frequent changes gave her cold, but she kept up this practice of alternating every two weeks until the last of January, when she was compelled to go to Kyoto for treatment. Drennan remained in Kyoto until March 1893, when she returned to her home in Ueno so feeble that her physicians wrote a letter recommending that she go to her native country for health. The Board of Missions wrote her that the time had come for her return. Very soon, a letter came from Drennan saying that she was fully restored to good health. Drennan's work was really not in a condition that she could with propriety leave it at this time. There were four girls whose support had been promised by societies in America, but for some reason had been given up. These she could not turn out into the world uncared for, so she kept up their support herself. She planned a system of village work to be carried out by women, so that every village in Iga was to be visited, and work established wherever there was an opening. As the work was well organized at Ueno, she moved to Tsu in January, 1893, where her life represented the same busy line of teaching, visiting and holding religious service. But with all this, she found time to write letters of instruction weekly to the women of the church at Ueno, and through the Bible class women there kept up the work among the women. ===Return to the U.S. in 1893=== There was much opposition to Christianity at this place also. Children who attended the Sunday school were threatened by the Roman Catholic priests, and degraded in their classes, and made the butt of ridicule until driven from the school. Notwithstanding the work was so difficult, in a few months, she had established a flourishing church. But the physical condition of Drennan later on made a return to the U.S. imperative. In July 1893, just before leaving Tsu, she wrote that she had succeeded in having all her girls provided for during her absence, and also had arranged her work so that it would not suffer. With Daisy satisfactorily provided for, Drennan left Japan on August 5, 1893, on the steamer Peking, and reached Pueblo, Colorado, August 31, where she remained a few days with her sister. Then she came to Missouri, spending a short time with her brother, before hastening to Franklin, Kentucky, that she might see her aged sister before her death. She remained in the United States until August, 1894, making just one year's absence from Japan. She spoke of the voyage to the U.S. as being restful; and this was the only rest she experienced during her visit as she had speaking engagements at least once a week, visiting 33 towns in 11 different States. ===Return to Japan in 1894=== Drennan was accompanied to Japan by Mrs. Lyon and Miss Alexander. During the voyage there was a storm in which Drennan fell, striking her side on the edge of a cot. This injury gave her trouble afterwards, but she never complained, even to her relatives. Rev. E. E. Morris and the church in Marshall, Missouri, with the consent of the Board of Missions, undertook the support of Drennan after her return to Japan. But it was never enough. Once back in Japan, Drennan found the church at Tsu in great need of help. The Ueno church had also suffered during her absence; but very soon she secured the services of a good native preacher for the church at Tsu, and a man was placed at Ueno. As soon as Drennan was partially relieved of the care of these two churches, she went to Shiroko, away. There she rented a chapel, fitted it up, and left a young man in charge of the work. With the assistance of Mrs. Lyon, the Bible Training School was opened, Drennan spending three hours each day teaching a Bible lesson, which was repeated many times by the Bible women as they went from house to house. The work at Shiroko met with much opposition from the Roman Catholic priests. She immediately returned to Tsu, and started, with her helper and three other girls, to go the additional ten miles to Shiroko in jinrikishas. They took with them a baby organ. After re-establishing their pastor in Shiroko, Drennan returned the same day to Tsu, in time for her regular work that day consisting of women's meetings; weekly meetings at home for those who would not attend church; Sunday schools, morning and afternoon; morning and night preaching on Sundays; Christian Endeavor Society, and Bible women's class each day. One of the most interesting societies was the old women's class, where none under fifty years old were admitted. Between Tsu, Shiroko, and Ueno, Drennan attended and superintended twelve weekly, five monthly, two semi-monthly meetings each month, with the prospect shortly of opening work in two other towns, this being in addition to Bible Training School, home duties, and general oversight of all the woman's work. In the fall of 1896, in her round of work, Drennan found a family consisting of a mother, two sons and three daughters, all very old and very poor people. They had given a five-year-old girl child a home, not from any feeling benevolence, but with the design of selling her for sex work. With the aid of the chief of police, Drennan secured the child, whom she adopted. The child did not know her name but was called Faith. In the year 1898, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union work was introduced, and a society organized with 20 members. Perhaps the most important new work started that year was the tent work, which began in September, with Mr. Banno preaching and distributing tracts to large audiences in Ueno. In the spring of 1900, at one time every member of Drennan's group, consisting of fifteen girls, had Influenza. She also suffered from two severe attacks from which she was slow to recover. She arranged to accommodate many of the missionaries whom, on account of the plague in Osaka, she knew would wish to spend the summer away from there. Through her influence, a very wealthy man consented to have a number of cottages built near the sea. Drennan succeeded in getting four comfortable cottages built, where the missionaries could have a summer's rest. Her philanthropy did not stop here. She wrote to the consul to send her four or five families of refugees from China, who had barely escaped with their lives. To these she offered places free of rent. In September 1900, Drennan returned from the beach to Tsu, and took up her regular work, opening school on September 17. In the year 1901, a great wave of religious influence swept over that country, known as the "Twentieth Century Movement in Japan." The summer of this year, Drennan regarded as the hottest she had ever known. She had recovered from La Grippe, but she did not go out as much as usual, because more important work came to the house, and she now had well-trained girls who could relieve her of much of the outside labor. ===Return to the U.S. in 1902=== A letter from the Mission Board in September 1902 said that Drennan should leave Japan in October and not spend another winter in Japan because of having had influenza. Drennan left Japan October 15, 1902, bringing with her two Japanese girls: Daisy, who had been with her from infancy; and O Tsura San. After a rough voyage of ten days, she landed in San Francisco October 28. They stopped at a hotel nearly two weeks, for rest from the voyage. From San Francisco they went to San Jose, California. She next spent ten days with her cousin, Rev. Nathan Motherel, at Hanford, California, before reaching Pueblo, Colorado. Because of these travels, she was sick until Christmas. During January and February 1903, she took a furnished house, and lived there with her two girls. Her sister's home afforded every comfort, and she received all the attention that her family could bestow, yet she thought best to keep house with her Japanese girls for a while, that she might do the necessary writing that had accumulated, without having to appear selfish by withdrawing from the circle of her sister's household. The offer of a furnished house, by a friend, afforded the opportunity, and against the protests of her sister and her family she moved into it and remained two months. At this time it was intensely cold, and she was not often out of the house. In March, she attended Presbytery at Colorado Springs, Colorado. After four days, she returned to her sister, Mrs. Bell, worn out. Another short rest and she went to Cañon City, Colorado, before returning to her sister's home for more rest. Drennan had planned to attend the meeting of the Woman's Board at Huntsville, Alabama, and also to visit friends in Kentucky and Tennessee. After resting at Pueblo, Colorado, she left May 5, 1903, traveling until she had reached Holden, Missouri, the home of her nephew, Mr. McCutchen. She was unable to continue the journey, and was quite ill until she rallied, and on May 24, accompanied by Mr. McCutchen, she went to Pilot Grove, Missouri, the home of her childhood, to visit Mrs. List, her niece. One of the Japanese girls, Daisy, she left with her sister, Mrs. Bell, at Pueblo, Colorado, but O Tsura San went with Drennan as her companion and nurse. When the rainy season came, Drennan grew listless, was not inclined to talk, and had no appetite. Two weeks before she died, the Drennan Mission Band met at Mrs. List's home. The next day, she canceled an engagement in Texas. Two of her nieces were with her, but O Tsura San was by her bedside constantly. She sent for Mr. McCutchen and spoke to him of her burial, and expressed her satisfaction that he had had the family burying ground put in order. She gave directions for her funeral expenses, and requested that the small amount left over be given to the two Japanese girls, Daisy and O Tsura San. Drennan died June 26, 1903. She was buriedat the old Mt. Vernon cemetery next to her first husband, Rev. Mr. Witherspoon, her father, brother, sister, and other family members. ==References== ===Bibliography=== * * Category:1830 births Category:1903 deaths Category:People from Cooper County, Missouri Category:Educators from Missouri Category:American women educators Category:Presbyterian missionaries in Japan Category:Cumberland Presbyterian Church Category:Female Christian missionaries Category:American Presbyterian missionaries |
Darren Christopher Clarke, (born 14 August 1968) is a professional golfer from Northern Ireland who currently plays on the PGA Tour Champions and has previously played on the European Tour and PGA Tour. He has won 21 tournaments worldwide on a number of golf's main tours including the PGA Tour, European Tour, Japan Golf Tour and Sunshine Tour. His biggest victory came when he won the 2011 Open Championship at Royal St George's in England, his first major win after more than 20 years and 54 attempts. Clarke has also won two World Golf Championship events, most notably the 2000 WGC-Andersen Consulting Match Play Championship, when he defeated Tiger Woods in the final. Clarke was ranked in the top-10 of the Official World Golf Ranking for 43 weeks between 2000 and 2002. His highest finish on the European Tour money list is second, which he achieved in 1998, 2000 and 2003. Clarke is currently ranked as the seventh highest career money winner on the European Tour.Career Money List European Tour. Retrieved 19 July 2011. Clarke has represented Ireland as both an amateur and as a professional, notably at the World Cup and Alfred Dunhill Cup, and was a member of five consecutive European Ryder Cup teams between 1997 and 2006. == Amateur career == Clarke was born in Dungannon, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland, and in 1987 he played collegiate golf at Wake Forest University in the United States. He was a junior member of Dungannon Golf Club, whose junior section also included three others who are current PGA Golf Professionals: Alistair Cardwell, Barry Hamill and Gary Chambers. Clarke represented his school, Royal School Dungannon, together with Cardwell and Chambers. == Professional career == === 1990–92: Early career === Clarke turned professional in 1990 and played his first full season on the European Tour in 1991. He contested in his first major championship at the 1991 Open Championship, making the cut before finishing in a tie for 64th place. In 1992 Clarke had a solid season on the European Tour, finishing 41st in overall Order of Merit, in doing so achieving his highest finish of his career at the time with a second-place finish at the Honda Open. He finished three strokes behind champion Bernhard Langer. === 1993–95: First European Tour win and steady progress === Clarke's real breakthrough year was in 1993 when he won his maiden European Tour event and played his way to 8th position on the Order of Merit. After a relatively solid but unspectacular first half of the season, Clarke's form improved greatly during the August–September stretch, achieving four top-10 finishes in four consecutive tournaments. In October 1993, Clarke won his maiden European Tour event at the Alfred Dunhill Open in Belgium. Clarke had the lead after 54 holes and held off the challenge of Englishman Nick Faldo and Vijay Singh, who shot a final-round 64. Clarke prevailed by two strokes. A month later Clarke nearly won his second title at the European Tour's season-ending Volvo Masters, however, he was pipped to the title by Colin Montgomerie who finished one stroke clear. Overall for the season Clarke made 24 out of 30 cuts and finished in the top-10 on seven occasions. The follow-up year in 1994 was another solid season for Clarke on the tour, making 17 of 21 cuts and finishing 37th on the Order of Merit list. Clarke also played in his first U.S. Open although he missed the cut and had his highest finish, at the time, in The Open Championship with a tie for 38th place. In 1995, Clarke had better success, with seven top-10s in 27 events, most notably at the Portuguese Open where he finished second after losing a sudden-death playoff to Adam Hunter on the first extra hole, despite having the joint 54-hole lead. Clarke ended the year 14th on the Order of Merit. === 1996–1999: Four more European Tour wins and near miss at 1997 Open === In 1996, Clarke won his second European Tour title at the Linde German Masters by one stroke, shooting a final round 63 to finish 24 under par, one stroke ahead of Englishman Mike Davis. Clarke also recorded his best finish in a major, at that current time, with a tie for 11th place at The Open Championship in 1996. He also equalled his best finish on the Order of Merit, placing in 8th for the season. In May 1997, Clarke finished second at the Volvo PGA Championship, two strokes behind Ian Woosnam. In July 1997, Clarke was in a position to win his first major championship at the 1997 Open Championship at Royal Troon. Clarke held the lead with American Jim Furyk after the first round and then pulled two strokes clear of the field after a 66 in the second round, but a third- round 71 put him two strokes behind leader Jesper Parnevik going into the final day. However, the winner was not to come from the final pairing, as Justin Leonard came storming through the pack with a 65 to beat both Clarke and Parnevik by three strokes. Clarke ended the season 4th on the Order of Merit. In 1998, Clarke made his first appearances at two of the biggest golf events worldwide. He missed the cut on his debut at The Players Championship, but his first visit to Augusta National Golf Club was much more successful, shooting 67–69 on the weekend to finish in a tie for 8th at the Masters Tournament. This remains his highest ever finish at the Masters to date. In May 1998, Clarke won his third career event on the European Tour at the Benson & Hedges International Open by three strokes from Santiago Luna. Clarke then had three more 2nd-place finishes during the season before winning the season- ending Volvo Masters in Spain. His two victories in 1998 helped him to finish in 2nd place on the final 1998 Order of Merit standings behind Colin Montgomerie. Clarke missed only one cut all year, at the Murphy's Irish Open. In 1999, Clarke captured his fifth European Tour win at the Compass Group English Open, finishing two strokes ahead of John Bickerton. He also achieved his highest ever placing at the U.S. Open this year when he finished tied for 10th place. === 2000: WGC-Matchplay Championship win and further success === Clarke's worldwide breakthrough came in 2000 when he won his first World Golf Championship event, defeating Tiger Woods in the final 4&3 at the 2000 WGC- Andersen Consulting Match Play Championship at La Costa Resort and Spa. This was Clarke's biggest victory of his career so far as he netted the $1 million first prize. Clarke had a difficult route through the championship but defeated a host of big name players: Paul Azinger, Mark O'Meara, Thomas Bjørn, Hal Sutton and David Duval before taking on Woods in the final.Tiger Woods text messages gave Darren Clarke the drive to be a champion Belfast Telegraph. Retrieved 18 July 2011. Clarke's fine year in 2000 continued when he finished tied for second place in the Volvo PGA Championship and the following week he won his seventh European Tour event at the Compass Group English Open. Clarke also recorded his best finish at the PGA Championship with a tie for 9th place. He also had three 2nd-place finishes in the 2000 season, which included eleven top-10 finishes. He finished 2nd on the Order of Merit and it was his highest ever season in terms of prize money. Clarke earned over €2.7 million for the year. === 2001–03: Continued success and second WGC win === The 2001 season saw Clarke finish one place lower on the Order of Merit in 3rd place, although he did manage some notable results on tour during this season. Clarke added to his list of European Tour wins at the Smurfit European Open, which he won by three strokes at The K Club. A couple of weeks later, Clarke produced another fine performance at The Open Championship at Royal Lytham & St Annes, finishing in a tie for 3rd place, four strokes behind the eventual winner David Duval. Clarke then had another notable 3rd-place finish at the WGC-NEC Invitational, earning in excess of €400,000. In 2002, Clarke played on both the European Tour and the PGA Tour. In the buildup to the Masters, Clarke played the Shell Houston Open and finished second behind runaway winner Vijay Singh. He then played on the European Tour in the summer and won his ninth career title at the Compass Group English Open, becoming the first man to win the tournament three times. In the 2003 WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship, Clarke lost to Peter Lonard at the quarter-final stage. However, Clarke did not have to wait much longer for more WGC success though, when he won his second WGC event at the WGC-NEC Invitational at Firestone Country Club in Akron, Ohio.Clarke wins WGC-NEC BBC Sport. Retrieved 19 July 2011. He finished four strokes ahead of Jonathan Kaye. Clarke's run of success throughout 2001–2003 saw him miss only three cuts on the European Tour in three years and he finished 2nd on the European Order of Merit for the third time in his career. === 2004: First winless season in seven years === Clarke continued his run of good form at the WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship in 2004, when he finished third. He lost to Davis Love III in the semi-final on the 21st hole, but beat Stephen Leaney 2-up in the resulting 3rd place playoff match. Clarke also had a good finish at the WGC-American Express Championship, finishing in a tie for 4th place. Despite winning over $2 million in prize money, Clarke did not win an event during the 2004 season on either tour and this was the first time this had happened since 1997. === 2005–2007: Loss of form and slump === Clarke played the 2005 season half and half between the European Tour and the PGA Tour. He enjoyed a solid season with many top-10 finishes, but he could not climb the final hurdle of winning an event. The highlights of his year were a 2nd-place finish at the Barclays Scottish Open in Europe and another 2nd place at the MCI Heritage in the United States. With Clarke playing much fewer tournaments on the European Tour he only finished 20th on the Order of Merit compared to his previous success in this category. In 2006, Clarke only managed to record four top-10 placings and finished the year 43rd on the Order of Merit. However, just six weeks after the death of his wife, Heather, he made a big contribution to Europe's Ryder Cup win in 2006 at the K Club in Ireland. Clarke was one of Ian Woosnam's two wild card picks and he earned three points on the way to victory for Europe, including a 3 & 2 win in his singles match against Zach Johnson. The 2007 season was the worst of Clarke's professional career. He did not record any top-10 finishes. He withdrew from a number of events in the year and finished 143rd on the Order of Merit list. === 2008: Return to form === Clarke ended his winless streak in April 2008 when he won the BMW Asian Open in an emotional victory after a birdie on the 72nd hole to see off Robert-Jan Derksen by one stroke. This was Clarke's first win in almost five years and the 11th of his career. The win broke the shackles from the slump in form he went through in the previous years and his 12th victory was not far around the corner. Clarke won again in the Netherlands at the KLM Open finishing the tournament four shots ahead of Paul McGinley. Clarke ended his comeback year 13th in the Order of Merit Standings, however he missed out on a place in Nick Faldo's Ryder Cup team, the first time Clarke had done so in over 10 years. === 2009–10: Consistent play === The 2009 and 2010 seasons were steady in progress for Clarke as he began to rebuild his form following the successful 2008 season. He only managed to record three top-10 finishes during the whole of 2009, most notably tying for 5th place in the defence of his KLM Open title in the Netherlands. Clarke finished 61st in the Race to Dubai Standings and missed out a place in the season ending finale narrowly by finishing outside the top 60. In 2010, however, he did make into the Dubai Finals after finishing 30th at the end of the year. He was aided by two second-place finishes throughout the season at the Joburg Open behind winner Charl Schwartzel and then at the Barclays Scottish Open ending up three strokes behind Edoardo Molinari. === 2011: Open Championship victory === In 2011, Clarke won his first European Tour title since August 2008 with a three-stroke victory over Chris Wood and David Lynn in the Iberdrola Open. After finishing tied for third in the 2001 Open Championship, Clarke did not make the top-10 of any major, until he won his first major championship at the 2011 Open at the age of 42 – his 20th attempt at winning the Claret Jug.Darren Clarke is the Superman who never gave up on his dream of a Major – and triumphed at The Open The Mirror. Retrieved 18 July 2011. Clarke dedicated his victory to his two children and late wife Heather, who died of breast cancer in 2006: "In terms of what's going through my heart, there's obviously somebody who is watching from up above there, and I know she'd be very proud of me. But I think she'd be more proud of my two boys and them at home watching more than anything else. It's been a long journey to get here".Darren Clarke dedicates his Open Championship victory to his children and late wife, Heather Telegraph. Retrieved 18 July 2011.Open Championship 2011: Darren Clarke captures maiden major win BBC. Retrieved 18 July 2011. With Clarke's triumph in The Open at Royal St George's, it was the first time since 1910 where one country (other than the United States) had different golfers win consecutive majors. Rory McIlroy, also of Northern Ireland, captured the 2011 U.S. Open title one month earlier at Congressional Country Club in Bethesda, Maryland. Clarke's victory at the 2011 Open meant that he became the third major winner from Northern Ireland in 13 months, following Graeme McDowell's win in the 2010 U.S. Open and Rory McIlroy's victory in the 2011 U.S. Open, prompting McIlroy to quip that Northern Ireland was the 'Golf Capital of the World'.Northern Ireland, world golf capital Belfast Telegraph. Retrieved 19 July 2011. === PGA Tour Champions === In November 2020, Clarke won the TimberTech Championship in Boca Raton, Florida for his first win on the PGA Tour Champions. It was his first worldwide, since he won The Open Championship in 2011. Clarke collected his second win at the Mitsubishi Electric Championship at Hualalai in Hawaii just 3 months later. In September 2021, Clarke won the Sanford International in a playoff over K. J. Choi and Steve Flesch. In July 2022, Clarke won his first senior major championship at The Senior Open Championship, played at Gleneagles in Scotland. He won by one shot over Pádraig Harrington. He also became the fourth player in history to win both The Open Championship and The Senior Open Championship. == Ryder Cup and other team golf == Clarke has represented Ireland as both an amateur and as a professional, most notably at the World Cup and Alfred Dunhill Cup. He was a member of five consecutive European Ryder Cup teams in 1997, 1999, 2002, 2004 and 2006, winning on four occasions and was also appointed a non-playing vice captain by Colin Montgomerie in 2010 and by Paul McGinley in 2014. Clarke's most notable appearance at the Ryder Cup was in 2006, six weeks after the death of his wife Heather. Heather had loved the Ryder Cup and encouraged Darren to compete in it, so he made himself available for selection. European captain Ian Woosnam chose Clarke as one of his two wild cards, and he contributed three points from three matches to Europe's victory, and was embraced by members of the European and U.S. teams after he finished the tournament.Tearful Clarke revels in triumph BBC Sport. Retrieved 18 July 2011. Clarke was named as the 2016 Ryder Cup captain on 18 February 2015. He was selected by a five-man selection panel consisting of the last three Ryder Cup captains: Paul McGinley, José María Olazábal, Colin Montgomerie, another ex- Ryder Cup player David Howell and the European Tour chief executive George O'Grady. == Personal life == Clarke's grandfather Ben played football for Portadown, Sheffield United, Exeter City and Carlisle United and earned two amateur caps for the Ireland national football team (1882–1950) in 1934. His father Godfrey played for Glenavon. He met his wife Heather in a nightclub in Portrush, County Antrim, and they married in March 1996. The couple had two sons, Tyrone and Conor, and the family lived at Sunningdale, Berkshire, UK. In 2005 and 2006 he missed several tournaments to care for his wife, who had been diagnosed with both primary breast cancer in December 2001, then, in 2004, with secondary breast cancer. Heather Clarke died on Sunday 13 August 2006 at 39 years of age, in the Royal Marsden Hospital, London. Clarke's friend Paul McGinley immediately announced his own withdrawal from the PGA Championship starting in Medinah, Illinois. In a statement McGinley said, "Our two families are very much intertwined, obviously me and Darren, but Heather and (McGinley's wife) Ali were the best of friends and our kids are in the same class at school. So it is a tough time for us all". Following Clarke's performance at the 2006 Ryder Cup, six weeks after his wife had died, he was the favourite to win the 2006 BBC Sports Personality of the Year award, but was runner-up to Zara Phillips. He had previously stated he did not want to win with a sympathy vote after his wife's death.Clarke uneasy over sympathy vote BBC. Retrieved 18 July 2011. Clarke and his sons moved back to Northern Ireland, making their home in Portrush. Clarke and former Miss Northern Ireland Alison Campbell married on 11 April 2012. On 6 April 2011, Clarke was photographed by Kevin Abosch for The Face of Ireland project.Darren Joins 'Face of Ireland Exhibition' The Face of Ireland Clarke is a supporter of Liverpool F.C. Clarke was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to golf. == Amateur wins == *1989 East of Ireland Championship *1990 Spanish International Amateur Championship, Irish Amateur Close Championship, South of Ireland Championship, North of Ireland Amateur Championship == Professional wins (27) == === PGA Tour wins (3) === Legend Major championships (1) World Golf Championships (2) Other PGA Tour (0) No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runner(s)-up 1 27 Feb 2000 WGC-Andersen Consulting Match Play Championship 4 and 3 4 and 3 Tiger Woods 2 24 Aug 2003 WGC-NEC Invitational −12 (65-70-66-67=268) 4 strokes Jonathan Kaye 3 17 Jul 2011 The Open Championship −5 (68-68-69-70=275) 3 strokes Dustin Johnson, Phil Mickelson === European Tour wins (14) === Legend Major championships (1) World Golf Championships (2) Tour Championships (1) Other European Tour (10) No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runner(s)-up 1 10 Oct 1993 Alfred Dunhill Open −14 (68-68-66-68=270) 2 strokes Nick Faldo, Vijay Singh 2 6 Oct 1996 Linde German Masters −24 (70-64-67-63=264) 1 stroke Mark Davis 3 17 May 1998 Benson & Hedges International Open −15 (70-69-67-67=273) 3 strokes Santiago Luna 4 1 Nov 1998 Volvo Masters −17 (67-73-68-63=271) 2 strokes Andrew Coltart 5 6 Jun 1999 Compass Group English Open −20 (68-65-67-68=268) 2 strokes John Bickerton 6 27 Feb 2000 WGC-Andersen Consulting Match Play Championship 4 and 3 4 and 3 Tiger Woods 7 4 Jun 2000 Compass Group English Open (2) −13 (70-72-68-65=275) 1 stroke Michael Campbell, Mark James 8 8 Jul 2001 Smurfit European Open −15 (68-68-71-66=273) 3 strokes Thomas Bjørn, Pádraig Harrington, Ian Woosnam 9 9 Jun 2002 Compass Group English Open (3) −17 (65-70-68-68=271) 3 strokes Søren Hansen 10 24 Aug 2003 WGC-NEC Invitational −12 (65-70-66-67=268) 4 strokes Jonathan Kaye 11 27 Apr 2008 BMW Asian Open1 −8 (71-69-67-73=280) 1 stroke Robert-Jan Derksen 12 24 Aug 2008 KLM Open −16 (68-64-66-66=264) 4 strokes Paul McGinley 13 15 May 2011 Iberdrola Open −6 (65-70-70-69=274) 3 strokes David Lynn, Chris Wood 14 17 Jul 2011 The Open Championship −5 (68-68-69-70=275) 3 strokes Dustin Johnson, Phil Mickelson 1Co-sanctioned by the Asian Tour European Tour playoff record (0–1) No. Year Tournament Opponent Result 1 1995 Portuguese Open Adam Hunter Lost to birdie on first extra hole === Japan Golf Tour wins (3) === No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runner(s)-up 1 29 Apr 2001 The Crowns −13 (66-67-67-67=267) 4 strokes Keiichiro Fukabori, Shinichi Yokota 2 14 Nov 2004 Mitsui Sumitomo Visa Taiheiyo Masters −22 (66-65-67-68=266) 6 strokes Nozomi Kawahara, Lee Westwood 3 13 Nov 2005 Mitsui Sumitomo Visa Taiheiyo Masters (2) −18 (66-71-65-68=270) 2 strokes Mitsuhiro Tateyama Japan Golf Tour playoff record (0–1) No. Year Tournament Opponents Result 1 1999 Sumitomo Visa Taiheiyo Masters Ryoken Kawagishi, Hirofumi Miyase Miyase won with par on second extra hole Kawagishi eliminated by par on first hole === Sunshine Tour wins (1) === No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runners-up 1 4 Feb 2001 Dimension Data Pro-Am −14 (71-63-69-71=274) 2 strokes Retief Goosen, Tjaart van der Walt Sunshine Tour playoff record (0–1) No. Year Tournament Opponent Result 1 1999 Vodacom Players Championship Nic Henning Lost to birdie on second extra hole === Challenge Tour wins (1) === No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runner-up 1 14 Sep 2003 Benmore Developments Northern Ireland Masters −11 (72-66-65-70=273) 2 strokes Stuart Little === Other wins (4) === No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runner(s)-up 1 1992 Ulster Professional Championship 2 22 May 1994 Smurfit Irish PGA Championship 285 3 strokes Raymond Burns 3 5 Jul 2010 J. P. McManus Pro-Am −3 (73-68=141) 1 stroke Luke Donald 4 21 Jul 2010 Lough Erne Challenge (with Rory McIlroy) −6 (66) 1 stroke Pádraig Harrington and Shane Lowry Other playoff record (0–1) No. Year Tournament Opponents Result 1 2005 Nedbank Golf Challenge Jim Furyk, Retief Goosen, Adam Scott Furyk won with birdie on second extra hole Goosen eliminated by par on first hole === PGA Tour Champions wins (4) === Legend Senior major championships (1) Other PGA Tour Champions (3) No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runner(s)-up 1 1 Nov 2020 TimberTech Championship −17 (69-62-68=199) 1 stroke Jim Furyk, Bernhard Langer 2 23 Jan 2021 Mitsubishi Electric Championship at Hualalai −21 (63-68-64=195) 2 strokes Retief Goosen 3 19 Sep 2021 Sanford International −12 (63-70-65=198) Playoff K. J. Choi, Steve Flesch 4 24 Jul 2022 The Senior Open Championship −10 (65-67-69-69=270) 1 stroke Pádraig Harrington PGA Tour Champions playoff record (1–0) No. Year Tournament Opponents Result 1 2021 Sanford International K. J. Choi, Steve Flesch Won with birdie on second extra hole Flesch eliminated by par on first hole === European Senior Tour wins (1) === Legend Senior major championships (1) Other European Senior Tour (0) No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin of victory Runner-up 1 24 Jul 2022 The Senior Open Championship −10 (65-67-69-69=270) 1 stroke Pádraig Harrington == Major championships == === Wins (1) === Year Championship 54 holes Winning score Margin Runners-up 2011 The Open Championship 1 shot lead −5 (68-68-69-70=275) 3 strokes Dustin Johnson, Phil Mickelson === Results timeline === Results not in chronological order in 2020. Tournament 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Masters Tournament T8 CUT U.S. Open CUT CUT T43 T43 T10 The Open Championship T64 CUT T39 T38 T31 T11 T2 CUT T30 PGA Championship CUT CUT Tournament 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Masters Tournament T40 24 T20 T28 CUT T17 T22 CUT U.S. Open T53 T30 T24 T42 CUT 56 CUT The Open Championship T7 T3 T37 T59 T11 T15 CUT CUT T52 PGA Championship T9 CUT CUT CUT T13 CUT T42 CUT CUT Tournament 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Masters Tournament CUT T44 T52 CUT U.S. Open CUT CUT CUT The Open Championship T44 1 CUT T21 T26 CUT T30 CUT CUT PGA Championship T48 CUT T54 75 CUT CUT CUT Tournament 2019 2020 2021 2022 Masters Tournament PGA Championship U.S. Open The Open Championship CUT NT CUT CUT CUT = missed the half way cut "T" indicates a tie for a place NT = No tournament due to COVID-19 pandemic === Summary === Tournament Wins 2nd 3rd Top-5 Top-10 Top-25 Events Cuts made Masters Tournament 0 0 0 0 1 5 14 9 PGA Championship 0 0 0 0 1 2 18 6 U.S. Open 0 0 0 0 1 2 15 8 The Open Championship 1 1 1 3 4 8 30 19 Totals 1 1 1 3 7 17 77 42 *Most consecutive cuts made – 7 (2000 Masters – 2001 Open Championship) *Longest streak of top-10s – 2 (2000 Open Championship – 2000 PGA) == Results in The Players Championship == Tournament 1998 1999 The Players Championship CUT T71 Tournament 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 The Players Championship CUT T26 CUT T6 T26 T63 T20 WD Tournament 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 The Players Championship CUT WD CUT = missed the halfway cut WD = withdrew "T" indicates a tie for a place == World Golf Championships == === Wins (2) === Year Championship 54 holes Winning score Margin Runner-up 2000 WGC- Andersen Consulting Match Play Championship n/a 4 and 3 4 and 3 Tiger Woods 2003 WGC-NEC Invitational 1 shot lead –12 (65-70-66-67=268) 4 strokes Jonathan Kaye === Results timeline === Tournament 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Match Play R64 1 R64 QF 3 R64 R64 R64 R64 Championship T40 T17 NT1 63 T38 T4 T26 T46 T43 Invitational T36 T17 3 T19 1 T14 T28 WD T67 T6 T22 T68 Champions T38 1Cancelled due to 9/11 QF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play "T" = Tied WD = Withdrew NT = No tournament Note that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009. == Senior major championships == === Wins (1) === Year Championship 54 holes Winning score Margin Runner-up 2022 The Senior Open Championship 1 shot lead −10 (65-67-69-69=270) 1 stroke Pádraig Harrington === Results timeline === Tournament 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 The Tradition T27 NT T8 T13 T9 Senior PGA Championship T35 NT 54 T14 T5 U.S. Senior Open CUT NT T28 CUT Senior Players Championship T23 T12 T38 The Senior Open Championship T10 NT 3 1 "T" indicates a tie for a place CUT = missed the halfway cut NT = No tournament due to COVID-19 pandemic == Team appearances == Amateur *St Andrews Trophy (representing Great Britain & Ireland): 1990 (winners) Professional *Alfred Dunhill Cup (representing Ireland): 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999 *World Cup (representing Ireland): 1994, 1995, 1996 *Ryder Cup (representing Europe): 1997 (winners), 1999, 2002 (winners), 2004 (winners), 2006 (winners), 2016 (non-playing captain) **Record: 20 matches, 11.5 points (58% Point Percentage) **All Formats (W-L-H): 10–7–3 = 11.5 pts ***Singles: 1–2–2 = 2 pts ***Foursomes: 3–3–0 = 3 pts ***Fourballs: 6–2–1 = 6.5 pts *Seve Trophy (representing Great Britain & Ireland): 2000, 2002 (winners), 2011 (winners) *Royal Trophy (representing Europe): 2007 (winners) *EurAsia Cup (representing Europe): 2016 (non-playing captain, winners) == Awards and honours == *1993 Texaco Ireland Sportstar Golf Award *1997 Texaco Ireland Sportstar Golf Award *1998 Texaco Ireland Sportstar Golf Award *2000 Texaco Ireland Sportstar Golf Award *2003 Texaco Ireland Sportstar Golf Award *2004 Texaco Ireland Sportstar Golf Award (shared with Pádraig Harrington and Paul McGinley) == See also == *List of golfers with most European Tour wins *List of people on stamps of Ireland == References == == External links == * * * * * * Category:Male golfers from Northern Ireland Category:Wake Forest Demon Deacons men's golfers Category:European Tour golfers Category:PGA Tour golfers Category:PGA Tour Champions golfers Category:Ryder Cup competitors for Europe Category:Winners of men's major golf championships Category:Winners of senior major golf championships Category:Golf writers and broadcasters Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire Category:Laureus World Sports Awards winners Category:People educated at the Royal School Dungannon Category:Sportspeople from Dungannon Category:People from Portrush Category:1968 births Category:Living people |
Royal Air Force Station Polebrook or more simply RAF Polebrook is a former Royal Air Force station located east-south-east of Oundle, at Polebrook, Northamptonshire, England. The airfield was built on Rothschild estate land starting in August 1940. It was from Polebrook that the United States Army Air Forces' Eighth Air Force carried out its first heavy bomb group (Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress) combat mission on 17 August 1942, and from which Major Clark Gable flew combat missions in 1943. ==History== RAF Polebrook was the first airfield to be completed out of a number in the Northamptonshire/Huntingdonshire area which were laid down for RAF Bomber Command during late 1940 and early 1941. Like other airfields in the construction program at the time, Polebrook was built by George Wimpey & Co., Limited. The initial construction was of three runways, the concrete runway lengths were 08-26 at 1,280 yards, 14-32 at 1,200 yards and 02-20, 1,116 yards. In addition, thirty square hardstands most on the eastern side, were reached by very long access tracks. The weapons store was unusual in that it lay within the perimeter track at the southern end. One Type J and two Type T-2 hangars were erected on the technical site outside the northern perimeter with the domestic sites dispersed in woodland beyond. ===Royal Air Force use=== One of the first units to operate from the airfield was No. 90 Squadron RAF, which carried out operational trials from June 1941 to February 1942. Several of the hardstands and taxiways were still under construction when the squadron arrived. No. 90 Squadron was equipped with the American B-17C, called "Fortress I" by the RAF. Although the US Army Air Forces did not consider the B-17C as being combat ready (the E-version was already under procurement as the result of combat reports from Europe), the RAF was sufficiently desperate in 1941 that these planes were immediately pressed into front-line service. The Fortresses were used for very high-altitude attacks in daylight, the first operation from Polebrook being flown on 8 July 1941 when three Fortresses were dispatched on a raid to Wilhelmshaven. Engine trouble forced one of the planes to divert to a second target, but the other two went on to attack the naval barracks at Wilhelmshaven from an altitude of 30,000 feet. Unfortunately, the planes were not able to hit anything from such extreme altitudes. In addition, their crews found that the temperatures at this altitude were so cold that their defensive machine guns froze up when they tried to fire them. However, all planes returned safely to base. Their last raid launched from Polebrook was on 2 September 1941. RAF Fortresses had flown 22 attacks against targets such as Bremen, Brest, Emden, Kiel, Oslo, and Rotterdam. A total of 39 planes had been dispatched, out of which eighteen planes had aborted and two had been forced to bomb secondary targets because of mechanical problems. Eight Fortresses had been destroyed in combat or lost in accidents. Discouraged by these losses, the RAF decided to abandon daylight bombing raids over Europe. Although two Fortresses were missing from operations, the only loss resulting from a raid flown from Polebrook involved a badly battle-damaged aircraft that crash landed at a south-coast airfield. As a result of RAF experience with the Fortress, it was determined that there was a need for vast improvements in defensive gunnery, a need for operating the Fortresses in greater numbers in tighter formations for better defensive firepower, and a need for better and more intensive crew training. Nevertheless, their British crews generally were quite pleased with the Fortress I, regarding it as easy to fly, very maneuverable, and aerodynamically stable in the bomb run. While at Polebrook, No. 90 was then the sole operational squadron assigned to No. 8 Group RAF and, before it was disbanded on 12 February 1942, its remaining aircraft and crews were only involved in experimentation and training. The short runways at Polebrook were found to be unsatisfactory for the operation of the heavy- loaded, four-engine B-17. In 1942 the airfield was improved to Class A airfield standards. The main runway was extended to 1,950 yards and the secondary runways to 1,400 yards each. In addition, additional hardstands were constructed, increasing the total number from 30 to 50. This enlargement resulted in the unusual situation that the ammunition storage area was inside the extended perimeter track. The living and communal sites were dispersed in woodlands north of the airfield. They provided accommodations to about 2,000 personnel. ===United States Army Air Forces use=== From 12 December 1943 to 12 June 1945, Polebrook served as headquarters for the 94th Combat Bombardment Wing of the 1st Bombardment Division. It was designated USAAF Station 110. ====97th Bombardment Group (Heavy)==== thumb|RAF Polebrook control tower, 20 March 1945. Note the use of a B-17 nose plexiglass. Also shows Signals Square thumb|Boeing B-17G-95-BO Fortress 43-38846, 351st Bombardment Group On 28 June 1942, RAF Polebrook was officially turned over to the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and the airbase became the base of the 97th Bombardment Group, the first USAAF heavy bomber organization to arrive in the UK. The 97th BG was assigned to the 1st Combat Wing, at RAF Bassingbourn. Its operational squadrons were divided between Polebrook and RAF Grafton Underwood: * 340th Bombardment Squadron (RAF Polebrook) * 341st Bombardment Squadron (RAF Polebrook) * 342nd Bombardment Squadron (RAF Grafton Underwood) * 343rd Bombardment Squadron (RAF Grafton Underwood) The 97th Bomb Group is famous for flying the first all-American Flying Fortress bombing mission originating from Grafton Underwood against German-occupied territory in Europe on August 17, 1942, by attacking the railway marshalling yards at Sotteville-lès-Rouen in France. The lead aircraft in the first flight group of six B-17s was Butcher Shop, which was copiloted by the Group Commander Colonel Frank A. Armstrong, and piloted by the squadron commander of the 340th Captain Paul W. Tibbets (who later flew the Enola Gay to Hiroshima Japan on the first atomic bomb mission). The lead aircraft in the second flight group of six B-17s was B-17E Yankee Doodle 41-9023, which was copiloted by 2nd Lt. John R. Dowswell and piloted by Captain Rudolph Emil "Rudy" Flack the squadron commander of the 414th, Grafton Underwood base commander and mission commander (http://www.americanairmuseum.com/person/246743), and who carried Brig. General Ira C. Eaker the commander of the VIII Bomber Command as an observer on board his Flying Fortress. The 97th BG conducted a total of 16 missions from Polebrook and Grafton Underwood, attacking airfields, marshalling yards, industries, naval installations, and other targets in France and the Low Countries. The group sortied 247 aircraft, dropped 395 tons of bombs on Nazi- controlled territory, and lost 14 aircraft. On 21 October 1942, the 97th Bomb Group was transferred to the Twelfth Air Force in the Mediterranean theatre and Polebrook was unoccupied until April 1943. ====351st Bombardment Group (Heavy)==== On 15 April 1943, the 351st Bomb Group arrived at RAF Polebrook. It was assigned to the 94th Combat Wing, also at Polebrook. The group tail code was a "Triangle J". Its operational squadrons were: * 508th Bombardment Squadron (YB) * 509th Bombardment Squadron (RQ) * 510th Bombardment Squadron (TU) * 511th Bombardment Squadron (DS) The 351st's first completed combat mission took place on 14 May 1943, when 18 B-17s targeted a German Luftwaffe airfield at Kortrijk, Belgium. As the war progressed, the 351st operated primarily against strategic objectives in Germany, striking such targets as ball-bearing plants at Schweinfurt, communications at Mayen, marshalling yards at Koblenz, a locomotive and tank factory at Hanover, industries at Berlin, bridges at Cologne, an armaments factory at Mannheim, and oil refineries at Hamburg. The group also struck harbor facilities, submarine installations, airfields, V-weapon sites, and power plants in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Norway. The 351st Received a Distinguished Unit Citation for performance of 9 October 1943 when an aircraft factory in Germany was accurately bombed in spite of heavy flak and pressing enemy interceptors. It received another DUC for its part in the successful attack of 11 January 1944 on aircraft factories in central Germany. The group participated in the intensive air campaign against the German aircraft industry during Big Week, 20−25 February 1944. In addition to its strategic missions, the group often operated in support of ground forces and attacked interdictory targets. Bombed in support of the Battle of Normandy in June 1944 and the Saint-Lô breakthrough in July. The group hit enemy positions to cover the airborne attack on the Netherlands in September 1944. Struck front-line positions, communications, and airfields to help stop the German counteroffensive in the Battle of the Bulge, December 1944-January 1945. Flew missions in support of Operation Varsity, the airborne assault across the Rhine in March 1945. In 1944 Polebrook also became the headquarters of the 94th Combat Wing, which controlled the 351st, the 457th Bomb Group at RAF Glatton and the 401st Bomb Group at RAF Deenethorpe. The 351st conducted routine 8th Air Force missions from RAF Polebrook until the end of the war. The unit completed 311 combat missions from Polebrook. The 351st lost 175 B-17s and their crews. The gunners in the Group fired off 2,776,028 rounds of ammunition and were credited with destroying 303 enemy aircraft. The 509th Bomb Squadron completed 54 consecutive missions without losses between June 1943 to January 1944. The unit returned to the US soon after V-E Day with the air element leaving 21 May and the ground echelon sailing 25 June. Reassigned to Sioux Falls AAF, South Dakota during August 1945. The 391st Bomb Group was inactivated on 28 August 1945. RAF Polebrook was subsequently returned to the RAF on 28 August 1945, and the base was placed on care and maintenance status. =====Medal of Honor===== Two members of the 351st, Lt. Walter E. Truemper and S/Sgt. Archibald Mathies, were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. On a mission to Leipzig, Germany, 20 February 1944 their B-17 Ten Horsepower was attacked by German fighters. The co-pilot was killed and pilot Lt. Clarence Nelson was badly wounded. Truemper and Mathies flew the badly damaged B-17 back to England where the remainder of the crew bailed out, then attempted to land the plane to save the life of the unconscious pilot. On their third attempt Ten Horsepower crashed on final approach and all three airmen were killed. Legacy During the Cold War, the United States Air Force Strategic Air Command 351st Strategic Missile Wing stood alert with Minuteman I and later, Minuteman II ICBMs starting in 1963 at Whiteman AFB Missouri. The wing was bestowed the lineage, honours and history of the World War II USAAF 351st Bomb Wing upon activation. The 351st SMW won the SAC missile combat competitions and Blanchard Trophy in 1967, 1971, and 1977. Named as SAC's "best Minuteman wing" in 1972, it stood down from alert and was inactivated in 1995. ====Hollywood at Polebrook==== left|thumb|100px|Lt. James M. Stewart & Lt. Clark Gable, 1943 During much of 1943, Captain Clark Gable was stationed at Polebrook to produce a recruiting film for aircraft gunners. He had trained with the 351st Bomb Group at Biggs Army Air Base, Texas, and Pueblo Army Air Base, Colorado, then accompanied it overseas in early April 1943. Much of the film was shot by former MGM cinematographer First Lieutenant Andrew McIntyre, whom MGM had arranged to enter duty with and accompany Gable in training, and scripting was by John Lee Mahin, a Hollywood screenwriter also in the unit. While with the 351st Gable flew five combat missions as an observer. 1) Gable's first combat mission occurred on 4 May 1943, when Gable accompanied 351st group commander Lt. Col. William A. Hatcher on a late afternoon familiarization mission before the 351st became operational. Flying squadron lead with Capt William R. Calhoun of the 303rd Bomb Group, RAF Molesworth, against the Ford and General Motors plants at Antwerp, Belgium, Hatcher and Gable's B-17 was nicknamed The 8 Ball MK II (s/n 41-24635). Gable fired a few rounds from a machine gun mounted in the radio room and suffered a minor case of frostbite from wearing leather gloves in the extreme cold. 2) Gable's second mission came 10 July 1943, flying with Second Lt. Theodore Argiropulos of the 351st's 508th Bomb Squadron in Argonaut III (42-29851) to bomb the airfield at Villacoublay, France. The mission was frustrating in that clouds forced the bombers to return without dropping their ordnance, but did not prevent German fighter attacks. 3) His third combat mission occurred on 24 July 1943, again in Argonaut III as the lead aircraft of the 351st, with group executive officer Lt.Col. Robert W. Burns. The mission to bomb the Norsk Hydro chemical plants in Herøya, Norway, was unopposed, but was also the longest by the Eighth Air Force to that date and began a week-long series of intensive operations against German targets known as the "Blitz Week". 4) On the morning of 12 August 1943, his fourth mission was to bomb a synthetic oil plant at Gelsenkirchen in the Ruhr, joining 351st operations officer Maj. Theodore "Ross" Milton and Capt. John B. Carraway's crew in Ain't It Gruesome (42-29863). Bombing Bochum, Germany, as a target of opportunity in bad weather, Gable experienced the Eighth's most dangerous mission to date, with 25 of its 330 B-17s shot down. Although none of the 351st's Fortresses went down, 11 suffered battle damage, one crash-landed on return, and the group's crews suffered one killed and seven wounded. During the mission, Gable wedged himself behind the top turret gunner for a better view as German fighters made five passes at the 351st's formation. A 20mm shell came up through Aint It Gruesome's flight deck, cut off the heel from Gable's boot, and exited one foot from his head, all without exploding. Afterward, the crew noticed the fifteen holes in the aircraft, and Gable noticed his boot. Brushing off concern with reporters, Gable claimed, "I didn't know it had happened. I didn't know anything about it until we had dropped eleven thousand feet, and could get off oxygen and look around. Only then did I see the hole in the turret." 5) Gable's final combat mission was an early morning strike to the port area of Nantes, France, on 23 September 1943. He flew with Lt. Col. Burns and 510th Bomb Squadron commander Maj. John Blaylock, leading the 351st in The Dutchess (42-29925). Half of the six groups assigned failed to assemble in bad weather, and intercepting fighters inflicted extensive battle damage to the other half, but no bombers were lost. Gable left his film crew in the waist of the bomber and manned a gun in the nose. Captain Clark Gable was awarded the Air Medal on 4 October for completing five combat missions, and later the Distinguished Flying Cross. His final three missions were flown in the dangerous position of group lead, a hazard emphasized when the B-17 flown by Col. Hatcher and Major Blaylock was shot down near Cognac, France, on 31 December 1943, killing Blaylock and resulting in Hatcher's capture. Gable left the 351st on 5 November 1943, returning to the US with over 50,000 feet of 16mm colour film. In 1944, the film Combat America, narrated by Gable, was shown in theatres. Many of the men he served with, such as former Tech. Sgt. Ralph Cowley, said Gable actually unofficially joined other missions and the above 5 were only a fraction of the total. ===Back to Royal Air Force control=== Post-war the station came under No. 273 Maintenance Unit RAF and the airfield was kept in usable state until October 1948 when it was closed. RAF Polebrook was kept in caretaker status until 1959. The Thor missile deployment was an emergency response by the US to what was perceived as a missile gap with the Soviet Union. Launch orders for Thor missiles were to be given jointly by UK-US officers from HQ Bomber Command, High Wycombe and USAF 7th Air Division, co-located at the same base. An RAF officer could order a missile to be launched, but a USAF officer had to authenticate arming the warhead. The W49 thermonuclear warhead fitted to a Thor missile had a destructive yield of 1.44 megatons, and weighed 1680 lbs. The missile itself had a CEP of approximately two miles. No. 130(SM) Squadron (North Luffenham Wing) was formed at what was retained for RAF use at Polebrook to operate three Thor missile emplacements which were constructed in the centre of the former airfield area. The Thor missiles were operational until August 1963, when the rockets were removed and the unit disbanded. ==Current use== thumb|351st Bomb Group Memorial With the end of military control, the remnants of RAF Polebrook were sold back to the Rothschild estate in 1967 and the St Ives Sand and Gravel company broke up all concrete apart from the ends of runways 02 and 32 during the next decade. Today, Polebrook airfield has few reminders of its wartime past and is almost unidentifiable from the air. All of the wartime concreted areas have been removed with the exception of the deteriorating Thor missile launch pads from the early 1960s. A memorial was erected in early 1981 and some old buildings remain scattered around in the area being used for agricultural purposes. The large J-Type hangar still exists and the owners are very American friendly and very respectful of the hangar's place in history. ==See also== *List of former Royal Air Force stations ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * Freeman, Roger A. (1991) The Mighty Eighth: The Colour Record. Cassell & Co. * Gibson, Michael L. (1981) Aviation in Northamptonshire, An Illustrated Guide (includes a map of the Polebrook airfield and an angled photo taken in 1944). Northamptonshire Libraries. * * Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947-1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. . * Rogers, Brian (2005). United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978. Hinkley, England: Midland Publications. . * USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers--1908 to present * Thor Missile Deployment In The United Kingdom * RAF Thor Missile Units ==External links== * 90 Squadron RAF and the Boeing bomber * 97th Air Mobility Wing, USAF * 351st Bombardment Group Website * United States Army Air Forces - Polebrook * Historic Polebrook Photo Gallery * Clark Gable, 8th USAAF, 1943 * 16 mm Technicolor Film, 351st Bomb Group, 8th USAAF, Polebrook, England, 1943 Category:Royal Air Force stations in Northamptonshire Category:Airfields of the VIII Bomber Command in the United Kingdom Category:Royal Air Force stations of World War II in the United Kingdom |
The following television stations broadcast on digital channel 31 in the United States:FCC TV Query for channel 31 full-power stationsFCC TV Query for channel 31 digital class A stationsFCC TV Query for channel 31 digital low- power stations * K18DN-D in Kanab, Utah, on virtual channel 11, which rebroadcasts KBYU-TV * K31AD-D in Victorville, etc., California, on virtual channel 31 * K31AE-D in Sutherlin, Oregon * K31AH-D in Omak, etc., Washington * K31BI-D in Kingman, Arizona * K31BM-D in Silver Springs, Nevada * K31CI-D in Montpelier, Idaho * K31CR-D in Prineville, etc., Oregon * K31CT-D in Cortez, Colorado * K31CW-D in Carbondale, Colorado * K31DC-D in Freedom, Wyoming * K31DR-D in Caballo, New Mexico * K31DS-D in Coolin, Idaho * K31EA-D in Littlefield, Arizona, on virtual channel 10, which rebroadcasts KSAZ-TV * K31EF-D in Frost, Minnesota * K31EI-D in Cedar Canyon, Utah * K31EL-D in Tropic, etc., Utah * K31EO-D in Mora, New Mexico * K31FD-D in Boise, Idaho * K31FN-D in Manti & Ephraim, Utah, on virtual channel 11, which rebroadcasts KBYU-TV * K31FP-D in Heber/Midway, Utah, on virtual channel 4, which rebroadcasts KTVX * K31FQ-D in Park City, Utah, on virtual channel 4, which rebroadcasts KTVX * K31FR-D in Preston, Idaho, on virtual channel 4, which rebroadcasts KTVX * K31FU-D in Golconda, Nevada * K31FV-D in Durango & Hermosa, Colorado * K31FW-D in Lyman, Wyoming * K31FZ-D in Haxtun, Colorado, on virtual channel 2, which rebroadcasts KWGN-TV * K31GH-D in Hayward, Wisconsin * K31GJ-D in Alamogordo, New Mexico * K31GN-D in La Grande, Oregon * K31GP-D in Brookings, etc., Oregon * K31GS-D in Roswell, New Mexico * K31GZ-D in Lake Havasu City, Arizona * K31HB-D in Gallina, New Mexico * K31HC-D in Quanah, Texas * K31HK-D in Rainier, Oregon, on virtual channel 2, which rebroadcasts KATU * K31HO-D in Shreveport, Louisiana * K31HS-D in Malad, Idaho * K31HY-D in Needles, etc., California * K31HZ-D in The Dalles, etc., Oregon, on virtual channel 10, which rebroadcasts KOPB-TV * K31IE-D in Susanville, etc., California * K31IF-D in Hagerman, Idaho * K31IH-D in Wray, Colorado, on virtual channel 51, which rebroadcasts K16NJ-D * K31IQ-D in Sterling, Colorado, on virtual channel 51, which rebroadcasts K16NJ-D * K31IR-D in Grays River, Washington, on virtual channel 10, which rebroadcasts KOPB-TV * K31IS-D in Toquerville, Utah, on virtual channel 4, which rebroadcasts KTVX * K31IU-D in Morgan, etc., Utah, on virtual channel 4, which rebroadcasts KTVX * K31IV-D in Romeo, Colorado * K31IW-D in Ridgway, Colorado * K31IX-D in Salida, Colorado * K31IZ-D in Naalehu, Hawaii * K31JB-D in Hanna, etc., Utah * K31JC-D in Duchesne, Utah, on virtual channel 4, which rebroadcasts KTVX * K31JE-D in Escalante, Utah * K31JF-D in Boulder, Utah * K31JL-D in Vernal, etc., Utah, on virtual channel 5, which rebroadcasts KSL-TV * K31JN-D in Scofield, Utah * K31JO-D in Wood River, etc., Wyoming * K31JP-D in Manila, etc., Utah * K31JQ-D in Woodward, etc., Oklahoma * K31JR-D in Thoreau, New Mexico * K31JW-D in Elk City, Oklahoma * K31JX-D in Rockville, Utah * K31KB-D in Deming, New Mexico * K31KC-D in Coalville & adjacent area, Utah * K31KE-D in San Luis Obispo, etc., California * K31KH-D in Stateline, Nevada * K31KJ-D in Big Springs, Texas * K31KK-D in Kingsville-Alice, Texas * K31KL-D in Walla Walla, Washington * K31KN-D in Caineville, Utah * K31KP-D in Alton, Utah * K31KQ-D in Plains, Montana * K31KS-D in Lechee, etc., Arizona, on virtual channel 2, which rebroadcasts KUTV * K31KT-D in Moses Lake, Washington * K31KV-D in St. James, Minnesota * K31KW-D in Richland, Washington * K31KZ-D in Lakeview, Oregon * K31LA-D in Fremont, Utah * K31LC-D in Nephi, Utah, on virtual channel 7, which rebroadcasts KUED * K31LE-D in Bridger, etc., Montana * K31LF-D in Clareton, Wyoming * K31LG-D in Emery, Utah * K31LH-D in Fishlake Resort, Utah * K31LL-D in Midland/Odessa, Texas * K31LO-D in Eureka, Nevada * K31MA-D in Big Falls, Minnesota * K31MB-D in Ridgecrest, California, on virtual channel 41 * K31MC-D in Spring Glen, etc., Utah * K31MD-D in Kasilof, Alaska * K31MJ-D in Four Buttes, etc., Montana * K31MK-D in Lawton, Oklahoma * K31MP-D in Grand Forks, North Dakota * K31MU-D in Lingleville-Crowley, Texas, to move to channel 7, on virtual channel 43 * K31NA-D in Altus, Oklahoma * K31NB-D in Santa Fe, New Mexico * K31ND-D in Oroville, California * K31NE-D in Williams, Arizona, on virtual channel 10, which rebroadcasts KSAZ-TV * K31NF-D in Verde Valley, etc., Arizona, which rebroadcasts K19IP-D * K31NH-D in Klamath Falls, Oregon * K31NI-D in Lamar, Colorado * K31NJ-D in Lansing, Iowa * K31NK-D in Peoa, Oakley, Utah * K31NO-D in Bend, Oregon * K31NP-D in Rural Garfield County, Utah * K31NR-D in Overton, Nevada * K31NT-D in Jackson, Minnesota * K31NU-D in Hanksville, Utah * K31NV-D in Globe-Miami, Arizona * K31NW-D in Forsyth, Montana * K31NX-D in Fountain Green, Utah * K31NZ-D in Eagle Nest, New Mexico * K31OB-D in Randolph, Utah * K31OC-D in Broken Bow, Nebraska * K31OD-D in Henefer, etc., Utah * K31OE-D in Dove Creek, etc., Colorado * K31OG-D in Parowan, Enoch, etc., Utah * K31OH-D in Mesa, Colorado * K31OI-D in Beryl, Modena etc., Utah * K31OJ-D in Delta, etc., Utah * K31OK-D in Beaver, etc., Utah * K31OL-D in Salinas, California * K31OM-D in Garrison, etc., Utah * K31ON-D in Fillmore, etc., Utah * K31OO-D in Green River, Utah * K31OQ-D in Grants Pass, Oregon * K31OR-D in Olivia, Minnesota, on virtual channel 5, which rebroadcasts KSTC-TV * K31OS-D in Ferron, Utah * K31OT-D in Clear Creek, Utah * K31OV-D in Clarendon, Texas * K31OX-D in Ramah, New Mexico * K31OY-D in Pahrump, Nevada * K31PA-D in Dolan Springs, Arizona * K31PC-D in Yuma, Colorado, on virtual channel 31, which rebroadcasts KDVR * K31PD-D in Whitefish, etc., Montana * K31PH-D in Crested Butte, Colorado * K31PI-D in London Springs, Oregon * K31PJ-D in Holbrook, Idaho * K31PK-D in Birchdale, Minnesota * K31PM-D in Farmington, New Mexico * K31PO-D in Des Moines, Iowa * K31PP-D in Sioux City, Iowa * K31PR-D in Tyler, Texas * K31PS-D in Lakeshore, California * K31PT-D in Soda Springs, Idaho * K31PY-D in Roundup, Montana * K31PZ-D in Clarksville, Arkansas * K31QA-D in Deadwood, South Dakota * K42IX-D in Antimony, Utah * K47CY-D in Fort Peck, Montana * KAAS-LP in Garden City, Kansas * KAGN-CD in Crowley, Louisiana * KARE in Minneapolis, Minnesota * KAZD in Lake Dallas, Texas, on virtual channel 55 * KBAB-LD in Santa Barbara, California * KBTF-CD in Bakersfield, California * KBVO-CD in Austin, Texas, an ATSC 3.0 station * KCBS-TV in Los Angeles, California, on virtual channel 31 * KCSG-LD in Ogden, Utah, on virtual channel 8 * KCWE in Kansas City, Missouri, on virtual channel 29 * KDCU-DT in Derby, Kansas * KDNL-TV in St. Louis, Missouri, on virtual channel 30 * KEOT-LD in Abilene, Texas * KEUV-LD in Eureka, California * KEVE-LD in Vancouver, Washington, on virtual channel 36 * KEYU in Borger, Texas * KFMS-LD in Sacramento, California, on virtual channel 47 * KFYR-TV in Bismarck, North Dakota * KLAX-TV in Alexandria, Louisiana * KLBK-TV in Lubbock, Texas * KLDY-LD in Anchorage, Alaska * KLSR-TV in Eugene, Oregon * KMNZ-LD in Coeur D'Alene, Idaho * KMTV-TV in Omaha, Nebraska * KNOV- CD in New Orleans, Louisiana * KOET in Eufaula, Oklahoma * KOHC-CD in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma * KONG in Everett, Washington, an ATSC 3.0 station, on virtual channel 16 * KPJO-LD in Pittsburg, Kansas * KPPX-TV in Tolleson, Arizona, on virtual channel 51 * KPTP-LD in Norfolk, Nebraska * KRET-CD in Palm Springs, California * KSDY-LD in San Diego, California, on virtual channel 50 * KTFF-LD in Fresno, California * KTVD in Denver, Colorado, on virtual channel 20 * KTVU in Oakland, California, on virtual channel 2 * KUBE-TV in Baytown, Texas, on virtual channel 57 * KVDF-CD in San Antonio, Texas * KVUI in Pocatello, Idaho * KWBM in Harrison, Arkansas * KWHE in Honolulu, Hawaii * KWNL-CD in Winslow, Arkansas * KXOF-CD in Laredo, Texas * KXOK-LD in Enid, Oklahoma * W31AN-D in Murphy, North Carolina * W31DC-D in Fort Pierce, Florida * W31DH-D in Franklin, etc., North Carolina * W31DI-D in Spruce Pine, North Carolina * W31DV-D in Guayama, Puerto Rico, on virtual channel 31 * W31EG-D in Tampa, Florida, on virtual channel 15 * W31EH-D in Springfield, Illinois * W31EJ-D in Tutu, St Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands * W31EL-D in Baton Rouge, Louisiana * W31EP-D in Panama City, Florida * W31EU-D in Columbus, Georgia * W31EV-D in Wausau, Wisconsin * W31EX-D in Bangor, Maine * W31EZ-D in Chicago, Illinois, uses WESV-LD's spectrum, on virtual channel 25 * W31FA-D in Elmhurst, Michigan * W31FD-D in Bluffton-Hilton Head, South Carolina * W31FE-D in Savannah, Georgia * W31FF-D in Maple Valley, Michigan * WAHU-LD in Crozet, Virginia * WATM-TV in Altoona, Pennsylvania * WAVY-TV in Portsmouth, Virginia * WAXC-LD in Alexander City, Alabama * WBDT in Springfield, Ohio, uses WDTN's spectrum * WBXX-TV in Crossville, Tennessee * WCSH in Portland, Maine * WDTN in Dayton, Ohio * WESV-LD in Chicago, Illinois, on virtual channel 40 * WETA-TV in Washington, D.C., on virtual channel 26 * WFDY-LD in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina * WFXS-DT in Wittenberg, Wisconsin * WGBC in Meridian, Mississippi * WGHP in High Point, North Carolina * WHRO-TV in Hampton-Norfolk, Virginia * WHTV-LD in New York, New York, on virtual channel 18 * WIIC-LD in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to move to channel 10, on virtual channel 31 * WINK-TV in Fort Myers, Florida * WITI in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on virtual channel 6 * WJNI-LD in North Charleston, South Carolina * WKBN-TV in Youngstown, Ohio, uses WYTV's spectrum * WKMA-TV in Madisonville, Kentucky * WKOI-TV in Richmond, Indiana, uses WDTN's spectrum * WKTC in Sumter, South Carolina * WLEK-LD in Concord, New Hampshire, on virtual channel 22 * WLHY-LD in Lebanon-Harrisburg-York- Lancaster, Pennsylvania * WLMT in Memphis, Tennessee * WMBP-LD in Mobile, Alabama * WMKG-CD in Muskegon, Michigan * WMUB-LD in Warner Robins, Georgia * WMYD in Detroit, Michigan, an ATSC 3.0 station, on virtual channel 20 * WNCE- CD in Glens Falls, New York * WNCF in Montgomery, Alabama * WNED-TV in Buffalo, New York * WNIT in South Bend, Indiana * WNJX-TV in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, on virtual channel 4 * WOAY-TV in Oak Hill, West Virginia * WODH-LD in Jacksonville, Florida * WOGX in Ocala, Florida * WPCH-TV in Atlanta, Georgia, an ATSC 3.0 station, on virtual channel 17 * WQAD-TV in Moline, Illinois * WQDE-LD in Indianapolis, Indiana, on virtual channel 33 * WRDM-CD in Hartford, Connecticut, uses WVIT's spectrum, on virtual channel 19 * WRPT in Hibbing, Minnesota * WSCF-LD in Melbourne, Florida * WSFG-LD in Berry, Alabama * WSKG- TV in Binghamton, New York * WSWG in Valdosta, Georgia * WTBL-LD in Pascagoula, Mississippi * WTMO-CD in Orlando, Florida, on virtual channel 31 * WTVJ in Miami, Florida, on virtual channel 6 * WTWL-LD in Wilmington, North Carolina * WTXF-TV in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on virtual channel 29 * WTZP-LD in Portsmouth, Ohio * WVCY-TV in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, uses WITI's spectrum, on virtual channel 30 * WVIT in New Britain, Connecticut, on virtual channel 30 * WVUT in Vincennes, Indiana * WWHL-LD in Nashville, Tennessee, on virtual channel 32 * WWTI in Watertown, New York * WYTV in Youngstown, Ohio * WZPK-LD in Highland, New York, on virtual channel 29, which rebroadcasts WYNB- LD The following television stations, which are no longer licensed, formerly broadcast on digital channel 31: * K31BZ-D in Wellington, Texas * K31CD-D in Canadian, Texas * K31GC-D in Forrest, New Mexico * K31GK-D in Ukiah, California * K31JA-D in Fruitland, Utah * K31KI-D in Round Mountain, Nevada * K31KR-D in Three Forks, Montana * K31KU-D in Rapid City, South Dakota * K31MX-D in Plainview, Texas * K31PF-D in Weed, California * K31PG-D in Granite Falls, Minnesota * KBLI-LD in Lincoln, Nebraska * KGFZ-LD in Yakima, etc., Washington * W31CZ-D in Tampa, Florida * W31DL-D in Ponce, Puerto Rico * W31DZ-D in Clarksdale, Mississippi * WDDM-LD in Tallahassee, Florida * WNAL-LD in Scottsboro, Alabama * WSJU-TV in San Juan, Puerto Rico * WUDJ-LD in Crozet, Virginia * WUDP-LD in Lafayette, Indiana ==References== 31 digital |
Samuel Robert Foley (born 17 October 1986) is a professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Barrow. Born in England, he has represented the Republic of Ireland at youth level. A former Republic of Ireland youth international, he began his career at Cheltenham Town, and though he played on loan at Bath City he left Cheltenham in 2008 without making a first team appearance. He then spent a year with Kidderminster Harriers, who in turn loaned him on to Redditch United and Newport County. He joined Newport in June 2009, and helped them to win the Conference South title in 2009–10 and to the 2012 FA Trophy Final. He returned to the English Football League with Yeovil Town in July 2012, and played in the club's 2013 League One play-off final victory that took them into the Championship. He lost his first team place in the 2013–14 season and joined Shrewsbury Town on loan, before winning Yeovil's Player of the Year award in the 2014–15 season as the club dropped into League Two. He joined Port Vale in June 2015, and left after two seasons to join Northampton Town in May 2017, where he would remain for another two seasons. He joined Scottish club St Mirren in August 2019 and was named as the club's Player of the Year for the 2019–20 season. He spent the second half of the 2020–21 season at Motherwell, before returning to England with Tranmere Rovers in July 2021. He joined Barrow in July 2022. ==Career== ===Early career=== Foley signed a two-year professional contract with Cheltenham Town in 2006. However he spent much of time at Whaddon Road out injured with osteitis pubis and never made a first team appearance for the "Robins". He spent part of the 2007–08 season on loan at Conference South Bath City, and scored two goals in seven appearances for the "Romans". In August 2008 he signed a one-year contract with Kidderminster Harriers after impressing manager Mark Yates during a trial spell. He was sent out on loan to Conference North side Redditch United in October 2008. He scored two goals in seven games and "Reds" manager Gary Whild wanted an extended loan spell, but Foley was recalled to Kidderminster in December. He went on to spend the second half of the 2008–09 season on loan at Conference South club Newport County, scoring four goals in 14 appearances. He left Aggborough without making a first team appearance for the Harriers after rejecting the offer of a new contract. ===Newport County=== In June 2009, Foley was signed by Newport County manager Dean Holdsworth. Foley was immediately a regular in the team, filling all midfield and forward roles at various times but mostly played as a supporting striker alongside Craig Reid. In the 2009–10 season County were crowned Conference South champions with a record 103 points, 28 points ahead of second placed Dover Athletic. He remained a key player in the 2010–11 season, scoring five goals in 44 games as Newport posted a ninth-place finish in the Conference Premier. Three of his goals came on 11 October, in a 4–1 win over Fleetwood Town at Highbury Stadium, in what was new manager Justin Edinburgh's first win at the club. On 12 May, Foley played at Wembley Stadium in the 2012 FA Trophy Final, which Newport lost 2–0 to York City. He scored 12 goals in 49 appearances during the 2011–12 season and rejected the offer of a new contract at the end of the season. ===Yeovil Town=== Foley signed for League One club Yeovil Town on a one-year contract in July 2012. On 14 August, Foley made his Yeovil debut in the League Cup in a 3–0 victory over Colchester United, and scored his first competitive goal for the side on 4 September in a 3–0 Football League Trophy win at Bristol Rovers. On 19 May, Foley played in the 2013 League One play-off final as Yeovil beat Brentford 2–1 to secure promotion to the Championship. In total he scored seven goals in 51 appearances in the 2012–13 campaign, mostly from left-wing. He signed a new two-year contract in June 2013. He played just nine times in the 2013–14 season as the "Glovers" were relegated out of the Championship. On 7 March 2014, Foley joined League One side Shrewsbury Town on an initial one-month loan. After making nine appearances for the "Shrews", Foley was recalled to Huish Park on 16 April. With Yeovil back in League One Foley was restored to the first team for the 2014–15 campaign and featured 45 times, mainly in central midfield, as the club suffered a second successive relegation. Though the season was a poor one for the club Foley managed to find success on an individual level, winning the Western Gazette's Player of the Year award. He rejected the offer of a new contract in the summer in favour of a move to remain in League One. ===Port Vale=== In June 2015, Foley signed a two-year contract with League One club Port Vale. He said his aim was to secure a regular first team place in central midfield. He went on to score six goals in 50 appearances throughout the 2015–16 season, and was also the club's penalty-taker, converting two of four penalty kicks. Manager Rob Page played him both in central midfield and on the left-side of midfield throughout the campaign, and told the media that Foley was "outstanding" in both roles. He remained a key player under new manager Bruno Ribeiro, and missed just two of the opening 15 league games of the 2016–17 season, being named on the EFL team of the week after providing two assists in a 3–1 win over Scunthorpe United at Vale Park on 27 August. However he was forced to undergo surgery on a long-standing ankle injury in October. He returned to training after a three-month recovery spell. In February 2017, he was praised by caretaker-manager Michael Brown for playing despite being below full fitness during a difficult period for the club. He scored his first goal of the season in a crucial 2–1 home win against relegation rivals Shrewsbury Town on 17 March. ===Northampton Town=== In May 2017, Foley rejected the offer of a new contract at Port Vale to remain in League One on a two-year contract with Northampton Town; the move reunited him with former Newport manager Justin Edinburgh. Port Vale manager Michael Brown said that Port Vale had offered a better wage than Northampton, but Foley had wanted to play at as high a level as possible. He lost his first-team place under new manager Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink and scored three goals in 28 appearances for the "Cobblers" as the club were relegated at the end of the 2017–18 season. He scored two goals in 40 appearances in the 2018–19 campaign, maintaining his first-team place under first Dean Austin and then Keith Curle, before he was released on 6 May. ===St Mirren=== On 1 August 2019, Foley signed a two-year deal with Scottish Premiership side St Mirren. He stepped in as the "Saints" team captain during the absence of Stephen McGinn and Kyle Magennis in January. He went on to win the vote for the PDE St Mirren player of the year award for the 2019–20 season; he said that "I’ve won a few awards throughout my career though and I see them as a reward for hard work on and off the pitch. When you get to my age it’s about a love of the job and football is my trade. You need to have a willingness and desire to work hard." He played 15 games in the first half of the 2020–21 season before being benched. ===Motherwell=== On 29 January 2021, Foley signed for Motherwell on a contract until the end of the 2020–21 season. A back injury meant that he featured just five times for the "Steelmen", feeling that due to the team's form that he "wasn't in a position to knock on the manager's (Graham Alexander) door". After spending a long time on the sidelines he admitted to thinking "god I hope I remember how to play this game!" He was released by Motherwell at the end of the season. ===Tranmere Rovers=== Foley signed a one-year contract with League Two club Tranmere Rovers on 22 July 2021, with manager Micky Mellon citing his "experience, leg power and he is a great athlete". In October, he was described as "an instrumental figure for Rovers" as the team put together a run of form to reach the top six. He ended the 2021–22 season with four goals in 45 appearances, though Tranmere missed out on the play-offs on the final day. ===Barrow=== Foley signed a one-year contract with fellow League Two club Barrow on 21 June 2022, with the player joining the club on expiration of his Tranmere contract in July. He featured 44 times throughout the 2022–23 campaign. ==Style of play== Foley can operate on the left or centre of midfield, and has good dribbling, passing and ball control skills. He is an intelligent player with a good work rate, but lacks natural pace. ==Career statistics== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League National Cup League Cup Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Cheltenham Town 2006–07 League One 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2007–08 League One 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bath City (loan) 2007–08 Conference South 6 2 0 0 — 1 0 7 2 Kidderminster Harriers 2008–09 Conference Premier 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 Redditch United (loan) 2008–09 Conference North 7 2 0 0 — 0 0 7 2 Newport County (loan) 2008–09 Conference South 14 4 0 0 — 0 0 14 4 Newport County 2009–10 Conference South 38 17 2 0 — 4 0 44 17 2010–11 Conference Premier 40 5 1 0 — 3 0 44 5 2011–12 Conference Premier 40 10 2 1 — 7 1 49 12 Total 132 36 5 1 — 14 1 151 38 Yeovil Town 2012–13 League One 41 5 1 0 2 0 7 2 51 7 2013–14 Championship 7 0 2 0 0 0 — 9 0 2014–15 League One 40 2 4 0 0 0 1 0 45 2 Total 88 7 7 0 2 0 8 2 105 9 Shrewsbury Town (loan) 2013–14 League One 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 Port Vale 2015–16 League One 45 6 3 0 2 0 0 0 50 6 2016–17 League One 32 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 33 1 Total 77 7 3 0 3 0 0 0 83 7 Northampton Town 2017–18 League One 24 2 1 0 0 0 3 1 28 3 2018–19 League Two 36 2 0 0 1 0 3 0 40 2 Total 60 4 1 0 1 0 6 1 68 5 St Mirren 2019–20 Scottish Premiership 27 1 4 1 0 0 — 31 2 2020–21 Scottish Premiership 11 0 0 0 4 0 — 15 0 Total 38 1 4 1 4 0 0 0 46 2 Motherwell 2020–21 Scottish Premiership 4 1 1 0 — — 5 1 Tranmere Rovers 2021–22 League Two 39 1 2 0 1 1 3 2 45 4 Barrow 2022–23 League Two 39 0 1 0 1 0 3 1 44 1 Career total 499 61 24 2 12 1 35 7 570 71 ==Honours== Newport County *Conference South: 2009–10 *FA Trophy runner-up: 2011–12 Yeovil Town *Football League One play-offs: 2013 Individual *Yeovil Town Player of the Year (Western Gazette): 2014–15 *St Mirren Player of the Year: 2019–20 ==References== ==External links== * Category:1986 births Category:Living people Category:Sportspeople from St Albans Category:Footballers from Hertfordshire Category:English footballers Category:English people of Irish descent Category:Republic of Ireland association footballers Category:Republic of Ireland men's youth international footballers Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Cheltenham Town F.C. players Category:Bath City F.C. players Category:Kidderminster Harriers F.C. players Category:Redditch United F.C. players Category:Newport County A.F.C. players Category:Yeovil Town F.C. players Category:Shrewsbury Town F.C. players Category:Port Vale F.C. players Category:Northampton Town F.C. players Category:St Mirren F.C. players Category:Motherwell F.C. players Category:Tranmere Rovers F.C. players Category:Barrow A.F.C. players Category:National League (English football) players Category:English Football League players Category:Scottish Professional Football League players |
Spokane International Airport is a commercial airport located approximately west-southwest of downtown Spokane, Washington, United States. It is the primary airport serving the Inland Northwest, which consists of 30 counties and includes areas such as Spokane, the Tri-Cities, both in Eastern Washington, and Coeur d'Alene in North Idaho. The airport's code, GEG, is derived from its former name, Geiger Field, which honored Major Harold Geiger (1884–1927). As of 2015, Spokane International Airport (GEG) ranks as the 70th-busiest airport in the United States in terms of passenger enplanements. At 4,112,784 total passengers served in 2019, it is the second busiest airport in Washington. GEG is served by six airlines with non-stop service to 15 airports in 13 markets. It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021, in which it is categorized as a small-hub primary commercial service facility. ==History== thumb|left|World War II Geiger Field postcard thumb|left|Geiger Field in 1943 Known as Sunset Field before 1941, it was purchased from the county by the War Department and renamed Geiger Field (hence the IATA code GEG) after Major Harold Geiger, an Army aviation pioneer who died in a crash in 1927. During World War II, Geiger Field was a major training base by Second Air Force as a group training airfield for B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombardment units, with new aircraft being obtained from Boeing near Seattle. It was also used by Air Technical Service Command as an aircraft maintenance and supply depot; Deer Park Airport and Felts Field were auxiliaries. In 1943, General Hap Arnold established the first formal fire protection training course at Geiger Field, Washington. It was used until 1946. Geiger Field was served by a rail connection to the Great Northern Railway.Staff, "Align Rail Route To Air Depot", The Spokesman-Review, Spokane, Washington, Wednesday 13 May 1942, Volume 59. Number 364, page 6. Geiger was closed in late 1945 and turned over to War Assets Administration (WAA), then transferred to Spokane County and developed into a commercial airport. The airport hosted USAF Air Defense Command interceptor units during the Cold War for air defense of Hanford Nuclear Reservation and Grand Coulee Dam. Built in 1942 as the Spokane Air Depot, Fairchild Air Force Base is four miles (7 km) to the west. It became Spokane's municipal airport in 1946, replacing Felts Field, and received its present name in 1960, after the City of Spokane was allotted Spokane Geiger Field by the Surplus Property Act and Air Canada started service to Calgary.; In November 1972, the 4702d Defense Wing moved to the airfield. It was still used by the Air Force into the early 1960s, with the 84th Fighter Group operating Convair F-106 Delta Dart interceptors. The airport code is still GEG, for Geiger Field. thumb|Concourse A and B complex originally opened in 1965. The current Concourse A and B complex opened in 1965, designed by Warren C. Heylman and William Trogdon. Occasional non-stop flights to southern California since the 1970s have been among the first to be suspended during economic downturns. ===Expansion from the 1970s=== A second level was added to Concourse A and Concourse B in 1974. The airport has a Master Plan, which includes a third runway and gates added to Concourse C. A new control tower has been built south of the airport, replacing the one near Concourse C. The new control tower is the tallest one in the State. The Terminal, Rotunda, and Concourse C Enhancement Project (TRACE) was recently completed, designed by Bernardo/Wills Architects, P.C. The project, which concluded in November 2006, added retail space and expanded security checkpoints in the airport's three concourses, and gave the Rotunda an aesthetic renovation. In 2010, 2000 feet was added to Runway 3–21 and parallel taxiways 'A' and 'G', enabling heavier aircraft departures in summer months. By 2023, the airport plans to add new gates, centralized security and expanded baggage claim space as it looks to add more direct flights, including to the east coast, to capitalize on and accommodate growing passenger and cargo traffic; the Spokane market has been hosting big events and attracting business to the area. === Terminal renovation and expansion (TREX) program === On October 20, 2022, the airport broke ground on the first phase of the project which includes expansion of Concourse C. The $150 addition will add 144,00 square feet, 6 new gates and modernization of the existing terminal. As of May 2023, the project is expected to be complete in late 2025. The second phase of the TREX program is focused on creating a centralized TSA screening checkpoint and baggage claim, as well as an improved operations center. This central connection will also allow easier navigation between the A/B and C concourses. As of January 2023, the 145,000 square foot Central Hall is estimated to cost $179 million and has a planned construction timeline of 2025 to 2027. Other projects planned in the TREX program include relocation of the rental car facilities, and renovation of the A/B concourse. ==Facilities== thumb|right|130px|FAA diagram ===Airfield=== The airport covers and operates two paved runways: *Runway 3/21: , asphalt/concrete *Runway 8/26: , asphalt ===Tower=== It is believed that the tower is the only federal air traffic control tower named for any single person. That honor was bestowed in 2010 on Ray Daves, the World War II radioman who survived Pearl Harbor and Midway and went on to serve as an air traffic controller in Spokane after the war until the 1970s.Front Porch: Fond memories of Ray Daves endure by Cindy Hval in The Spokesman-Review, June 16, 2011Radioman: An Eyewitness Account of Pearl Harbor and World War II in the Pacific, a memoir by Ray Daves, as told to Carol Edgemon Hipperson (excerpt) ===Terminals=== thumb|left|Terminals at Spokane International Airport The passenger terminal facility at Spokane International Airport has three main structures; Concourse A and B in the center, Concourse C to the southwest, and the Ground Transportation Center to the north. The three structures are immediately adjacent and connected, however the two concourse structures are not linked with an airside connector on the sterile side; as such, connecting passengers need to transit between Concourse A-B and Concourse C through the landside, non-sterile circulation. ====Concourse A/B==== thumb|right|Entrance to the Concourse A-B ticketing area thumb|right|400px|View of the Rotunda in Concourse A-B The 1965 Concourse A/B complex includes the two concourses linked by a central rotunda area with dining and shopping vendors. The rotunda is supported entirely along its perimeter and features no obstructions. Concourse A houses 5 gates (11-15), while Concourse B houses 8 gates (1–8). The Concourse A-B complex originally opened on April 1, 1965, and was designed by Warren C. Heylman and William Trogdon. The new terminal cost a reported and was dedicated on May 8, 1965, in a ceremony attended by Senator Warren Magnuson and Civil Aeronautics Board chair Alan Boyd. Designed in the Neo- Expressionism style, the building's architecture prominently features exposed concrete as well as distinct sculpted and monolithic architectural shapes and forms. As the airport has continued to incrementally expand, some of the original architectural intent of the Concourse A-B complex has been lost. While several expansions to the concourse extended the building's original architectural style, other additions have altered it. In 1974, a second floor was added to both Concourses A and B to allow for the implementation of passenger boarding bridge access to aircraft. The new floors, while sharing some material commonality with the original Heylman and Trogdon concourse, lacked the same curvy and sculpted neo-expressionistic forms. The later additions of the ground transportation facility and Concourse C to the ends of the concourse building further altered the architecture by replacing its distinct bookend elevations and entrances with corridors to the adjacent buildings. Interior renovations in the mid-2000s also replaced many of Concourse A-B complex's original sculpted forms and monolithic materials with more rectilinear forms and contemporary finish materials. Despite this, many of the original architectural elements remain integral to the space (such as the exposed concrete roof trusses and concrete columns), creating a juxtaposition between the newer elements and the original architecture. Under the proposed Terminal Renovation and Expansion (TREX) program to accommodate projected growth, the separate baggage claim areas in Concourse A-B and Concourse C would be consolidated into a single baggage claim with five carousels, and A-B would receive a renovation. Ultimately, operations at A-B would wind down under long-term plans to construct a new terminal in 2030, at the earliest. Southwest Airlines is the current primary occupant operating in and out of Concourse A. Delta and United Airlines both operate in and out of Concourse B. American Airlines operated in and out of Concourse B before relocating to Concourse C in March 2016. ====Concourse C==== thumb|right|Concourse C Concourse C houses 9 gates, both upper (30-32) and lower (21a, 21b, 22-26). The lower level gates house regional turboprop aircraft, while the upper-level gates house narrow-body aircraft. The current iteration of Concourse C opened in 2000 after a $20 million redevelopment and expansion project, designed by Bernardo-Wills Architects. The project, which broke ground in 1998 added to the concourse including a new baggage claim and two-story passenger facility. The concourse was remodeled into service and operations functions. The new Concourse C has a more contemporary architectural style, contrasting the appearance of the Concourse A and B complex, by employing a large use of metal cladding and large curtain window walls on its exterior building envelope. However, it draws inspiration from its neo-expressionist neighbor by architecturally expressing a modular, repetitive, and exposed structural grid through its façade and interior lobby areas. Alaska Airlines and its subsidiary carrier Horizon Air were the primary occupants operating in and out of Concourse C after Frontier Airlines ceased operations to Spokane in January 2015. However, that changed once American Airlines relocated to Concourse C in March 2016. Alaska and American operate in and out of the upper-level gates, while Horizon operates in and out of the lower level gates. In October 2022, the airport broke ground on Phase 1 of the Terminal Renovation and Expansion (TREX) program which includes expansion of Concourse C. The concourse is currently under construction and expected to reopen in late 2025. ==Airlines and destinations== Spokane International Airport is served by six main carriers. These carriers serve 13 markets through non-stop service to 17 airports. In December 2021, WestJet announced that it submitted an application to the FAA to fly to Calgary and Vancouver from Spokane using Saab 340 turboprop aircraft operated by Pacific Coastal Airlines. ===Passenger=== {{Airport destination list | Alaska Airlines | Boise, Portland (OR), San Diego, San Francisco, San Jose (CA), Seattle/Tacoma Seasonal: Los Angeles | Allegiant Air | Las Vegas, Orange County, Phoenix/Mesa | American Airlines | Dallas/Fort Worth, Phoenix–Sky Harbor | Delta Air Lines | Atlanta, Minneapolis/St. Paul, Salt Lake City, Seattle/Tacoma | Delta Connection | Los Angeles, Salt Lake City, Seattle/Tacoma | Southwest Airlines | Denver, Las Vegas, Oakland, Phoenix–Sky Harbor, Sacramento, San Jose (CA) | Sun Country Airlines | Seasonal: Minneapolis/St. Paul | United Airlines | Denver Seasonal: Chicago–O'Hare | United Express | Denver, San Francisco }} Destinations map ===Cargo=== {{Airport destination list | Amazon Air | Lakeland (FL) | Ameriflight | Ephrata, Lewiston, Portland (OR), Seattle–Boeing, Seattle/Tacoma, Tri-Cities (WA), Wenatchee, Yakima | AirPac AirlinesAirPac Airlines | Seattle–Boeing, Lewiston–Nez Perce County Airport, Idaho County Airport, Bowers Airport | FedEx Express | Indianapolis, La Grande, Lewiston, Memphis, Moses Lake, Pendleton, Tri-Cities (WA), Wenatchee, Yakima | UPS Airlines | Dallas/Fort Worth, Des Moines, Louisville, Ontario, Portland (OR), Seattle–Boeing, Vancouver | Western Air Express | Boise, Portland (OR) }} ==Statistics== ===Top destinations=== Busiest domestic routes from GEG (January 2022 - December 2022) Rank City Passengers Carriers 1 Seattle/Tacoma, Washington 492,820 Alaska, Delta 2 Denver, Colorado 233,110 Southwest, United 3 Salt Lake City, Utah 168,360 Delta 4 Las Vegas, Nevada 115,090 Allegiant, Southwest 5 Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota 111,940 Delta, Sun Country 6 Phoenix–Sky Harbor, Arizona 104,800 American, Southwest 7 Portland, Oregon 79,800 Alaska 8 Oakland, California 70,160 Southwest 9 Atlanta, Georgia 67,700 Delta 10 Sacramento, California 60,370 Southwest ===Airline market share=== Largest airlines at GEG (January 2022 - December 2022) Rank Airline Passengers Share 1 Southwest Airlines 927,000 24.40% 2 Horizon Air 648,000 17.05% 3 Delta Air Lines 620,000 16.33% 4 Alaska Airlines 537,000 14.14% 5 SkyWest Airlines 489,000 12.86% 6 Other 578,000 15.22% ===Annual traffic=== Annual passenger traffic as reported by the Spokane International Airport (GEG). Annual passenger traffic (enplaned + deplaned) at GEG, 1990 through 2022Historic Passenger & Cargo Data. Retrieved on February 17, 2023. Year Passengers Year Passengers Year Passengers Year Passengers 1990 1,619,880 2000 3,068,890 2010 3,181,616 2020 1,955,538 1991 1,589,123 2001 2,880,186 2011 3,072,572 2021 3,280,062 1992 1,855,954 2002 2,745,788 2012 3,005,664 2022 3,920,972 1993 2,329,953 2003 2,789,499 2013 2,926,858 1994 2,687,482 2004 3,059,667 2014 2,986,652 1995 2,988,575 2005 3,197,440 2015 3,133,342 1996 3,258,762 2006 3,224,423 2016 3,234,095 1997 3,043,238 2007 3,471,901 2017 3,550,912 1998 2,949,833 2008 3,422,110 2018 3,998,272 1999 3,041,626 2009 3,055,081 2019 4,112,784 ==Ground transportation== Spokane Transit operates four stops at Spokane International Airport, with bus routes 60 and 63. The airport is also served by the WSDOT's Travel Washington Gold Line, Northwestern Trailways, Wheatland Express, Queen City Shuttle, and Special Mobility Service. A consolidated rental car facility is located adjacent to the Ground Transportation Center on the north end of the main terminal. The consolidated facility opened in November 2008, replacing several satellite operations, and is intended to meet passenger growth at the airport for 20 years after its opening. ==Accidents and incidents== *On March 10, 1961, a U.S. Air Force F-106 Delta Dart crashed west of Medical Lake while attempting to return to Geiger Field, killing its pilot. *Six months later on September 14, 1961, a USAF F-106 crashed on approach to Geiger Field, killing its pilot. * On February 18, 1972, a Beechcraft Model 99A, Cascade Airways Flight 325, operating Seattle-Walla Walla-Pullman-Spokane, crashed in fog at 9:42 pm PST during its instrument approach to Spokane International Airport, and came to rest in a muddy field less than southwest of the runway. Two passengers and two crew were aboard, and all survived with minor injuries. The pilot walked from the crash site to a nearby service station to report it. The crash site was about from the Medical Lake exit (#272) of Interstate 90 and the landing gear of the plane was extended. Due to fog, the flight had stopped in Pasco rather than Walla Walla. * On January 20, 1981, a Beechcraft Model 99A, Cascade Airways Flight 201, crashed into a hill from the runway. The accident was caused by an incorrect distance measuring equipment frequency and premature descent to minimum descent altitude. Of the nine on board, seven were killed (including both pilots), and the surviving two passengers were seriously injured. The airline ceased operations about five years later. *On March 18, 1994, a Douglas DC-3C of Salair crashed shortly after take-off on a cargo flight to Portland, killing both pilots. The starboard engine failed shortly after take-off; it had previously been in long-term storage and had been overhauled the previous year and fitted to the aircraft on February 21, replacing an engine that developed a misfire and loss of power. It had accumulated 15 hours flight time at the time of the accident. The aircraft was destroyed in the subsequent fire. *On January 4, 1996, a Convair CV-440, operated by Salair on a positioning flight, lost power in both engines at 500 feet on an ILS approach to runway 3 due to fuel starvation and false fuel readings and darkness. The plane performed a forced landing, struck a berm in a field and was substantially damaged. Both occupants survived, but the aircraft was written off. ==See also== * Washington World War II Army Airfields * Western Air Defense Force (Air Defense Command) * 9th Air Division ==References== *Air Force & DOD Fire Academy History ==External links== * Spokane International Airport, official site * Spokane International Airport at WSDOT Aviation * * Category:Airports established in 1940 Category:Airfields of the United States Army Air Corps Category:Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Washington (state) Category:Airports in Washington (state) Category:Transportation buildings and structures in Spokane County, Washington Category:Transportation in Spokane, Washington Category:1940 establishments in Washington (state) |
Amy Heckerling (born May 7, 1954) is an American filmmaker and actress. An alumna of both New York University and the American Film Institute, she directed the commercially successful films Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982), National Lampoon's European Vacation (1985), Look Who's Talking (1989), and Clueless (1995). Heckerling is a recipient of AFI's Franklin J. Schaffner Alumni Medal celebrating her creative talents and artistic achievements. ==Early life and education== Heckerling was born on May 7, 1954 in The Bronx, New York City, to a bookkeeper mother and an accountant father. She had a Jewish upbringing and remembers that the apartment building where she spent her early childhood was full of Holocaust survivors. "Most of them had tattoos on their arms and for me there was a feeling that all of these people had a story to tell. These were interesting formative experiences." Both of her parents worked full-time, so she frequently moved back and forth from her home in the Bronx, where Heckerling claims she was a latchkey kid sitting at home all day watching television, to her grandmother's home in Brooklyn which she enjoyed much better. Here, she frequented Coney Island and stayed up watching films all night with her grandmother. At this time Heckerling loved television, where she watched numerous cartoons and old black and white movies. Her favorites were gangster movies, musicals and comedies. She had a particular fondness for James Cagney. After her father passed his CPA exam, the family became more financially stable and moved to Queens, where Heckerling felt more out of place than ever. She did not get along with other kids in her school there, nor did she want to continue to be classmates with them through high school, so she enrolled at the High School of Art and Design in Manhattan. On her first day of school there, Heckerling realized that she wanted to be a film director. During their first assignment, writing about what they wanted to do in life, Heckerling wrote that she wanted to be a writer or artist for Mad. She noticed that a boy next to her, that she claimed copied from her papers later on, wrote that he wanted to be a film director.Jarecki, Nicholas. Breaking In: How 20 Film Directors Got Their Start. 2001. 142–156. She graduated from high school in 1970, focused on directing and studying film at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts.Donadoni, Serena. "Hormonal pyrotechnics 101: Amy Heckerling on life, love and other high-school explosives", Metro Times, July 26, 2000. Accessed February 10, 2008. Her father made just slightly over the cut-off for financial aid for the school, so Heckerling had to take out a large loan to cover her expenses. She claims this caused considerable stress in her life, and she was unable to pay them off until the end of her twenties. When Heckerling was in high school and focused on directing, her father was opposed to the idea, wishing that she had chosen a more practical aspiration. Despite this, he gave her Parker Tyler's book Classics of the Foreign Film: A Pictorial Legacy. Heckerling pored over the book, marking off films that she had seen until she had eventually watched most of them. She claims that by the time she got to NYU, because of this book, she had seen almost all of the films that they had to watch in her classes. Though Heckerling considered her time at NYU to be a great time where she learned a lot and made great connections, such as Martin Brest and noted screenwriter and satirist Terry Southern who was one of her professors, she later reflects on her time at the school as sloppy and unprofessional, claiming that she used very low-quality equipment and had a lot of technical problems. During her time at NYU, Heckerling was making mostly musicals. "I was the only one doing them and they were weird. It was the mid-70s and it was a bizarre combination of long hair with bell bottoms, the tail end of the hippie movement at its schlumpiest. With this, I sort of infused a 1930s idiotic grace that didn't go with the post-Watergate mentality that was prevalent at the time. They were weird films, but they got me into AFI." ==Career== After graduating from NYU, Heckerling decided that she wanted to follow her friend Martin Brest to the American Film Institute in Los Angeles where she felt there would be more opportunities to break into the business. Heckerling experienced severe culture shock upon moving to LA from NYC, especially because NYC's public transportation had made it unnecessary for her to learn to drive. When she did eventually learn, she adjusted to LA life and started working. Her first studio job was lip-syncing dailies for a television show, where she started making connections in the business. During her second year at AFI, Heckerling made her first short film, Getting it Over With, about a girl that wants to lose her virginity before she turns twenty and the adventures she has before midnight of her twentieth birthday. Heckerling continued to work on the film after she graduated from AFI with her MFA, using the editing studios at night to finish the project after work. As soon as she finished the edit and sent it away to be processed, she was in a car collision with a drunk driver who hit the side of her car, landing her in the hospital with a collapsed lung, bruised kidney, and mild amnesia, causing her to be fired from her editing job because she could not remember where certain footage was. When asked about film's ability to grant a form of immortality, Heckerling describes the experience during the accident: "There was the whole thing-the yellow light and all that stuff-and what went through my mind right then was, 'Well, at least I got the film to the lab.' So it's not going to save you from anything, obviously, but something about it pulls you forward." Eventually, she finished the film and held a screening that gained a very positive response, causing Heckerling to call it one of the best days of her life. Her next step was to use the film to get a job. Thom Mount, president of Universal Pictures, showed a lot of interest in Heckerling but because she was not backed by an agent they could not hire her. After months of struggling to find an agent, Mount called Heckerling up on the phone and asked her to make a film. ===Feature films=== ===1980s=== Heckerling's first feature was Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982), based on the non-fiction account of a year in the life of California high school students as observed by undercover Rolling Stone journalist Cameron Crowe. When Heckerling first signed on to do a feature for Universal, she read a lot of scripts, but it was Crowe's script for Fast Times at Ridgemont High that stood out to her. Although she loved the script, she felt that it bore the marks of excessive studio interference, so she read the novel, determined which parts were strongest, and sat down with Crowe to rework the script. The film helped launch the careers of numerous stars including Phoebe Cates, Judge Reinhold, and Jennifer Jason Leigh. In addition, it marks early appearances by several actors who later became stars, including Nicolas Cage, Forest Whitaker, Eric Stoltz, and Anthony Edwards. Most notable, however, is the appearance of Sean Penn as Jeff Spicoli, who was launched into stardom by his performance. Heckerling describes casting Penn, whom she first met while he was sitting on the floor outside of the casting office, as a feeling of being overwhelmed by his intensity, even though all he had done was look up at her. She knew that this was her Spicoli, even though they had seen other people who had read better for the role. Ally Sheedy read for the role of Leigh's character Stacy Hamilton, but Heckerling decided that she wanted someone that seemed younger and more fragile. (Jennifer is more than 4 months older than Ally.) Heckerling was discriminating about the film's soundtrack. Originally, the film was supposed to have music in it by bands like the Eagles. "I guess a lot of people like that stuff, but being young as I was at the time, I really wanted a new edgy eighties music soundtrack. I wanted Fear, Oingo Boingo, The Go-Gos, Talking Heads, and the Dead Kennedys. I was one of those obnoxious teenagers that thought that the music I liked was great and everything else sucked. Getting that Oingo Boingo song in the film was a big fight. But I had to make some compromises and put in some songs that I didn't like at all." The studio was unsure of how to market the film, and Heckerling guesses that they did not think that anyone would want to watch it. The studio decided to just open it in a few hundred or so theaters on the west coast without any advertisement. Once the film opened, it was a huge success so the studio quickly opened it at theaters around the country. It became an instant hit right out of the gate, eventually going on to become a pop culture touchstone. The film earned $27,092,880 at the box office in the USA. It also spawned a short-lived series on CBS called Fast Times, with Heckerling writing, directing and producing. After doing Fast Times at Ridgemont High, Heckerling was bombarded with similar but lesser scripts. It was hard for her to find anything that wasn't about high school, preppy kids, or story about a girl losing her virginity. Eventually she found her next film. Johnny Dangerously (1984), with Michael Keaton, Joe Piscopo, Danny DeVito, Dom DeLuise, and Peter Boyle, was an Airplane!-style spoof of gangster movies, but it failed to catch fire at the box office upon its initial release. Heckerling attributes the film's failure to the public's lack of familiarity with the gangster movies that the film was poking fun at. "It was pure satire of something nobody remembers. I think that was the main problem, because all the actors and writers did great jobs. But we were definitely satirizing something ... I mean, unless you watch 1930s movies on TV at night, people don't remember. Somebody told me that during a screening they were sitting next to Brian De Palma, who had just done Scarface, and he was in hysterics. If you studied those movies, you know what we were doing." In subsequent years, however, it has garnered a substantial cult audience. The following year, she directed National Lampoon's European Vacation (1985) with Chevy Chase and Beverly D'Angelo, a sequel to the popular National Lampoon's Vacation. With it, Heckerling scored her second solid hit, earning $74,964,621 at the box office. The film, like many of Heckerling's films, received poor reviews from critics but proved to be very popular with audiences who just wanted to watch a funny movie. Heckerling, despite being well educated and loving the work of such intellectual writers as Franz Kafka admits that she loves "silly things", which has proven to make her commercially successful in the comedy genre. In 1989, Heckerling had her biggest success with Look Who's Talking, starring John Travolta, Kirstie Alley and a baby voiced by Bruce Willis. Heckerling got the idea for the film while she was pregnant with her daughter and further developed it into a feature. Heckerling says that she loves to write comedies, such as Look Who's Talking, because she notes that when a film is made, everyone working on it puts more than a year of their lives into making it, so she wants that year to be happy and fun. Heckerling, who loves Travolta, was ecstatic to work with him, though many people consider the film's release to be during the end of a low point in Travolta's career. The film has been Heckerling's highest-grossing film to date, earning $296,999,813. After the film's release, Heckerling was able to cross one of her two goals that she set for herself in college off of her list, the first being to make a studio feature, which she did with Fast Times at Ridgemont High and the second being: "I wanted to have hits the way boys had hits, not like a 'girl hit' that made 50 million, but a boy hit that made 100s of million." ===1990s=== Two Look Who's Talking sequels would follow—1990's Look Who's Talking Too—also directed by Heckerling and co-written with her then-husband Neal Israel. The film added another baby to storyline and was a moderate success. Heckerling then produced, but did not direct, the third and final sequel, Look Who's Talking Now—a flop. The films also spawned a brief television show called Baby Talk that was largely written by Heckerling. In 1995, she wrote and directed Clueless, reworking and updating Jane Austen's Emma as a 1990s teen comedy about wealthy teenagers living in Beverly Hills. Heckerling originally thought of Clueless as a television show because she loved to write the character of Cher who she described as a "happy, optimistic, California girl", and wanted to explore all of her adventures, but after she pitched it to her agent she was told that it would make a great feature. To research for the script, Heckerling sat in on classes at Beverly Hills High School where she observed how teenagers acted, though she admits that most of it was made up. She notes that teenagers at the high school did not dress in high fashion every day as the characters do in the film and that in reality the students there dressed just as frumpily as everyone else. She did, however draw on many of her observations, especially the tendency of teenage girls to groom themselves constantly. "You would think that within, you know, the few minutes that they've been in class, that their makeup wouldn't be needing so much repair and yet they're constantly painting and sculpting and ... doing to themselves." As with Fast Times at Ridgemont High, it quickly caught on with teenagers and went on to become a significant pop culture reference point. The film went on to gross $56,631,572 and helped launch the careers of most of the cast, including Alicia Silverstone, Brittany Murphy, Paul Rudd, Donald Faison, Breckin Meyer, and Stacey Dash. It was spun off into a moderately successful TV series, with Heckerling penning the pilot, as well as directing several episodes from the first season. Heckerling describes the show as basically the same as the film, only cleaner, and says that she still loves the characters. ===2000–present=== Heckerling directed and produced Loser (2000), a romantic college comedy with Jason Biggs and Mena Suvari. The film was not a critical or commercial success. After a break, Heckerling's romantic comedy I Could Never Be Your Woman (2007), starring Michelle Pfeiffer and Paul Rudd, never opened in theaters; rather, it received a direct-to-video release domestically, despite fairly good notices. Production of the film was troubled by financial issues, including the rights to distribution being sold off without Heckerling's knowledge, making it difficult for her to sell the film to a studio. At the time, Heckerling was also taking care of both of her parents who were very ill (her father was in the hospital and her mother had cancer). Though Heckerling dislikes the baggage that the film carries and is upset about it not being released theatrically, she says that the experience was significant for her because she loved working with Rudd and Pfeiffer in England. Heckerling also directed an episode of the NBC version of The Office. In 2011, Heckerling directed the horror-comedy film Vamps with Sigourney Weaver, Alicia Silverstone and Krysten Ritter, about two vampires living in New York City as best friends and roommates. The film was released to theatres on November 2, 2012, followed by a DVD release on November 13. On July 4, 2016, Gilbert Gottfried posted an in-depth 81-minute interview with Heckerling on his podcast. In July 2017, a musical version of Clueless helmed by Tony nominee Kristin Hanggi received a developmental lab in New York City. A previous workshop starring Taylor Louderman (Kinky Boots) and Dave Thomas Brown (Heathers) took place in 2016. Heckerling wrote the libretto for the musical. The musical opened Off-Broadway on November 20, 2018 with Dove Cameron in the lead role. ==Personal life== Heckerling dated friend and fellow film director Martin Brest briefly when she first moved to Los Angeles. Though they later broke up, they remained good friends. Heckerling's first marriage was to David Brandt, from 1981 to 1983. In 1984, Heckerling married director Neal Israel, but divorced in 1990. The couple's daughter, Mollie Israel, was born in 1985. Mollie was led to believe Israel was her biological father until 2004, when it was revealed to her that in fact Harold Ramis was her biological father. Heckerling has included Mollie in some of her films in bit parts, including Look Who's Talking and Loser, though Heckerling claims that her daughter never wanted to be a "girly girl" and distanced herself from much of her work, never adding any input to the lives of characters such as those in Clueless. Despite this, the two get along very well and Mollie frequently introduces her mother to new music, such as OK Go and films. Today Mollie sings in the band The Lost Patrol. Heckerling lives in both Los Angeles and New York and continues to make films. Heckerling is not especially fond of the sycophantic nature present in the film industry. She likens the idea to a term initially coined by her brother: ===Affair with Chris Kattan=== Actor and comedian Chris Kattan claimed in his 2019 memoir Baby, Don't Hurt Me: Stories and Scars from Saturday Night Live that he was pressured by Lorne Michaels to have sex with Heckerling so she would direct the 1998 film A Night at the Roxbury (although she ultimately only produced, rather than directed it). Heckerling's daughter Mollie disputes his claims saying that, although Heckerling and Kattan had an affair, it occurred when the film was already shooting. ==Awards and nominations== In 1995, Heckerling won the National Society of Film Critics Best Screenplay award and was nominated for the Writers Guild of America award for Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen for her screenplay, Clueless. In 1998, she received the Franklin J. Schaffner Medal from the American Film Institute. In 1999, she received the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through endurance and excellence, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry. ==Filmography== ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1995 Eek! The Cat Nel Erving (voice, Klutter! segment) Main role ===Film work=== Year Title Director Writer Producer Notes 1977 Getting It Over With Short film – AFI thesis film 1982 Fast Times at Ridgemont High 1984 Johnny Dangerously 1985 National Lampoon's European Vacation 1989 Look Who's Talking 1990 Look Who's Talking Too 1993 Look Who's Talking Now 1995 Clueless 1998 A Night at the Roxbury 1999 Molly 2000 Loser 2007 I Could Never Be Your Woman 2012 Vamps ===Television work=== Year Title Director Writer Producer Creator Notes 1986 Fast Times 3 episodes 1988 Life on the Flipside TV movie 1991–92 Baby Talk 35 episodes 1996–99 Clueless 4 episodes 2005 The Office Episode "Hot Girl" 2012 Gossip Girl Episodes "Father and the Bride" and "Monstrous Ball" 2015–17 Red Oaks 6 episodes 2020 Royalties 10 episodes ==See also== *List of New York University people ==References== ==External links and further reading== * * Hurd, Mary G. Women Directors and Their Films. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2007. Print. * Jarecki, Nicholas. Breaking In: How 20 Film Directors Got Their Start. 2001. 142–156. Print. * Singer, Michael. A Cut Above. 1998. 81–85. Print. Category:1954 births Category:AFI Conservatory alumni Category:American actresses Category:American film producers Category:American television directors Category:American television writers Category:American women film directors Category:American women film producers Category:American women screenwriters Category:American women television directors Category:American women television producers Category:American women television writers Category:Comedy film directors Category:Film directors from New York City Category:High School of Art and Design alumni Category:Jewish American writers Category:Living people Category:People from the Bronx Category:Screenwriters from New York (state) Category:Television producers from New York City Category:Tisch School of the Arts alumni |
thumb|right|250px|On 17 March 1876, nearly 11 months after his death, Carl Axel Gottlund was pictured in Työmiehen Ystävä, a newspaper which he had helped to operate and for which he had written. Carl Axel Gottlund (24 February 1796 in Ruotsinpyhtää – 20 April 1875 in Helsinki) was a Finnish explorer, collector of folklore, historian, cultural politician, linguist, philologist, translator, writer, publisher and lecturer of Finnish language at the University of Helsinki. He was a colorful cultural personality and one of the central Finnish national awakeners and — later — one of the leading dissidents at the same time. Gottlund pursued the creation of an autonomous Finnish territory from the Finn Forests on both sides of the Swedish-Norwegian border, with great economic and political independence. Gottlund is commonly credited with saving the folklore of the Forest Finns. Among the ideas he promoted was the view that all languages are interconnected by the same roots. ==Life== ===Early life=== In 1796, Carl Axel Gottlund was born in the Southern Finnish coastal town of Ruotsinpyhtää into the family of a Finnish clergyman Mattias Gottlund, one of the most outstanding representatives of Enlightenment ideas in Finland. Accordingly, Carl Axel was raised in the spirit of the Enlightenment, and the basic structure of his thinking represented rationalistic Enlightenment ideals. Matthias Gottlund, Carl Axel's father, worked as the chaplain of the local congregation at the time. Carl Axel's mother Ulrika Sophia was from the upper-class family of Orraeus in the nearby town of Porvoo. In 1805, the Gottlund family settled in Juva, in the Finnish province of Savonia, where Gottlund's father had landed to a financially lucrative job as a vicar. During his childhood years, Carl Axel Gottlund's interest towards the Finnish culture and language had been inspired by his father, to the most part. The opportunity in his childhood for Carl Axel to meet with the known Finnish nationalist author Jaakko Juteini is also believed to have boosted his future career choices and patriotism. In 1810, Carl Axel enrolled with the Gymnasium of Porvoo, a junior college in Southern Finland. In 1814, he began studies at the Royal Academy of Turku. At the academy, he had awakening in the Finnish national romanticism. In 1815–1816, Carl Axel collected various types of Finnish folklore material from his home county: poems, songs, spells, children's stories and plays, nursery rhymes, etc. ===Finn Forests' autonomy in Central Scandinavia=== In 1816, Carl Axel Gottlund began studies at the Uppsala University in Sweden. In Uppsala, Gottlund studied classical languages, natural sciences, history and philosophy. In 1817, Gottlund made an exploration trip to the Finnish- inhabited Dalarna area of Central Sweden, to collect Finnish folklore and other ethnographic data as well as genealogical information, the latter partly because he wanted to improve the social circumstances of the Forest Finns and to prevent Sweden from taking ownership of their land. He recorded total of about 50 Finnish language poems, songs and spells during this expedition. Soon after this, Gottlund published his first book, Pieniä runoja Suomen poijille ratoxi I ("Small Poems for the Enjoyment of Finnish Boys - Part I"), consisting of folklore which he had collected at his home county of Juva in Finland. A 'part II' was published shortly after. In the summer of 1821, Gotlund launched another expedition to a Finnish-inhabited part of Sweden, this time covering the south-central Swedish area of Värmland. The expedition lasted until January 1822, after which Gottlund began acting as a political advocate on behalf of the Finnish population of Sweden. Among his accomplishments, Gotlund founded three congregations for the Forest Finns. Furthermore, in 1821 starting Gottlund began pursuing the creation of an autonomous Finnish county called Fennia from the Finn Forests on both sides of the Swedish-Norwegian border, north and northeast from the modern-day Norwegian area of Oslo, with great economic and political independence. The tax border would have been removed and land ownership by Swedes and Norwegians would have been restricted. The Swedish-Norwegian border had not been properly established before 1751.Fennia.nu - a page pertaining to the Finn Forests. In attempts to have the Finnish population of Sweden Proper "Swedified" and assimilated into the mainstream Swedish society, the use of the Finnish language had become strictly prohibited in Sweden Proper in the mid-17th- century.Wallin Väinö: Metsäsuomalaiset Ruotsissa ("Forest Finns in Sweden"). Helsinki, Otava, 1898. However, Gottlund estimated that in the beginning of the 19th century the Central Scandinavian Finn Forests' areas which he had visited alone were still home to approximately 40,000 Finnish-speaking Finns, of whom about 14,000 lived in Värmland - this in addition to other Finns such as the Tornedalians and their descendants and the Forest Finns in other parts of Sweden and Norway. It is estimated that "one of each five Swedes has their roots amongst the Forest Finns".Sverigesradio.se - one of each five Swedes descends from the Forest Finns. Eventually - however -, due to his political activism, Gottlund nearly became expelled from Sweden. He was banned from operating in Stockholm, and - amidst his lobbying and campaigning - he was finally exiled from Stockholm to Uppsala. In spite of this total political failure in the creation of the Central Scandinavian autonomous Finnish area, Gottlund had positive cultural influence on the Forest Finns and became a legendary, heroic character in the Finn Forests. While still living in Uppsala and while attending the Uppsala University part-time, Gottlund began preparing an ambitious publication, Otava, aimed to become a Finnish literary monument. Otava was published in three parts between 1828 and 1832. It consisted of articles pertaining to linguistics, history, ethics, religion, folklore and poetry. However, in Finland, Otava was not met with the type of enthusiasm which Gottlund had hoped for. The work was considered to favor too much the Savonian dialects of Finnish language, and its mainly enlightenment-spirited contents were overshadowed by the current of romanticism which now had encaptured Finland, producing epics such as The Kalevala in 1835 and The Tales of Ensign Stål in 1848. In 1831, Gottlund married Charlotta Augusta Brink. Over time, the two gave birth to total of 10 children together. ===Returning to Finland=== In 1834, Gottlund returned to Finland, bringing his family along. The family settled in Kuopio, where Gottlund's now widowed mother lived. In 1839, Gottlund became a lecturer of Finnish language in the University of Helsinki, which then was known as the Imperial Alexander University of Finland (from 1828 to 1919). In 1842, Gottlund was granted a permission to launch a printing house in Helsinki, the opening of which was delayed until a few years later. thumb|right|250px|The first number of the Suomalainen newspaper, published by Carl Axel Gottlund in Finnish, beginning on 31 January 1846. In 1846, Gottlund published a poetic album named Sampo. The same year, in 1846, Gottlund founded the Suomalainen newspaper, which was printed in Finnish. Following the publication of a certain polemic article in the paper, the Finnish Senate discontinued the publishing of the paper. However, Gottlund came up with another similar newspaper, Suomi, which was in circulation from 1847 to 1849. ===Battle for professorship=== In 1850, Gottlund sought the professorship of Finnish language at the University of Helsinki. However, Gottlund was found unqualified for the job, following his doctoral thesis - written in Finnish - becoming confiscated, after Gottlund had prematurely published it against the approval of the government-guided censorship. M. A. Castrén was elected for the job. However, he died already a year later. Gottlund now ran for the job against the famed Finnish author Elias Lönnrot. This time Gottlund's doctoral thesis was written in Swedish, but - for the second time - it was disapproved. Through his life, Gottlund was passionately interested in archaeology, about which he wrote e.g. in his Otava series. In the 1850s, he continued exploring the history and culture of the Finnish people. In 1859, Gottlund received a grant from the Senate of Finland to sponsor his archaeological expeditions in various parts of Finland. He promoted the establishment of the professorship of archaeology in Finland, to no prevail. Following the retirement of Elias Lönnrot as the Professor of Finnish language in Helsinki, in 1862, Gottlund's doctoral thesis was finally approved, but again that professorship which he had sought was given to another candidate, In the 1860s, Gottlund continued writing and publishing actively. In 1865, he published Läsning för finnar, in which he criticizes his adversaries and discusses the injustices which he had had to experience on his academic career. Among his other accomplishments in the 1860s, Gottlund translated the poetry of the Swedish Carl Michael Bellman into Finnish. Gottlund sought financial backing from Norway, Sweden and Finland for further publications relating to the Forest Finns of Norway and Sweden, to no prevail. In the 1870s, Gottlund participated in publishing of the Työmiehen Ystävä ("Friend of the Working Man") newspaper, for which he also wrote. ==Banned folklore== Some of the folklore poetry collected by Gottlund in the early 19th century was considered sexually too explicit to be published during his lifetime, and even until quite recently. Some poems collected by him stayed archived until 1997, when they became included in the book Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot ("Old Poems of the Finnish People").Housumato ja sudenkita – seksi kansanrunoudessa . ==Publications== ===In Finnish=== * C. M. Fredmanin lauluja ja loiluja (K. E. Holm 1863) * Jumalasta ja hänen monenaisista nimittämisestä moailman erinäisillä kielillä (1850) * Niillä Norin rajoille asuwille suomalaisille (1822) * Nyt ja ennen (1846) * Otava eli suomalaisia huvituksia 1–2 (1828–1832) * Otava eli suomalaisia huvituksia 3 (Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura 1929) * Pieniä runoja Suomen poijille ratoxi 1–2 (1818–1821) * Runola (1840) * Ruotsin suomalaismetsiä samoilemassa (Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura 1928) * Sampo (1847) * Suomalaisia paimen- soittoja (1828?) * Suomenmoa (1846) * Suomesta poislähtyäni (1846) * Suomi (1845) * Uusia suomalaisia lauluja (1845–1846) * Wanha koarlolainen, Kyrön tappeluksesta (1846) * Vermlannin päiväkirja 1821 (Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura 1986) * Väinämöiset (1828) ===In Swedish and Latin=== * Allmogens uti Savolax och Karelen Finska Familjenamn (1872) * Anmälan (1825) * Carl Axel Gottlunds förteckning över familjenamnen på de svenska och norska finnskogarna (Veidarvon 2003) * Carl Axel Gottlunds värmlandsbrev (1821–1823) (1925) * Dagbok öfver dess resor på finnskogarne i Dalarne, Helsingland, Vestmanland och Vermland år 1817 (Nordisk rotogravyr 1931) * Dagbok över mina vandringar på Wermlands och Solörs finnskogar 1821 (Gruetunet museum, 1986) * De proverbiis Fennicis (1818) * Den finska Sampo-myten, närmare uttyd och förklarad (1872) * Forskningar uti sjelfva grund-elementerna af det finska språkets grammatik, efter föregående anmärkningar om språket i allmänhet (Frenckell 1863) * Försök att förklara Caj. Corn. Taciti omdömen öfver finnarne (1834) * Försök att förklara de finska stamordens uppkomst (1853) * Förteckning öfver en manuskriptsamling (Minervas bokhandel 1897) * Gud, Herlden, och Menniskan (1870) * Karl Ax. Gottlunds och J. Boëthii brev om finnmarkerna i Dalarna och Bergslagen (1928) * Läsning för finnar (1864) * Något som torde förtjena att reflekteras uppå, och att vid nu påstående Landtdag närmare skärskådas och öfvervägas (1872) * Några historiska notiser om den i Finland forndom så celebra familjen Kurck (Simelius 1862) * Näsperlan, såsom en pendant till Flugsmällan (1868) * Slutord i polemiken med herrarne B. O. Schauman och magister Aug. Schauman (1867) * Ur Carl Axel Gottlunds dagboksanteckningar från en resa genom Värmlands finnmarker år 1821 (Värmlands fornminnes- och museiförening 1931–1933) * Utdrag af preste- ståndets protocoll af d. 3 Martii 1823 (1823) * Vid Erik Forsbloms graf (1851) ==See also== * Day of Sweden Finns ==Sources== * Fennica - Finnish National Biography. * Helka - Archives of the University of Helsinki. * Pulkkinen, Risto 2003: Vastavirtaan: C.A. Gottlund 1800-luvun suomalaisena toisinajattelijana: psykobiografinen tutkimus . Theses. University of Helsinki, Department of Theology. * Pulkkinen, Risto: Carl Axel Gottlund. (Finnish National Biography ) * C. A. Gottlund: Ruotsin suomalaismetsiä samoilemassa - Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1928. * Finnkulturcentrum.com - Center of Finnish Culture. * Fennia - a portal pertaining to the Forest Finns. ==External links== * Works of C.A. Gottlund in digital format in the Finnish National Archives: ** Otava eli suomalaisia huvituksia 1, 1828 ** Otava eli suomalaisia huvituksia 2, 1828 ** Otava eli suomalaisia huvituksia 3, 1829 ==References== Category:Finnish art critics Category:Finnish explorers Category:19th-century Finnish historians Category:Linguists from Finland Category:Finnish philologists Category:Finnish politicians Category:Finnish translators Category:Forest Finns Category:1796 births Category:1875 deaths Category:19th-century translators Category:Finnish expatriates in Sweden |
Nickelodeon is a children's and teenagers' television channel available on many pay-TV networks across Asia. ==Current programming== ===Animated=== Nickelodeon Originals Title Running period Current season Notes SpongeBob SquarePants 7 April 2001 – present 13 Avatar: The Last Airbender 2005 – present Re-run Sanjay and Craig 6 September 2013 – present The Loud House 20 May 2016 – present 6 The Adventures of Kid Danger 3 August 2018 – present Re- run The Casagrandes 25 March 2020 – present 3 The Patrick Star Show 20 May 2022 – present 1 Middlemost Post 1 August 2022 – present 2 Monster High 1 April 2023 – present 1 Paramount+ Originals Kamp Koral: SpongeBob's Under Years 28 March 2022 – present 1 Star Trek: Prodigy 13 April 2022 – present 1 Rugrats (2021) 13 June 2022 – present 1 Big Nate 14 November 2022 – present 1 Transformers: EarthSpark 28 November 2022 – present 1 NickToons OriginalsNickelodeon Original series originally programming on NickToons The Penguins of Madagascar 12 June 2009 – present Re-run Fanboy and Chum Chum 17 April 2010 – present T.U.F.F. Puppy 18 August 2011 – present Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness 23 January 2012 – present Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012) 16 November 2012 – present Breadwinners 28 November 2014 – present Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles September 2018 – present Acquired programming * ALVINNN!!! and the Chipmunks * Best and Bester * Dorg Van Dango * Lego City Adventures * Ollie's Pack * Rainbow Butterfly Unicorn Kitty * The Smurfs * The Twisted Timeline of Sammy & Raj * Winx Club ===Live-Action=== Nickelodeon Originals *The Barbarian and the Troll *Danger Force (hiatus) ===Nick Jr.=== Animated Nick Jr. Originals *Baby Shark's Big Show! *Rusty Rivets *Wallykazam! Acquired programming *Abby Hatcher *Corn & Peg *PAW Patrol Live Action Nick Jr. Originals *Blue's Clues & You! ==Former programming== ===Animated=== Show Running period 44 Cats 4 February 2019 – 28 August 2022 Aaahh!!! Real Monsters 1999 - 26 June 2011 The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron, Boy Genius 2003 – 22 December 2021 All Grown Up! 2004 \- December 2018 The Angry Beavers 5 November 1998 – 30 June 2011 Animalia 2009 - 2011 As Told by Ginger 2002 - 11 December 2021 Back at the Barnyard 7 January 2009 – 26 December 2020 Bunsen Is a Beast June 2017 - December 2019 CatDog 1999 - March 2019 Catscratch 23 November 2005 (Short) / May 2006 - 29 May 2011 (Original) ChalkZone 2003 – 28 August 2022 Chicken Stew 2010 - 2011 Cingkus Blues 2012 Cracke Unknown Chop Chop Ninja November 2018 - 31 March 2021 Danny Phantom 2004 \- 11 December 2021 Da Yu 25 June 2020 – 12 July 2020 Doug 5 November 1998 – 31 October 2011 Edgar & Ellen 2008 – 2011 El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera 2008 – 2013 The Fairly OddParents 2003 – 13 November 2022 Four Eyes! Unknown: 2005 Frankenstein's Cat 2008 - 2009 Future Card Buddy Fight February 2014 - 2015 Gawayn 3 August 2009 - 2010 Get Blake! 30 March 2015 - 2016 Grossology Unknown: 2009 Growing Up Creepie Unknown: 2008 Gruff's Groove Box 2 November 2001 - 2003 (Original) Harvey Beaks 8 June 2015 – October 2019 Hey Arnold! 1999 - December 2019 The Incredible Cheesy Adventures of Chez Unknown: 2009 Invader Zim 2003 – 23 December 2020 It's Pony 18 May 2020 – November 2022 KaBlam! Unknown: 1998 - 2003 Kampung Boy Unknown: 1998 Kappa Mikey November 2006 – 2010 Keke's Story 2010 - 2011 Kid vs. Kat 2009 - August 2017 Lalaloopsy 2014 - 2015 Little Spirou January 2013 - March 2013 The Legend of Korra 28 September 2012 – March 2016 Lego Friends 17 June 2019 - April 2022 Lego Jurassic World: Legend of Isla Nublar July 2020 – 28 August 2022 Littlest Pet Shop November 2017 - 2018 (Nickelodeon Philippines only) Lola & Virginia 19 February 2007 - Unknown Lucky Fred 18 February 2012 - 2013 Mia and Me 1 July 2013 - 2014 The Mighty B! 4 August 2008 - 26 June 2011 Monsuno Unknown: 2013 Monsters vs. Aliens 28 November 2013 - 2015 My Dad the Rock Star Unknown: 2004 My Life as a Teenage Robot 2004 – 2011 My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic August 2017 - March 2021 (Nickelodeon Philippines only) Mysticons October 2017 - December 2019 Oggy and the Cockroaches 1 January 2015 - April 2021 Oh Yeah! Cartoons Unknown: 1999 – 2001 Pat and Stan January 2010 – 30 June 2011 Pelswick Unknown: 2002 Pig Goat Banana Cricket 9 September 2016 – December 2019 Planet Sheen 30 April 2011 – 27 November 2014 PopPixie 2012 Rabbids Invasion 11 January 2014 – 1 September 2021 Random! Cartoons August 2010 - 29 May 2011 Regal Academy 21 November 2016 – 12 February 2021 The Ren & Stimpy Show Unknown – 2009 Ricky Sprocket 2008 - 2009 Robot and Monster 25 March 2013 - 2015 Rocket Monkeys 22 March 2013 – 10 May 2015 Rocket Power Unknown: August 2000 – 2010 Rocko's Modern Life 5 November 1998 – December 2018 Rugrats 1998 - November 2019 Rugrats Pre-School Daze 2005 - 2011 Sandra the Fairytale Detective 2009 - 2010 Skyland Unknown: 2008 Tak and the Power of Juju 22 July 2008 - 2009 Team Galaxy Unknown: 2009 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2003) 2013 Tobot 28 June 2015 - 2016 Tomato Twins 2002 - unknown ToonMarty June 2017 - October 2018 Totally Spies! 2012 - 2018 Transformers: Rescue Bots 2019 - 2020 (Nickelodeon Philippines only) Transformers: Rescue Bots Academy 2020 - May 2021 (Nickelodeon Philippines only) Trollz Unknown: 2006 Wara!Store 15 June 2013 - August 2013 Wayside Unknown: 2008 Welcome to the Wayne 8 January 2018 - March 2018 The Wild Thornberrys Unknown: 1999 - December 2018 The X's Unknown: 2007 Yakkity Yak Unknown: 2004 Zevo-3 2013 - 2014 ===Live-Action=== Show Running period 100 Deeds for Eddie McDowd 2005 100 Things To Do Before High School 11 January 2016 - October 2018 Action League Now! Unknown: 2003 The Adventures of Pete & Pete Unknown: 2001 - 2002 All That Unknown: 2001 - 2020 The Amanda Show August 2001 America's Most Musical Family 25 April 2020 – August 2020 Are You Afraid of the Dark? 2005 Artzooka! 7 August 2010 - 2012 Big Time Rush May 2010 – 21 December 2021 Bella and the Bulldogs 6 April 2015 - 2016 The Brothers García 2003 - 2005 Clarissa Explains It All 5 November 1998 – 25 November 2011, Summer 2012 Cousin Skeeter Unknown: 2001 Dance on Sunset 2007-2009 Dark Oracle Unknown Drake & Josh Unknown Even Stevens August 2002 Every Witch Way July 2014 - 2016 The Fairly OddParents: Fairly Odder 5 September 2022 - 14 October 2022 Figure It Out 1998 - 2006 Figure It Out (Season 5) 2013 Fred: The Show 9 August 2012 - October 2012 Game Shakers 4 December 2015 – 19 December 2021 Genie in the House 29 May 2006 – 30 Sep 2011 Global GUTS Unknown: 2001 - 2002 Grachi 16 January 2012 – 11 September 2013 (Nickelodeon Philippines only) The Haunted Hathaways 18 November 2013 – 29 October 2021 Henry Danger 1 January 2015 – November 2022 House of Anubis 1 April 2011 - 2013 How to Rock 8 March 2014 – December 2017 Hunter Street 1 May 2017 - 2018 I Am Frankie October 2017 - 2019 iCarly October 2008 – 1 February 2022 Just for Kicks Unknown Just Jordan June 2009 - 2010 Kenan and Kel Unknown: 2001 – March 2016 Legends of the Hidden Temple Unknown: 2001 Life with Boys 22 March 2012 - Summer 2012 Life with Derek 2005 - 2011 Lost in the West 2016 Make It Pop 31 August 2015 – December 2018 Marvin Marvin 31 May 2013 - 31 October 2013 Massive Monster Mayhem 2018 Max and Shred 1 December 2014 – 10 May 2015 Me TV 1998 - 2001 Mr. Meaty 5 February 2007 - Unknown My Brother and Me August 2001 \- 2002 The Naked Brothers Band 2008 - 2009 Naturally Sadie Unknown Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide Unknown: 2009 The Nick Cannon Show 2003 Nickelodeon's Spyders 2021 Nickelodeon's Unfiltered 19 December 2020 – 2021 Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn 5 January 2015 – 10 April 2022 Noah Knows Best August 2001 \- 2002 Rank the Prank 2017 Ride 24 October 2016 - 2017 Romeo! Unknown: 2004 \- 2005 Sam & Cat 11 October 2013 – October 2018 Scaredy Camp 2003 School of Rock 7 October 2016 – 23 December 2021 Side Hustle 22 May 2021 – 28 August 2022 SoNick March 2002 - 2005 Supah Ninjas November 2011 - 2012 Taina 2003 Talia in the Kitchen 16 May 2016 - 2017 The Other Kingdom 29 August 2016 – October 2017 The Thundermans 31 March 2014 – 29 May 2022 The Troop March 2010 - 29 May 2011 True Jackson, VP November 2009 - 2014 Victorious October 2010 - 12 December 2021 Warped! 4 June 2022 – 28 August 2022 WITS Academy 18 April 2016 - 2017 You Gotta See This January 2013 - March 2013 Zoey 101 Unknown - 2010 === Nick Jr. shows === Show Running period The Adventures of Paddington 30 May 2020 – 28 August 2022 Allegra's Window Unknown The Backyardigans 2006-2015 Barbapapa: One Big Happy Family! 12 December 2020 - 2022 The Beatbuds, Let's Jam! 9 August 2021 – 26 August 2022 Ben and Holly's Little Kingdom 2009 - March 2011 Becca's Bunch 2019 Blaze and the Monster Machines Unknown – 26 August 2022 Blue's Clues 5 November 1998 – 30 June 2011 Blue's Room 10 August 2004 –2 January 2007 Bubble Guppies 2011 – September 2021 Butterbean's Café 11 February 2019 – 30 June 2021 The Day Henry Met Unknown Deer Squad 3 August 2020 – April 2021 Dora the Explorer August 2002 - December 2021 Dora and Friends: Into the City! 2015-2017 Eureeka's Castle Unknown Franklin 5 November 1998 – 30 June 2011 Fresh Beat Band of Spies 2016 - Unknown Go, Diego, Go! 2006 - 30 June 2011 Gullah Gullah Island Unknown: 2001 Hi-5 2004 Kid-E-Cats 2018 - 2022 LazyTown Unknown Little Bear Little Bill Unknown: 2001 The Magic Roundabout Unknown Maisy 2005 Max & Ruby Unknown Miss Spider's Sunny Patch Friends 2005 Nella the Princess Knight Unknown Ni Hao, Kai-Lan September 2009 - 2019 Oswald Unknown: 2003 Peppa Pig Unknown Ready Set Dance 2020 – 28 August 2022 Ricky Zoom November 2020 – 26 August 2022 Santiago of the Seas 20 February 2021 - 28 August 2022 Shimmer and Shine 30 October 2015 - 2020 Sunny Day 7 May 2018 – 2020 Team Umizoomi 1 March 2010 – 30 June 2011 Thomas & Friends Unknown Top Wing 2018 - 2021 The Upside Down Show 9 August 2006 - Unknown Wanda and the Alien Unknown Wonder Pets 2007 - 30 June 2011 Wow! Wow! Wubbzy! Unknown Yo Gabba Gabba! June 2008 - Unknown Zack & Quack May 2014 - Unknown Zoofari Unknown - 2021 ==Programming blocks== ===Current programming blocks=== ====Nick Jr.==== Nick Jr. is a programming block broadcast on Nickelodeon everyday from 9:30am to 10:40am, airing preschool programs. ===Former programming blocks=== ====Hapon Hangout==== Hapon Hangout was a former block that debuted in February 2013 which aired mostly cartoons and live-action. It ended in December 2017. ====Flick Picks==== Flick Picks was a programming former block that airs movies. ====Weekend Express==== Weekend Express was a programming block that runs every weekends at noon. The block airs programs according to a weekly theme. It ended on 26 June 2011. ====Lunch Toons==== Lunch Toons was a limited Nicktoons-based block which airs one random Nicktoon which is repeated when airing various episodes of the show related to food. ====Nickel Aliens==== Nickel Aliens was a programming block that debuted in November 2014. It featured shows such as Monsters vs. Aliens, Robot and Monster, Kid vs. Kat, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Rabbids Invasion, Planet Sheen, Rocket Monkeys and Winx Club. ====HAHATHON==== HAHATHON was a programming block that debuted in June 2015. It featured shows such as Winx Club, Oggy and the Cockroaches, Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, SpongeBob SquarePants and Lalaloopsy. ====WAPAK! Thursdays==== Wapak Thursdays was a programming block broadcast on Nickelodeon that premieres every Thursday from 6:00 PM to 9:00 PM. It ended on 16 July since LEGO Jurassic World: Legend of Isla Nublar premiered on 20 July which re-run on weekdays at 6:30 PM. ====TakoTown==== TakoTown was a programing block that airs Halloween themed episodes and specials of Nickelodeon TV shows every October. ====Nickelodeon Heroes==== Nickelodeon Heroes was a programming block on Nickelodeon that premieres every weekdays at 4:30 PM. It airs shows such as SpongeBob SquarePants, The Loud House, Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, ALVINNN! and the Chipmunks and The Fairly OddParents. It ended at 30 August. ====Listen Out Loud==== Listen Out Loud was a programming block that airs The Loud House episodes. ====TeenNick==== TeenNick was a former block that aired live-action shows. ====G-Time==== G-Time was a programming block broadcast on Nickelodeon on weekdays from 4:00pm to 6:00pm. It debuted in November 2018 and ended in January 2019. ====Animal Carnival==== Animal Carnival was a programming block on Nickelodeon that debuted in April 2021. It aired on weekdays from 4-6PM. It aired shows like Deer Squad, SpongeBob SquarePants, ALVINNN! and the Chipmunks, It's Pony and 44 Cats. ====Summer Happiness Lab==== Summer Happiness Lab was a programming block on Nickelodeon that debuted in July 2021. It aired on weekdays from 4-6PM. ==See also== *Nickelodeon (Asia) *Nickelodeon (Philippines) ==Notes== ==References== Category:Lists of television series by network Category:Nickelodeon-related lists |
Return of refugees of the Syrian civil war is the returning to the place of origin (Syria) of a Syrian refugee or an internally displaced Syrian, and sometimes a second-generation immigrant (to the ancestral place), or over- stayer, a rejected asylum seeker, who is unable or unwilling to remain in the Syrian refugee camps established in Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, and other countries. == Foreign refugees == A result of Syrian Civil War is on the refugees who seek asylum in Syria from neighboring conflicts: Refugees of Iraq (1,300,000), Palestinian refugees (543,400), and Somalia (5,200). April 2012, within Syria, there were 100,000 refugees from Iraq, 70,000 more already returned to Iraq. Circassians in Syria have been returning to their historic homelands in Circassia. The Chechen and Ossetian diasporas in Syria have also sought to return to their Caucasus homelands. On 29 October 2022, Australia repatriated four women and their 13 children stranded in refugee camps in northeastern Syria. Australian women and children have lived in the al-Hol and Roj detention camps in Kurdish-controlled north-eastern Syria after the ISIS terror group lost control of the area. == Conditions against return == The UNHCR stated that conditions in Syria are still unsafe and destitute, improvements in many areas are uncertain and many basic services are absent; access of aid convoys is also a challenge. Less than a half of the returnees have access to water or health services, due to extremely damaged infrastructure. An estimated 10 per cent ended up as internally displaced persons once again. === Destruction === thumb|The incidences of damage, assessments are based on actual physical conditions, as seen on the satellite images from January 2017. Syrian urban centers served as battlegrounds. The major populated cities Aleppo (important to the economy as the main place for industry and finance), Damascus, Homs and also many smaller towns faced with the low intensity conflict (on and off fighting lasted months), which caused the breakdown of partial or entire urban systems. Destruction lead to the collapse of economic activities in many areas as public service–related infrastructure (roads, schools, hospitals) is destroyed. Infrastructure such as bridges, water resources, grain silos, and other economically significant assets were used as a battle positions and consequently became strategic targets. Destruction of homes. In 2011, Syria was rapidly urbanizing with 56% of the population living in urban areas (population density: 103 inhabitants/km2). Most urban areas are either in rain-fed agricultural regions, or in the basin of the Euphrates River. Remaining urban areas are along the interior trade routes. In 2006, 92% of the population had access to improved sanitation (96% urban and 88% rural) and 89% had access to improved water sources (95% urban and 83% rural). Damascus and Aleppo, the two largest cities, accounted for nearly 37% of the urban population and hold 20% of the total population. In 2010 Syrian census, 4,128,941 conventional dwelling units existed. In 2017, around 72.6% (from 56%) of the population (13.7 million people) was living in the urban areas. Homs and Aleppo were directly impacted (violence, destruction, and the collapse of basic services) and experienced an exodus. Other areas (promising relative security and consistency of services) had experienced large influxes. The net result was a significant concentration of the population (internally displaced persons and their hosts) in urban areas. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license In 2017, at the city level (city boundaries, no suburbs, no towns, etc) conflict had an impact (bombed, shelled, gunned etc) in an estimated total of 316,649 housing units. Aleppo at the top of list with 64% impact, followed by Homs at 16%. Across the 10 most populated cities, 27% of the housing had impact (7% destroyed and 20% partially damaged). 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license Across Syria (that is eight governorates that had active conflict) statistics translates into an estimated 220,826 residential units destroyed and 649,449 partially damaged. Destruction in health care. Before the conflict, physical infrastructure capacity in Syrian health care was below the averages of regional countries. Syrian health care showed regional variance within Syria (better at one place, but not others). 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license Hospitals became specifically targeted places of attacks. Physicians for Human Rights documented attacks on 400 facilities (some multiple times) and the deaths of 768 health personnel between March 2011 and the end of July 2016. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license United Nations Security Council Resolution 2286 (3 May 2016) condemned the attacks on medical facilities and personnel. United Nations Security Council Resolution 2268 (26 February 2016) asked to grand health support (access to humanitarian workers). As of 2016, 14 hospitals and 57 medical centers in Aleppo corresponding to 35% destruction on pre-conflict structures. As of February 2017, almost 9 in 10 health facilities in Raqqa (partially damage 80%) and Dayz az-Zawr (partially damage 79%) suffered some form of damage. As of February 2017, across Syria (that is eight governorates that had active conflict) 68% of all medical centers, 84% of specialized medical centers, 75% of medical points, and 51% of all polyclinics experienced some form of physical damage. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license According to Physicians for Human Rights, at least 15,000 of Syria’s 30,000 physicians have left their positions. As of 2014, Aleppo had fewer than 70 where 6,000 physicians were in the city at pre-war. More people may have been killed (women who died in labor because she required a C-section, or the men who had a heart attack and died because lack of a medication, or elderly person who died as a result of complications from diabetes that was not managed) in Syria than KIA due to a breakdown of the health system. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license Destruction in educational structures. In 2009, Education in Syria had primary net enrollment rate (NER) of 93% and the enrollment gender gap was negligible. In the 2007 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, Syria ranked 32 and 39 of 49 countries for eighth grade science and mathematics, respectively. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license Education facilities became military bases, schools used as military quarters and informal shelters for displaced people. Vocational institutes (14.5%), secondary schools (14.7%), and education offices (33.3%) were the highest targeted educational structures. Aleppo (fully destroyed 49), Da’ra (fully destroyed 21), Raqqa (fully destroyed 7) and Tadmur (fully destroyed 7) had destroyed educational facilities. Kobani, Homs, Douma, and Daya Az-Zawr had 5 or fewer facilities fully destroyed. The conflict caused damage to numerous historic buildings, tell mounds and archaeological locations, including all six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the country. List of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian Civil War. Deliberate destruction and theft of cultural heritage has been conducted by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant since 2014. === Syrian law 10 === The Syrian government has put forward a law commonly known as "law 10", which could strip refugees of property, such as damaged real estate. There are also fears among some refugees that if they return to claim this property they will face negative consequences, such as forced conscription or prison. The Syrian government has been criticized for using this law to reward those who have supported the government. However, the government denies this and has expressed that it wants the return of refugees from Lebanon. In December 2018, it was also reported that the Syrian government has started to seize property under an anti-terrorism law, which is affecting government opponents negatively, with many losing their property. Some people's pensions have also been cancelled. === The war economy === Ongoing conflict for many years, stop the functioning of the formal economy, capital moved out, and state weakening in much of Syria have predictably given rise to war economy.Hamoud Al-Mahmoud, “The War Economy in the Syrian Conflict: The Government’s Hands-Off Tactics,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, December 15, 2015, http://carnegieendowment.org/2015/12/15/war-economy-in-syrian-conflict- governments-hands-off-tactics-pub-62202 . Syrian economy characterized by black market activity, looting, smuggling, seizure of assets, extortion, and exploitation of people. The current economy in Syria under armed groups which implicated in looting, smuggling, seizure of assets, extortion activities and often control strategic assets such as oil and crops. === Declining economy === The destruction of physical capital, casualties, forced migration, and breaking up of economic networks was catastrophic for Syria’s economic activity, Economy of Syria is in decline -10% (2014 est). *1. Working age population 13 million 63% **2. Inactive **3. Active 5.8 million 44.6% ***6. Employed 5.3 million 91.4% ****8. Wage-employed 3.3 million 63.2% *****14. Private sector 1.9 million 57% *****15. Public sector 1.4 million 43% ****9. Self-employed 1.5 million 28.8% ****10. Employer 0.2 million 4.2% ****11. Unpaid worker 0.2 million 3.8% ***7. Unemployed ****12. Men 0.3 million 61% ****13. Women 0.2 million 39% As of 2017, 6 in 10 Syrians live in extreme poverty. The poverty rate in 2016 is 66.5 percent (estimated). As of 2017, the "United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs" claim 9 million in need of food assistance in Syria. *1. Working age population 11.6 million 62.9% **2. Inactive **3. Active 5.5 million 47.2% ***5. Employed 2.6 million 47.1% ****6. Agriculture 0.4 million 16% ****7. Industry 0.02 million 1% ****8. Building & Construction 0.4 million 16% ****9. Trade & Tourism 0.5 million 19% ****10. Transportation & Communications 0.2 million 7% ****11. Other services 1.1 million 41% ***4. Unemployed Imposing sanctions on Syria affected the economy. The import restrictions are promulgated, consumers have restricted choices of goods. Export restrictions imposed which caused decline in markets and investment opportunities. Since the outbreak of the Syrian civil war, the Syrian economy has been hit by massive economic sanctions restricting trade with the Arab League, Australia, Canada, the European Union, (as well as the European countries of Albania, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Serbia, and Switzerland) Georgia, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Turkey, and the United States. West already took steps to block any activity in Syria, there are further steps. In January 2019, the EU added 11 people and five entities to its sanctions list. The U.S. Congress planning a rigorous Syria sanctions bill. == Conditions for return == The Syrian foreign minister called on the country's refugees to return home. Mr President Assad has asked refugees to return, and he claimed host countries abusing foreign aid. === Stability/security === The attempts to find/bring stability began in late 2011. As of 2019, Syrian peace process and De-escalation are ongoing efforts. ==== Peace process ==== The Arab League launched two initiatives, but without much success. The Syrian peace process is the ensemble of initiatives and plans to resolve the Syrian Civil War and spills beyond its borders. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 2254 was unanimously adopted on 18 December 2015, which calls for a ceasefire and political settlement in Syria. Financial Times reported that returning Syrian men either risk death in the military or risk the prison network. Human rights groups have documented widespread torture and abuse of detainees part of Human rights violations during the Syrian Civil War. ==== De-escalation==== As of 2019, there were Safe Zones, along with their ceasefire areas, established in Syria in order to halt fighting. These agreements were set to expire in every 6 months with possibility of continued renewal. === Reconstruction === 2016, World Bank estimated the reconstruction at $226 billion. 2019, the United Nations estimated the reconstruction at $250 billion. While the war still ongoing, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad claimed that Syria will be able to rebuild the war-torn country on its own. , the reconstruction is estimated to cost a minimum of US$400 billion. Assad claims to be able to loan this money from friendly countries, Syrian diaspora and the state treasury. In 2019 Atlantic quoted a diplomat: “I’m told that before the war, the capital budget was $60 billion, and last year the capital budget was $300 million, of which only 20 percent was actually spent. Not only does it not have the money, but they don’t have administrative [or] political capacity to build the country.” – Iran has expressed interest in helping rebuild Syria. International donors have been suggested as one financier of the reconstruction. , reports emerged that rebuilding efforts had already started. It was reported that the biggest issue facing the rebuilding process is the lack of building material and a need to make sure the resources that do exist are managed efficiently. The rebuilding effort have so far remained at a limited capacity and has often been focused on certain areas of a city, thus ignoring other areas inhabited by disadvantaged people. – In 2019, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov stated his country's contributions to Syrian reconstruction were helping to improve the humanitarian crisis. Moscow investment in the Syrian energy sector accompanied other footholds in other sectors such advance deals for power generation projects in Homs, a rail line linking Damascus International Airport to the city center, and an array of industrial plants that will play an instrumental role in Syria’s future development. – There would be “no reconstruction without [a] political transition,” a French embassy spokeswoman recently told to Atlantic. Referenced to United Nations Security Council Resolution 2254, which calls for “credible, inclusive and nonsectarian governance … free and fair elections … to the highest international standards of transparency and accountability...” NGO – In 2019, International donors pledged $7 billion, including $397 million from the United States, for the civilians. The Atlantic Council’s published "Rebuilding Syria" program, which was developed requesting information from officials of the US government and some other specialists, including development experts, their own policy analysts, and some partner governments which is not in conflict with US. == Countries declared safe return == – Denmark has reclassified Damascus as safe. ==Voluntary return movements of refugees== As of 2012, more than 5,000 returned to Syria between July and August, while most were moved to newly built camps that hosted 7,600 refugees by November. As of mid-2017, an estimated 260,000 refugees returned to Syria since 2015 and more than 440,000 internally displaced persons returned to their homes, to search for family, check on property and, in some cases, due to improved security in parts of the country. ===Lebanon === Lebanon hosts 929,624 as of 2019 Since 2011, Lebanon has taken Syrian refugees. Lebanon has seen 2.2 million estimated arrivals as of December 2015. In 2015, Lebanon stopped the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees from registering Syrians. May 2019, 301 refugees were summarily deported as an official decision to send back refugees entered after April 24. The Lebanese refugee policy is driven by a slowing economy and high unemployment. === Turkey === Turkey framed its generosity in bestowing money or gifts toward Syrians fleeing the civil war as a moral duty (Islamic duty). In August 2019, Turkey began imposing restrictions on where in Turkey Syrians could live. == See also == * Syrian civil war * Refugees of the Syrian civil war == References == == Bibliography == * 50px Source is available (listed at page 3) under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license. Category:Refugees of the Syrian civil war Category:Syrian civil war |
Slavery played the central role during the American Civil War. The primary catalyst for secession was slavery, especially Southern political leaders' resistance to attempts by Northern antislavery political forces to block the expansion of slavery into the western territories. Slave life went through great changes, as the South saw Union Armies take control of broad areas of land. During and before the war, enslaved people played an active role in their own emancipation, and thousands of enslaved people escaped from bondage during the war. ==Demographics and economics== thumb|right|Percentage of slaves in each county of the slave states in 1860 There have been many different ways to estimate the amount of slaveholding in the South. In 1860, 1.6% of US citizens owned slaves. Most of the South's enslaved workers were enslaved by planters (often defined as those who enslaved twenty or more people), although yeomen farmers outnumbered the fewer than 50,000 planters. Southern agriculture was more lucrative than Northern, focusing on crops of rice, cotton, and sugar.Woodward 2014, p32-33 Even before the war, in the rice regions of Georgia and South Carolina and in parts of the Mississippi Delta there were ten or even twenty enslaved black people for every white person. During the war, this disparity grew, leading to fear of insurrection and calls for militia companies to be stationed in agricultural regions to guarantee peace.Woodward 2014, p46 The market for buying and selling enslaved people continued during the war, as did the market for hiring and hiring out enslaved labor.Woodward 2014, p90 Although the price of enslaved workers grew, it did not keep up with inflation, causing the real price of enslaved people to decline during the Civil War. The prices of people held in slavery rose and fell in part with the prospects for Confederate victory.Martinez 2006 In 1860, the average enslaved person sold in Virginia brought $1,500, and a "prime field hand" in New Orleans brought $1,800. In 1863, enslaved people in Richmond sold for $4,000 or $5,000 and in Texas for $2,500 to $3,500, depending on skill sets.Woodward 2014, p96 Before the start of the war, the expansion of slavery was an important political and economic goal for slaveholders. This continued during the war, and there was a large expansion of slavery into Texas, which had been made a state in 1845.Woodward 2014, p97-98 However, late in the war, many slave owners recognized the increasing probability that slavery would be ended, and there is evidence that they increased their attempts to sell the people they held in slavery.Woodward 2014, p100 ==Culture== ===African American cultural shifts=== Opportunities for cultural expression grew as autonomy for slaves increased during the war. Christianity grew among enslaved people and freedmen during and immediately after the civil war. Organizations such as the American Missionary Association and National Freedman's Relief Association sent missionaries into Union- occupied areas where they formed religious congregations and led revivals.Fountain 2010, p99 The African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) in particular established a large presence among enslaved people and freedmen in and around Union held areas. Along with civilian missionaries, the AME also provided chaplains for black Union regiments. Among the free blacks AME figures especially active in the South during the war were James Walker Hood,Simmons 1887, p133-143 Henry McNeal Turner,Simmons 1887, p336-339 Jabez Pitt Campbell,Simmons 1887, p1032 John M. Brown and William E. Matthews.Simmons 1887, p1113-1118 Music sung by African-Americans changed during the war. The theme of escape from bondage became especially important in spirituals sung by blacks, both by enslaved people singing among themselves on plantations and for free and recently freed blacks singing to white audiences. New versions of songs such as "Hail Mary", "Michael Row the Boat Ashore", and "Go Down Moses" emphasized the message of freedom and the rejection of slavery.McWhirter 2012, p149-150, p157 Many new slave songs were sung as well, the most popular being, "Many Thousands Go", which was frequently sung by enslaved people fleeing plantations to Union Army camps.McWhirter 2012, p151 Several attempts were made to publish slave songs during the war. The first was the publishing of sheet music to "Go Down Moses" by Reverend L. C. Lockwood in December 1861 based on his experience with escaped slaves in Fort Monroe, Virginia in September of that year. In 1863, the Continental Monthly published a sampling of spirituals from South Carolina in an article titled, "Under the Palmetto."McWhirter 2012, p155-156 The white Colonel of the all-black First South Carolina, Thomas Wentworth Higginson noted that when blacks knew that whites were listening, they changed the way they were sung, and historian Christian McWhirter noted that African Americans "used their music to reshape white perceptions and foster a new image of black culture as thriving and ready for freedom.McWhirter 2012, p152 In Port Royal, escaped slaves learned the anthem, "America" in secret, never singing it in front of whites. When the Emancipation Proclamation was passed a celebration was held, and in a surprise to white onlookers, contrabands began singing the anthem, using the song to express their new status.McWhirter 2012, p158-159 The most popular white songs among slaves were "John Brown's Body" and H. C. Work's "Kingdom Coming",McWhirter 2012, p159 and as the war continued, the lyrics African Americans sung changed, with vagueness and coded language dropped and including open expressions of their new roles as soldiers and citizens.McWhirter 2012, p163 Slave owners in the south responded by restricting singing on plantations and imprisoning singers of songs supporting emancipation or the North.McWhirter 2012, p152-153 Confederate supporters also looked to music sung by enslaved people for signs of loyalty. Several Confederate regimental bands included enslaved musicians, and Confederates arranged enslaved people to sing and dance to show how happy they were. Enslave performer Thomas Greene Bethune, known as Blind Tom frequently played pro-Confederate songs such as "Maryland, My Maryland" and "Dixie" during this period and dropped, "Yankee Doodle" from his performances.McWhirter 2012, p154 ===Attitudes of whites=== Feelings of whites about slavery during this period has also been the subject of study. Generally, poor, non-slaveholding whites in the south admired planters and sought to own slaves themselves.Woodward 2014, p52 During the war, Confederate soldiers were optimistic about the prospects for the survival of the Confederacy and the institution of slavery well into 1864.Woodward 2014, p74 Confederates feared the Emancipation Proclamation would lead to slave uprisings, an occurrence which even northerners did not desire. Although most people at that time had not been born at the time of the Nat Turner Revolt or the revolution in Haiti, insurrections were greatly feared.Woodward 2014, p113-114 Also, the north was not united against slavery, and many Union troops desired that the United States, win or lose, be a white man's country. However, it was clear to all that Lincoln's party, the Republican Party, was in favor of eventual if not immediate emancipation.Woodward 2014, p114-115 While most historians agree that the war erupted over a debate about slavery, the role of slavery in the motivation of soldiers had been the subject of widespread debate. J. Tracy Power in Lee's Miserables and Stephen Berry in All That Makes a Man argued that Confederate soldiers did not think much about slavery. Others such as Chandra Manning in What This Cruel War Was Over, Jason Phillips in Diehard Rebels, Joseph Glatthaar in The New Civil War History and General Lee's Army, Aaron Sheehan-Deen in Why Confederates Fought, Kenneth Noe in Reluctant Rebels, and James McPherson in For Cause and Comrades argued that slavery was central in the mindset of many Confederate soldiers. The issue in the mind and motivation of Union soldiers has also been debated. Manning's What This Cruel War Was Over is an example discussing the importance of slavery for Union soldiers.Woodward 2014, p4-7 ==Disaffection== Slave uprisings were a constant fear of slaveholders before and during the war. A slave insurrection was planned in Adams County, Mississippi, which was uncovered in the summer of 1861 leading to widespread punishment of enslaved people in the area.Woodward 2014, p17-18 In June 1861, an aborted insurrection occurred in St. Martin's Parish, Louisiana, which resulted in the arrest of forty enslaved black people and the arrest of two white men who led the uprising, one of who was arrested and the other who escaped. In August 1861, a possible uprising in Jefferson County, Alabama involving possibly 400 enslaved people was put down. Slaveholders in mountainous country particular feared uprising as the terrain made it harder for them to monitor the people they enslaved.Woodward 2014, p17-18 Physical punishment had a prominent place in slave society and this extended to enslaved people in the Confederate Army, who were frequently whipped or punished in other ways. Enslaved people were occasionally rewarded for good behavior, but there was a belief that punishment was a more effective means of maintaining control. Punishments sometimes extended to include maiming, murder, rape, and the selling of loved ones, the last of these being often considered one of the most severe punishments.Woodward 2014, p92-94 ===Resistance=== The resistance of enslaved people was widespread during and before the Civil War. One important outcome of that resistance was the effect it had on Southern troop morale as it undermined the belief that black people were more loyal to the Confederacy than the Union.Woodward 2014, p105 Generally, African Americans cheered for Union victory and the Confederacy made a great effort to keep enslaved people under their control.Woodward 2014, p91 After the war, Confederate veterans downplayed this resistance and professed to believe most of the people who they had enslaved were loyal at heart.Woodward 2014, p105 In reality, resistance among enslaved people was common and widespread. On farms and plantations, enslaved workers broke equipment, feigned illness, slowed or stopped work, stole, plotted revolts, and fled.Woodward 2014, p107 White's and blacks mobilized to help people escaping enslavement, following what was known as the Underground Railroad, and cementing the fame of individuals such as Harriet Tubman.Clinton 2004 Slave-owners were greatly disconcerted by the desire of the enslaved people they held captive to flee to Union armies, many genuinely believed enslaved people were tied by deep feelings and blamed abolitionist propaganda and the ignorance of enslaved people of the costs of freedom for their desire for freedom.Boles 2015, p185 Slaves also recognized that freedom by the sword may not be permanent and preferred to bide their time until an opportunity for freedom was assured, while others feared the uncertainty of a change in their current situation. However, most slaves chose freedom when the opportunity allowed. Where possible, many slave owners fled advancing Union armies and brought their slaves with them. In situations such as along the Atlantic coast and Mississippi river where Union advance was very fast and, such arrangements were not made, fleeing slave owners left their slaves behind, and many slaves escaped to the Union. Fleeing slave-owners from Louisiana and Mississippi often moved to Texas and the roads to Texas were said to be crowded by planters fleeing with their slaves.Boles 2015, p184 Estimates of the number of runaways during the war vary. Secretary of War William Seward estimated that the Union Army seized about 200,000 slaves, while historians of estimated figures from 500,000 to 1,000,000.Woodward 2014, p107 Slaves often disguised their feelings from their masters, wishing to appear loyal but watching and waiting for a chance to at freedom. Some slaves were willing to risk their lives and families, while others were not. Many and perhaps most slaves were governable during the war, especially in the early years.Woodward 2014, p107-108 Escaping slaves who were caught on their way to freedom were usually very harshly dealt with and frequently executed.Woodward 2014, p120 Confederates emphasized negative aspects of the transition from slavery to freedom in discussions with their slaves and in letters and conversations during the period. Letters from captured Confederate soldiers noted the poor housing conditions and dress of freedmen they saw in Union held cities. Indeed, disease and lack of medical care were major issues in Federal camps set up for the freedmen, and some former slaves were sent to local planters where conditions were better. In Federal hands, there were cases of rape and other brutalities, and there were social and labor issues among the freedpeople. For instance, looking for work, in some cases, female slaves turned to prostitution.Woodward 2014, p119-120 In spite of evidence of the desire of slaves to be free, the "loyal slave" fixed itself in the consciousness of many white southerners during and after the war. This image had some grounding in fact, and examples of a personal bond, sense of duty, or other calculations leading slaves to remain loyal exist. There are also examples of slaves who served as masters serving in the Confederate Army, protecting women and children from assault by federal troops, or assisting aging or wounded masters when escape was possible.Boles 2015, p183 ==Slaves in the Confederate service== The Confederacy's early military successes depended significantly on slavery. Slaves provided agricultural and industrial labor, constructed fortifications, repaired railroads, and freed up white men to serve as soldiers.Smith 2013, p9-10 Tens of thousands of slaves were used to build and repair fortifications and railroads, as haule, teamsters, ditch diggers, and assisting medical workers.Woodward 2014, p56 In their role, slaves in the army were heavily relied on and in some cases overworked to the point of illness or death.Woodward 2014, p58, 66-67 Another role slaves played during the war was camp servants. This role was more common in large, encamped armies than among home guards or guerilla units. Camp servants served their master and not the government and served officers and enlisted soldiers. Most Confederates could not, of course, afford this luxury, but they were not rare.Woodward 2014, p81-82 In cases where camp servants were not enslaved, servants could receive a significant salary. It was also not uncommon for slaves to be paid or to keep a portion of the earnings derived from their labor. In one case, a soldier reported a slave receiving $4 for a week's washing and cooking, and in another servant, labor was reported to receive payments in excess of a private's pre-1864 monthly pay of $11.Woodward 2014, p83-84 Confederates frequently wrote about the care slaves had for their dying or deceased masters. This care represented the benign relationship between slaves and masters in the minds of Confederates. Historians have questioned whether the care taken represented affection or was due to anxiety about the fate of the slaves themselves after the death of their masters.Woodward 2014, p90-91 On the other hand, physical punishment had a prominent place in slave society and this extended to slaves in the Confederate Army, who were frequently whipped or punished in other ways. Slaves were occasionally rewarded for good behavior, but there was a belief that punishment was a more effective means of maintaining control. Punishments sometimes extended to include maiming, murder, rape, and the selling of loved ones, the last of these being often considered the most severe punishment.Woodward 2014, p92-94 The role of slavery on the size of the Confederate Army was complicated. While the use of slave labor in camps freed white soldiers to fight, the population was said to be more willing to send their white men to the army than risk the life and labor of their slaves.Woodward 2014, p56 In October 1862, the Confederacy passed a draft bill known as the "Twenty Slave Law" that allowed one white male to stay behind on plantations with twenty or more slaves, which was meant to protect property on large plantations but also alienated many non-slaveholders in the south.Woodward 2014, p47-48 ===Impressment=== Even before hostilities began, slaves were used in the construction of batteries at places like Charleston, South Carolina and Mobile, Alabama. The first state to pass legislation that allowed for the impressment of slaves was Florida in 1862. However, few slaves were impressed under the law until the Confederate government passed its own legislation on the matter. Alabama and Virginia would also pass their own impressment laws before the Confederacy did. The Confederate Congress passed a slave impressment law on March 26, 1863. This law raised questions about whether or not the Confederacy could seize free blacks, who numbered about 260,000 in the South in 1860. The Virginia legislature dealt with this issue by subjecting free blacks to the Confederate draft to serve in non-combat roles and limiting the number of slaves the government could impress. In this way, commanders in Virginia had the power to force-free and enslaved blacks into service. However, a limited number of free blacks were actually impressed. In part, this is because the proportion of free blacks who were males of military age was relatively small and many of those were already working in military-related tasks.Woodward 2014, p64-65 For much of the war, Confederate soldiers were relatively comfortable and well supplied. However, by the spring of 1864, the situation tightened. On March 4, 1864, Confederate General Order No 28 said that officers and enlisted men would receive one ration per day, giving no consideration for body servants. A number of commanders protested and a letter was sent to the government on March 19 signed by officers including Generals Richard Ewell, Jubal Early, Stephen Ramseur, and John Gordon requesting an increase in rations to account for servants.Woodward 2014, p86-87 Slave labor was not free of the perils of war, and Confederates occasionally wrote about slave laborers facing enemy shelling.Woodward 2014, p66 While slave-owners expected compensation when slaves died in the service of the Confederate Army, most Confederates did not own slaves and preferred a dead black worker than a dead white one. Thus, the hazardous conditions of slave labor may have been in part premeditatedWoodward 2014, p58, 66-67 In some cases, a plantation's slaves were asked to volunteer to join the army, and some were excited about the change in tasks.Woodward 2014, p58 However, the Confederacy had more need for laborers than was filled by slaves. In part, this was exacerbated by the refusal of white Confederate soldiers to join in the necessary labor in many cases.Woodward 2014, p59 The Confederate government set up impressment bureaus to ensure slaveholders furnished enough slaves. In Texas in June 1863, district commander John Magruder was put in charge of one such bureau, and Magruder was known for his ability to usually succeed in appeals to slaveholder patriotism to acquire slaves rather than impressment.Woodward 2014, p70-71 In the West, General Nathan Bedford Forrest led numerous cavalry raids where he captured many slaves who had fled behind Union lines, often sending excess to other commands.Woodward 2014, p77 Confederate forces also made raids on Union- controlled plantations in the south, particularly along the Mississippi River.Woodward 2014, p120 When Confederate forces marched North, such as during the Gettysburg campaign under Robert E. Lee, Confederates in Pennsylvania rounded up as many blacks as possible, whether they were free before the war or not. These individuals became part of the spoils of war.Woodward 2014, p121 Northerners asked camp servants in the Confederate Army marching in the north why they did not flee to freedom. It would have been difficult for them to escape during the campaign, however. Fleeing to the north may not have seemed like an appealing option as, in some cases, northerners expressed their racism and dislike for blacks in the presence of Confederate soldiers and servants.Woodward 2014, p121 Even before the government authorized the impressment of slaves, officers forced thousands of slaves to work, and the scale of slave projects during the war was greater than those present on plantations, where only one master's slaves worked. Slaves built fortifications at Richmond, Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Island No. 10, Vicksburg, Port Hudson, Wilmington, and Mobile. In September 1862, Confederate General P. G. T. Beauregard was in charge of coastal defenses in South Carolina and Georgia and had 1,400 slaves working on the fortifications at Savannah. In May 1862, 7,500 slaves were said to be working at Mobile. In the spring of 1863, between 4,000 and 6,000 slaves were said to be working on the railways running into Richmond.Woodward 2014, p58 In November 1862, Robert E. Lee was in charge of defenses of the North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia coasts and had 3,330 slaves working in the fortifications at Wilmington.Woodward 2014, p63 Slave labor on fortifications ultimately undermined slavery, as it served as justification for the Confiscation acts and ultimately the 13th Amendment discussed below.Martinez 2013, p17 Near the war's end, slaves were in high demand to fortify the last bastions of the Confederacy. In the defense of Atlanta, General Joseph E. Johnston called for 12,000 slaves to join his army as teamsters and cooks, but such a large number was never furnished for any general, although slaves were an important part of the campaign, building fallback lines for the stubbornly retreating Confederate army to man. At Richmond, Lee received 2,000 or his requested 5,000 to relieve white teamsters for duty in the lines.Woodward 2014, p75-76 Near the end of the war, the Confederacy made efforts to enlist black soldiers. In November 1864, Confederate president Jefferson Davis called on the Confederate Congress to purchase 40,000 slaves who would then be emancipated in return for military service. Such calls were very contentious in the south, with General Patrick Cleburne being a leading proponent of arming slaves. Among the opposition to the idea, General Howell Cobb argued in January 1865, "If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong." As the Confederacy collapsed in early 1864 and 1865, arming slaves became, in the words of General Robert E. Lee, "not only expedient but necessary." In March 1865, Davis authorized the enlistment of blacks to the Confederate army and companies began to form by March 25. However, Confederate forces in Virginia surrendered on April 3 and the war was over on April 9, 1865, before black soldiers had a chance to fight on the Confederate side.Boles 2015, p197-198 ==Contraband== At the outset of the war, Abraham Lincoln hoped to keep the Union intact with or without slavery.Smith 2013, p9 Early in the war, there was belief that the conflict would be chivalric in character and northern Generals hesitated to aid escaping slaves. but by 1862, the bitterness of the conflict became clear and Federals began to seize slaves in earnest.Woodward 2014, p110 As early as May 1861, Union General Benjamin F. Butler, in command at Fort Monroe, Virginia, unilaterally refused to return escaped slaves who reached Federal lines to their slave-owners. Instead, Butler employed them in the quartermaster department, reasoning that returning the slaves would aid the enemy, and the Grand Contraband Camp, Virginia was formed. Lincoln allowed Butler's policy to stand, and on August 6, 1861, Congress passed the First Confiscation Act which allowed the government to seize all property used by the Confederacy, including slaves. However, Union commanders were officially instructed to exclude runaway slaves until July 1862, when Lincoln admitted the importance of allowing slaves to escape to Union lines was a military necessity.Smith 2013, p10-11 The escaped slaves came to be known as "contrabands" and over two hundred thousand such individuals came to work for the Union Army. Initially, contrabands worked as teamsters, blacksmiths, cooks, coopers, carpenters, bakers, butchers, laundresses, personal servants, and performed other menial duties. Over the course of the war, many contrabands took on more formal employment in support of the Union Army, particularly as cattle drivers, stevedores, and pioneer laborers.Smith 2013, p11 Lincoln feared the 1861 Confiscation Act would drive Border States into the Confederacy and was opposed by efforts of Union General John C. Fremont and of Secretary of War Simon Cameron to push forward emancipation and enlistment of black soldiers respectively.Smith 2013, p11-12 On the other hand, some Union Army Generals kept a practice of returning escaped slaves to their masters, particularly democrats such as Generals Henry Halleck, George B. McClellan, and Don Carlos Buell. Halleck's General Order No. 3 barred fugitive slaves from his lines.Woodward 2014, p108-109 However, slaves strongly desired to be free and to contribute to their own emancipation.Smith 2013, p10 Blacks were fundamental in engendering anti- slavery and emancipation sentiment in the north. Union soldiers saw the scars on the bodies of slaves they encountered marching in the south and saw the relative squalor in which they lived. They heard the stories of slaves and saw their willingness to fight for their own freedom and join the Union Army.Manning 2007, p77 This willingness to fight was irresistible to Union Generals in need of manpower. Since 1792, Federal law prohibited black men from serving in the state militias and the U.S. Army, but that changed during the war.Smith 2013, p9 In May 1862, General James H. Lane in Kansas and John W. Phelps in Louisiana began to enlist black men into regiments without War Department authorization. Lane's efforts resulted in the First Kansas Colored Volunteers while Phelps was opposed by his superior, General Butler, who, desperate for reinforcements, relented in August 1862 resulting in the Louisiana Native Guards, which was made up largely of freemen.Smith 2013, p13-14 Also in May 1862, General David Hunter proclaimed martial law and ordered slaves freed in the area around his command at Fort Pulaski on the Georgia coast, a command which included sections of coastal South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. On May 19, Lincoln annulled Hunter's emancipation decree but remained silent on aspects of Hunter's proclamation involving the enlistment of slaves.Smith 2013, p13-14 Among the few black officers in these early regiments were freemen William D. Matthews and Caesar Antoine. In September 1862, Stanton authorized General Rufus Saxton, who had taken Hunter's position in command of parts of coastal South Carolina, to arm blacks to help guard coastal plantations, leading to the First South Carolina Colored Volunteers in 1862 and the establishment of colonies at places like Edisto Island and Port Royal.Smith 2013, p15-16 Hunter's recruitment of blacks was debated in Congress, with Charles A. Wickliffe and Robert Mallory of Kentucky opposing the efforts and Thaddeus Stevens leading the support. Lincoln's quiet official policies in favor of emancipation and enlistment of slaves and loud repudiation of Hunter and Fremont led to criticism by many abolitionists-such as William Lloyd Garrison.Smith 2013, p16 ==Emancipation== Executive and legislative efforts to end slavery started early in the war. In November 1861, Lincoln proposed a plan of compensated emancipation for slaves in the state of Delaware, a proposal that was rejected by the Delaware legislature. Lincoln proposed compensated emancipation programs again in early 1862 estimating that such a policy for Border States would be less expensive than continued war. The appeal was again rejected in March 1862. A third attempt was made on July 12, 1862, when representatives of Border States rejected a compensated emancipation plan proposed by Lincoln.Smith 2013, p17-19 In March 1862, Congress enacted an Article of War circumventing much of the Fugitive Slave Laws of 1793 and 1850, and in April Congress abolished slavery in Washington D. C. compensating slaveholders and offering money to assist in immigration of slaves to Haiti or Liberia. In June, Congress emancipated slaves in Federal territories without compensation, overturning the Dred Scott v. Sandford decision of 1857.Smith 2013, p18 After the repeated rejection of compensated emancipation plans, Lincoln began to contemplate a presidential emancipation decree in mid-1862. On July 17, 1862, Congress passed the Militia Act which emancipated Confederate bondsmen employed by the Union army and authorized the president to receive into service blacks for "any military or naval service for which they may be found competent", authorizing the enlistment of blacks although intended to only apply to slaves of disloyal slave-owners and not to free blacks or slaves of loyal border state slave-owners. That same day, Congress passed the Second Confiscation Act, which authorized the emancipation of slaves of people engaged in rebellion.Smith 2013, p19-20 Lincoln was slow to enact the provisions of the Second Confiscation Act, which was criticized by abolitionists, particularly Frederick Douglass.Smith 2013, p20 On July 21, 1862, four days after signing the Militia and Second Confiscation Acts, Lincoln met with his cabinet to inform them that he intended to implement the military and emancipation provisions of the acts, but not the colonization, and the next day he shared with the cabinet the preliminary emancipation proclamation. His proposal would extend to slaves beyond those under Federal Control and would be made as a war measure, which could circumvent the courts and legislature. In order to avoid alienating the Border States, particularly Kentucky, Lincoln chose not to unveil his new position until the New Year.Smith 2013, p22-23 In part, this decision to delay stemmed from a desire to wait to make the proclamation until the Union Army had made some advances to ensure that the proclamation did not to appear to be made out of desperation. McClellan's victory at the Battle of Antietam in late summer 1862 gave Lincoln political capital, which was important in allowing Lincoln to issue his emancipation proclamation.Boles 2015, p190-191 Abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass greatly approved Lincoln's new position, writing, "The white man is liberated, the black man is liberated, the brave men now fighting in the battles of their country against rebels and traitors are now liberated..."Smith 2013, p25 The proclamation did receive some criticism, particularly from the South. It also only freed slaves in Confederate- controlled areas, exempting about 800,000 of the country's 2.9 million slaves. In addition, it depended on Union gains in the war for its enforcement.Smith 2013, p26 Among opponents were General William T. Sherman, who frequently complained about emancipation and enlistment but who complied with the edicts.Smith 2013, p31 Throughout the war, slaves were emancipating themselves. The two major events which allowed slaves to choose freedom were the increased possibility of escaping as white men who otherwise controlled slaves leaving the plantations for the Confederate Army and the advance of Union troops into close proximity. To prevent the former, attempts were made to better organize slave patrol and use the militia for such control, but these were less effective because the slave owners especially experienced in keeping their own slaves in bondage were often away in the Army.Boles 2015, p186 The advance of the Union Army had a large effect on slavery in the areas they came to control. The first region the Union Army captured was the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. Confederates reported that after their masters fled, the slaves in those areas pillaged their masters' property. The Union also made gains in western Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Mississippi.Woodward 2014, p110 Occupying Union forces made a number of efforts to provide for freed slaves. In Tennessee, General Ulysses S. Grant appointed John Eaton, Jr. to be in charge of fugitives, and a camp was established at Grand Junction, Tennessee, later moved to Memphis, which organized these efforts. The camp provided shelter, food, and a small amount of medical attention. It also centralized the hiring of freedmen to whites who leased abandoned plantations; transforming agriculture in Union- held areas from a slave to a wage-based labor system. This same system had already been implemented in 1862 along the South Carolina coast in the Port Royal Experiment. Efforts were not universally successful, as tension developed between goals of efficiency and of black autonomy. In several locations, including Jefferson Davis' properties at Davis Bend, Mississippi, freed blacks were allotted land and given direct control. In spite of these examples, most freed slaves shifted to wage laborers, which were more similar to sharecropping than real freedom. This failure of provision of a solid economic footing for freed slaves has been considered a cause of the failure of Reconstruction.Boles 2015, p191-192 ===Colored Troops=== After the Emancipation Proclamation, black soldiers became commonplace and eventually numbered 178,895 with 133,000 coming from slave states and mostly consisting of former slaves. Northerners were initially uncomfortable arming blacks and black troops were usually placed under white officers. They were also given inferior equipment and medical care and assigned disproportionate amounts of heavy labor. However, the success of these regiments led to a change in perspective. The Confederate government and army were infuriated with the northern use of black soldiers, seeing such troops as slave insurrectionary and subjecting captured black soldiers to re-enslavement or death for treason.Boles 2015, p193-194 In December 1862, Jefferson Davis issued what has been called the "Anti-Emancipation Proclamation" which declared that the Confederate Army would return to slavery any black man found in Federal Uniform and turn over to the states any slaves found aiding Northern units and would do the same with white officers of black regiments.Woodward 2014, p134 This led to Lincoln threatening to kill a captured rebel soldier for every black Union soldier killed in captivity, and that every captured black soldier committed to slavery would be responded to by giving a Confederate captive hard labor. No official retaliation of this sort occurred.Boles 2015, p193-194 Black troops were not considered equal, either by Federals or Confederates. Black soldiers were often exposed to more difficult conditions and had worse medical care. The mortality rate for black soldiers was about 40% higher than that for white troops, and over 38,000 black soldiers died from all causes.Boles 2015, p195 On the battlefield, Black soldiers performed well, earning the respect of Union and Confederate Troops alike. However, Confederate victories against black soldiers led to atrocities where surrendering black Union soldiers were executed by Confederates. Two of the most notable such occurrences were in 1864 in the Battle of Fort Pillow in Tennessee and the Battle of the Crater in Virginia. Evidence is mixed over whether or not there was an official no-quarter policy, but at these victories, black soldiers were killed at a greatly disproportionate ratio.Woodward 2014, p148-150 ==Aftermath== At the beginning of 1865, millions of black people remained as slaves, but the institution was crumbling. As the Confederate Army weakened, the Confederacy's ability to assert racial control lessened and large numbers of slaves were escaping to federal lines every day. Even as the large Armies surrendered, some Confederates held on to hope for victory and for the reassertion of slavery throughout the South.Woodward 2014, p181-183 At the war's end, some Southern whites fled to South America where they could escape Federal law, and in some cases, continue slaveholding, although such cases were the exception.Woodward 2014, p185 Slaves saw emancipation as more than an end to slavery, but also education, voting rights, and rights before the law.Manning 2007, p158 The 13th Amendment passed in January 1865 ending slavery in the Union and ensuring that under US control, slaves in the south would be freed.Woodward 2014, p180 After the war ended, a narrative of faithful slaves arose in the south, with stories of slaves marching with their masters or celebrating the return of soldiers to the plantations. Blacks living in the south were no longer slaves, but most remained and worked for their former masters. Even so, racial tensions grew greatly during the Reconstruction era.Woodward 2014, p187 White supremacy grew as well, represented by the growth of the militancy of the Ku Klux Klan and the growth of belief in the Lost Cause of the Confederacy movement.Woodward 2014, p192 The KKK was a radical supremacist group that persecuted African Americans and African American supporters. ==References== ==Sources== *Boles, John B. Black Southerners, 1619-1869. University Press of Kentucky, 2015. – via Project MUSE *Clinton, Catherine (2004). Preslee: The Road to Freedom. New York: Little, Brown and Company. *Fountain, Daniel L. Slavery, Civil War, and Salvation: African American Slaves and Christianity, 1830-1870. LSU Press, 2010. – via Project MUSE *Manning, Chandra. What This Cruel War Was Over. Vintage, 2007. *Martinez, Jaime Amanda. Confederate Slave Impressment in the Upper South. UNC Press Books, 2013. – via Project MUSE *Martinez, Jaime Amanda. "The Slave Market in Civil War Virginia." in Ayers, Edward L., Gary W. Gallagher, and Andrew J. Torget, eds. Crucible of the Civil War: Virginia from Secession to Commemoration. University of Virginia Press, 2006. 106–135. *McWhirter, Christian (2012). Battle Hymns. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. – via Project MUSE *Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. *Smith, John David. Lincoln and the US Colored Troops. SIU Press, 2013. – via Project MUSE *Woodward, Colin Edward. Marching Masters: Slavery, Race, and the Confederate Army during the Civil War. University of Virginia Press, 2014. – via Project MUSE ==Further reading== *Berry, Stephen William. All that Makes a Man: Love and Ambition in the Civil War South. Oxford University Press, 2004. *Glatthaar, Joseph T. "The 'New' Civil War History: An Overview." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 115, no. 3 (1991): 339–369. *Glatthaar, Joseph. General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse. Simon & Schuster, 2009. *McPherson, James M. For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. Oxford University Press, 1997. *Noe, Kenneth W. Reluctant Rebels: The Confederates Who Joined the Army after 1861. University of North Carolina Press, 2010. *Phillips, Jason. Diehard Rebels: The Confederate Culture of Invincibility. University of Georgia Press, 2007. *Power, J. Tracy. Lee's Miserables: Life in the Army of Northern Virginia from the Wilderness to Appomattox. University of North Carolina Press, 2002. *Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. Why Confederates Fought: Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia. University of North Carolina Press, 2009. Category:African Americans in the American Civil War Category:African-American history of the United States military Category:History of racial segregation in the United States Category:Military history of the American Civil War Category:Slavery in the United States |
thumb|right|250px|A Zytek 04S, a later evolution of the Reynard 02S The Reynard 02S was a Le Mans Prototype race car built by Reynard Motorsport in 2002. Intended to replace the failed Reynard 2KQ prototype, the 02S would end up becoming the final new design from Reynard as the company went bankrupt prior to the project's completion. International Racing Management bought the rights to the 02S project and would complete the car under the name DBA4 03S. In 2004, Zytek would be tasked with building more chassis, which would be sold under the name Zytek 04S before being upgraded to the Zytek 06S. A further alternative was created by Creation Autosportif in 2006, named the Creation CA06/H. Some of the chassis continue to be used, although they have been extensively modified from the original Reynard designs. ==Development== In 2000 Reynard had introduced the 2KQ prototype to customers with mixed success. The car was plagued with aerodynamic problems that led to many customers quickly moving on to better chassis. Even after an attempt to modify the 2KQ with an upgrade package in 2001 called the 01Q, Reynard decided that an all new car was necessary. At the same time, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO), organizers of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, had reorganized the Le Mans Prototype classifications with the creation of the LMP900 and LMP675 classes. Due to similarities in the design characteristics of LMP900 and LMP675 chassis, Reynard set about designing a chassis that could run in either class, dependent upon ballast and the type of engine installed. However the car was originally built around the use of a Zytek ZG348 V8, built to the LMP675 maximum size of 3400 cc. A new sequential gearbox built by Ricardo would integrate a paddle-shift system on the steering wheel that was designed specifically for the 02S. The bodywork of the 02S, designed by Will Phillips, would be very low in design with a tall rear wing set to the maximum allowable height. ===IRM and RN Motorsport=== When Reynard went bankrupt, International Racing Management (IRM) bought the rights to the 02S designs as well as the unfinished chassis. The project was initially offered to the Japanese team YGK with the belief that the car would be renamed as YGK 02S, but they passed on further developing the car. RN Motorsport would eventually become part of the project, and following its debut under the Reynard guise at the 2002 Petit Le Mans, the car would be renamed a DBA4 03S (later shortened to simply DBA 03S). Carsten Rae, co-owner of RN Motorsport, chose the DBA name in honor of the newspaper he owned, Den Blå Avis. Very little was changed by IRM between the initial Reynard development work and the finished product that appeared in late 2002. ===Zytek Engineering=== thumb|right|175px|Zytek's 06S in competition in North America Following the 2003 season, the success of the lone RN Motorsport DBA4 03S had brought customers to IRM, hoping for more chassis. In order to help engineer new cars, IRM formed a partnership with Zytek Engineering, in which Zytek would build the cars while IRM retained the intellectual rights. Since the new chassis were built entirely by Zytek, the new cars became known as the Zytek 04S. The chassis would be slightly modified as the elimination of the LMP900 and LMP675 classes in 2004 meant that the cars would move to the new LMP1 class, requiring some adaptation. The general layout of the 04S remained the same throughout 2004 and 2005 before modifications were required. New Le Mans Prototype regulations required older LMP900 and LMP675-based cars to be modified with new bodywork due to the monocoque not fully complying with the new regulations. Zytek adapted their 04S as well as adding a larger 4000 cc 2ZG408 V8 engine for more power, earning the car the name 06S. Zytek also modified an existing 04S with a similar 4000 cc ZB408 V8 for Hitotsuyama Racing in Japan, naming it the Zytek 05S. After 2006 the hybrid Zytek was no longer legal, requiring Zytek to build a new chassis, termed the Zytek 07S. Although many stylistic elements of the 04S were retained, these cars share nothing mechanically with the original Reynard 02S and are considered entirely new cars. ===Creation Autosportif=== Following the 2003 season, RN Motorsport was dissolved and their lone DBA4 03S was bought by Creation Autosportif. Like Zytek, they initially maintained the basic layout of the initial design, but in 2005 Creation would modify their chassis in order to better adapt to the new LMP1 regulations. Replacing the Zytek V8, Creation heavily revised the engine bay of the DBA 03S to hold a larger 5000cc Judd GV5 V10. Also like Zytek, Creation would be forced to heavily modify their car in 2006 in order to meet the hybrid regulations. With the aid of KW Motorsport, Creation would create their own unique car which differed greatly from Zytek's own 06S. Since Creation had carried out the modifications, they chose to rename the car once again, making it the Creation CA06/H. With the CA06/H no longer legal in 2007, Creation also created an entirely new chassis that retained elements of the CA06/H's bodywork. This entirely new car would be termed the Creation CA07. ==Racing history== ===RN Motorsport=== Following the completion of the initial Reynard 02S chassis, RN Motorsport chose the 2002 Petit Le Mans as their first competitive outing, in an attempt to prove the capabilities of the chassis. The car managed to qualify tenth overall and third in the LMP675 in the 48 car field, behind a pair of MG-Lola EX257s. RN Motorsport drivers John Nielsen and Casper Elgaard managed to last six hours before cooling problems put the car out of the race. To begin 2003, the team remained in America for the 12 Hours of Sebring, qualifying fifth overall and on the LMP675 pole, but breaking a gearbox after only 73 laps in the race. Returning to Europe, RN Motorsport would concentrate on the FIA Sportscar Championship, where the renamed DBA4 03S would compete in the premiere SR1 class. With John Nielsen being joined by Hayanari Shimoda and Andy Wallace, the car managed a victory at Oschersleben and second at Estoril. However budgetary concerns forced the team to miss several rounds, leaving them to finish the season third in the championship. RN Motorsport also brought the DBA4 03S to the 24 Hours of Le Mans, where they took the LMP675 class pole. RN Motorsports would be amongst only three LMP675s that would finish the race, with the team taking second in class, although they were 31 laps behind the winning LMP675 class car and ranked a distant 23rd overall. ===Creation Autosportif=== Following the end of RN Motorsport, the lone DBA4 03S chassis would be purchased by Creation Autosportif as the team moved to the new Le Mans Series in 2004. The team employed Jamie Campbell-Walter and Nicolas Minassian, who managed to score third-place finishes that initial season, earning the team fourth in the LMP1 championship behind a trio of Audi R8s. The team also chose to fly to the United States for the final rounds of the American Le Mans Series, qualifying in second at Petit Le Mans before an engine failure put them out of the race. The team then improved by taking pole at Laguna Seca before once again succumbing to mechanical failures. For 2005, Creation continued in the Le Mans Series with their modified chassis housing a new Judd V10. Minassian and Campbell-Walter would take a best finish of second at Silverstone en route to a fifth-place finish in the teams championship. The team also made their debut at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, taking a 14th-place finish. For 2006, Creation concentrated on adapting their DBA 03S to meet new regulations, causing struggle in the early LMS rounds. However, by the third round, the team would once again take a second-place finish. The fourth round of the season at Donington would see the debut of a second CA06/H chassis, with Creation having one of their strongest performances ever. Both cars would finish on the podium. A fourth at the final round for one CA06/H would allow Creation Autosportif to take second in the LMS championship. For the team's second attempt at Le Mans, they would be unable to repeat their success of the previous year due to problems late in the race. Creation would also once again visit the final American Le Mans Series rounds. After taking pole position at Petit Le Mans the car would finish fourth, followed by a third-place finish at Laguna Seca. For 2007, Creation would move onto their all new chassis for the Le Mans Series, the Creation CA07, while their Reynard 02-based CA06/Hs would be sold. ===Zytek Engineering=== With the completion of the first Zytek-built chassis sold to Team Jota, the factory team would also attempt the new Le Mans Series with their second chassis, although they would not run a full season. In the only two races that Zytek entered, they finished sixth and fourth, earning the team eighth in the championship. Zytek would also attempt Le Mans, but would be unable to finish the race. Zytek's program would be greatly expanded for 2005, as the team chose to run the entire Le Mans Series season. This would pay off for the team as Hayanari Shimoda, Casper Elgaard, and John Nielsen would win the opening round at Spa. Shimoda and newcomer Tom Chilton would repeat this success with another win at the Nürburgring. However even with two wins, Zytek would end up finishing second in the LMP1 championship, a mere two points behind Pescarolo Sport. Zytek also chose to expand to the American Le Mans Series, running at 2005 American Le Mans at Mid-Ohio early in the year and winning pole position before finishing fourth. The team would return at the end of the season, taking pole at Petit Le Mans before being involved on an accident on the first lap. Zytek would have retribution at Laguna Seca by taking pole position and going on to win the race. With the team's new 06S chassis, the team once again ran the full LMS season, although they would not be able to repeat their previous success. Due to delays in finishing the 06S chassis, the team would miss the opening round, but would follow with a third and seventh-place finishes. Problems at the fourth round would force the team to choose to skip the final round of the season, leaving them fifth in the championship. The team returned to Le Mans that season, and although they were able to finish, they were too many laps behind the winner to be counted in the results. Zytek would also return to the American Le Mans Series final rounds, which saw the team take second at Petit Le Mans followed by a seventh at Laguna Seca. For 2007, team would construct their all new Zytek 07S for continued participation in the Le Mans Series. ===Team Jota=== Sam Hignett's Team Jota came out of the collapsed FIA Sportscar Championship looking for a new chassis for use in the Le Mans Series in 2004. Having raced against RN Motorsport's DBA4 03S, Hignett chose to purchase the new customer Zytek 04S. Also choosing to run the Le Mans Series, Jota would have mixed results. A best of a mere fifth was all the team was able to achieve over the full season, although this did earn them a tie for sixth in the championship. The team would return in 2005 with more success. The team would take second place at Monza before finishing out the season with points finishes in all remaining races, once again earning them sixth in the championship. The team would also make their debut at the 24 Hours of Le Mans with an alliance with Zytek Engineering. The car ran in 12th place towards the finish, but mechanical problems prevented the car from crossing the finishing line and thus leaving the car unclassified. Following the 2005 season, Team Jota would drop out of the Le Mans Series and sell their 04S to Creation Autosportif for conversion to a second CA06/H. ===Hitotsuyama Racing=== When Zytek began construction of their new hybrid 06S following the 2005 season, their former 04S chassis was offered for sale. Japanese squad Hitotsuyama Racing took the opportunity to purchase the chassis for use in the newly launched Japan Le Mans Challenge. The chassis would be upgraded with a 4000 cc Zytek ZB408 V8, leading to the car being renamed a Zytek 05S. Hitotsuyama would struggle in the JLMC during the 2006 season, failing to finish the first two rounds. However at the third and final round, Hitotsuyama would manage to finish in fourth place overall, although 23 laps behind the winning Courage-Mugen. Hitotsuyama Racing continues to run their 05S in the JLMC in 2007. ===Intersport Racing=== When Creation Autosportif built their new CA07 chassis, their two modified CA06/H chassis were offered up for sale. American team Intersport Racing was hoping to move from the LMP2 class to the LMP1 class in the American Le Mans Series. Due to ALMS regulations which allowed older hybrid chassis to continue to compete, Intersport purchased one of the two CA06/Hs. However the team would struggle with their selection of Kumho tires, mostly because Kumho had not previously created LMP1-spec tires before. Intersport would eventually abandon the Kumho tires for Dunlop, but with no better performance the team would abandon their use of the CA06/H chassis. ===Autocon Motorsports=== Like Intersport, Autocon also took the opportunity to purchase a CA06/H for use in the American Le Mans Series. Unlike Intersport, Autocon actually started the season with their MG-Lola EX257 before deciding to switch to the Creation mid-season. Autocon switched to a Lola B06/10 as it returned to the series after a short hiatus in 2009. ==Chassis== In total, only three cars using the original Reynard design were completed. The fourth chassis shared many elements from the Reynard design, but was also altered to meet hybrid regulations. The newer Zytek 07S and Creation CA07 no longer share anything mechanical with Reynard chassis and are considered different designs. Each chassis, the name it raced under, and the teams that ran it are listed below: Chassis #01 Reynard 02S * RN Motorsport (2002) DBA4 03S/DBA 03S * RN Motorsport (2003) * Creation Autosportif (2004–2005) Creation CA06/H * Creation Autosportif (2006) * Autocon Motorsports (2007) Chassis #02 Zytek 04S * Team Jota (2004–2005) Creation CA06/H * Creation Autosportif (2006) * Intersport Racing (2007) Chassis #03 Zytek 04S * Zytek Engineering (2004–2005) Zytek 05S * Hitotsuyama Racing (2006–2007) Chassis #04 Zytek 06S * Zytek Engineering (2006) ==External links== * Mulsanne's Corner - 2002-2005 Zytek 04S (Reynard 02S/DBA4 03S) * Ultimatecarpage.com - Zytek 04S * Zytek Group Ltd - Motorsport history * Creation Autosportif - Creation CA06/H (DBA4-03S) Category:Le Mans Prototypes Category:24 Hours of Le Mans race cars Category:Sports prototypes Category:Zytek Engineering vehicles Category:Reynard Motorsport vehicles |
Ashley Darel Jazz Richards (born 12 April 1991) is a Welsh footballer who plays as a full-back for Cymru Premier club Haverfordwest County. A versatile player who is also capable of playing at left-back and as a midfielder, Richards began his professional career at his hometown club Swansea City, having previously played youth football for their local rivals Cardiff City. He made only 51 appearances for the club in all competitions during a six-year spell with the first team. During his time with the Swans, he spent time on loan with Crystal Palace, Huddersfield Town and Fulham, before joining the latter for an undisclosed fee in 2015. He established himself in Fulham's first team for a brief period. In 2016, he returned to Cardiff City, helping the club win promotion to the Premier League in 2018. He signed for Haverfordwest County on 6 March 2021 on a contract until the end of the season. Richards made his full international debut for Wales in 2012, and represented the nation at UEFA Euro 2016. To date, he has won 14 caps for his country. ==Club career== ===Swansea City=== ====Youth and first–team breakthrough==== Born in Swansea, Richards played local football for his schools and local club West End, before joining the Cardiff City Academy. After two seasons, he was released and joined the academy at their South Wales rivals Swansea City at the age of fifteen. Richards initially started out as a central midfielder but switched to playing as a defender under manager Roberto Martínez due to the increased competition between midfielders in the first team at the time. He has since continued to play at that position as well. Richards earned £60 a week while on a scholarship with the Swans. He then signed his first professional contract with the team. After spending two seasons with the academy and reserve sides, Richards made his professional debut for Swansea in a Championship match against Middlesbrough during a 3–0 loss on 15 August 2009, replacing Shaun MacDonald as a substitute in the 63rd minute. After Richards made 15 appearances during the 2009–10 season, he signed a new two-year deal with Swansea. The start of the 2010–11 season saw Richards spend the opening six months as an unused substitute or in the reserve side. He did not make his first appearance of the season until 3 January 2011, during a 2–1 defeat against Leicester City following a defensive injury crisis where several first team players were ruled out. Throughout January and February, Richards was given a handful of first team opportunities. However, he lost his first team place for the remainder of the season following the return of Àngel Rangel from injury. He made eight appearances during the 2010–11 season as Swansea went on to become the first Welsh team ever to gain promotion to the Premier League. After appearing on the bench for several matches at the start of the following season, Richards made his Premier League debut when he came on as a substitute for Neil Taylor during a 3–1 loss to Norwich City on 15 October 2011. Twelve days later, he was rewarded with a new 18-month contract. He then made his first start for the club in the Premier League, playing in a 4–2 loss against Blackburn Rovers on 3 December 2011. As the 2011–12 season progressed, Richards was sent to play in the reserves for the rest of the season, in order to regain his fitness. He finished the season with eight appearances. ====Loan to Crystal Palace in 2013==== At the start of the 2012–13 season, Richards struggled to break into the first team over Rangel in the right-back position. Because of this, he stated his desire to leave the club on loan to gain experience and compete for his spot in the first team. However, he was forced to wait until the winter transfer window to secure a move. In the first half of the season, he made just four appearances for Swansea, all in cup competitions. At the end of January, he joined Crystal Palace on loan until the end of the season. He made his debut for the club five days later, on 30 January 2013 in a 1–0 loss against Huddersfield Town. In his next match, against Charlton Athletic, Richards assisted Glenn Murray's winning goal, as Palace defeated their South London rivals 2–1. During his loan spell, he signed a new contract with Swansea until June 2016. He went on to make 11 appearances and appeared as an unused substitute in the 2013 Championship play-off final, as Palace beat Watford 1–0 to achieve promotion to the Premier League. ====Loan to Huddersfield Town==== After returning to Swansea, Richards made his first appearance of the 2013–14 season in the second leg of the Europa League qualifiers, a 0–0 draw against Malmö, helping Swansea advance 4–0 on aggregate. On 10 September 2013, Richards joined Championship side Huddersfield Town on a 93-day emergency loan. After not being able to obtain international clearance from FIFA in time to play against Doncaster Rovers on 14 September, he made his Town debut as a substitute in a 2–1 win over Charlton Athletic on 17 September 2013. His loan spell ended on 17 December after just 9 appearances for the Terriers. Following his return from his loan spell, Richards did not appear in another match until 16 February 2014 when he made played in a 3–1 loss against Everton in the last-sixteen of the FA Cup. He made no further appearances during the remainder of the season. ====Return to Swansea==== In the 2014–15 season, Richards made his first appearance of the season in the first round of the League Cup, in a 1–0 win over Rotherham United on 26 August 2014. He then made his first Premier League appearance in two years when he came on as a substitute in the 82nd minute of a 0–0 draw against Sunderland on 27 September 2014. Following this, Richards was given a handful of first team appearances throughout 2014 despite struggling to compete with Rangel and suffering his own injury concerns. In a 2–1 loss against Tottenham Hotspur on 14 December 2014, Richards made an error that led to Christian Eriksen scoring the winning goal. After the match, he issued an apology to Swansea City supporters for his error. Despite his apology, he became a victim of abuse on social media website Twitter by Swansea City supporters. Manager Garry Monk backed Richards and picked him in the club's following fixture against Hull City. This turned out to be Richards' last season with Swansea. In six years, he made just 51 appearances for the club and never established himself as a regular. Only 18 of his appearances coming in the Premier League. His lone match in the 2013–14 Europa League qualifiers was his only appearance in a European competition for the club. ===Fulham=== On 24 January 2015, Richards joined Championship side Fulham on a one-month loan deal. He made his debut for the club on 31 January 2015, starting in a 2–1 loss against Blackburn Rovers. After making five appearances, Richards had his loan spell with Fulham extended until the end of the season. Richards went on to make 14 appearances for the Cottagers, all of which were starts. On 2 July 2015, Swansea accepted Fulham's bid for Richards to transfer on a permanent deal. He signed a three-year deal with the option of a fourth, for an undisclosed fee. Although his year was marked with injuries, Richards' made 22 appearances in his only season as a permanent player at the club. He established himself as a regular when he was fit. However, ahead of the 2016–17 season, Richards was expected to lose his first team place at Fulham, with manager Slaviša Jokanović preferring Ryan Fredericks in the right-back position. As a result, Fulham accepted a bid from Cardiff City for Richards. ===Cardiff City=== On 19 July 2016, Richards joined Championship club Cardiff City on a three-year-deal in a swap move which saw Scott Malone join Fulham. He made his debut in a goalless draw at Birmingham City, where he became embroiled in controversy after reportedly refusing to do Cardiff's traditional ayatollah gesture, performed by fans of the club, several times at the match. However, the club later released video footage that showed him performing the gesture. After starting the season as a regular in the first team, Richards suffered a training injury in September that led to him missing three months of the season. His lengthy rehabilitation prompted manager Neil Warnock to quip "I've had lads with broken legs recover quicker than him." He eventually made his return on 2 January, as unused substitute against Aston Villa. He enjoyed an extended run in the first team soon after, playing in ten of the club's following twelve matches, stating that he felt that he had "a lot more to show. I think I'm nowhere near my full potential." In his first season with Cardiff, he appeared in a career high 26 league matches. At the start of the following season, Richards again suffered an injury blow early in the season, being forced to undergo surgery after hurting his ankle during 2–1 victory over Sunderland on 23 September 2017. He returned from injury in January 2018, playing in five matches before his season was ended by a further injury. He made only eleven appearances in all competitions during the season as Cardiff achieved promotion after finishing as runners-up. Richards was released by Cardiff when his contract finished at the end of the 2019–20 season.Richards released by Cardiff ===Haverfordwest County=== In March 2021, Richards joined Cymru Premier side Haverfordwest County on a contract until the end of the season. In May 2021, Richards signed a contract extension to keep him at the club until the end of the 2021–22 season. ==International career== Richards represented the Wales under-17 and under-19 sides. He was called up to the under-21 squad for the first time in March 2009 to face Luxembourg. He won ten or more caps at all three levels during his youth career. On 27 May 2012, he gained his first full international cap for Wales in their 2–0 friendly loss to Mexico in New Jersey, replacing Neil Taylor for the last ten minutes of the match. Wales qualified for Euro 2016 and Richards was called up into the final 23-man squad. He played his only game in the tournament as a late substitute in the team's first match, a 2–1 victory over Slovakia. Wales went on to reach the semi-finals before losing to Portugal. As of October 2018, Richards has had 14 international caps with Wales, including seven appearances in the starting lineup. He played in four matches in Euro 2016 qualifying and three in 2018 World Cup qualifying. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Club performance Club performance Club performance League League Cup Cup League Cup League Cup Continental Continental Total Total Club Season League Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals England England England League League FA Cup FA Cup League Cup League Cup Europe Europe Total Total Swansea City 2009–10 Championship 15 0 — — — — — — 15 0 Swansea City 2010–11 Championship 6 0 1 0 1 0 — — 8 0 Swansea City 2011–12 Premier League 8 0 1 0 0 0 — — 9 0 Swansea City 2012–13 Premier League 0 0 1 0 3 0 — — 4 0 Swansea City 2013–14 Premier League 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 Swansea City 2014–15 Premier League 10 0 1 0 2 0 — — 13 0 Swansea City Total Total 39 0 5 0 6 0 1 0 51 0 Crystal Palace (loan) 2012–13 Championship 11 0 — — — — — — 11 0 Huddersfield Town (loan) 2013–14 Championship 9 0 — — 0 0 — — 9 0 Fulham (loan) 2014–15 Championship 14 0 — — — — — — 14 0 Fulham 2015–16 Championship 22 0 1 0 3 0 — — 26 0 Fulham Total Total 36 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 40 0 Cardiff City 2016–17 Championship 26 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 28 0 Cardiff City 2017–18 Championship 6 0 3 0 2 0 0 0 11 0 Cardiff City 2018–19 Premier League 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 Cardiff City 2019–20 Championship 11 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 Cardiff City Total Total 47 0 6 0 4 0 0 0 57 0 Career total Career total Career total 142 0 12 0 13 0 1 0 168 0 ===International=== Wales national team Year Apps Goals 2012 1 0 2013 3 0 2015 4 0 2016 2 0 2017 3 0 2018 1 0 Total 14 0 ==Personal life== Richards' comes from a family with a sporting background as his cousin Eli Walker is a professional athlete. Walker is a rugby union player. ==References== ==External links== *Profile at the Cardiff City F.C. website * Category:1991 births Category:Living people Category:Footballers from Swansea Category:Welsh footballers Category:Wales men's youth international footballers Category:Wales men's under-21 international footballers Category:Wales men's international footballers Category:Men's association football defenders Category:Swansea City A.F.C. players Category:Crystal Palace F.C. players Category:Huddersfield Town A.F.C. players Category:Fulham F.C. players Category:Cardiff City F.C. players Category:Haverfordwest County A.F.C. players Category:Premier League players Category:English Football League players Category:Cymru Premier players Category:UEFA Euro 2016 players Category:West End F.C. players |
Paducah ( ) is a home rule-class city in and the county seat of McCracken County, Kentucky, United States. The largest city in the Jackson Purchase region, it is located at the confluence of the Tennessee and the Ohio rivers, halfway between St. Louis, Missouri, to the northwest and Nashville, Tennessee, to the southeast. As of the 2020 census, the population was 27,137, up from 25,024 during the 2010 U.S. Census. Twenty blocks of the city's downtown have been designated as a historic district and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Paducah is the hub of its micropolitan area, which includes McCracken, Ballard and Livingston counties in Kentucky and Massac County in Illinois. ==History== ===Early history=== thumb|right|Downtown Paducah Paducah was first settled as "Pekin" around 1821 by European Americans James and William Pore.Rennick, Robert. Kentucky Place Names, p. 224. University Press of Kentucky (Lexington), 1987. Accessed August 1, 2013. The town was laid out by explorer and surveyor William Clark in 1827 and renamed Paducah. Although local lore long connected this name to an eponymous Chickasaw chief "Paduke" and his band of "Paducahs", authorities on the Chickasaw have since said that there was never any chief or tribe of that name, or anything like it. The Chickasaw language does not have related words. Instead, historians believe that Clark named the town for the Comanche people of the western plains. They were known by regional settlers as the Padoucas, from a Spanish transliteration of the Kaw word PádokaRankin, Robert. English to Kanza Dictionary. "Comanche" & "Paducah". Accessed September 24, 2013. or the Omaha Pádoⁿka.Omaha & Ponca Digital Dictionary. "Pádoⁿka". September 24, 2013. ===Incorporation, steamboats and railroads=== Paducah was formally established as a town in 1830 and incorporated as a city by the state legislature in 1838. By this time, steam boats traversed the river system, and its port facilities were important to trade and transportation. In addition, developing railroads began to enter the region. A factory for making red bricks, and a foundry for making rail and locomotive components became the nucleus of a thriving "River and Rail" economy. thumb|The wharf in Paducah, 1890 Paducah became the site of dry dock facilities for steamboats and towboats, and thus headquarters for many barge companies. Because of its proximity to coalfields further to the east in Kentucky and north in Illinois, Paducah also became an important railway hub for the Illinois Central Railroad. This was the primary north–south railway connecting the industrial cities of Chicago and East St. Louis to the Gulf of Mexico at Gulfport, Mississippi, and New Orleans, Louisiana. The Illinois Central system also provided east–west links to the Burlington Northern and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railways (which later merged to become the BNSF Railway). In 1924 the Illinois Central Railroad began construction at Paducah of their largest locomotive workshop in the nation. Over a period of 190 days, a large ravine between Washington and Jones streets was filled with 44,560 carloads of dirt to enlarge the site, sufficient for the construction of 23 buildings. The eleven million dollar project was completed in 1927 as the fourth-largest industrial plant in Kentucky. The railroad became the largest employer in Paducah, having 1,075 employees in 1938. As steam locomotives were replaced through the 1940s and 1950s, the Paducah shops were converted to maintain diesel locomotives. A nationally known rebuilding program for aging diesel locomotives from Illinois Central and other railroads began in 1967. The shops became part of the Paducah and Louisville Railway in 1986. In the early 21st century, they are operated by VMV Paducahbilt. ===Civil War=== At the outset of the Civil War, Kentucky attempted to take a neutral position. However, when a Confederate force occupied Columbus, a Union force under General Ulysses S. Grant responded by occupying Paducah. Throughout most of the war, Col. Stephen G. Hicks was in charge of Paducah, and the town served as a massive supply depot for Federal forces along the Ohio, Mississippi, and Tennessee river systems. On December 17, 1862, under the terms of General Order No. 11, US forces required 30 Jewish families to leave their long-established homes. Grant was trying to break up a black market in cotton, in which he assumed Jewish traders were involved due to racial stereotyping associated with anti- Semitic tropes. Cesar Kaskel, a prominent local Jewish businessman, dispatched a telegram of complaint to President Lincoln and met with him. As there were similar actions taken by other Jewish businessmen and loud complaints by Congress about the treatment of their constituents, Lincoln ordered the policy to be revoked within a few weeks. On March 25, 1864, Confederate Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest raided Paducah as part of his campaign northward from Mississippi into Western Tennessee and Kentucky. He intended to re-supply the Confederate forces in the region with recruits, ammunition, medical supplies, horses and mules, and especially to disrupt the Union domination of the regions south of the Ohio River. Known as the Battle of Paducah, the raid was successful in terms of the re-supply effort and in intimidating the Union, but Forrest returned south. According to his report, "I drove the enemy to their gunboats and fort; and held the city for ten hours, captured many stores and horses; burned sixty bales of cotton, one steamer, and a drydock, bringing out fifty prisoners." Much of the fighting took place around Fort Anderson on the city's west side, in the present-day Lower Town neighborhood; most buildings in the neighborhood postdate the war, as most of the neighborhood was demolished soon after the battle to deny any future raids the advantage of surprise that they had enjoyed during the battle. Among the few houses that were not destroyed is the David Yeiser House, a single-story Greek Revival structure.Cherry, Robert C. National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Mayor David A. Yeiser House. National Park Service, 1972-12-27, 9. Later having read in the newspapers that 140 fine horses had escaped the raid, Forrest sent Brigadier General Abraham Buford back to Paducah, to get the horses and to keep Union forces busy there while he attacked Fort Pillow in Tennessee. His forces were charged with a massacre of United States Colored Troops among the Union forces whom they defeated at the fort. On April 14, 1864, Buford's men found the horses hidden in a Paducah foundry, as reported by the newspapers. Buford rejoined Forrest with the spoils, leaving the Union in control of Paducah until the end of the War. ===1937 flood=== thumb|right|1884 flood thumb|Downtown Paducah in the aftermath of the 1937 flood In a far-reaching flood, on January 21, 1937, the Ohio River at Paducah rose above its 50-foot flood stage, cresting at 60.8 feet on February 2 and receding again to 50 feet on February 15. For nearly three weeks, 27,000 residents were forced to flee or to stay with friends and relatives in higher ground in McCracken or other counties. The American Red Cross and local churches provided some shelters. Buildings in downtown Paducah still bear historic plaques that define the high water marks. Driven by 18 inches of rainfall in 16 days, along with sheets of swiftly moving ice, the Ohio River flood of 1937 was the worst natural disaster in Paducah's history and elsewhere in the Ohio Valley. The earthen levee was ineffective against this flood. As a result, Congress authorized the United States Army Corps of Engineers to build the flood wall that now protects the city. ===Atomic City=== In 1950, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission selected Paducah as the site for a new uranium enrichment plant. Construction began in 1951 and the plant opened for operations in 1952. Originally operated by Union Carbide, the plant has changed hands several times. Martin Marietta, its successor company Lockheed-Martin, and now the United States Enrichment Corporation have operated the plant in turn. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), successor to the AEC, remains the owner. The plant was closed in June 2013, and the Department of Energy began the process of decontaminating and shutting down the facilities. ===Quilt City=== On April 25, 1991, the National Quilt Museum opened in downtown Paducah. Paducah has been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of craft and folk art since November 2013. ==Geography== According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (0.52%) is water. ===Climate=== Paducah has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) with four distinct seasons and is located in USDA hardiness zone 7a. Spring-like conditions typically begin in mid-to-late March, summer from mid-to-late-May to late September, with fall in the October–November period. Seasonal extremes in both temperature and precipitation are common during early spring and late fall; severe weather is also common, with occasional tornado outbreaks in the region. Winter typically brings a mix of rain, sleet, and snow, with occasional heavy snowfall and icing. The city has a normal January mean temperature of and averages 13 days annually with temperatures staying at or below freezing; the first and last freezes of the season on average fall on October 25 and April 8, respectively. Summer is typically hazy, hot, and humid with a July daily average of and drought conditions at times. Paducah averages 48 days a year with high temperatures at or above . Snowfall averages per season, contributing to the average annual precipitation of . Extremes in temperature range from on July 17, 1942, and June 29, 2012, down to on January 20, 1985. Paducah is prone to river flooding from the Ohio River, which is currently ongoing as of late February 2018, with the river expected to crest at 49 feet on February 28. ==Demographics== ===2020 census=== Paducah Racial Composition Race Num. Perc. White 18,130 66.81% Black or African American 5,968 21.99% Native American 87 0.32% Asian 273 1.01% Pacific Islander 11 0.04% Other/Mixed 1,621 5.97% Hispanic or Latino 1,047 3.86% As of the 2020 United States Census, there were 27,137 people, 11,330 households, and 5,561 families residing in the city. ===2010 data=== As of the census of 2010, there were 25,024 people, 11,462 households, and 6,071 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 12,851 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 70.99% White, 23.67% African American, 0.22% Native American, 1.02% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.07% from other races, and 3.01% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 2.68% of the population. There were 11,462 households, out of which 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.5% were married couples living together, 16.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47.0% were non-families. 41.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.09 and the average family size was 2.84. In the city, the population was spread out, with 21.8% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 24.4% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 18.2% who were 65 or older. The median age was 41.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,220, and the median income for a family was $42,645. Males had a median income of $36,778 versus $27,597 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,430. About 18.1% of families and 22.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 34.3% of those under age 18 and 12.8% of those age 65 or over. ===2000 census=== As of the census of 2000, there were 26,307 people, 11,825 households, and 6,645 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 13,221 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 72.78% White, 24.15% African American, 0.25% Native American, 0.64% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.55% from other races, and 1.56% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.38% of the population. There were 11,825 households, out of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.8% were married couples living together, 16.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.8% were non-families. 39.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.84. In the city the population was spread out, with 22.5% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 20.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $26,137, and the median income for a family was $34,092. Males had a median income of $32,783 versus $21,901 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,417. About 18.0% of families and 22.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.8% of those under age 18 and 16.8% of those age 65 or over. ==Economy== Dippin' Dots, the Paducah & Louisville Railway and several barge companies have their headquarters in Paducah."Dippin' Dots Contact Information". Dippin' Dots. Retrieved on March 5, 2010. The river continues to be a prominent source of industry for Paducah. Twenty-three barge companies have their operating or corporate headquarters in Paducah. In 2017, the city of Paducah opened a 340-foot transient boat dock that provides space for transient boaters to tie up for a few hours or several nights, increasing tourism in the city. Amenities include fuel (diesel and marine grade gasoline), water, power pedestals, and a sewer pumpout station (seasonal for water and sewer amenities). Just outside the Paducah city limits sits one of the United States' few sites serviced by three railways, an interstate, and a major inland waterway. The site is known as the "Triple Rail Site." This site has 600+ acres (expandable to 1,000 acres) with triple rail service allowing access North, South, East, and West from a single location. It is served by Paducah & Louisville Railway (P&L;), CN, and BNSF. The site has river access at the confluence of the Ohio, Tennessee, and Cumberland Rivers, just miles from the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway and Mississippi River. The site is zoned for heavy manufacturing. The City of Paducah and its partners are seeking economic development of the site. A federal National Weather Service Forecast Office is based in Paducah, providing weather information to western Kentucky, southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, and southwestern Indiana. ===Top employers=== According to Paducah's 2021 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city were entities in health care, education and retail: # Employer # of Employees 1 Baptist Healthcare Systems 1,474 2 Bon Secours Mercy Health, Inc. 1,448 3 Wal-Mart Associates, Inc. 993 4 Paducah Public Schools 589 5 Lowes of Paducah #465 396 6 West Kentucky Community and Technical College 375 7 Baptist Health Medical Group 367 8 ViWinTech Window and Door 358 9 City of Paducah 337 10 Commonwealth of Kentucky 310 Several employers in McCracken County call Paducah home, although their facilities are located outside the city limits. Paducah and McCracken County jointly operate Greater Paducah Economic Development ("GPED"). GPED lists the top employers in McCracken County, several of which include employers within the City of Paducah limits, and is more reflective of the true top employer situation as perceived by citizens of Paducah, as: # Employer Product/Service 1 Baptist Health Paducah Healthcare 2 Mercy Health-Lourdes Healthcare 3 Four Rivers Nuclear Partnership Department of Energy Contractor 4 James Marine Inland Marine/Barge Manufacturing 5 McCracken County Public Schools K-12 Education 6 Marquette Transportation Marine Transportation/HQ 7 Walmart Retail 8 West Kentucky Community and Technical College Higher Education 9 Paducah Public Schools K-12 Education 10 Computer Services, Inc. Fintech 11 TVA Shawnee Power Plant Power provider 12 ViWin Tech Window and Door Manufacturing 13 Ingram Barge Marine Transportation 14 Credit Bureau Systems Credit Reporting 15 Lowes Retail 16 Lynx Services Call Center ==Arts and culture== === Art === ==== Murals ==== thumb|Paducah Flood Wall In 1996, the Paducah Wall to Wall mural program was begun by the Louisiana mural artist Robert Dafford and his team on the floodwall in downtown Paducah. They have painted more than 50 murals addressing numerous subjects, including Native American history, industries such as river barges and hospitals, local African-American heritage, the historic Carnegie Library on Broadway Street, steamboats, and local labor unions. In May 2003, photographer Jim Roshan documented the painting of the Lewis and Clark Expedition mural during the America 24/7 project. One of the images was used in the book Kentucky24/7, published in 2004. By 2008 the mural project was completed and being maintained. Muralist Herb Roe returned to the city each year to repaint and refurbish the panels. Roe is the only muralist associated with the project to have worked on all of the panels. Roe added a new mural to the project in the summer of 2010. It shows the 100-year history of the local Boy Scout troop, Troop 1. Troop 1 is one of only a handful of troops who share their centennial with that of the national scouting organization itself. The dedication for the mural was held on National Scout Sunday, February 6, 2011. In 2017, artist Char Downs debuted the newest addition to the Wall to Wall mural program: a series of murals of award- winning quilts on the floodwall facing Park Street. Downs invested nearly 500 hours recreating Caryl Bryer Fallert-Gentry's historic award-winning quilt Corona II: Solar Eclipse—the first quilt in the series—in her studio in Paducah's Lower Town Arts District. The Paducah Art Alliance has a program of Artist in Residencies to bring respected artists in to the city. In 2018 British Artist Ian Berry came and put on an exhibition to great acclaim. Ian is famed around the world with his art in denim, and fitted in with the textile art that Paducah is known for. ==== Lower Town Artist Relocation Program ==== In August 2000, Paducah's Artist Relocation Program was started to offer incentives for artists to relocate to its historic downtown and Lower Town areas. The program has become a national model for using the arts for economic development. It has received the Governors Award in the Arts, the Distinguished Planning Award from the Kentucky Chapter of the American Planning Association, the American Planning Association's National Planning Award, and most recently, the Kentucky League of Cities' Enterprise Cities Award. Lower Town, home of the Artist Relocation Program, is the oldest neighborhood in Paducah. As retail commerce moved toward the outskirts of the city, efforts were made to preserve the architectural character, and historic Victorian structures were restored in the older parts of the city. The artists' housing program contributed to that effort and became a catalyst for revitalizing the downtown area. The Luther F. Carson Center for the Performing Arts was completed in downtown Paducah in 2004. ==== UNESCO Creative City ==== On November 21, 2013, Paducah was designated by UNESCO as a Creative City of Crafts and Folk Art. Arts and cultural initiatives have included the Lower Town Artist Relocation program, the National Quilt Museum, Paducah "Wall to Wall" floodwall murals, and the Paducah School of Art and Design. Participation in the program has been criticized by local business owners and by Paducah's economic development council due to the financial cost to the city, and because the "UNESCO Creative Cities Network only benefits a small portion of Paducah's economy". === Music === The Luther F. Carson Center for the Performing Arts was completed in downtown Paducah in 2004. From Crosby, Stills & Nash to Garrison Keillor, Shanghai Circus to STOMP, the Carson Center hosts touring Broadway productions, well-known entertainers, dramas, dance and popular faith-based and family series. In September 2004, plans came together to highlight Paducah's musical roots through the redevelopment of the southern side of downtown. The centerpiece of the effort is the renovation of Maggie Steed's Hotel Metropolitan.[28] Prominent African-American musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, Chick Webb's orchestra, B.B. King, Bobby "Blue" Bland, Ike and Tina Turner and other R & B and blues legends have performed here as part of what has become known as the "Chitlin' Circuit". Supporters want to promote Paducah's role in the history of American music. Paducah is the birthplace and residence of musicians in various genres. Rockabilly Hall of Fame artists Ray Smith, whose recording of "Rockin' Little Angel" was a hit in 1960, and Stanley Walker, who played guitar for Ray Smith and others, grew up in Paducah. Terry Mike Jeffrey, an Emmy-nominated songwriter, is a resident of Paducah. Nashville, TN based composer/violinist, Mark Evitts, is also from Paducah. The most prominent mainstream artist is Steven Curtis Chapman, the top-selling Christian artist of all time. Paducah is one of only two cities named in the world-famous song "Hooray for Hollywood", which is used as the opening number for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Awards (the Oscars). The 1937 song, with music by Richard Whiting and lyrics by Johnny Mercer, contains in the second verse: "Hooray for Hollywood! That phony, super Coney, Hollywood. They come from Chilicothes and Padukahs..." Both cities were misspelled in the original published lyrics, though that may have been the fault of the publishers rather than Mercer. He was noted for his sophistication and the attention to detail he put into his lyrics. The correct spellings are "Chillicothe" and "Paducah". ==Sports== Paducah was home to professional baseball's minor league Class D Kentucky–Illinois–Tennessee League (or KITTY League) Paducah Paddys (1903), Paducah Indians (1904–06, 1910, 1914, 1922–23, 1936–41), Paducah Polecats (1911), Paducah Chiefs (1912–13, 1951–55), and Paducah Redbirds (1935). The Chiefs competed in the Mississippi-Ohio Valley League from 1949 to 1950. The Chiefs played in J. Polk Brooks Stadium from its opening in 1948 until the KITTY League folded after the 1955 season. Since then, the ballpark has served as the home venue for Paducah Tilghman High School and American Legion Post 31 baseball teams, as well as various special baseball games and tournaments. In recent years, Brooks Stadium hosted the Ohio Valley Conference baseball tournament (2001–2009) and the National Club Baseball Association World Series (2015 and 2016).Brooks Stadium home pageOhio Valley Conference baseball record book Brooks Stadium currently is the home field for the Paducah Chiefs of the Ohio Valley Summer Collegiate Baseball League.Paducah Chiefs page on Brooks Stadium website In 1969, the Paducah Community College Indians won the National Junior College men's basketball championship. The Paducah International Raceway is a 3/8-mile motorsport racetrack built in 1972. ==Government== thumb|McCracken County Courthouse Paducah operates under a council–manager form of city government. The Paducah Board of Commissioners is made up of the mayor and four commissioners elected at-large by the citizens on a non-partisan basis. The mayor is elected for a four-year term and commissioners each for a two-year term. The mayor and council select and appoint a city manager to operate the city. ==Education== Paducah Public Schools operates public schools serving most of the City of Paducah. Three K-5 elementary schools, Clark Elementary School, McNabb Elementary School and Morgan Elementary School, serve the city. All district residents are zoned to Paducah Middle School and Paducah Tilghman High School."Our Schools ". Paducah Public Schools. Retrieved on October 17, 2010. Parts of the city and surrounding county are instead served by the McCracken County Public Schools. Compare with the current city limits of Paducah, available in this PDF map from the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet. Concord Elementary School and Reidland Elementary/Intermediate serve students through the 5th grade; Lone Oak Elementary School and Hendron–Lone Oak Elementary School end at the third grade, with 4th and 5th grade students in those schools' attendance zones attending Lone Oak Intermediate School. Middle school students in those areas may be zoned into Heath, Lone Oak, or Reidland Middle School. The county district began operating a single, consolidated McCracken County High School on August 9, 2013. The Paducah city district did not participate in this consolidation and Paducah Tilghman High School remains separate. Paducah is also home to two private school systems, St. Mary High School and Community Christian Academy. ===Higher education=== West Kentucky Community and Technical College (WKCTC) is a member of the Kentucky Community and Technical College System and is a public, two-year, degree-granting institution serving the Western Region of Kentucky. There are approximately 6,200 students enrolled at the college. WKCTC was rated as one of the top 10 community colleges in the United States by the Aspen Institute for 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2017. There is a Paducah campus of the University of Kentucky College of Engineering located on the WKCTC campus. There is also a Paducah campus of Murray State University, which offers approximately 20 bachelor's and master's degree programs. It has a facility located on a campus adjacent to WKCTC that was opened in 2014. ===Public library=== Paducah has a lending library, the McCracken County Public Library. ==Media== Local media in Paducah includes NBC affiliate WPSD-TV, MyNetworkTV affiliate WDKA, Fox affiliate KBSI, and the regional daily newspaper The Paducah Sun; the last two are both owned by Paxton Media Group. Six radio stations are located in Paducah; half of the stations are owned by Bristol Broadcasting Company. The weekly newspapers, the West Kentucky News and The Good Neighbor, enjoy significant readership. The bi-monthly magazine Paducah Life debuted in 1994 and continues publication today. The magazine features articles about life and residents in and around Paducah. Purchase Area Family Magazine, a monthly publication distributed throughout Western Kentucky and Metropolis, Illinois, debuted in 2003. The magazine features a comprehensive calendar of events for the Purchase Area as well as unique articles about events, organizations and activities for families in the region. ==Infrastructure== ===Transportation=== ==== Port Authority ==== * The Paducah-McCracken County Riverport Authority was established in 1964 by the legislative bodies of the County of McCracken and the City of Paducah under an equal ownership agreement. The Riverport Authority is a quasi-government agency that provides essential maritime services for the rural regions of Western Kentucky, Southern Illinois, Southeast Missouri, and Northwestern Tennessee. The agency specializes in bulk, agricultural, general, and containerized cargoes, and operates Foreign Trade Zone No. 294. It is the only United States Maritime Administration Marine Highway Designation on the Ohio River and the only Marine Highway port on the river that is designated for container on barge service. The authority owns the largest flat top crane in North America. ====Air service==== thumb|Paducah Airport, 1938 * 28px Barkley Regional Airport (PAH)serves the area offering regional jet service to Charlotte Douglas International Airport (CLT). CLT is ranked among the world's top 10 busiest airports, offering nonstop service to 178 destinations, including 36 international. Barkley Regional Airport is served by one airline, Contour Airlines. Barkley Regional Airport is concluding a multi-million dollar construction/relocation of its terminal. ====Interstate Highways==== ====Current==== * 28px Interstate 24 is a four-lane freeway that routes west to St. Louis and east to Nashville. The highway has a business loop that runs through downtown Paducah. ====Future==== * 28px Interstate 66 was planned to enter the city from the south and follow I-24 east to Eddyville, where it would then follow the existing Western Kentucky Parkway; however, after a Tier 1 environmental impact study (EIS) conducted by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and the Illinois Department of Transportation under the 66 Corridor Study was cancelled on August 6, 2015, by IDOT, the I-66 Trans America Highway project as a whole was officially cancelled. * 28px Interstate 69 will follow the route of the existing Purchase Parkway to the south and east of Paducah, joining I-24/66 about 15 minutes east of Paducah. Once completed, it will connect the city north to Indianapolis and south to Memphis. ====US highways==== * 28px US 60 is a major east–west highway that runs through the Paducah business district. * 28px US 45 enters the city from the north via the Irvin S. Cobb Bridge from Brookport, Illinois, and runs south down to Mayfield. * 28px US 62 connects to Cairo, Illinois, to the west and Calvert City to the east. ==Notable people == * Michael Adams, Kentucky Secretary of State * Charles "Speedy" Atkins, an African-American pauper whose body was mummified and occasionally put on display at funeral home until finally being buried 66 years later in 1994 * Vic Dana, Billboard Top 100 hit recording artist and professional dancer. Popular hits include "Red Roses for a Blue Lady", "Little Altar Boy", "I Will", "More", "Shangri-La", "I Love You Drops", and "If I Never Knew Your Name." Vic Dana * Alben W. Barkley, 35th Vice President of the United States (during the presidency of Harry Truman) * Isaac Wolfe Bernheim, distiller and philanthropist, founder of I. W. Harper brand of bourbon whiskey and Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest *Sara Bradley, chef * Susan Bradley-Cox, USA Triathlete, named USA Triathlon Grand Masters Athlete of the Year in 1997 and 1998 and was selected as Masters Triathlete of the Year by Triathlete magazine in 1997 * William O. Burch, a decorated naval aviator and triple Navy Cross recipient during who reached the rank of Rear Admiral in the United States Navy. * Julian Carroll, former Governor of Kentucky, member of Kentucky House of Representatives and Kentucky Senate * Sam Champion, television weatherman and managing editor of The Weather Channel * Steven Curtis Chapman, Christian music singer-songwriter, record producer, actor, author, and social activist * Joseph "'Jumpin' Joe" Clifton, Navy officer who served in World War II and rose to rank of Rear Admiral * Irvin S. Cobb, author, screenwriter and humorist, anti-Prohibition campaigner * Russ Cochran, professional golfer on Champions Tour, previously on PGA Tour and Nationwide Tour * Jerry Crutchfield, country and pop music producer and songwriter * Pierre DuMaine, Roman Catholic bishop * Edwin E. Ellis, U.S. Navy photographer who visually documented Antarctica, inventor, businessman * Mark Evitts, composer, string- arranger, producer and multi-instrumentalist * Steve Finley, former baseball player, two-time All-Star, World Series champion, and five-time Gold Glove Award winner * Josh Forrest, former linebacker for the Los Angeles Rams * Clarence "Big House" Gaines, Hall of Fame basketball coach, with a 47-year coaching career at Winston-Salem State University in Winston-Salem, North Carolina * J. D. Grey, Southern Baptist clergyman influential in Southern Baptist Convention * Robert H. Grubbs, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry for work on the organic reaction Olefin Metathesis * Eddie Haas, Major League Baseball outfielder, coach, manager and scout * Molly Harper, author of multiple contemporary and paranormal romance novels, including the Nice Girls vampire series and the Southern Eclectic series * Tim Jaeger, artist * Robert Karnes, actor, starred in television series The Lawless Years * Callie Khouri, screenwriter, producer and director, won an Academy Award for Best Screenplay for Thelma and Louise *Brent Leggs, African American historical preservationist, founding director of the African American Cultural Heritage Action Fund (part of the National Trust for Historic Preservation) * Kelley Lovelace, country music songwriter known primarily for his work with country music artist Brad Paisley * Fate Marable, jazz pianist, bandleader, and player of a steam calliope * Jeffrey L. McWaters, CEO/founder of Amerigroup Corp., Virginia state senator * Matty Matlock, Dixieland clarinetist, saxophonist, and arranger, replaced Benny Goodman in the Ben Pollack band doing arrangements and performing on clarinet * Kenny Perry, golfer on PGA Tour and Champions Tour * Boots Randolph, saxophonist who was a major part of the "Nashville Sound" for most of his professional career, best known for his hit "Yakety Sax", which became Benny Hill's signature tune * Trevor "Ricochet" Mann, professional wrestler in the WWE's RAW brand * Adelaide Day Rollston, poet and author * Gene Roof, former Major League Baseball outfielder and coach * Phil Roof, former Major League Baseball catcher for Kansas City/Oakland Athletics and Minnesota Twins, bullpen coach for several MLB teams, and minor league team manager * Jeri Ryan, actress known for work on the television series Star Trek: Voyager and Boston Public; winner of 1989 Miss Illinois pageant * John Scopes, teacher accused for teaching the theory of evolution in the Scopes Trial * Terry Shumpert, Major League Baseball utility player for the Kansas City Royals * Roy Skinner, former Vanderbilt basketball coachSlotnick, Daniel E. "Roy Skinner, Who Recruited First Black Basketball Player in SEC, Dies at 80", The New York Times, October 30, 2010. Accessed October 31, 2010. * Ray Smith, rockabilly musician * Josh Stewart, Major League Baseball pitcher for Chicago White Sox and in Japan for the Orix Buffaloes * Larry Stewart, lead singer of country pop band Restless Heart * Patsy Terrell, former Kansas state representative * Lloyd Tilghman, Confederate general who commanded a brigade in the Vicksburg Campaign and was killed at the Battle of Champion Hill * Emma Talley, LPGA golfer, 2013 U.S. Women's Amateur champion, 2015 NCAA Division I Women's Golf Championship champion * Paul Twitchell, founder of religious movement known as Eckankar * Marcy Walker (also known as Marcy Smith), minister and former actress known for television appearances on daytime soap operas * Robert McDaniel Webb (known as Danny), former MLB pitcher with the Chicago White Sox * J.D. Wilkes, visual artist, musician, author, and amateur filmmaker * Rumer Willis, actress and daughter of Bruce Willis and Demi Moore, born in Paducah while her parents were visiting for filming of In Country * George Wilson, former football safety for NFL's Tennessee Titans ==See also== * List of cities and towns along the Ohio River * Paducah, Texas * WIAR (Kentucky) ==References== ==External links== * * Category:Cities in McCracken County, Kentucky Category:County seats in Kentucky Category:Kentucky placenames of Native American origin Category:Kentucky populated places on the Ohio River Category:Kentucky populated places on the Tennessee River Category:Cities in Kentucky |
The congregation of North Presbyterian Church, at 525 West 155th Street in Manhattan, New York City, is a combination of three former congregations: North Presbyterian Church (founded in 1847), Washington Heights Presbyterian Church (founded in 1859 and merged with North Church in 1905), and St. Nicholas Avenue Presbyterian Church (founded in 1891 as Lenox Presbyterian Church and merged with North Church in 1927). North Presbyterian Church was added to the National Register of Historic Places February 5, 2014. ==Washington Heights Church== ===Founding=== In the 1850s, Washington Heights, like the rest of upper Manhattan, was still rural. Many thoroughfares in the neighborhood, though shown on maps, were unbuilt or unopened. In March 1851, two months after the death of naturalist John James Audubon, his widow sold an entire city block out of her 24-acre farm to neighbor Dennis Harris; it was bounded by 155th and 156th Street and Tenth and Eleventh Avenue (today called Amsterdam Avenue and Broadway, respectively). Harris divided the property into lots for resale. The Washington Heights Congregational Church was established in 1855 with Harris as one of the founders. He built a modest wooden chapel for the new congregation on a Tenth Avenue lot between 155th and 156th Street and the same year sold the congregation a lot at the northwest corner of Tenth Avenue and 155th Street for a permanent church. Construction began in 1857. John Kellum was the architect and the contractor was the local firm of Harden & Hopper. The Panic of 1857 caused economic uncertainty (which lasted until 1859), and by the end of the year, with the foundation in and the walls going up, work had to be halted for lack of money. The Rev. O. H. White, the congregation's first pastor, asked to be released, and was. On January 29, 1858, the congregation voted to join the Presbyterian denomination. It was admitted into the Second Presbytery of New York on May 23, 1859. The same year, Charles Augustus Stoddard (May 28, 1833 – June 3, 1920) graduated from Union Theological Seminary in New York City and was assigned by the presbytery as a supply preacher for the Washington Heights Church. The congregation asked him to remain, and he was ordained pastor of the church in September 1859, beginning a tenure of 24 years. The church grew, the economic crisis waned, and construction on the new church resumed in 1860, despite the land being fully mortgaged and despite claims, judgments, and builders’ liens against the unfinished structure. Smith & Cooper were the masons and David H. Doremus the carpenter. ===Permanent home=== thumb|left|upright| The new church, one of the first houses of worship in upper Manhattan, was dedicated later that year. The building, Romanesque in style, was 85 feet long and 48 feet wide, with two brick towers, one a clock tower 120 feet high topped by a belfry enclosing a 1500-pound bell. The capacity was 600, with 88 pews of varied lengths. The sanctuary was 72 feet by 46 feet with a gallery over the vestibule. The ceilings and upper walls were frescoed, the trim was oak, and the windows were stained glass. In 1862, the church raised a volunteer choir. In February 1868, William Wheelock donated an organ and paid to add an addition to the rear of the pulpit for it. The organist was Mr. O. Oxnard. In 1859, Rev. Stoddard had married the daughter of Rev. Dr. Samuel Irenaeus Prime, proprietor and editor of the religious weekly newspaper New York Observer, and became a member of the editorial staff. In 1869, he became associate editor, and in 1873, a proprietor, at which time he offered his resignation to the church. The congregation, however, prevailed upon him to stay, agreeing to release him from some of his responsibilities, and for ten years he was both pastor and newspaper owner-editor. In 1883 he told his congregation his health would no longer allow the workload, and his resignation was accepted as of January 14 of that year. (In 1885, upon the death of Dr. Prime, he assumed the entire management of the Observer, becoming editor-in-chief and publisher until 1902, when he retired.) On June 3, 1883, Rev. Allen Ford DeCamp (February 9, 1848 – December 27, 1928) was installed as pastor, but he was controversial and his tenure short. At a meeting of the congregation on March 13, 1885, his resignation, which had been requested, was accepted by a majority of one vote. The Rev. Dr. John Collins Bliss (May 20, 1837 – April 11, 1909) was the next pastor, installed on October 25, 1885. He became pastor emeritus in 1905 and died in 1909. ==North Church on Ninth Avenue== ===Temporary quarters=== thumb|left| In 1845 a Sunday school was opened and taught every week by Mr. Joseph B. Sheffield, assisted by other members of the Mission Association of the Mercer Street Presbyterian Church, in Ward School No. 33 (a public school), on 35th Street near 9th Avenue. The school served as a nucleus for a Christian congregation. This was a largely undeveloped area of the city. The adjacent streets had not been regulated, and the houses were few and humble. The City Mission Association of the Third and Fourth Presbyteries of New York, organized in October 1846, secured the use of the chapel of the New York Institution for the Blind, in the same area, as a preaching station for the year 1847. They appointed the Rev. Washington Roosevelt (November 14, 1802 – February 11, 1884) as their missionary for this locality beginning January 10. A church of eight men and eight women was organized June 27, 1847, by Rev. Dr. Thomas H. Skinner (the elder, 1791–1871), pastor of the Mercer Street Church, assisted by Rev. William Adams, (b. 1813) and Rev. Roosevelt. It received the name North Presbyterian Church and was enrolled in the Third Presbytery of New York on October 4. The Sunday school in 35th Street was transferred to the new church. The congregation was chartered as a religious corporation by the New York Legislature in September 1847. A free lease of four lots of ground on the south side of 32nd Street, midway between 8th and 9th Avenue, was obtained from Mr. James Boorman for seven years, from May 1, 1848; it was subsequently extended to nine years. Plans and estimates having been procured for a temporary house of worship, the contract was given September 29, 1848, to Mr. William S. Hunt, for $2,750. It was completed in April following, at an expense of $3,200. It was a frame building, about 40 by 60 feet, with a short central tower in front. It contained 75 pews, and was furnished with a front gallery. The house was built in the open fields, on a hillside known formerly as "Strawberry Hill". The house was opened for public worship April 13, 1849. Rev. Roosevelt was chosen the pastor and installed by the Third Presbytery May 6, 1849. He resigned the charge at the close of the year 1855, and was released by the Presbytery January 14, 1856. Rev. Edwin Francis Hatfield (January 9, 1807 – September 22, 1883), then pastor of the Seventh Presbyterian Church of this city for 20 years, was chosen to succeed Mr. Roosevelt and was installed February 13, 1856. Measures were immediately taken to erect a permanent home. Mr. Boorman gave the congregation free and full possession of four lots of ground, 100 feet square, on the northeast corner of 9th Avenue and 31st street, as of May 1. Robert Griffith Hatfield, brother of the pastor, was appointed the architect, and contracts were awarded for the mason-work to Mr. C. H. Tucker ($17,819) and for the carpenter-work to Mr. Hunt ($14,352). The corner-stone was laid June 19, 1856, and the lecture room opened for public worship November 16, 1856. The former house of worship was sold to the North West Presbyterian Church for $600, and soon after removed to 50th Street, near Broadway. The new church was completed and opened for public worship March 29, 1857. ===Permanent home=== thumb|upright|left| The church was Romanesque in style, of bluestone, 91 by 66 feet, with a tower projection of four feet (making the depth 95 feet). It had a slate roof with eaves 41 feet, and a ridge 62 feet, above the pavement, and a central wooden spire 182 feet high. The interior was finished in fresco and furnished with an organ from Jardine and Son. There were 152 pews on the main floor and 60 in the two side galleries with a disconnected organ gallery in front. The house was lighted at night from the ceiling. The capacity was 1,000 and the total cost, with the organ and other furniture, was $45,759.28. When completed, the undertaking had an unpaid debt of $30,000. The church prospered for a few years, but by the early 1860s, many congregants had moved away, and the society came close to bankruptcy. Rev. Hatfield resigned in October 1863, and Rev. Thomas Street became the third pastor on May 25, 1864. A great fund- raising effort was launched, and by January 22, 1871, the church was debt- free; one week later, the congregation held a celebratory service to mark the achievement. On April 14, 1873, Rev. Street resigned on account of health, and on September 21, 31-year-old Rev. Stealy Bales Rossiter (May 22, 1842 – June 24, 1914) was installed as the fourth pastor. At the society's 25th anniversary celebration, March 26, 1882, the total membership was 700, and the total since the church's formation was 1,950. In 1897, a 50th anniversary celebration took place November 14–24, led by Pastor Rossiter. The church had recently been renovated and partly refurnished. In November 1899, Rev. Rossiter announced his resignation for January 1900 to become American Secretary in New York of the McAll Mission, which did evangelical work in France. At that time, the church had 1,000 members and a Sunday school exceeding 900 students. (In 1903, Rev. Rossiter left that position to become pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Manila, Philippine Islands.) Rev. Wilson Davidson Sexton (May 30, 1853 – July 3, 1907) was chosen as the North Church's fifth pastor on November 14, 1900. On December 11, 1901, the President of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company publicly confirmed the company's plans to build a Hudson River tunnel, and a new passenger station in Manhattan, necessitating the displacement of many buildings, including the North Presbyterian Church. The congregation had no choice but to sell to the railroad company. The negotiation of the sale price took place over several months in 1902. ==Unification in new building== ===The merger=== By 1903, Washington Heights was on the verge of urbanization. The Broadway subway line was begun in 1900. It opened for service from City Hall to 145th Street on October 27, 1904 and to 157th Street on November 5, 1904, and would extend to 242nd Street in 1908. As a direct consequence of the subway's opening, between 1905 and 1920 the population of Manhattan above 125th Street grew by 265 percent. The development of “high class” elevator apartments to house the influx of new residents to Washington Heights and other neighborhoods soon followed. In March 1903, the North Church and the Washington Heights Church made plans to merge and build a new church in that neighborhood. The Presbytery of New York, governing body of the Presbyterian Church in the city, voted its preliminary approval on June 30, the combination purchased the site for the new building in December, and plans for the new church were filed with the Buildings Department in April 1904. The two congregations began worshipping together in the Fall of 1904 and in February 1905, with construction underway, the Presbytery gave formal approval and the union was finalized. The name was to be North Presbyterian Church, the pastor was to be Rev. Sexton, and Rev. Bliss would become pastor emeritus. The trustees had planned to purchase land immediately adjacent to the existing church on 155th Street, to replace it with a larger one, but could not come to terms with the landowner. In December 1903, they settled for a midblock plot 150 feet long on 155th Street, and 100 feet deep. The Washington Heights Church and the land under it were sold. It was being used to store balloons when it caught fire on March 26, 1908, and was destroyed. ===The new church=== thumb|left| The new North Presbyterian Church was dedicated Sunday morning, November 5, 1905, beginning a period of dedicatory events through November 24. The church was commissioned from the architectural firm Bannister and Schell, which later designed the Harlem Savings Bank (1907, today called the Apple Bank for Savings, 124 East 125th Street) and the Holyrood Church (179th Street and Fort Washington Avenue, 1911–1914). Edwin Outwater was the builder and the superintendent of construction was Professor Collins P. Bliss, head of the engineering department of New York University, and son of the pastor emeritus. Rev. Sexton was reported to have formulated the general plan. The English Gothic design exemplifies a change in church architecture fashion at that time from Romanesque Revival to Gothic Revival. The façade, of smooth, gray brick, limestone, and terra cotta, comprises the sanctuary on the east and parish house on the west, with a 110-foot clock tower, atop the narthex, between them. The sanctuary's sloping floor has wooden pews, facing east, that curve around the main altar space. A balcony provides seating around the north, south, and west sides. The narthex and sanctuary have stained glass skylights. The capacity is 1,000 people. The three-story parish house had a Sunday school with three main rooms and eight classrooms, a library, and private offices for the school superintendent and the secretary. There was a study for the pastor, an apartment for the janitor's family, a boardroom, a kitchen, and a recreation room. Many members of the 9th Avenue church, although not all, moved with it to Washington Heights. Rev. Sexton died July 3, 1907, after two weeks' illness, age 54. The sixth pastor of North Church, Rev. John R. Mackay, was installed March 17, 1908. The congregation grew from 664 in 1906 to 1,471 by 1918. In the 1920s, the church had the fourth largest congregation in the Presbytery of New York City. In 1923 a community center, with a gymnasium, a swimming pool, classrooms, and a kitchen, was built adjacent to the parish house to its west. The two-story building, designed by architect Eli Benedict, a member of the church, was called Memorial House to commemorate the men who died in World War I. Early in 1926, Rev. Mackay submitted his resignation, effective December 6, after which the pulpit was filled by Rev. Dr. Arthur J. Smith, for many years secretary of the Evangelistic Committee of New York City, for seven weeks. ==Harlem congregation== ===Lenox Church=== thumb|upright|left| On September 21, 1890, the Rev. A. W. Halsey and William M. Waite opened a Sunday school at 2566 8th Avenue, near 137th Street in Harlem. There were only 24 persons present, and they organized the Lenox Presbyterian Sunday School Association. On Nov. 2, Sunday evening services were begun there, and a little later a Christian Endeavor Society was formed. Then a girls' sewing school and afterward a boys' club were started. On February 27, 1891, the society moved to larger quarters at 2553 8th Avenue. The Rev. Dr. Edward L. Clark (February 3, 1838 – February 5, 1910), pastor of the Church of the Puritans, took an interest in the young congregation, and when it was known that it was in need of a pastor, he volunteered to guarantee a salary for one. On April 12, 1891, David Garrett Smith (ordained 1892) was engaged to perform the pastoral work of the congregation, which he did for more than a year. On December 28, 1891, with the approval of the New York Presbytery, the Lenox Presbyterian Church was established, with 37 members. At the same time the congregation was incorporated under the laws of New York, and officers were elected. On January 7, 1892, the trustees of the Church Extension Committee signed a contract to purchase a plot of ground, 140 feet by 100 feet, and the Sunday School Committee of the Presbytery had plans drawn up for a modest midblock church at 308–310 West 139th Street, between 8th Avenue (today called Frederick Douglass Boulevard) and Edgecombe Avenue. The cornerstone was laid September 24, 1892. The church was dedicated January 8, 1893, by which time it had 60 members. Rev. Dr. Francis Henry Marling officiated at the morning service, Rev. Dr. James H. Hoadley addressed the Sunday school in the afternoon, and Rev. Dr. John Hall gave a sermon at the evening service. The dedication ceremonies continued the next evening. Designed by architect Joseph Ireland (b. June 17, 1843) in Romanesque style, the church – initially called a chapel and seen as a temporary home – had a capacity of about 400, an elevation of 45 feet, and a plan 35 by 90 feet. It is made of Ohio brick with brownstone trim and has a Georgia pine interior, galleries for choir and congregation, and facilities for a Sunday school. After a number of ministers were tried, Rev. Bryce K. Douglas, a favorite with the young people, was unanimously elected pastor at a meeting of the members on February 4. He accepted the call and took up his duties April 1, 1893, but he resigned amid controversy after only a year. The second pastor was Rev. Thomas William Smith, installed December 20, 1894, who served 20 years. In 1902, the congregation purchased land nearby, on the northwest corner of St. Nicholas Avenue and 141st Street, for a new church, having outgrown the existing one. Over the summer of 1904, plans were filed with the Buildings Department for a church to be built on the new plot. The cornerstone for the new edifice was laid on October 15, 1904. By then, church membership exceeded 500, and the Sunday school had 600 students. In early 1904, the 139th Street church was sold. It was later purchased by the Swedish Immanuel Congregational Church, which began services there in March 1905, gave it a thorough renovation a few months later, and installed a new organ in 1909. In 1923 the church was acquired by the Grace Congregational Church of Harlem, which continues to reside there. ===St. Nicholas Avenue Church=== thumb|upright|left| The dedication of the new St. Nicholas Avenue Church took place on January 21, 1906. Architect Ludlow & Valentine gave the Gothic-style church a square bell tower, light yellow Roman brick, and Indiana limestone trim. The auditorium was given large Gothic windows in the side walls and some 24 clerestory windows. It was trimmed in brown oak and the ceiling showed open truss work. Including galleries, the capacity was about 800. In addition to the usual rooms for the pastor, choir, and session, the building included a kitchen, a library, and a large social room at the level of the first floor. Philip L. Schenk was selected as organist for the new church. On May 1, 1907, William Jennings Bryan, a college classmate of Rev. Smith, the pastor, delivered his famous Chautauqua lecture, "The Prince of Peace". The townhouse at 58 Hamilton Terrace, near the church, was purchased as a parsonage in 1913. On December 5, 1914, it was reported that Rev. Smith had left the St. Nicholas Avenue Church for Orange, N. J. Rev. Dr. Elliott Wilber Brown came to the church in January as the temporary supply and in March accepted the congregation's call to become its pastor. He was installed on March 25, 1915. In 1926 North Church and the St. Nicholas Avenue Church held union services for the summer months, so that one clergyman could serve two churches. (Similar arrangements were made by other churches in the city). By then, population and demographic change within the neighborhood had been substantial. The following year, the two congregations merged at 155th Street, under the North Church name. The last services at St. Nicholas Avenue Church were held January 23, 1927. The St. Nicholas Avenue Church was transferred to the congregation of St. James Colored Presbyterian Church, of 59–61 West 137th Street, which was descended from one of the earliest black congregations in New York. They made a gala parade from their old home to their new one on Sunday, June 5, 1927, before the opening service. The sermon for the service was preached by Rev. Dr. Harlan G. Mendenhall, Stated Clerk of the New York Presbytery, and Rev. William Lloyd Imes, the pastor of St. James, preached the children's sermon. The congregation, today called St. James Presbyterian Church, continues to make its home there today. ==Second unification== The first service of the united congregation, whose pastor was Rev. Henry Burnham Kirkland of the St. Nicholas Avenue Church, took place in the North Church on 155th Street January 30, 1927. As a result of the merger with St. Nicholas Avenue, the North Presbyterian Church became the third largest Church in the Presbytery. A 1935 roll included over 950 members. On September 25, 1932, Rev. Kirkland handed in his resignation, effective January 1, reportedly because differences of opinion between groups representing each of the two churches over administrative matters had been more or less constant since the merger. Rev. Dr. Merle H. Anderson, 60, was installed as pastor December 6, 1933. Eventually, the congregation fell into decline due to the changing demographics and development of the neighborhood. Many members moved to newer suburbs, and the congregation shrank. In 1957, it reached a low of 267 members. The neighborhood, and the congregation, experienced some growth in the 1960s and 1970s as more African Americans began to move to the area, and in the 1980s, with the move of Dominicans to the neighborhood. But in 2013, it had only 22 members, according to Presbyterian Mission Agency Research Services. The church underwent a restoration in the early 2000s to repair roof and water damage and restore main public spaces, including the lecture hall and social hall. Mawuhle Presbyterian Church, a fellowship within the Presbytery of New York City whose members are mostly from Ghana, also calls the building home, worshiping in its sanctuary on Sunday afternoons. The current pastor of North Presbyterian Church is the Rev. Dr. Mark L. Chapman. ==References== ==External links== * Official website: * Photographs: ** ** Photograph of the church, and information on the organs installed in these churches: The New York City Chapter of the American Guild of Organists website. "Washington Heights Presbyterian Church", "North Presbyterian Church", "Grace Congregational Church (United Church of Christ)", and "St. Nicholas Avenue Presbyterian Church". Retrieved May 12, 2016. Category:Churches completed in 1905 Category:19th-century Presbyterian church buildings in the United States Category:Churches in Manhattan Category:Demolished churches in New York City Category:Demolished buildings and structures in Manhattan Category:Presbyterian churches in New York City Category:Former Presbyterian churches in New York City Category:Religious organizations established in 1847 Category:1847 establishments in New York (state) |
Roger Frederick Wicker (born July 5, 1951) is an American attorney and politician serving as the senior United States senator from Mississippi, a seat he has held since 2007. A member of the Republican Party, Wicker was a Mississippi State Senator from 1988 to 1995 and the U.S. Representative from Mississippi's 1st congressional district from 1995 until 2007. Born in Pontotoc, Mississippi, Wicker is a graduate of the University of Mississippi and the University of Mississippi School of Law. He was an officer in the United States Air Force from 1976 to 1980 and a member of the United States Air Force Reserves from 1980 to 2003. During the 1980s, he worked as a political counselor to then-Congressman Trent Lott on the House Rules Committee. In 1987, Wicker was elected to the Mississippi State Senate, representing the 6th district, which included Tupelo. Wicker was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1994, succeeding longtime Representative Jamie Whitten. Wicker served in the House from 1995 to 2007, when he was appointed to the Senate by Governor Haley Barbour to fill the seat vacated by Lott. Wicker subsequently won a special election for the remainder of the term in 2008 and was reelected to a full term in 2012. Wicker served as chair of the National Republican Senatorial Committee from 2015 to 2017 and is a deputy Republican whip. He was reelected in 2018, defeating Democratic nominee David Baria. ==Early life and education== Wicker was born on July 5, 1951, in Pontotoc, Mississippi, the son of Wordna Glen (née Threadgill) and Thomas Frederick Wicker. In 1967, the 16-year-old Wicker worked as a United States House of Representatives Page for Democratic Representative Jamie L. Whitten of . He earned a bachelor's degree in journalism and political science and a J.D. degree from the University of Mississippi, where he was a member of the Sigma Nu fraternity and student body president. He was inducted into Omicron Delta Kappa for his student leadership and academic merit while at the University of Mississippi. After graduation, Wicker served as an officer in the United States Air Force from 1976 to 1980. Starting in 1980, he was a member of the Air Force Reserve; he retired from the reserve in 2003 as a lieutenant colonel. Wicker served as a judge advocate. ==Early political career== thumb|Representative Roger Wicker, 1995 Wicker began his political career in 1980 as House Rules Committee counsel to U.S. Representative Trent Lott. He was elected to the Mississippi State Senate in 1987, spending $25,000 on the race. He represented the 6th district, which included Tupelo, from 1988 to 1994. He amended a 1994 state Medicaid bill to authorize the Mississippi Attorney General to contract private attorneys on contingency. ==U.S. House of Representatives== ===Elections=== In 1994, Whitten declined to seek reelection; he had represented the 1st District for 53 years, longer than any other congressman at the time. Wicker ran to succeed him, spending $750,000 on his campaign. He finished first in a crowded six-way Republican primary with 7,156 votes (26.62%) and proceeded to a runoff with attorney Grant Fox, who received 5,208 votes (19.37%). Former U.S. Attorney Bob Whitwell finished 600 votes short of the runoff with 4,606 votes (17.14%), 1992 nominee Clyde E. Whitaker came fourth with 4,602 votes (17.12%), 1986 nominee Larry Cobb came fifth with 4,162 votes (15.48%) and 1990 nominee Bill Bowlin took the remaining 1,147 votes (4.27%). In the runoff, Wicker defeated Fox, 11,905 votes (53.07%) to 10,527 (46.93%). In the general election, Wicker defeated Fulton attorney Bill Wheeler, 80,553 votes (63.06%) to 47,192 (36.94%), making him the first Republican to represent the 1st district in over a century. This was not considered an upset, as the 1st has always been a rather conservative district (especially in the Memphis suburbs). The district had only supported the Democratic nominee for president once since 1956, when Jimmy Carter carried the district in 1976. Although Whitten had a nearly unbreakable hold on the district, it had been considered very likely that he would be succeeded by a Republican once he retired. Wicker was reelected six times without serious difficulty, never receiving less than 65% of the vote. In 2004, he was unopposed by a Democratic candidate, facing only Reform Party nominee Barbara Dale Washer, whom he defeated by 219,328 votes (79.01%) to 58,256 (20.99%). ===Tenure=== Assuming office in 1995, Wicker was president of the freshman class, which included 53 other new Republican representatives, elected as part of the 1994 "Republican Revolution". Wicker was a member of the House Appropriations Committee. He was also deputy Republican whip. In Congress, Wicker worked on issues related to medical research and on economic development for his home state. He advocated private-public partnerships to bring investment to rural areas. Wicker also worked for veterans' issues while serving as a member of the Military Construction and Veterans Affairs Subcommittee.About Roger from Wicker's official U.S. Senate website In his final year as representative, Wicker topped the list in earmarks. In 2007, Wicker was criticized after securing a $6 million earmark for a defense company whose executives had made significant contributions to his campaign. ==U.S. Senate== ===Committee assignments=== * Committee on Armed Services (Ranking Member) ** Subcommittee on Airland ** Subcommittee on Cybersecurity ** Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities ** Subcommittee on Personnel ** Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support ** Subcommittee on Seapower ** Subcommittee on Strategic Forces * Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation ** Subcommittee on Aviation Safety, Operations, and Innovation ** Subcommittee on Communications, Media, and Broadband ** Subcommittee on Oceans, Atmosphere, Fisheries, and Coast Guard ** Subcommittee on Surface Transportation, Maritime, Freight, and Ports * Committee on Environment and Public Works ** Subcommittee on Clean Air, Climate and Nuclear Safety ** Subcommittee on Superfund, Toxics and Environmental Health ** Subcommittee on Transportation and Infrastructure * Committee on Rules and Administration * Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Vice Ranking Member) ===Caucus memberships=== * Congressional Human Rights Caucus * Congressional Immigration Reform Caucus * International Conservation Caucus * Interstate 69 Caucus (Co-Chair) * Sportsmen's Caucus * Tennessee Valley Authority Congressional Caucus ===Appointment=== On November 26, 2007, Senator Trent Lott announced that he would resign before the end of the year to become a lobbyist. At a press conference on December 31, 2007, Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour appointed Wicker to fill the Senate seat Lott vacated on December 18, 2007. He was sworn in by the Senate clerk just before that news conference.Nossiter, Adam, "Congressman Named to Fill Lott's Senate Seat" , The New York Times, January 1, 2008. ===Elections=== ;2008 Wicker ran for the remainder of Lott's term in the November 2008 special election against Democrat Ronnie Musgrove, Barbour's predecessor as governor. Wicker defeated Musgrove, 683,409 votes (54.96%) to 560,064 (45.04%). Wicker's resignation from the House also triggered a May 13, 2008, special election to fill the vacancy in the House, which was won by Democratic nominee Travis Childers. ;2012 Wicker ran for reelection to a full term in 2012. He was opposed by Robert Maloney and Tea Party activist E. Allen Hathcock in the Republican primary, defeating them by 254,936 votes (89.17%) to 18,857 (6.60%) and 12,106 (4.23%), respectively. In the general election, he defeated Albert Gore, the Chairman of the Oktibbeha County Democratic Party and a distant relative of former Vice President Al Gore, 709,626 votes (57.16%) to 503,467 (40.55%). ===Tenure=== thumb|U.S. Senator Roger F. Wicker meets with U.S. Senator Cindy Hyde-Smith of Mississippi in the Dirksen Senate Office building. thumb|U.S. Senator Roger Wicker Speaks at Meridian International Center Summit 2018 On September 16, 2010, President Barack Obama announced his intent to nominate Wicker as representative of the United States to the Sixty-fifth Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations. thumb|Supreme Court Nominee Judge Brett Kavanaugh and U.S. Senator Roger Wicker In the Senate, Wicker is a member of the Senate Republicans' whip team and has repeatedly introduced a bill to overturn Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court decision ruling abortion bans unconstitutional. Wicker called the Affordable Care Act the "great fight for the rest of this term, maybe our lifetimes" and later introduced a bill to enable state officials to challenge the law. In the interest of protecting gun owners, he amended a fiscal 2010 transportation spending bill to allow Amtrak passengers to carry firearms and ammunition in checked baggage. Wicker and Representative Gene Taylor pushed amendments allowing purchasers of federal flood insurance to add wind coverage to their policies, helpful to a hurricane-prone state. As a member of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Helsinki Commission) monitoring human rights and other issues, in late 2012 Wicker worked with Senator Ben Cardin to enact a bill imposing penalties on Russians accused of violating human rights. The measure led Russian President Vladimir Putin to announce a subsequent ban on U.S. adoptions of Russian-born children. Wicker was one of three politicians targeted during the April 2013 ricin letters bioterrorism attack. On April 16, 2013, a letter addressed to Wicker tested positive for the poison ricin as part of a series of letters. The letter was detected by postal officials and law enforcement and prevented from reaching the Capitol. The letter was tested three times, with each test confirming the presence of ricin. In July 2013, Wicker proposed that the Senate meet to discuss a controversial change to filibuster rules. The Senate held the private meeting in the Old Senate chamber to discuss Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid's threat of the so-called "nuclear option", which would change the rules for Senate votes on Obama's executive branch nominees. Wicker said he hoped the chamber's bipartisan past could serve as an inspiration for the debate about the nuclear option: "I think there are concessions that can be made on both sides. And then I would just hope that, institutionally, we can get away from this mindset." Wicker supported the Bipartisan Sportsmen's Act of 2014 (S. 2363; 113th Congress), a bill related to hunting, fishing, and outdoor recreation, aimed at improving "the public's ability to enjoy the outdoors." He said, "Mississippians know the importance of efforts to preserve our natural resources for future generations." Wicker was elected chair of the National Republican Senatorial Committee for the 114th U.S. Congress on November 13, 2014. Weeks after the 2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaign and Umbrella Movement broke out, demanding genuine universal suffrage among other goals, Wicker joined Senator Sherrod Brown and Representative Chris Smith's effort to introduce the Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act, which would update the United States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992 and U.S. commitment to Hong Kong's freedom and democracy. "U.S. should stand steadfast with the people of Hong Kong in their fight to exercise self-determination," Wicker said, and "speak with a unified American voice in support of universal freedom and democratic values. The Congress and the Obama Administration should act to ensure China honors its longstanding obligation under international law to maintain Hong Kong's autonomy."S.2922 - Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act , Congress.gov, November 13, 2014 In March 2017, Wicker co-sponsored the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (s. 720), which made it a federal crime for Americans to encourage or participate in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in the West Bank if protesting actions by the Israeli government. In May 2020, a group of Senate Republicans planned to introduce a privacy bill that would regulate the data collected by coronavirus contact tracing apps. The COVID-19 Consumer Data Protection Act would "provide all Americans with more transparency, choice, and control over the collection and use of their personal health, geolocation, and proximity data", according to a joint statement. Wicker said the legislation also would "hold businesses accountable to consumers if they use personal data to fight the COVID-19 pandemic." The act would permit the creation of "platforms that could trace the virus and help flatten the curve and stop the spread – and maintaining privacy protections for U.S. citizens", Wicker said. In September 2020, less than two months before the next presidential election, Wicker supported an immediate Senate vote on Trump's nominee to fill the Supreme Court vacancy caused by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg's death, saying that Senate Republicans had "promised to confirm well qualified, conservative judges" and that there was a "constitutional duty" to fill vacancies. In March 2016, Wicker had taken the opposite position by declining to consider Obama's Supreme Court nominee during a presidential election year, saying that the "American people should have the opportunity to make their voices heard before filling a lifetime appointment to the nation’s highest court." Wicker announced before the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count that he would vote to certify the election on January 6, 2021. He was participating in the certification when Trump supporters attacked the U.S. Capitol. When the Capitol was secure and Congress returned to complete the certification, Wicker voted to certify the count, with his senate counterpart, Cindy Hyde-Smith objecting to the count. In the wake of the violence and certification, Wicker called for perpetrators to be prosecuted "to the fullest extent of the law" and said, "we must work together to rebuild confidence in our institutions." Wicker opposed Trump's removal from office, encouraging a peaceful transfer of power on Inauguration Day. In March 2021, after Congress passed the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, Wicker highlighted on social media that the bill awarded $28.6 billion of "targeted relief" to "independent restaurant operators" to "survive the pandemic". In that post, he neglected to mention that he had voted against the bill. In August 2021, Wicker voted for the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. After President Joe Biden said that he planned to select a black woman to appoint to the Supreme Court in January 2022, Wicker told Mississippi radio host Paul Gallo that the nominee would be a "beneficiary" of an affirmative action "quota", drawing a rebuke from the White House. ==Political positions== The Heritage Foundation gave Wicker a lifetime conservative rating of 61% (the average Republican scored 79%). As of December 2017, Wicker ranks 14th of 98 in the Bipartisan Index compiled by The Lugar Center, which reflects a low level of partisanship. === Foreign policy === Wicker supported the Iraq War and called it just. As a U.S. representative, Wicker believed it was necessary to remove Saddam Hussein from power. Experts have said the Iraq War cost the U.S. over $3 trillion. Wicker supported the U.S. Invasion of Afghanistan and called withdrawing "one of the biggest foreign policy catastrophes in my lifetime.” He also said, "we were better off with a Korea-like presence". Afterward, he cosponsored legislation that would have ended official diplomatic relations with Afghanistan. The U.S. War in Afghanistan has cost American taxpayers an estimated $2.3 trillion. In December 2021, Wicker threatened a preemptive nuclear strike against Russia, saying: "we don't rule out first-use nuclear action." He issued this threat two months before the Russian invasion of Ukraine began. Wicker also supported implementing a no-fly zone over Ukraine in 2022, which National Review called "a very bad idea". Wicker is an ardent Zionist and one of the most pro-Israel U.S. politicians. According to the American Jewish Congress, he "opposed the Iran Deal and opposed UN Security Resolution 2334", which affirmed that Israel’s settlement activity violated international law. Wicker also voted for the Israel Anti-Boycott Act, supported the Anti-Semitism Awareness Act, and cosponsored the United States- Israel Security Authorization Act of 2018, which allocated military funding for Israel regardless of the Palestinian question. He opposed opening a U.S. Palestinian consulate in East Jerusalem, which would have answered to the U.S. Department of State. === 2023 omnibus appropriations bill === Wicker was one of 18 Republican senators to vote for the $1.7 trillion omnibus bill that former President Donald Trump heavily criticized. The bill prohibited the construction of new immigration barriers and did not increase border enforcement spending past current inflation levels. Wicker also voted to send $45 billion more to Ukraine. === Refugees === Wicker strongly supports expanding U.S. visas for Ukrainian refugees. He previously opposed Mississippi accepting Syrian refugees who fled from war-torn Syria. === Ukraine === Wicker has been one of Ukraine's strongest Republican supporters. He voted each time to increase aid to Ukraine. In a press release, Wicker wrote: "President Reagan once called the Soviet Union 'the focus of evil in the modern world.' After two months of unprovoked brutality, it is obvious that the Kremlin remains one of the chief forces for evil in our world." === Federal spending === Wicker identifies as a fiscal conservative but has consistently voted to increase federal spending for agriculture, infrastructure, and military projects throughout Mississippi. === Mississippi flag === Since 2015, Wicker has sought to change the Mississippi flag, calling it offensive to many of his "fellow citizens". 64% of Mississippians voted to keep the flag in a 2001 referendum. Wicker supported nullifying that vote in 2020 and replacing the flag without a new referendum. === Confederacy === While discussing Mississippi's previous state flag, Wicker said his Confederate military ancestors were "Americans" and "brave". ===Climate change=== In 2015, Wicker was the only U.S. senator to vote against an amendment declaring that climate change is real. The final vote was 98 to 1, with Senator Harry Reid, the Democratic leader from Nevada, not voting. The amendment affirmed that "climate change is real and not a hoax." In 2017, Wicker was one of 22 senators to sign a letter to President Trump urging him to withdraw the United States from the Paris Agreement. According to OpenSecrets, Wicker has received over $200,000 from the oil and gas industry since 2012. ===Gun law=== Wicker's support for pro-gun legislation and gun rights has earned him an A+ rating from the National Rifle Association (NRA). The NRA endorsed Wicker during the 2012 election. Wicker has said that he will filibuster any bill that he feels "infringes" on the Second Amendment, including weapon bans. He has received $21,350 in funding from gun lobbyists for his political activities. In 2009, Wicker introduced a bill allowing Amtrak passengers to check unloaded and locked handguns in their luggage. The law passed 68–30. His rationale for the bill was that people's Second Amendment rights were violated on a federally subsidized train system if they could not bring their guns. One day after the 2015 San Bernardino attack, Wicker voted against a bill, co-sponsored by a Democrat and a Republican, that would make background checks mandatory when a person buys a gun. He said he voted against it because he feared it would have "opened the door to a national gun registry." In 2017, Wicker voted in favor of "a joint resolution of disapproval aimed at former President Obama's executive action requiring the Social Security Administration (SSA) place beneficiaries on the National Instant Criminal Background Check System 'mental defective' list." ===Secularism=== Wicker asked the United States Navy to deny the admission of a secular humanist to the Chaplain Corps, saying, "It is troubling that the Navy could allow a self-avowed atheist to serve in the Chaplain Corps." ===January 6 commission=== On May 28, 2021, Wicker voted against creating an independent commission to investigate the January 6 United States Capitol attack. ===Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023=== Wicker was among the 31 Senate Republicans who voted against final passage of the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023. ==Political ratings== In 2020, Wicker received a score of 74 from the American Conservative Union. He has a lifetime rating of 83.62. The Americans for Democratic Action gave Wicker a score of 0 for the term. ==Electoral history== thumb|upright|Official photo as U.S. Representative The following is a partial summary of Wicker's election results. 2006 Mississippi 1st District United States Congressional election Roger Wicker (R) (inc.) 66% Ken Hurt (D) 34% 2004 Mississippi 1st District United States Congressional election Roger Wicker (R) (inc.) 79% Barbara Dale Washer (Reform) 21% 1994 Mississippi 1st District United States Congressional election Roger Wicker (R) 63% Bill Wheeler (D) 37% ==Personal life== Wicker has consistently ranked among the poorest members of Congress, with a 2018 net worth of -$180,996. The Clarion Ledger ranked him as the poorest federal politician from Mississippi in 2014, with a net worth of -$200,000. Wicker earns an annual Senate salary of $174,000; it is unclear why he has a negative net worth. Wicker has been married to Gayle Long since 1975. They have three children and six grandchildren. The Wickers reside in Tupelo, where Wicker is a deacon and a member of the First Baptist Church Tupelo choir. He previously served on the Board of Advisors for the , a nongovernmental organization that works in crisis areas. ==References== == Works cited == * ==External links== * Senator Roger Wicker official U.S. Senate website * Roger Wicker for Senate * * * |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- Category:1951 births Category:20th-century American military personnel Category:21st-century American politicians Category:American military lawyers Category:Baptists from Mississippi Category:United States Air Force Judge Advocate General's Corps Category:Living people Category:Military personnel from Mississippi Category:Mississippi lawyers Category:Republican Party Mississippi state senators Category:People from Pontotoc, Mississippi Category:Politicians from Tupelo, Mississippi Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Mississippi Category:Republican Party United States senators from Mississippi Category:Southern Baptists Category:United States Air Force officers Category:United States Air Force reservists Category:University of Mississippi School of Law alumni Category:Conservatism in the United States Category:Baptists from the United States |
The South African Army maintains a wide variety of military equipment. ==Infantry equipment== Name Image Type Calibre Origin Notes Pistols Vektor Z88 170x170px Semi-automatic pistol 9×19mm Parabellum 15-round magazine. License- built Beretta 92F. Standard issue side arm since 1989 alongside the SP1. Vektor SP1 170x170px Semi-automatic pistol 9×19mm Parabellum 15-round magazine. Standard issue side arm alongside the Z88 since 1992. Submachine guns Milkor BXPMiller, David (2001). The Illustrated Directory of 20th Century Guns. Salamander Books Ltd. . Submachine gun 9×19mm Parabellum 22 or 32-round magazines. An indigenously designed 9mm submachine gun similar in appearance to the MAC-10. In service since 1984. Rifles Vektor R4 and R5 170x170px Assault rifle 5.56×45mm NATO 35-round magazine. Standard Service rifle since 1980. Can be fitted with various optical sights. Upgraded to a 21st century rifle in 2010 under Project African Warrior R1 (FN-FAL) 170x170px Designated marksman rifle / Battle rifle 7.62×51mm NATO 20-round magazine. Former service rifle of the South African Army. Remaining rifles in service are used in and anti-poaching patrols and other made into designated marksman rifles. Denel NTW-20 170x170px Anti-materiel rifle 20×82mm 14.5×114mm 3-round magazine. In service since 1998 by the South African Special Forces and Army Infantry sniper sections. Comes equipped with the 8 × 56 Lynx Telescopic sight. Truvelo CMS 170x170px Sniper rifle .338 Lapua 12.7x99mm 7.62x51mm Additional .338 Lapua, .50 cal and 7.62mm Truvelo CMS ordered by the South African Army in 2018. Shotguns Stoeger SP312 170x170px Pump-action shotgun 12 gauge Used for crowd control. Machine guns Vektor SS-77 170x170px General-purpose machine gun SS-77: 7.62×51mm NATO Belt-fed GPMG in service since 1986 alongside the FN MAG. 100-round pear-shaped pouch in general use, 200-round rigid box. Can use both non-disintegrating DM1 and NATO M13 or R1M1 disintegrating link belts. FN MAG 170x170px General-purpose machine gun 7.62×51mm NATO Belt-fed GPMG. Main automatic weapon of dismounted infantry sections. 100-round pear-shaped pouches in general use and 200-round disintegrating link metal belts. Can be mounted on a Tripod as well as vehicles. Browning MG4 MMG 170x170px Medium machine gun 7.62×51mm NATO / M1919A4 Browning Medium Machine gun modified by Lyttleton Engineering Works, now Denel Land Systems, to fire the 7.62×51mm round. It is Belt fed and generally fitted to armoured and infantry vehicles as well as certain helicopters as a secondary or tertiary armament. M2 Browning 170x170px Heavy machine gun .50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO) / Belt fed machine gun mainly mounted on Tripods, armoured and infantry vehicles. Grenade launchers Milkor MGL 170x170px Grenade launcher 40×46mm grenade The Milkor Y2 entered service in 1983 and the latest Milkor Y4 SuperSix entered service in 2019. Denel Y3 AGL 170x170px Automatic grenade launcher High-velocity 40×53mm grenade A belt-fed, high velocity, long-recoil, open-breech grenade launcher in service. Ideally used as a tripod-mounted support weapon for infantry or mounted on a vehicle. Electronic indirect sight and Aim point direct sight can be mounted. Anti-tank weapons RPG-7 170x170px Rocket-propelled grenade launcher N/A Large numbers of RPG-7s were captured during the mid-1970s and are used as the primary infantry anti-armour rocket launcher and is deployed at section level for use against armoured vehicles. Currently the Army is looking for a replacement for this ageing system. AT4 170x170px 84mm smoothbore recoilless rifle N/A In testing as replacement for RPG-7 Carl Gustaf 8.4 cm M4 170x170px 84mm recoilless rifle N/A In testing as replacement for RPG-7 M40 recoilless rifle 170x170px 105mm recoilless rifle N/A A direct- fire, crew served weapon issued in units of six to the motorised and airborne infantry anti-tank platoons. 171 systems in service. MILAN ER 170x170px Anti- tank guided missile N/A 46 Milan ADT (Advanced Digital Technology) launchers as well as 300+ Milan ER (extended range) SACLOS missiles are in service since 2007 with the Army’s airborne and motorised infantry battalions as well as with the Special Forces Brigade. Soldiers train on the four simulators acquired from MBDA. All systems are equipped with Video output devices and 15 launchers are equipped with Thermal imaging systems. Denel Dynamics ZT3 Ingwe 170x170px Anti-tank guided missile N/A Multipurpose long-range beam-riding precision guided missile. The missile is launched from a triple launcher atop a modified Ratel infantry combat vehicle, known as the ZT3. 13 launchers are upgraded and 80 newer ZT3A2 missiles were delivered to the army in 2005 as part of Project Adrift. The missile is used by the Armoured Corps and the Mechanized infantry battalions. Grenades M26 162x162px Fragmentation hand grenade N/A Manufactured by Rheinmetall Denel Munitions, based on a US design. In service with the South African Army Infantry Formation. RDM Illuminating Hand Grenade Hand grenade N/A A grenade which consists of an aluminium case containing the illuminating composition, to which is fitted a conventional fly-off lever striker mechanism. The illuminating grenade provides sufficient light for target identification and attack. The grenade can also be used as a light source for emergency conditions when other pyrotechnic light sources are not available. accessdate=20 August 2014--> Smoke grenade N/A A grenade which consists of a cylindrical tinplate body containing the smoke composition, a spring-loaded striker mechanism of the fly-off lever type and a pyrotechnic igniter/delay system. The fly-off lever is retained by a conventional safety pin and pull ring. The grenade has a variety of signalling applications and may also be used for screening and for training exercises in riot control. RDM Bullet Trap (BT) Rifle Grenades Rifle grenade 54mm (HE/AP), 60mm (HE/DP) Second generation South African rifle grenades manufactured by Rheinmetall Denel Munitions (formerly Swartklip Products, a division of Denel). The grenade incorporates a bullet trap and deflector in the tail tube. This allows them to be fired without the need to unload the rifle of its ammunition. Bullet Trap rifle grenades available includes HE/AP (High Explosive/Anti- Personnel), Practice and HE/DP (High Explosive/Dual Purpose) grenades. The HE/DP type has a shaped charge warhead which can penetrate 150 mm of rolled homogeneous armour or 450 mm of reinforced concrete. Grenades can be fired from both 5.56mm and 7.62mm rifles in the South African arsenal. 75mm HEAT rifle grenade Rifle grenade 75mm HEAT A shaped charge grenade, based on the Belgian ENERGA anti-tank rifle grenade and designed to be fired from most 7.62mm rifles. Can penetrate 275 mm of rolled homogeneous armour. Presumably largely phased out of South African service along with the large majority of 7.62mm R1 rifles. No longer in production. == Armoured vehicles == Name Image Type Quantity Origin Notes Tanks Olifant MK1A/1B/2 170x170px Main battle tank ~38 MK1A/1B and ~26 MK2 in regular army service ~131 in reserve squadrons/storage 2 Armoured Bridge-layers (ABL) 16 armoured recovery vehicles (ARV) A heavily modified and modernized Centurion tank. The MK1A tanks were commissioned in 1985. The MK1Bs were commissioned in 1991 and the MK2 tanks were commissioned in 2007 by using some TTD tank part. Due to the age of the vehicles, a number of tanks were deemed to be unserviceable in the mid-2000s. To rectify this more than R 117 million was spent between 2008 and 2011 to maintain and upgrade the tank fleet to maintain optimal force readiness. Tank destroyers Rooikat 170x170px Armoured fighting vehicle / Tank destroyer Active: 240 Reserve: 150 Armoured car used for reconnaissance, aggressive search-and-destroy, anti-armour operations, combat patrols, raids and hot pursuit operations. Ratel ZT-3 170x170px Tank destroyer Active: 16 Reserve: 36 Ratel IFV equipped with a triple ZT3 Ingwe ATGM launcher. Provides additional Anti-Tank capability to the Armoured Corps and Mechanized Infantry Battalions Infantry fighting vehicles Badger IFV 170x170px Infantry fighting vehicle On order: 244 According to the Project Hoefyster contract there will be five versions: a standard infantry carrier, a command car, fire support variant, mortar carrier and tank hunter. Ratel IFV 170x170px Infantry fighting vehicle Active: 534 Reserve: 666 Primary armoured fighting vehicle in service with the South African Mechanized infantry units. Variants in service include the Ratel 20 (armed with a Denel GI-2 20mm cannon), Ratel 60 (armed with a 60mm breech-loading mortar), Ratel 90 (armed with a 90mm Denel GT-2 low- velocity gun), command variant, fire-support vehicle and an 81mm mortar carrier. Armoured personnel carriers Mamba Mk3 170x170px Armoured personnel carrier Active: 440 Reserve: 400 Mine-resistant APC with significant protection against anti-tank mines and small arms fire. Casspir 170x170px Mine-resistant ambush protected vehicle Active: 840 Reserve: 200 IMV with significant protection against anti-tank mines and small arms fire. Comes in several variants: an armoured personnel carrier, ambulance, light cargo vehicle (Blesbok freighter), tanker, a fire support team vehicle(FISTV), a light recovery vehicle (Gemsbok) and a Plofadder mine clearing vehicle. ==Logistics and utility vehicles== Name Image Type Quantity Origin Notes Gecko 8×8 ATV Rapid Deployment Logistical Vehicle 170x170px All-terrain utility vehicle ~100 in service Used by the Parachute Regiment and Special Forces. SAMIL 20 170x170px 4×4 2-ton logistics truck Several thousand in service Upgraded Magirus Deutz 130M7FAL 4×4 2-ton (load) truck. The trucks serve as the primary off-road light general purpose truck of the SANDF and comes in several variants, each fulfilling a different role. These include general cargo/fuel/troop transport variants, artillery fire control posts, variants with office and workshop bodies, a battery charger variant, a light recovery variant (designated "Pegasus") and a variant with a Light General Repair(LAD) rear body. SAMIL 50 170x170px 4×4 5-ton logistics truck Several thousand in service Upgraded Magirus Deutz 192D12AL 4×4 5-ton (load) truck. Trucks are utilised in different roles as personnel/cargo transporters, field repair and maintenance vehicles, water/fuel transporters, field recovery vehicles (variant designated as "Springbok"), refuse collection trucks, mobile showers, mobile offices, bridge transporters, radio and technical bins and pantry vehicles(with refrigeration capability). SAMIL 100 170x170px 6×6 10-ton logistics truck Several thousand in service Upgraded Magirus Deutz 320D22AL 6×6 10-ton (load) truck. Trucks are utilised in different roles as personnel/cargo transporters, water/fuel transporters, field recovery vehicles (variant designated as "Kameel"/Mine protected variant designated as "Withings"), dry canteen vehicles, field repair and maintenance vehicles (designated as "Waterbok"), UAV launchers, UAV recovery vehicles and gun tractors (for towed artillery pieces). SHE Cavallo (Kynos Aljaba) Trucks 170x170px 8×8 heavy logistics truck Several thousand in service The army employs several variants of this vehicle. The "Skimmel" is a heavy recovery vehicle which is fitted with a tow arm, a winch, a crane and various other equipment. The "Zebra" is a maintenance and repair variant of the truck. The "Kameelperd" version carries the Army Air Defence Artillery's ESR220 Thutlwa mobile battery fire control post and early warning radar. The trucks also have tank transport and bridge layer variants. MAN Transportation Trucks 170x170px Logistics truck Unknown Primarily utilised as prime movers, firefighting vehicles and low-bed transporters. Iveco 30-tonne transporter 170x170px Logistics truck Unknown Designated as "Giraffe". Used as a cargo/vehicle transporter. Toyota Dyna 170x170px Medium-duty truck Unknown Designated as "Wildebees" Scania transport buses 170x170px Personnel transport bus Unknown These buses are used to ferry personnel to and from bases. Various cars and light trucks. Light armoured utility vehicles Unknown Various civilian utility vehicles are utilized by the army for light transport/patrol purposes (primarily Ford, Toyota and Land Rover vehicles). == Artillery == Name Image Type Quantity Origin Notes Self-propelled artillery GV6 Rhino 170x170px Self- propelled howitzer 43 Locally developed long range 155mm Self-Propelled Howitzer. South Africa received 153 GV6 howitzers between 2000-2010. Some were sold: * : 78 sold * : 24 sold T5-52 Condor 170x170px Self-propelled howitzer 6 Locally developed long range 155mm Self-Propelled Howitzer. Towed artillery GV5 Leopard 170x170px Towed howitzer 72 Long-range towed 155mm howitzer. Small amounts of artillery pieces are used by the School of Artillery to train gun crews from multiple regiments. GV1 25-pounder 170x170px Towed howitzer 32 GV1 88mm guns are still maintained in several reserve regiments such as the Cape Field Artillery regiment and the Transvaal Horse Artillery which they fire on ceremonial occasions. Rocket artillery Bateleur Mk 2 127mm MRL 170x170px Multiple rocket launcher 25 The standard multiple launch rocket system (MLRS) of the South African Army Artillery Formation. 40 launch tubes mounted on an armoured Samil 100 6×6 truck. Valkiri Mk 1 127mm MRL 170x170px Multiple rocket launcher 76 24 launch tubes mounted on a Unimog light 4×4 truck. Mortars M4 Commando Mortar 170x170px 60mm light mortar 2300+ Uses the M-61 series of bombs in High Explosive, Smoke, Illumination and Practice versions. In use with the Special Forces and Airborne Infantry. Upgraded in 2016 with improved range and accuracy. M3 Mortar 170x170px 81mm medium mortar 1890 1890 mortars in service with the South African Army Infantry Formation. M5 120mm Mortar 170x170px 120mm long range mortar 36 36 mortars are in service with 18 Light Regiment ==Air defence== Name Image Type Quantity Origin Notes Surface-to-air missiles Umkhonto GBADS 170x170px Surface-to-air missile system In testing Up to 120 systems planned. The Umkhonto GBADS vertical launching system is being developed for the South African Army’s ground-based air defence system (GBADS) requirement. The Umkhonto GBADS can carry up to eight Umkhonto-R and Umkhonto- IR (Infrared) Mk II missiles. Starstreak 170x170px Manportable/Vehicle mounted surface-to-air missile 178 Eight Lightweight Multiple Launchers (LML), two 20 km-range Thales Page continuous-wave (CW) low-observable battery air defence local warning radars as well as about 100 VSHORAD (very short range air defence) high-velocity missiles were ordered in December 2002 and are in use with 10 Air Defence Artillery Regiment. These missiles have a range of between 5–7 km. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute lists the number of Portable SAMs delivered as 96 for the GBADS phase 1 project with another order for 82 Anti-aircraft guns Oerlikon GDF 170x170px Radar guided anti-aircraft autocannon 169 / 169 acquired (along with 75 Super Fledermaus fire control units) These guns were upgraded by Rheinmetall AG in 2017 to use Oerlikon Skyshield fire control systems and Ahead airburst ammunition capable of shooting down modern aerial threats. ZU-23-2 Zumlac 170x170px Twin 23mm anti aircraft autocannon 36 These guns were captured in the 1980s during the South African Border War and are mounted on armoured SAMIL 100 heavy trucks. ==Miscellaneous equipment== Name Image Type Quantity Origin Notes Seeker 400 170x170px Unmanned aerial vehicle 36 The Seeker 400 is the latest variant of the Seeker UAVs manufactured by South Africa's Denel Dynamics. SANDF Took delivery of the first Seeker 400 in 2015, in 2021 a SANDF Seeker 400 crashed. ATE Vulture 170x170px Unmanned aerial vehicle At least 4 Acquired under Project Klooster. The Vulture is used for target acquisition, fall-of-shot detection and fire correction in support of Towed and Self Propelled Gun Howitzer Systems of the SA Army Artillery Formation. It operates without a pilot or a runway and is deployable in 30 minutes in unprepared terrain. The UAV is launched from a catapult on the back of a SAMIL 100 truck. The Vulture is monitored on the ground via the Navigator and Observer screens in a Ground Control Station. A laser system is used for automated approach, an arrestor system for its capture and an inflatable airbag for its recovery. Husky VMMD 170x170px Vehicle mounted mine detection system Several thousand in service A system designed to clear routes of mines. Usually they operate in pairs one after the other. The leading vehicle acts as a Mine Detection Vehicle (MDV) and is designated as "Meerkat". The second Husky in the system tows a trailer called a "Duisendpoot" and is known as a towing /mine detection vehicle (T/MDV). The latest version of the Husky, the 2G, has high sensitivity low metal content detectors, ground penetrating radar, powerful air blowers and a robotic arm. ESR220 Thutlwa 170x170px Mobile battery fire control post and early warning radar 4 Designated as "Kameelperd". The system uses an L-band 2D surveillance radar to provide early warning to air defence artillery troops in the field. This fully autonomous armoured system (with self-contained power plant)is transported by a Spanish-designed Kynos Aljaba 8×8 (“Skimmel” in SANDF service) truck. It is capable of tracking aircraft in a 120 km radius and can be fully operational within 10 minutes of arrival at the deployment site. The system also provides for a combined air picture derived from primary radar(through utilisation of Link-ZA, the SANDF's data link system), as well as a command and control system for effective air defence control. Thales Squire radar system 272x272px Battlefield surveillance radar 14 Acquired in 2012 under Project Cytoon. The radars are designed to plot a pedestrian at 10 km, a vehicle at 21 km, a tank at 28 km, a helicopter at 21 km, a boat at 12 km and a ship at 48 km. The radar system uses a frequency modulated continuous wave Doppler radar and is designed to be virtually undetectable by enemy electronic warfare equipment. All systems are in service with the SA Army Tactical Intelligence Corps. Thales Sophie man-portable system 170x170px Thermal imager 65 Acquired in 2012 under Project Cytoon. The Thales Sophie can spot humans at over 4 km, tanks at 10 km, helicopters at 12 km and jet fighters at 16 km. All systems are in service with the SA Army Tactical Intelligence Corps. LOCATS Low cost aerial target systems Unknown The LOCATS is an unmanned aerial target used to train Air Defence Artillery crews in gunnery. It is launched from a ramp fitted on the back of a flatbed truck and is recovered by parachute. ==See also== List of equipment of the South African National Defence Force South African Air Force South African Navy South African Special Forces List of South African military bases ==References== Category:Military equipment of South Africa Category:South African Army South Africa Equipment |
Carmelite Brewer Christie was a Congregational missionary in the Ottoman Empire from 1877 to 1920 and served as the acting president of the St. Paul's College, during World War I. She was the college's sole American caretaker, though her husband Thomas Davidson Christie was the named president. She wrote letters and kept diaries which are part of the Minnesota Historical Society Christie Collection and provide a first-hand account of the Armenian massacre of 1895, Ottoman Turkish politics in the pre- and post-World War I era, the Armenian genocide of 1915 and its aftermath. During the Adana massacre, she refused to abandon the school, students and refugees who had fled there, guarding up to 5,000 people under her protection and hoisting the American flag. ==Early life== Sarah Carmelite Brewer, known as Carmelite, was born in Lee Center, Illinois on 25 April 1852 to Elizabeth (née Pratt) and Rev. James Brewer. On her father's side of the family, she was descended from Captain John Brewer, veteran of the French and Indian War and a relative of the Supreme Court Justice, David Josiah Brewer. Carmelite was a cousin of Rev. Josiah Brewer, father of Justice Brewer, who was an early missionary and school founder sent by the American Board to Greece and Turkey. He was one reason Thomas and Carmelite ended up in Turkey. Her father was a preacher who graduated from Williams College some 30 years after the Haystack Prayer Meeting which resulted in the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. After graduation he taught in schools in the South. He joined his brother Ira after riding from Montgomery, Alabama to Lee County in 1847. James was a farmer and a principal of the new academy in Lee Center in 1850. He was ordained in 1859. She graduated in 1871 from the Rockford Seminary for Women, a progressive academy. Rockford was the sister college of Beloit College in Wisconsin. She taught school in Lee Center until she married a graduate of Beloit, Thomas Davidson Christie on 14 March 1872. ==Missionary period== Carmelite joined her new husband in Wisconsin, where he taught at Beloit College and the University of Wisconsin, while working on his master's degree, and she began their family with the births of their first two daughters, Elizabeth Norton. Thomas and his young family went to Andover Theological Seminary for his further studies. Their daughter Anna Carmelite was born in there in 1875. Daughter Elizabeth died of scarlet fever in 1876. Thomas graduated and was ordained as a minister the next year. Carmelite was appointed as a missionary by the American Board of Missions in Asiatic Turkey in 1877. Thomas, Carmelite and their young daughter Anna moved to Marash, Turkey that same year, where he taught at the Central Turkey Theological Seminary. In addition to preparing young men for college in the period between 1877 and 1893, she expanded their family to include: Emerson Brewer, Mary Phelps, Paul Theodore, Agnes Emily, and Jean Ogilvy. Carmelite and the children returned to the Beloit for the period from 1888 to 1890 for the children's education and then returned to Turkey. In 1893 the family moved to Tarsus to take up a post at St. Paul's College. Carmelite by character and situation assumed non-traditional roles overseas. As part of his duties, Thomas left Turkey to raise money or went to surrounding mission stations to support them. In addition to her family responsibilities, she was involved in the activities of St. Paul's College and the education of women and a supporter of suffrage for unmarried women. After the 1895 massacre at Marash, Carmelite wrote letters describing the events which were published in American newspapers. She reported on deaths, woundings, damage to the schools in Marash and threats to the missionary workers. Her reports were personal, having spent fifteen years among those who were living through the crisis and in one letter, she reported that she and her husband had been warned regarding violence which might spread to Tarsus. By August, the rioting had reached them, though the Christies were not at the school when it was looted. In the face of the ongoing violence, the family fled to Mersina, and eventually Carmelite returned with the children to the United States between 1897 and 1898 for their safety and schooling. ===1909 riots=== Carmelite's son-in-law Rev. Miner Rogers, Reverend Herbert Adams Gibbons and her husband went to the annual conference of Armenian ministers and expatriate missionaries in Adana, Turkey on 13 April 1909. While they were there Rogers and another missionary Henry Maurer, were killed by gunfire during the Adana massacre. The men were carrying water to put out a fire in order to protect a missionary run dispensary. Thomas Christie could not immediately return to Tarsus. During the week he was away, some of the rioters went to Tarsus. Locals joined them in setting the Tarsus Armenian quarter on fire. Through Carmelite's efforts, the school survived despite protecting around 5,000 refugees on the grounds of the college. When regular soldiers began to join in with the violence and the mob turned toward the campus, Carmelite raised an American flag and refused the evacuation request of the consular saying, "I prefer to die with my students and the Armenian people than to hand them over to Turks and save myself." The campus was surrounded by the mob, which replaced the water in the fire extinguishing system with kerosene to torch the school and refugees, when word to cease the hostilities was received from the Young Turks in Constantinople. Thomas and Gibbons returned to tell of Rogers' death to their own wives, and break the news to his daughter Mary and her infant child. Carmelite nursed and comforted the injured and dying, provided food for them and she and Helen Gibbons sewed clothes for infants. For two weeks after the violence, Carmelite was called upon to give constant care to the sick, the children of the refugees and orphans. However, within months of the events, the school was back in operation. Carmelite gave a glowing report of their progress under her leadership as acting president while her husband was back in the states. ===Results of the Tehcir Law of 1915 and World War I=== The Christies were at St. Paul's when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers at the start of WWI. The Tehcir (forced displacement) Law and another law which allowed expropriation and confiscation of Armenian property was passed by the Ottoman Parliament in May 1915. Teachers and students at St. Paul's were ordered to leave Tarsus for Syria. Thomas traveled in June 1915 to Constantinople to request that the government not deport teachers or students. He was not allowed to return to Tarsus for the duration of the conflict. A short time later, Carmelite arranged for her family and future son-in-law to leave for America but she stayed. During the War, she kept the college open, distributed relief supplies and chronicled events in a summary she sent to the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions after the war ended. In her summary, Carmelite chronicles how the Turkish Army requested use of their halls for regimental soldiers and officers, for use a hospital during the cholera and typhus epidemic in 1915, and as a quarters to house English prisoners of war. Carmelite negotiated with the authorities, making small concessions during the war which allowed them to keep operating the college. In addition, she provided aid to refugees, writing, "...100,000 exiles were said to have passed Tarsus en route for regions beyond. Of these, we helped as many as we could with money, food and clothing where it was possible by protecting them. Some of these we hid, for others we found work that counted as Government service, and so saved them from being deported further." Carmelite made regular visits to families, local officials and the military (including several audiences with Enver Pasha). Her diary chronicled the stream of Armenians from all over Turkey that passed through Tarsus. Most were on foot and were being directed to Syria. She also noted the wounded coming back from the front and the conditions which ethnic Turks and Armenians suffered during the war. Thomas returned to briefly to Tarsus in 1919, not a well man. ==Diary== Carmelite made entries in a diary from 1868 to 1931. About 20 of these volumes, along with correspondence, address books and memorandums are in the Minnesota Historical Society's archives. They have been used by historians and researchers. Her entries during her time at Tarsus are controversial in the context of interpretation events surround Turkish, Armenian, Kurdish, Greek, various political and religious groups. Reverend Richard Walker Rockwell supplied Arnold Toynbee with what was reported to be a transcribed copy of Mrs. Christie's diary, with many peoples names omitted or noted with initials. Toynbee edited the "Blue Book" in 1916 and included some entries of Mrs. Christie. At the time, Turkish critics said the Blue Book was an exaggeration, events fabricated by missionaries and was clearly a piece of WWI British propaganda. They pointed out that Toynbee pressured Rev. Rockwell for names, so as editor he could assure the reader these people existed. Toynbee did not get the names but included Mrs. Christie's entries. In general, her diaries document her activities and her opinions about events around her, including her family. ==Later life== In 1919, Carmelite and Thomas returned to the United States, where briefly Thomas became pastor at the Union Church in Palm Springs, California. After the couple's daughter Agnes, who had been suffering from ill health, committed suicide in December 1919, the couple's youngest daughter, Jean, went to Tarsus to help her mother prepare to return to the United States. They made their home in Eagle Rock California among a large community of Armenians. Thomas died in 1921. In the last years of her life, Carmelite lived in Pasadena with her daughter Jean, who taught at Occidental College. ==Death and legacy == Carmelite died on October 17, 1931, in Pasadena. She and Thomas are buried in Newton Cemetery (Massachusetts) in the American Missionary Board plot.Sarah Carmelite Brewer Christie gavestone https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/88265706 The Minnesota Historical Society was given a trunk full of Christie family letters in 1965. The Christie family was asked to give or make copies of other letters and diaries for a permanent Christie collection. In 2016, the collection occupies over 20 cubic feet for Thomas & his family and about the same for his father and siblings. This collection includes Carmelite's continuous diary she kept from 1865 to 1931, giving important historical, first person accounts of the turbulent times of Turkey's history at the turn of the twentieth century through the First World War. == Children == Five of Carmelite's six surviving children were born in Turkey. The more notable have a common thread that echoed Carmelite's own life of social service and education. Anna Carmelite Christie (1875-1910) was born in Wisconsin and traveled to Turkey with her parents when they moved there. She had poor health and though schooled in both Europe and the United States, she spent much of her life living in the U.S. quietly pursuing musical interests and performing charitable works. Emerson Brewer Christie (1878-1967) was a noted linguist and ethnologist. He graduated from Yale, taught at St. Paul's College and then in the Philippines. He also taught at University of Michigan and Temple University. He was Chief of the US State Department's Bureau of Translation from 1928 to 1944. Mary Phelps Christie (1881-1975) was born in and spent a great deal of her life in Turkey. She attended Bryn Mawr College and studied at the Hartford Female Seminary, graduating in 1908. Mary married Daniel Miner Rogers (1882-1909) and they joined her parents in Tarsus. After the death of Rogers, she returned with their child to the United States. In 1911 she returned to Tarsus to teach. She met her second husband William Nute and they married in Tarsus. Mary and her child returned to the States so William could complete his medical training. They returned to Turkey where Mary taught and William ran rural medical clinics, until their retirement, when she returned to California. Paul Theodore Christie (1883-1959) was born and raised in Turkey. As his siblings, he was sent away as a teenager for further education. Paul attended schools in Greece, Switzerland and Germany. He graduated from Hotchkiss School in 1903 and Harvard University in 1907. He was a French teacher and athletic coach at St. Georges School until World War II. He retired and during the war worked at a Grumman airplane factory as a riveter in California. He continued to teach swimming until he died. Agnes Emily Christie (1887-1919) attended schools in Europe and the United States, though her education was interrupted because of poor health at various times. Trained as a dental hygienist, she worked in that field until she became depressed and committed suicide. Jean Ogilvie Christie (1891-1984) graduated from Wellesley College in 1915. She returned to Turkey and taught in Constantinople. Jean was forced to stop teaching there in 1917 and worked with the YMCA in France. Jean helped her mother return to the United States and settle in California in 1920. She was a teacher at Occidental College and at the University of California, Berkeley. She was married to Eugene V. Lien. ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:1852 births Category:1931 deaths Category:American Congregationalist missionaries Category:People from Lee County, Illinois Category:Female Christian missionaries Category:American expatriates in the Ottoman Empire Category:Congregationalist missionaries in Turkey Category:Congregationalist missionaries in the Ottoman Empire Category:Missionary educators |
Taiseer Jaber Al-Jassim (, can also be spelled as Taisir Al-Jassim, born 25 July 1984) is a former Saudi Arabian professional footballer who played as a midfielder. He was the captain of Al-Ahli Saudi FC and a vice-captain of the Saudi Arabia national team. He retired from international football in 2018 and completely retired in 2020. ==Club career== ===Al-Ahli=== Taiseer started his career at Hajer before joining Al-Ahli on 19 June 2001. His older brother Misfer also joined Al-Ahli from Hajer before his signing. He made his debut for Al-Ahli on 18 October 2002 in the Federation Cup final against Al-Ettifaq. He made his league debut on 31 October 2002 in the 4–0 win against Al-Ettifaq. On 26 February 2005, Taiseer scored his first goal for Al-Ahli in the 3–2 derby loss against Al-Ittihad. On 8 March 2005, Taiseer made his continental debut and scored once for Al-Ahli in the 2005 AFC Champions League against Iraqi side Al-Zawraa. On 6 October 2005, Taiseer appeared in his second Federation Cup final for Al-Ahli in the 2–0 loss against Al-Hilal. On 27 December 2005, Taiseer scored his first hat-trick for Al-Ahli against Abha in the Round of 16 of the 2005–06 Saudi Crown Prince Cup. On 7 April 2006, he started the 2006 Saudi Crown Prince Cup Final which ended in a 1–0 defeat against Al-Hilal. On 9 February 2007, Taiseer appeared in his third Federation Cup in the 3–0 win Al-Ittihad. Two months later on 27 April 2007, Taiseer started and scored in the 2007 Saudi Crown Prince Cup Final against Al-Ittihad to help Al-Ahli win their fifth title. On 8 May 2007, Taiseer was loaned out to Qatari side Al-Gharafa and appeared twice and scored once in the Emir Cup, as Al-Gharafa were eliminated in the semi-finals. On 3 December 2008, Taiseer appeared in his sixth cup final for Al-Ahli but this time in the Gulf Club Champions Cup against Saudi side Al-Nassr. Al-Ahli defeated Al-Nassr 3–0 on aggregate to win their third title. On 8 May 2009, Taiseer joined Qatar SC on loan to participate in the Emir Cup, he made two appearances and scored once as his team were eliminated in the semi-finals once again. On 9 October 2009, Taiseer signed a new four-year contract with Al-Ahli. On 24 June 2011, Taiseer helped Al-Ahli win their eleventh King Cup title after defeating Al-Ittihad 4–2 on penalties. During the 2011–12 and 2012–13 season, Taiseer played an instrumental role in leading Al-Ahli to the 2012 AFC Champions League Final and also finishing as runners-up in the 2011–12 Saudi Professional League. He also started the 2012 King Cup Final win against Al-Nassr. Following the departure of Mohammad Massad in January 2013, Taiseer was named as club captain. On 6 December 2013, Taiseer renewed his contract with Al-Ahli for another four years. On 13 February 2015, Taiseer captained Al-Ahli in the 2–1 win against Al-Hilal in the 2015 Saudi Crown Prince Cup Final. During the 2015–16 season, Taiseer captained Al-Ahli to their first league title since the 1983–84 season. ===Loan to Al-Wehda=== On 19 August 2018, Taiseer was loaned to fellow Pro League Al-Wehda until the end of the 2018–19 season. His loan was ended early on 26 January 2019 and Taiseer returned to Al-Ahli. ===Al-Nasr=== On 4 September 2019, Taiseer joined Kuwait Premier League side Al-Nasr. He became the first Saudi player since Jamal Farhan to play in the Kuwait Premier League. On 2 July 2020, Al-Nasr ended Taiseer's contract early due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait. ==International career== ===2007 AFC Asian Cup=== Taiseer represented Saudi Arabia at the 2007 AFC Asian Cup and scored two goals against Bahrain, as his team reached the final before losing to Iraq. ===2009 Gulf Cup of Nations=== He also participated in the 2009 Gulf Cup of Nations and reached the final against Oman. However, he was the only player to miss in the decisive penalty shoot-out after the match ended 0-0, ultimately giving Oman the trophy after a 6-5 win. ===2011 AFC Asian Cup=== Taiseer scored a goal for Saudi Arabia against Syria at the 2011 AFC Asian Cup, but it wasn't enough as his team lost 2-1 and exited the tournament from the group stage.Al-Jasim's Image ===2015 AFC Asian Cup=== Taiseer scored in Saudi Arabia's 2-1 win against Iraq to help them qualify for the 2015 AFC Asian Cup. ===2018 World Cup=== On 19 December 2017, after Saudi Arabia qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, he announced his intentions to retire after the end of the tournament. He made 2 appearances in the World Cup before his tournament ended prematurely due to injury. ==Style of play== Taiseer has been described as intelligent and technically gifted with excellent work ethics. Long-range shooting, dribbling and passing are his strong points. He played in almost all midfield positions, most notably as an attacking midfielder, a winger or a central midfielder. ==Personal life== Taiseer's older brother Misfer was also a footballer who played for Hajer and Al-Ahli. Taiseer is married to a Lebanese woman. He belongs to the Shia minority of Saudi Arabia and helped build a Shia mosque in his hometown. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== As of 1 May 2020. Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League National Cup League Cup Asia Arab/Gulf Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Al-Ahli 2002–03 Saudi Premier League 2 0 — — 0 0 — — 0 0 1 0 3 0 Al-Ahli 2003–04 Saudi Premier League 14 0 — — 4 0 — — 11 0 4 0 33 0 Al-Ahli 2004–05 Saudi Premier League 11 1 — — 1 0 4 1 12 0 0 0 28 2 Al-Ahli 2005–06 Saudi Premier League 15 1 — — 5 3 — — — — 2 1 22 5 Al-Ahli 2006–07 Saudi Premier League 17 2 — — 5 2 — — 10 0 2 0 34 4 Al-Ahli 2007–08 Saudi Premier League 18 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 — — 2 1 21 2 Al-Ahli 2008–09 Saudi Pro League 19 3 2 0 1 0 — — 2 0 — — 24 3 Al-Ahli 2009–10 Saudi Pro League 10 0 1 0 3 0 3 0 — — — — 17 0 Al-Ahli 2010–11 Saudi Pro League 21 3 5 0 2 0 — — — — — — 28 3 Al-Ahli 2011–12 Saudi Pro League 25 9 4 1 1 1 11 2 — — — — 41 13 Al-Ahli 2012–13 Saudi Pro League 22 5 5 0 1 1 10 1 — — — — 38 7 Al-Ahli 2013–14 Saudi Pro League 24 7 5 1 3 1 — — — — — — 32 9 Al-Ahli 2014–15 Saudi Pro League 25 3 1 0 5 0 8 3 — — — — 39 6 Al-Ahli 2015–16 Saudi Pro League 25 2 4 0 4 1 4 0 — — — — 37 3 Al-Ahli 2016–17 Saudi Pro League 23 3 5 0 2 0 9 1 — — 1 0 40 4 Al- Ahli 2017–18 Saudi Pro League 11 1 1 0 — — 5 1 — — — — 17 2 Al-Ahli 2018–19 Saudi Pro League 8 1 0 0 — — 3 0 0 0 — — 11 1 Al-Ahli Total 290 42 33 2 37 9 58 9 35 0 12 2 465 64 Al-Gharafa (loan) 2006–07 Qatar Stars League 0 0 2 1 0 0 — — — — — — 2 1 Qatar (loan) 2008–09 Qatar Stars League 0 0 2 1 0 0 — — — — — — 2 1 Al-Wehda (loan) 2018–19 Saudi Pro League 8 1 1 0 — — — — — — — — 9 1 Al- Nasr 2019–20 Kuwait Premier League 10 1 1 0 2 0 — — — — 3 2 16 3 Career total Career total Career total 308 44 39 4 39 9 58 9 35 0 15 4 494 70 ===International=== :Statistics accurate as of match played 20 June 2018. Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia Year Apps Goals 2004 1 0 2005 13 0 2006 4 0 2007 14 5 2008 3 0 2009 16 1 2010 9 1 2011 13 1 2012 4 0 2013 9 1 2014 11 1 2015 9 3 2016 8 4 2017 10 0 2018 10 2 Total 134 19 ===International goals=== :Scores and results list Saudi Arabia's goal tally first. # Date Venue Opponent Score Result Competition 1\. 27 June 2007 National Stadium, Kallang, Singapore 2–0 2–1 Friendly 2\. 18 July 2007 Gelora Sriwijaya Stadium, Palembang, Indonesia 3–0 4–0 2007 AFC Asian Cup 3\. 18 July 2007 Gelora Sriwijaya Stadium, Palembang, Indonesia 4–0 4–0 2007 AFC Asian Cup 4\. 2 November 2007 King Fahd International Stadium, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 1–0 1–0 Friendly 5\. 9 November 2007 Prince Abdullah Al Faisal Stadium, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 1–0 2–0 Friendly 6\. 26 May 2009 Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium, Doha, Qatar 1–0 1–2 Friendly 7\. 9 October 2010 Prince Abdullah Al Faisal Stadium, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 3–0 4–0 Friendly 8\. 9 January 2011 Ahmed bin Ali Stadium, Al Rayyan, Qatar 1–1 1–2 2011 AFC Asian Cup 9\. 15 November 2013 Prince Mohamed bin Fahd Stadium, Dammam, Saudi Arabia 1–0 2–1 2015 AFC Asian Cup qualification 10\. 8 September 2014 Craven Cottage, London, England 2–3 2–3 Friendly 11\. 3 September 2015 King Abdullah Sports City, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 5–0 7–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 12\. 8 September 2015 Shah Alam Stadium, Shah Alam, Malaysia 1–1 3–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 13\. 17 November 2015 National Stadium, Dili, East Timor 7–0 10–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 14\. 24 March 2016 King Abdullah Sports City, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 2–0 2–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 15\. 29 March 2016 Zayed Sports City Stadium, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates 1–0 1–1 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 16\. 24 August 2016 Grand Hamad Stadium, Doha, Qatar 1–0 4–0 Friendly 17\. 6 October 2016 King Abdullah Sports City, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 1–0 2–2 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 18\. 26 February 2018 King Abdullah Sports City, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 2–0 3–0 Friendly 19\. 8 June 2018 BayArena, Leverkusen, Germany 1–2 1–2 Friendly ==Honours== ===Club=== ;Al-Ahli *Saudi Professional League: 2015–16 *King Cup: 2011, 2012, 2016 *Crown Prince Cup: 2001/02 ,2006–07, 2014–15 *Saudi Federation Cup: 2001, 2002, 2007 *Arab Club Champions Cup: 2003 *Saudi Super Cup: 2016 *Gulf Club Champions Cup: 2002, 2008 *Friendship Football Tournament: 2001, 2002 *AFC Champions League : Runner-up: 2012 Friendly tournaments * Al Jazeera International Cup: 2013 National team * Islamic Games Gold Medal 2005 * Singapore Asian Championship 2007 ===Individual=== *Saudi Professional League Player of the Season: 2011–12 *Saudi Professional League Best Midfielder: 2011–12 *Al-Ahli Player of the Year: 2011–12 *Entering Centennial Club 2015 numbers and priorities * The first player to complete 200 matches in the history of the Saudi Professional League. * He participated with the Saudi Arabia national team in 134 international matches in an international career that lasted for 14 years. * He participated with Al-Ahli in the Saudi Professional League more than 200 matches, and scored in the Saudi Professional League (46 goals) and assisted (44 goals). * His contributions to goals with Al-Ahli club reached more than 100 goals, even though he is a midfielder. * Al-Ahli's third top scorer in the AFC Champions League, scoring 9 goals. * assisted the Saudi Arabia national team in the 2018 World Cup qualifiers with 8 goals and contributed 14 goals in total (The most). * Al-Ahli's top scorer for Saudi Arabia national players in the AFC Champions League. * Al-Ahli's top scorer for Saudi Arabia national players in the Saudi Professional League. ==Notes== ==See also== * List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps ==References== Category:1984 births Category:Living people Category:Saudi Arabian footballers Category:Saudi Arabia men's international footballers Category:2007 AFC Asian Cup players Category:2011 AFC Asian Cup players Category:2015 AFC Asian Cup players Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Hajer FC players Category:Al Ahli Saudi FC players Category:Al-Gharafa SC players Category:Qatar SC players Category:Al Wehda FC players Category:Al-Nasr SC (Kuwait) players Category:Saudi Arabian expatriate footballers Category:Saudi Arabian Shia Muslims Category:FIFA Men's Century Club Category:Saudi Professional League players Category:2018 FIFA World Cup players Category:Expatriate footballers in Qatar Category:Expatriate footballers in Kuwait Category:Saudi Arabian expatriate sportspeople in Qatar Category:Saudi Arabian expatriate sportspeople in Kuwait Category:People from Al-Hasa Category:Kuwait Premier League players |
Phillis Wheatley High School is a secondary school located at 4801 Providence Street in Houston, Texas, United States with a ZIP code of 77020. Wheatley is a part of the Houston Independent School District. Wheatley, named after Phillis Wheatley, is located inside the 610 Loop in the Fifth Ward. Wheatley has a technology magnet program inherited from the closure of Middle College for Technology Careers in spring 2006; Wheatley's program began in fall 2006. In 1979 Wheatley principal Charles Herbert said that "For many, Fifth Ward is Wheatley High School" and that African-Americans who grew up in the Fifth Ward "still cling closely to Wheatley" even after they had moved to other parts of the United States.West, Richard. "Only the Strong Survive" (Archive). Texas Monthly. Emmis Communications, February 1979. Volume 7, No. 2. . START: p. 94. CITED: p. 178. ==History== ===Pre-desegregation=== Wheatley first opened at 3415 Lyons Avenue in the former McGowan Elementary School building on January 31, 1927."History" (Archive). Wheatley High School. March 22, 2003. Retrieved on July 19, 2009. In 1927 Wheatley High School was one of the largest Black high schools in the United States with 2,600 students and 60 teachers, and it was such throughout the Jim Crow era, when schools were segregated on the basis of race.Walsh, Robb. "The Nickel Burger." Houston Press. October 31, 2002. Retrieved on October 28, 2015. By 1949 Wheatley's first facility on Lyons Avenue became so overcrowded that students attended in shifts. During that year the , $2.5 million 4900 Market Street campus opened. The most expensive high school built in Houston at the time, the campus was designed by the firm MacKie & Kamrath in a Frank Lloyd Wright-influenced modernist style. The campus, described by the Houston Chronicle as "the finest Negro high school in the South," had a 1,500-seat auditorium, a gymnasium, an industrial arts facility, and a swimming pool. The school district spent attention on Wheatley in order to promote the argument that segregated minority schools can be equal to segregated White schools. The former Wheatley campus became E.O. Smith Middle School,Berryhill, Michael. "What's Wrong With Wheatley?." Houston Press. April 17, 1997. 2. Retrieved on March 31, 2009."School History ." E.O. Smith Education Center. Retrieved on November 10, 2010. and later the Carter Career Center. In May 1965, William Lawson, a youth minister, asked some Wheatley students to discuss a proposed school boycott. While the school district was integrating, African American leaders believed that it was being integrated too slowly. During the boycott, which occurred five days later, 10% of Wheatley students attended classes.Berryhill, Michael. "What's Wrong With Wheatley?." Houston Press. April 17, 1997. 3. Retrieved on March 31, 2009. ===Post-desegregation=== thumb|Fine Arts Complex and John F. Codwell Auditorium In the 1970s Houston ISD had been desegregated. As the Fifth Ward as a neighborhood experienced a surge in crime, Houston ISD rezoned the Denver Harbor neighborhood, which had many White residents, to Wheatley. At that time the neighborhood was quickly becoming Hispanic. Many area Hispanic students preferred to attend Austin High School and Furr High School as they became the majority population at those schools. John Nova Lomax of the Houston Press stated that pride and discipline at Wheatley began to disintegrate in the 1970s, as counselors complained about a low level of morale among the students. The school abolished corporal punishment around that time, since White parents did not want Black teachers to physically punish white students, and Black parents did not want White teachers to physically punish black students. In addition, many of Wheatley's new White teachers, many of whom did not live in the Fifth Ward, had a lack of experience in teaching inner city Black students. Wylie Henry, a former HISD board member, said that many of the new White teachers "came in and tried to be kids' friends instead of their teachers." In 1979 Principal Herald stated that integration caused the best students and teachers to leave the school. In 1976 the school was in the bottom twelfth percentile for reading; this meant that 88% of U.S. high school students had better reading scores than Wheatley students. In 1977 it declined to the bottom 11th. In 1978 HISD proposed using smaller classes, higher teaching salary, and a redesigned educational program to ameliorate Wheatley's academic problems. In 1979 Herald stated that test scores had declined. That year Herald also stated that the situation at the school was more peaceful in the 1970s than during the Civil Rights Movement; he added that 50% of Wheatley students were attempting to gain admission in to university and that some gifted individuals still remained at the school. In the mid-1980s, as crack cocaine became an epidemic in many inner-city neighborhoods, Wheatley students and teachers complained about security issues regarding some area apartments. In 1985 three youngsters walked onto the campus and shot an English teacher who had been conducting drill team rehearsals in the cafeteria. In 1986 a Hispanic student who had transferred from Dallas shot another Hispanic student in the face. After Joan Raymond became superintendent in 1986, she considered closing Wheatley because of difficulties in making the school have acceptable academic achievement and safety. Michael Berryhill of the Houston Press said that it was not politically possible to have the school closed since there were too many Wheatley alumni who did not want their school to be closed.Berryhill, Michael. "What's Wrong With Wheatley?." Houston Press. April 17, 1997. 4. Retrieved on March 31, 2009. In the 1990s Wheatley had low test scores and high dropout rates. In 1995 Wheatley had the highest dropout rate and lowest mathematics score of the high schools in Houston ISD.Berryhill, Michael. "What's Wrong With Wheatley?." Houston Press. April 17, 1997. 1. Retrieved on March 31, 2009. In 1997 none of the teachers at Wheatley High School lived in the Wheatley attendance zone. During the same year, of the 1,800 high-school-age children zoned to Wheatley, less than 1,000 attended the school. ===2000s through 2020s=== In 2007 a Johns Hopkins University study cited Wheatley as a "dropout factory" where at least 40% of the entering freshman class does not make it to their senior year.Scharrer, Gary. "Report points to 'dropout factories'." Houston Chronicle. November 7, 2007. Retrieved on July 16, 2010. A new campus for Wheatley High School, designed by Willie Jordan, a Wheatley alum, was under construction in the same plot of land as the first 4900 Market Street campus, although the address changed to 4801 Providence Street. The construction ended in fall 2006 and the new campus opened. The old 4900 Market Street campus was demolished. The new campus's original budget was $35,000,000. Construction began in summer 2004 and ended during summer 2006. The lead architect was ESPA Architecture, with the lead manager as Gilbane. The population of the school increased when Middle College for Technology Careers merged into Wheatley.Radcliffe, Jennifer. "Critics: In HISD, too many don't go where zoned / Black leaders argue bond has no fix to get kids back to schools in their neighborhoods" (). Houston Chronicle. Sunday October 14, 2007. B1 MetFront. Schools that received students zoned to Wheatley included Davis High School, Furr High School, Barbara Jordan High School, and Reagan High School."Report points to 'dropout factories'" (). Houston Chronicle, October 31, 2007 During that year 58% of children zoned to Kashmere chose to attend a different Houston ISD school. The former Carter building later became DeVry Advantage Academy."DeVry Advantage Academy and Contemporary Learning Center at H. P. Carter FAQ’s." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on December 2, 2011. HISD plans to build the permanent Mickey Leland College Preparatory Academy for Young Men on the site of the former Carter Career Center. The new building will look similar to the original one."HISD approves settlement on Wheatley/E.O. Smith ." Houston Defender. September 19, 2014. Retrieved on December 7, 2015. In 2019 the school received a failing ranking from the Texas Education Agency (TEA), the only HISD high school to receive that ranking that year. Around that period the TEA was attempting to replace the HISD school board, and it could possibly use Wheatley's failing grade as evidence that it should take this action. This was the seventh year in a row that the school had a failing grade. According to the TEA, any school which does not receive a passing grade in any of the four accountability categories, as Wheatley did, fails its overall accountability grade; this requirement came into effect in 2018. Wheatley officials stated that if the rule did not exist, Wheatley would have been ranked a "D". In November of that year, TEA Commissioner Mike Morath announced that the appeal for Wheatley was rejected; the basis of the appeal submitted was that student scores should be waived due to Hurricane Harvey, but other schools did not get the waiver for that reason for that year. In 2023 the Wheatley school community was not certain whether, in the wake of the TEA taking control of HISD, the TEA would keep the school open. ==Demographics== In the segregation era Wheatley had one of the highest enrollments of any American high schools reserved for black students as it had about 2,600 students. \- Uploaded on June 12, 2010 and updated on February 13, 2017. In 1979 the school's student body had 1,197 blacks, 125 Hispanics, and 8 Whites. Wheatley had one of the lowest enrollments of any zoned Houston ISD high school with 836 students during the 2004–2005 school year . In 2008, Wheatley had an enrollment of 1,235. ==Neighborhoods served by Wheatley== Neighborhoods zoned to Wheatley include the Fifth Ward (including Frenchtown), Denver Harbor, Liberty Heights, Barnes and Whetmore, St. Charles Square, Pecan Park Terrace, and a section of East Downtown."Wheatley High School Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on December 2, 2018. It also serves a portion of Kashmere Gardens.Original section: https://books.tax.hctx.net/v065/AE1997_65-2_0053.jpg, Extension 1: https://books.tax.hctx.net/v065/AE1997_65-2_0060.jpg, Extension 2: https://books.tax.hctx.net/v065/AE1997_65-2_0061.jpg - Compare with the school boundary map. Two Houston Housing Authority (HHA) public housing complexes, Clayton Homes and Kelly Village, are zoned to Wheatley."Clayton Homes." Houston Housing Authority. Retrieved on January 2, 2019. "1919 Runnels Houston, Texas 77003""Kelly Village." Houston Housing Authority. Retrieved on January 2, 2019. "3118 Green Houston, Texas 77020" An HHA mixed-income housing complex, Kennedy Place, is zoned to Wheatley."Kennedy Place." Houston Housing Authority. Retrieved on January 2, 2019. ==Campus== The current $35 million Wheatley campus opened in June 2006. The architect of the campus, ESPA Group, won an award for "Outstanding Architecture and Design in Education" by School Planning & Management magazine for the Wheatley campus. The school appears in the June 2008 issue of School Planning & Management's Education Design Showcase."Wheatley High School Earns Architect a Design Award." Houston Independent School District. August 15, 2008. Retrieved on July 27, 2010. In 2012 Richard Connelly of the Houston Press ranked Wheatley as the fifth most architecturally beautiful high school campus in Greater Houston. Connelly said that "High schools don't have to be classic to shine. The geometric playfulness of Wheatley gives it a distinctive look."Connelly, Richard. "The 7 Best-Looking High Schools in Houston." Houston Press. Tuesday May 22, 2012. 1. Retrieved on May 27, 2012. Wheatley is located in the Fifth Ward, in proximity to an Interstate 10 access road and a park. Canning, Whit. "Go You Wildcats, Go!" (Archive). Texas Monthly. Emmis Communications, February 1974. Vol. 2, No. 3. . START: p. 80. CITED: p. 83. In September 2014 the HISD school board approved the demolition of the 1929 Wheatley High School building."Demolition of historic Wheatley High OK'd by Houston school board." Houston Chronicle. Thursday September 18, 2014. Retrieved on October 29, 2015. That year HISD began efforts to demolish the 1929 Wheatley High School but several lawsuits filed by October of that year prevented the district from entirely destroying the building.Mellon, Ericka. "Judge puts demolition of old Wheatley building on hold pending trial." Houston Chronicle. October 24, 2014. Retrieved on January 23, 2015. "The all-boys school is now housed in the old Crawford Elementary on Jensen Street." Three people, former and current residents of the Fifth Ward, had filed lawsuits in an attempt to prevent the demolition. Dan Hinde, a Texas state district judge, dismissed the lawsuits in December of that year. The district immediately proceeded with the demolition of the remainder of the structure. HISD plans to build a new school on that site.Mellon, Ericka. "Old Wheatley High School demolished." Houston Chronicle. Thursday December 11, 2014. Retrieved on October 29, 2015. ==Athletics== In 1997 Michael Berryhill of the Houston Press wrote that in the pre- desegregation era Wheatley "dominated black high school basketball in Texas" but it was not a "consistent power" in American football. ===Basketball=== The school won many trophies from the state basketball tournament, which was held at Prairie View A&M; University. In a 25-year period ending in 1974, 15 of its teams made the state championships. Originally Wheatley played in the Negro leagues, but around 1968 the University Interscholastic League (UIL) opened its membership to black schools. In 1968 the State of Texas held the first high school basketball playoffs. Then, the Wheatley team defeated the Thomas Jefferson High School team of Dallas, Texas by 85–80 in overtime. Through the win, Wheatley had achieved a 36–0 record. In from 1968 to 1974, Wheatley received four state championship crowns, won 219 games, and lost 11 games. Historically many star basketball players moved on to Prairie View A&M; University and Texas Southern University. By 1974 other, more prominent universities were considering recruiting Wheatley players.Canning, Whit. "Go You Wildcats, Go!" (Archive). Texas Monthly. Emmis Communications, February 1974. . START: p. 80. CITED: p. 84. "[...]and "name" schools were beginning to peer into the Wheatley talent pool, where Prairie View and Texas Southern were the principal takers in the past." Berryhill said that basketball wins continued "periodically" after desegregation. ===Football=== In the segregation era schools for blacks played their games on weekdays while schools for whites played their games on Fridays.Kellar, p. 33 (Google Books PT14). Historically the American football game between Wheatley and Yates High School was among the most prominent ones in the United States. In the segregation era Wheatley did not play games against white high schools. Beginning in 1927,Harwell, Debbie Z. "William S. Holland: A Mighty Lion at Yates High School" (Archive). Houston History. Volume 8, No. 1. p. 9-13. CITED: p. 12. each Thanksgiving Day the school's American football team played Yates High School's football team at the Jeppeson Stadium. The Yates-Wheatley Thanksgiving football match, described by On American Soil: How Justice Became a Casualty of World War II author Jack Hamann as "the most important noncollege football game in the country", often had crowds that had over 30,000 people.Hamann, Jack. On American Soil: How Justice Became a Casualty of World War II. Algonquin Books, 2005. , 9781565123946. p. 192. The rivalry declined after Yates joined the UIL, and after the football leagues integrated the Thanksgiving Day Yates-Wheatley game ended.Harwell, Debbie Z. "William S. Holland: A Mighty Lion at Yates High School" (Archive). Houston History. Volume 8, No. 1. p. 9-13. CITED: p. 13. ==Music== Percy McDavid, one of the few American music teachers in the 1930s who taught both classical music and jazz in orchestra courses, developed Wheatley's musical programs in that decade. Duke Ellington made a 1935 visit to hear Wheatley's orchestra. Various famed musicians graduated from Wheatley in that time period, including Arnett Cobb and Illinois Jacquet. While operating this program McDavid received help from his brother, Russell McDavid.Pruitt, Bernadette. The Other Great Migration: The Movement of Rural African Americans to Houston, 1900–1941. Texas A&M; University Press, October 24, 2013. , 9781603449489. p. 127. ==Notable alumni== * Archie Bell, musician "Distinguished HISD Alumni." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on October 28, 2015. * Arnett Cobb, musicianWest, Richard. "Only the Strong Survive" (Archive). Texas Monthly. Emmis Communications, February 1979. Volume 7, No. 2. . START: p. 94. CITED: p. 177. * Donnie Davis, former professional American football player * Harold Dutton Jr., Texas State Representative of District 142 * Albert "Al" Edwards, Texas State Representative of District 146 * Dr. Marion Ford, dentist and Guggenheim fellow * George Foreman, boxing champion * Everett Gay, former NFL player * Lester Hayes, former NFL player for the Oakland Raiders * Xavien Howard, American football cornerback * William Jackson III, American football cornerback * Illinois Jacquet, jazz musician * Cliff Johnson, retired MLB player * Dwight Elmo Jones, basketball player drafted by the Atlanta Hawks * Barbara Jordan, first African-American U.S. Congresswoman from the Southern United States. * Mickey Leland, member of the Texas House of Representatives until his death. * Kanavis McGhee, former professional American football player * Ruth Jones McClendon, Texas State Representative of District 120 * Grady Richardson, former NFL player * Ruth Simmons, president of Brown University * Joe Sample, member of The Crusaders * Eldridge Small, former professional football player *Fred Taylor, retired NBA player * Godwin Turk, professional football player * Hubert Laws, flautist and member of The Crusaders * Sid Williams, former NFL player and United States Ambassador to the Bahamas * Willie Williams, football player * Jim Young, NFL player ==Feeder patterns== Elementary schools that feed into Wheatley include: *Dogan"Dogan Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Eliot"Eliot Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *N.Q. Henderson"N.Q. Henderson Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *R. Martinez"R. Martinez Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Pugh"Pugh Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Scroggins"Scroggins Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Bruce (partial)"Bruce Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Burnet (partial)"Burnet Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Isaacs (partial)"Isaacs Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Lantrip (partial)"Lantrip Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Ross (partial)"Ross Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Scott (partial)"Scott Elementary Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. Middle schools that feed into Wheatley include: *McReynolds"McReynolds Middle Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. *Fleming (partial)"Fleming Middle Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. * Yolanda Black Navarro (formerly Stonewall Jackson) (partial)"Navarro Middle Attendance Zone." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on March 5, 2017. ==See also== * History of the African-Americans in Houston ==References== * Kellar, William Henry. Make Haste Slowly: Moderates, Conservatives, and School Desegregation in Houston. Texas A&M; University Press, 1999. , 9781603447188. ===Reference notes=== ==Further reading== *Duncan, Cierra. "Museum planned for Wheatley?" Houston Defender. October 9, 2014. ==External links== * Wheatley High School ** ** ** * Wheatley Wildcats * What's Wrong With Wheatley? – Houston Press (1997) Category:Houston Independent School District high schools Category:Magnet schools in Houston Category:Public high schools in Houston Category:African-American history in Houston Category:Historically segregated African-American schools in Texas Category:Relocated schools Category:1927 establishments in Texas Category:Educational institutions established in 1927 |
The 1996 King of the Ring was the fourth annual King of the Ring professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) that featured the 10th King of the Ring tournament. The event took place on June 23, 1996, from the MECCA Arena in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The main event was a standard wrestling match for the WWF Championship. Shawn Michaels defeated British Bulldog to retain the title, with Mr. Perfect serving as the special guest enforcer. The undercard featured the 1996 King of the Ring tournament, which was won by Stone Cold Steve Austin. Other matches on the undercard included a WWF Intercontinental Championship match between champion Goldust and challenger Ahmed Johnson, Mankind versus The Undertaker, The Ultimate Warrior versus Jerry "The King" Lawler, and a WWF Tag Team Championship match between champions The Smoking Gunns (Billy Gunn and Bart Gunn) and challengers The Godwinns (Henry O. Godwinn and Phineas I. Godwinn). Austin's victory speech after winning the 1996 King of the Ring tournament gave rise to the "Austin 3:16" tag line, which would go on to become one of the most popular catchphrases in the history of professional wrestling and the event has been cited by WWE as the starting point of the Attitude Era. ==Production== ===Background=== King of the Ring was a pay-per-view (PPV) event held annually in June by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) since 1993. The PPV featured the King of the Ring tournament, a single- elimination tournament that was established in 1985 and held annually until 1991, with the exception of 1990; these early tournaments were held as special non-televised house shows. The winner of the tournament was crowned "King of the Ring." Unlike the non-televised events, the PPV did not feature all of the tournament's matches. Instead, several of the qualifying matches preceded the event with the final few matches then taking place at the pay-per-view. There were also other matches that took place at the event as it was a traditional three-hour pay-per-view. Considered as one of the WWF's "Big Five" PPVs, along with the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, the company's five biggest shows of the year, the 1996 event was the fourth King of the Ring PPV and 10th tournament overall. It was held on June 23, 1996 at the MECCA Arena in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Several weeks prior to King of the Ring, the contracts of Kevin "Diesel" Nash and Scott "Razor Ramon" Hall expired and the two men left the WWF to join the promotion's main competitor, World Championship Wrestling (WCW). After their final WWF match at Madison Square Garden on May 19, Nash and Hall embraced their real-life friends Michael Hickenbottom (wrestling as Shawn Michaels) and Paul Levesque (wrestling as Hunter Hearst Helmsley). At the time, Michaels and Hall were portraying heroic characters and Nash and Levesque were portraying villainous characters; WWF management thus saw the incident as a major breach of kayfabe. However, as Nash and Hall had left the company, and Michaels was the WWF Champion and a huge box-office draw, punishment fell solely on Levesque. As a result, Levesque's anticipated "push" into the main event — which would've started with a King of the Ring tournament victory — was delayed. ===Storylines=== King of the Ring featured professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre-existing feuds, plots, and storylines that were played out on Monday Night Raw—WWF's television program. Wrestlers portrayed a villain or a hero as they followed a series of events that built tension, and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. The pay- per-view event featured the annual King of the Ring single elimination bracket tournament. The qualification for the tournament started on the May 27, 1996, episode of Raw, with The Ultimate Warrior wrestling the WWF Intercontinental Champion Goldust to a double count-out and Vader defeating Ahmed Johnson. The qualification continued on the June 2 episode of Superstars as Justin "Hawk" Bradshaw defeated Henry Godwinn. On the June 3 edition of Raw, Stone Cold Steve Austin and Jake "The Snake" Roberts qualified for the tournament by defeating Bob "Spark Plug" Holly and Hunter Hearst Helmsley, respectively. On the June 9 episode of Superstars, Savio Vega defeated Marty Jannetty in a qualification match. On the June 10 episode of Raw, the qualification for the tournament ended as "Wildman" Marc Mero defeated Skip and Owen Hart defeated Yokozuna. The first quarterfinal match of the tournament took place on the June 16 episode of Superstars, with Roberts defeating Bradshaw. On the June 17 episode of Raw, Austin defeated Vega and Mero defeated Hart in the remaining quarterfinal matches. Vader received a bye in the quarterfinals due to Warrior and Goldust's qualifying match resulting in a double count-out. The main rivalry heading into the event was between Shawn Michaels and the British Bulldog over the WWF Championship. At In Your House 8, Michaels defended the title against Bulldog in a match that resulted in a no contest as both men's shoulders were down on the mat. Although the referee Earl Hebner awarded Michaels the victory, Bulldog's wife Diana Smith, brother-in-law Hart and manager Jim Cornette handed Bulldog the belt. The on-screen WWF President Gorilla Monsoon declared the match a no contest. On the June 3 episode of Raw, Monsoon announced that Michaels would defend the title against Bulldog in a rematch at King of the Ring and allowed Camp Cornette to choose a special guest referee for the match. On the June 17 episode of Raw, Jim Cornette announced that Mr. Perfect would be the guest referee for the match. Another predominant feud heading into the event was between The Undertaker and Mankind. On the April 1 episode of Raw, Mankind made his WWF debut and defeated Bob Holly. Later that night, Mankind attacked The Undertaker during his match with Justin Bradshaw. On the May 13 episode of Raw, Vince McMahon conducted an in-ring interview segment with The Undertaker and Paul Bearer. Mankind attacked The Undertaker, who was distracted by Goldust and his valet Marlena. At In Your House 8, Mankind helped Goldust in retaining the WWF Intercontinental Championship against The Undertaker in a Casket match. This led to a match between The Undertaker and Mankind at King of the Ring. On the May 27 episode of Raw, Warrior wrestled the WWF Intercontinental Champion Goldust to a double count-out in a King of the Ring qualifying match when Goldust tried to leave ringside and was attacked in the aisle by Warrior. After the match ended, Jerry "The King" Lawler tried to retrieve a director's chair for Goldust's valet Marlena, but Warrior grabbed the chair and destroyed it. Lawler had been critical of a comic book released by Warrior and made statements about how it would have been better if he did the artwork. On the June 10 episode of Raw, Lawler interviewed Warrior and apologized to him for costing him his qualifying match against Goldust and offered a portrait of Warrior as a present. Warrior rejected the apology and the present. Lawler attacked Warrior, leading to a match between the two at King of the Ring. In an interview on the DVD The Self-Destruction of the Ultimate Warrior, Lawler was very unhappy with the setup of the incident, as Warrior unexpectedly arrived in the ring wearing a baseball cap to promote his comic book.The Self- Destruction of the Ultimate Warrior DVD On the May 27 episode of Raw, Ahmed Johnson got into an altercation with Goldust in a backstage segment after losing a King of the Ring qualifying match to Vader. On the June 3 episode of Raw, WWF President Gorilla Monsoon announced that Goldust would defend the title against Johnson at King of the Ring. At In Your House 8, The Smoking Gunns (Billy Gunn and Bart Gunn) defeated The Godwinns (Henry O. Godwinn and Phineas I. Godwinn) to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. As a result of the Godwinns losing the titles, their valet Sunny became the manager of the Gunns. Due to the betrayal of Sunny, the Godwinns continued their rivalry with the Gunns, leading to a tag title match between the two teams at King of the Ring. ==Event== Before the event aired live on pay-per-view, The Bodydonnas (Skip and Zip) wrestled The New Rockers (Marty Jannetty and Leif Cassidy) in a match that aired live on Free for All. Bodydonnas won when Skip pinned Cassidy after Bodydonnas' manager Cloudy kissed Cassidy. The match was followed by a non- televised match in which Hunter Hearst Helmsley defeated Aldo Montoya. ===Preliminary matches=== As the event concluded, the semi-final round of the King of the Ring tournament started. The first semi-final match pitted Marc Mero against Stone Cold Steve Austin. During the match, Austin's mouth was badly injured. Mero whipped Austin through the ropes and then backdropped Austin. Austin attacked Mero with a Boot in the corner and tried to throw Mero out of the ring but Mero tossed Austin outside the ring. Mero delivered a Plancha to Austin causing Austin to bleed from his mouth. Mero returned to the ring and hit a Suicide Dive on Austin. Mero tried to pin Austin after a Missile Dropkick but got a near-fall. Austin regained his momentum and tried to pin Mero after a Hotshot but Mero kicked out of it. Austin followed by hitting Mero with a Stone Cold Stunner to win the match. The next semi-final match was between Jake Roberts and Vader. Vader dominated Roberts with a Body Press and a Running Splash. Roberts booted Vader and hit a Swinging Knee Lift. Roberts tried to finish the match by attempting a DDT on Vader but Vader backed him into the corner and tried to hit a Short-arm Clothesline. Roberts countered and hit a Short-arm Clothesline of his own. Roberts ran through the ropes but Vader hit him with a Running Splash and tried to charge Roberts into the corner. Roberts avoided the charge and tried to hit a DDT on Vader but Vader used the referee as a human shield to prevent himself from getting a DDT. As a result of using the referee, Vader was disqualified. Vader assaulted Roberts after the match and injured him by hitting a Vader Bomb. In the next match, The Smoking Gunns defended the WWF Tag Team Championship against The Godwinns. The Gunns got the earlier advantage in the match when Billy distracted Phineas and Bart attacked Phineas from behind. However, Godwinns got advantage and dominated most part of the match. In the closing moments of the match, Bart hit a Boot to Phineas, allowing Billy to pin Phineas with a roll-up. The fourth match was between The Ultimate Warrior and Jerry Lawler. Lawler brought a scepter to the ring during his entrance. As Warrior was making his entrance, Lawler started attacking Warrior with the scepter and used many dirty tactics to weaken Warrior. Lawler tried to finish the match with a Piledriver but Warrior did not sell and began dominating Lawler with a series of clotheslines. Warrior hit Lawler with a Running Shoulder Block and pinned him to win the match. The fifth match was between The Undertaker and Mankind. The Undertaker started the match by attacking Mankind with a Flying Clothesline. Undertaker followed with the "Old School". Mankind gained momentum by a Bodyslam. The action continued until it was carried onto outside. Mankind grabbed a chair to nail Undertaker with it but Undertaker kicked Mankind into the chair. The Undertaker backdropped Mankind into the ring and the two returned to the ring. Undertaker's manager Paul Bearer distracted the referee, allowing Undertaker to attack Mankind with a chair. Undertaker followed by a Big Boot and tried to finish the match by attempting a Tombstone Piledriver. Mankind slipped out of the move and hit a Swinging Neckbreaker. Mankind tried to finish The Undertaker with a Mandible Claw, but The Undertaker blocked the move and was kicked by Mankind. The action returned to the floor where Mankind smashed his elbow on Undertaker against the steel steps. He tried to attack Undertaker with a Diving Elbow Drop through the apron but Undertaker blocked the move with the chair. Mankind returned to the ring and hit Undertaker with a Piledriver. Mankind grabbed Undertaker's urn and tried to attack him with it, but Bearer snatched the urn from Mankind. Mankind focused on Undertaker and applied a Mandible Claw on Undertaker. Bearer tried to hit Mankind with the urn but Mankind pulled Undertaker to prevent from being hit and Undertaker was hit with the urn. This allowed Mankind to apply another Mandible Claw on Undertaker. As a result, Mankind was awarded the victory by TKO. ===Main event matches=== In the sixth match of the event, Goldust defended the WWF Intercontinental Championship against Ahmed Johnson. Johnson dominated most of the match. Goldust had nearly won the match after applying a Sleeper Hold, which he called Good Night Sweet Charlotte but did not pin Johnson and tried to further assault him but Johnson countered and hit Goldust with a Sitout Pearl River Plunge to win the match and the Intercontinental Championship. Next was the final round match of the King of the Ring tournament pitting Stone Cold Steve Austin against Jake Roberts. WWF President Gorilla Monsoon came to the ring during the match and offered Roberts to stop the match due to his rib injury suffered in his semifinal match against Vader. Roberts regrouped and refused to forfeit. He began attacking Austin and attempted to hit a DDT, but Austin avoided the move and began focusing on Roberts' injured ribs. In the end of the match, Austin hit a Stone Cold Stunner to win the match and the King of the Ring tournament. After the match, Austin mocked Roberts' Bible-preacher gimmick during his coronation as King of the Ring by uttering a quote: The main event featured Shawn Michaels defending the WWF Championship against the British Bulldog. Mr. Perfect was scheduled to referee the match but at the last minute President Gorilla Monsoon decided that Perfect would be refereeing outside the ring (due to Perfect's controversial refereeing at WrestleMania X) while Earl Hebner would be the inside referee. The match went back and forth with Bulldog's wife Diana and manager Cornette interfering on Bulldog's behalf on many occasions during the match. Bulldog's brother-in-law and teammate Owen Hart served as the guest commentator for the entire pay-per-view. In the closing moments of the match, Michaels attempted to hit Bulldog a Hurricanrana but Bulldog countered it into a Sitout Powerbomb. Michaels regained his momentum and hit Bulldog a Flying Forearm Smash, a Diving Elbow Drop and a Superkick, which he called Sweet Chin Music and attempted to pin Bulldog. Hebner and Perfect both began counting the pinfall. Hart left the commentary table and pulled Perfect out of the ring to prevent him from counting the pin but Hebner counted to three, allowing Michaels to win the match and retain the WWF Championship. After the match, Bulldog and Hart attacked Michaels. Johnson came to rescue Michaels until Bulldog and Hart's teammate Vader joined Bulldog and Hart to attack Michaels and Johnson. Warrior came out to rescue Michaels and Johnson from Bulldog, Hart and Vader and this ended the show. ==Aftermath== Following the formation of an alliance of Shawn Michaels, Ahmed Johnson and Warrior after Michaels' title defense at King of the Ring, the three were scheduled to compete against Camp Cornette (British Bulldog, Owen Hart and Vader) at In Your House 9. However, after his match with Hart on July 8 edition of Raw, Warrior was released from his WWF contract due to missing several house shows. As a result, Warrior was replaced by Sycho Sid as Michaels and Johnson's tag team partner. At In Your House 9, Camp Cornette defeated Michaels, Johnson and Sid. The Undertaker continued his rivalry with Mankind after King of the Ring. Mankind interfered in Undertaker's match with Goldust at In Your House 9, causing Goldust to get disqualified. After the match, Undertaker and Mankind brawled with each other and their fight reached the locker room. This led to the first-ever Boiler Room Brawl between the two at SummerSlam which Mankind won after Paul Bearer turned on Undertaker and helped Mankind in winning the match. After winning the 1996 King of the Ring tournament, Austin quickly rose to stardom and his catchphrase "Austin 3:16" became the most popular catchphrase in professional wrestling history. Austin was pushed as a main eventer as he constantly challenged the inactive Bret "Hitman" Hart to a match. On the October 21 edition of Raw, Hart returned to WWF and made his first in-ring appearance since losing the WWF Championship to Michaels at WrestleMania XII. Hart accepted Austin's challenge to a match and defeated Austin at Survivor Series. The popularity of the "Stone Cold Steve Austin" character was one of the seeds that would germinated into the Attitude Era a year later, with Austin being a major character in WWF storylines and a regular PPV head-liner until his in-ring retirement in 2003. This would be Ultimate Warrior's final PPV match. His final WWF match was a victory against Owen Hart by DQ. His next appearance in a WWE ring was in a non-wrestling role at WrestleMania XXX in 2014 (almost 18 years later) the day after being inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame. He appeared on Raw for the first time since his final match on Raw in nearly 18 years, the night after WrestleMania, and died on the next day. ==Results== ===Tournament brackets=== The tournament took place between May 27 and June 23, 1996 (the entire first two rounds were actually done on May 27 and 28, two of the three quarterfinal matches actually occurred before the first round was completed). The tournament brackets were: ==Other on-screen personnel== ;Commentators *Vince McMahon *Jim Ross *Owen Hart ;Interviewers *Dok Hendrix ;Ring announcer *Howard Finkel ;Referees *Mike Chioda *Jack Doan *Earl Hebner *Tim White ==References== ==External links== * King of the Ring 1996 at Online World of Wrestling * WWF King of the Ring 1996 at Complete WWE 1996 Category:Events in Milwaukee Category:1996 in Wisconsin Category:Professional wrestling in Milwaukee Category:1996 WWF pay-per-view events Category:June 1996 events in the United States |
Human habitation of present-day Sweden began around 12000 BC. The earliest known people belonged to the Bromme culture of the Late Palaeolithic, spreading from the south at the close of the Last Glacial Period. Neolithic farming culture became established in the southern regions around 4000 BC, but much later further north. About 1700 BC the Nordic Bronze Age began in the southern regions, based on imported metals; this was succeeded about 500 BC by the Iron Age, for which local ore deposits were exploited. Cemeteries are known mainly from 200 BC onward. During the 1st century CE, imports of Roman artifacts increased. Agricultural practice spread northward, and permanent field boundaries were constructed in stone. Hillforts became common. A wide range of metalwork, including gold ornaments, are known from the following Migration Period (about 400–550 AD) and Vendel Period (about 550 –790 AD). Sweden's Iron Age is considered to extend up to the end of the Viking Age, with the introduction of stone architecture and the Christianization of Scandinavia about 1100 AD. The historical record up to then is sparse and unreliable; the first known Roman reports of Sweden are in Tacitus (98 AD). The runic script was developed in the second century, and the brief inscriptions that remain demonstrate that the people of south Scandinavia then spoke Proto-Norse, a language ancestral to modern Swedish. ==Timeline of Swedish history== Period = from:-8000 till:2006 ImageSize= width:800 height:auto barincrement:21 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal PlotArea = right:80 left:30 bottom:40 top:5 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:bg value:white id:epoch value:rgb(1,0.9,0.9) id:stoneage value:rgb(1,0.85,0.85) id:bronzeage value:rgb(1,1,0.6) id:bronzeage2 value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.5) id:ironage value:rgb(0.8,1,0.8) id:vendelera value:rgb(0.9,1,0.6) id:vikingage value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.6) id:current value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.9) id:lightline value:rgb(0.8,0.8,0.8) id:header value:rgb(0.8,0.8,0.9) id:lighttext value:rgb(0.5,0.5,0.5) id:migrations value:rgb(1,0.7,1) id:early value:rgb(0.7,1,0.7) BackgroundColors = canvas:bg ScaleMajor = gridcolor:lightline unit:year increment:1000 start:-8000 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:500 start:-8000 BarData = Bar:epochs Barset:stoneages Bar:bronzeages Bar:bronzeageperiods Barset:ironages Barset:contages Barset:earlyhist PlotData= width:15 textcolor:black bar:epochs color:epoch mark:(line,black) from:-8000 till:-7500 shift:(-25,0) text:"Ancylus age" from:-7500 till:-4000 text:"Litorina age" from:-4000 till:end text:"Post- Litorina age" barset:stoneages mark:(line,white) color:stoneage from:-8000 till:-1800 text:"Nordic Stone Age" color:epoch from:-8000 till:-7000 shift:(-10,0) text:"Upper Paleolithic" color:epoch from:-7000 till:-5000 text:"Mesolithic" color:epoch from:-5000 till:-1800 text:"Neolithic" barset:break bar:bronzeages color:bronzeage from:-1800 till:-600 shift:(-34,0) text:"Nordic Bronze Age" bar:bronzeageperiods color:epoch color:bronzeage from:-1800 till:-1500 shift:(-3,0) text:"I" color:bronzeage2 from:-1500 till:-1300 shift:(-4,0) text:"II" color:bronzeage from:-1300 till:-1100 shift:(-4,0) text:"III" color:bronzeage2 from:-1100 till:-900 shift:(-5,0) text:"IV" color:bronzeage from:-900 till:-600 shift:(-4,0) text:"V" color:bronzeage2 from:-600 till:-500 shift:(-4,0) text:"VI" barset:ironages color:ironage from:-600 till:1 shift:(-20,0) text:"Pre-Roman Iron Age" color:ironage from:1 till:400 shift:(-15,0)text:"Roman Iron Age" color:ironage from:400 till:800 shift:(-15,0)text:"Germanic Iron Age" color:vendelera from:550 till:793 shift:(-5,0)text:"Vendel era" color:vikingage from:793 till:1066 shift:(-10,0)text:"Viking Age" color:migrations from:300 till:900 shift:(-20,0)text:"Migration Period" barset:earlyhist color:early from:800 till:1523 shift:(-25,0) text:"Middle Ages" color:early from:1523 till:end shift:(-15,0) text:"Modern Sweden" ==Late Palaeolithic and Mesolithic, 12,000–4,000 BC== thumb|Arrival directions of the first people moving to Sweden after the last glacial. The Pleistocene glaciations scoured the landscape clean and covered much of it in deep quaternary sediments. Therefore, no undisputed Early or Middle Palaeolithic sites or finds are known from Sweden. As far as it is currently known, the country's prehistory begins in the Allerød interstadial c. 12,000 BC with Late Palaeolithic hunting camps of the Bromme culture at the edge of the ice in what is now the country's southernmost province. Shortly before the close of the Younger Dryas (c. 9,600 BC), the west coast of Sweden (Bohuslän) was visited by hunter-gatherers from northern Germany. This cultural group is commonly referred to as the Ahrensburgian and were engaged in fishing and sealing along the coast of western Sweden during seasonal rounds from the Continent. Currently, we refer to this group as the Hensbacka culture and, in Norway, as the Fosna culture group (see: Oxford Journal Hensbacka Schmitt). During the late Preboreal period, colonization continued as people move towards the north-east as the ice receded. Archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence suggests that they arrived first from the south-west and, in time, also from the north-east and met half-way. The genomes of early Scandinavian hunter-gatherers show that the group from the south and another one from the northeast eventually mixed in Scandinavia. Besides their cultural differences in e.g. tool making, the two groups also differed in appreance. The populations from the south had darker skin and blue eyes while the groups arriving from the north had light skin and variance in eye color. An important consequence of de-glaciation was a continual land uplift as the Earth's crust rebounded from the pressure exerted by the ice. This process, which was originally very rapid, continues to this day. It has had the consequence that originally shore-bound sites along much of Sweden's coast are sorted chronologically by elevation. Around the country's capital, for instance, the earliest seal-hunter sites are now on inland mountain tops, and they grow progressively later as one moves downhill toward the sea. The Late Palaeolithic gave way to the first phase of the Mesolithic in c. 9,600 BC. This age, divided into the Maglemosian, Kongemosian and Ertebølle Periods, was characterised by small bands of hunter-gatherer- fishers with a microlithic flint technology. Where flint was not readily available, quartz and slate were used. In the later Ertebølle, semi-permanent fishing settlements with pottery and large inhumation cemeteries appeared. ==Neolithic, 4,000–1,700 BC== Farming and animal husbandry, along with monumental burial, polished flint axes and decorated pottery, arrived from the Continent with the Funnel-beaker Culture in c. 4,000 BC. Whether this happened by diffusion of knowledge or by mass migration or both is controversial. Within a century or two, all of Denmark and the southern third of Sweden became neolithised and much of the area became dotted with megalithic tombs. Farmers were capable of rearing calves to collect milk from cows all year round.Kristian Sjøgren. "First Scandinavian farmers were far more advanced than we thought" 17 August 2015 The people of the country's northern two thirds retained an essentially Mesolithic lifestyle into the first millennium BC. Coastal south-eastern Sweden, likewise, reverted from neolithisation to a hunting and fishing economy after only a few centuries, with the Pitted Ware Culture. In c. 2,800 BC the Funnel Beaker Culture gave way to the Battle Axe Culture, a regional version of the middle-European Corded Ware phenomenon. Again, diffusion of knowledge or mass migration is disputed. The Battle Axe and Pitted Ware people then coexisted as distinct archaeological entities until c. 2,400 BC, when they merged into a fairly homogeneous Late Neolithic culture. This culture produced the finest flintwork in Scandinavian Prehistory and the last megalithic tombs. ==Bronze Age, 1,700–500 BC== thumb|Bronze Age collar, from Stockhult, Scania Sweden's southern third was part of the stock- keeping and agricultural Nordic Bronze Age Culture's area, most of it being peripheral to the culture's Danish centre. The period began in c. 1,700 BC with the start of bronze importation; first from Ireland and then increasingly from central Europe. Copper mining was never tried locally during this period, and Scandinavia has no tin deposits, so all metal had to be imported though it was largely cast into local designs on arrival. Iron production began locally toward the period's end, apparently as a kind of trade secret among bronze casters: iron was almost exclusively used for tools to make bronze objects. In approximately 800 BC coastal area of Middle-Sweden was inhabited by people speaking early Finnic languages with close relations with Southwest Finland and northern Estonia. The Nordic Bronze Age was entirely pre-urban, with people living in hamlets and on farmsteads with single-story wooden long- houses. Geological and topographical conditions were similar to those of today, but the climate was milder. Rich individual burials attest to increased social stratification in the Early Bronze Age. A correlation between the amount of bronze in burials and the health status of the deceased's bones shows that status was inherited. Battle-worn weapons show that the period was warlike. The elite most likely built its position on control of trade. The period's abundant rock carvings largely portray long rowing ships: these images appear to allude both to trade voyages and to mythological concepts. Areas with rich bronze finds and areas with rich rock art occur separately, suggesting that the latter may represent an affordable alternative to the former. Bronze Age religion as depicted in rock art centres upon the sun, nature, fertility and public ritual. Wetland sacrifices played an important role. The later part of the period after about 1,100 BC shows many changes: cremation replaced inhumation in burials, burial investment declined sharply and jewellery replaced weaponry as the main type of sacrificial goods. ==Iron Age, 500 BC – 1,100 AD== In the absence of any Roman occupation, Sweden's Iron Age is reckoned up to the introduction of stone architecture and monastic orders about 1,100 AD. Much of the period is proto-historical, that is, there are written sources but most hold a very low source-critical quality. The scraps of written matter are either much later than the period in question, written in areas far away, or local and coeval but extremely brief. === Pre- Roman Iron Age, 500–1 BC === The archaeological record for the fifth to third centuries BC is rich in rural settlements and remains of agriculture but very poor in artifacts. This is mainly due to extremely austere burial customs where few people received formal burial and those who did got little in the way of grave goods. There is little indication of any social stratification. Bronze importation ceased almost entirely and local iron production started in earnest. The climate took a turn for the worse, forcing farmers to keep cattle indoors over the winters, leading to an annual build-up of manure that could now for the first time be used systematically for soil improvement. Fields were however still largely impermanent, leading to the gradual coalescence of vast systems of sunken fields or clearance cairns where only small parts were tilled at any one time. From the second century BC onward, urn cremation cemeteries and weapon burials with various above-ground stone markers appear, beginning a monumental cemetery record that persists unbroken until the end of the Iron Age. Cemeteries of these roughly 13 centuries are by far the most common type of visible ancient monument in Scandinavia. The reappearance of weapon burial after millennium's hiatus suggests a process of increased social stratification similar to the one at the beginning of the Bronze Age. ===Roman Iron Age, 1–400 AD=== A Roman attempt to move the Imperial border forward from the Rhine to the Elbe was aborted in 9 AD when Germans under Roman-trained leadership defeated the legions of Varus by ambush in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. About this time, a major shift in the material culture of Scandinavia occurred, reflecting increased contact with the Romans. Imported goods, now largely bronze drinking gear, reappear in burials. The early third century sees a brief floruit of very richly equipped graves on a template from Zealand. Starting in the second century AD, much of southern Sweden's agricultural land was parcelled up with low stone walls. They divided the land into permanent infields and meadows for winter fodder on one side of the wall, and wooded outland where the cattle was grazed on the other side. This principle of landscape organisation survived into the nineteenth century AD. Hillforts, most of them simple structures on peripheral mountaintops designed as refuges at times of attack, became common toward the end of the Roman Period. War booty finds from western Denmark suggest that warriors from coastal areas of modern Sweden participated in large-scale seaborne raids upon that area and were sometimes soundly defeated. Sweden enters proto-history with the Germania of Tacitus in 98 AD. Whether any of the brief information he reports about this distant barbaric area was well-founded is uncertain, but he does mention tribal names that appear to correspond with the Swedes and Sami of later centuries. As for literacy in Sweden itself, the runic script was invented among the south Scandinavian elite in the second century, but all that has come down to the present from the Roman Period is curt inscriptions on artefacts, mainly of male names, demonstrating that the people of south Scandinavia spoke Proto-Norse at the time, a language ancestral to modern Swedish and others. ===Migration Period, 400–550 AD=== The changes in material culture marking the start of the Migration Period appear to coincide with the arrival of the Huns on the continental stage. A brief tumultuous phase ensued during which the Western Roman Empire collapsed and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) held the barbarians at bay only through enormous peace payments. As a consequence, the Scandinavian elite of the time was inundated with gold. It was used to produce some very fine goldsmith work including filigree collars and bracteate pendants. The memory of this Golden Age reverberates through all the main early Germanic poetry cycles, including Beowulf and the Niebelungenlied. Another feature of the Migration Period that had far-reaching consequences was the development of the first Scandinavian animal art. Inspired by provincial Roman chip-carved belt mounts decorated with lions and dolphins along the edges, Scandinavian artisans of the Migration Period developed first the Nydam Style, and then the highly abstract and sophisticated Style I from c. 450 AD onward. The Migration Period was long believed to have been a time of crisis and devastation in Scandinavia. In recent decades, however, scholarship has gravitated to the view that the period was in fact one of prosperity and glorious elite culture, but that it ended with a severe crisis, possibly having to do with the 535‒536 AD atmospheric dust event and the concomitant famine. ===Vendel Period, 550–800 AD=== ==See also== * ==References== Sweden Sweden Sweden |
Island Eddy is a small, depopulated island at the inner, eastern end of Galway Bay, Ireland. ==Orthography== The island is always referred to locally as 'Island Eddy' not 'Eddy Island'. The official Irish Government commission on placenames confirms this usage, giving its Irish and English orthography thus: ‘Oileán Eide / Island Eddy’. It is not to be confused with Islandeady, an inland village and parish in County Mayo. ==Geography== thumb|300px|right|The inner reaches of Galway Bay showing the location of Island Eddy. ===Location=== Island Eddy is situated on the inner reaches of Galway Bay on the west coast of Ireland. The nearest town, as the crow flies, is Kinvara, which sits at the head of a shallow inlet some 7 km to the south, south-east. ===Administration=== *Townland Name: Island Eddy(Index to Townlands … of Ireland, 1851) *Civil Parish: Drumacoo *Barony: Dunkellin *Electoral Division: Drumcoo ED *County: Galway *Province: Connacht *Diocese – historical: Kilmacduagh *Diocese (R. C.) - modern: Galway, Kilmacduagh & Kilfenora *Poor Law Union: Galway *Rural District: 10: Galway *District electoral division: 043: Ballynacourty ===Physical geography=== thumb|Island Eddy as it appears on Alexander Nimmo's chart of Galway Bay, 1822. Island Eddy consists of three low islets, inter-linked and flanked by extensive isthmuses and spits. At the south-west end of the island a number of the latter combine to form a large lagoon-like area, and a second series also define another 'lagoon' towards the eastern end. These are known locally as "Malluirs", probably because they fill and drain up to an hour behind the normal tidal pattern.from the Irish Mallmhuir, meaning neap tide. See P. S. Dinneen, Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla. Dublin, 1934. They are labelled as the North Mallmhuir and the South Mallmhuir, respectively. The islets are probably partially submerged drumlins while the isthmuses and spits are largely composed of sea-rolled cobbles and shingle. At the eastern extremity of the island there is a long sinuous sand- spit called "the cush", which allows access to the island by foot at certain spring tides. In the Books of Survey and Distribution, compiled in the 1650s, 'Illand Edye' is listed as a 'Denomination' of ' of a Qur' comprising '113 0 0 Acres profittable' (Plantation measure).Breandán Mac Giolla Choille and R. C. Simington (eds.) Books of Survey and Distribution being abstracts of various surveys and instruments of title, 1636-1703, Vol. III county of Galway. Irish Manuscripts Commission, Dublin, 1962, page 233. According to the OS six inches to the mile (1:10,560) scale map the island is '165 Acres, 3 Roods and 24 Perches' (67.14|ha) in extent.(OS 1:10,560 scale map, 1922). Its maximum dimensions are long, east to west, and wide, north to south. Its maximum elevation is .OS Discovery Series map, 1998 ===Maps=== File:Island Eddy in 1654-56.jpg|Island Eddy on the Down Survey county map of Galway, 1656–58. File:Island Eddy in 1690.jpg|Island Eddy as it appears on a French naval chart of 1690. File:Island Eddy as it appears on Larkin's map of county Galway (1818).jpg|Island Eddy as it appears on Larkin's map of County Galway, 1818. == Ownership (landlords) == 1574: Bishop of Kilmacduagh(The Compossicion Booke of Conought) 1641: 'Sr Roebuck Lynch Bart of Quarter'Breandán Mac Giolla Choille and R.C.Simington (eds.) Books of Survey and Distribution being abstracts of various surveys and instruments of title, 1636-1703, Vol. III county of Galway. Irish Manuscripts Commission, Dublin, 1962, page 233 1667: 'Dr Robert Gorges' 1855: Sir Thomas N. Redington(Griffith's Primary Valuation of Ireland, 1848-64) Current: the enclosed land and house plots are owned by a number of local mainland families (Irish Land Registry online) ==Population== ===Demographics=== thumb|upright|Island Eddy: Tabulated Population & House Data, 1821-1981 Nothing quantifiable is known of the island's population prior to the 19th century. However, the quality of the land and the availability of natural resources (seaweed, shellfish etc.) in the inter-tidal zone suggest that the island is likely to have been an inhabited place from early medieval times if not well before. This is hinted at by the archaeological sources and confirmed by the historical data (see below). The attached table presents details of the population and house data from the official government census returns, and Griffith's land valuation, between 1821 and 1981. The peak of 125 in the island population in 1841 reflects national trends as does the halving of the community in the following decade due to the Great Famine of 1845–49. Though the population recovered somewhat in the 1870s, it declined steadily in the later 19th and early 20th centuries. Though the closure of the school c.1901, was a major blow, the community remained viable until the eve of the 2nd World War. However, like many islands on the west coast, it went into terminal decline thereafter. In Oileáin: A guide to the Irish Islands (2004), David Walsh states that Island Eddy was 'abandoned in 1947'Presda Press, 2004, 120-121. but the census returns contradict this. In fact, two people still lived there until early December, 1980.pers. obs. Jeff O'Connell, Doorus. ===Families=== A number of family names are closely associated with the past two hundred years of the island's history. The principal families in the 19th and 20th centuries were the Berminghams, Conlons, Keanes and Hynes. The Corless family were also part of the community in the early 19th century, and Fitzgeralds and Finnegans feature in the census records for 1901.See the Tithe Applotment Books (1823-37), Griffith's Land Valuation (1847-64) and the Census of Ireland records for 1901 and 1911. The earliest individuals recorded as being of Island Eddy, are 'Richard fitz James Skeret', 'Walter Perrell' and 'Henry Perrell' (presumably the latter's son). They are mentioned in a deed of 1552 concerning the island's castle, Skeret being the owner and the Perrells being the occupiers.Kenneth Nicholls, 'The Lynch Blosse Papers', Analecta Hibernia, Vol. 29 (1980), 115-218: see pages 156-7 The historical sources indicate that the Perrells were associated with Island Eddy for at least four generations from the early 1500s to the 1640s.For details of the historical sources, see the History section. In the 1860s, the lessee of the island's oyster beds was a Mr Wray, who described his methods and the success of his venture in some detail in his report to the Deep Sea and Coast Fishery Commissioners. The oyster beds later came into the ownership of the Atlantic Oyster Fisheries Company. Although the island is no longer populated (the last residents having left in the early 1980s), descendants of former occupants are living, and remain in contact through Facebook and other social media. == History == ===Timeline=== # The earliest documentary reference to the island (so far identified) dates from AD 1225. In his Irish Family History;...an historical and genealogical account of the Gaedhals, Richard Cronnelly refers to a raid on 'Hy-Fiachra' by Murtogh O'Brien and the English of Desmond in that year which 'left not a four-footed beast from Island-Eddy to Athenry, or from Tuam to Ectge.'Richard Francis Cronnelly, Irish Family History; being an historical and genealogical account of the Gaedhals, from the earliest period to the present time (Dublin, 1865, page 289). Jerome Fahey, History and Antiquities of the Diocese of Kilmacduagh,(Dublin, 1893, 145-6) also reproduces this quote. The quotation is annalistic in style but a trawl through the major annals by Paul Gosling of Cave (in July 2011) has failed to identify its source. # The castle is first recorded in a property deed drawn up in August 1552.Kenneth Nicholls, 'The Lynch Blosse Papers', Analecta Hibernia, Vol. 29 (1980), 115-218: see pages 156-7. Therein, one Richard fitz James Skeret and Walter and Henry Perrell renewed an earlier agreement dated March 1513 concerning property on Island Eddy. The renewal included ‘the house or parte of Castell that belongethe to Richard’. Whether the latter formed part of the earlier agreement is not made clear but the deed represents the earliest solid evidence for the castle's existence. # In 1574, 'Iland Eddie' castle was in the sole possession of 'Henry Parell'Nolan, J.P. 1901 ‘Galway castles and owners in 1574.’ Journal of the Galway Archaeological & Historical Society, Vol. 1 (1900-01), p. 113. # In 1585, during a commission of enquiry by the English authorities into the causes of feuding among the O'Flahertys of Connemara, a number of witnesses attested that the chief O'Flahertie had an 'anuall rent the some of 3s 4d oute of the Islands of Eddy'.James Hardiman, A Chorographical Description of West or H-Iar Connaught, written in 1684, by Roderic O'Flaherty Esq. Dublin 1846, p. 393. # In 1641, 'Illand Edye' is listed as in the possession of 'Sr Roebuck Lynch Bart' and 'Richard Oge Perroll'. Of the '113 0 0 Acres profittable' (Plantation Measure) on the island, the former held 99 acres, the latter 14.Breandán Mac Giolla Choille and R.C.Simington (eds.) Books of Survey and Distribution being abstracts of various surveys and instruments of title, 1636-1703, Vol. III county of Galway. Irish Manuscripts Commission, Dublin, 1962, page 233. # The OS Name Books, compiled in the late 1830s as part of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, record the following regarding the island: 'Prop. Thos. Reddington, Esq., M.P., Kilcornan. Agent Mr. O’Flaherty, Inischill. This townland pays £200. Tenants at will. Soil light clay. Produce wheat and oats. There are 24 Tenants appearing very poor. Houses of stone. To the east of the island stands a village called Eddy'.http://places.galwaylibrary.ie under 'Island Eddy' # A National School was established on the island in November 1877 by the Redington family of Clarinbridge, the island's landlords. According to the application to the National Schools Board for funding of same,The National Archives, National Schools, Ref.: 19 S 79B, received 19 May 1879 the school comprised a single-roomed thatched building ' long, broad, high' with an earthen floor. The 'walls are plastered' but the building was 'not ceiled'. A total of 34 students were on the rolls in May 1879, of which 20 were male and 14 female. The first teacher was Kate Madden, aged 19 years. Approval for the payment of the teacher's salary, and for books etc., was given in August 1879. The exact date of the closure of the school is unclear but a number of sources place it c.1901. # In 1926–7, the island community was involved in a dispute with local government over the perceived high rate of valuation of the land, resulting in a boycott of rates. Details of this are recorded in The Irish Times 9 June 1926, 31 July 1926, and 5 July 1927. and in Dáil Questions 31 March 1927. Two interesting topographical points emerge from these sources - firstly the statement in the Dáil Questions that the island's valuation 'exceeds the valuation on the best lands in the county'. The second point (in a report by Galway County Council) was that Eddy 'was not a true island' The Irish Times, 5 July 1927. ===Archaeology=== # The most obvious piece of built heritage is the ruined house-cluster, or "village", at the east end of the island.see various editions of OS 6-inch and 25-inch maps on www.osi.ie On the 1st edition of the six-inch (1:10,560) scale OS map (1842), this comprised 41 roofed structures (houses and outbuildings) laid out on a rough E-W axis. However, by the time of the 1:2500 scale OS revision (1915–16) considerable changes are evident in the layout of the buildings. The total number of roofed structures is now 36, and the acreage details on the map indicate that they were divided into 7 parcels. # The site of the Castle mentioned in 1552 and 1574 (see above under historical snippets) has been located at the eastern end of the village. All that survives is a large stump of masonry in a boundary wall. When the castle was destroyed is unclear but it was still a landmark in the early 1820s when it was included in Alexander Nimmo's maritime survey of Galway Bay.A. Nimmo, 'The harbours in Galway Bay surveyed for the Commissioners of Irish Fisheries, by Alexander Nimmo, F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A. Civil Engineer, 1822. However, it appears to have been reduced to a stump by the time the Ordnance surveyors arrived on the island in the late 1830s as they fail to show it on the OS six inches to the mile (1:10,560) map."The Castle on Island Eddy, Co. Galway, recounted: one stump, two documents, three charts, some lore and several fragments", by P.J. Gosling & M. Fitzpatrick. In Lost and Found III, edited by Joe Fenwick, Wordwell Books, Dublin 2018, p. 193-206. # thumb|150px|right|Headstone of Eliza Murphy, dated 1827. There is also a Children's Burial Ground on the southern limits of the village. It contains one inscribed gravestone, erected in memory of 'Eliza Murphy Who died 8 April AD 1827 aged 17 Months'. This is the subject of a paper in the 2010 issue of the Journal of the Galway Archaeological & Historical Society (JGAHS).‘The grave of Eliza Murphy on Island Eddy, Co. Galway: rubbing, description, poem, story' by P. Gosling, S. Springer, M. Cannon, J. Murphy, in JGAHS Vol. 62 (2010), pps. 138-143. See also Ronnie O'Gorman, 'The mystery of little Eliza Murphy of Island Eddy',Galway Advertizer, 18 November 2010. # thumb|150px|right|View from SE of Nausts no. 6-8 on North MallmhuirAn impressive series of boat Nausts have been identified in the North Mallmhuir. A total of 15 definite and one possible nausts are ranged along 115m of shoreline on the south shore of this long narrow inlet. Associated with them are four jetties, numerous mooring posts and a series of ballast dumps. Known locally as 'cloches', they provided safe moorings for the island's fleet of punts, púcáns and bad mórs. A preliminary survey of the nausts was completed in Spring 2010, details of which have been published in Archaeology Ireland. 'Nausts, púcáns and 'mallúirs' ' by P. Gosling, B. MacMahon and C. Roden in Archaeology Ireland, Vol. 24, no. 3 (Autumn 2010), pps. 30-34. The numbers, scale and layout of the nausts are unparalleled elsewhere in Ireland, making them a unique maritime heritage monument. # thumb|150px|right|Seaweed Mearing Stone bearing the number 22A series of numbered seaweed mearing stones exist on the intertidal zone of the South Malluir. Six have been identified in situ to date. Working from west to east they are numbered 23, 22, 21, 9, 10 and 11. A further three examples, all displaced, were identified during fieldwork in 2010 and 2011: these bear the numbers 5, 16 and 20. All the examples consist of long, roughly-dressed rectangular blocks of limestone. The numbers, most finely cut, are placed towards the end of one of the broad faces. They were used to demarcate the valuable seaweed rights and probably date from the late 18th century when the seaweed industry reached a peak. A learned paper on these stones has been published in the Journal of Irish Archaeology in 2013.'Numbered seaweed mearing stones on Island Eddy and the adjoining mainland at Carrowmore townland, Ballinacourty, Galway Bay' by M. Sheehy Skeffington, N.E. Scott and P. Gosling. Journal of Irish Archaeology Vol. 22 (2013), 93-109. # There is also placename evidence ('cathair') suggesting the former presence of an enclosure of some kind in the central portion of the island. ==Arts== The Celtic/folk/acoustic music group called Island Eddy based in Kinvara, Co Galway, took their name from the island. Moya Cannon's collection of poetry, Hands (2011), contains two finely wrought poems relating to Island Eddy - 'Nausts' and 'Eliza Murphy'.Hands is published by the Carcanet Press, Manchester, 2011. See: www.carcanet.co.uk Both poems are grounded in the physical particularities of two of the island's most striking monuments, the boat Nausts on the shore of the North Mallmhuir and the Children's Burial Ground on the southern fringes of the village (See Archaeology section, above, for details). ==Nature== ===Geology=== According to the Geological Survey of Ireland, the island's bedrock consists of 'viséan limestone and calcareous shale' Very little bedrock is actually exposed on the ground surface, save at the western tip. The long, low, drumlin-like ridge which forms the heart of the island appears to be composed mainly of glacial drift which was probably laid down during the last ice age. The same is probably true of the two smaller hillocks to the east and west of it. In contrast, the sinuous isthmuses and spits which link them are composed of sea- sorted sand, shingles and cobbles. These are of post-glacial origin and it is clear that they are being continuously moulded by tidal currents.For further details see p. 31 of 'Nausts, púcáns and 'mallúirs' ' by P. Gosling, B. MacMahon and C. Roden. Archaeology Ireland, Vol. 24, no. 3 (Autumn 2010). ===Flora=== Island Eddy lies within area H15: South-east Galway, of the vice- county system for recording flora in Ireland.See D.A. Webb, 'The biological vice-counties of Ireland', Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol. 80B (1980), 179-196. A comprehensive field survey of the island's vegetation has been undertaken by Messrs. Roden and Sheehy Skeffington and is forthcoming in The Irish Naturalists Journal.‘The vascular plant flora of Island Eddy, Inner Galway Bay (H15)’, by C.M. Roden and M. Sheehy Skeffington. Forthcoming in The Irish Naturalists Journal, Vol. 34, Part1 (2015). ===Fauna=== # Sheep and Horse are grazed on the island fields.Information from landowners, and frequently observed by fieldworkers # Otter has been identified, and at least one holt located.Fieldwork by Ms Springer of Carrowgarrif # There also appear to be numerous rats, particularly along the south-facing shorelines.Frequently reported by fieldworkers # A bat survey was conducted in the vicinity of the abandoned village on 21 June 2010, using a Pettersson D100 Heterodyne Bat Detector. A single Common Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus) was detected foraging around the village but its roost was not located.The survey was conducted by Mr. Raymond Stephens, National Parks & Wildlife Service. # Hares are present but the exact size of the population is unknown. In the recent past they have been trapped and removed from the island for hare-coursing. This is done under government licence, a condition of which is that a similar number of hares are released back onto the island (weather permitting) after coursing has taken place.Information from Mr. Raymond Stephens, National Parks & Wildlife Service. # A pair of young rabbits were sighted in June 2010. == The Discursive Survey of Island Eddy == An interdisciplinary group set up in 2008 by Drs. Roden & Springer (then of Carrowgarrif) carried out The Discursive Survey of Island Eddy; those who participated were mainly local residents of the south Galway littoral with a knowledge of the island and an interest and/or expertise in the natural and human sciences. An introduction to the aspirations and approaches of the Survey can be found in the Autumn 2010 issue of Archaeology Ireland.See 'The Discursive Survey of Island Eddy' by C. Roden in Archaeology Ireland Vol. 24, no. 3 (Autumn 2010), p. 34. The Survey has not received funding of any kind to date. Leo Hallisey, the organiser of Connemara Sea-Week, wrote: > To see people dedicate time to a study like this just for the love of their > work is an amazing concept in this day and age, when everything is so driven > by money. It's old-fashioned scholarship at its very best'.As quoted in Tom > Kiely, 'Music, myth, magic and madness in Letterfrack', The Connemara > Journal, 25 September 2012. Research to date has been conducted on the following: Terrestrial Vegetation, the Castle, the Children's Burial Ground, the Nausts and the Seaweed Mearing Stones and these topics have inspired a number of artistic responses - see below for publication details. The subject of maritime history is under active investigation (July 2015). The following topics have been identified as worthy of investigation but await committed researchers: Lagoons, Vegetation & Ecology of the Salt Marshes, Cottage Garden Plants & Herbs, Terrestrial Fauna, Birds, Moths, Placenames, Social & Family History, the Architecture and Layout of the House Cluster, Ownership History, Poetry, Folklore, Poetry and Music. Members of the Survey have presented results of their work individually in public lectures'Island Eddy Castle - Fact or Fiction', presented by P. Gosling in The Old Schoolhouse Restaurant, Clarinbridge, on 29 November 2011; 'Clais, Púcán, Mallmhúir: glimpses of maritime life on Island Eddy', presented by P. Gosling and B. MacMahon in Jordan's Bar, Clarinbridge, on 13 November 2012. and collectively at a half-day symposium in Letterfrack, in October 2012, during Connemara Sea-Week.see Tom Kiely, 'Music, myth, magic and madness in Letterfrack', The Connemara Journal, 25 September 2012. ==References== ==Further reading== Research results from The Discursive Survey of Island Eddy have been published as a series of 'Occasional Papers' and 'Artistic Responses' in diverse periodicals and books, and as downloadable 'Topical Memoranda'. A total of seven papers, three artistic responses and one memorandum have been completed as of July, 2020. They are as follows: ===Occasional Papers=== *‘The grave of Eliza Murphy on Island Eddy, Co. Galway: rubbing, description, poem, story.’ by P. Gosling, S. Springer, M. Cannon, J. Murphy. Journal of the Galway Archaeological & Historical Society, Vol. 62 (2010), p. 138-143. *'Nausts, púcáns and 'mallúirs' ' by P. Gosling, B. MacMahon and C. Roden. Archaeology Ireland, Vol. 24, no. 3 (Autumn 2010), p. 30-34. *'The Discursive Survey of Island Eddy' by C. Roden. Archaeology Ireland, Vol. 24, no. 3 (Autumn 2010), p. 34\. *'Numbered seaweed mearing stones on Island Eddy and the adjoining mainland at Carrowmore townland, Ballinacourty, Galway Bay' by M. Sheehy Skeffington, N.E. Scott and P. Gosling. Journal of Irish Archaeology, Vol. 22 (2013), p. 93-109. *‘The vascular plant flora of Island Eddy, Inner Galway Bay (H15)’, by C. Roden and M. Sheehy Skeffington. The Irish Naturalists Journal, Vol. 34, Part 1 (2015), p. 61-68. ===Artistic responses=== *Poem: 'Nausts' by M. Cannon. From Hands, Carcanet Press, 2011, p. 29\. *Poem: 'Eliza Murphy' by M. Cannon. From Hands, Carcanet Press, 2011, p. 30-1. *Song: ‘Islanders’ by Brian O’Rourke. From A Loaf in the Post: jocoserious songs unaccompanied, by Brian O’Rourke. Compact Disc, privately published, Feakle 2018. ===Other=== *Topical Memorandum: 'The Ferns of Island Eddy ....' by Dr N.E. Scott. Published by The Discursive Survey of Island Eddy, Galway, October 2012, one A4-sized page. *'The Peat Deposits of Island Eddy', by F. Ahlbogg (unpublished) Category:Islands of County Galway |
Vaayai Moodi Pesavum () is a 2014 Indian Tamil-language satirical romantic comedy film directed by Balaji Mohan. Produced by Varun Manian and S. Sashikanth under their respective production houses, Radiance Media Group and YNOT Studios, the film stars Dulquer Salmaan, in his maiden Tamil film, with Nazriya Nazim as female lead role while Madhoo, appearing in prominent role. It was filmed simultaneously in Tamil and Malayalam, the latter being titled as Samsaaram Aarogyathinu Haanikaram () with a slightly changed supporting cast. Principal photography commenced in November 2013 at Munnar and Kodaikanal. The film's technical crew includes newcomer Sean Roldan as the music director, Soundararajan as the cinematographer and Abhinav Sunder Nayak as the editor respectively. Both the versions were released on 25 April 2014, receiving positive reviews from critics. == Plot == The following plot focuses on the Tamil version only. The story takes place in Panimalai, a hill city, during the spring season. The film begins with RJ Balaji coming to Panimalai to be a guest of a live radio show. In the middle of the show, he starts coughing severely and suddenly loses his voice. He is diagnosed with a new type of virus called the mute flu that causes sudden muteness and sometimes even death. Aravind is a sales representative working with a glue company. His dream is to become a radio jockey, and he even attends interviews with an FM station. As the mute flu spreads across the city, the state government sends Health Minister Sundaralingam to Panimalai to take care of the situation. The people are asked to undergo a medical checkup to check whether they are affected by the virus or not. Aravind goes to the hospital and meets Anjana, a junior doctor and attends the check up. While Anjana is testing Aravind, some young boys waiting for the test tease Anjana and in frustration, Anjana pokes a cotton bud into Aravinds' nose with which he starts choking and feels like vomiting, but is comforted by Anjana and they both start talking and here we are known more about Anjana, who believes that talking is the only cause of all the problems in the world and if people keep things to themselves, then things will be very fine. Anjana is in a relationship with Vinodh, a possessive guy who always commands her on what she should do and what she should wear. Anjana lives with her father and stepmother Vidhya. Since Anjana lost her mother at a young age, she is reluctant to accept Vidhya as her mother, though she is a sweet and caring woman and always maintains a distance from her. Vidhya is an award winning writer who is trying to get her husband's attention and support to write her third book. Her husband finds no time to talk to her as he is too busy with his work. Panimalai comes into the news for another issue, where "Nuclear Star" Bhoomesh, a film superstar who has gone to shoot one of his films, is being opposed by Mattai Ravi, a drunkard who is President of the Drinkers Association, over the issue of Bhoomesh showing drunkards in a bad light in his films. The Drinkers Association and Bhoomesh's fans, led by Ganesh, form groups to fight over this issue. Aravind and Anjana begin a friendship, and he insists to her that if everything is spoken directly from the heart, then there would be no problem between anyone. He asks her to speak openly with Vinodh and sort out the difference of opinion between them. She does not agree to this, and Aravind challenges her that if he successfully stops the feud between Bhoomesh and Ravi just by means of speaking, Anjana should talk openly with Vinodh to sort out their issues. However Aravind hates Bhoomesh to core, even the photo of him makes Aravind feel nauseous & disgusting. They both agree on the challenge and mark a deadline day. Aravind tries so many ways to stop the feud between Bhoomesh's fans and the Drinkers Association, but it ends up in an even bitter fight. As time goes by, Aravind falls in love with Anjana, not knowing that she is engaged to Vinodh. Aravind is brought up in an orphanage that belongs to Adhikesavan, a stubborn old man who is constantly asking the orphanage to be vacated so that he can rent it to richer tenants. Though Aravind helps the children in the orphanage by donating some of his money, it is not enough to save the orphanage. Aravind tries to speak to Adhikesavan and sort the issue, but the latter is too hesitant to speak with him. Aravind and his friend Sathish kidnap Adhikesavan and leave him in his son's house, making a close relationship. The final report by the health organisation says that the dumb flu spreads only by means of speaking, and issues a speaking ban in the town. Everyone in the town tries to adjust to living with not speaking. Aravind conducts the meeting with the Drinkers Association and Bhoomesh's fans, and they reconcile. A cure for the illness is invented, but if the virus has already infected but has not removed the voice of a person, the cure has a 50% probability of a side effect that the patient might lose the ability to speak. The film ends with everyone getting cured, but Sundaralingam, who has been faking the illness being given cure medicine on the stage for a photo op, loses his voice for real. == Cast == Actor (Malayalam) Actor (Tamil) Role (Malayalam) Role (Tamil) Dulquer Salmaan Aravind Nazriya Nazim Anjana Madhoo Sridevi Vidhya Arjunan Sathish Abhinav Vinodh Maniyanpilla Raju Pandiarajan Prabhakaran Thanchappuzha Sundaralingam Dinesh Prabhakar Kaali Venkat Chettupara Sasi Palani John Vijay "Nuclear Star" Bhoomesh Ramesh Thilak Ramesh Ganesh Chemban Vinod Jose Robo Shankar Salsakuttan Mattai Ravi Abhishek Shankar Sridevi's husband Vidhya's husband Vinu Chakravarthy Thambidurai Adhikesavan Nakshatra Saraswathi Sathyapriya Thambidurai's wife Adhikesavan's wife Leo Sivadass Thambidurai's son Adhikesavan's son Surabhi Lakshmi Arguing Wife Rony David Arguing Husband Nandan Unni Ramesh's friend Ganesh's friend Kamala Krishnaswamy Orphanage's patron Mareena Michael Kurisingal A girl who Sathish falls in love with ;Tamil version * Mime Gopi as Politician * RJ Balaji as himself, who is the first person to contract the mute flu * Balaji Mohan as TV News Reporter for News Prime ;Malayalam version * Vijayan as Thomas Kuzhuvelikunnel * Vineeth Sreenivasan (voice role) == Production == In June 2013, the Radiance Group, led by Varun Manian entered a five-film deal with S. Sashikanth's YNOT Studios and venture into film production with a new entertainment company called Radiance Media. Varun stated that the company will be producing their first film with director Balaji Mohan for a bilingual film and plan to launch Dulquer Salman as the male lead, thus making his feature film debut in Tamil. Nazriya Nazim was signed as the heroine. About her role Nazriya said, "Anjana, my character, is somebody I haven't played in my career yet". Anirudh Ravichander, who was reported to be the film's music director, later opted out, and independent musician Ragahvendra, known under his stage name Sean Roldan, replaced him as music composer, thus making his debut. Soundararajan was signed up as the cinematographer. Abhinav Sunder Nayak was signed in as the Editor. The film started filming in Munnar on 4 November 2013, with Madhoo joining the cast of the film, making her comeback in the Tamil and Malayalam film industries. Dulquer Salmaan dubbed himself in Tamil for this film. == Themes and influences == Balaji Mohan described Vaayai Moodi Pesavum as a "sort of social and political satire. It presents a critique of our country’s political and social setup." He described the fictional flu, which renders people incapable of speaking, as a "metaphor for society’s refusal to communicate freely, which, I believe, is the root cause of all problems — personal, social and political." == Soundtrack == The soundtrack and score for the film was composed by newcomer Sean Roldan. The album features eight tracks with lyrics written by Balaji Mohan, Muthamil and Madhan Karky, whereas lyrics for the Malayalam dubbed version Samsaaram Aarogyathinu Haanikaram, were written by Anu Elizabeth Jose and Santhosh Varma. Both the soundtracks use the same set of singers. The album of the Tamil version was released on 4 April 2014, at the film's audio launch event held at Sathyam Cinemas in Chennai, with Mani Ratnam being the chief guest along with the film's cast and crew. The soundtrack for the Malayalam version was released on 18 April 2014. The soundtrack album received positive reviews from critics. Behindwoods gave the album 3 out of 5 stating it as "A highly original and competent debut from Sean Roldan." Milliblog summarises it as "Sean Roldan's musical debut is as eclectic and interesting as the man’s diverse musical sensibilities!" Sify gave 3.25 out of 5 stars to the album stating "Sean Roldan strikes the right chord with a very youthful, jolly and breezy album. We are sure the songs are going to add value to the entertainment sector of the movie." == Release == The title poster of the film, with its logo was released on 23 January 2014, followed by the first look which was released on 25 January 2014. The official teaser of the film was released on 27 February 2014. The theatrical trailer was launched on 4 April 2014 at the film's audio launch. Vaayai Moodi Pesavum along with its Malayalam version, Samsaaram Aarogyathinu Haanikaram was released worldwide on 25 April 2014. Its release was expected to be clashed with Jigarthanda (2014), which was postponed to July. Udhayanidhi Stalin's Red Giant Movies, acquired the theatrical rights. The film was cleared by the Central Board of Film Certification on 21 April 2014. As a part of the film's marketing strategy, the multiplex partner SPI Cinemas showcased exclusive game kiosks for audiences on 23 April 2014, where people will participate in the game and win exclusive tickets for the film on 25 April. The kiosks were showcased in their multiplex chains Escape Cinemas, Luxe and Sathyam Cinemas. == Reception == === Critical reception === ;Tamil version Sify wrote, "Vaayai Moodi Pesavum is refreshingly fresh, quirky and innovative. It is one of the best romcoms laced with satire in recent times, and a lead pair that crackles", going on to add, "Balaji Mohan has reinvented the romcom formula". The New Indian Express wrote, "The film may fall short in its entertainment quotient as compared to the director’s earlier film. But Mohan should be appreciated for his wacky, daring and innovative attempt".Refreshing, Daring Attempt to Blend Talkies With Silent Art The New Indian Express The Hindu wrote, "The film is filled with gags, satire and a cheeky commentary on life. While the laughter is loud and frequent in the theatre, half an hour later you wonder what the reason was for all the fuss. The film doesn't have a taut storyline that lingers in your mind. If that had been nailed, this would have been an experiment that really worked". The Times of India gave the film 4/5 and wrote, "Vaayai Moodi Pesavum is truly an ambitious effort, at least by Indian cinema standards, and what's truly heartening is that Balaji Mohan succeeds in his attempt. Deccan Chronicle gave it 3.5/5 and wrote, "there are many subtexts to the film – a little too many to delve into. However, like fine wine and certain genres of music, it does take a little getting used to. Vaayai Moodi Pesavum is definitely a bold attempt". IANS also gave 3.5/5 and called it "an almost brilliant film that contradicts itself at several junctures for reasons that are never explained and left to be figured out by the viewer". 3.5/5 was the rating given Rediff that wrote, "A totally new concept coupled with the director’s unique narrative style and a screenplay loaded with satire and comedy, makes Vaayai Moodi Pesavum, a thought-provoking and thoroughly enjoyable film". Behindwoods gave 3.25/5 and wrote, "Apart from the whacky concept, its seemingly quotable animated characters, the locations, colour, styling, music by Sean Roldan and the cinematography of Soundarrajan quite simply make Vaayai Moodi Pesavum the coolest film this summer". S Rajasekar of Cinemalead gave 3.25/5 and called the film "Classy, pleasant and feel good.".Vaayai Moodi Pesavum review Cinemalead OneIndia gave 3/5 and concluded that the film is "A light-hearted family entertainer even though there are double entendre jokes at parts.". Indiaglitz gave 3/5 for the film and concluded that the film is "Pleasant and makes you feel good, so talk it out!".Vaayai Moodi Pesavum review Indiaglitz 25 April 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014 Bharath Vijaykumar of Moviecrow gave 3.25/5 and concluded, "VMP is a refreshingly original attempt at clean humour. This crazy attempt from Balaji Mohan definitely warrants the support of fans who want different type of films to hit our screens more consistently."Vaayai Moodi Pesavum review Moviecrow 25 April 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014 In contrast, Gautaman Bhaskaran of the Hindustan Times gave 2/5 and wrote, "For a good part, the film runs without dialogues, though the loud, almost irritatingly intrusive, background score robs the work of, what could have been otherwise, beautiful silence. And, what is downright silly is a government minister camping in the town – a man who is caught between a smart personal assistant and a haughty chief minister. Salman as the sales guy promoting an adhesive seems to hold out some promise, but Nazim and Madhoo sparkle. And with Mohan himself portraying a witty television news anchor, the film has its bright moments, but not enough to get more stars. If only there was greater finesse in treatment and the excision of some scenes, Vaayai Moodi Pesavum could have been gripping."Vaayai Moodi Pesavum review Hindustan Times 26 April 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014 ;Malayalam version The Times of India gave a rating of one-and-a-half out of five stars and opined that " At the end what we feel for this film and its director is the same emotion we reserve for a naughty kid who just wandered into a dense forest and just lost his way". === Box office === The film collected in Chennai until 11 May. == References == == External links == * Category:2010s avant-garde and experimental films Category:2010s Malayalam-language films Category:2010s satirical films Category:2010s Tamil-language films Category:2014 films Category:2014 multilingual films Category:2014 romantic comedy films Category:Films directed by Balaji Mohan Category:Films scored by Sean Roldan Category:Films shot in Kodaikanal Category:Films shot in Munnar Category:Indian avant-garde and experimental films Category:Indian multilingual films Category:Indian romantic comedy films Category:Indian satirical films Category:Indian films with live action and animation |
Australia has participated officially in every Paralympic Games since its inauguration in 1960 except for the 1976 Winter Paralympics. The Paralympic Games are held every four years, following the Olympic Games and are governed by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). The Paralympic Games have been contractually tied to the Olympic Games since 2001, however, they have taken place at the same venues since the 1988 Seoul Summer Games and the 1992 Albertville Winter Games. In order to compete at the Paralympics, athletes must have an eligible impairment that leads to a permanent activity limitation, and athletes will compete in the classification appropriate to their impairment. These impairments are physical, vision and intellectual impairments. The Australian Paralympic Committee, established in 1990, is responsible for selecting and preparing the Australian Paralympic Teams for both the Summer and Winter Paralympic Games. This committee assists with funding the athletes and competition in addition to talent identification. Many of Australia's gold medals have come from Athletics, a sport which has been popular amongst Australian Paralympic athletes, such as Tim Sullivan and Louise Sauvage. The other sport from which many medals have come is Swimming.Australia has hosted the Paralympic Games on one occasion in 2000. Sydney, the capital city of New South Wales hosted the Summer Paralympics from 23 to 31 October 2000. There were 3879 participants from 123 countries across 19 sports and 550 events. Australia won the most medals with 149 overall. == Summer Games == === Medal table === Games Gold Silver Bronze Total Rank Competitors Officials Flag Bearer Opening Flag Bearer Closing 1960 Rome 3 6 1 10 7 11 Kevin Betts 1964 Tokyo 12 11 7 30 4 17 9 Not a team member 1968 Tel- Aviv 15 16 7 38 4 35 18 1972 Heidelberg 6 9 10 25 11 37 Not a team member 1976 Toronto 16 18 7 41 11 46 Not a team member 1980 Arnhem 12 21 22 55 14 53 Not a team member 1984 Stoke Mandeville / New York 49 54 51 154 8 108 Carol Young and Paul Bird (NY) Non team member (SM) 1988 Seoul 23 34 38 95 10 175 47 Paul Croft Rodney Nugent 1992 Barcelona 24 27 25 76 7 134 Terry Giddy Priya Cooper 1996 Atlanta 42 37 27 106 2 161 Elizabeth Kosmala Priya Cooper 2000 Sydney 63 39 47 149 1 286 148 Brendan Burkett Neil Fuller 2004 Athens 26 39 36 101 5 152 Louise Sauvage Matthew Cowdrey 2008 Beijing 23 29 27 79 5 161 122 Russell Short Matthew Cowdrey 2012 London 32 23 30 85 5 160 Greg Smith Evan O'Hanlon 2016 Rio 22 30 29 81 5 176 Brad Ness Curtis McGrath 2020 Tokyo 21 29 30 80 8 179 Ryley Batt & Daniela di Toro Ellie Cole Total 389 422 394 1205 === Medals by summer sport 1960–2020 === Source: == Winter Games == Since Australia began competing in the Winter Paralympic Games in 1980, it has only sent competitors in Alpine Skiing and hence all medals won at the Winter Paralympics are in Alpine Skiing. === Medal table === Games Gold Silver Bronze Total Rank Competitors Officials Flag Bearer Opening Flag Bearer Closing 1980 Geilo 0 0 0 0 - 2 1984 Innsbruck 0 0 0 0 - 3 1988 Innsbruck 0 0 0 0 - 5 1992 Tignes-Albertville 1 1 2 4 12 5 1994 Lillehammer 3 2 4 9 9 6 1998 Nagano 1 0 1 2 16 4 James Patterson 2002 Salt Lake City 6 1 0 7 8 6 Michael Milton Bart Bunting 2006 Turin 0 1 1 2 13 10 Michael Milton Toby Kane 2010 Vancouver 0 1 3 4 16 11 Toby Kane Cameron Rahles-Rahbula 2014 Sochi 0 0 2 2 19 7 Cameron Rahles-Rahbula Ben Tudhope 2018 PyeongChang 1 0 3 4 15 15 Joany Badenhorst Melissa Perrine 2022 Beijing 0 0 1 1 17 9 Melissa Perrine Mitchell Gourley Ben Tudhope Total 12 6 17 35 === Medals by winter sport 1980–2022 === == Summary of Australia's involvement == ===1960 Summer Paralympics=== Athlete, Daphne Hilton (Ceeney) was Australia's first ever swimmer who competed at the Rome 1960 Games. This games were the only Paralympic Games in which Australia did not win a gold medal in athletics. ===1964 Summer Paralympics=== With the games in Tokyo, Australia was able to send a large contingent of athletes as a result of the shorter than typical journey. Australia placed fourth with a total of 31 overall medals; 12 gold medals, 10 silver medals and 9 bronze medals. ===1968 Summer Paralympics=== Australia placed fourth again, with 38 overall medals; 15 gold, 16 silver and 7 bronze. Lorraine Dodd was an outstanding athlete at these games, setting three Swimming records for her class, all on the same day. === 1972 Summer Paralympics === Australian won 25 medals - 6 gold, 9 silver and 10 bronze medals in six sports. Australia finished 11th on the gold medal table and 9th on the total medal table. Elizabeth "Libby" Kosmala competed in her first Paralympics, and won a bronze medal in swimming in the Women's 3x50 m Medley Relay 2–4 event, and participated in other swimming and athletics events. ===1976 Summer Paralympics=== The Olympic and Paralympic Games both aim to be apolitical; despite this, at the 1976 Paralympic Games, politics intruded into the games. Apartheid practices in South Africa brought controversy with the country's invitation to and inclusion in the games. Australian athlete, Eric Russell took a stance against politics at the Paralympic Games when he refused his gold medal in the class 3 discus event as a protest. He later accepted the medal from Dr Guttman after a press conference, explaining his position. For the first time, television coverage of the Paralympics was broadcast daily to more than 600,000 viewers around the world. === 1976 Winter Paralympics === This Paralympic Games were the first Winter Paralympic Games. Australia was represented by one athlete, Ron Finneran; however, he was disqualified as his disability did not meet event classifications. === 1980 Winter Paralympics === This is the first Winter Paralympics that Australia competed in, but did not medal. Australia had two competitors, Kyrra Grunnsund and Peter Rickards, who participated in Slalom and Middle Distance Alpine Skiing respectively. === 1980 Summer Paralympics === It was the 6th Summer Paralympic game in which Australia competed. Australia won 55 medals – 12 gold, 21 silver and 22 bronze medals. Australia competed in 10 sports and won medals in 6 sports. It finished 14th on the gold medal table and 9th on the total medal table. === 1984 Winter Paralympics === Australia did not win a medal, but was strongly represented by Rodney Mills in cross-country and Kyrra Grunnsund and Andrew Temple in the alpine events of slalom, giant slalom and downhill. === 1984 Summer Paralympics === In 1984, Australia more than doubled its previous highest medal count with a tally of 143 medals. For the first time, four Cerebral Palsy athletes and one "Les Autres" athlete participated in the Games. Each won medals: Robert Walden (swimming) won four gold medals, Terry Biggs (table tennis) won a gold medal, Lyn Coleman (cycling) won silver medal and Malcom Chalmers (swimming) won a gold, silver and two bronze medals. === 1988 Winter Paralympics === Australia sent five athletes; however, failed to medal. These athletes were Michael Collins, Kyrra Grunnsund, Evan Hodge, Michael Milton and David Munk, who all competed in both men's downhill, men's giant slalom and men's slalom, except Munk who only competed in the latter two events. === 1988 Summer Paralympics === Australia competed in 16 events, achieving 23 gold medals in three sports, Athletics, Swimming and Lawn Bowls. Overall, Australia received 95 medals, 23 gold, 34 silver and 38 bronze. Australian athletes broke eight records during the Games. ===1992 Winter Paralympics=== Australia's first ever gold medal at an Olympic or Paralympic Winter Games was won by Michael Milton when he won the LW2 Slalom event. There are no accurate results for the Australian Paralympic team performances at Winter Games previous to 1992; however, it is known that no-one medalled for Australia until the 1992 Paralympics. ===1992 Summer Paralympics=== The ID Australian men's swimming team was totally dominant in Madrid, with Joseph Walker being the undoubted star winning nine gold medals (five individual, four relay) from all events that him competed and setting two world records. === 1994 Winter Paralympics === Australia's most successful Winter Paralympic Games remain the 1994 Winter Paralympic Games, when five athletes took the podium on 9 different occasions. ===1996 Summer Paralympics=== Australia was ranked 2nd in the final medal table with 106 overall medals; 42 gold; 37 silver; 27 bronze. This success has been attributed to the introduction of the Australian Paralympic Committee's Paralympic Preparation Program. Australia's team was half that of the host nation who lead the final medal table. In the Wheelchair Basketball match, Australia vs Great Britain, Troy Sachs recorded the highest number of individual points scored. Sachs scored 42 points in a single game for Australia at the Atlanta 1996 Paralympic Games, which remains the highest ever individual score by a basketballer at the Paralympic Games. He is also Australia's most awarded basketballer with two gold and one silver medal. At the Atlanta Summer Paralympics, there was the largest athletics away gold medal haul to date of 19 Gold medals. === 1998 Winter Paralympics === Australia collected two medals, one gold and one bronze, from the 1998 Games after sending four competitors. James Patterson competed in Alpine Skiing, winning gold in the men's downhill and bronze in men's slalom. ===2000 Summer Paralympics=== The 2000 Sydney Summer Paralympic Games are Australia's most successful Paralympic games to date. In the final medal tally, Australia was ranked first with 149 overall medals; 63 gold, 39 silver, and 47 bronze medals. Australia was represented by their largest team ever. The success of the team combined with extensive media coverage went a long way to changing public attitudes towards Paralympic athletes and understanding them as elite sportspeople. Australian values were represented well and truly throughout the Opening and Closing Ceremonies with a distinctly Aboriginal feel at the Opening ceremony and in true Australian traditions, a party atmosphere to the closing ceremony. At the Opening Ceremony, the Paralympic flame was lit by Louise Sauvage, one of Australia's biggest Paralympic athlete. Sauvage and Tim Sullivan both competed in this games and found outstanding success in their individual events. Sullivan is Australia's most successful athletics athlete at a single Games, winning five gold medals in Sydney 2000. ===2002 Winter Paralympics=== Australia's best performance at Winter Paralympics winning six gold and one bronze medal at the 2002 Winter Paralympics. Of these medals, four were won by Michael Milton. Milton becoming the first athlete in his class to claim a clean sweep of gold medals across the four alpine disciplines when he won gold in all four of his events – Downhill, slalom, giant slalom, and super-G. ===2004 Summer Paralympics=== At the 2004 Paralympics, Australia was represented by a considerably smaller team than that of the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney; however, ranked second overall medals behind China. The reduced team number was as a result of a strict selection criterion set by the APC and sports meant that only athletes with the potential to win a medal were on the Australian team. === 2006 Winter Paralympics === Australia took 10 athletes to compete in 3 sports and acquired a silver and a bronze medal to finish equal 13th on the overall medal table. Michael Milton won a silver medal in his event in his fifth and final Winter Paralympic Games, retiring as Australia's most successful Winter Paralympian ever. Emily Jansen competed, as Australia's first female competitor at a Winter Paralympics, in two of the four alpine events. ===2008 Summer Paralympics=== Australia ranked fourth overall behind China, Great Britain, and USA in the gold medal table. The Beijing Games were the biggest ever with more athletes and countries competing across more sports than ever before. Australia sent their biggest delegation to an away Games to date with 167 athletes, 95 males and 72 females, who competed in 13 out of the 20 sports contested. Rowing was added to the Paralympic program with the Australian doubles crew winning silver. Timothy Sullivan became Australia's leading gold medallist in Paralympic History, winning 10 gold medals. === 2010 Winter Paralympics === Australia took its largest team to date, of 14 athletes and their guides, to the 2010 Paralympic Winter Games. Despite the large team, Australia finished 16th on the overall medal tally, winning four medals. Australia had their first Australian female to win a medal at the Paralympic Winter Games, when Jessica Gallagher won bronze in the slalom. ===2012 Summer Paralympics=== Australia finished fifth in the medal tally with 32 gold, 23 silver and 30 bronze medals, which medals that were won in nine of the 13 sports contested by Australian athletes. Australia achieved 16 world records and 35 Paralympic Records with performances from such athletes as: Todd Hodgetts (Shot Put), Kelly Cartwright (Long Jump), Susan Powell (Individual Pursuit), Bradley Mark (10m Air Rifle), Brenden Hall (400m Freestyle) and Blake Cochrane (100m Breaststroke). In total Australia had 93 medallists of which 25 were multi-medallists, while gold medallist there was 40 and eight of these were multi-gold medallists. London was the best performance by Australia's Paralympic swim team since 1984. Men's 4 × 100 m Freestyle Relay swim team achieved Australia's 1000th Summer Paralympic Games medal (Australia's 41st of the Games). Jacqueline Freney was the most successful athlete from any nation, winning eight gold medals from eight events while her swimming teammate Matthew Cowdrey became the most successful Australian Paralympian of all-time by winning his 13th career gold medal at his third Games. Matthew Cowdrey won gold on day seven in Men's 50m Freestyle S9 Final, also breaking the world record which still stands at 25.13seconds. The victory gave Cowdrey (SA) his 13th career gold medal from three Games. The Australian wheelchair rugby team won its first Paralympic gold medal after claiming silver at the last two major tournaments (Beijing 2008, World Champs 2010). The youngest competitor in the London Games, 13-year-old & 300 days Maddison Elliott from Newcastle, NSW, claimed one gold, one silver, and two bronze medals and had the pleasure of presenting Prince Harry with Australian's Paralympian toy Mascot “Lizzie” the Frill-necked Lizard. === 2014 Winter Paralympics === Australia came away from these games with two medals, a disappointing result. Australian Paralympic Chief Executive Jason Hellwig said that 'we were absolutely disappointed we didn't get the mission done to win that gold medal', however, he also described it as the most satisfying he had experienced because of the hardship the team had gone through. A possible reason for the Australian Team's disappointing performance was the death of team member Matthew Robinson, some weeks prior to the Games after an accident at the IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup in La Molina, Spain. ===2016 Summer Paralympics=== The Australian team comprised 177 athletes of which 103 are men and 74 are women. Incredibly 89 athletes (50%) made their Paralympic debut in 2016. The average age of athletes on the Aussie team 2016 is 29.2 years. The average age of the male athletes is 29.1 years and the average age of female athletes is 29.4 years. In Rio there were an extraordinary eight Australian athletes who had competed in two or more different sports: * Dylan Alcott competed in his third Paralympic games in two different sports, wheelchair basketball in 2008 and 2012 and wheelchair tennis. Alcott was successful in his transition from wheelchair basketball to wheelchair tennis, winning two gold medals in both the men's quad wheelchair tennis doubles and singles. He became the fifth Australian Paralympian to win gold medals in two sports. * Daniela Di Toro competed in her sixth Paralympics, having competed in wheelchair tennis from 1996 to 2012, winning silver and bronze medal each in 2000 and 2004 respectively. At the Rio Paralympics, Daniela competed in table tennis. * Jessica Gallagher won bronze in her fourth Paralympics in a third Paralympic sport, cycling, after competing in alpine skiing (2010 and 2014 winning bronze both times), and athletics (2012). * At 74 years of age, Libby Kosmala was the oldest athlete selected for the 2016 Summer Paralympics. The Rio Paralympics was Kosmala's twelfth Games, having previously competed in athletics, swimming, and shooting at the Paralympic Games since 1972. Kosmala won 9 gold and 1 silver medals over that time. * Claire McLean competed in Paratriathlon in Rio but had previously competed in cycling at the 2004 Athens Paralympics, placing silver. * Kieran Modra won bronze in the men's B road time trial in his eighth Paralympics, having competed in athletics in 1988, swimming in 1992 (winning 2 bronze), and cycling from 1996 to 2016 (winning 5 golds, and 2 silvers in that time). * Previously, Liesl Tesch competed in wheelchair basketball from 1992 to 2008 (winning 2 silver and 1 bronze medals). In 2012 and 2016, Tesch transitioned to sailing, winning a gold medal each time. * Amanda Reid medalled silver in cycling in Rio after previously swimming in London. Notable achievements at the Games * Australia won its first medal in archery since 1968, when Jonathon Milne won bronze in the men's archery individual compound W1. * Paracanoe was debuted at the Rio 2016 Summer Paralympics and resulted in Curtis McGarth becoming Australia's first gold medallist in the sport. Paratriathlon also debuted, resulting in Katie Kelly and her guide Michellie Jones won the gold medal. * Back-to-back winners of their events from the London 2012 Paralympic Games were: Ellie Cole (swimming), Brenden Hall (swimming), David Nicholas (cycling), Carol Cooke (cycling), Daniel Fitzgibbon / Liesl Tesch (sailing) and the wheelchair rugby team. ===2018 Winter Paralympics=== Team of 12 athletes and three guides represented Australia. In snowboarding Simon Patmore won a gold and bronze medal and in alpine skiing Melissa Perrine won two bronze medals. Australia was ranked 15th on the medal table. ===2020 Summer Paralympics=== right|alt=Daniela di Toro and Ryley Batt in wheelchairs jointly holding the Australian flag.|thumb|Daniela di Toro and Ryley Batt at the announcement that they would jointly carry the Australian flag in the opening ceremony at the Tokyo Paralympics. Australia sent its largest away team - 179 athletes to a Summer Paralympics. Australia finished eighth on the gold medal table and sixth on the total medals table. The Games were postponed one year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Badminton and taekwondo made their Paralymic debuts. * Multiple gold medallists: William Martin (swimming) - 3 gold, 1 silver ; Madison de Rozario (athletics) - 2 gold, 1 bronze ; Curtis McGrath (canoeing) - 2 gold ; Ben Popham (swimming) - 2 gold, 1 silver ; Rowan Crothers (swimming) - 2 gold, 1 silver. * Ellie Cole with two bronze medals became Australia's leading female Paralympic medallist with 17 medals - 6 gold, 5 silver, 6 bronze. * Gold medallists repeating Rio Paralympics gold - James Turner (athletics), Vanessa Low (athletics), Curtis McGrath (canoeing), Lakeisha Patterson (swimming), Rachael Watson (swimming), Dylan Alcott (wheelchair tennis). ===2022 Winter Paralympics=== Team of 7 athletes and two guides represented Australia. In snowboarding Ben Tudhope won a bronze medal. Australia was ranked 17th on the medal table. == Interesting facts == Leading Australian Summer Paralympians 1960–2020 Leading Australian Winter Paralympic medallists 1976–2014 === First Gold medallists === * Ross Sutton won Australia's first gold medal at the Summer Paralympics in winning the Men's St Nicholas Round open archery at the 1960 Summer Paralympics. * Daphne Ceeney was Australia's first female gold medallist at the Summer Paralympics. She won two gold medals in swimming events at the 1960 Summer Paralympics. * Michael Milton became Australia's first Winter Paralympics gold medallist in winning at the Men's Slalom LW2 at the 1992 Winter Paralympics. === Dual Summer / Winter Paralympic medallists === * Jessica Gallagher - Winter 2010 and 2014 – bronze medals in alpine skiing; Summer 2016 – 1 bronze in cycling. * Simon Patmore - Summer 2012 - bronze medal in athletics ; Winter 2018 - 1 gold, 1 bronze medal snowboarding. === Dual Summer / Winter Paralympians === As of the 2018 Winter Paralympics, the following Australian athletes have attended both Summer and Winter Games. * Kyrra Grunnsund – Winter 1980–1992 (skiing) ; Summer 1992 (athletics) * Anthony Bonaccurso – Winter 1998 (skiing) ; Summer 2004 (tennis) * Michael Milton – Winter 1988–2006 (skiing) ; Summer 2008 (cycling) * Dominic Monypenny - Summer 2008 (rowing) ; Winter 2010 (cross-country skiing) * Jessica Gallagher – Winter 2010–2014 (skiing) ; Summer 2012 (athletics) ; Summer 2016 (cycling) * Simon Patmore - Summer 2012 (athletics) ; Winter 2018 (snowboard) * Rae Anderson - Summer 2016 (athletics) ; Winter 2022 (alpine skiing) === Multi-sports Australian Paralympians === * List of multi-sport Australian Paralympians - includes those athletes that have competed in one or more sports at the Summer and Winter Paralympic Games == See also == * Australia at the Summer Paralympics * Australia at the Winter Paralympics * Australia at the Olympics * Australia at the 2016 Summer Paralympics == References == |
Atari SA (formerly Infogrames Entertainment SA) is a French video game holding company headquartered in Paris. Its subsidiaries include Atari Interactive and Atari, Inc. It is the current owner of the Atari brand through Atari Interactive. Because of continuing pressures upon the company and difficulty finding investors, it sought bankruptcy protection under French law in January 2013; its subsidiaries in the United States have sought Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection as well. All three subsidiaries have since exited bankruptcy. == History == === Early history (1983–1996) === The founders wanted to christen the company Zboub Système (which can be approximately translated to Dick System in English), but were dissuaded by their legal counsel.Excerpt from Daniel Ichbiah, La saga des jeux vidéo. Vuibert. 2004. According to Bonnell in a TV interview, they then used a mix-and-match computer program to suggest other names, one of which was "Infogramme": a portmanteau of the French words "informatique" (information technology) and "programme" (computer program). The final choice, Infogrames, was a slightly modified version of that suggestion. The company logo and mascot is an armadillo (tatou in French), chosen when the company was moved to Villeurbanne. Bonnell commented: "This dinosaur is our symbol. The armadillo has always survived changes to its environment, from the melting of glaciers to the worst of heat waves." In the late 1980s, Infogrames was noted for its French computer games that often featured original game ideas and occasionally humorous content. They had acquired several licences for popular Franco-Belgian comics. In 1992, they released Alone in the Dark, a 3D horror adventure game, to international attention.Fahs, Traves. Alone in the Dark Restrospective[sic], IGN, 23 June 2008 By 1995, Infogrames was held by many shareholders, including a 20% stake from Pathé Interactive (joint-venture between Phillips Media and Chargeurs) and 3.3% by Productions Marcel Dassault. By August, Phillips Media acquired Chargeurs' stake in Pathé Interactive, which led to the 20% shareholding stake of the company transferring fully over to Phillips. ===Growth through acquisition (1996–2000)=== thumb|right|150px|Infogrames logo from 1996–2000 In 1996, Infogrames embarked on an acquisition campaign that would last seven years and cost more than $500 million; the objective was to become the world's leading interactive entertainment publisher. While the company's debt increased from $55 million in 1999 to $493 million in 2002, the company's revenue also increased from $246 million to $650 million during the same period. The company began their acquisitions by purchasing the British-based holding company Ocean International Ltd. for $100 million, with their UK and US subsidiaries rebranding as distribution arms of Infogrames. This was followed up with the purchase of French distributor Phillips Media for ₣191.5 million, which also included two German companies, distributor Bomico Entertainment Software GmbH and publisher Laguna Video Games, but didn't include the UK-based Leisuresoft. In 1998, Infogrames acquired three distributors; ABS Multimedia, Arcadia, and the Swiss Gamecity GmbH, followed with a 62.5% in the Australian game distributor Ozisoft in December following its then-recent relinquishment from Sega, followed up in February 1999 with a 50% stake in Canal+ Multimedia and the purchase of the Gremlin Group for $40 million in March, which included developers Gremlin Interactive and DMA Design. The former was renamed as Infogrames Sheffield House, while the latter was soon sold by Infogrames to Take-Two Interactive. On April 5, 1999, Infogrames purchased the Paris-based development studio of Psygnosis. On April 20, the company made another major acquisition by purchasing Accolade for $60 million, which was renamed as Infogrames North America, Inc., and the Australian-based Beam Software, which was renamed to Infogrames Melbourne House Pty Ltd. In December 1999, Infogrames bought 70% of GT Interactive for $135 million, and assumed the new subsidiary's $75 million bank debt. IESA justified the purchase by stating that GT Interactive provided Infogrames with a "distribution network for all of its products in the United States, as well as a catalog of products that includes Driver, Duke Nukem, Oddworld, Unreal Tournament and Deer Hunter". By June 2000 Infogrames had invested another $30 million in GT Interactive, and renamed the publisher as Infogrames, Inc. immediately. Included in the GT Interactive purchase were the game development studios SingleTrac, Humongous Entertainment, Legend Entertainment and Reflections Interactive; however, SingleTrac was closed down by the end of the year. In 2000, the developer Paradigm Entertainment was bought for $19.5 million and in-flight games developer Den-o-Tech Int. (DTI), later renamed to Infogrames DTI, was also acquired for $5.6 million. In June 2000, the company was one of the interested parties to acquire Eidos Interactive. thumb|right|150px|The final Infogrames logo (2000–2009) In January 2001, IESA purchased Hasbro Interactive and the handheld game console Game.com from Hasbro for $100 million; with $95 million as 4.5 million common shares of Infogrames and $5 million in cash. With the acquisition of Hasbro Interactive, which was renamed as Infogrames Interactive, Inc., IESA became the owner of the MicroProse and Atari brand names, alongside titles such as Civilization, Falcon, RollerCoaster Tycoon, Centipede, Missile Command, and Pong. Under the terms of the sale agreement, Infogrames gained the exclusive rights to develop and publish games based on Hasbro properties, which included Dungeons & Dragons, Mr. Potato Head, My Little Pony and others, for a period of 15 years plus an option for an additional 5 years based on performance. In October, Infogrames announced to "reinvent" the Atari brand with the launch of three new games featuring prominent Atari branding on their boxarts: Splashdown, MX Rider and TransWorld Surf. The company focused the Atari brand mainly for console games aimed at a 18- to 34-year-old demographic. PC, educational and casual games retained the Infogrames banner. In April 2002, the company's Japanese division Infogrames Japan K.K. signed a Japanese distribution deal with Konami for select titles and soon relaunched the Atari brand in the country with the publication of Splashdown, TransWorld Surf and V-Rally 3 in the region. In May, Infogrames purchased Shiny Entertainment from Interplay Entertainment for $47 million, with the purchase also including exclusive publishing rights to publish games based on The Matrix. In October, Infogrames acquired the remaining 80% of Eden Studios for $4.1 million, and IESA bought the remaining shares of OziSoft and other share holders for $3.7 million, then renamed them to Infogrames Australia Pty, Ltd. and Infogrames New Zealand Pty, Ltd. During 2002, the company shuttered their ChippenhamGamespot.com , "Infogrames closes UK MicroProse studio", from GameSpot and Lyon House development studios. In the fiscal year of 2002, IESA had a net loss of $67 million on revenues of $650 million, and in 2003 the net losses increased to $89 million. ===Rebranding to Atari (2003-2006)=== thumb|Atari logo used by Infogrames from 2003 to 2010 On 7 May 2003, IESA officially reorganized its subsidiaries under Atari branded names and became a holding company. Infogrames, Inc. was renamed as Atari, Inc., Infogrames Interactive, Inc. to Atari Interactive, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of IESA,Summary of ATARI INC – Yahoo! Finance Infogrames Australia Pty Ltd to Atari Australia Pty Ltd, renamed Infogrames Melbourne House Pty Ltd to Atari Melbourne House Pty Ltd, Infogrames UK to Atari UK, and Infogrames Europe to Atari Europe. Atari is a public company that, as of 2007, had, as a majority stockholder, the company California U.S. Holdings, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of IESA.http://biz.yahoo.com/prnews/071008/nym115.html?.v=80 Atari licences the Atari trademark from Atari Interactive, a licence which was set to expire in 2013. Atari, Inc. has the rights to publish and sublicense in North America certain intellectual properties either owned or licensed by IESA or its subsidiaries, including Atari Interactive. Atari's Australian subsidiary also distributes games for Konami of Europe, Codemasters UK, Eidos Interactive and SCi. Konami has an Australian headquarters but this is for Konami's Gaming Machines. By 2003, the company continued to shutter more development studios, with Sheffield House, Atari Hunt Valley,Atari closes former MicroProse studio from GamesIndustry.biz and Legend Entertainment all closing within this time. On July 29, 2004, Epic Games, the developer behind the Unreal franchise, announced they had ended their publishing contract with Atari and signed a three-game publishing deal with Midway Games beginning with Unreal Championship 2: The Liandri Conflict in 2005, although Atari would continue to publish the existing back catalog of titles. On November 25, 2004, Infogrames sold the Civilization franchise to an undisclosed partner for $22.3 million., revealed to be Take-Two Interactive the following year in January, purchasing all previous titles and other Sid Meier titles previously handled by Infogrames, such as the then-recent Sid Meier's Pirates! after signing a new deal with Firaxis Games. On June 9, 2005, Hasbro bought back the digital gaming rights for their properties from Atari for $65 million.Hasbro buys back digital rights from Infogrames from MCVUK.com Within the deal, Hasbro purchased back the video game rights to Transformers, My Little Pony, Tonka, Magic: The Gathering, Connect Four, Candy Land and Playskool, while obtaining a seven-year exclusive deal to produce video games based on Monopoly, Scrabble, Game of Life, Battleship, Clue, Yahtzee, Simon, Risk and Boggle, alongside an expanded separate deal with the Dungeons & Dragons franchise. During this period, Atari's most profitable titles in the North American market were Dragon Ball games, which accounted for the largest share of Atari's earnings at the time. ===Profit losses (2006-2008)=== Infogrames through the remainder of 2006 sold intellectual properties and some studios in order to raise cash and stave off the threat of bankruptcy. Their first sell- offs were on May 10, 2006, when they sold Games.com site to AOL,https://gigaom.com/2006/05/10/aol-buys-gamescom-from-infogrames-atari/ Paradigm Entertainment and the Stuntman franchise to THQ and the publishing rights to TimeShift to Vivendi Games. The sales generated $25 million in revenue.https://www.gamedeveloper.com/pc/e3-atari-infogrames-sell-i-stuntman- timeshift-i-games-com-paradigm On June 17, 2006, Midway acquired the publishing rights to the Unreal back catalogue from Infogrames, this was followed on in when developer Reflections Interactive and the Driver franchise were sold for $21.6 million to Ubisoft. In October, Shiny Entertainment was acquired by Foundation 9 Entertainment for $1.6 million.,Foundation 9 Acquires Shiny From Atari , GamaSutra, 2 October 2006 with the last studio put up for sale - Atari Melbourne House, being sold to Krome Studios in November 2006, and was renamed to Krome Studios Melbourne. After this the only developers still owned by Atari were Eden Games and Humongous, Inc. On September 1, 2006, Atari, Inc. announced that its stock faced delisting from the Nasdaq stock exchange due to its price having fallen below $1.00. On September 5, 2006, David Pierce was appointed as new CEO of Atari, replacing Bruno Bonnell. Pierce previously worked as an executive at Universal Pictures, Metro-Goldwyn- Mayer, Sony Pictures, Sony Music, and Sony Wonder. In April 2007, Infogrames' founding chairman Bruno Bonnell left the company after 24 years; on the day of the announcement of is departure IESA's shares jumped 24%. In the same year, Infogrames fired the majority of Atari's directors and laid off 20% of its workforce. For the 2006–2007 fiscal year, Atari posted a net loss of $70 million. In July 2007, Atari sold back their exclusive Hasbro licensing deal back to Hasbro for $19 Million, which concluded with Hasbro signing a new casual game deal with Electronic Arts a month later. On November 7, GameSpot reported that Atari was beginning to run out of money, losing 12 million dollars in the first fiscal quarter of 2008.Sinclair, Brendan (November 7, 2007). Atari running out of quarters?. GameSpot. Retrieved on November 7, 2007. ===Merger with Atari, Inc. and asset selling to Namco Bandai Games (2008–2009)=== On 6 March 2008, Infogrames made an offer to Atari Inc. to buy out all remaining public shares for a value of US$1.68 per share or US$11 million total. The offer would make Infogrames the sole owner of Atari Inc., making it a privately held company.Atari, Inc. Reports Receipt of Non-Binding Offer from Infogrames Entertainment S.A.: Financial News Yahoo! Finance On 30 April, Atari Inc. announced its intentions to accept Infogrames' buyout offer and merge with Infogrames,Infogrames Entertainment S.A. and Atari, Inc. Announce Agreement to Merge: Financial News Yahoo! Finance which was completed by October 9. With that acquisition Infogrames was the only owner of the Atari brand. Infogrames said that it planned to reduce administrative costs and to focus on online gaming. On May 9, 2008, it was revealed that NASDAQ would be removing Atari from the NASDAQ stock exchange. Atari has stated its intentions to appeal the decision. Atari was notified of NASDAQ's final decision on April 24, 2008, and the appeal hearing took place on May 1, 2008. Atari was expected to raise its value to $15 million USD from the period of December 20, 2007 through to March 2008. Atari received notice of its absolute delisting on September 12, 2008.Delisting of Securities of Atari, Inc. From the NASDAQ Stock Market Source: The NASDAQ OMX Group, Inc. - GlobeNewswire, Inc. In September 2008, Namco Bandai Games and Infogrames formed a joint venture called Distribution Partners. Distribution Partners was defined by Infogrames as a regrouping of "Infogrames' distribution operations in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America." This new entity consisted mainly of Infograme's distribution network in the PAL region. Distribution Partners was 34% owned by Namco Bandai and 66% owned by Atari. In December 2008, Infogrames bought Cryptic Studios for $26.7 million in cash plus performance bonuses. Cryptic Studios is a massively multiplayer online game developer and its acquisition is in line with the company's new business strategy which focuses on online games. In May 2009, Namco Bandai acquired Atari Europe from Infogrames. Its sale and marketing personnel were transferred to Distribution Partners. In March 2009, Infogrames announced that it was getting out of the distribution business in the PAL region with its decision to sell its 66% stake at Distribution Partners. According to an Infogrames press-release, this sale allowed "Atari to focus its financial resources and creative energy exclusively on developing and publishing online-enabled games". In July, the deal valued at €37 million was completed; Distribution Partners was renamed to Namco Bandai Partners. At that time the company had operations in 50 countries and 17 dedicated offices. Despite restructuring, Infogrames continued to struggle to become profitable. For the 2008 fiscal year the company posted €51.1 million ($72.17 million) in net losses and for the 2009 fiscal year, which ended in March, Infogrames posted losses of €226.1 million ($319.33 million). ===Rebranding to Atari SA (2009–2013)=== During their fiscal year meeting (May 2009), IESA announced that it would be changing its corporate name to an Atari branded name, in line with the use of the name for its subsidiaries. In reference to this, Atari, Inc.'s CEO Jim Wilson said: "We've gotten rid of the Infogrames and Atari duality, the confusion around that. We are one simplified company, under one management team, under one brand." Infogrames' 29 May earnings report stated: :"The Board agreed to change Infogrames Entertainment's name to Atari. This decision will enable us to make the best use of the Atari brand, capitalising on worldwide strong name recognition and affinity, which are keys drivers to implement the Company's online, product and licensing strategies." An earnings press release on 24 July 2009 also provided clarification regarding the ensuing name change that was initially announced some two months prior, rebranding themselves as Atari, SA from Infogrames Entertainment, SA. Furthermore, this release also stated their intentions of henceforth utilising the much more recognisable 'Atari Group' moniker with all Atari-related brands and similar such subsidiaries already under their control. On 21 October 2010, Atari announced Atari's reference shareholders BlueBay Value Recovery (Master) Fund Limited and BlueBay Multi-Strategy (Master) Fund Limited are exploring a disposal of the shares and equity-linked instruments held by them. However, BlueBay shareholders later interrupted the sale process of its holding in Atari. BlueBay later converted the conversion of a portion of the ORANEs held by them. In 2012, Atari, SA, BlueBay Value Recovery (Master) Fund Limited, and The BlueBay Multi-Strategy (Master) Fund Limited reached an agreement following their negotiations regarding the restructuring of the debt and capital structure of the Atari group. As part of the agreement, the €20.9 million Credit Facility Agreement was extinguished via €10.9 million loan forgiveness from BlueBay Value Recovery (Master) Fund Limited and Atari's payment of €10 million; the cancellation of the dilutive effect of the ORANEs held by BlueBay; €20 million capital increases to be submitted to the vote of Atari shareholders (of which €10 million with preferential subscription right). ===Bankruptcy (2013–2014)=== On 21 January 2013, Atari, Inc., Atari Interactive, Inc., Humongous, Inc. and California US Holdings, Inc. (collectively, the "Companies") filed petitions for relief under Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code in the United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York. ====Sell-off of intellectual properties (2012–present)==== On April 4, 2012, Glu Mobile acquired the Deer Hunter franchise. On May 23, 2013, Atari announced that they would sell their game assets, developers, the famous "Fuji" logo, and the Atari name in a bankruptcy auction. On June 24, 2013, Nordic Games announced they had acquired the rights to the Desperados franchise and Silver. On July 4, 2013, Appeal Studios, the developer of Outcast, announced they had successfully purchased the full rights to the title. On July 22, 2013, several Atari-owned titles successfully gained new owners. * Rebellion Developments purchased the Battlezone IP and Humongous title MoonBase Commander. * Devolver Digital acquired the rights to Marc Ecko's Getting Up: Contents Under Pressure. * Epic Gear LLC purchased the Backyard Sports franchise. It was later sold again to Day 6 Sports Group LLC. * Tommo acquired a majority of assets, consisting of over 100 different titles and IPs (mostly belonging to Accolade and MicroProse, and also including Atari's own Math Gran Prix) as well as Humongous Entertainment's properties, alongside the Accolade and GT Interactive brands. * Wargaming purchased the Total Annihilation and Master of Orion IPs. * Glu Mobile acquired the rights to Deer Hunter. * Stardock purchased the Star Control title. * Test Drive and RollerCoaster Tycoon were also put up for sale, although no bids were offered for either franchise. Eden Games also closed down during the bankruptcy, but reopened a year later as an independent developer by its founder, David Nadal. In December 2016, Atari sold the Test Drive franchise to Bigben Interactive and also sold the V-Rally series to the company without a formal announcement. In 2017, Piko Interactive acquired several titles from Atari: 40 Winks, Bubble Ghost, Chamber of the Sci-Mutant Priestess, Death Gate, Drakkhen, Eternam, Glover, Monty Mole, Hostage: Rescue Mission, Marco Polo and Time Gate: Knight's Chase. On 19 September 2018, THQ Nordic announced they had acquired the Alone in the Dark franchise and Act of War. On March 3, 2020, Ziggurat Interactive acquired dozens of ex-Atari-owned titles, including Deadly Dozen. ===Turnaround strategy (2014–2020)=== In 2014, all 3 Ataris emerged from bankruptcy and entered the social casino gaming industry with Atari Casino. Frédéric Chesnais, who heads all the slimmed down company, stated their entire operations consist of a staff of 10 people. In 2015, Atari announced a turnaround strategy that would focus on re-releasing the catalogue of Atari games. The strategy was focused on "download games, MMO games, mobile games and licensing activities, based in priority around traditional franchises." Projects in the turnaround strategy included: * Alone in the Dark: Illumination for PC (solo or multiplayer action and adventure game). Upon release the game was met with negative reception. * RollerCoaster Tycoon World for PC (offline or online, solo or multiplayer game), the follow-up to RollerCoaster Tycoon 3 for PC. * A version of Lunar Lander for mobile. On 8 June 2017 a short teaser video was released, promoting a new product; and the following week CEO Fred Chesnais confirmed the company was developing a new game console – the hardware was stated to be based on PC technology, and be still under development. In mid July 2017 an Atari press release confirmed the existence of new hardware, referred to as the Ataribox. The casing design was inspired by the original Atari 2600, with a ribbed top surface, and a rise at the back of the console, with two styles announced: one with a wood veneer front like the original VCS, and another with a black front, akin to later 2600 units. The console was said to support both classic and current games. According to an official company statement of 22 June 2017 the product was to initially launch via a crowdfunding campaign in order to minimize financial risk to the parent company. In March 2018, the Ataribox was renamed the Atari VCS. It was released, after a delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic, in June 2021. ===New leadership (2020–present)=== In March 2020, Wade Rosen became the new chair of the board of directors upon purchasing a substantial share of the company from Chesnais. In 2020, the Atari Token was launched by Atari, in equal partnership with the ICICB Group. The group was granted with issuance license to launch an online gaming platform using crypto-currencies, including the Atari Token. In March 2021, Atari extended its partnership with ICICB Group for the development of Atari branded hotels, with the first hotels to be constructed in Dubai, Gibraltar and Spain. The licensing agreement includes potential additional countries in Europe, Africa, and Asia. On April 2021, Rosen replaced Chesnais as CEO and restructured the company into two units: Atari Gaming, who will focus on video games, and Atari Blockchain, who will focus on blockchain, and other businesses. On July 5, 2021, Atari Gaming announced a plan to fully reenter the console and handheld game publishing industry and reduce emphasis on free-to-play and mobile games, leading to possible titles being closed or sold, alongside the closure of Atari Casino. Chesnais later resigned from the company, though remained as a consultant and licensed through his new company, Crypto Blockchain Industries (CBI). On November 24, 2021, Atari announced they had invested $500,000 in retro gaming streaming platform Antstream, and a deal to potentially purchase MobyGames for $1.5 million through to the end of March 2022. The purchase was completed on 8 March 2022, with Freyholtz remaining as general manager. In March 2022, Atari ended all ties with former CEO Chesnais and CBI. The following month, they also announced the termination of all license agreements with ICICB, including the end of hotel licenses, and the dissolution of their blockchain joint venture. The Atari Token was disclaimed as "unlicensed" and a replacement would be developed. Atari began a series of IP acquisitions in 2023. In March, they acquired the intellectual property rights to 12 Stern Electronics titles, including Berzerk and Frenzy. Later that month, Atari announced that it would acquire Nightdive Studios for $10 million. Nightdive had released several ports and remasters of Atari's divested games. The following month, they had re-acquired over one hundred video games from the Accolade, MicroProse, GT Interactive, and Infogrames catalogues that were formerly owned by Tommo/Billionsoft. This included the Bubsy series and the Accolade and GT Interactive brands. In May, the company obtained rights for over a dozen M Network games, including Armor Ambush, Astroblast, and Star Strike. == Subsidiaries == ===Current=== Name Location Founded Acquired Ref. Atari Europe S.A.S.U. Lyon, France Atari, Inc. New York City, United States Atari Interactive Atari Japan KK Japan Atari VCS, LLC MobyGames United States Nightdive Studios Portland, United States 2012 2023 ===Former=== ====Development==== Name Location Acquired/established Closed/divested Fate Refhttp://files.atari.com/corporate/0908-GB_annual%20report.pdf Atari Studios Asia Australia unknown Closed by Atari Atari Interactive Hunt Valley Studio Hunt Valley, Maryland, United States Acquired as MicroProse Hunt Valley in Hasbro Interactive purchase; closed by Atari Atari Melbourne House Melbourne, Australia Acquired as Melbourne House; sold to Krome Studios Cryptic Studios Los Gatos, United States Sold to Perfect World DMA Design Dundee, Scotland, Acquired in Gremlin Interactive purchase; sold to Take-Two Interactive Eden Games Lyon, France Acquired as Eden Studios; filed for judicial liquidation in January 2013; later re-opened in October 2013 and now owned by Animoca Brands Europress Adlington, Cheshire, United Kingdom Acquired in Hasbro Interactive purchase; sold back to original founder https://web.archive.org/web/20011230175255/http://www.europress.co.uk/news.nsf/page/trend Humongous Entertainment City of Industry, United States Acquired in GT Interactive purchase; closed by Infogrames Humongous, Inc. United States Filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, assets sold to Tommo Infogrames Chippenham Chipping Sodbury, United Kingdom Acquired as MicroProse Chipping Sodbury in Hasbro Interactive purchase; closed by Infogrames Infogrames Lyon House Lyon, France Closed by Infogrames Infogrames North America (Internal Development Team) San Jose, United States Acquired as Accolade; closed by Infogrames Infogrames Sheffield House Sheffield, United Kingdom Acquired as Gremlin Interactive; closed Legend Entertainment Virginia, United States Acquired in GT Interactive purchase; closed by Atari Paradigm Entertainment Carrollton, United States, Sold to THQ Reflections Interactive Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom Acquired in GT Interactive purchase; sold to Ubisoft Shiny Entertainment Laguna Beach, United States Purchased from Interplay Entertainment; sold to Foundation 9 Entertainment SingleTrac Salt Lake City, United States Acquired in GT Interactive purchase; closed by Infogrames ====Publication and Distribution==== Name Location Acquired/established Divested Fate Ref. A+ Multimedia Ltda Portugal Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari do Brasil Ltda. Brazil Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari France S.A.S. France Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Italia S.p.A. Italy Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Ibérica S.A. Spain N/A Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Interactive, Inc. United States Acquired in Hasbro Interactive purchased; merged out Atari Interactive Asia Pacific Pty, Ltd. Australia Acquired in Hasbro Interactive purchase as Hasbro Interactive Asia Pacific; closed Atari Nordic AB Denmark Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Bénélux B.V. Brussels, Netherlands Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Hellas EURL Greece Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari United Kingdom Limited Manchester, England Acquired in Ocean International Ltd. purchase as Ocean Software; sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Deutschland GmbH Germany Acquired in Laguna Video Games purchase as Bomico Entertainment Software; sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Israel Ltd. Israel Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Asia Pacific Pty, Ltd. Australia Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Korea Ltd. Korea Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Taiwan Ltd. Taiwan Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Singapore Pty, Ltd. Singapore Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Hong Kong Ltd. Hong Kong Sold to Namco Bandai Games Atari Australia Pty, Ltd. Sydney, Australia (Minority Stake) (Full) Acquired as OziSoft; Namco Bandai Games Atari NZ Limited New Zealand (Minority Stake) (Full) Acquired as OziSoft NZ; sold to Namco Bandai Games Distribution Partners SAS N/A Sold to Namco Bandai Games Infogrames Entertainment, Inc. San Jose, United States Acquired in Ocean International Ltd. purchase as Ocean of America, Inc.; Folded into Infogrames North America Infogrames Interactive Limited United Kingdom N/A Acquired in Hasbro Interactive purchase as Hasbro Interactive Limited; folded Infogrames Interactive Direct Limited United Kingdom N/A Acquired in Hasbro Interactive purchase as Hasbro Interactive Direct Limited; closed Infogrames Limited United Kingdom Closed Infogrames North America, Inc. San Jose, United States Acquired as Accolade; folded into Infogrames, Inc. MacSoft Acquired in GT Interactive purchase; sold to Destineer Phillips Media BV Eindhoven, Netherlands Folded following purchase WizardWorks Plymouth, Minnesota Acquired in GT Interactive purchase; closed by Atari == Game franchises owned by Atari SA == As of 2018, Atari SA own the rights to the following games and game franchises. The majority of these are original works by Atari, Hasbro Interactive or Infogrames, however the most notable outside of these are a large number of intellectual properties formerly belonging to Ocean Software, to which Atari SA never lost the rights. * Adventure (Atari, Inc.) * Air-Sea Battle (Atari, Inc.) * Alien Brigade (Atari Corporation) * Alpha Waves (Infogrames) * Asteroids (Atari, Inc.) * Avalanche (Atari, Inc.) * Bedlam (GT Interactive) * Berzerk (Stern Electronics) * Black Widow (Atari, Inc.) * Breakout (Atari, Inc.) * Canyon Bomber (Atari, Inc.) * Caverns of Mars (Atari, Inc.) * Centipede (Atari, Inc.) * Cheesy (Ocean Software) * Circus (Atari, Inc.) * Citytopia (Atari Interactive, Inc.) * Crystal Castles (Atari, Inc.) * Cybermorph (Atari Corporation) * Desert Falcon (Atari Corporation) * Dracula the Undead (Atari Corporation) * Dragon Ball (2002-2009) * Fatal Run (Atari Corporation) * Fight for Life (Atari Corporation) * Fighters Destiny (Ocean Software) * Food Fight (Atari, Inc.) * Frenzy (Stern Electronics) * Gateway (Legend Entertainment) * Gravitar (Atari, Inc.) * Haunted House (Atari, Inc.) * Hover Strike (Atari Corporation) * Hunchback (Ocean Software) * I, Robot (Atari, Inc.) * Indy (Atari, Inc.) * Jet Fighter (Kee Games/Atari, Inc.) * Lee Enfield (Infogrames) * Liberator (Atari, Inc.) * Lunar Battle (Atari Interactive, Inc.) * Lunar Lander (Atari, Inc.) * Match Day (Ocean Software) * Missile Command (Atari, Inc.) * Mr. Nutz (Ocean Software) * Ninja Golf (Atari Corporation) * Night Driver (Atari, Inc.) * Outlaw (Atari, Inc.) * Pong (Atari, Inc.) * Quadrun (Atari, Inc.) * RealSports (Atari, Inc.) * Rollercoaster Tycoon (Hasbro Interactive) * Save Mary! (Atari Corporation) * Section 8 (Timegate Studios) * Secret Quest (Atari Corporation) * Sprint 2 (Kee Games/Atari, Inc.) * Star Raiders (Atari, Inc.) * Starshot: Space Circus Fever (Infogrames) * Swordquest (Atari, Inc.) * Tank (Kee Games/Atari, Inc.) * Tempest (Atari, Inc.) * The Wheel of Time (Legend Entertainment) * Ultra Vortek (Atari Corporation) * Video Olympics (Atari, Inc.) * Warbirds (Atari Corporation) * Warlords (Atari, Inc.) * Where Time Stood Still (Ocean Software) * Wizball (Ocean Software) * Yars' Revenge (Atari, Inc.) * Zapper: One Wicked Cricket (Infogrames) == References == == External links == * Category:Blockchain entities Category:Companies based in Paris Category:Companies listed on Euronext Paris Category:Companies formerly listed on Nasdaq Stockholm Category:French companies established in 1983 Category:Holding companies established in 1983 Category:Holding companies of France Category:Video game companies established in 1983 Category:Video game companies of France Category:Video game development companies Category:Video game publishers |
Britney is the third studio album by American singer Britney Spears. It was released on October 31, 2001, by Jive Records. Looking to transition from the teen pop styles of her first two studio albums ...Baby One More Time (1999) and Oops!... I Did It Again (2000), Spears began to embrace a significantly more mature sound with Britney. The record incorporates genres of pop and R&B; with influences of EDM and occasionally dips into disco, hip hop, rock, and electronica. Its lyrical themes address the subjects such as coming of age, adulthood, control, and sexuality. Contributions to its production came from a variety of collaborators, including Max Martin and Rami Yacoub. Spears herself assumed a more prominent role in the album's development, co-writing six of its tracks. Britney received generally mixed reviews from music critics, who complimented Spears' musical progression but criticized her increasingly provocative image. Regardless, the album was a global commercial success and debuted atop the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 746,000 copies, making Spears the first female artist to have her first three studio albums debut atop the chart, a record she would later break with her fourth studio album In the Zone (2003). The album received a nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 45th Annual Grammy Awards (2003). With worldwide sales of over 10 million copies, Britney is one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century. Britney produced six singles. "I'm a Slave 4 U" reached the top ten in 20 countries but peaked only at number 27 on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Spears's first lead single not to peak within the top ten. "Overprotected" also achieved international commercial success but peaked only at number 86 the US Billboard Hot 100. "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman", "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" and "Boys" reached the top ten in several countries but all failed to enter the US Billboard Hot 100, while "Anticipating" was released exclusively in France instead of "I Love Rock 'n' Roll". To further promote the album, Spears embarked on her fourth concert tour, titled Dream Within a Dream Tour, from November 2001 until July 2002. ==Recording and production== For her second studio album Oops!... I Did It Again, which was released in May 2000 to global commercial success, Spears collaborated with producers such as Rodney Jerkins, Rami Yacoub, and Max Martin; all of them returned for Britney. Spears additionally worked with a variety of collaborators, including her then- boyfriend Justin Timberlake. She commented that she initially felt "awkward" and "nervous" working with Timberlake, saying that she was accustomed to the process being "like work". For the first time, Spears worked with hip hop producers the Neptunes. She claimed to have been inspired by "a lot of hip-hop and R&B; while I was on my last tour. I was inspired by Jay-Z and the Neptunes. I told Jive I really wanted to work with [the Neptunes]. I wanted to make [Britney] nastier and funkier." Spears was additionally set to record songs with Missy Elliott and Timbaland, which never came to fruition due to scheduling conflicts. While recording Britney, Spears wanted an "older generation to pick up on it", adding that she "had to change it up and pray people think that's cool". She stated that she chose to self-title the album because the majority of its content described herself. Spears recorded 23 tracks for the album, several of which she co-wrote with the assistance of Brian Kierulf and Josh Schwartz. She added that personally writing the album and developing its concept made the project "that much more special", elaborating of her intentions to "get better and grow" as a songwriter. During the sessions, Spears also worked with electronic musician BT, whose tracks were excluded from the standard edition track listing. She stated: "I was really disappointed we weren't able to use the tracks BT had done. He's a genius in whatever he does, but the type of music he ended up doing didn't fit me and what I was going for. I think they will be on some of the stuff [released] overseas." However, his contribution "Before the Goodbye" was included on international editions of the album. ==Music and lyrics== Britney is a pop and R&B; record with dance influences. It opens with the urban and Middle Eastern-influenced "I'm a Slave 4 U", which showcases breathy, emotive noises, and has been compared to "Nasty Girl" by Vanity 6. Spears commented that its lyrics are "about me just wanting to go out and forget who I am and dance and have a good time". Europop-styled "Overprotected" addresses a girl tired of being manipulated. Lyrically, "Lonely" sees a girl moving on from a troublesome romance after being lied to and manipulated, being considered "a teenage version" of Janet Jackson's "What About". The soft rock piano ballad "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman", co-written by English singer-songwriter Dido, details the emotional struggles girls experience during puberty. "Boys" incorporates R&B; and hip hop styles, and was criticized by David Browne of Entertainment Weekly as "cut-rate '80s Janet Jackson". The disco-inspired track "Anticipating" discusses the friendship and camaraderie between women, and was described as reminiscent of Madonna's "Holiday" and "Kylie in disco mood." Spears' cover of "I Love Rock 'n' Roll", made famous by Joan Jett and the Blackhearts, infuses pop rock styles into the original hard rock rendition. "Cinderella" reflects on a female protagonist who left her boyfriend after he failed to appreciate her efforts in the relationship. "Let Me Be" sees Spears ask to be trusted as an adult and be afforded her own opinions. "Bombastic Love" discusses a love in which the protagonist feels that the romance will happen "exactly like in a movie". Similarly, "That's Where You Take Me" details the joy she gets from an emotionally fulfilling relationship, amid Middle Eastern chimes and a collage of electronic beats and drum programming. On the electronica international editions bonus track "When I Found You", Spears sings about having found the "deepest love" in her soulmate who is essentially a reflection of herself. Britney closes with "What It's Like to Be Me", which was co-written and co-produced by Spears's then- boyfriend Justin Timberlake; Spears sings that a guy must "figure [her] out" to "be [her] man". ==Release and promotion== On January 28, 2001, Spears performed at Super Bowl XXXV. Shortly after, she appeared on Total Request Live to premiere new material from Britney. On September 6, Spears premiered "I'm a Slave 4 U" at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards; the performance was criticized for her use of a yellow python as a stage prop. Four days later, she performed "I'm a Slave 4 U" on The Rosie O'Donnell Show. Spears was scheduled to perform and hold a press conference in Australia on September 13; however, she cancelled the event in light of the September 11 attacks two days prior, saying that holding the conference would have been inappropriate. The following month, Spears performed at The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Britney was first released in Japan on October 31, being released in the United States on November 6, by Jive Records. An accompanying video album, titled Britney: The Videos, was released two weeks later. It included a selection of her earlier music videos, behind-the-scenes footage, commercials, and notable live performances. The video peaked atop the US Top Music Videos on December 8. Spears had already begun her Dream Within a Dream Tour in Columbus, Ohio five days before Britney was released in the US; the tour ended on July 28, 2002 in Mexico City. Shortly after it began, she performed in her first HBO concert special from the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas; Cher was supposed to join Spears onstage for the song "The Beat Goes On", which Spears covered on ...Baby One More Time, but was unable to do so due to scheduling conflicts. On December 4, 2001, Spears performed at the 2001 Billboard Music Awards in Las Vegas. On January 9, 2002, she performed "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman" at the 2002 American Music Awards. Later that month, Spears gave interviews to The Frank Skinner Show in the United Kingdom and The Saturday Show in Australia. Crossroads premiered in February, allowing Spears to simultaneously promote both the film and her album. On February 2, she was featured as both the host and performer on Saturday Night Live. A week later, she performed "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman" at the NBA All-Star Game and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Spears also appeared on Live with Regis and Kelly, The View, and the 44th Annual Grammy Awards, as well as the German talk show Wetten, dass..?. ==Singles== Britney became Spears' first album not to produce a single US Billboard Hot 100 top-ten hit. Reportedly, Clear Channel Entertainment "punished" Spears for her management not choosing them as the tour promoter for the Dream Within a Dream Tour by blacklisting her on their radio stations, which greatly affected the performance of her subsequent singles, starting with "I'm a Slave 4 U". The song was released as the album's lead single on September 25, 2001 to critical acclaim. Due to the radio blacklist, it peaked only at number 27 on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Spears' first lead single not to peak within the top ten. It fared better internationally, debuting at number four on the UK Singles Chart and peaking within the top ten in 20 countries. Its accompanying music video was directed by Francis Lawrence, and received three nominations at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards. "Overprotected" was released as the second international single from Britney on December 10, 2001, and the third North American single on April 2, 2002. Its Darkchild remix peaked at number 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100, while the original version reached the top ten in Belgium, Croatia, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Poland, Romania, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Critically acclaimed, the song was nominated for the Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 45th Annual Grammy Awards (2003). Two accompanying music videos were released-the Bille Woodruff-directed video for the original version and the Chris Applebaum-directed Darkchild remix video. Staggered to fit the varying release dates of Crossroads internationally, "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman" was released as the film's theme song and the second North American single from Britney on January 7, 2002 to critical acclaim. It peaked at number two on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles, the Billboard Hot 100 extension chart. The song fared better internationally, peaking at number two in the UK, and within the top ten in Australia, Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and Sweden. Filmed in Arizona and at the Alstrom Point, the song's Wayne Isham-directed accompanying music video primarily consists of Spears, whilst wearing cowboy boots, performing the song whilst standing on the edge of a cliff, and inside a slot canyon. "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" was released as the fourth international single from Britney on May 27, 2002, and the fifth and final UK single on November 4, to mixed critical reception. It reached the top ten in Austria, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Portugal, Scotland and Slovenia, whilst peaking at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart. Directed by Chris Applebaum, its accompanying music video shows Spears with her own band, a stack of speakers and flashing lights. In France, "Anticipating" was released as the fourth single instead of "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" on June 25; it reached number 38 on the French Singles Chart. The Co-Ed Remix of "Boys"-featuring Pharrell Williams-was released as the fourth North American and UK single, and the fifth and final international single from Britney on June 24, 2002, also serving as the second single from the soundtrack for Austin Powers in Goldmember, to mixed critical reception. It peaked at number 22 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles, and peaked at number seven on the UK Singles Chart. Its accompanying music video, directed by Dave Meyers, features Spears, Williams, and Mike Myers as Austin Powers at a party inside a castle, with cameo appearances from actors Jason Priestley, Justin Bruening and Taye Diggs. It was nominated for Best Video from a Film at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards, but lost to Eminem's "Lose Yourself". ==Critical reception== Britney received mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Britney received an average score of 58, which indicates "mixed or average reviews", based on 13 reviews. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly found Spears's increasingly provocative image to be unnatural, noting "virginal vamping in an awkward adolescence" and "a few tentative new moves". PopMatters Nikki Tranton complimented the production of the songs, but questioned if Spears was ready to establish herself as a grown woman in the music industry. Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine agreed, writing that although "Britney, [the album], fills her role of guilty pleasure (the disc certainly satiates more than the stunted growth of last year's Oops!...I Did It Again), it's time for Spears to quit being such a cock-tease and cook something up that will satisfy the ever- vacillating hype-machine." AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave a positive review, feeling that the album "strives to deepen [Spears's] persona" and proves she "will know what to do when the teen-pop phenomenon of 1999–2001 passes for good". Similarly, a reviewer from Billboard commented that the project was "a nicely varied, wholly satisfying collection". Chris Heat of Dotmusic praised Britney for "us[ing] this opportunity to take the odd risk and adds a welcome edge to her sound." NMEs Ted Kessler recognized the release as a "coming of age album" and joked that it "works best when making a good pop cheese and dance sandwich". By contrast, Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club panned the album, opining that the music "just [isn't] catchy" and that "though neither a girl nor a woman, Spears inspires grown-up anger on her own". Craig Seymore of Spin recognized that she "sound[s] almost human," but criticized that "the rest of the record is as coldly anthemic as ever." ==Accolades== |- ! scope="row"| 2001 | Billboard Music Award | Female Albums Artist of the Year | Britney Spears | | align="center"| |- ! scope="row"| 2003 | Grammy Award | Best Pop Vocal Album | Britney | | align="center"| |} ==Commercial performance== Britney debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 745,750 copies, which was the second highest first week sales by a female artist at the time behind Spears' own Oops!... I Did It Again which sold 1.3 million copies in its first week. In doing so, Spears became the first woman to have her first three studio albums debut atop that chart. She also held the second-highest debut album sales of 2001, behind Celebrity by NSYNC with 1.88 million units moved and was the highest debut- week sales by a female artist of the year. After fluctuating within the top 20 of the chart in the following weeks, Britney sold 3.3 million copies by March 2002. As of March 2015, Britney has sold 4.4 million units in the United States alone and was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Internationally, Britney debuted atop the Canadian Albums Chart with first-week sales of 44,550 copies. It later sold 316,944 copies in the country, a significant decline in relation to the sales of ...Baby One More Time (1999) and Oops!... I Did It Again (2000). The album peaked at number four on both the Oricon Albums Chart in Japan and the UK Albums Chart. In the latter, it was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 300,000 copies to retailers. Across the rest of Europe, Britney debuted at number one in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. In 2002, it was certified double platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for shipments of two million copies throughout Europe. The album also peaked at number four in Australia, and was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). Britney was the fifth best-selling album of 2001 globally, selling seven million copies. By December 2002, the album had sold ten million copies worldwide. ==Track listing== Notes * "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" is a cover of the 1975 Arrows single later made famous by Joan Jett & the Blackhearts in their 1982 cover of the song. * signifies a vocal producer. ==Personnel== Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Britney. *John Amatiello – engineering (tracks 2 and 4), engineering assistance (tracks 8 and 10) *Dido Armstrong – songwriting (track 4) *James Biondolillo – string arrangement (track 6) *BossLady – backing vocals (tracks 2 and 10) *Sue Ann Carwell – backing vocals (track 7) *Andrew Coleman – engineering (tracks 1 and 5) *Tyler Collins – backing vocals (track 7) *Tom Coyne – mastering *Jaime Duncan – engineering assistance (track 12) *Brian Garten – engineering (track 1 and 5) *Stephen George – mixing (track 6) *Serban Ghenea – mixing (tracks 1 and 5) *Brad Gilderman – engineering (track 7) *Albert Hall – backing vocals (track 7) *Damion Hall – backing vocals (track 7) *Nana Hedin – backing vocals (track 10) *Jean-Marie Horvat – mixing (tracks 3, 7 and 9) *Rodney Jerkins – drum programming (tracks 3 and 9), production (tracks 3, 7 and 9), songwriting (track 3) *Richard G. Johnson – engineering assistance (track 12) *Jennifer Karr – backing vocals (tracks 3, 6, 9 and 11) *Steven Klein – photography *Marc Stephen Lee – engineering assistance (track 7) *Thomas Lindberg – bass (track 4) *Fabian Marasciullo – engineering (tracks 3 and 7), vocal engineering (track 9) *Max Martin – backing vocals (track 4), engineering (tracks 2, 4, 8 and 10), guitar (track 2), mixing (tracks 2, 4, 8 and 10), production (tracks 2, 4, 8 and 10) *Charles McCrorey – engineering assistance (tracks 2, 4, 6, 9 and 12) *Daniel Milazzo – engineering assistance (track 5) *Pablo Munguia – engineering (track 12) *The Neptunes – instruments (track 1 and 5), production (tracks 1 and 5), songwriting (tracks 1 and 5) *Esbjörn Öhrwall – guitar (track 4) *Jeanette Olsson – backing vocals (tracks 4 and 8) *Jeff Pescetto – backing vocals (track 7) *Tim Roberts – engineering assistance (tracks 1 and 5) *Wade Robson – production (track 12), songwriting (track 12) *Nile Rodgers – guitar (track 6) *Jason Scheff – backing vocals (track 7) *Ryan Smith – engineering assistance (track 1) *Britney Spears – conceptualization, songwriting (tracks 3, 6, 8, 9 and 11), vocals (all tracks) *Mark Suozzo – string arrangement (track 6) *Rich Tapper – engineering assistance (track 11) *Jill Tengan – engineering assistance (tracks 3, 6 and 9) *Chris Thompson – backing vocals (track 7) *Justin Timberlake – backing vocals (track 12), production (track 12), songwriting (track 12), vocal arrangement (track 12) *Michael Tucker – engineering (track 2), mixing (track 11) *Rami Yacoub – engineering (tracks 2, 4, 8 and 10), mixing (tracks 2, 4, 8 and 10), production (tracks 2, 4, 8 and 10), songwriting (tracks 2, 4, 8 and 10) *Yasu – engineering (track 6) ==Charts== ===Weekly charts=== Chart (2001–2002) Peak position Argentine Albums (CAPIF) 5 scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" Brazilian Albums (Hits Rio de Janeiro) 6 Brazilian Albums (Hits São Paulo) 3 scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" European Top 100 Albums (Music & Media) 2 scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" Icelandic Albums (Tónlist) 6 scope="row" Israeli Albums (IFPI) 1 scope="row" scope="row" Malaysian Albums (RIM) 2 scope="row" scope="row" Polish Albums (ZPAV) 3 Portuguese Albums (AFP) 7 scope="row" South African Albums (RiSA) 7 South Korean International Albums (MIAK) 1 Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE) 3 scope="row" scope="row" Uruguayan Albums (CUD) 4 scope="row" scope="row" ===Monthly charts=== Chart (2002) Peak position South Korean International Albums (MIAK) Special limited edition 3 === Year-end charts === Year-end chart performance for Britney Chart (2001) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) 76 Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria) 75 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders) 97 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia) 85 Canadian Albums (Nielsen SoundScan) 29 European Top 100 Albums (Music & Media) 90 French Albums (SNEP) 51 German Albums (Offizielle Top 100) 85 Global Albums (Billboard) 5 South Korean International Albums (MIAK) 8 Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan) 28 Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade) 48 UK Albums (OCC) 105 US Billboard 200 118 Chart (2002) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) 34 Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria) 21 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders) 36 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia) 46 Canadian Albums (Nielsen SoundScan) 47 Danish Albums (Hitlisten) 97 Dutch Albums (Album Top 100) 89 European Top 100 Albums (Music & Media) 22 French Albums (SNEP) 46 German Albums (Offizielle Top 100) 49 South Korean International Albums (MIAK) 7 South Korean International Albums (MIAK) Special limited edition 16 Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan) 80 Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade) 49 UK Albums (OCC) 79 US Billboard 200 8 ===Decade-end charts=== Chart (2000–2009) Position US Billboard 200 64 ==Certifications and sales== ==Release history== Release dates and formats for Britney Region Date Edition(s) Format(s) Label(s) Japan October 31, 2001 Standard CD BMG Australia November 5, 2001 Germany United Kingdom Jive United States November 6, 2001 Germany June 3, 2002 Special limited CD+DVD BMG Japan June 5, 2002 Australia June 10, 2002 Germany June 30, 2003 Deluxe CD France October 14, 2003 Jive United States December 25, 2007 Digital download May 24, 2019 Standard Vinyl Legacy August 14, 2020 Cassette Australia March 31, 2023 Opaque yellow vinyl Sony Germany Mexico Poland United Kingdom United States Black vinyl Legacy ==See also== * Britney Spears discography * List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2001 * List of number-one albums of 2001 (Canada) * List of number-one hits of 2001 (Germany) * List of best-selling albums by women * List of best-selling albums of the 21st century ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * * Britney at Metacritic Category:2001 albums Category:Britney Spears albums Category:Jive Records albums Category:Albums produced by Rodney Jerkins Category:Albums produced by Justin Timberlake Category:Albums produced by Max Martin Category:Albums produced by the Neptunes Category:Albums produced by Rami Yacoub Category:Albums recorded at Westlake Recording Studios Category:Contemporary R&B; albums by American artists |
The concept of a stable model, or answer set, is used to define a declarative semantics for logic programs with negation as failure. This is one of several standard approaches to the meaning of negation in logic programming, along with program completion and the well-founded semantics. The stable model semantics is the basis of answer set programming. ==Motivation== Research on the declarative semantics of negation in logic programming was motivated by the fact that the behavior of SLDNF resolution — the generalization of SLD resolution used by Prolog in the presence of negation in the bodies of rules — does not fully match the truth tables familiar from classical propositional logic. Consider, for instance, the program :p\ :r \leftarrow p,\ q :s \leftarrow p,\ \operatorname{not} q. Given this program, the query will succeed, because the program includes as a fact; the query will fail, because it does not occur in the head of any of the rules. The query will fail also, because the only rule with in the head contains the subgoal in its body; as we have seen, that subgoal fails. Finally, the query succeeds, because each of the subgoals , \operatorname{not} q succeeds. (The latter succeeds because the corresponding positive goal fails.) To sum up, the behavior of SLDNF resolution on the given program can be represented by the following truth assignment: : T F F T. On the other hand, the rules of the given program can be viewed as propositional formulas if we identify the comma with conjunction \land, the symbol \operatorname{not} with negation eg, and agree to treat F \leftarrow G as the implication G \rightarrow F written backwards. For instance, the last rule of the given program is, from this point of view, alternative notation for the propositional formula :p \land eg q \rightarrow s. If we calculate the truth values of the rules of the program for the truth assignment shown above then we will see that each rule gets the value T. In other words, that assignment is a model of the program. But this program has also other models, for instance : T T T F. Thus one of the models of the given program is special in the sense that it correctly represents the behavior of SLDNF resolution. What are the mathematical properties of that model that make it special? An answer to this question is provided by the definition of a stable model. ==Relation to nonmonotonic logic== The meaning of negation in logic programs is closely related to two theories of nonmonotonic reasoning — autoepistemic logic and default logic. The discovery of these relationships was a key step towards the invention of the stable model semantics. The syntax of autoepistemic logic uses a modal operator that allows us to distinguish between what is true and what is believed. Michael Gelfond [1987] proposed to read \operatorname{not} p in the body of a rule as "p is not believed", and to understand a rule with negation as the corresponding formula of autoepistemic logic. The stable model semantics, in its basic form, can be viewed as a reformulation of this idea that avoids explicit references to autoepistemic logic. In default logic, a default is similar to an inference rule, except that it includes, besides its premises and conclusion, a list of formulas called justifications. A default can be used to derive its conclusion under the assumption that its justifications are consistent with what is currently believed. Nicole Bidoit and Christine Froidevaux [1987] proposed to treat negated atoms in the bodies of rules as justifications. For instance, the rule :s \leftarrow p,\ \operatorname{not} q can be understood as the default that allows us to derive s from p assuming that eg q is consistent. The stable model semantics uses the same idea, but it does not explicitly refer to default logic. ==Stable models== The definition of a stable model below, reproduced from [Gelfond and Lifschitz, 1988], uses two conventions. First, a truth assignment is identified with the set of atoms that get the value T. For instance, the truth assignment : T F F T. is identified with the set \\{p,s\\}. This convention allows us to use the set inclusion relation to compare truth assignments with each other. The smallest of all truth assignments \emptyset is the one that makes every atom false; the largest truth assignment makes every atom true. Second, a logic program with variables is viewed as shorthand for the set of all ground instances of its rules, that is, for the result of substituting variable-free terms for variables in the rules of the program in all possible ways. For instance, the logic programming definition of even numbers :\operatorname{even}(0)\ :\operatorname{even}(s(X))\leftarrow \operatorname{not} \operatorname{even}(X) is understood as the result of replacing in this program by the ground terms :0,\ s(0),\ s(s(0)),\dots. in all possible ways. The result is the infinite ground program :\operatorname{even}(0)\ :\operatorname{even}(s(0))\leftarrow \operatorname{not} \operatorname{even}(0) :\operatorname{even}(s(s(0)))\leftarrow \operatorname{not} \operatorname{even}(s(0)) :\dots ===Definition=== Let be a set of rules of the form :A \leftarrow B_{1},\dots,B_{m},\operatorname{not} C_{1},\dots,\operatorname{not} C_{n} where A,B_{1},\dots,B_{m},C_{1},\dots,C_{n} are ground atoms. If does not contain negation (n=0 in every rule of the program) then, by definition, the only stable model of is its model that is minimal relative to set inclusion.This approach to the semantics of logic programs without negation is due to Maarten van Emden and Robert Kowalski — . (Any program without negation has exactly one minimal model.) To extend this definition to the case of programs with negation, we need the auxiliary concept of the reduct, defined as follows. For any set of ground atoms, the reduct of relative to is the set of rules without negation obtained from by first dropping every rule such that at least one of the atoms in its body :B_{1},\dots,B_{m},\operatorname{not} C_{1},\dots,\operatorname{not} C_{n} belongs to , and then dropping the parts \operatorname{not} C_{1},\dots,\operatorname{not} C_{n} from the bodies of all remaining rules. We say that is a stable model of if is the stable model of the reduct of relative to . (Since the reduct does not contain negation, its stable model has been already defined.) As the term "stable model" suggests, every stable model of is a model of . ===Example=== To illustrate these definitions, let us check that \\{p,s\\} is a stable model of the program :p\ :r \leftarrow p,\ q :s \leftarrow p,\ \operatorname{not} q. The reduct of this program relative to \\{p,s\\} is :p\ :r \leftarrow p,\ q :s \leftarrow p. (Indeed, since q ot\in\\{p,s\\}, the reduct is obtained from the program by dropping the part \operatorname{not} q.\ ) The stable model of the reduct is \\{p,s\\}. (Indeed, this set of atoms satisfies every rule of the reduct, and it has no proper subsets with the same property.) Thus after computing the stable model of the reduct we arrived at the same set \\{p,s\\} that we started with. Consequently, that set is a stable model. Checking in the same way the other 15 sets consisting of the atoms p,\ q,\ r,\ s shows that this program has no other stable models. For instance, the reduct of the program relative to \\{p,q,r\\} is :p\ :r \leftarrow p,\ q. The stable model of the reduct is \\{p\\}, which is different from the set \\{p,q,r\\} that we started with. ===Programs without a unique stable model=== A program with negation may have many stable models or no stable models. For instance, the program :p \leftarrow \operatorname{not} q :q \leftarrow \operatorname{not} p has two stable models \\{p\\}, \\{q\\}. The one-rule program :p \leftarrow \operatorname{not} p has no stable models. If we think of the stable model semantics as a description of the behavior of Prolog in the presence of negation then programs without a unique stable model can be judged unsatisfactory: they do not provide an unambiguous specification for Prolog- style query answering. For instance, the two programs above are not reasonable as Prolog programs — SLDNF resolution does not terminate on them. But the use of stable models in answer set programming provides a different perspective on such programs. In that programming paradigm, a given search problem is represented by a logic program so that the stable models of the program correspond to solutions. Then programs with many stable models correspond to problems with many solutions, and programs without stable models correspond to unsolvable problems. For instance, the eight queens puzzle has 92 solutions; to solve it using answer set programming, we encode it by a logic program with 92 stable models. From this point of view, logic programs with exactly one stable model are rather special in answer set programming, like polynomials with exactly one root in algebra. ==Properties of the stable model semantics== In this section, as in the definition of a stable model above, by a logic program we mean a set of rules of the form :A \leftarrow B_{1},\dots,B_{m},\operatorname{not} C_{1},\dots,\operatorname{not} C_{n} where A,B_{1},\dots,B_{m},C_{1},\dots,C_{n} are ground atoms. ;Head atoms: If an atom belongs to a stable model of a logic program then is the head of one of the rules of . ;Minimality: Any stable model of a logic program is minimal among the models of relative to set inclusion. ;The antichain property: If and are stable models of the same logic program then is not a proper subset of . In other words, the set of stable models of a program is an antichain. ;NP- completeness: Testing whether a finite ground logic program has a stable model is NP-complete. ==Relation to other theories of negation as failure== ===Program completion=== Any stable model of a finite ground program is not only a model of the program itself, but also a model of its completion [Marek and Subrahmanian, 1989]. The converse, however, is not true. For instance, the completion of the one-rule program :p \leftarrow p is the tautology p \leftrightarrow p. The model \emptyset of this tautology is a stable model of p \leftarrow p, but its other model \\{p\\}\ is not. François Fages [1994] found a syntactic condition on logic programs that eliminates such counterexamples and guarantees the stability of every model of the program's completion. The programs that satisfy his condition are called tight. Fangzhen Lin and Yuting Zhao [2004] showed how to make the completion of a nontight program stronger so that all its nonstable models will be eliminated. The additional formulas that they add to the completion are called loop formulas. ===Well-founded semantics=== The well-founded model of a logic program partitions all ground atoms into three sets: true, false and unknown. If an atom is true in the well-founded model of P then it belongs to every stable model of P. The converse, generally, does not hold. For instance, the program :p \leftarrow \operatorname{not} q :q \leftarrow \operatorname{not} p :r\leftarrow p :r\leftarrow q has two stable models, \\{p,r\\} and \\{q,r\\}. Even though r belongs to both of them, its value in the well-founded model is unknown. Furthermore, if an atom is false in the well-founded model of a program then it does not belong to any of its stable models. Thus the well- founded model of a logic program provides a lower bound on the intersection of its stable models and an upper bound on their union. ==Strong negation== ===Representing incomplete information=== From the perspective of knowledge representation, a set of ground atoms can be thought of as a description of a complete state of knowledge: the atoms that belong to the set are known to be true, and the atoms that do not belong to the set are known to be false. A possibly incomplete state of knowledge can be described using a consistent but possibly incomplete set of literals; if an atom p does not belong to the set and its negation does not belong to the set either then it is not known whether p is true or false. In the context of logic programming, this idea leads to the need to distinguish between two kinds of negation — negation as failure, discussed above, and strong negation, which is denoted here by \sim. call the second negation classical and denote it by eg. The following example, illustrating the difference between the two kinds of negation, belongs to John McCarthy. A school bus may cross railway tracks under the condition that there is no approaching train. If we do not necessarily know whether a train is approaching then the rule using negation as failure :\hbox{Cross} \leftarrow \hbox{not Train} is not an adequate representation of this idea: it says that it's okay to cross in the absence of information about an approaching train. The weaker rule, that uses strong negation in the body, is preferable: :\hbox{Cross} \leftarrow \,\sim\hbox{Train}. It says that it's okay to cross if we know that no train is approaching. ===Coherent stable models=== To incorporate strong negation in the theory of stable models, Gelfond and Lifschitz [1991] allowed each of the expressions A, B_i, C_i in a rule :A \leftarrow B_{1},\dots,B_{m},\operatorname{not} C_{1},\dots,\operatorname{not} C_{n} to be either an atom or an atom prefixed with the strong negation symbol. Instead of stable models, this generalization uses answer sets, which may include both atoms and atoms prefixed with strong negation. An alternative approach [Ferraris and Lifschitz, 2005] treats strong negation as a part of an atom, and it does not require any changes in the definition of a stable model. In this theory of strong negation, we distinguish between atoms of two kinds, positive and negative, and assume that each negative atom is an expression of the form \sim A, where A\ is a positive atom. A set of atoms is called coherent if it does not contain "complementary" pairs of atoms \ A,\sim A. Coherent stable models of a program are identical to its consistent answer sets in the sense of [Gelfond and Lifschitz, 1991]. For instance, the program :p \leftarrow \operatorname{not} q :q \leftarrow \operatorname{not} p :r\ :\sim r\leftarrow \operatorname{not}p has two stable models, \\{p,r\\}\ and \ \\{q,r,\sim r\\}. The first model is coherent; the second is not, because it contains both the atom \ r and the atom \ \sim r. ===Closed world assumption=== According to [Gelfond and Lifschitz, 1991], the closed world assumption for a predicate p\ can be expressed by the rule :\sim p(X_1,\dots,X_n)\leftarrow\operatorname{not}p(X_1,\dots,X_n) (the relation p\ does not hold for a tuple X_1,\dots,X_n if there is no evidence that it does). For instance, the stable model of the program :p(a,b)\ :p(c,d)\ :\sim p(X,Y)\leftarrow\operatorname{not}p(X,Y) consists of 2 positive atoms :p(a,b),\ p(c,d)\ and 14 negative atoms :\sim p(a,a),\ \sim p(a,c),\ \dots i.e., the strong negations of all other positive ground atoms formed from p,\ a,\ b,\ c,\ d. A logic program with strong negation can include the closed world assumption rules for some of its predicates and leave the other predicates in the realm of the open world assumption. ==Programs with constraints== The stable model semantics has been generalized to many kinds of logic programs other than collections of "traditional" rules discussed above — rules of the form :A \leftarrow B_{1},\dots,B_{m},\operatorname{not} C_{1},\dots,\operatorname{not} C_{n} where A,B_{1},\dots,B_{m},C_{1},\dots,C_{n} are atoms. One simple extension allows programs to contain constraints — rules with the empty head: :\leftarrow B_{1},\dots,B_{m},\operatorname{not}C_{1},\dots,\operatorname{not} C_{n}. Recall that a traditional rule can be viewed as alternative notation for a propositional formula if we identify the comma with conjunction \land, the symbol \operatorname{not} with negation eg, and agree to treat F \leftarrow G as the implication G \rightarrow F written backwards. To extend this convention to constraints, we identify a constraint with the negation of the formula corresponding to its body: : eg(B_{1}\land\cdots\land B_{m}\land eg C_{1}\land\cdots\land eg C_{n}). We can now extend the definition of a stable model to programs with constraints. As in the case of traditional programs, we begin with programs that do not contain negation. Such a program may be inconsistent; then we say that it has no stable models. If such a program P is consistent then P has a unique minimal model, and that model is considered the only stable model of P. Next, stable models of arbitrary programs with constraints are defined using reducts, formed in the same way as in the case of traditional programs (see the definition of a stable model above). A set I of atoms is a stable model of a program P with constraints if the reduct of P relative to I has a stable model, and that stable model equals I. The properties of the stable model semantics stated above for traditional programs hold in the presence of constraints as well. Constraints play an important role in answer set programming because adding a constraint to a logic program P affects the collection of stable models of P in a very simple way: it eliminates the stable models that violate the constraint. In other words, for any program P with constraints and any constraint C, the stable models of P\cup\\{C\\} can be characterized as the stable models of P that satisfy C. ==Disjunctive programs== In a disjunctive rule, the head may be the disjunction of several atoms: :A_1;\dots;A_k \leftarrow B_{1},\dots,B_{m},\operatorname{not} C_{1},\dots,\operatorname{not} C_{n} (the semicolon is viewed as alternative notation for disjunction \lor). Traditional rules correspond to k=1, and constraints to k=0. To extend the stable model semantics to disjunctive programs [Gelfond and Lifschitz, 1991], we first define that in the absence of negation (n=0 in each rule) the stable models of a program are its minimal models. The definition of the reduct for disjunctive programs remains the same as before. A set I of atoms is a stable model of P if I is a stable model of the reduct of P relative to I. For example, the set \\{p,r\\} is a stable model of the disjunctive program :p;q\ :r\leftarrow \operatorname{not} q because it is one of two minimal models of the reduct :p;q\ :r.\ The program above has one more stable model, \\{q\\}. As in the case of traditional programs, each element of any stable model of a disjunctive program P is a head atom of P, in the sense that it occurs in the head of one of the rules of P. As in the traditional case, the stable models of a disjunctive program are minimal and form an antichain. Testing whether a finite disjunctive program has a stable model is \Sigma_2^{\rm P}-complete [ and Gottlob, 1993]. ==Stable models of a set of propositional formulas== Rules, and even disjunctive rules, have a rather special syntactic form, in comparison with arbitrary propositional formulas. Each disjunctive rule is essentially an implication such that its antecedent (the body of the rule) is a conjunction of literals, and its consequent (head) is a disjunction of atoms. David Pearce [1997] and Paolo Ferraris [2005] showed how to extend the definition of a stable model to sets of arbitrary propositional formulas. This generalization has applications to answer set programming. Pearce's formulation looks very different from the original definition of a stable model. Instead of reducts, it refers to equilibrium logic — a system of nonmonotonic logic based on Kripke models. Ferraris's formulation, on the other hand, is based on reducts, although the process of constructing the reduct that it uses differs from the one described above. The two approaches to defining stable models for sets of propositional formulas are equivalent to each other. ===General definition of a stable model=== According to [Ferraris, 2005], the reduct of a propositional formula F relative to a set I of atoms is the formula obtained from F by replacing each maximal subformula that is not satisfied by I with the logical constant \bot (false). The reduct of a set P of propositional formulas relative to I consists of the reducts of all formulas from P relative to I. As in the case of disjunctive programs, we say that a set I of atoms is a stable model of P if I is minimal (with respect to set inclusion) among the models of the reduct of P relative to I. For instance, the reduct of the set :\\{p,\ p\land q \rightarrow r,\ p \land eg q \rightarrow s\\} relative to \\{p,s\\} is :\\{p,\ \bot\rightarrow \bot,\ p \land eg\bot \rightarrow s\\}. Since \\{p,s\\} is a model of the reduct, and the proper subsets of that set are not models of the reduct, \\{p,s\\} is a stable model of the given set of formulas. We have seen that \\{p,s\\} is also a stable model of the same formula, written in logic programming notation, in the sense of the original definition. This is an instance of a general fact: in application to a set of (formulas corresponding to) traditional rules, the definition of a stable model according to Ferraris is equivalent to the original definition. The same is true, more generally, for programs with constraints and for disjunctive programs. ===Properties of the general stable model semantics=== The theorem asserting that all elements of any stable model of a program P are head atoms of P can be extended to sets of propositional formulas, if we define head atoms as follows. An atom A is a head atom of a set P of propositional formulas if at least one occurrence of A in a formula from P is neither in the scope of a negation nor in the antecedent of an implication. (We assume here that equivalence is treated as an abbreviation, not a primitive connective.) The minimality and the antichain property of stable models of a traditional program do not hold in the general case. For instance, (the singleton set consisting of) the formula :p\lor eg p has two stable models, \empty and \\{p\\}. The latter is not minimal, and it is a proper superset of the former. Testing whether a finite set of propositional formulas has a stable model is \Sigma_2^{\rm P}-complete, as in the case of disjunctive programs. == See also == * Answer set programming * Logic programming * Negation as failure ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Logic programming Category:Model theory |
The North Dakota Fighting Hawks represent the University of North Dakota, competing as a member of the Missouri Valley Football Conference (MVFC) in the NCAA Division I's Football Championship Subdivision. From 1973 to 2008, they played in the NCAA's NCAA Division II, winning the National Championship in 2001. From 1955 to 1972, they competed in the NCAA's College Division where they participated in and won three bowl games. North Dakota fielded its first football team in 1894. In 1922, they were one of the nine charter members of the North Central Conference (NCC), where they competed until 2008 when they upgraded all of their athletic programs to the Division I level and joined the Great West Conference. They joined the Big Sky Conference in 2012. UND has won 26 conference championships, including 14 outright titles. They have qualified for NCAA postseason play 18 times, most recently in 2019. North Dakota was ineligible for post season play during its transition to Division I from 2008 to 2011. North Dakota left the Big Sky Conference for all sports in 2018, joining the Summit League. Their football program joined the Missouri Valley Football Conference in 2020. Although being classified as an independent for football in 2018 and 2019, they played a full Big Sky schedule with their games counting in the conference standings for their opponents, but the Fighting Hawks were ineligible to compete in the conference championship. ==History== ===Charles A. "Jack" West era=== thumb|North Dakota football player depicted on a Murad card, 1910 The University of North Dakota football program experienced moderate success from its inception in 1894. In the first 33 years of the program, the Flickertails won 109 games against just 87 losses, and had three undefeated seasons in 1896, 1899, and 1903. But it was in 1928 when Charles A. "Jack" West arrived on campus in Grand Forks that would transform North Dakota into one of the most successful college football programs in the nation. West came to UND from South Dakota State, where he spent 9 successful seasons that included 3 NCC championships. West immediately turned around what was at the time a mediocre football program at UND, winning NCC titles in his first four seasons at the helm. Over the course of 15 seasons, West amassed a record of 89–35–6, won a total of 8 NCC Championships, and retired as the winningest coach in North Dakota history, a distinction he would hold for 57 years. North Dakota experienced just three losing seasons during West's 15 years as head coach, and won 9 games in a season on three occasions. West did not coach the team in 1942, and the university did not field a team during the war years of 1943 and 1944. His final season was 1945. It was during this era in 1930, that the university adopted the nickname Fighting Sioux for all of its sports teams. West also served as Athletic Director for North Dakota and was inducted into the UND Hall of Fame in 1975. ===Marv "Whitey" Helling era=== Following Jack West's 15-year tenure as leader of the Fighting Sioux football, the program compiled a record of just 44–44 over the next eleven seasons and did not win an NCC title in that time frame. Marv "Whitey" Helling would change the fortunes of North Dakota and usher in a new era of success for the university. Arriving in 1957, Helling's squad captured the NCC Championship in his second season in 1958, the program's first in 16 seasons. Helling's teams continued to improve as he built his program, reaching its peak from 1964 to 1966. Those three seasons produced a record of 25–4, two NCC Championships, and two Bowl appearances. The 1964 team won Helling's second NCC title behind and 8–1 record. In 1965, the team went 9–1 and played in the Mineral Water Bowl where they soundly defeated Northern Illinois. The only blemish that season came at the hands of their arch rival, the North Dakota State Bison. A 6–3 loss at Dacotah Field in Fargo dashed the National Championship hopes for the Fighting Sioux. North Dakota State went on to win the National Championship that year. Helling's 1966 team gave him his third NCC championship. They were invited to play in the Pecan Bowl, one of four bowl games used at the time by the NCAA to determine the College Division National Champion. They defeated Parsons College in the game which was on national television as the NCAA's "Game of the Week" and finished the season with an 8–2 record and a #5 ranking in the final AP Poll. Four players from the 1966 team would sign contracts with NFL teams. Helling would coach one more season at North Dakota in 1967. In 11 seasons as head coach, he compiled a record of 60–35–3. Helling was inducted into the UND Hall of Fame in 1988. ===Jerry Olson era=== Jerry Olson took over the reins of Fighting Sioux football in 1968. After suffering through 3 subpar seasons from 1967 through 1969 that saw the program produce just 11 wins against 21 losses, Olson got the team back on track to its winning ways in 1970, the first of six consecutive winning seasons. The 1971 season produced the first of 4 NCC Championships for Olson. The 1972 season under Olson may very well be considered the high water mark for North Dakota Football. The average margin of victory for the Sioux that season was over 27 points. The eventual NCC Champs defeated traditionally strong opponents such as Montana, Montana State, South Dakota, South Dakota State, and Northern Iowa in dominating fashion as well as adding a victory over UNLV in Las Vegas. The lone defeat that season came at home, a 5-point loss to hated rival, the North Dakota State Bison. This loss would prove very costly to the Sioux. After the regular season, UND was invited to play in the Camellia Bowl, one of four regional bowl games that the NCAA used to determine the College Division National Champion. Entering the game carrying the #3 ranking, the Fighting Sioux would meet undefeated and #1 ranked Cal Poly. North Dakota would win the game by a rather convincing 17 points, upsetting the favored Mustangs and bolstering their hopes of being awarded the programs first National Title. However, the loss to NDSU proved too much to overcome as the pollsters crowned undefeated Delaware as College Division National Champions for the second straight year. For the second time in 7 seasons, a regular season loss to rival NDSU cost the Fighting Sioux a National Title. They finished the 1972 campaign ranked #2 in the AP Poll. Olson would coach 5 more seasons at North Dakota, adding two more conference titles in 1974 and 1975. With a record of 9–0, the 1975 team was the first UND squad to qualify for the newly created Division II Playoff tournament that replaced the Bowl and polling process of the College Division. North Dakota entered postseason play as the #1 ranked team in the nation. They played host to unranked Livingston in the quarterfinals of the playoff where the heavily favored Fighting Sioux were stunned and handed their only loss of the season. Jerry Olson compiled a record of 54–39–4 in 10 seasons at North Dakota and was inducted into the UND Hall of Fame in 1981. ===1980s=== The decade that followed the Jerry Olson era was one of mixed results. Olson's assistant Gene Murphy took over and coached the team in 1978 and 1979. Murphy's 1979 team qualified for the Division II playoffs, but fell in the quarterfinals to Mississippi College finishing the season with a 10–2 record. In 1980, Pat Behrns took over as head coach. Although he amassed a record of 36–27 in six seasons leading the program, North Dakota never qualified for the playoffs nor did they win a conference title under Behrns' direction. Following a dreadful 3–8 season in 1985 that culminated in a 49–0 loss to arch rival NDSU Bison, Behrns resigned as head coach of North Dakota. Roger Thomas was hired to replace him prior to the 1986 season. To add insult to what was already a forgettable decade in the annals of UND football history that yielded no conference titles and no playoff berths, 1980 marked the last time that the Sioux would defeat the rival NDSU Bison until 1993, twelve consecutive meetings. ===Roger Thomas era=== Roger Thomas took control of the North Dakota football program prior to the 1986 season. He was previously an assistant in the Canadian Football League and at the University of Minnesota, as well as serving as offensive coordinator on Gene Murphy's staff at North Dakota in 1978 and 1979. Thomas took on the challenge of restoring UND's football program to national prominence. Thomas' approach was slow and methodical. In his first six seasons UND went 38–33–1, finally breaking the playoff drought in 1992 and beginning a string of four consecutive playoff appearances. Thomas' teams seem to steadily improve each year. 1993 proved to be North Dakota's breakout season under Thomas, returning the program to national relevance. UND Defensive Coordinator Dale Lennon had installed a very aggressive 3–4 base defense explicitly designed to thwart the veer offense that was employed by arch rival and national power, the North Dakota State Bison. When the two foes met in 1993, the Fighting Sioux defeated the Bison for the first time since 1980, in a 22–21 thriller, that would prove to turn the balance of power in the North Central Conference for the rest of its existence. The program won the first of three consecutive NCC titles in 1993. North Dakota qualified for the playoffs and advanced all the way to the semi- finals before falling to IUP and finishing the season 10–3. 1994 produced another conference championship and another playoff berth for Thomas' squad. As icing on the cake, UND was pitted against NDSU in the 2nd round of the playoffs and were victorious over the Bison for the second time in the same season. North Dakota again advanced to the semi-finals before falling to North Alabama and finishing the season with a record of 10–3. The 1995 season resulted in Thomas' third straight conference championship and fourth straight playoff berth. For the second straight season, UND and NDSU would square off against each other in the playoffs. This time it was NDSU that avenged their loss just two weeks prior to North Dakota. The Bison blasted the Sioux 41–10, ending their season. UND finished 1995 with a 9–2 record. Thomas would coach the Fighting Sioux for three more years, qualifying for the playoffs once more in 1998. He stepped down after that season to accept the role of athletic director for the university. Roger Thomas retired after 13 seasons as North Dakota's all-time winningest coach, with a record of 90–49–2. ===Dale Lennon era=== After Roger Thomas stepped away from the football field and accepted the position of Athletics Director at North Dakota, he did not have to look far to find his replacement on the sidelines. Longtime Thomas assistant and UND Alum, Dale Lennon was hired as head coach in 1999. Although Lennon had been head coach at the University of Mary the prior two seasons, the coaching transition was virtually seamless since Lennon had spent nine seasons as an assistant under Roger Thomas helping to build North Dakota into the national power that they had become. The Fighting Sioux hit the ground running under Lennon in 1999. They captured the NCC title and secured a berth to the playoffs for the second straight season. #9 ranked North Dakota travelled to Northwest Missouri State where they fell in overtime, ending Lennon's first season with a 9–2 record. In 2000, North Dakota went 8–3 in the regular season but were left out of the playoffs. The 2001 season proved to be a magical one for UND. The football program moved into a new state of the art $80 million indoor stadium, the Alerus Center. They breezed through the regular season with just one overtime loss to Nebraska-Omaha on the back of a relentless, swarming defense that gave up just 12 points per game in that season. After capturing the NCC Championship, #4 ranked North Dakota reeled of three straight playoff wins in the friendly confines of their new home in front of raucous and deafening crowds. They earned a trip to the National Championship game in Florence, Alabama, where they would face #2 ranked Grand Valley State who were led by future Notre Dame head coach Brian Kelly. The game had mostly been a defensive battle throughout. Grand Valley had scored with 2:46 to play in the 4th quarter to take 14–10 lead. UND started its next possession, which would simply be known as "The Drive" to North Dakota fans, on their own 20 yard line. After 8 plays, the Sioux found themselves at their own 41 yard line facing a 4th-and-4. On the ensuing play, QB Kelby Klosterman hit WR Luke Schleusner on a short underneath route. Schleusner broke a tackle and broke the play for a 58-yard gain all the way down to the 1 yard line. UND punched it into the endzone on the next play to take the lead with 29 seconds left in the game, securing North Dakota with the National Championship. The team had high hopes heading into 2002 season, but injuries derailed any chances of a repeat title, and instead resulted in a 5–6 record which is the only losing season during Lennon's tenure as head coach. The 2003 version of the Fighting Sioux returned to their dominating form. They had just one loss in the regular season and entered the playoffs as the 7th ranked team in the country. They again hosted and won three straight postseason games in the Alerus Center en route to another berth in the National Championship game in Florence, Alabama. They would face the same opponent, #4 ranked Grand Valley State. The game had a familiar feel to it. It was low scoring and North Dakota trailed late in the game. QB John Bowenkamp had driven the Sioux 58 yards deep in to GVSU territory on a quest for a potential game tying TD, but was intercepted in the red zone giving the Lakers the victory. UND finished the season with a 12–2 mark. The 2003 season marked the first year in a string of five consecutive playoff seasons for North Dakota. North Dakota met Grand Valley in the playoffs every season from 2003 to 2007, winning just once in 2004 when they advanced to the semifinals. GVSU won 3 national championships during those years. In 2006, Lennon's Division II squad would upset #3 ranked Northern Iowa who were a Division I-AA power in a dramatic come from behind win. In 2007, UND routed Division I-AA Southern Utah. Lennon stepped down at North Dakota after the 2007 season to become head coach at DI-AA power Southern Illinois. North Dakota won 4 NCC titles, made 7 playoff appearances, and won a National Championship with Lennon at the helm. He left with a record 91–23, surpassing his mentor Roger Thomas, as the all-time winningest coach in school history. ===Division I transition/Great West Conference era=== North Dakota elevated all of its athletic programs to the Division I level in 2008. They would join the Great West Conference, which also included South Dakota, Southern Utah, UC Davis, and Cal Poly. Chris Mussman was named the 25th head coach at UND in January 2008. Mussman had been an assistant under Dale Lennon for 9 years, the previous 7 as offensive coordinator, and had been a part of the 2001 National Championship staff. Due to the rules of the division reclassification, North Dakota would not be eligible for post season play until the 2012 season. The Fighting Sioux did not find immediate success at their new level of play. Their first three years produced mixed results at best. The program did achieve winning seasons in both 2008 and 2009, but much of the schedule consisted of Division II, Division III, and NAIA teams that UND was expected to defeat easily; however, they often struggled. In 2009, defending NAIA National Champion University of Sioux Falls came to Grand Forks and stunned the Alerus Center crowd by soundly defeating North Dakota. In 2010, Mussman's squad limped through the season to finish with a record of 3–8, the first losing season for the UND program in 21 years. The 2011 season saw a reversal of fortune for Mussman's Fighting Sioux. UND went 8–3 for the season en route to capturing its first Division I Conference championship and finished with a #23 ranking in the national poll. 2011 would be the program's final year of play in the Great West Conference, as the Big Sky Conference would absorb all of the Great West football teams, with the exclusion of South Dakota who moved to the Missouri Valley Football Conference at the start of the 2012 season. ===Big Sky Conference Era=== The university's athletic teams moved to the Big Sky Conference for the 2012 season. North Dakota went 8–14 in its first two Big Sky seasons, and were generally not competitive against league powers Eastern Washington, Montana, and Montana State. Chris Mussman's contract was terminated after the 2013 season. During his tenure as head coach he compiled a record 31–34, the first time in over 60 years that a coach left UND without a winning record. Bubba Schweigert was named as head coach on Christmas Eve in 2013. Schweigert was an assistant at UND for 15 seasons first under Roger Thomas, then for Dale Lennon. He was the defensive coordinator for the 2001 National Championship team and the 2003 Runner-Up team. Prior to taking the head job at North Dakota, he was the defensive coordinator for Dale Lennon's Southern Illinois team. Schweigert's UND squad finished his first season in 2014 with a 5–7 record. In the 2015 campaign saw improvement under Schweigert beginning with the program's first ever win over an FBS program when they stunned Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming to open the season. The team improved to 7–4 overall and 5–3 against Big Sky Conference opponents, narrowly missing out on a bid to the NCAA FCS playoffs. The following season, in 2016, Schweigert's program continued to improve. The Fighting Hawks won their first Big Sky Championship, finishing undefeated (8–0) in Big Sky play en route to securing the program's first berth into the Division I FCS Playoffs. They bowed out of the playoff field via a narrow 27–24 loss to Richmond, ending the season with an overall record of 9–3 The final polls placed North Dakota at No. 12 in the nation, its highest ranking of the Division I era. The Fighting Hawks entered the 2017 season ranked No. 10 and were pre-season favorites to repeat as Big Sky Champions. However, an injury-plagued season that saw as many as 14 starters out of the lineup at one point forced the team to limp to a disappointing 3–8 finish. The 2017 season marked North Dakota's final season of competition in the Big Sky Conference. On January 26, 2017, it was announced that UND would move its football program to the Missouri Valley Football Conference, starting with the 2020 season. The Fighting Hawks will officially be an FCS Independent team during the 2018 and 2019 seasons. During those years, they will still participate in a scheduling alliance with the Big Sky Conference and will play 8 Big Sky teams each season. However, they will not be eligible to win the Big Sky Conference's automatic berth in the FCS Playoffs. ===Missouri Valley Era=== In the first season in the Missouri Valley Football Conference the Fighting Hawks went 4-1. The team shared a 3-way tie in winning the conference. ==Conference affiliations== * 1894–1921: Independent * 1922–2007: North Central Conference (1955–72 NCAA College (small) Division; 1973–2007 NCAA Division II) * 2008–2011: Great West Conference (Division I NCAA Football Championship Subdivision) * 2012–2017: Big Sky Conference (Division I NCAA Football Championship Subdivision) * 2018-2019: Independent (Division I NCAA Football Championship Subdivision) * 2020–future: Missouri Valley Football Conference (Division I NCAA Football Championship Subdivision) ==Championships== ===National championships=== During their time in Division II, North Dakota won one national championship, doing so in 2001. They also finished as runner-up in 2003. 2001 Dale Lennon NCAA DII Playoffs 14–1 17–14 Grand Valley State ===Conference championships=== North Dakota has won 27 conference championships, with twelve of them being shared with other teams. 1928 North Central Conference Charles A. West 6–1–1 4–0 1929 9–1 4–0 1930 9–1 4–0 1931 8–1–2 4–0 1934 7–1 3–1 1936 9–2 4–0 1937 4–4 3–0 1939† 5–3 4–1 1958 Marvin C. Helling 5–3 5–1 1964† 8–1 5–1 1966† 8–2 5–1 1971 Jerry Olson 6–3–1 5–1 1972† 10–1–0 6–1 1974† 6–4 5–2 1975 9–1 7–0 1979 Gene Murphy 10–2 5–1 1993† Roger Thomas 10–3 7–2 1994† 10–3 7–2 1995 9–2 8–1 1999† Dale Lennon 9–2 8–1 2001 14–1 7–1 2003 12–2 7–0 2005† 10–3 4–2 2006† 11–2 7–1 2011 Great West Conference Chris Mussman 8–3 3–1 2016† Big Sky Conference Kyle Schweigert 9–3 8–0 2020† Missouri Valley Football Conference Kyle Schweigert 4–1 4–1 † Co-champions ==Bowl games== North Dakota participated in four bowl games, all during their tenure in Division II. The Fighting Hawks went 4–0 in these games. 1930 Los Angeles Bowl Charles A. West L.A. Fireman W, 14–9 1965 Mineral Water Bowl Marvin C. Helling Northern Illinois W, 37–20 1966 Pecan Bowl Marvin C. Helling Parsons College W, 42–24 1972 Camellia Bowl Jerry Olson Cal Poly W, 38–21 ==Head coaches== 1 Adolph F. Bechdolt 1894 2 Charles S. Farnsworth 1895–1896 3 Melvin A. Brannon 1897–1898 4 Harry C. Loomis 1899 5 Victor L. Littig 1900 6 William Nuessle 1901 7 Harry C. Loomis 1902 8 Rex B. Kennedy 1903 9 George Sweetland 1904–1907 10 David L. Dunlap 1908–1911 11 Fred Vehmeier 1912 12 Fred V. Archer 1913 13 Thomas Andrew Gill 1914–1917 14 Paul J. Davis 1919–1925 15 Tod Rockwell 1926–1927 16 Charles A. West 1928–1945 17 Red Jarrett 1946–1948 18 Dick Miller 1949 19 Frank Zazula 1950–1956 20 Marvin C. Helling 1957–1967 21 Jerry Olson 1968–1977 22 Gene Murphy 1978–1979 23 Pat Behrns 1980–1985 24 Roger Thomas 1986–1998 25 Dale Lennon 1999–2007 26 Chris Mussman 2008–2013 27 Kyle Schweigert 2014–present ==Playoff appearances== ===NCAA Division I-AA/FCS=== The Fighting Hawks have appeared in the FCS playoffs four times, with an overall record of 1–4. 2016 Second Round Richmond L, 24–27 2019 First Round @ Nicholls L, 6–24 2020 First Round Quarter Finals Missouri State @ James Madison W, 44–10 L, 21–34 2022 First Round @ Weber State L, 31–38 ===NCAA Division II=== The Fighting Hawks, then known as the Fighting Sioux, made fourteen appearances in the NCAA Division II playoffs. They had an overall record of 18–13. 1975 Quarterfinals Livingston L, 14–34 1979 Quarterfinals Mississippi College L, 15–35 1992 First Round Pittsburg State L, 21–28 1993 First Round Quarterfinals Semifinals Pittsburg State Mankato State Indiana (PA) W, 17–14 W, 54–21 L, 6–21 1994 First Round Quarterfinals Semifinals Northeast Missouri State North Dakota State North Alabama W, 18–6 W, 14–7 L, 7–35 1995 First Round North Dakota State L, 10–41 1998 First Round Northern Colorado L, 24–52 1999 First Round Northwest Missouri State L, 13–20 (OT) 2001 First Round Quarterfinals Semifinals National Championship Winona State Pittsburg State UC Davis Grand Valley State W, 42–28 W, 38–0 W, 14–2 W, 17–14 2003 First Round Quarterfinals Semifinals National Championship Pittsburg State Winona State North Alabama Grand Valley State W, 24–14 W, 36–29 W, 29–22 L, 3–10 2004 First Round Second Round Quarterfinals Semifinals St. Cloud State Michigan Tech Grand Valley State Pittsburg State W, 20–17 (2OT) W, 20–3 W, 19–15 L, 19–31 2005 First Round Second Round Minnesota–Duluth Grand Valley State W, 23–13 L, 3–17 2006 First Round Second Round Quarterfinals Winona State Nebraska–Omaha Grand Valley State W, 42–0 W, 38–35 L, 20–30 2007 First Round Second Round Winona State Grand Valley State W, 44–2 L, 14–21 ==Rivalries== ===North Dakota State=== North Dakota's primary rival is the North Dakota State University Bison. The two schools are separated by just 70 miles of interstate along the Eastern border of the state and have spent well over a century competing against one another for players, students, fans, resources and recognition. They first met in 1894 and have played 114 times. UND enjoys a healthy 62–49–3 lead in the all-time series. The winner of the game was awarded the Nickel Trophy, a 75-pound likeness of a 1937 U.S. nickel. The annual meeting was paused in 2003, when NDSU left the North Central Conference and elevated their programs to the Division I level. NDSU desired at the time to continue the series; however, North Dakota declined because of potential negative Division II playoff implications, and also because NDSU would be playing with 27 more scholarships. North Dakota eventually moved to Division I also, and since then the two schools have been negotiating terms to resume the series. The two schools announced that they would renew the rivalry in the 2015 season. Initially it was not an annual series, however, as the schools played in different conferences at the time. However, with North Dakota's move to the Missouri Valley Football Conference in 2019, the rivalry resumed as an annual conference matchup, with the first in-conference game between the two schools in over 15 years resulting in a 34-9 win for North Dakota State. The Nickel Trophy was developed and owned by the Blue Key National Honor Fraternities at NDSU and UND. The UND chapter folded in the 1990s so a use agreement was reached with UND Athletics. Because UND changed their nickname from the Fighting Sioux to the Fighting Hawks, the Nickel Trophy has been retired and was not up for grabs in the 2015 game or any matchup since then; the trophy currently sits in the ND Heritage Center in Bismarck, on loan from Blue Key. The rivalry has been featured in documentaries by ESPN and Prairie Public TV. ===South Dakota=== North Dakota has enjoyed a spirited rivalry with the University of South Dakota. They are the two oldest universities in the Dakotas. Their first meeting was in 1903 and they have squared off 93 times. UND leads the series 61–30–5. A travelling trophy known as the Sitting Bull Trophy was awarded to the winner of the game from 1953 to 1999 when it was retired due to concerns over political correctness. It is currently in the possession of North Dakota. The rivalry intensified during the 2000s. By 2003, North Dakota St., South Dakota St., Northern Colorado had left the North Central Conference, leaving void for rivals on the schedules of North Dakota and South Dakota. To add fuel to the fire, South Dakota which had been largely irrelevant in football since the 1980s, was rising to prominence and challenging North Dakota for NCC titles by this time. The two moved together to Division I in 2008. In a memorable game to close the 2011 season, UND came back from trailing by 20 points in the 4th quarter to win what was a de facto Great West Championship game. In 2012 the two Universities parted ways when North Dakota joined the Big Sky Conference, while South Dakota moved to the Missouri Valley Football Conference. This move interrupted a stretch of 65 consecutive seasons in which the two programs had met on the gridiron. They resumed play in 2016 as non-conference opponents with a memorable game where North Dakota defeated South Dakota in double overtime 47–44 scoring 20 unanswered points in regulation to force the overtime. The Coyotes exacted revenge the following season with a decisive 45–7 victory over the Fighting Hawks. The rivalry was once again renewed on an annual basis in 2020 when North Dakota joined the Missouri Valley Football Conference, with the first in-conference matchup between the two schools in over 10 years ending in 21-10 victory for the Hawks. ===Other rivalries=== Prior to joining the MVFC, North Dakota was a member of the Big Sky Conference. At that time, the Big Sky had 13 teams, so the conference employed an unbalanced schedule that results in only playing certain opponents in different seasons, and continues to do so to this day. To lower travel costs and promote rivalries, each team is assigned two protected rivals that they are guaranteed to play each year. During North Dakota's tenure in the Big Sky, their permanent rivals were Montana State University and the University of Northern Colorado. UND is 16–19–1 all time against Montana State. Northern Colorado, also a long time Division II foe in the NCC, trails the all-time series against North Dakota 18–12. ==Stadiums== *Memorial Stadium 1927–2000 *Alerus Center 2001–present ==Notable players== *Donovan Alexander *Burtland Cummings *Weston Dressler *Kenny Golladay *Chris Kuper *Jim Kleinsasser *Jim LeClair *Errol Mann *Stan Mikawos *Chad Mustard *Brady Oliveira *Dave Osborn *Scott Schultz *Todd Thomas == Future non-conference opponents == Announced schedules as of November 28, 2022. Drake at Iowa State at Kansas State St. Thomas Idaho at Minnesota at Iowa State at Minnesota Northern Arizona Montana Portland State at Portland State at Idaho at Boise State Idaho State at Montana at Nebraska Valparaiso ==References== ==External links== * Category:American football teams established in 1894 Category:1894 establishments in North Dakota |
This list of Andrena species is an almost comprehensive listing of species of the mining bees belonging to the genus Andrena. ==A== * Andrena abbreviata Dours, 1873 * Andrena aberrans Eversmann, 1852 * Andrena abjecta Pérez, 1895 * Andrena ablegata (Cockerell, 1922) * Andrena abrupta Warncke, 1967 * Andrena aburana Hirashima, 1962 * Andrena accepta Viereck, 1916 – two-spotted miner bee * Andrena acerba Warncke, 1967 * Andrena aciculata Morawitz, 1886 * Andrena acrana Warncke, 1967 * Andrena aculeata LaBerge, 1980 – spiny miner bee * Andrena acutilabris Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena adjacens Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena aegyptiaca Friese, 1899 * Andrena aegypticola Friese, 1922 * Andrena aeneiventris Morawitz, 1872 * Andrena aerifera LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena aerinifrons Dours, 1873 * Andrena aeripes LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena aetherea Warncke, 1974 * Andrena afghana Warncke, 1974 * Andrena afimbriata LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena afrensis Warncke, 1967 * Andrena africana Friese, 1909 * Andrena agilis Smith, 1879 * Andrena agilissima (Scopoli, 1770) * Andrena agnata Warncke, 1967 * Andrena agoseridis Thorp, 1969 * Andrena ahenea Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena aiderensis Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena ailisensis Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena aino Tadauchi, Hirashima & Matsumura, 1987 * Andrena akitsushimae Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1984 * Andrena alamonis Viereck, 1917 * Andrena alashanica Popov, 1949 * Andrena albicaudata Hirashima, 1966 * Andrena albiculta Viereck, 1917 * Andrena albifacies Alfken, 1927 * Andrena albopicta Radoszkowski, 1874 * Andrena albopunctata (Rossi, 1792) * Andrena albuginosa (Viereck, 1904) * Andrena alceae LaBerge, 1986 * Andrena alchata Warncke, 1974 * Andrena alfkenella Perkins, 1914 * Andrena alfkenelloides Warncke, 1965 * Andrena algida Smith, 1853 – icy miner bee * Andrena aliciae Robertson, 1891 – yellow-faced miner bee * Andrena aliciarum Cockerell, 1897 * Andrena alijevi Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena alleghaniensis Viereck, 1907 – Appalachian miner bee * Andrena allosa Warncke, 1975 * Andrena alluaudi Benoist, 1961 * Andrena almas Tadauchi, Miyanaga & Dawut, 2005 * Andrena altaica Lebedev, 1932 * Andrena alutacea Stoeckhert, 1942 * Andrena amamiensis Hirashima, 1960 * Andrena amarilla Cockerell, 1949 * Andrena amicula Warncke, 1967 * Andrena amieti Praz, Müller & Genoud, 2019 * Andrena amoena Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena amphibola (Viereck, 1904) – amphibious miner bee * Andrena ampla Warncke, 1967 * Andrena anatolica Alfken, 1935 * Andrena anatolis Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 * Andrena andrenoides (Cresson, 1878) – colourful willow miner bee * Andrena angarensis Cockerell, 1929 * Andrena angelesia Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena angustella Cockerell, 1936 * Andrena angusticrus LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena angustifovea Viereck, 1904 * Andrena angustior (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena angustitarsata Viereck, 1904 – narrow-legged miner bee * Andrena anisochlora Cockerell, 1936 * Andrena annapurna Tadauchi & Matsumura, 2007 * Andrena annectens Ribble, 1968 * Andrena anograe Cockerell, 1901 * Andrena anonyma Cameron, 1897 * Andrena anthracina Morawitz, 1880 * Andrena anthrisci Blüthgen, 1925 * Andrena antigana Pérez, 1895 * †Andrena antoinei Michez & De Meulemeester, 2014 * Andrena antonitonis Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena anzu Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1987 * Andrena apacheorum Cockerell, 1897 * Andrena apasta Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 * Andrena apicata Smith, 1847 * Andrena apiformis Kreichbaumer, 1873 * Andrena aquila LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena arabica Scheuchl & Gusenleitner, 2007 * Andrena arabis Robertson, 1897 – mustard miner bee * Andrena arctostaphylae Ribble, 1968 * Andrena ardis LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena arenata Osytshnjuk, 1983 * Andrena arenicola LaBerge & Ribble, 1972 * Andrena argemonis Cockerell, 1896 * Andrena argentata Smith, 1844 * Andrena argentiscopa Viereck, 1917 * Andrena argyreofasciata Schmiedeknecht, 1900 * Andrena arima Cameron, 1909 * Andrena armeniaca Popov, 1940 * Andrena arsinoe Schmiedeknecht, 1900 * Andrena aruana Warncke, 1967 * Andrena asiatica Friese, 1921 * Andrena aspericollis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena asperrima Pérez, 1895 * Andrena asperula Osytshnjuk, 1977 * Andrena assimilis Radoszkowski, 1876 * Andrena asteris Robertson, 1891 – aster miner bee * Andrena asteroides Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena astica Warncke, 1967 * Andrena astragali Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 – death camas miner bee * Andrena astrella Warncke, 1975 * Andrena athenensis Warncke, 1965 * Andrena atlantica Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena atrata Friese, 1887 * Andrena atrohirta Morawitz, 1894 * Andrena atrotegularis Hedicke, 1923 * Andrena atypica (Cockerell, 1941) * Andrena auricoma Smith, 1879 * Andrena auriculata Xu & Tadauchi, 2006 – golden-haired miner bee * Andrena aurihirta Donovan, 1977 * Andrena auripes LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena austroinsularis Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1983 * Andrena autumnalis Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena avara Warncke, 1967 * Andrena avulsa LaBerge & Ribble, 1972 * Andrena azerbaidshanica Lebedev, 1932 ==B== * Andrena babai Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1987 * Andrena baeriae Timberlake, 1941 * Andrena bairacumensis Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena balsamorhizae LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena balucha Nurse, 1904 * Andrena banffensis Viereck, 1924 * Andrena banksi Malloch, 1917 * Andrena barbara Bouseman & LaBerge, 1979 * Andrena barbareae Panzer, 1805 * Andrena barberi Cockerell, 1898 * Andrena barbilabris (Kirby, 1802) – bearded miner bee * Andrena basifusca Cockerell, 1930 * Andrena basimacula Alfken, 1929 * Andrena bassana Warncke, 1969 * Andrena batangensis Xu, 1994 * Andrena bayona Warncke, 1975 * Andrena beameri LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena beijingensis Xu, 1994 * Andrena bellidis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena bellidoides LaBerge, 1968 * Andrena bendensis Donovan, 1977 * Andrena benefica Hirashima, 1962 * Andrena bengasinensis Schulthess, 1924 * Andrena bentoni Cockerell, 1917 * Andrena berberidis Cockerell, 1905 – barberry miner bee * Andrena berkeleyi Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena bernardina Linsley, 1938 * Andrena bernicla Warncke, 1975 * Andrena biareola LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena biarmica Warncke, 1975 * Andrena bicarinata Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena bicolor Fabricius, 1775 * Andrena bicolorata (Rossi, 1790) * Andrena biemarginata Nurse, 1904 * Andrena bifida Warncke, 1967 * Andrena biguttata Friese, 1923 * Andrena bilavia Osytshnjuk, 1994 * Andrena bilimeki LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena bimaculata (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena binominata Smith, 1853 * Andrena birtwelli Cockerell, 1901 – Birtwell's miner bee * Andrena bisalicis Viereck, 1908 – eastern willow miner bee * Andrena biscutellata Viereck, 1917 * Andrena biskrensis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena bisulcata Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena blaisdelli Cockerell, 1924 * Andrena blanda Pérez, 1895 * Andrena blennospermatis Thorp, 1969 * Andrena bocensis Donovan, 1977 * Andrena bonasia Warncke, 1969 * Andrena bonivuri Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena boronensis Linsley & MacSwain, 1962 * Andrena boyerella Dours, 1872 * Andrena braccata Viereck, 1907 * Andrena bradleyi Viereck, 1907 – Bradley's miner bee * Andrena brasiliensis Vachal, 1901 * Andrena braunsiana Friese, 1887 * Andrena brevicornis Bouseman & LaBerge, 1979 * Andrena brevihirtiscopa Hirashima, 1962 * Andrena brevipalpis Cockerell, 1930 – short-tongued miner bee * Andrena breviscopa Pérez, 1895 * Andrena brooksi Larkin, 2004 * Andrena brumanensis Friese, 1899 * Andrena bruneri Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena buccata LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena bucculenta LaBerge & Ribble, 1972 * Andrena bucephala Stephens, 1846 * Andrena buckelli Viereck, 1924 – Buckell's miner bee * Andrena bulgariensis Warncke, 1965 * Andrena bullata LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena burkelli Bingham, 1908 * Andrena butea Warncke, 1965 * Andrena byrsicola Schmiedeknecht, 1900 * Andrena bytinskii Warncke, 1969 ==C== * Andrena caerulea Smith, 1879 – caerulean miner bee * Andrena caeruleonitens Viereck, 1926 * Andrena caesia Warncke, 1974 * Andrena calandra Warncke, 1975 * Andrena californiensis Ribble, 1968 * Andrena caliginosa Viereck, 1916 * Andrena callopyrrha Cockerell, 1929 * Andrena callosa Warncke, 1967 * Andrena calvata LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena camellia Wu, 1977 * Andrena camissoniae Linsley & MacSwain, 1968 * Andrena canadensis Dalla Torre, 1896 – Canada miner bee * Andrena candida Smith, 1879 – mock-orange miner bee * Andrena candidiformis Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 – white-haired miner bee * Andrena caneae Strand, 1915 * Andrena caneibia Strand, 1915 * Andrena canohirta (Friese, 1923) * Andrena cantiaca Warncke, 1975 * Andrena canuta Warncke, 1975 * Andrena capillosa Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena capillosella Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena capricornis Casad & Cockerell, 1896 * Andrena caprimulga Warncke, 1975 * Andrena cara Nurse, 1904 * Andrena carantonica Pérez, 1902 * Andrena carinata Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena carinifrons Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena carinigena Wu, 1982 * Andrena carlini Cockerell, 1901 – Carlinville miner bee * Andrena caroli Pérez, 1895 * Andrena carolina Viereck, 1909 – Carolina miner bee * Andrena carolinensis Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena casadae Cockerell, 1896 * Andrena caspica Morawitz, 1886 * Andrena castanea Warncke, 1975 * Andrena caudata Warncke, 1965 * Andrena ceanothi Viereck, 1917 – ceanothus miner bee * Andrena ceanothifloris Linsley, 1938 – ceanothus flower miner bee * Andrena cephalota Xu, 1994 * Andrena cerasifolii Cockerell, 1896 – cherry leaf miner bee * Andrena cercocarpi Cockerell, 1936 * Andrena cerebrata Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena cervina Warncke, 1975 * Andrena chaetogastra Pittioni, 1950 * Andrena chalcogastra Brullé, 1839 * Andrena chalybaea (Cresson, 1878) * Andrena chalybioides (Viereck, 1904) * Andrena chaparralensis Neff & Larkin, 2002 * Andrena chapmanae Viereck, 1904 – Chapman's miner bee * Andrena chekiangensis Wu, 1977 * Andrena chelma Warncke, 1975 * Andrena chengtehensis Yasumatsu, 1935 * Andrena cheni Dubitzky, 2006 * Andrena chersona Warncke, 1972 * Andrena cheyennorum Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena chionospila Cockerell, 1917 * Andrena chippewaensis Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena chirisana Tadauchi, 1992 * Andrena chlorogaster Viereck, 1904 – green-bellied miner bee * Andrena chlorosoma Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 * Andrena chlorura Cockerell, 1916 * Andrena christineae Dubitzky, 2006 * Andrena chromotricha Cockerell, 1899 – pigmented miner bee * Andrena chrysochersonesus Baker, 1995 * Andrena chrysopus Pérez, 1903 * Andrena chrysopyga Schenck, 1853 * Andrena chrysosceles (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena chylismiae Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 * Andrena ciconia Warncke, 1975 * Andrena cineraria (Linnaeus, 1758) * Andrena cinerea Brullé, 1832 * Andrena cinereophila Warncke, 1965 * Andrena cinnamonea Warncke, 1975 * Andrena citrinihirta Viereck, 1917 * Andrena clarkella (Kirby, 1802) – Clark's miner bee * Andrena cleodora (Viereck, 1904) – shiny-blue sculptured miner bee * Andrena clusia Warncke, 1966 * Andrena clypella Strand, 1921 * Andrena coactipostica Viereck, 1917 * Andrena cochlearicalcar Lebedev, 1933 * Andrena coconina LaBerge, 1980 * Andrena coitana (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena collata Nurse, 1904 * Andrena colletiformis Morawitz, 1874 * Andrena colletina Cockerell, 1906 – plasterer-like miner bee * Andrena colonialis Morawitz, 1886 * Andrena columbiana Viereck, 1917 – British Columbia miner bee * Andrena combaella Warncke, 1966 * Andrena combinata (Christ, 1791) * Andrena combusta Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena commoda Smith, 1879 – advantaged miner bee * Andrena communis Smith, 1879 * Andrena compositarum Thorp & LaBerge, 2005 * Andrena compta Lepeletier, 1841 * Andrena comptaeformis Gusenleitner & Schwarz, 2000 * Andrena comta Eversmann, 1852 * Andrena concinna Smith, 1853 * Andrena concinnula (Cockerell, 1898) * Andrena confederata Viereck, 1917 * Andrena congrua LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena congruens Schmiedeknecht, 1884 * Andrena coracina LaBerge & Bouseman, 1970 * Andrena corax Warncke, 1967 * Andrena cordialis Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena cornelli Viereck, 1907 * Andrena coromanda Warncke, 1975 * Andrena corssubalpina Theunert, 2006 * Andrena coruscata LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena costillensis Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena cragini Cockerell, 1899 * Andrena crassana Warncke, 1965 * Andrena crassepunctata Cockerell, 1931 * Andrena crataegi Robertson, 1893 – hawthorn miner bee * Andrena crawfordi Viereck, 1909 * Andrena creberrima Pérez, 1895 * Andrena crecca Warncke, 1965 * Andrena cressonii Robertson, 1891 – dotted miner bee * Andrena crinita Bouseman & LaBerge, 1979 * Andrena crispa Warncke, 1975 * Andrena cristata Viereck, 1917 – crested miner bee * Andrena critica Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena crocusella Pisanty & Scheuchl, 2016 * Andrena cruciferarum Ribble, 1974 * Andrena crudeni LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena cryptanthae Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena cryptodonta Cockerell, 1922 * Andrena cubiceps Friese, 1914 * Andrena cubicepsella Warncke, 1975 * Andrena cuneata Warncke, 1974 * Andrena cuneilabris Viereck, 1926 – wedgy-lipped miner bee * Andrena cupreotincta Cockerell, 1901 – copper-tinted miner bee * Andrena curiosa (Morawitz, 1877) * Andrena curtivalvis Morice, 1899 * Andrena curtula Pérez, 1903 * Andrena curvana Warncke, 1965 * Andrena curvungula Thomson, 1870 * Andrena cussariensis Morawitz, 1886 * Andrena cyanomicans Pérez, 1895 * Andrena cyanophila Cockerell, 1906 – dimple-cheeked miner bee * Andrena cyanosoma (Cockerell, 1916) * Andrena cybele Gribodo, 1894 * Andrena cymatilis LaBerge, 1987 * Andrena cypria Pittioni, 1950 * Andrena cypricola Mavromoustakis, 1952 ==D== * Andrena daeckei Viereck, 1907 * Andrena dallasiana Cockerell, 1910 * Andrena damara Warncke, 1968 * Andrena danini Pisanty & Scheuchl, 2016 * Andrena daphanea Warncke, 1974 * Andrena dapsilis LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena dargia Warncke, 1965 * Andrena dauma Warncke, 1969 * Andrena davidsoni Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena davisi Viereck, 1907 * Andrena decaocta Warncke, 1967 * Andrena decipiens Schenck, 1861 * Andrena declinis LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena decollata Warncke, 1974 * Andrena decolorata LaBerge & Thorp, 2005 * Andrena delicatula Cockerell, 1918 * Andrena delphiensis Warncke, 1965 * Andrena dentata Smith, 1879 * Andrena denticulata (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena dentiventris Morawitz, 1874 * Andrena deppeana Cockerell, 1910 * Andrena derbentina Morawitz, 1886 * Andrena deserta Warncke, 1974 * Andrena deserticola Timberlake, 1937 * Andrena dilleri Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena dimorpha Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena dinizi Warncke, 1975 * Andrena discophora Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena discors Erichson, 1841 * Andrena discreta Smith, 1879 * Andrena dissimulans Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena dissona Thorp & LaBerge, 2005 * Andrena distans Provancher, 1888 – distant miner bee * Andrena distinguenda Schenck, 1871 * Andrena djelfensis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena dmitrii Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena dolharubang Tadauchi & Xu, 1997 * Andrena dolini Osytshnjuk, 1979 * Andrena dolomellea Lanham, 1949 * Andrena dolosa Morawitz, 1894 * Andrena dorsalis Brullé, 1832 * Andrena dorsata (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena doursana Dufour, 1853 * Andrena dreisbachorum LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena dubiosa Kohl, 1905 * Andrena duboisi Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena dunningi Cockerell, 1898 – Dunning's miner bee * Andrena duplicata Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena durangoensis Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena dzynnanica Popov, 1949 ==E== * Andrena eburneoclypeata Lebedev, 1929 * Andrena echizenia Hirashima & Haneda, 1973 * Andrena edashigei Hirashima, 1960 * Andrena eddaensis Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena edwardsi Viereck, 1916 – Edwards's miner bee * Andrena ehnbergi Morawitz, 1888 * Andrena elata Warncke, 1975 * Andrena elegans Giraud, 1863 * Andrena elisaria Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena ellinorae Grünwaldt & Osytshnjuk, 2005 * Andrena ellisiae Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena elmaria Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena elongatula Viereck, 1917 * Andrena emeiensis Wu, 1982 * Andrena enocki (Cockerell, 1898) * Andrena enslinella Stoeckhert, 1924 * Andrena eoa Popov, 1949 * Andrena eothina Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 * Andrena erberi Morawitz, 1871 * Andrena eremnophila Thorp & LaBerge, 2005 * Andrena eremobia Guiglia, 1933 * Andrena erigeniae Robertson, 1891 – spring beauty miner bee * Andrena ermolenkoi Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena erythrogaster (Ashmead, 1890) – red-bellied miner bee * Andrena erythronii Robertson, 1891 – trout lily miner bee * Andrena esakii Hirashima, 1957 * Andrena escondida Cockerell, 1938 * Andrena euphorbiacea Scheuchl, 2005 * Andrena euzona Pérez, 1895 * Andrena everna Warncke, 1974 * Andrena eversmanni Radoszkowski, 1867 * Andrena evoluta Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 – evolving miner bee * Andrena excellens Viereck, 1924 * Andrena exigua Erichson, 1835 * Andrena exquisita Warncke, 1975 * Andrena ezoensis Hirashima, 1965 ==F== * Andrena fabalis Warncke, 1966 * Andrena fabrella Pérez, 1903 * Andrena faceta LaBerge, 1987 * Andrena fagopyri Xu & Tadauchi, 2005 * Andrena falcinella Warncke, 1969 * Andrena falsifica Perkins, 1915 * Andrena falsificissima Hirashima, 1966 * Andrena familiaris Smith, 1878 * Andrena fani Xu & Tadauchi, 2000 * Andrena farinosa Pérez, 1895 * Andrena fastuosa Smith, 1879 * Andrena fedtschenkoi Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena fenningeri Viereck, 1922 * Andrena ferghanica Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena ferox Smith, 1847 * Andrena ferrugineicrus Dours, 1872 * Andrena ferrugineipes LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena fertoni Pérez, 1895 * Andrena ferulae Pérez, 1895 * Andrena figurata Morawitz, 1866 * Andrena fimbriata Brullé, 1832 * Andrena fimbriatoides Scheuchl, 2004 * Andrena firuzaensis Popov, 1949 * Andrena flagella Nurse, 1904 * Andrena flaminea LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena flandersi Timberlake, 1937 * Andrena flavipes Panzer, 1799 * Andrena flavitarsis Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena flavobila Warncke, 1965 * Andrena flavofacies Nurse, 1904 * Andrena flavolateralis Xu & Tadauchi, 2000 * Andrena flexa Malloch, 1917 * Andrena flocculosa LaBerge & Ribble, 1972 * Andrena florea Fabricius, 1793 * Andrena florentina Magretti, 1883 * Andrena floricola Eversmann, 1852 * Andrena floridula Smith, 1878 * Andrena florivaga Eversmann, 1852 * Andrena forbesii Robertson, 1891 – Forbes's miner bee * Andrena formosana Cockerell, 1911 * Andrena forsterella Osytshnjuk, 1978 * Andrena foveolata Hedicke, 1940 * Andrena foveopunctata Alfken, 1932 * Andrena foxii Cockerell, 1898 * Andrena fracta Casad & Cockerell, 1896 * Andrena fragilis Smith, 1853 – fragile miner bee * Andrena fratercula Warncke, 1975 * Andrena freidbergi Pisanty & Scheuchl, 2018 * Andrena freygessneri Alfken, 1904 * Andrena fria Warncke, 1975 * Andrena frigida Smith, 1853 – cold miner bee * Andrena fucata Smith, 1847 * Andrena fukaii Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena fukuokensis Hirashima, 1952 * Andrena fulgida LaBerge, 1980 – shiny miner bee * Andrena fulica Warncke, 1974 * Andrena fuliginata Pérez, 1895 * Andrena fuligula Warncke, 1965 * Andrena fulminea LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena fulminoides LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena fulva (Müller, 1766) * Andrena fulvago (Christ, 1791) * Andrena fulvata Stoeckhert, 1930 * Andrena fulvicrista Viereck, 1924 * Andrena fulvida Schenck, 1853 * Andrena fulvipennis Smith, 1853 * Andrena fulvitarsis Brullé, 1832 * Andrena fumida Pérez, 1895 * Andrena fumosa LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena funerea Warncke, 1967 * Andrena furva Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 * Andrena fuscicauda (Viereck, 1904) – brown-tailed miner bee * Andrena fuscicollis Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena fuscipes (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena fuscocalcarata Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena fuscosa Erichson, 1835 ==G== * Andrena galbula Warncke, 1975 * Andrena galilaea Pisanty & Scheuchl, 2018 * Andrena gallica Schmiedeknecht, 1883 * Andrena gallinula Warncke, 1975 * Andrena gamskrucki Warncke, 1965 * Andrena gangcana Xu & Tadauchi, 2000 * Andrena gardineri Cockerell, 1906 * Andrena garrula Warncke, 1965 * Andrena garzetta Warncke, 1975 * Andrena gasparella Patiny, 1998 * Andrena gazella Friese, 1922 * Andrena gelriae van der Vecht, 1927 * Andrena genalis Morawitz, 1880 * Andrena geranii Robertson, 1891 – geranium miner bee * Andrena gibberis Viereck, 1924 – gibbous miner bee * Andrena gigantimurus Tadauchi & Xu, 2002 * Andrena glabriventris Alfken, 1935 * Andrena glandaria Warncke, 1975 * Andrena glareola Warncke, 1969 * Andrena glidia Warncke, 1965 * Andrena gloriosa Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena gnaphalii (Cockerell, 1938) * Andrena gobi Tadauchi & Xu, 2002 * Andrena gordia Warncke, 1975 * Andrena gordoni Ribble, 1974 * Andrena gorkhana Tadauchi & Matsumura, 2007 * Andrena govinda Warncke, 1974 * Andrena gracillima Cameron, 1897 * Andrena graecella Warncke, 1965 * Andrena grandilabris Pérez, 1903 * Andrena granulitergorum Tadauchi & Xu, 2002 * Andrena granulosa Pérez, 1902 * Andrena gravida Imhoff, 1832 * Andrena gregaria Warncke, 1974 * Andrena grindeliae Donovan, 1977 * Andrena griseigena Warncke, 1975 * Andrena griseobalteata Dours, 1872 * Andrena griseohirta Alfken, 1936 * Andrena grossella Grünwaldt, 1976 * Andrena grozdanici Osytshnjuk, 1975 * Andrena guichardi Warncke, 1980 * Andrena gunaca Warncke, 1975 * Andrena gusenleitneri Tadauchi & Xu, 2002 * Andrena gussakovskii Lebedev, 1932 * Andrena guttata Warncke, 1969 ==H== * Andrena haemorrhoa (Fabricius, 1781) * Andrena halictoides Smith, 1869 * Andrena hallii Dunning, 1898 * Andrena hamulata LaBerge & Ribble, 1975 * Andrena hanedai Tadauchi, 1985 * Andrena hastulata LaBerge, 1986 * Andrena hattorfiana (Fabricius, 1775) * Andrena haynesi Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 – Haynes's miner bee * Andrena hebes Pérez, 1905 * Andrena hedikae Jaeger, 1934 * Andrena hedini Tadauchi & Xu, 2002 * Andrena heinrichi Grünwaldt, 2005 * Andrena heinzi Dubitzky, 2006 * Andrena helenica Warncke, 1965 * Andrena helianthi Robertson, 1891 – sunflower miner bee * Andrena helianthiformis Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena helouanensis Friese, 1899 * Andrena helvola (Linnaeus, 1758) * Andrena hemileuca Viereck, 1904 – partly-haired miner bee * Andrena henotica Warncke, 1975 * Andrena hera Nurse, 1904 * Andrena heraclei Robertson, 1897 * Andrena hermonella Scheuchl & Pisanty, 2016 * Andrena hermosa Ribble, 1968 * Andrena hesperia Smith, 1853 * Andrena heteropoda Cockerell, 1922 * Andrena hibernica Warncke, 1975 * Andrena hicksi Cockerell, 1925 * Andrena hieroglyphica Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena hierosolymitana Pisanty & Scheuchl, 2018 * Andrena hikosana Hirashima, 1957 * Andrena hilaris Smith, 1853 * Andrena hillana Warncke, 1968 * Andrena himalayaensis Wu, 1982 * Andrena himalayana Tadauchi & Matsumura, 2007 * Andrena hippotes Robertson, 1895 – Hippotes's miner bee * Andrena hirashimai Tadauchi, 1985 * Andrena hirsutula Cockerell, 1936 * Andrena hirticincta Provancher, 1888 – hairy-belted miner bee * Andrena hirticornis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena hispania Warncke, 1967 * Andrena hoffmanni Strand, 1915 * Andrena hondoica Hirashima, 1962 * Andrena hondurasica Cockerell, 1949 * Andrena hova Warncke, 1975 * Andrena humabilis Warncke, 1965 * Andrena humilis Imhoff, 1832 * Andrena humlaensis Scheuchl, 2005 * Andrena hunanensis Wu, 1977 * Andrena hungarica Friese, 1887 * Andrena hurdi Lanham, 1949 * Andrena hyacinthina Mavromoustakis, 1958 * Andrena hybrida Warncke, 1975 * Andrena hyemala Warncke, 1973 * Andrena hypoleuca Cockerell, 1939 * Andrena hypopolia Schmiedeknecht, 1884 * Andrena hystrix Schmiedeknecht, 1883 ==I== * Andrena icterina Warncke, 1974 * Andrena ignota LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena iliaca Warncke, 1969 * Andrena ilicis Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena illini Bouseman & LaBerge, 1979 * Andrena illinoiensis Robertson, 1891 – tufted miner bee * Andrena illustris LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena illyrica Warncke, 1975 * Andrena imitatrix Cresson, 1872 – imitator miner bee * Andrena immaculata Warncke, 1975 * Andrena impolita LaBerge, 1987 * Andrena impuncta Kirby, 1837 * Andrena impunctata Pérez, 1895 * Andrena incanescens Cockerell, 1923 * Andrena incisa Eversmann, 1852 * Andrena inclinata Viereck, 1916 * Andrena incognita Warncke, 1975 * Andrena inconstans Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena inculta LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena induta Morawitz, 1895 * Andrena infirma Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena initialis Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena innesi Gribodo, 1894 * Andrena insignis Warncke, 1974 * Andrena integra Smith, 1853 – intact miner bee * Andrena intermedia Thomson, 1870 * Andrena iranella Popov, 1940 * Andrena irrasus LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena isabellina Warncke, 1969 * Andrena ishiharai Hirashima, 1953 * Andrena ishii Ribble, 1968 * Andrena ishikawai Hirashima, 1958 * Andrena isis Schmiedeknecht, 1900 * Andrena isocomae Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena ispida Warncke, 1965 * Andrena israelica Scheuchl & Pisanty, 2016 ==J== * Andrena jakowlewi Morawitz, 1894 * Andrena jalalabadensis Warncke, 1974 * Andrena janthina Warncke, 1975 * Andrena japonica (Smith, 1873) * Andrena jazleya Pohl & Larkin, 2006 * Andrena jeholensis Yasumatsu, 1935 * Andrena jennei Viereck, 1917 * Andrena jessicae Cockerell, 1896 * Andrena judaea Scheuchl & Pisanty, 2016 * Andrena jugorum Morawitz, 1877 ==K== * Andrena kaguya Hirashima, 1965 * Andrena kaibabensis Ribble, 1974 * Andrena kalmiae Atwood, 1934 – kalmia miner bee * Andrena kamarti Schmiedeknecht, 1900 * Andrena kamikochiana Hirashima, 1963 * Andrena kamtschatkaensis Friese, 1914 * Andrena kansuensis Alfken, 1936 * Andrena kathmanduensis Tadauchi & Matsumura, 2007 * Andrena kerriae Hirashima, 1965 * Andrena khabarovi Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena khankensis Osytshnjuk, 1995 * Andrena khasania Osytshnjuk, 1995 * Andrena khosrovi Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena kilikiae Warncke, 1969 * Andrena kintschouensis Hedicke, 1940 * Andrena kirgisica Osytshnjuk, 1994 * Andrena kishidai Yasumatsu, 1935 * Andrena knuthi Alfken, 1900 * Andrena knuthiana Cockerell, 1901 – Knuth's miner bee * Andrena knuthiformis Hirashima, 1952 * Andrena komachi Hirashima, 1965 * Andrena komarowii Radoszkowski, 1886 * Andrena kondarensis Osytshnjuk, 1982 * Andrena konyella Warncke, 1975 * Andrena kopetica Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena korbella Grünwaldt, 2005 * Andrena koreana Hirashima, 1952 * Andrena korleviciana Friese, 1887 * Andrena kornosica Mavromoustakis, 1954 * Andrena korovini Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena kotenkoi Osytshnjuk, 1994 * Andrena krausiella Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena kraussi Michener, 1954 * Andrena kriechbaumeri Schmiedeknecht, 1883 * Andrena krigiana Robertson, 1901 * Andrena kristina Lanham, 1983 * Andrena kryzhanovskii Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena kudiana Cockerell, 1924 * Andrena kumbhuensis Tadauchi & Matsumura, 2007 * Andrena kurda Warncke, 1975 ==L== * Andrena labergei Ribble, 1968 * Andrena labergeiella Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena labialis (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena labiata Fabricius, 1781 * Andrena labiatula Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena laevis Osytshnjuk, 1983 * Andrena laeviventris Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena laghmana Warncke, 1974 * Andrena lagopus Latreille, 1809 * Andrena lamelliterga Ribble, 1968 * Andrena lamiana Warncke, 1965 * Andrena laminibucca Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 – ridge-mouthed miner bee * Andrena langadensis Warncke, 1965 * Andrena lanhami LaBerge, 1980 * Andrena lapponica Zetterstedt, 1838 * Andrena lateralis Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena lathyri Alfken, 1899 * Andrena laticalcar Osytshnjuk, 1985 * Andrena laticeps Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena latifrons LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena latigena Wu, 1982 * Andrena latinensis Donovan, 1977 * Andrena lativentris Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena lauracea Robertson, 1897 * Andrena laurivora Warncke, 1974 * Andrena lauta LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena lawrencei Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 – Lawrence's miner bee * Andrena layiae Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena lazoiana Osytshnjuk, 1995 * Andrena leaena Cameron, 1907 * Andrena ledermanni Schönitzer, 1997 * Andrena legata Nurse, 1904 * Andrena lehmanni Schönitzer, 1997 * Andrena lepida Schenck, 1861 * Andrena lepidii Ribble, 1968 * Andrena leptopyga Pérez, 1895 * Andrena lepurana Warncke, 1974 * Andrena leucocyanea Pérez, 1895 * Andrena leucofimbriata Xu & Tadauchi, 1995 * Andrena leucolippa Pérez, 1895 * Andrena leucomelaena Hedicke, 1940 * Andrena leucomystax Thorp & LaBerge, 2005 * Andrena leucophaea Lepeletier, 1841 * Andrena leucopsis Warncke, 1967 * Andrena leucorhina Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena leucura Warncke, 1974 * Andrena levigata LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena levipes LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena lewisorum Thorp, 1969 * Andrena lijiangensis Wu, 1992 * Andrena lillooetensis Viereck, 1924 * Andrena limassolica Mavromoustakis, 1948 * Andrena limata Smith, 1853 * Andrena limatula LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena limbata Eversmann, 1852 * Andrena limonii Osytshnjuk, 1983 * Andrena lindbergella Pittioni, 1950 * Andrena lineolata Warncke, 1968 * Andrena linsleyana Thorp, 1987 * Andrena linsleyi Timberlake, 1937 * Andrena livens Pérez, 1895 * Andrena livida LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena lomatii Ribble, 1974 * Andrena longibarbis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena longiceps Morawitz, 1895 * Andrena longifovea LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena longitibialis Hirashima, 1962 * Andrena lonicera Warncke, 1973 * Andrena lonicerae Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1988 * Andrena lucidicollis Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena lucidula Warncke, 1974 * Andrena lunata Warncke, 1975 * Andrena lupinorum Cockerell, 1906 – lupine miner bee * Andrena luridiloma Strand, 1915 * Andrena luscinia Warncke, 1975 * Andrena lutea Warncke, 1967 * Andrena luteihirta Donovan, 1977 ==M== * Andrena mackieae Cockerell, 1937 * Andrena macoupinensis Robertson, 1900 – Macoupin County miner bee * Andrena macra Mitchell, 1951 * Andrena macrocephala Cockerell, 1916 * Andrena macroceps (Matsumura, 1912) * Andrena macroptera Warncke, 1974 * Andrena macswaini Linsley, 1960 * Andrena maculipes Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena maderensis Cockerell, 1922 * Andrena maetai Hirashima, 1964 * Andrena magna Warncke, 1965 * Andrena magnipunctata Kim & Kim, 1989 * Andrena magunta Warncke, 1965 * Andrena maidaqi Scheuchl & Gusenleitner, 2007 * Andrena majalis Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena malacothricidis Thorp, 1969 * Andrena mali Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1987 * Andrena malickyi Gusenleitner & Schwarz, 2000 * Andrena mandibularis Robertson, 1892 – toothed miner bee * Andrena mangkamensis Wu, 1982 * Andrena manifesta (Fox, 1894) * Andrena mara Warncke, 1974 * Andrena marginata Fabricius, 1776 * Andrena mariae Robertson, 1891 – Maria miner bee * Andrena mariana Warncke, 1968 * Andrena mariposorum Viereck, 1917 * Andrena marsae Schmiedeknecht, 1900 * Andrena maukensis Matsumura, 1911 * Andrena medeninensis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena media (Radoszkowski, 1891) * Andrena mediocalens Cockerell, 1931 * Andrena medionitens Cockerell, 1902 – western red-legged miner bee * Andrena mediovittata Pérez, 1895 * Andrena melacana Warncke, 1967 * Andrena melaleuca Pérez, 1895 * Andrena melanochroa Cockerell, 1898 – rose miner bee * Andrena melanospila Cockerell, 1918 * Andrena melanota Warncke, 1975 * Andrena melba Warncke, 1966 * Andrena melittoides Friese, 1899 * Andrena mellea Cresson, 1868 * Andrena melliventris Cresson, 1872 * Andrena menahemella Scheuchl & Pisanty, 2016 * Andrena mendica Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena mentzeliae Cockerell, 1897 * Andrena mephistophelica Cameron, 1897 * Andrena merimna Saunders, 1908 * Andrena meripes Friese, 1922 * Andrena merriami Cockerell, 1901 – Merriam's miner bee * Andrena merula Warncke, 1969 * Andrena mesillae Cockerell, 1896 * Andrena mesoleuca Cockerell, 1924 * Andrena metallescens Cockerell, 1906 * Andrena metasequoiae Tadauchi & Xu, 2003 * Andrena metuoensis Xu & Tadauchi, 2001 * Andrena mexicana LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena micheneri Ribble, 1968 * Andrena micheneriana LaBerge, 1978 * Andrena micheneriella Gusenleitner & Schwarz, 2000 * Andrena microcardia Pérez, 1895 * Andrena microchlora Cockerell, 1922 – small green miner bee * Andrena microthorax Pérez, 1895 * Andrena miegiella Dours, 1873 * Andrena mikado Strand & Yasumatsu, 1938 * Andrena mikhaili Osytshnjuk, 1982 * Andrena milwaukeensis Graenicher, 1903 – Milwaukee miner bee * Andrena mimbresensis Larkin, 2004 * Andrena mimetes Cockerell, 1929 * Andrena minapalumboi Gribodo, 1894 * Andrena miniata LaBerge, 1986 * Andrena minima Warncke, 1974 * Andrena minor (Radoszkowski, 1891) * Andrena minutissima Osytshnjuk, 1995 * Andrena minutula (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena minutuloides Perkins, 1914 * Andrena miranda Smith, 1879 – singular miner bee * Andrena mirzojani Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena misella Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena miserabilis Cresson, 1872 – smooth- faced miner bee * Andrena mistrensis Grünwaldt, 2005 * Andrena mitakensis Hirashima, 1963 * Andrena mitis Schmiedeknecht, 1883 * Andrena miyamotoi Hirashima, 1964 * Andrena mocsaryi Schmiedeknecht, 1884 * Andrena mohavensis Ribble, 1974 * Andrena mojavensis Linsley & MacSwain, 1955 * Andrena mollissima Warncke, 1975 * Andrena monacha Warncke, 1965 * Andrena mongolica Morawitz, 1880 * Andrena monilia Warncke, 1967 * Andrena monilicornis Cockerell, 1896 * Andrena monoensis LaBerge, 1980 * Andrena monogonoparia Viereck, 1917 * Andrena montana Warncke, 1973 * Andrena montanula Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena montarca Warncke, 1975 * Andrena monticola LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena montrosensis Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena moquiorum Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena mordax Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena moricei Friese, 1899 * Andrena morinella Warncke, 1975 * Andrena morio Brullé, 1832 * Andrena morosa Cameron, 1897 * Andrena morrisonella Viereck, 1917 – Morrison's miner bee * Andrena mucida Kriechbaumer, 1873 * Andrena mucorea Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena mucronata Morawitz, 1871 * Andrena munakatai Tadauchi, 1985 * Andrena murana Warncke, 1967 * Andrena murietae Ribble, 1968 * Andrena murreensis Cockerell, 1923 * Andrena muscaria Warncke, 1965 * Andrena musica Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena mutini Osytshnjuk, 1986 ==N== * Andrena najadana Warncke, 1975 * Andrena nana (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena nanaeformis Noskiewicz, 1925 * Andrena nanshanica Popov, 1940 * Andrena nantouensis Dubitzky, 2006 * Andrena nanula Nylander, 1848 * Andrena nasica Lebedev, 1933 * Andrena nasipolita Strand, 1913 * Andrena nasonii Robertson, 1895 – bumped miner bee * Andrena nasuta Giraud, 1863 * Andrena nativa Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena nawai Cockerell, 1913 * Andrena nebularia Warncke, 1975 * Andrena neffi Larkin, 2004 * Andrena negevana Gusenleitner & Scheuchl, 2000 * Andrena nemophilae Ribble, 1968 * Andrena neocypriaca Mavromoustakis, 1956 * Andrena neomexicana LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena neonana Viereck, 1917 * Andrena neovirida Grünwaldt, 2005 * Andrena nesterovi Osytshnjuk, 1982 * Andrena nesteroviella Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena nevadae Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 * Andrena nevadensis (Cresson, 1879) – long-faced miner bee * Andrena nida Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena nigerrima Casad, 1896 * Andrena nigra Provancher, 1895 * Andrena nigrae Robertson, 1905 – black miner bee * Andrena nigriceps (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena nigricula LaBerge & Bouseman, 1977 * Andrena nigrihirta (Ashmead, 1890) – black-haired miner bee * Andrena nigripes Provancher, 1895 * Andrena nigritula Cockerell, 1906 * Andrena nigroaenea (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena nigrocaerulea Cockerell, 1897 – black and blue miner bee * Andrena nigroclypeata Linsley, 1939 * Andrena nigrocyanea Saunders, 1908 * Andrena nigroolivacea Dours, 1873 * Andrena nigroviridula Dours, 1873 * Andrena nilotica Warncke, 1967 * Andrena nippon Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1983 * Andrena nisoria Warncke, 1969 * Andrena nitida (Müller, 1776) * Andrena nitidicollis Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena nitidilabris Pérez, 1895 * Andrena nitidiuscula Schenck, 1853 * Andrena nitidula Pérez, 1903 * Andrena nivalis Smith, 1853 – snow miner bee * Andrena niveata Friese, 1887 * Andrena niveimonticola Xu & Tadauchi, 1999 * Andrena niveobarbata Nurse, 1904 * Andrena nobilis Morawitz, 1874 * Andrena nothocalaidis (Cockerell, 1905) – false dandelion miner bee * Andrena nothoscordi Robertson, 1897 * Andrena notophila Cockerell, 1933 * Andrena nova Popov, 1940 * Andrena nubecula Smith, 1853 – cloudy-winged miner bee * Andrena nubica Warncke, 1975 * Andrena nucleola Warncke, 1973 * Andrena nuda Robertson, 1891 – naked miner bee * Andrena nudigastroides Yasumatsu, 1935 * Andrena numida Lepeletier, 1841 * Andrena nupta Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena nuptialis Pérez, 1902 * Andrena nycthemera Imhoff, 1868 ==O== * Andrena oblita Warncke, 1967 * Andrena obscuripennis Smith, 1853 * Andrena obscuripostica Viereck, 1916 * Andrena ochropa Warncke, 1974 * Andrena oedicnema Warncke, 1975 * Andrena oenas Warncke, 1975 * Andrena oenotherae Timberlake, 1937 * Andrena ofella LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena okabei Hirashima, 1957 * Andrena okinawana Matsumura & Uchida, 1926 * Andrena olivacea Viereck, 1916 * Andrena olympica Grünwaldt, 2005 * Andrena omninigra Viereck, 1917 * Andrena omogensis Hirashima, 1953 * Andrena oniscicolor (Viereck, 1904) * Andrena opacifovea Hirashima, 1952 * Andrena opercula Wu, 1982 * Andrena optanda LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena oralis Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena orana Warncke, 1975 * Andrena orbitalis Morawitz, 1871 * Andrena orchidea Scheuchl, 2005 * Andrena orientaliella Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena orientana Warncke, 1965 * Andrena orizabibia Strand, 1917 * Andrena ornata Morawitz, 1866 * Andrena orthocarpi Cockerell, 1936 * Andrena osmioides Cockerell, 1916 * Andrena osychniukae Osytshnjuk, 1977 * Andrena osytschnjukae Tadauchi & Xu, 2000 * Andrena oulskii Radoszkowski, 1867 * Andrena ounifa Warncke, 1974 * Andrena ovatula (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena oviventris Pérez, 1895 ==P== * Andrena pachucensis Donovan, 1977 * Andrena padoucorum Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena paganettina Warncke, 1965 * Andrena pagophila Warncke, 1975 * Andrena palaestina Pisanty & Scheuchl, 2016 * Andrena pallidicincta Brullé, 1832 * Andrena pallidifovea (Viereck, 1904) – pale-faced miner bee * Andrena pallidiscopa (Viereck, 1904) * Andrena pallitarsis Pérez, 1903 * Andrena palpalis Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena palumba Warncke, 1974 * Andrena pandellei Pérez, 1895 * Andrena pandosa Warncke, 1968 * Andrena panfilovi Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena pannosa Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena panurgimorpha Mavromoustakis, 1957 * Andrena panurgina De Stefani, 1887 * Andrena papagorum Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena parachalybea Viereck, 1917 * Andrena paradisaea Warncke, 1975 * Andrena paradoxa Friese, 1921 * Andrena parathoracica Hirashima, 1957 * Andrena paraulica Hedicke, 1940 * Andrena pareklisiae Mavromoustakis, 1957 * Andrena parilis LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena parnassiae Cockerell, 1902 * Andrena parviceps Kriechbaumer, 1873 * Andrena passerina Warncke, 1974 * Andrena pastellensis Schwenninger, 2007 * Andrena patagiata LaBerge, 1987 * Andrena patella Nurse, 1903 * Andrena paucisquama Noskiewicz, 1924 * Andrena pavonia Warncke, 1974 * Andrena peckhami Cockerell, 1902 – Peckham's miner bee * Andrena pecosana Cockerell, 1913 * Andrena pectidis (Cockerell, 1897) * Andrena pectilis LaBerge, 1986 * Andrena pela Warncke, 1974 * Andrena pellucens Pérez, 1895 * Andrena pellucida Warncke, 1974 * Andrena pelopa Warncke, 1975 * Andrena penemisella LaBerge & Ribble, 1975 * Andrena pensilis Timberlake, 1938 * Andrena penutiani Ribble, 1968 * Andrena perahia Pisanty & Scheuchl, 2016 * Andrena perarmata Cockerell, 1898 – armed miner bee * Andrena perezana Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena peridonea Cockerell, 1920 * Andrena perimelas Cockerell, 1905 * Andrena perplexa Smith, 1853 – perplexed miner bee * Andrena perpunctata LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena persimulata Viereck, 1917 – protuberance miner bee * Andrena personata Robertson, 1897 * Andrena pertristis Cockerell, 1905 – sad miner bee * Andrena pesenkoi Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena peshinica Nurse, 1904 * Andrena pesleria Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena petrosa Warncke, 1974 * Andrena phaceliae Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena phaneroleuca Cockerell, 1929 * Andrena phenax Cockerell, 1898 * Andrena phoenicura Warncke, 1975 * Andrena pieli Xu & Tadauchi, 1995 * Andrena pilipes Fabricius, 1781 * Andrena pinkeunia Warncke, 1969 * Andrena piperi Viereck, 1904 – Piper's miner bee * Andrena placata Mitchell, 1960 – peaceful miner bee * Andrena plana Viereck, 1904 * Andrena planirostris Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena planiventris Dours, 1872 * Andrena planti Dubitzky, 2006 * Andrena platalea Warncke, 1975 * Andrena platydepressa Tadauchi & Xu, 1995 * Andrena platyparia Robertson, 1895 – plated miner bee * Andrena platyrhina Cockerell, 1930 * Andrena plebeia LaBerge, 1986 * Andrena plumiscopa Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena plumosella Gusenleitner & Schwarz, 2002 * Andrena polemediana Mavromoustakis, 1956 * Andrena polemonii Robertson, 1891 * Andrena polita Smith, 1847 * Andrena ponomarevae Osytshnjuk, 1983 * Andrena pontica Warncke, 1972 * Andrena popovi Osytshnjuk, 1985 * Andrena porterae Cockerell, 1900 – Porter's miner bee * Andrena potentillae Panzer, 1809 * Andrena praecocella Cockerell, 1917 * Andrena praecox (Scopoli, 1763) * Andrena pratincola Warncke, 1974 * Andrena prima Casad, 1896 * Andrena primaeva Cockerell, 1909 * Andrena primulifrons Casad, 1896 * Andrena principalis LaBerge, 1986 * Andrena probata Warncke, 1973 * Andrena producta Warncke, 1973 * Andrena prolixa LaBerge, 1980 * Andrena prostomias Pérez, 1905 * Andrena proxima (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena pruinosa Erichson, 1835 * Andrena prunella Warncke, 1974 * Andrena pruni Robertson, 1891 * Andrena prunifloris Cockerell, 1898 * Andrena prunorum Cockerell, 1896 – purple miner bee * Andrena pseudocineraria Wu, 1982 * Andrena pseudothoracica Engel, 2005 * Andrena puffina Warncke, 1975 * Andrena pulicaria Warncke, 1975 * Andrena pullipennis Alfken, 1931 * Andrena pulverea Viereck, 1916 * Andrena pulverulenta Viereck, 1904 * Andrena punctatissima Morawitz, 1866 * Andrena punctifrons Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena punctiventris Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena punjabensis Cameron, 1908 * Andrena purpurascens Pérez, 1895 * Andrena purpureomicans Alfken, 1935 * Andrena pusilla Pérez, 1903 * Andrena puthua (Cockerell, 1910) * Andrena pyropygia Kriechbaumer, 1873 * Andrena pyrozonata Friese, 1921 * Andrena pyrrhula Pérez, 1895 ==Q== * Andrena qinhaiensis Xu, 1994 * Andrena quadrifasciata Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena quadrilimbata LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena quadrimaculata Friese, 1921 * Andrena quercina Cockerell, 1939 * Andrena querquedula Warncke, 1975 * Andrena quettensis Cockerell, 1917 * Andrena quinquepalpa Warncke, 1980 * Andrena quintiliformis Viereck, 1916 – western scaly miner bee * Andrena quintilis Robertson, 1898 – eastern scaly miner bee * Andrena qusumensis Wu, 1982 ==R== * Andrena ramaleyi Cockerell, 1931 * Andrena ramayana Tadauchi & Matsumura, 2007 * Andrena ramlehiana Pérez, 1903 * Andrena ranunculi Schmiedeknecht, 1883 * Andrena ranunculorum Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena rava LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena raveni Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 * Andrena recurvirostra Warncke, 1975 * Andrena reflexa Cresson, 1872 * Andrena regularis Malloch, 1917 – regular miner bee * Andrena rehni Viereck, 1907 – Rehn's miner bee * Andrena relata Warncke, 1967 * Andrena repanda LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena reperta Warncke, 1974 * Andrena resoluta Warncke, 1973 * Andrena revelstokensis Viereck, 1924 * Andrena rhenana Stoeckhert, 1930 * Andrena rhypara Pérez, 1903 * Andrena rhyssonota Pérez, 1895 * Andrena ribblei LaBerge, 1977 * Andrena richardsi Hirashima, 1957 * Andrena robertsonii Dalla Torre, 1896 – Robertson's miner bee * Andrena robervalensis Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena robinsoni Lanham, 1987 * Andrena robusta Warncke, 1975 * Andrena rodilla Donovan, 1977 * Andrena rogenhoferi Morawitz, 1872 * Andrena romankovae Osytshnjuk, 1995 * Andrena roripae Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena rosae Panzer, 1801 * Andrena roscipes Alfken, 1933 * Andrena rothneyi Cameron, 1897 * Andrena rotundata Pérez, 1895 * Andrena rotundilabris Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena rozeni Linsley & MacSwain, 1955 * Andrena rubecula Warncke, 1974 * Andrena rubens LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena rubi Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena rubrotincta Linsley, 1938 * Andrena rudbeckiae Robertson, 1891 * Andrena rudolfae Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena rufescens Pérez, 1895 * Andrena ruficrus Nylander, 1848 * Andrena rufina Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena rufitibialis Friese, 1899 * Andrena rufiventris Lepeletier, 1841 * Andrena rufizona Imhoff, 1834 * Andrena rufoclypeata Alfken, 1936 * Andrena rufomaculata Friese, 1921 * Andrena rufosignata Cockerell, 1902 – red-faced miner bee * Andrena rufula Schmiedeknecht, 1883 * Andrena rugosa Robertson, 1891 – wrinkled miner bee * Andrena rugothorace Warncke, 1965 * Andrena rugulosa Stoeckhert, 1935 * Andrena rugulosella Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena runcinatae Cockerell, 1906 – planed miner bee * Andrena rupshuensis Cockerell, 1911 * Andrena russula Lepeletier, 1841 * Andrena rusticola Warncke, 1975 ==S== * Andrena saccata Viereck, 1904 – shifty miner bee * Andrena saegeri Cockerell, 1939 * Andrena saettana Warncke, 1975 * Andrena sagarmathana Tadauchi & Matsumura, 2007 * Andrena sagittagalea Ribble, 1968 * Andrena sagittaria Warncke, 1968 * Andrena sakagamii Tadauchi, Hirashima & Matsumura, 1987 * Andrena salicifloris Cockerell, 1897 – willow flower miner bee * Andrena salicina Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena salictaria Robertson, 1905 – small willow miner bee * Andrena sandanskia Warncke, 1973 * Andrena santaclarae Ribble, 1974 * Andrena saragamineensis Hirashima, 1962 * Andrena sardoa Lepeletier, 1841 * Andrena sarta Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena sarydzhasi Osytshnjuk, 2005 * Andrena sasakii Cockerell, 1913 * Andrena satellita Nurse, 1904 * Andrena saturata Warncke, 1975 * Andrena savignyi Spinola, 1838 * Andrena saxonica Stoeckhert, 1935 * Andrena sayi Robertson, 1891 * Andrena schencki Morawitz, 1866 * Andrena scheuchli Dubitzky, 2006 * Andrena schlettereri Friese, 1896 * Andrena schmiedeknechti Magretti, 1883 * Andrena schoenitzeri Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena schuberthi Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena schuhi LaBerge, 1980 – Schuhi's miner bee * Andrena schulzi Strand, 1921 * Andrena schwarzi Warncke, 1975 * Andrena scita Eversmann, 1852 * Andrena scotica Perkins, 1916 * Andrena scotoptera Cockerell, 1934 * Andrena sculleni LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena scurra Viereck, 1904 – joker miner bee * Andrena scutellaris Morawitz, 1880 * Andrena scutellinitens Viereck, 1916 – shielded miner bee * Andrena sedentaria Warncke, 1975 * Andrena sedumella Scheuchl & Pisanty, 2018 * Andrena segregans Cockerell, 1900 * Andrena segregata Osytshnjuk, 1982 * Andrena seitzi Alfken, 1935 * Andrena selcuki Scheuchl & Hazir, 2008 * Andrena selena Gusenleitner, 1994 * Andrena semiaenea Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena semiflava Lebedev, 1932 * Andrena semifulva Viereck, 1916 * Andrena semilaevis Pérez, 1903 * Andrena seminuda Friese, 1896 * Andrena semipunctata Cockerell, 1902 * Andrena semirubra Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena semirugosa Cockerell, 1924 * Andrena senecionis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena senex Eversmann, 1852 * Andrena senticulosa LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena sericata Imhoff, 1868 * Andrena serraticornis Warncke, 1965 * Andrena setosifemoralis Wu, 2000 * Andrena sexguttata Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena shakuensis Popov, 1949 * Andrena shawanensis Xu & Tadauchi, 1999 * Andrena shoshoni Ribble, 1974 * Andrena shteinbergi Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena sibirica Morawitz, 1888 * Andrena sibthorpi Mavromoustakis, 1952 * Andrena siccata LaBerge, 1986 * Andrena siciliana Warncke, 1980 * Andrena sieverti Cockerell, 1906 * Andrena sigiella Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena sigmundi Cockerell, 1902 – Sigmund's miner bee * Andrena signata Warncke, 1974 * Andrena sillata Warncke, 1975 * Andrena similis Smith, 1849 * Andrena simillima Smith, 1851 * Andrena simontornyella Noskiewicz, 1939 * Andrena simplex Smith, 1853 – simple miner bee * Andrena simulata Smith, 1879 * Andrena singularis Viereck, 1924 * Andrena sinuata Pérez, 1895 * Andrena sitiliae Viereck, 1909 * Andrena sjunthensis Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena skorikovi Popov, 1940 * Andrena sladeni Viereck, 1924 – Sladen's miner bee * Andrena smaragdina Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena sobrina Warncke, 1975 * Andrena sodalis Smith, 1879 * Andrena sola Viereck, 1916 – lonely miner bee * Andrena solenopalpa Benoist, 1945 * Andrena solidago Tadauchi & Xu, 2002 * Andrena solitaria Warncke, 1975 * Andrena solivaga LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena solutiscopa Scheuchl, 2005 * Andrena sonorensis LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena sordidella Viereck, 1918 * Andrena soror Dours, 1872 * Andrena speciosa Friese, 1899 * Andrena specularia Donovan, 1977 * Andrena sperryi (Cockerell, 1937) * Andrena sphaeralceae Linsley, 1939 * Andrena sphecodimorpha Hedicke, 1942 * Andrena spinaria Warncke, 1974 * Andrena spiraeana Robertson, 1895 – goatsbeard miner bee * Andrena splendidicollis Morawitz, 1895 * Andrena splendula Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena spolata Warncke, 1968 * Andrena spreta Pérez, 1895 * Andrena squamata Wu, 1990 * Andrena stabiana Morice, 1899 * Andrena stagei Linsley & MacSwain, 1962 * Andrena statusa Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena steini Tadauchi & Xu, 2003 * Andrena stellaris Warncke, 1965 * Andrena stenofovea Scheuchl & Pisanty, 2018 * Andrena stepposa Osytshnjuk, 1977 * Andrena stigmatica Morawitz, 1895 * Andrena stipator LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena stoeckhertella Pittioni, 1948 * Andrena stolida Warncke, 1975 * Andrena stragulata Illiger, 1806 * Andrena strepera Warncke, 1975 * Andrena striata Wu, 1977 * Andrena striatifrons Cockerell, 1897 – line-faced miner bee * Andrena strohmella Illiger, 1806 * Andrena suavis Timberlake, 1938 * Andrena subaenescens Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena subapasta Thorp, 1969 * Andrena subaustralis Cockerell, 1898 – southern miner bee * Andrena subchalybea Viereck, 1916 * Andrena subconsobrina Popov, 1949 * Andrena subdepressa Timberlake, 1951 * Andrena sublayiae LaBerge & Bouseman, 1970 * Andrena sublevigata Hirashima, 1966 * Andrena sublisterelle Wu, 1982 * Andrena submaura Linsley, 1938 * Andrena submediocalens Wu, 1982 * Andrena submoesta Viereck, 1916 * Andrena submontana Wu, 1982 * Andrena subnigripes Viereck, 1916 * Andrena subniveata Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena subnivosa Wu, 1982 * Andrena subopaca Nylander, 1848 * Andrena subopercula Wu, 1982 * Andrena subproximana Strand, 1913 * Andrena subrubicunda LaBerge, 1986 * Andrena subshawella Strand, 1915 * Andrena subsmaragdina Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena subspinigera Cockerell, 1917 * Andrena subsquamiformis Tadauchi & Xu, 2000 * Andrena subtilis Smith, 1879 – subtle miner bee * Andrena subtrita Cockerell, 1910 – unusual miner bee * Andrena subvelutina Xu & Tadauchi, 1995 * Andrena suerinensis Friese, 1884 * Andrena sulcata Donovan, 1977 * Andrena surda Cockerell, 1910 – deaf miner bee * Andrena susanneae Dubitzky, 2006 * Andrena susterai Alfken, 1914 * Andrena sylvatica Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena symphyti Schmiedeknecht, 1883 * Andrena synadelpha Perkins, 1914 ==T== * Andrena tadauchii Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena tadorna Warncke, 1974 * Andrena tadzhica Popov, 1949 * Andrena taeniata Viereck, 1916 * Andrena taisetsusana Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1987 * Andrena taiwanella Dubitzky, 2002 * Andrena takachihoi Hirashima, 1964 * Andrena talina Xu & Tadauchi, 2002 * Andrena taniguchiae Hirashima, 1958 * Andrena taprobana Warncke, 1975 * Andrena taraxaci Giraud, 1861 * Andrena tarsata Nylander, 1848 * Andrena tateyamana Tamasana & Hirashima, 1984 * Andrena tatjanae Osytshnjuk, 1995 * Andrena taxana Warncke, 1975 * Andrena tecta Radoszkowski, 1876 * Andrena tegularis LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena tenuiformis Pittioni, 1950 * Andrena tenuis Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena tenuistriata Pérez, 1895 * Andrena tertaria Meunier, 1920 * Andrena testaceipes Saunders, 1908 * Andrena tetonorum Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena teunisseni Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena texana Cresson, 1872 * Andrena thaspii Graenicher, 1903 – parsnip miner bee * Andrena thomensis Cockerell, 1932 * Andrena thomsonii Ducke, 1898 * Andrena thoracica (Fabricius, 1775) * Andrena tianshana Tadauchi & Xu, 1995 * Andrena tiaretta Warncke, 1974 * Andrena tibetensis Wu, 1982 * Andrena tibetica Xu & Tadauchi, 2005 * Andrena tibialis (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena tildeni Ribble, 1974 * Andrena timberlakei Cockerell, 1929 * Andrena tinaria Gusenleitner, 1998 * Andrena tkalcui Gusenleitner & Schwarz, 2002 * Andrena tobiasi Osytshnjuk, 1983 * Andrena toelgiana Friese, 1921 * Andrena togashii Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1984 * Andrena toluca LaBerge, 1969 * Andrena tomentosa Morawitz, 1878 * Andrena tomora Warncke, 1975 * Andrena tonkaworum Viereck, 1917 * Andrena topazana Cockerell, 1906 – Topaz miner bee * Andrena toralis LaBerge & Ribble, 1972 * Andrena torda Warncke, 1965 * Andrena torulosa LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena totana Warncke, 1974 * Andrena transbaicalica Popov, 1949 * Andrena transhissarica Popov, 1958 * Andrena transitoria Morawitz, 1871 * Andrena transnigra Viereck, 1904 – black-banded miner bee * Andrena trapezoidea Viereck, 1917 * Andrena trapezoidina Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena trevoris Cockerell, 1897 – Trevor's miner bee * Andrena tridens Robertson, 1902 – trident miner bee * Andrena tridentata (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena trikalensis Warncke, 1965 * Andrena trimaculata LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena trimarginata (Radoszkowski, 1886) * Andrena trimmerana (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena tringa Warncke, 1973 * Andrena tringoides Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena trinkoi Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena triquestra LaBerge, 1986 * Andrena trivialis Viereck, 1917 * Andrena trizonata (Ashmead, 1890) – three-zoned miner bee * Andrena troodica Warncke, 1975 * Andrena truncatella Xu & Tadauchi, 1999 * Andrena truncatilabris Morawitz, 1877 * Andrena tscheki Morawitz, 1872 * Andrena tsingtauica Strand, 1915 * Andrena tsukubana Hirashima, 1957 * Andrena tuberculifera Pérez, 1895 * Andrena tunetana Schmiedeknecht, 1900 * Andrena turanica Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena turkestana Warncke, 1967 ==U== * Andrena uluhbeki Osytshnjuk, 1984 * Andrena ulula Warncke, 1969 * Andrena ungeri Mavromoustakis, 1952 * Andrena unicincta Friese, 1899 * Andrena unicostata LaBerge, 1971 * Andrena unita Nurse, 1904 * Andrena urarti Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena urdula Warncke, 1965 * Andrena utahensis LaBerge, 1967 * Andrena uvulariae Mitchell, 1960 * Andrena uyacensis Cockerell, 1949 ==V== * Andrena vacella Warncke, 1975 * Andrena vachali Pérez, 1895 * Andrena vaga Panzer, 1799 * Andrena valentinae Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena valeriana Hirashima, 1957 * Andrena vanduzeei Linsley, 1938 * Andrena vandykei Cockerell, 1936 * Andrena varia Pérez, 1895 * Andrena variabilis Smith, 1853 * Andrena varians (Kirby, 1802) * Andrena varicornis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena varsobiana Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena vaulogeri Pérez, 1895 * Andrena venata LaBerge & Ribble, 1975 * Andrena venerabilis Alfken, 1935 * Andrena ventralis Imhoff, 1832 * Andrena ventricosa Dours, 1873 * Andrena verae Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena verbesinae Viereck & Cockerell, 1914 * Andrena verecunda Cresson, 1872 * Andrena verticalis Pérez, 1895 * Andrena vespertina Linsley & MacSwain, 1961 * Andrena vestali Cockerell, 1913 * Andrena vetula Lepeletier, 1841 * Andrena viciae Tadauchi & Xu, 2000 * Andrena vicina Smith, 1853 – neighbouring miner bee * Andrena vicinoides Viereck, 1904 – Victoria miner bee * Andrena vidalesi Cockerell, 1949 * Andrena vierecki Cockerell, 1904 – Viereck's miner bee * Andrena viktorovi Osytshnjuk, 1983 * Andrena villipes Pérez, 1895 * Andrena vinnula LaBerge & Hurd, 1965 * Andrena violae Robertson, 1891 * Andrena virago Morawitz, 1895 * Andrena virescens Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena virgata Warncke, 1975 * Andrena virginiana Mitchell, 1960 – Virginia miner bee * Andrena viridescens Viereck, 1916 * Andrena viridigastra Morawitz, 1876 * Andrena viridissima Ribble, 1968 * Andrena vitiosa Smith, 1879 * Andrena vogleri Larkin, 2004 * Andrena volgensis Osytshnjuk, 1994 * Andrena volka Warncke, 1969 * Andrena vulcana Dours, 1873 * Andrena vulpecula Kriechbaumer, 1873 * Andrena vulpicolor Cockerell, 1897 * Andrena vulpoides LaBerge, 1967 ==W== * Andrena w-scripta Viereck, 1904 – w-marked miner bee * Andrena waldmerei LaBerge & Bouseman, 1970 * Andrena walleyi Cockerell, 1932 – Walley's miner bee * Andrena warnckei Gusenleitner & Schwarz, 2000 * Andrena washingtoni Cockerell, 1901 – Washington miner bee * Andrena watasei Cockerell, 1913 * Andrena wellesleyana Robertson, 1897 – Wellesley's miner bee * Andrena westensis Warncke, 1965 * Andrena westrichi Gusenleitner & Schwarz, 2000 * Andrena wheeleri Graenicher, 1904 * Andrena wilhelmi Schuberth, 1995 * Andrena wilkella (Kirby, 1802) – European legume miner bee * Andrena wilmattae Cockerell, 1906 * Andrena winnemuccana LaBerge, 1973 * Andrena wolfi Gusenleitner & Scheuchl, 2000 * Andrena wollastoni Cockerell, 1922 * Andrena wuae Tadauchi & Xu, 1995 ==X== * Andrena xanthigera Cockerell, 1900 * Andrena xinjiangensis Wu, 1985 * Andrena xiyuensis Xu & Tadauchi, 2005 * Andrena xuanzangi Tadauchi & Xu, 2003 ==Y== * Andrena yamato Tadauchi & Hirashima, 1983 * Andrena yangi Dubitzky, 2006 * Andrena yasumatsui Hirashima, 1952 * Andrena yelkouan Warncke, 1975 * Andrena yukawai Tadauchi & Xu, 2004 * Andrena yunnanica Xu & Tadauchi, 2002 ==Z== * Andrena zaaminensis Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena zharkolia Osytshnjuk, 1994 * Andrena zhelokhovtzevi Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena ziminae Osytshnjuk, 1986 * Andrena zionensis LaBerge, 1973 * Andrena ziziae Robertson, 1891 * Andrena ziziaeformis Cockerell, 1908 * Andrena zlatae Osytshnjuk, 1993 * Andrena zostera Warncke, 1975 * Andrena zuvandiana Osytshnjuk, 1994 == References == * Biolib * Universal Biological Indexer * Andrena |
Memoirs of an Invisible Man is a 1992 American comedy-drama film directed by John Carpenter and starring Chevy Chase, Daryl Hannah, Sam Neill, Michael McKean and Stephen Tobolowsky. The film is loosely based on Memoirs of an Invisible Man, a 1987 novel by H.F. Saint. According to screenwriter William Goldman's book Which Lie Did I Tell?, the film was initially developed for director Ivan Reitman; however, this version never came to fruition, due to disagreements between Reitman and Chase. The film was a critical and commercial failure. ==Plot== Nick Halloway is a stock analyst who spends most of his life avoiding responsibility and connections with other people. At his favorite bar, the Academy Club, his friend George Talbot introduces him to Alice Monroe, a TV documentary producer. Sharing an instant attraction, Nick and Alice make out in the ladies' room and set a lunch date for Friday. The following morning, a hungover Nick attends a shareholders' meeting at Magnascopic Laboratories. Unable to endure the droning presentation by Dr. Bernard Wachs, Nick leaves the room for a nap. A lab technician accidentally spills his mug of coffee onto a computer console, causing a meltdown, and the entire building is evacuated. The building seems to explode, but there is no debris. Instead, much of the building is rendered invisible, including Nick. Shady CIA operative David Jenkins arrives on the scene and discovers Nick's condition. While they are transferring him to an ambulance, the agents joke about how Nick will spend the rest of his life being studied by scientists. In a panic, Nick flees. Jenkins convinces his supervisor Warren Singleton not to notify CIA headquarters so that they can capture and take credit for Nick, who could become the perfect secret agent. Nick hides at the Academy Club. He locates Dr. Wachs and asks for his help to reverse his condition. Wachs agrees to help, but Jenkins kills him to keep Nick's invisibility a secret. Jenkins' team gets a hold of Nick's background information but it doesn't prove very useful in finding him. It says that Nick has never been married, his parents are both dead, he has no relatives, a few friends but none that he's very close to, and he's not really dedicated to his job as he does it fast and loose. After reviewing Nick's profile, Jenkins says that Nick was an invisible man even before the accident. Nick infiltrates the CIA headquarters to find any information that can be used against them. Jenkins discovers Nick and tries to recruit him, but Nick is disgusted by the idea of him killing people. They have a confrontation, but Nick gets away. Nick goes to San Francisco and stays in George's remote beach house. George arrives with his wife Ellen, Alice, and another friend, to spend the weekend. Nick phones Alice and tells her to meet him nearby. He reveals his condition to Alice, and she promptly faints. When she revives, Alice decides to stay with Nick and help him. They travel to Mexico, where Nick can start a new life. To make money, he trades stocks using Alice as a proxy. Jenkins tracks them down, and shoots Nick with a tranquillizer gun. Nick falls into a river, revives and escapes. He makes his way to a video store, where he records his memoirs on video tape, including an ultimatum for Jenkins: exchange Alice for the tape, or Nick will give it to the CIA and the press. Jenkins agrees to the exchange. At the arranged time for the exchange, Jenkins puts Alice into a cab and orders his men to surround the phone booth where he thinks Nick is. The man in the phone booth turns out to be George, who is dressed in Nick's concealing clothing. Nick is disguised as the cab driver; he takes Alice away, pursued by Jenkins. They continue the chase on foot into a building still under construction, in the course of which Nick gets covered with concrete dust, outlining his silhouette. At the top, by taking off his jacket (which has the largest amount of dust on it), Nick tricks Jenkins into thinking that he has become desperate enough to commit suicide. Nick holds the jacket out to his side and pretends to begin to fall. Jenkins lunges at the jacket to try to save him, but ends up plunging off the building to his death. Believing Nick to be dead, Singleton releases Alice. Nick reunites with Alice and they leave for Switzerland. The film ends with shots of Nick's apparently empty clothing skiing down a mountainside towards their chalet, where a pregnant Alice greets him with a hot drink and a kiss. ==Cast== * Chevy Chase as Nick Halloway * Daryl Hannah as Alice Monroe * Sam Neill as David Jenkins * Michael McKean as George Talbot * Stephen Tobolowsky as Warren Singleton * Jim Norton as Dr. Bernard Wachs * Pat Skipper as Morrissey * Paul Perri as Gomez * Richard Epcar as Tyler * Steven Barr as Clellan * Gregory Paul Martin as Richard * Patricia Heaton as Ellen * Barry Kivel as a Drunk businessman * Donald Li as a Cab driver * Rosalind Chao as Cathy DiTolla * Jay Gerber as Roger Whitman * Shay Duffin as Patrick, the bartender * Edmund L. Shaff as Edward Schneiderman * Sam Anderson as Chairman of the House Committee * Elaine Corral as News anchor * Ellen Albertini Dow as Mrs. Coulson * Jonathan Wigan as a Delivery boy * I.M. Hobson as Maitre d' * Rip Haight as a Helicopter pilot * Aaron Lustig as a Technician * Pseudonym for John Carpenter. ==Production== ===Development=== In 1986, Harry F. Saint's Memoirs of an Invisible Man was still unfinished when Hollywood agent William Morris gave it to Chevy Chase to read. The actor instantly got interested, which led to a bidding war among studios. Warner Bros paid $1.35 million for the film rights. William Goldman was assigned to write the screenplay in the mid 1980s, by which time Ivan Reitman was attached to direct. It was Goldman's first screenplay after what he called his "leper" period when he was in no demand to write scripts; he attributes his comeback to being represented by CAA. The project was largely a vanity project shepherded by Chase through the studio (the film is billed as "A Cornelius Production" – Cornelius is Chevy Chase's real first name). He wanted to make a film about the loneliness of invisibility, intending the film to be a bridge into less comedic roles. Goldman did three drafts of the script and Warners was prepared to greenlight the film. However Chase was unhappy with the script. Reitman wanted to proceed with the script but the studio backed Chase and Reitman left the project. Goldman also left the project saying "I'm too old and too rich for this shit." He later said that Mark Canton, head of the studio, did not pay the writer for all his work causing Goldman to initiate a lawsuit against them. Chase found Goldman's script too comedic, "Clark Griswold becoming invisible", and sought screenwriters to rework it, reportedly to do something "more serious, with more adventure", eventually approaching Dana Olsen and Robert Collector. Richard Donner was attached to direct for eight months given his experience with visual effects, something that made various potential directors turn down the project. Eventually someone suggested John Carpenter, and Chase approved the idea.Swires p 30 Carpenter was then in a legal dispute with They Live production company Alive Films regarding his contract. He had several projects fall through: a film with Cher called Pincushion, Exorcist III, and a version of Dracula. He was reluctant to make Memoirs at first. "When you have lots of money and lots of time, it's really grueling. I enjoy being an independent, and it's not possible to be one in this situation. But then I thought. 'Why not?' I hadn't done a movie for a long time."Ferrante p 43 The actor had to convince Warner Bros. that Carpenter, who they still saw as a horror director, could work well for the picture. ===Writing=== Carpenter spent eighteen months working along with Olsen and Collector to make the script akin to "North by Northwest meets Starman", developing the love story to give the protagonist Nick a stronger motivation in escaping the villains. During the period, Chase lost 20 pounds knowing production and effects work would be physically straining. ""What we tried to do with Memoirs is show his character going through changes," said Carpenter. "Chevy didn’t want to just play somebody like Clark Griswold from the Vacation movies, who never changes." "It’s not about the kind of situation where Claude Rains became invisible and went nuts, nor is it about a wacky guy who’s invisible and looks up girls' skirts throughout the movie," said Chase. "It’s mostly about the peril of being invisible — not the fun or joy of it."Ferrente p 43 ===Filming=== Filming rolled for 84 days between April and June 1991. Parts of the film were shot in Snowbird, Utah. Carpenter said due to the effects work by Industrial Light & Magic "we essentially had to shoot the same movie twice", as after normal takes the effects team would set up their bulky VistaVision motion control cameras to film the same elements again while gathering digital data for the computer-generated imagery.Swires pp 31–32 According to visual effects supervisor Bruce Nicholson, "Success in this movie was showing invisibility in detail". During nine months of preparation, Nicholson studied four previous films on the subject, The Invisible Man - which receives a tribute in the scene where Nick is shown to have his head wrapped in bandages and is wearing large dark goggles - and its sequel The Invisible Man Returns, Bedknobs and Broomsticks and Ghost. Chase would wear a blue bodysuit below his clothing, so that computer artists would erase his body through chroma key and match the clothes with computer-generated replicas so that even the inside of the clothing could be seen, along with other touches such as erasing the shadow made by Chase's body. A particularly elaborate effect had Nick's invisible face being covered in flesh-colored make-up. The make-up was applied to Chase as his head was covered in viscous blue cosmetic, tongue and teeth coated with blue food coloring, and the cornea of each eye covered with blue contact lenses, an uncomfortable makeover made worse by the June heat and heavy studio lighting. Near the end of the film, Nick wonders aloud what his children with Alice will look like. John Carpenter did shoot an alternate ending showing this birth, but the film only shows Alice in the later stages of pregnancy. John Carpenter would go on to say that the production of the film was very troubling and vigorous. While also battling studio executives, Carpenter claimed Chase and Hannah were "the stuff of nightmares" and "impossible to direct". In particular, Chase would often refuse to wear his special effects makeup and would remove it prematurely, ruining a day's worth of filming. ===Music=== This is one of the few John Carpenter films not scored by the director, with Shirley Walker composing the music instead. Unlike prior collaborators Ennio Morricone on The Thing and Jack Nitzsche on Starman, Walker would re-team with Carpenter – the two co- scored the subsequent Escape From L.A.. ==Reception== ===Box office=== The film debuted at No. 2. It went on to gross $14,358,033 USD. ===Critical reception=== The film received mostly negative responses from critics. It has a 26% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 34 reviews with an average rating of 4.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "It boasts an intriguing cast and the special effects were groundbreaking, but they can't compensate for Memoirs of an Invisible Mans sadly pedestrian script". Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Roger Ebert wrote of the film, "The plot is lazy and conventional. What is good about the movie involves Chase and Hannah, who have to work out between them the logistical problems of their strange relationship." Reviewing the movie for The Washington Post, Desson Howe mused, "Memoirs of an Invisible Man isn't a movie. It's an identity crisis. The previews would have you believe it's a zany comedy. But the jokes are too far and few between. And if it's a comedy, why is John Carpenter directing it? This is the man who did Halloween... if Memoirs wants to get serious, why is Chevy Chase in the lead? This is the man who starred in National Lampoon's European Vacation." While reviewing the DVD release of the film for Film Freak Central, Bill Chambers wrote that Carpenter's use of effects makes the film worth seeing. He feels that the scene where Nick's body is outlined by raindrops is more effectively imagined than an identical scene in Daredevil. A new Blu-ray release from distributor Shout! Factory was from a new 2K scan of the original film elements. In 2023, John Carpenter said: > It gave me a chance to make a quasi-serious movie. But Chevy Chase, Sam > Neill — who I love and had a longtime friendship with — and Warner Bros. … I > worked for them, and it was pleasant. No, it wasn’t pleasant at all. I’m > lying to you. It was a horror show. I really wanted to quit the business > after that movie. God, I don’t want to talk about why, but let’s just say > there were personalities on that film … he shall not be named who needs to > be killed. No, no, no, that’s terrible. He needs to be set on fire. No, no, > no. Anyway, it’s all fine. I survived it. ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * * ==External links== * * * * Category:1992 films Category:1990s science fiction comedy-drama films Category:American science fiction comedy-drama films Category:Films based on science fiction novels Category:Films based on American novels Category:Films directed by John Carpenter Category:Films with screenplays by William Goldman Category:Regency Enterprises films Category:StudioCanal films Category:Films set in San Francisco Category:Films set in the San Francisco Bay Area Category:Films shot in San Francisco Category:Films scored by Shirley Walker Category:Films shot in Utah Category:Films based on The Invisible Man Category:1992 comedy films Category:Films about invisibility Category:1990s English-language films Category:1990s American films |
thumb|right|Streetfront The Sussex Hotel is a heritage-listed hotel at 20 Sussex Street, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It was built from 1913 to 1915. Historically known as the New Hunter River Hotel, it was known as the Big House Hotel from 1973 until 1991, then as Napoleon's Hotel, Moreton's on Sussex and Moreton's Hotel before adopting its current name. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. == History == Early records indicate that a hotel known as the Hunter River Inn was situated at the northern end of Sussex Street, as it then existed, by the mid-1840s. The Hunter River Inn appears to have been the only building on the eastern side of Sussex Street between Margaret Place and the start of the street itself. It seems likely that the Inn's close proximity to the Hunter River Wharf may have given rise to its name. In 1901 the Sydney Harbour Trust was set up by the State Government, which resumed the privately owned and municipal wharves from Circular Quay around to Darling Harbour, as well as stores and dwellings within the vicinity. The Trust was given full power of administration over the Harbour and also resumed properties. It subsequently set about demolishing and reconstructing wharf areas in an endeavour to bring the Port of Sydney up to world standards. In 1903 the Trust took over resumed properties formerly under the jurisdiction of other bodies and began, in piecemeal fashion, construction of buildings (other than port facilities). Between 1908 and 1915 the Trust erected a large number of buildings. One of these was the New Hunter River Hotel, later known as Napoleon's Hotel. There were many hotels in the vicinity of the Hunter River Inn when the resumptions occurred, many of which dated well back into the nineteenth century. A large number appear to have been demolished to make way for port construction, but may also have been removed as a result of the Liquor (Amendment) Act of 1905, which assisted in the reduction of the number of hotels within New South Wales in the years that followed. Although the Hunter River Inn was one of the buildings to be demolished, a new building on part of the sites of 22–28 Sussex Street and over part of Margaret Street was proposed and the licence of the old hotel transferred. Another reason for the demolition of the Hunter River Inn was the realignment of Sussex and Napoleon Streets. Plans of the new hotel were prepared by the Sydney Harbour Trust in the middle of 1913, and submitted to the Licensing Court on 30 March 1915. According to the Sands Directory, the properties on the site of the new building were vacated between 1913 and 1914 and the Hunter River Inn continued trading until the completion of the New Hunter River Inn, which was recorded in the Directory for 1916 at 20–24 Sussex Street, with J. Howey as licensee. Howey remained the licensee until 1920, while Tooth and Co. held the leasehold from the Trust from 1915 until 1950. A survey completed on 18 June 1915 indicated that the building was completed by then. The building as described on the Sydney Harbour Trust drawings consisted of a four-storey building with a public bar on both the Napoleon Street and Sussex Street levels, necessitated by a discrepancy in levels between the two streets. A mezzanine level (the first floor) between the street levels contained the cellar, 3 bedrooms, kitchen and scullery, whilst the Sussex Street level (the second floor) in addition to the Public Bar, contained a commercial room, private Bar and parlour, a dining room, servery and scullery and an Office. The third floor contained a sitting Room, 11 bedrooms and bathrooms. The roof level was partially covered in a flat trafficable material and at the southern end included an enclosed structure which housed a laundry and fuel store, 3 bedrooms and a small bathroom. Over the next fifteen years relatively few modifications to the fabric of the building were documented. In 1924 the whole of the interior of the Hotel was renovated under instructions issued by the Harbour Trust and repairs undertaken to various items. The extent and nature of this work has not been ascertained. Plans prepared by the Architects Office of the Kent Brewery, Sydney in 1927 indicate that the size of the serving area and bar was reduced in size, and that it was proposed to form a new Lounge in part of the existing cellar on the Mezzanine floor. (There is no physical evidence that this ever eventuated.) Plans prepared in 1928, again by the Architects Office of the Kent Brewery, indicate that modifications were carried out on the third floor – the sitting room was subdivided to provide two additional bedrooms. In May 1939, the architect Sidney Warden prepared documents detailing further modifications. Warden was an architect who specialised in the design of hotels in the 1920s through to the 1950s. These modifications however, were not substantial: a new stair at the northern end of the building connecting the Napoleon Street level to the roof, and the necessary modification of bedrooms on the Bedroom floor level and the former Commercial Room on the Napoleon Street level. Other improvements are likely to have included refitting of lavatories, bathrooms and kitchens, new fittings to bathrooms and refurbishment of bar areas. Of the bar areas themselves, the Napoleon Street bar appears to have been the most important as it was close to the wharves – the Hotel relied for much of its trade on seamen and wharf labourers. The two bar areas were perceived as something of a handicap in the running of the premises due to their location on separate levels. From 1915 until 1942 the hotel was located in a Metropolitan Licensing District, and from 1942 the District was reclassified as Industrial, thus entitling the hotel to increased beer supply. In 1950 Tooth and Co. relinquished their leasehold of the premises as a result of tenders called by the owners, the Maritime Services Board. Phillip Tahmindjis was the successful tenderer. It was extremely busy at the height of the wharf trade, reportedly needing 14 barmaids on the lunchtime shift at one stage. An old waterside worker interviewed by the Sydney Morning Herald in 1983 stated that at one stage "you could buy just about anything under the sun at the Big House – it had a nickname of "Paddy's Markets". By 1961 the hotel appears to have been in a run down condition and in the need of upgrading to acceptable contemporary standards. Bathroom and toilet accommodation was considered inadequate and the provision of more public spaces to the Sussex Street Bar was considered desirable. At this time the trade of the hotel was mostly from the public bars, and consisted largely of wharf labourers and seamen, but was declining owing to changes in the pick up system for wharf labour and also closure and demolition of adjacent wharves. Physical investigation of the site suggests that upgrading to the hotel did take place in the years after 1961. It was one of the few pubs in Sussex Street to survive the declining trade as the wharves closed. In 1970, as part of the adjoining Western Distributor road project, a support pillar for the roadway was built through the hotel building itself. The hotel was known as the New Hunter River Hotel until the 1970s but was renamed the Big House Hotel in mid-1973. An explanation at the time stated that had been "known to its customers" by that name, and that it derived "from the size and solid appearance of the building, and perhaps from the fact that it was a 'home away from home' for generations of waterside works, truck drivers and seamen". It was run by former professional rugby league footballer Arthur Beetson in the 1980s, but briefly closed in 1990 after Beetson was disqualified from holding a liquor license. During Beetson's tenure, it was described as "one of Sydney's last surviving genuine wharfie's pubs". It was sold by the Maritime Services Board, while still vacant, in November 1991, and subsequently refurbished under new owners. The hotel then underwent a succession of names from 1991: Napoleon's Hotel, Moreton's on Sussex and Moreton's Hotel before adopting its current name. == Description == The Sussex Hotel is an imposing four-storey hotel located on the junction of Napoleon and Sussex Streets. The building features face brick walls with sandstone trim and typical Federation period detailing of prominent exaggerated classical motifs such as the window hoods. The Sussex Street facade is broken with two projecting bays which rise above the roofline, one terminating in a parapet detail, the other rising to form the wall of the roof apartment. The window openings are a mixture of square, segmental and semi-circular heads and feature stone sills with some with keystones. The hotel faces two streets, one bar opening to Sussex Street, the other to Napoleon Street. The hotel has seen excellent retention of original external detailing, including the joinery to the retail shopfront at 26 Sussex Street. The interiors have been altered in various stages but still include considerable evidence of original joinery.Schwager Brooks 1985 === Modifications and dates === * 1913 – construction started * 1915 – construction completed * 1924 – whole of the interior renovated and repairs undertaken to various items * 1927 – size of the serving area and bar reduced in size * 1928 – third floor sitting room was subdivided to provide two additional bedrooms * 1939 – a new stair at the northern end of the building connecting the Napoleon Street level to the room and necessary modification of bedrooms on the Bedroom floor level and the former Commercial Room on the Napoleon Street level. Other improvements are likely to have included refitting of lavatories, bathrooms and kitchens, new fittings to bathrooms and refurbishment of bar areas. * 1960s – Physical upgarading to the hotel == Heritage listing == The Sussex Hotel has strong historical associations with the waterside workers and dockyard industries. It is linked with early development in the area and is associated with the activities of the Sydney Harbour Trust both as builders and determinants in the planning and layout of streets in this part of Sydney. It has continuously traded as a hotel since completion and the transfer of licence connects the Hotel to the early days of this part of Sydney.Howard 1995: 38 It is an example of an Edwardian public house demonstrating a range of materials, details and form exploited by the Sydney Harbour Trust. The scale of the building is unusually large for the time. One of a small group of surviving hotels in the central city which together form an interesting collection reflecting an aspect of the social and recreational history of Sydney.Schwager Brooks 1988 Sussex Hotel was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales. It has strong historical associations with the waterside workers and dockyard industries. It is linked with early development in the area and is associated with the activities of the Sydney Harbour Trust both as builders and determinants in the planning and layout of streets in this part of Sydney. It has continuously traded as a hotel since completion and the transfer of licence connects the Hotel to the early days of this part of Sydney.Howard 38:1995 The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales. It is an example of an Edwardian public house demonstrating a range of materials, details and form exploited by the Sydney Harbour Trust. The scale of the building is unusually large for the time. The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. One of a small group of surviving hotels in the central city which together form an interesting collection reflecting an aspect of the social and recreational history of Sydney. == See also == *Pubs in Sydney == References == === Bibliography === * * * === Attribution === * * ==External links== Category:New South Wales State Heritage Register Category:Pubs in Sydney Category:Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register Category:Sussex Street, Sydney |
The following is a list of the Polish military oaths, both historical and contemporary. ==Contemporary== thumb|right This oath is in current use in the Polish Armed Forces. Last line is optional. Polish English (Not a professional translation) Ja żołnierz Wojska Polskiego, Przysięgam, Służyć wiernie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Bronić jej niepodległości i granic, Stać na straży Konstytucji, Strzec honoru żołnierza polskiego, Sztandaru wojskowego bronić, Za sprawę mojej Ojczyzny, W potrzebie krwi własnej ani życia nie szczędzić, Tak mi dopomóż Bóg! I, as a soldier/sailor/aircraftman of the Polish Armed Forces, Fully Swear, To Serve loyally to the Republic of Poland, Defend her independence and borders, Stand on guard of the Constitution, Defend the honor of a Polish soldier, Defend the military banners and standards of the Armed Forces, In the sake of my Fatherland, Even at the cost of losing both my life and blood. So help me God! (optional) ==Historical== === 1788 Oath === In 1788, the State Defence Commission of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania issued this following military oath to all military personnel of the Commonwealth armed services. This is the oath spoken in Polish. ====Polish text==== :Ja N.N. przysięgam Panu Bogu wszechmogącemu w Trójcy Świętej jedynemu, jako Najjaśniejszemu Stanisławowi Augustowi królowi polskiemu i Wielkiemu Księciu Litewskiemu, tudzież stanom skonfederowanym Rzeczypospolitej pod aktem siódmego października tysiąc siedemset osiemdziesiątego ósmego roku w Warszawie pod laskami Wgo Stanisława Małachowskiego koronnego i Wgo Kazimierza księcia Sapiechy Lit. marszałków konfederacyją związanym wiernym a Komisyi Wojskowej Obojga Narodów posłusznym będę: tak mi Boże dopomóż! ====English Text==== :I N.N. I swear to the Lord Almighty in the Holy Trinity, to the Most Solemn Stanisław Augustus, the Polish King and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the confederate States of the Commonwealth under the Act of the seventh October one thousand seven hundred and eighty-eight in Warsaw under the gowns of Wego Stanisław Małachowski crown and Prince Kazimierz, Prince Sapiecha Lit. I will be obedient to the confederates bound by the faithful and the Military Commission of the Commonwealth. So help me God! ===Kościuszko's Uprising (1794)=== The Oath of Tadeusz Kościuszko, sworn in the old town market of Kraków on 24 March 1794, at the outbreak of the Kościuszko Uprising. ====Polish text==== : Ja, Tadeusz Kościuszko, przysięgam w obliczu Boga całemu Narodowi Polskiemu, iż powierzonej mi władzy na niczyj prywatny ucisk nie użyję, lecz jedynie jej dla obrony całości granic, odzyskania samowładności Narodu i ugruntowania powszechnej wolności używać będę. Tak mi Panie Boże dopomóż i niewinna męka Syna Jego. ====English translation==== : I, Tadeusz Kościuszko, hereby swear in the face of God to the whole Polish Nation, that I shall not use the power entrusted to me for anyone's personal oppression, but only for the defence of the integrity of the borders, for retaking the sovereignty of the Nation, and for strengthening the universal freedom. So help me God and the innocent Passion of His Son! ===Polish Legions in World War I=== The oath was prepared by the German authorities and on July 3, 1917 presented to Gen. Hans Beseler, then the German governor of Warsaw and the highest authority of the planned Polnische Wehrmacht military formation. He was swearing the loyalty of the Polish Legions with it, thus putting them under direct German command. However, the Polish Legions were already enraged with the German and Austro-Hungarian plans of limiting plans for Polish independence and also the Austro-Hungarian dismissal of Józef Piłsudski, the Legions' leader. As such, most of the soldiers of the Legions declined to swear allegiance to a non-existing king of Poland and foreign government, thus leading to the so-called Oath Crisis. ====Polish text==== :Przysięgam Panu Bogu Wszechmogącemu, że Ojczyźnie mojej, Polskiemu Królestwu, i memu przyszłemu Królowi na lądzie i wodzie i na każdym miejscu wiernie i uczciwie służyć będę; że w wojnie obecnej dotrzymam wiernie braterstwa broni wojskom Niemiec i Austro-Węgier oraz państw z nimi sprzymierzonych; że będę przełożonych swych i dowódców słuchał, dawane mi rozkazy i przepisy wykonywał i w ogóle tak się zachowywał, abym mógł żyć i umierać jako mężny prawy żołnierz polski. Tak mi, Boże, dopomóż! ====English translation==== :I hereby swear to the God Almighty, that I shall loyally serve my Fatherland, Kingdom of Poland and my future King, both on water and on land, and in any circumstances; that during this war I shall remain a loyal brother in arm of the soldiers of Germany and Austria-Hungary and of the states allied to them; that I shall obey my superiors and commanders, fulfil the orders and generally behave so as to be able to live and die as a brave and just Polish soldier. So help me God! ===Polish Army in France (1918)=== Oath written by General Józef Haller and the Polish National Committee in 1918. It was used by the units of the Blue Army, that is the Polish Army formed in France at the end of the First World War. ====Polish text==== : Przysięgam przed Panem Bogiem Wszechmogącym, w Trójcy Świętej Jedynym, na wierność Ojczyźnie mojej, Polsce, jednej i niepodzielnej. Przysięgam, iż gotów jestem życie oddać za świętą sprawę jej zjednoczenia i wyzwolenia, bronić sztandaru mego do ostatniej kropli krwi, dochować karności i posłuszeństwa mojej zwierzchności wojskowej, a w całym postępowaniu moim strzec honoru żołnierza polskiego. Tak mi, Panie Boże, dopomóż. ====English translation==== : I swear in face of God Almighty, One in the Holy Trinity, my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, Poland, sole and indivisible. I swear that I'm ready to give my life for the sacred cause of her unification and liberation, I swear to defend my banner to the last drop of my blood, to remain loyal and obedient to my commanders, and that by all my deeds I will guard the honour of the Polish soldier. So help me God! ===Greater Poland Uprising (1919)=== To avoid an open conflict with Germany, formally the forces fighting in the Greater Poland Uprising formed a separate state and the armed forces were separate from the Polish Army. Hence the oath of the armed forces of Greater Poland was different from that used by other Polish units elsewhere. ====Polish text==== : W obliczu Boga Wszechmogącego w Trójcy Świętej Jedynego ślubuję, że Polsce, Ojczyźnie mojej i sprawie całego Narodu Polskiego zawsze i wszędzie służyć będę, że kraju Ojczystego i dobra narodowego do ostatniej kropli krwi bronić będę, że Komisarzowi Naczelnej Rady Ludowej w Poznaniu i dowódcom, i przełożonym swoim mianowanym przez tenże Komisariat, zawsze i wszędzie posłuszny będę, że w ogóle tak zachowywać się będę, jak przystoi na mężnego i prawego żołnierza-Polaka, że po zjednoczeniu Polski złożę przysięgę żołnierską, ustanowioną przez polską zwierzchność państwową. ====English translation==== : In the face of God Almighty, One in the Holy Trinity, I hereby swear my everlasting allegiance to Poland, my Fatherland and to the whole Polish Nation. I swear to defend the Fatherland and the national good to the last drop of my blood. I swear loyalty and obedience to the Commissioner of the Supreme National Council in Poznań and my commanders, and to my superiors named by the Commission. I swear to always behave as a brave and valiant soldier and Pole, and that when Poland is united I shall take an oath accepted by the Polish military authority. ===Second Polish Republic (1924)=== Between the World Wars the unified Polish Army introduced three oaths, each for different denomination. It was passed by the Basic Duties of a Soldier Act of 18 July 1924 and confirmed by the order of the Ministry of Military Affairs of 15 July 1927. ====Polish text==== ; Christians : Przysięgam Panu Bogu Wszechmogącemu, w Trójcy Świętej Jedynemu być wiernym Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Chorągwi wojskowych nigdy nie odstąpić. Stać na straży konstytucji i honoru żołnierza polskiego. Prawu i Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej być uległym. Rozkazy dowódców i przełożonych wiernie wykonywać. Tajemnic wojskowych strzec. Za sprawę Ojczyzny mej walczyć do ostatniego tchu w piersiach. I w ogóle tak postępować, aby mógł żyć i umierać jak prawy żołnierz polski. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg i święta Syna jego męka. Amen.Dziennik Ustaw 1927 Nr 68 Poz.603 ; Muslims : Przysięgam Panu Bogu Jedynemu być wiernym Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, chorągwi wojskowych nigdy nie odstąpić, stać na straży Konstytucji i honoru żołnierza polskiego, prawu i Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej być uległym, rozkazy dowódców i przełożonych wiernie wykonywać, tajemnic wojskowych strzec, za sprawę Ojczyzny mej walczyć do ostatniego tchu w piersiach i w ogóle tak postępować, abym mógł żyć i umierać jak prawy żołnierz polski. Bereetjum Mine Allachivy Veresulini illeclezine a hetdeteum minel masiurkine BilWałłagi, Tałłagi, Amin. ; Other denominations : Przysięgam Bogu Wszechmogącemu być wiernym Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, chorągwi wojskowych nigdy nie odstąpić, stać na Straży Konstytucji i honoru żołnierza polskiego, prawu i Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej być uległym, rozkazy dowódców i przełożonych wiernie wykonywać, tajemnic wojskowych strzec, za sprawę Ojczyzny mej walczyć do ostatniego tchu w piersiach i w ogóle tak postępować abym mógł żyć i umierać jak prawy żołnierz polski. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg. Amen. ====English translation==== ; Christians : I swear to God Almighty, One in Holy Trinity, my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, Republic of Poland. I swear always to stand by the military banners, to uphold the constitution and guard the honour of the Polish soldier, to be obedient to the law and to the President of Poland, to faithfully carry orders of my commanders and superiors, to keep the military secrets, to fight for my Fatherland to the last breath in my breast, to always behave so as to live and die as a true Polish soldier. So help me God and the sacred Passion of His Son! Amen. ; Muslims : I swear to the Only God my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, Republic of Poland. I swear always to stand by the military banners, to uphold the constitution and guard the honour of the Polish soldier, to be obedient to the law and to the President of Poland, to faithfully carry orders of my commanders and superiors, to keep the military secrets, to fight for my Fatherland to the last breath in my breast, to always behave so as to live and die as a true Polish soldier. Bereetjum Mine Allachivy Veresulini illeclezine a hetdeteum minel masiurkine BilWałłagi, Tałłagi, Amin. ; Other denominations : I swear to God Almighty my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, Republic of Poland. I swear always to stand by the military banners, to uphold the constitution and guard the honour of the Polish soldier, to be obedient to the law and to the President of Poland, to faithfully carry orders of my commanders and superiors, to keep the military secrets, to fight for my Fatherland to the last breath in my breast, to always behave so as to live and die as a true Polish soldier. So help me God! Amen. ===Armia Krajowa (WWII)=== Since the Armia Krajowa was formed of various smaller resistance organizations, initially the words of the oath used by the Polish underground varied. The following is the text for the Christians serving in the Home Army. Other denominations used different variations of it. ====Polish text==== : W obliczu Boga Wszechmogącego i Najświętszej Maryi Panny, Królowej Korony Polskiej, przysięgam być wierny Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Stać nieugięcie na straży jej honoru, o wyzwolenie z niewoli walczyć ze wszystkich sił, aż do ofiary mego życia. Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Naczelnemu Wodzowi i wyznaczonemu przezeń Dowódcy Armii Krajowej będę bezwzględnie posłuszny a tajemnicy niezłomnie dochowam, cokolwiek by mnie spotkać miało. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg. ====English translation==== : Before God Almighty and Mary the Blessed Virgin, Queen of the Polish Crown, I pledge allegiance to my Fatherland, the Republic of Poland. I pledge to steadfastly guard Her honour, and to fight for Her liberation with all my strength, even to the extent of sacrificing my own life. I pledge unconditional obedience to the President of Poland, the Commander-in-Chief of the Republic of Poland, and the Home Army Commander whom be appointed. I pledge to resolutely keep secret whatever may happen to me. So help me God! ===Polish Armed Forces in the East (1943)=== First taken on 15 July 1943 in Sielce at the Oka River. It was used by the Soviet-backed military of Poland until the end of the Second World War and afterwards. ====Polish text==== : Składam uroczystą przysięgę ziemi polskiej, broczącej we krwi, narodowi polskiemu, umęczonemu w niemieckim jarzmie, że nie skalam imienia Polaka, że wiernie będę służył Ojczyźnie. : Przysięgam ziemi polskiej i narodowi polskiemu rzetelnie pełnić obowiązki żołnierza w obozie, w pochodzie, w boju, w każdej chwili i na każdym miejscu, strzec wojskowej tajemnicy, wypełniać wiernie rozkazy oficerów i dowódców. : Przysięgam dochować wierności sojuszniczej Związkowi Radzieckiemu, który dał mi do ręki broń do walki z wspólnym wrogiem, przysięgam dochować braterstwa broni sojuszniczej Czerwonej Armii. : Przysięgam ziemi polskiej i narodowi polskiemu, że do ostatniej kropli krwi, do ostatniego tchu nienawidzieć będę wroga - Niemca, który zniszczył Polskę, do ostatniej kropli krwi, do ostatniego tchu walczyć będę o wyzwolenie Ojczyzny, abym mógł żyć i umierać jako prawy i uczciwy żołnierz Polski. : Tak mi dopomóż Bóg! ====English translation==== : I hereby swear to the blood-rinsed Polish land, to the Polish nation tormented by German yoke, that I will not desecrate the name of a Pole and that I will courageously serve my Fatherland. : I swear to the Polish land and to the Polish people that I will honestly serve the duties of a soldier, in march and in battle, in the camp and at any other moment I will guard the secrets and fulfil the orders of my officers and commanders. : I swear to be a loyal ally of the allied Soviet Union, which gave me the arms to fight our common enemy, and I swear I will preserve the brotherhood of arms with the allied Red Army. : I swear to the Polish land and to the Polish nation that to the last drop of blood, to the last breath shall I hate the enemy - the German who destroyed Poland; to the last drop of blood, to the last breath shall I fight for the liberation of my Fatherland, so that I could live and die as a rightful and honest soldier of Poland. : So help me God! === Polish People's Army 1944=== ==== Polish text==== :Przysięgam uroczyście skrwawionej Ziemi Polskiej i Narodowi Polskiemu walczyć z niemieckim najeźdźcą o wyzwolenie Ojczyzny oraz utrwalenie wolności, niepodległości i potęgi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Przysięgam rzetelnie i sumiennie wypełniać obowiązki żołnierza polskiego, wiernie wykonywać wydane mi rozkazy i ściśle przestrzegać tajemnicy wojskowej. Przysięgam wiernie służyć Rzeczypospolitej i nigdy nie skalać imienia Polaka. Przysięgam dochować wierności Krajowej Radzie Narodowej, Władzy Naczelnej Narodu Polskiego. Przysięgam nieugięcie stać na straży praw Narodu Polskiego, mieć wszystkich obywateli w równym poszanowaniu oraz niezłomnie bronić swobód demokratycznych. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg!Dziennik Ustaw 1944 Nr 3 Poz.13 ===Polish People's Army oath (1947 variant) === ==== Polish text==== :Przysięgam uroczyście Narodowi Polskiemu: walczyć do ostatniego tchu w obronie Ojczyzny wyzwolonej z przemocy niemieckiej i niezłomnie strzec wolności, niepodległości i mocy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Przysięgam wypełniać rzetelnie i sumiennie obowiązki żołnierza, wykonywać wiernie rozkazy przełożonych, przestrzegać ściśle regulaminów i dochować tajemnicy wojskowej. Przysięgam służyć ze wszystkich sił Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, bronić niezłomnie Jej ustroju demokratycznego i dochować wierności Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej. Przysięgam stać nieugięcie na straży praw Ludu Polskiego, mieć wszystkich obywateli w równym poszanowaniu i nigdy nie splamić godności Polaka. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg!Dziennik Ustaw 1947 nr 52 Poz.267 ==== English ==== :I pledge to the people of Poland to fight for the last breath in defense of the Fatherland liberated from German violence and steadfastly help in the defense of the freedom, independence and strength of the Republic of Poland. I promise thus to fulfill the duties of a soldier faithfully and conscientiously, to execute faithfully the orders of the superiors above me, to strictly observe the regulations and laws of the armed forces and preserve secrecy within it, to be of service of all the military forces of the Republic of Poland, defend her democratic system undoubtedly and keep my loyalty to the President of the Republic of Poland, and to stand firm in guarding the rights of the Polish people, promote the equality of all its citizens, and to defend the honor and dignity of the Polish nation. So help me God! === Polish People's Army oath (1952-1988) === ==== Polish text==== :Ja, obywatel Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej, stając w szeregach Wojska Polskiego, przysięgam Narodowi Polskiemu być uczciwym, zdyscyplinowanym, mężnym i czujnym żołnierzem, wykonywać dokładnie rozkazy przełożonych i przepisy regulaminów, dochować ściśle tajemnicy wojskowej i państwowej, nie splamić nigdy honoru i godności żołnierza polskiego. Przysięgam służyć ze wszystkich sił Ojczyźnie, bronić niezłomnie praw ludu pracującego, zawarowanych w Konstytucji, stać nieugięcie na straży władzy ludowej, dochować wierności Rządowi Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej. Przysięgam strzec niezłomnie wolności, niepodległości i granic Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej przed zakusami imperializmu, stać nieugięcie na straży pokoju w braterskim przymierzu z Armią Radziecką i innymi sojuszniczymi armiami i w razie potrzeby nie szczędząc krwi ani życia mężnie walczyć w obronie Ojczyzny, o świętą sprawę niepodległości, wolności i szczęścia ludu. Gdybym nie bacząc na tę moją uroczystą przysięgę obowiązek wierności wobec Ojczyzny złamał, niechaj mnie dosięgnie surowa ręka sprawiedliwości ludowej.Dziennik Ustaw 1952 Nr 46 Poz.310 ==== English ==== :I, a citizen of the Polish People's Republic, standing in the ranks of the Polish Army, swear to the Polish Nation to be an honest, disciplined, brave and vigilant soldier, to follow the orders of my superiors and the provisions of the regulations, strictly keep military and state secrets, never taint the honor and dignity of a Polish soldier. I swear to serve my motherland with all my strength, to defend steadfastly the rights of the working people, enshrined in the Constitution, to stand steadfastly in guarding the people's authority, and to be faithful to the Government of the People's Republic of Poland. I swear to steadfastly guard the freedom, independence and borders of the Polish People's Republic against imperialism, to stand steadfastly in guarding peace in a fraternal alliance with the Soviet Army and other allied armies and, if necessary, sparing my blood and life, bravely fight in defense of the Fatherland, for the sacred cause of independence, freedom and the happiness of the people. If, disregarding my solemn oath, I had broken my duty of faithfulness to the Fatherland, let the stern hand of the people's justice reach me. === 1988 === ==== Polish text==== :Ja, obywatel Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej, stając w szeregach Wojska Polskiego, :Przysięgam służyć wiernie Ojczyźnie i narodowi swemu, przestrzegać zasad Konstytucji, być godnym chlubnych tradycji oręża polskiego. :Przysięgam, iż nie szczędząc trudu, a w potrzebie krwi własnej ani życia, stać będę nieugięcie na straży niepodległości, suwerenności i granic kraju ojczystego, strzec pokoju w braterstwie broni z sojuszniczymi armiami. :Przysięgam dbać o honor i dobre imię wojska, sumiennie spełniać powinności żołnierskie, ściśle wykonywać rozkazy przełożonych, być zdyscyplinowanym i mężnym, uczciwym i koleżeńskim żołnierzem. Przysięgam zdobywać wiedzę i umiejętności wojskowe, troszczyć się o powierzoną mi broń, sprzęt i mienie, dochować tajemnicy państwowej i służbowej. :Składając tę uroczystą przysięgę, jestem świadom swej odpowiedzialności wobec narodu i praw socjalistycznego państwa polskiego.Dziennik Ustaw 1988 Nr 20 Poz.133 ==== English ==== :I, a citizen of the Polish People's Republic, standing in the ranks of the Polish Armed Forces, swear that: : I will serve my homeland and people faithfully, to abide by the principles of the Constitution, to be worthy of the glorious traditions of the Polish armed services. : I swear that I will spare no effort, and in the need of my own blood or my life, I will stand steadfastly guarding the independence, sovereignty and borders of my country, and guarding peace in brotherhood of arms with allied armies. : I swear to care for the honor and good name of the army, to diligently fulfill my military duties, strictly follow the orders of my superiors, to be a disciplined and brave, honest and friendly soldier. I swear to acquire military knowledge and skills, to take care of the weapons, equipment and property entrusted to me, and to keep the state and official secrets. : Taking this solemn oath, I am aware of my responsibility towards the nation and the rights of the socialist Polish state. ===1989=== Following the establishment of the Third Polish Republic in 1989 and changing the name of the state: Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa to Rzeczpospolita Polska, the oath was changed, esp. the reference to "socialist Polish state" has been deleted from old text. ====Polish text==== :Ja, obywatel Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, stając w szeregach Wojska Polskiego, :Przysięgam służyć wiernie Ojczyźnie i narodowi swemu, przestrzegać zasad Konstytucji, być godnym chlubnych tradycji oręża polskiego. :Przysięgam, iż nie szczędząc trudu, a w potrzebie krwi własnej ani życia, stać będę nieugięcie na straży niepodległości, suwerenności i granic kraju ojczystego, strzec pokoju w braterstwie broni z sojuszniczymi armiami. :Przysięgam dbać o honor i dobre imię wojska, sumiennie spełniać powinności żołnierskie, ściśle wykonywać rozkazy przełożonych, być zdyscyplinowanym i mężnym, uczciwym i koleżeńskim żołnierzem. Przysięgam zdobywać wiedzę i umiejętności wojskowe, troszczyć się o powierzoną mi broń, sprzęt i mienie, dochować tajemnicy państwowej i służbowej. Składając tę uroczystą przysięgę, jestem świadom swej odpowiedzialności wobec narodu i praw Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. :Ku Chwale Ojczyzny, :Na Sztandar, :Przysięgam. ====English==== : I, a citizen of the Republic of Poland, standing in the ranks of the Polish Armed Forces, swear thus: : that I pledge to serve my homeland and people faithfully, to abide by the principles of the Constitution, to be worthy of the glorious traditions of the Polish armed services. : I swear that, sparing no effort, and in the need of my own blood and my life, I will stand steadfastly guarding the independence, sovereignty and borders of my homeland, and in guarding peace in the brotherhood of arms with allied armies. : I swear to care for the honor and good name of the armed forces, to diligently fulfill my military duties, strictly follow the orders of my superiors placed above me, to be a disciplined and brave, honest and friendly soldier/sailor/aircraftman. I swear to acquire military knowledge and skills, to take care of the weapons, equipment and property entrusted to me, and to keep state and official secrets. By taking this solemn oath, I am aware of my responsibility towards the nation and the laws of the Republic of Poland. : For the Glory of the Fatherland, To its colours, I therefore pledge, (so help me God). === Modern oath (since 1992) === In 1992 the oath was changed again and significantly shortened. There is only one oath for all denominations, although each soldier can omit the last line according to their own beliefs. ====Polish==== :Ja żołnierz Wojska Polskiego, :Przysięgam, :Służyć wiernie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, :Bronić jej niepodległości i granic, :Stać na straży Konstytucji, :Strzec honoru żołnierza polskiego, :Sztandaru wojskowego bronić, :Za sprawę mojej Ojczyzny, :W potrzebie krwi własnej ani życia nie szczędzić, :Tak mi dopomóż Bóg!Dziennik Ustaw 1992 Nr 77 Poz.386 ====English==== :I, a soldier of the Polish Armed Forces, :Fully swear, :To Serve loyally to the Republic of Poland, :Defend her independence and borders, :Stand on guard of the Constitution, :Defend the honour of a Polish soldier, :Defend the military colours and standards of the armed forces, :In the sake of my Fatherland, :Even at the cost of losing my life or blood. :So help me God! ==References== Category:Military of Poland Category:Military oaths |
The following is a list of Major League Baseball players, retired or active. ==Wi through Wy== Name Debut Final game Position Teams Ref Kevin Wickander August 10, 1989 June 12, 1996 Pitcher Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, Detroit Tigers, Milwaukee Brewers Bob Wicker August 11, 1901 September 1, 1906 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds Floyd Wicker June 23, 1968 July 7, 1971 Outfielder St. Louis Cardinals, Montreal Expos, Milwaukee Brewers, San Francisco Giants Kemp Wicker August 14, 1936 July 31, 1941 Pitcher New York Yankees, Brooklyn Dodgers Dave Wickersham September 18, 1960 July 26, 1969 Pitcher Kansas City Athletics, Detroit Tigers, Pittsburgh Pirates, Kansas City Royals Al Wickland August 21, 1913 August 15, 1919 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds, Chicago Chi-Feds/Whales, Pittsburgh Rebels, Boston Braves, New York Yankees Bob Wickman August 24, 1992 September 30, 2007 Pitcher New York Yankees, Milwaukee Brewers, Cleveland Indians, Atlanta Braves, Arizona Diamondbacks Chris Widger June 23, 1995 September 15, 2006 Catcher Seattle Mariners, Montreal Expos, New York Yankees, St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago White Sox, Baltimore Orioles Al Widmar April 25, 1947 April 17, 1952 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, St. Louis Browns, Chicago White Sox Wild Bill Widner June 8, 1887 July 23, 1891 Pitcher Cincinnati Red Stockings (AA), Washington Nationals (1886–1889), Columbus Solons, Cincinnati Kelly's Killers Ted Wieand September 27, 1958 April 24, 1960 Pitcher Cincinnati Redlegs/Reds Charlie Wiedemeyer September 9, 1934 September 30, 1934 Pitcher Chicago Cubs Tom Wiedenbauer September 14, 1979 September 30, 1979 Outfielder Houston Astros Tom Wieghaus October 4, 1981 May 2, 1984 Catcher Montreal Expos, Houston Astros Jack Wieneke July 4, 1921 August 22, 1921 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Bob Wiesler August 3, 1951 May 10, 1958 Pitcher New York Yankees, Washington Senators Whitey Wietelmann September 6, 1939 September 18, 1947 Shortstop Boston Bees/Braves, Pittsburgh Pirates Matt Wieters May 29, 2009 Catcher Baltimore Orioles Alan Wiggins September 4, 1981 August 28, 1987 Second baseman San Diego Padres, Baltimore Orioles Scott Wiggins September 11, 2002 September 20, 2002 Pitcher Toronto Blue Jays Ty Wigginton May 16, 2002 Third baseman New York Mets, Pittsburgh Pirates, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Houston Astros, Baltimore Orioles, Colorado Rockies Jimmy Wiggs April 23, 1903 May 25, 1906 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds, Detroit Tigers Bill Wight April 17, 1946 September 21, 1958 Pitcher New York Yankees, Chicago White Sox, Boston Red Sox, Detroit Tigers, Cleveland Indians, Baltimore Orioles, Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Cardinals Fred Wigington April 20, 1923 September 24, 1923 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals Sandy Wihtol September 7, 1979 October 2, 1982 Pitcher Cleveland Indians Del Wilber April 21, 1946 August 19, 1954 Catcher St. Louis Cardinals, Philadelphia Phillies, Boston Red Sox Claude Wilborn September 8, 1940 September 29, 1940 Outfielder Boston Bees Ted Wilborn April 5, 1979 October 5, 1980 Outfielder Toronto Blue Jays, New York Yankees Milt Wilcox September 5, 1976 June 12, 1986 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Indians, Chicago Cubs, Detroit Tigers, Seattle Mariners Randy Wiles August 7, 1977 August 16, 1977 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Joseph Wiley June 23, 1884 June 23, 1884 Third baseman Washington Nationals (UA) Mark Wiley June 17, 1975 September 29, 1978 Pitcher Minnesota Twins, San Diego Padres, Toronto Blue Jays Rob Wilfong April 10, 1977 May 8, 1987 Second baseman Minnesota Twins, California Angels, San Francisco Giants Harry Wilhelm August 12, 1899 August 23, 1899 Pitcher Louisville Colonels Hoyt Wilhelm β April 19, 1952 July 10, 1972 Pitcher New York Giants, St. Louis Cardinals, Cleveland Indians, Baltimore Orioles, Chicago White Sox, California Angels, Atlanta Braves, Chicago Cubs, Los Angeles Dodgers Jim Wilhelm September 4, 1978 September 30, 1979 Outfielder San Diego Padres Kaiser Wilhelm April 18, 1903 August 26, 1921 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Boston Beaneaters, Brooklyn Superbas, Baltimore Terrapins, Philadelphia Phillies Spider Wilhelm September 6, 1953 September 27, 1953 Shortstop Philadelphia Athletics Tom Wilhelmsen April 3, 2011 Pitcher Seattle Mariners Joe Wilhoit April 12, 1916 September 28, 1919 Outfielder Boston Braves, Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Giants, Boston Red Sox Denney Wilie July 27, 1911 October 3, 1915 Outfielder St. Louis Cardinals, Cleveland Indians Adam Wilk May 26, 2011 Pitcher Detroit Tigers Harry Wilke May 12, 1927 May 14, 1927 Third baseman Chicago Cubs Brad Wilkerson July 12, 2001 September 28, 2008 Outfielder Montreal Expos, Texas Rangers, Seattle Mariners, Toronto Blue Jays Curtis Wilkerson September 10, 1983 May 16, 1993 Utility infielder Texas Rangers, Chicago Cubs, Pittsburgh Pirates, Kansas City Royals Lefty Wilkie April 22, 1941 June 5, 1946 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates Bobby Wilkins April 18, 1944 September 6, 1945 Shortstop Philadelphia Athletics Dean Wilkins August 21, 1989 August 9, 1991 Pitcher Chicago Cubs, Houston Astros Eric Wilkins April 11, 1979 July 23, 1979 Pitcher Cleveland Indians Marc Wilkins May 11, 1996 August 29, 2001 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates Rick Wilkins June 6, 1991 October 3, 2001 Catcher Chicago Cubs, Houston Astros, San Francisco Giants, Seattle Mariners, New York Mets, Los Angeles Dodgers, St. Louis Cardinals, San Diego Padres Bill Wilkinson June 13, 1985 October 2, 1988 Pitcher Seattle Mariners Ed Wilkinson July 4, 1911 September 26, 1911 Outfielder New York Highlanders Roy Wilkinson April 29, 1918 May 2, 1922 Pitcher Cleveland Indians, Chicago White Sox Ted Wilks April 25, 1944 August 5, 1953 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Pirates, Cleveland Indians Bob Will April 16, 1957 June 12, 1963 Outfielder Chicago Cubs Jerry Willard April 11, 1984 May 19, 1994 Catcher Cleveland Indians, Oakland Athletics, Chicago White Sox, Atlanta Braves, Montreal Expos, Seattle Mariners Ed Willett September 5, 1906 September 23, 1915 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, St. Louis Terriers Carl Willey April 30, 1958 September 25, 1965 Pitcher Milwaukee Braves, New York Mets Nick Willhite June 16, 1963 June 23, 1967 Pitcher Los Angeles Dodgers, Washington Senators (1961–1971), California Angels, New York Mets Ace Williams July 15, 1940 April 22, 1946 Pitcher Boston Braves Al Williams April 19, 1937 September 4, 1938 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Albert Williams May 7, 1980 September 26, 1984 Pitcher Minnesota Twins Art Williams May 7, 1902 September 1, 1902 Utility player Chicago Orphans Bernie Williams (1970s OF) September 7, 1970 May 12, 1974 Outfielder San Francisco Giants, San Diego Padres Bernie Williams (1990s OF) July 7, 1991 October 1, 2006 Outfielder New York Yankees Billy Williams (LF) β August 5, 1959 October 2, 1976 Outfielder Chicago Cubs, Oakland Athletics Billy Williams (RF) August 15, 1969 August 20, 1969 Outfielder Seattle Pilots Bob Williams July 3, 1911 September 30, 1913 Catcher New York Highlanders/Yankees Brian Williams September 16, 1991 July 5, 2000 Pitcher Houston Astros, San Diego Padres, Detroit Tigers, Baltimore Orioles, Chicago Cubs, Cleveland Indians Charlie Williams April 23, 1971 September 11, 1978 Pitcher New York Mets, San Francisco Giants Cy Williams July 18, 1912 September 22, 1930 Outfielder Chicago Cubs, Philadelphia Phillies Dale Williams August 12, 1876 September 9, 1876 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds (1876–1880) Dallas Williams September 19, 1981 October 2, 1983 Outfielder Baltimore Orioles, Cincinnati Reds Dana Williams June 19, 1989 July 2, 1989 Designated hitter Boston Red Sox Dave Williams (1900s) July 2, 1902 August 3, 1902 Pitcher Boston Americans Dave Williams (2000s) June 6, 2001 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Cincinnati Reds, New York Mets Davey Williams September 16, 1949 July 31, 1955 Second baseman New York Giants Denny Williams April 15, 1921 July 18, 1928 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds, Boston Red Sox Dewey Williams June 28, 1944 September 26, 1948 Catcher Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds Dib Williams April 27, 1930 September 29, 1935 Utility infielder Philadelphia Athletics, Boston Red Sox Dick Williams β June 10, 1951 October 1, 1964 Utility player Brooklyn Dodgers, Baltimore Orioles, Cleveland Indians, Kansas City Athletics, Boston Red Sox Don Williams (1958–62 P) September 12, 1958 August 23, 1962 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Kansas City Royals Don Williams (1963 P) August 4, 1963 August 17, 1963 Pitcher Minnesota Twins Earl Williams (1920s C) May 27, 1928 June 2, 1928 Catcher Boston Braves Earl Williams (1970s C) September 30, 1970 September 25, 1977 Catcher Atlanta Braves, Baltimore Orioles, Montreal Expos, Oakland Athletics Eddie Williams April 18, 1986 May 27, 1998 Utility infielder Cleveland Indians, Chicago White Sox, San Diego Padres, Detroit Tigers, Pittsburgh Pirates Frank Williams April 5, 1984 September 27, 1989 Pitcher San Francisco Giants, Cincinnati Reds, Detroit Tigers George Williams (2B) July 16, 1961 July 5, 1964 Second baseman Philadelphia Phillies, Houston Astros, Kansas City Athletics George Williams (C) July 14, 1995 September 13, 2000 Catcher Oakland Athletics, San Diego Padres Gerald Williams September 15, 1992 October 2, 2005 Outfielder New York Yankees, Milwaukee Brewers, Atlanta Braves, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Florida Marlins, New York Mets Glenn Williams June 7, 2005 June 28, 2005 Third baseman Minnesota Twins Gus Williams (P) April 18, 1890 April 22, 1890 Pitcher Brooklyn Gladiators Gus Williams (OF) April 12, 1911 June 18, 1915 Outfielder St. Louis Browns Harry Williams August 7, 1913 June 30, 1914 First baseman New York Yankees Jeff Williams September 12, 1999 September 28, 2002 Pitcher Los Angeles Dodgers Jerome Williams April 26, 2003 Pitcher San Francisco Giants, Chicago Cubs, Washington Nationals, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Jim Williams September 8, 1969 September 30, 1970 Outfielder San Diego Padres Jimmy Williams April 15, 1899 October 3, 1909 Second baseman Pittsburgh Pirates, Baltimore Orioles (1901–02), New York Highlanders, St. Louis Browns Jimy Williams April 26, 1966 September 21, 1967 Shortstop St. Louis Cardinals Johnnie Williams April 21, 1914 August 19, 1914 Pitcher Detroit Tigers Keith Williams June 7, 1996 June 23, 1996 Outfielder San Francisco Giants Ken Williams July 14, 1915 August 10, 1929 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Browns, Boston Red Sox Kenny Williams September 2, 1986 October 4, 1991 Outfielder Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers, Toronto Blue Jays, Montreal Expos Lefty Williams September 17, 1913 September 25, 1920 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, Chicago White Sox Leon Williams June 2, 1926 August 30, 1926 Pitcher Brooklyn Dodgers Mark Williams May 20, 1977 May 22, 1977 Outfielder Oakland Athletics Marsh Williams July 7, 1916 August 25, 1916 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Matt Williams (RHP) August 2, 1983 October 5, 1985 Pitcher Toronto Blue Jays, Texas Rangers Matt Williams (3B) April 11, 1987 May 31, 2003 Third baseman San Francisco Giants, Cleveland Indians, Arizona Diamondbacks Matt Williams (LHP) April 5, 2000 April 29, 2000 Pitcher Milwaukee Brewers Mike Williams June 30, 1992 September 28, 2003 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, Kansas City Royals, Pittsburgh Pirates, Houston Astros Mitch Williams April 9, 1986 May 10, 1997 Pitcher Texas Rangers, Chicago Cubs, Philadelphia Phillies, Houston Astros, California Angels, Kansas City Royals Mutt Williams October 4, 1913 October 1, 1914 Pitcher Washington Senators Otto Williams October 5, 1902 June 9, 1906 Shortstop St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago Cubs, Washington Senators Fred Williams April 19, 1945 July 8, 1945 First baseman Cleveland Indians Pop Williams September 14, 1898 September 15, 1903 Pitcher Washington Senators (1891–99), Chicago Orphans/Cubs, Philadelphia Phillies, Boston Beaneaters Randy Williams September 11, 2004 Pitcher Seattle Mariners, San Diego Padres, Colorado Rockies, Chicago White Sox, Boston Red Sox Reggie Williams (1980s OF) September 2, 1985 October 2, 1988 Outfielder Los Angeles Dodgers, Cleveland Indians Reggie Williams (1990s OF) September 8, 1992 July 25, 1999 Outfielder California Angels, Los Angeles Dodgers, Anaheim Angels Rick Williams June 12, 1978 September 26, 1979 Pitcher Houston Astros Rinaldo Williams October 8, 1914 October 10, 1914 Third baseman Brooklyn Tip-Tops Rip Williams April 12, 1911 June 9, 1918 Utility player Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators, Cleveland Indians Shad Williams May 18, 1996 July 22, 1997 Pitcher California/Anaheim Angels Stan Williams May 17, 1958 August 1, 1972 Pitcher Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Yankees, Cleveland Indians, Minnesota Twins, St. Louis Cardinals, Boston Red Sox Steamboat Williams July 12, 1914 October 1, 1916 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals Ted Williams β April 20, 1939 September 28, 1960 Outfielder Boston Red Sox Todd Williams April 29, 1995 June 15, 2007 Pitcher Los Angeles Dodgers, Cincinnati Reds, Seattle Mariners, New York Yankees, Baltimore Orioles Tom Williams May 1, 1892 September 14, 1893 Pitcher Cleveland Spiders Walt Williams April 21, 1964 September 22, 1975 Outfielder Houston Colt .45s, Chicago White Sox, Cleveland Indians, New York Yankees Wash Williams August 5, 1884 June 8, 1885 Outfielder Richmond Virginians, Chicago White Stockings Woody Williams (IF) September 5, 1938 September 30, 1945 Second baseman Brooklyn Dodgers, Cincinnati Reds Woody Williams (P) May 14, 1993 September 22, 2007 Pitcher Toronto Blue Jays, San Diego Padres, St. Louis Cardinals, Houston Astros Al Williamson April 27, 1928 April 27, 1928 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Antone Williamson May 31, 1997 July 3, 1997 First baseman Milwaukee Brewers Howie Williamson July 7, 1928 August 17, 1928 Pinch hitter St. Louis Cardinals Mark Williamson April 8, 1987 August 4, 1994 Pitcher Baltimore Orioles Ned Williamson May 1, 1878 September 27, 1890 Utility infielder Indianapolis Blues, Chicago White Stockings, Chicago Pirates Scott Williamson April 5, 1999 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds, Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs, San Diego Padres, Baltimore Orioles Julius Willigrod July 15, 1882 August 19, 1882 Outfielder Detroit Wolverines, Cleveland Blues (NL) Hugh Willingham September 13, 1930 May 4, 1933 Shortstop Chicago White Sox, Philadelphia Phillies Josh Willingham July 6, 2004 Outfielder Florida Marlins, Oakland Athletics Carl Willis June 9, 1984 May 3, 1995 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, Cincinnati Reds, Chicago White Sox, Minnesota Twins Dale Willis April 24, 1963 September 13, 1963 Pitcher Kansas City Athletics Dontrelle Willis May 9, 2003 Pitcher Florida Marlins, Detroit Tigers, Arizona Diamondbacks, Cincinnati Reds Jim Willis April 22, 1953 June 5, 1954 Pitcher Chicago Cubs Joe Willis May 3, 1911 June 10, 1913 Pitcher St. Louis Browns, St. Louis Cardinals Lefty Willis October 3, 1925 July 12, 1927 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Les Willis April 28, 1947 August 23, 1947 Pitcher Cleveland Indians Mike Willis April 13, 1977 June 11, 1981 Pitcher Toronto Blue Jays Ron Willis September 20, 1966 September 29, 1970 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals, Houston Astros, San Diego Padres Vic Willis β April 20, 1898 September 5, 1910 Pitcher Boston Beaneaters, Pittsburgh Pirates, St. Louis Cardinals Reggie Willits April 26, 2006 Outfielder Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Claude Willoughby September 16, 1925 May 28, 1931 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, Pittsburgh Pirates Jim Willoughby September 5, 1971 September 28, 1978 Pitcher San Francisco Giants, Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox Wills (first name unknown) May 14, 1884 July 25, 1884 Outfielder Washington Nationals (AA), Kansas City Cowboys (UA) Bump Wills April 7, 1977 October 3, 1982 Second baseman Texas Rangers, Chicago Cubs Dave Wills June 8, 1899 August 31, 1899 First baseman Louisville Colonels Frank Wills July 31, 1983 April 30, 1991 Pitcher Kansas City Royals, Seattle Mariners, Cleveland Indians, Toronto Blue Jays Maury Wills June 6, 1959 October 4, 1972 Shortstop Los Angeles Dodgers, Pittsburgh Pirates, Montreal Expos Ted Wills May 24, 1959 June 12, 1965 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Cincinnati Reds, Chicago White Sox Kid Willson July 2, 1918 June 23, 1927 Outfielder Chicago White Sox Paul Wilmet July 25, 1989 July 29, 1989 Pitcher Texas Rangers Walt Wilmot April 20, 1888 June 14, 1898 Outfielder Washington Nationals (1886–1889), Chicago Colts, New York Giants Whitey Wilshere June 24, 1934 May 31, 1936 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Terry Wilshusen April 7, 1973 April 7, 1973 Pitcher California Angels Archie Wilson September 18, 1951 August 5, 1952 Outfielder New York Yankees, Washington Senators, Boston Red Sox Art Wilson September 29, 1908 June 12, 1921 Catcher New York Giants, Chicago Chi-Feds/Whales, Chicago Cubs, Boston Braves, Cleveland Indians Artie Wilson April 18, 1951 May 23, 1951 Utility Infielder New York Giants Bill Wilson (C) April 30, 1890 June 7, 1898 Catcher Pittsburgh Alleghenys, Louisville Colonels Bill Wilson (OF) September 24, 1950 September 13, 1955 Outfielder Chicago White Sox, Philadelphia/Kansas City Athletics Bill Wilson (P) April 8, 1969 September 26, 1973 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies Bob Wilson May 17, 1958 May 18, 1958 Outfielder Los Angeles Dodgers Bobby Wilson April 28, 2008 Catcher Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Brian Wilson April 23, 2006 Pitcher San Francisco Giants C. J. Wilson June 10, 2005 Pitcher Texas Rangers, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Charlie Wilson April 14, 1931 May 25, 1935 Utility infielder Boston Braves, St. Louis Cardinals Chief Wilson April 15, 1908 October 1, 1916 Outfielder Pittsburgh Pirates, St. Louis Cardinals Craig Wilson (IF/OF) September 6, 1989 September 29, 1993 Utility player St. Louis Cardinals, Kansas City Royals Craig Wilson (3B) September 5, 1998 October 1, 2000 Utility infielder Chicago White Sox Craig Wilson (OF/1B) April 22, 2001 May 11, 2007 Utility player Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Yankees, Atlanta Braves Dan Wilson September 7, 1992 September 30, 2005 Catcher Cincinnati Reds, Seattle Mariners Desi Wilson August 7, 1996 September 29, 1996 First baseman San Francisco Giants Don Wilson September 29, 1966 September 28, 1974 Pitcher Houston Astros Duane Wilson July 3, 1958 July 12, 1958 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Earl Wilson July 28, 1959 September 22, 1970 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Detroit Tigers, San Diego Padres Eddie Wilson June 21, 1936 October 2, 1937 Outfielder Brooklyn Dodgers Enrique Wilson September 24, 1997 June 24, 2005 Utility infielder Cleveland Indians, Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Yankees, Chicago Cubs Fin Wilson September 26, 1914 September 27, 1915 Pitcher Brooklyn Dodgers Frank Wilson June 20, 1924 June 8, 1928 Outfielder Boston Braves, Cleveland Indians, St. Louis Browns Gary Wilson (2B) September 27, 1902 September 29, 1902 Second baseman Boston Red Sox Gary Wilson (1970s P) April 13, 1979 May 11, 1979 Pitcher Houston Astros Gary Wilson (1990s P) April 28, 1995 June 14, 1995 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates George Wilson April 15, 1952 September 30, 1956 Outfielder Chicago White Sox, New York Giants, New York Yankees George F. Wilson October 2, 1911 April 22, 1914 Catcher Detroit Tigers, Boston Red Sox Glenn Wilson April 15, 1982 June 14, 1993 Outfielder Detroit Tigers, Philadelphia Phillies, Seattle Mariners, Pittsburgh Pirates, Houston Astros Grady Wilson May 15, 1948 July 15, 1948 Shortstop Pittsburgh Pirates Hack Wilson β September 29, 1923 August 25, 1934 Outfielder New York Giants, Chicago Cubs, Brooklyn Dodgers, Philadelphia Phillies Henry Wilson October 12, 1898 October 12, 1898 Catcher Baltimore Orioles (19th century) Highball Wilson September 13, 1899 May 17, 1904 Pitcher Cleveland Spiders, Philadelphia Athletics, Washington Senators Icehouse Wilson May 31, 1934 May 31, 1934 Pinch hitter Detroit Tigers Jack Wilson (P) September 9, 1934 September 16, 1942 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics, Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators, Detroit Tigers Jack Wilson (SS) April 3, 2001 Shortstop Pittsburgh Pirates, Seattle Mariners, Atlanta Braves Jim Wilson (P) April 18, 1945 September 14, 1958 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, St. Louis Browns, Boston/Milwaukee Braves, Baltimore Orioles, Chicago White Sox Jim Wilson (1B) September 13, 1985 September 29, 1989 First baseman Cleveland Indians, Seattle Mariners Jimmie Wilson April 17, 1923 September 29, 1940 Catcher Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Cincinnati Reds John Wilson (1910s P) June 11, 1913 June 26, 1913 Pitcher Washington Senators John Wilson (1920s P) May 9, 1927 April 24, 1928 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Josh Wilson September 7, 2005 Utility infielder Florida Marlins, Washington Nationals, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, San Diego Padres, Seattle Mariners, Milwaukee Brewers Kris Wilson July 28, 2000 July 17, 2006 Pitcher Kansas City Royals, New York Yankees Les Wilson July 15, 1911 August 9, 1911 Outfielder Boston Red Sox Max Wilson September 10, 1940 June 9, 1946 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, Washington Senators Mike Wilson (C) June 4, 1921 September 5, 1921 Catcher Pittsburgh Pirates Mike Wilson (OF) May 10, 2011 Outfielder Seattle Mariners Mookie Wilson September 2, 1980 October 6, 1991 Outfielder New York Mets, Toronto Blue Jays Mutt Wilson September 11, 1920 September 18, 1920 Pitcher Detroit Tigers Neil Wilson April 17, 1960 April 26, 1960 Catcher San Francisco Giants Nigel Wilson September 8, 1993 September 29, 1996 Outfielder Florida Marlins, Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Indians Parke Wilson July 19, 1893 October 14, 1899 Catcher New York Giants Paul Wilson April 4, 1996 May 16, 2005 Pitcher New York Mets, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Cincinnati Reds Pete Wilson September 15, 1908 October 2, 1909 Pitcher New York Yankees Preston Wilson May 7, 1998 May 5, 2007 Outfielder New York Mets, Florida Marlins, Colorado Rockies, Washington Nationals, Houston Astros, St. Louis Cardinals Red Wilson September 22, 1951 September 24, 1960 Catcher Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers, Cleveland Indians Roy Wilson April 18, 1928 April 18, 1928 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Steve Wilson September 16, 1988 October 2, 1993 Pitcher Texas Rangers, Chicago Cubs, Los Angeles Dodgers Tack Wilson April 9, 1983 October 3, 1987 Outfielder Minnesota Twins, California Angels Tex Wilson September 2, 1924 September 16, 1924 Pitcher Brooklyn Robins Tom Wilson (1910s C) September 8, 1914 September 8, 1914 Catcher Washington Senators Tom Wilson (2000s C) May 19, 2001 October 3, 2004 Catcher Oakland Athletics, Toronto Blue Jays, New York Mets, Toronto Blue Jays Trevor Wilson September 5, 1988 September 26, 1998 Pitcher San Francisco Giants, Anaheim Angels Tug Wilson May 9, 1884 July 21, 1884 Utility player Brooklyn Atlantics (AA) Vance Wilson April 24, 1999 September 28, 2006 Catcher New York Mets, Detroit Tigers Walter Wilson April 17, 1945 September 10, 1945 Pitcher Detroit Tigers Willie Wilson September 4, 1976 May 16, 1994 Outfielder Kansas City Royals, Oakland Athletics, Chicago Cubs Willy Wilson October 3, 1906 October 3, 1906 Pitcher Washington Senators Zeke Wilson April 23, 1895 June 28, 1899 Pitcher Boston Beaneaters, Cleveland Spiders, St. Louis Perfectos Hal Wiltse April 13, 1926 April 20, 1931 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, St. Louis Browns, Philadelphia Phillies Hooks Wiltse April 21, 1904 September 25, 1915 Pitcher New York Giants, Brooklyn Tip-Tops Snake Wiltse May 5, 1901 May 18, 1903 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Baltimore Orioles (1901–1902), New York Highlanders Ed Winceniak April 25, 1956 May 12, 1957 Utility infielder Chicago Cubs Fred Winchell September 16, 1909 October 3, 1909 Pitcher Cleveland Naps Scott Winchester September 8, 1997 August 9, 2001 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds Gordie Windhorn September 10, 1959 July 10, 1962 Outfielder New York Yankees, Los Angeles Dodgers, Kansas City Athletics, Los Angeles Angels Bill Windle September 27, 1928 September 27, 1929 First baseman Pittsburgh Pirates Jason Windsor July 17, 2006 September 27, 2006 Pitcher Oakland Athletics Bobby Wine September 20, 1960 July 8, 1972 Shortstop Philadelphia Phillies, Montreal Expos Robbie Wine September 2, 1986 October 3, 1987 Catcher Houston Astros Ed Wineapple September 15, 1929 September 15, 1929 Pitcher Washington Senators Ralph Winegarner September 20, 1930 August 21, 1949 Pitcher Cleveland Indians, St. Louis Browns Dave Winfield β June 19, 1973 October 1, 1995 Outfielder San Diego Padres, New York Yankees, California Angels, Toronto Blue Jays, Minnesota Twins, Cleveland Indians Jim Winford September 10, 1932 September 22, 1938 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals, Brooklyn Dodgers Ernie Wingard May 1, 1924 September 25, 1927 Pitcher St. Louis Browns Ted Wingfield September 23, 1923 August 27, 1927 Pitcher Washington Senators, Boston Red Sox Al Wingo September 9, 1919 September 28, 1928 Outfielder Philadelphia Athletics, Detroit Tigers Ed Wingo October 2, 1920 October 2, 1920 Catcher Philadelphia Athletics Ivey Wingo April 20, 1911 October 6, 1929 Catcher St. Louis Cardinals, Cincinnati Reds Lave Winham April 21, 1902 September 21, 1903 Pitcher Brooklyn Superbas, Pittsburgh Pirates George Winkelman August 2, 1886 August 2, 1886 Pitcher Washington Nationals (1886–1889) Joe Winkelsas April 10, 1999 June 9, 2006 Pitcher Atlanta Braves, Milwaukee Brewers George Winkleman August 4, 1883 August 9, 1883 Outfielder Louisville Eclipse George Winn April 29, 1919 April 28, 1923 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Cleveland Indians Jim Winn April 10, 1983 September 6, 1988 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago White Sox, Minnesota Twins Randy Winn May 11, 1998 October 3, 2010 Outfielder Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Seattle Mariners, San Francisco Giants, New York Yankees, St. Louis Cardinals Herm Winningham September 1, 1984 October 3, 1992 Outfielder New York Mets, Montreal Expos, Cincinnati Reds, Boston Red Sox Tom Winsett April 20, 1930 May 1, 1938 Outfielder Boston Red Sox, St. Louis Cardinals, Brooklyn Dodgers Darrin Winston September 10, 1997 June 25, 1998 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies Hank Winston September 30, 1933 September 24, 1936 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics, Brooklyn Dodgers George Winter June 15, 1901 September 18, 1908 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Detroit Tigers Clarence Winters August 28, 1924 September 1, 1924 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Jesse Winters May 3, 1919 July 30, 1923 Pitcher New York Giants, Philadelphia Phillies Matt Winters May 30, 1989 October 1, 1989 Outfielder Kansas City Royals Alan Wirth April 7, 1978 July 13, 1980 Pitcher Oakland Athletics Kettle Wirts July 20, 1921 July 1, 1924 Catcher Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox Archie Wise July 24, 1932 July 27, 1932 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Bill Wise May 2, 1882 July 17, 1886 Pitcher/Outfielder Baltimore Orioles (19th century), Washington Nationals (UA), Washington Nationals (1886–1889) Casey Wise April 16, 1957 July 3, 1960 Second baseman Chicago Cubs, Milwaukee Braves, Detroit Tigers DeWayne Wise April 6, 2000 Outfielder Toronto Blue Jays, Atlanta Braves, Cincinnati Reds, Chicago White Sox, Florida Marlins Hughie Wise September 26, 1930 September 27, 1930 Catcher Detroit Tigers Matt Wise August 2, 2000 May 26, 2008 Pitcher Anaheim Angels, Milwaukee Brewers, New York Mets Nick Wise June 20, 1888 June 20, 1888 Utility player Boston Beaneaters Rick Wise April 18, 1964 April 10, 1982 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Boston Red Sox, Cleveland Indians, San Diego Padres Roy Wise May 13, 1944 May 13, 1944 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates Sam Wise July 30, 1881 September 29, 1893 Utility infielder Detroit Wolverines, Boston Red Caps/Beaneaters, Washington Nationals (1886–1889), Buffalo Bisons (PL), Baltimore Orioles (19th century), Washington Senators (1891–99) Jack Wisner September 12, 1919 May 17, 1926 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Giants Phil Wisner August 30, 1885 August 30, 1885 Shortstop Washington Senators (1891–99) Dave Wissman September 15, 1964 October 4, 1964 Outfielder Pittsburgh Pirates Whitey Wistert September 11, 1934 September 25, 1934 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds Tex Wisterzil April 14, 1914 October 2, 1915 Third baseman Brooklyn Tip-Tops, Chicago Whales, St. Louis Terriers Jay Witasick July 7, 1996 September 26, 2007 Pitcher Oakland Athletics, Kansas City Royals, San Diego Padres, New York Yankees, San Francisco Giants, Colorado Rockies, Tampa Bay Devil Rays Mickey Witek April 16, 1940 May 1, 1949 Second baseman New York Giants, New York Yankees Shannon Withem September 18, 1998 September 18, 1998 Pitcher Toronto Blue Jays Charles Witherow July 1, 1875 July 1, 1875 Pitcher Washington Nationals (NA) Roy Witherup May 14, 1906 September 6, 1909 Pitcher Boston Beaneaters, Washington Senators Corky Withrow September 6, 1963 September 28, 1963 Outfielder St. Louis Cardinals Frank Withrow April 15, 1920 September 27, 1922 Catcher Philadelphia Phillies Ron Witmeyer August 25, 1991 October 2, 1991 First baseman Oakland Athletics Bobby Witt April 10, 1986 October 7, 2001 Pitcher Texas Rangers, Oakland Athletics, Florida Marlins, St. Louis Cardinals, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Cleveland Indians, Arizona Diamondbacks George Witt September 1, 1957 June 10, 1962 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Los Angeles Angels, Houston Colt .45s Kevin Witt September 15, 1998 September 30, 2006 Utility player Toronto Blue Jays, San Diego Padres, Detroit Tigers, Tampa Bay Devil Rays Mike Witt April 11, 1981 June 17, 1993 Pitcher California Angels, New York Yankees Whitey Witt April 12, 1916 August 18, 1926 Outfielder Philadelphia Athletics, New York Yankees, Brooklyn Robins Jerry Witte September 10, 1946 July 13, 1947 First baseman St. Louis Browns Johnnie Wittig August 4, 1938 June 22, 1949 Pitcher New York Giants, Boston Red Sox John Wockenfuss August 11, 1974 August 15, 1985 Utility player Detroit Tigers, Philadelphia Phillies Andy Woehr September 15, 1923 September 23, 1924 Third baseman Philadelphia Phillies Joe Woerlin July 21, 1895 July 21, 1895 Shortstop Washington Nationals (1891–1899) Mark Wohlers August 17, 1991 September 28, 2002 Pitcher Atlanta Braves, Cincinnati Reds, New York Yankees, Cleveland Indians Jim Wohlford September 1, 1972 October 5, 1986 Outfielder Kansas City Royals, Milwaukee Brewers, New York Giants, Montreal Expos Steve Wojciechowski July 18, 1995 July 18, 1997 Pitcher Oakland Athletics John Wojcik September 9, 1962 June 13, 1964 Outfielder Kansas City Athletics Pete Wojey July 2, 1954 April 25, 1957 Pitcher Brooklyn Dodgers, Detroit Tigers Ed Wojna June 16, 1985 September 30, 1989 Pitcher San Diego Padres, Cleveland Indians Bob Wolcott August 18, 1995 July 1, 1999 Pitcher Seattle Mariners, Arizona Diamondbacks, Boston Red Sox Ernie Wolf September 10, 1912 September 10, 1912 Pitcher Cleveland Naps Jimmy Wolf May 2, 1882 August 21, 1892 Outfielder Louisville Eclipse/Colonels, St. Louis Browns (1882–1900) Lefty Wolf July 4, 1921 September 24, 1921 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Randy Wolf June 11, 1999 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, Los Angeles Dodgers, San Diego Padres, Houston Astros, Milwaukee Brewers Ray Wolf July 27, 1927 July 27, 1927 First baseman Cincinnati Reds Ross Wolf August 10, 2007 Pitcher Florida Marlins, Oakland Athletics Wally Wolf September 27, 1969 May 5, 1970 Pitcher California Angels Barney Wolfe April 24, 1903 May 24, 1906 Pitcher New York Highlanders, Washington Senators Brian Wolfe May 30, 2007 Pitcher Toronto Blue Jays Chuck Wolfe August 2, 1923 August 19, 1923 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Ed Wolfe April 19, 1952 April 25, 1952 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates Harry Wolfe April 15, 1917 July 16, 1917 Utility player Chicago Cubs, Pittsburgh Pirates Larry Wolfe September 16, 1977 October 5, 1980 Third baseman Minnesota Twins, Boston Red Sox Polly Wolfe September 22, 1912 August 31, 1914 Outfielder Chicago White Sox Bill Wolff September 10, 1902 September 10, 1902 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies Roger Wolff September 20, 1941 August 25, 1947 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics, Washington Senators, Cleveland Indians, Pittsburgh Pirates Mellie Wolfgang April 18, 1914 July 2, 1918 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Abe Wolstenholme June 4, 1883 June 11, 1883 Catcher Philadelphia Quakers Harry Wolter May 14, 1907 September 23, 1917 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds, Pittsburgh Pirates, St. Louis Cardinals, Boston Red Sox, New York Highlanders/Yankees, Chicago Cubs Rynie Wolters May 18, 1871 April 28, 1873 Pitcher New York Mutuals, Cleveland Forest Citys, Elizabeth Resolutes Harry Wolverton September 25, 1898 September 25, 1912 Third baseman Chicago Orphans, Philadelphia Phillies, Washington Senators, Boston Beaneaters, New York Highlanders Dooley Womack April 14, 1966 September 27, 1970 Pitcher New York Yankees, Houston Astros, Seattle Pilots, Oakland Athletics Sid Womack August 15, 1926 August 15, 1926 Catcher Boston Braves Tony Womack September 10, 1993 June 24, 2006 Utility player Pittsburgh Pirates, Arizona Diamondbacks, Colorado Rockies, Chicago Cubs, St. Louis Cardinals, New York Yankees, Cincinnati Reds Wood (first name unknown) September 30, 1874 September 30, 1874 Second baseman Baltimore Canaries Blake Wood May 12, 2010 Pitcher Kansas City Royals Bob Wood May 2, 1898 May 6, 1905 Catcher Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Blues/Bronchos, Detroit Tigers Brandon Wood April 26, 2007 Third baseman Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, Pittsburgh Pirates Doc Wood July 21, 1923 August 4, 1923 Shortstop Philadelphia Athletics Fred Wood May 14, 1884 September 30, 1885 Catcher Detroit Wolverines, Buffalo Bisons (NL) George Wood May 1, 1880 September 29, 1892 Outfielder Worcester Ruby Legs, Detroit Tigers, Philadelphia Phillies, Baltimore Orioles (19th century), Philadelphia Athletics (PL), Cincinnati Reds Harry Wood April 19, 1903 April 27, 1903 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds Jake Wood April 11, 1961 August 11, 1967 Second baseman Detroit Tigers, Cincinnati Reds Jason Wood April 1, 1998 April 2, 2008 First baseman Oakland Athletics, Detroit Tigers, Florida Marlins Jimmy Wood May 8, 1871 November 1, 1873 Second baseman Chicago White Stockings, Troy Haymakers, Eckford of Brooklyn, Philadelphia White Stockings Joe Wood (IF) May 2, 1943 October 3, 1943 Utility infielder Detroit Tigers Joe Wood (P) May 1, 1944 May 14, 1944 Pitcher Boston Red Sox John Wood May 9, 1896 May 9, 1896 Pitcher St. Louis Browns (1882–1900) Ken Wood April 28, 1948 May 23, 1953 Outfielder St. Louis Browns, Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators Kerry Wood April 12, 1998 Pitcher Chicago Cubs, Cleveland Indians, New York Yankees Mike Wood August 21, 2003 Pitcher Oakland Athletics, Kansas City Royals, Texas Rangers Pete Wood July 15, 1885 September 7, 1889 Pitcher Buffalo Bisons (NL), Philadelphia Quakers Roy Wood June 16, 1913 June 19, 1915 Utility player Pittsburgh Pirates, Cleveland Naps/Indians Smoky Joe Wood August 24, 1908 September 24, 1922 Outfielder/Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Cleveland Indians Spades Wood August 16, 1930 September 21, 1931 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates Ted Wood September 4, 1991 April 22, 1993 Outfielder San Francisco Giants, Montreal Expos Tim Wood June 25, 2009 Pitcher Florida Marlins, Pittsburgh Pirates Travis Wood July 1, 2010 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds Wilbur Wood June 30, 1961 August 22, 1978 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago White Sox Brad Woodall July 22, 1994 May 5, 1999 Pitcher Atlanta Braves, Milwaukee Brewers, Chicago Cubs Larry Woodall May 20, 1920 May 9, 1929 Catcher Detroit Tigers Darrell Woodard August 6, 1978 October 1, 1978 Second baseman Oakland Athletics Mike Woodard September 11, 1985 July 10, 1988 Second baseman San Francisco Giants, Chicago White Sox Steve Woodard July 28, 1997 May 7, 2003 Pitcher Milwaukee Brewers, Cleveland Indians, Texas Rangers, Boston Red Sox Gene Woodburn July 27, 1911 September 27, 1912 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals Fred Woodcock May 17, 1892 June 17, 1892 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates George Woodend April 22, 1944 May 2, 1944 Pitcher Boston Braves Hal Woodeshick September 14, 1956 September 4, 1967 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, Cleveland Indians, Washington Senators, Houston Colt .45s/Astros, St. Louis Cardinals Red Woodhead April 15, 1873 September 10, 1879 Third baseman Baltimore Marylands, Syracuse Stars (NL) Gene Woodling September 23, 1943 September 16, 1962 Outfielder Cleveland Indians, Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Yankees, Baltimore Orioles, Washington Senators (1961–1971), New York Mets Dan Woodman July 10, 1914 May 12, 1915 Pitcher Buffalo Buffeds/Blues Pete Woodruff September 19, 1899 October 14, 1899 Outfielder New York Giants Sam Woodruff April 14, 1904 July 17, 1910 Third baseman Cincinnati Reds Alvis Woods April 7, 1977 October 2, 1986 Outfielder Toronto Blue Jays, Minnesota Twins Clarence Woods August 8, 1914 August 16, 1914 Pitcher Indianapolis Hoosiers (FL) Gary Woods September 14, 1976 September 27, 1985 Outfielder Oakland Athletics, Toronto Blue Jays, Houston Astros, Chicago Cubs Jake Woods April 8, 2005 Pitcher Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, Seattle Mariners Jim Woods September 27, 1957 June 23, 1961 Third baseman Chicago Cubs, Philadelphia Phillies John Woods September 16, 1924 September 16, 1924 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Pinky Woods June 20, 1943 September 23, 1945 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Ron Woods April 22, 1969 September 29, 1974 Outfielder Detroit Tigers, New York Yankees, Montreal Expos Walt Woods April 20, 1898 April 27, 1900 Pitcher Chicago Orphans, Louisville Colonels, Pittsburgh Pirates Dick Woodson April 8, 1969 July 8, 1974 Pitcher Minnesota Twins, New York Yankees Kerry Woodson July 19, 1992 September 12, 1992 Pitcher Seattle Mariners Tracy Woodson April 7, 1987 October 2, 1993 Third baseman Los Angeles Dodgers, St. Louis Cardinals Chris Woodward June 7, 1999 Shortstop Toronto Blue Jays, New York Mets, Atlanta Braves, Seattle Mariners, Boston Red Sox Frank Woodward April 17, 1918 April 29, 1923 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Washington Senators, Chicago White Sox Rob Woodward September 5, 1985 September 26, 1988 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Woody Woodward September 9, 1963 September 28, 1971 Shortstop Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves, Cincinnati Reds Mark Woodyard September 17, 2005 October 1, 2005 Pitcher Detroit Tigers Floyd Wooldridge May 1, 1955 August 15, 1955 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals Junior Wooten September 16, 1947 September 30, 1948 Outfielder Washington Senators Shawn Wooten August 19, 2000 May 26, 2005 Utility player Anaheim Angels, Philadelphia Phillies, Boston Red Sox Fred Worden September 28, 1914 September 28, 1914 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Favel Wordsworth April 28, 1873 August 7, 1873 Shortstop Elizabeth Resolutes Chuck Workman September 18, 1938 September 27, 1946 Outfielder Cleveland Indians, Boston Braves, Pittsburgh Pirates Hank Workman September 4, 1950 October 1, 1950 First baseman New York Yankees Hoge Workman June 27, 1924 September 1, 1924 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Ralph Works May 1, 1909 April 28, 1913 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, Cincinnati Reds Vance Worley July 24, 2010 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies Mark Worrell June 3, 2008 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals, Baltimore Orioles Tim Worrell June 25, 1993 June 27, 2006 Pitcher San Diego Padres, Detroit Tigers, Cleveland Indians, Oakland Athletics, Baltimore Orioles, Chicago Cubs, San Francisco Giants, Philadelphia Phillies, Arizona Diamondbacks Todd Worrell August 28, 1985 September 25, 1997 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals, Los Angeles Dodgers Danny Worth May 16, 2010 Shortstop Detroit Tigers Herb Worth July 29, 1872 July 29, 1872 Outfielder Brooklyn Atlantics Rich Wortham May 3, 1978 July 23, 1983 Pitcher Chicago White Sox, Oakland Athletics Al Worthington July 6, 1953 October 2, 1969 Pitcher New York/San Francisco Giants, Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox, Cincinnati Reds, Minnesota Twins Craig Worthington April 26, 1988 May 14, 1996 Third baseman Baltimore Orioles, Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, Texas Rangers Red Worthington April 14, 1931 September 14, 1934 Outfielder Boston Braves, St. Louis Cardinals Chuck Wortman July 20, 1916 August 29, 1918 Shortstop Chicago Cubs Ron Wotus September 3, 1983 September 30, 1984 Shortstop Pittsburgh Pirates Jimmy Woulfe May 16, 1884 July 23, 1884 Outfielder Cincinnati Red Stockings (AA), Pittsburgh Alleghenys Ab Wright April 20, 1935 October 1, 1944 Outfielder Cleveland Indians, Boston Braves Al Wright April 25, 1933 May 5, 1933 Second baseman Boston Braves Bill Wright September 16, 1887 September 16, 1887 Catcher Washington Nationals (1886–1889) Bob Wright September 21, 1915 September 24, 1915 Pitcher Chicago Cubs Chase Wright April 17, 2007 Pitcher New York Yankees Clyde Wright June 15, 1966 September 26, 1975 Pitcher California Angels, Milwaukee Brewers, Texas Rangers Cy Wright June 30, 1916 July 8, 1916 Shortstop Chicago White Sox Dan Wright July 27, 2001 May 1, 2004 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Dave Wright July 22, 1895 September 28, 1897 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Colts David Wright July 21, 2004 Third baseman New York Mets Dick Wright June 30, 1915 July 9, 1915 Catcher Brooklyn Tip-Tops Ed Wright July 29, 1945 September 4, 1952 Pitcher Boston Braves, Philadelphia Athletics Gene Wright October 5, 1901 April 18, 1904 Pitcher Brooklyn Superbas, Cleveland Bronchos/Naps, St. Louis Browns George Wright (SS) β May 5, 1871 October 2, 1882 Shortstop Boston Red Stockings/Red Caps, Providence Grays George Wright (OF) April 10, 1982 October 5, 1986 Outfielder Texas Rangers, Montreal Expos Glenn Wright April 15, 1924 June 4, 1935 Shortstop Pittsburgh Pirates, Brooklyn Robins/Dodgers, Chicago White Sox Harry Wright β May 5, 1871 September 29, 1877 Outfielder Boston Red Stockings/Red Caps Jamey Wright July 3, 1996 Pitcher Colorado Rockies, Milwaukee Brewers, St. Louis Cardinals, Kansas City Royals, San Francisco Giants, Texas Rangers, Cleveland Indians, Seattle Mariners Jaret Wright June 24, 1997 April 29, 2007 Pitcher Cleveland Indians, San Diego Padres, Atlanta Braves, New York Yankees, Baltimore Orioles Jim Wright (1920s P) September 14, 1927 May 4, 1928 Pitcher St. Louis Browns Jim Wright (1970s P) April 15, 1978 June 6, 1979 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Jim Wright (1980s P) April 22, 1981 May 15, 1982 Pitcher Kansas City Royals Joe Wright July 14, 1895 September 18, 1896 Outfielder Louisville Colonels, Pittsburgh Pirates Ken Wright April 10, 1970 April 28, 1974 Pitcher Kansas City Royals, New York Yankees Lucky Wright April 18, 1909 May 18, 1909 Pitcher Cleveland Naps Mel Wright April 17, 1954 July 18, 1961 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago Cubs Pat Wright July 11, 1890 July 11, 1890 Second baseman Chicago Colts Rasty Wright (OF) April 17, 1890 October 4, 1890 Outfielder Syracuse Stars (AA), Cleveland Spiders Rasty Wright (P) June 22, 1917 October 4, 1923 Pitcher St. Louis Browns Ricky Wright July 28, 1982 August 5, 1986 Pitcher Los Angeles Dodgers, Texas Rangers Ron Wright April 14, 2002 April 14, 2002 Designated hitter Seattle Mariners Roy Wright September 30, 1956 September 30, 1956 Pitcher New York Giants Sam Wright April 19, 1875 September 23, 1881 Shortstop New Haven Elm Citys, Boston Red Caps, Cincinnati Reds (1876–1880) Taffy Wright April 10, 1938 September 16, 1949 Outfielder Washington Senators, Chicago White Sox, Philadelphia Athletics Tom Wright September 15, 1948 April 18, 1956 Outfielder Boston Red Sox, St. Louis Browns, Chicago White Sox, Washington Senators Wesley Wright March 31, 2008 Pitcher Houston Astros Russ Wrightstone April 19, 1920 September 29, 1928 Utility player Philadelphia Phillies, New York Giants Zeke Wrigley August 31, 1896 October 14, 1899 Shortstop Washington Senators (1891–99), New York Giants, Brooklyn Superbas Rick Wrona September 3, 1988 July 22, 1994 Catcher Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds, Chicago White Sox, Milwaukee Brewers Michael Wuertz April 5, 2004 Pitcher Chicago Cubs, Oakland Athletics Yats Wuestling June 15, 1929 September 28, 1930 Shortstop Detroit Tigers, New York Yankees Kelly Wunsch April 3, 2000 July 7, 2005 Pitcher Chicago White Sox, Los Angeles Dodgers Frank Wurm September 4, 1944 September 4, 1944 Pitcher Brooklyn Dodgers Joe Wyatt September 11, 1924 September 13, 1924 Outfielder Cleveland Indians John Wyatt September 8, 1961 May 1, 1969 Pitcher Kansas City Athletics, Boston Red Sox, New York Yankees, Detroit Tigers, Oakland Athletics Whit Wyatt September 26, 1929 July 18, 1945 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, Chicago White Sox, Cleveland Indians, Brooklyn Dodgers, Philadelphia Phillies Weldon Wyckoff April 19, 1913 May 8, 1918 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics, Boston Red Sox Ren Wylie August 11, 1882 August 11, 1882 Outfielder Pittsburgh Alleghenys Willis Wyman June 10, 1884 August 9, 1884 Outfielder Kansas City Cowboys (UA), Chicago Browns/Pittsburgh Stogies Butch Wynegar April 6, 1976 May 24, 1988 Catcher Minnesota Twins, New York Yankees, California Angels Early Wynn β September 13, 1939 September 13, 1963 Pitcher Washington Senators, Cleveland Indians, Chicago White Sox Jimmy Wynn July 10, 1963 September 27, 1977 Outfielder Houston Astros, Los Angeles Dodgers, Atlanta Braves, New York Yankees, Milwaukee Brewers Bill Wynne August 31, 1894 August 31, 1894 Pitcher Washington Senators (1891–99) Billy Wynne August 6, 1967 April 30, 1971 Pitcher New York Mets, Chicago White Sox, California Angels Marvell Wynne June 15, 1983 October 3, 1990 Outfielder Pittsburgh Pirates, San Diego Padres, Chicago Cubs Johnny Wyrostek September 10, 1942 September 26, 1954 Outfielder Pittsburgh Pirates, Philadelphia Phillies, Cincinnati Reds Hank Wyse September 7, 1942 June 14, 1951 Pitcher Chicago Cubs, Philadelphia Athletics, Washington Senators Biff Wysong August 10, 1930 May 7, 1932 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds ==References== ==External links== *Last Names starting with W – Baseball-Reference.com Wi |
Peter Gregg Arnett (born 13 November 1934) is a New Zealand-born American journalist. He is known for his coverage of the Vietnam War and the Gulf War. He was awarded the 1966 Pulitzer Prize in International Reporting for his work in Vietnam from 1962 to 1965, mostly reporting for the Associated Press. Arnett also worked for National Geographic magazine, and later for various television networks, most notably for nearly two decades at CNN. Arnett published a memoir, Live from the Battlefield: From Vietnam to Baghdad, 35 Years in the World's War Zones (1994). In March 1997, Arnett interviewed Osama bin Laden, leader of Al-Qaeda. The journalism school at the Southern Institute of Technology in New Zealand was named for Arnett. ==Early life== Arnett was born in 1934 in Riverton, in New Zealand's Southland region. His first job as a journalist was with The Southland Times. ==Vietnam== During his early years in journalism, Arnett worked in Southeast Asia, largely based in Bangkok. In 1960 he started publishing a small English-language newspaper in Laos. Eventually, he made his way to Vietnam, which the French had abandoned after being defeated at Dien Bien Phu by communists from North Vietnam. Arnett became a reporter for the Associated Press, based in Saigon in the South, in the years when the United States began to get involved in the civil conflict and through the Vietnam War. On 7 July 1963, in what became known as the Double Seven Day scuffle, he was injured in a widely reported physical altercation between a group of western journalists and South Vietnamese undercover police. The reporters were trying to cover Buddhist protests against the South Vietnamese government. His articles, such as "Death of Supply Column 21," about an event during Operation Starlite in August 1965, resulted in raising the ire of the American government, which had been increasing the number of forces in the region. Arnett accompanied troops on dozens of missions, including the battle of Hill 875, in November 1967. An American detachment was sent to rescue another unit that was stranded in hostile territory, and the rescuers were nearly killed during the operation. In September 1972, Arnett joined a group of U.S. peace activists, including William Sloane Coffin and David Dellinger, on a trip to Hanoi, North Vietnam, to accept three American prisoners of war for return to the United States. Arnett wrote in an unvarnished manner when reporting stories of ordinary soldiers and civilians. Arnett's writing was often criticized by administration spokesmen as negative, who wanted to keep reporting of the war positive. General William Westmoreland, President Lyndon B. Johnson and others in power put pressure on the AP to get rid of or transfer Arnett from the region. In what is considered one of his iconic dispatches, published on 7 February 1968, Arnett wrote about the Battle of Bến Tre: "'It became necessary to destroy the town to save it,' a United States major said today. He was talking about the decision by allied commanders to bomb and shell the town regardless of civilian casualties, to rout the Vietcong." The quotation was gradually altered in subsequent publications, eventually becoming the more familiar, "We had to destroy the village in order to save it." The accuracy of the original quotation and its source have often been called into question. Arnett never revealed his source, except to say that it was one of four officers he interviewed that day. US Army Major Phil Cannella, the senior officer present at Bến Tre, suggested the quotation might have been a distortion of something he said to Arnett. The New Republic at the time attributed the quotation to US Air Force Major Chester L. Brown.Braestrup, Peter, Big story: how the American Press and Television Reported and Interpreted the Crisis of Tet 1968 in Vietnam and Washington, Volume 1 Freedom House (U.S.) (Westview Press, 1977) via Google Books. In Walter Cronkite's 1971 book, Eye on the World, Arnett reasserted the quotation was something "one American major said to me in a moment of revelation." Arnett was one of the last western reporters remaining in Saigon after its fall and capture by the People's Army of Vietnam. Occupying soldiers showed him how they had entered the city. Arnett wrote the 26-part mini-series documentary, Vietnam: The Ten Thousand Day War (1980), produced by Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). ==Soviet invasion of Afghanistan== At the time of the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, Arnett was working for Parade magazine. With a contact named Healy, he entered Afghanistan illegally from Pakistan; both men were dressed in traditional clothing as natives and led by Mujahideen guides. They continued to a Jalalabad hideaway of approximately fifty rebels. The trip came to an end when Healy fell into the Kunar River, ruining the pair's cameras. Later, Arnett would recount the story to journalist Artyom Borovik, who was covering the Soviet side of the war.Borovik, Artyom, The Hidden War, 1990. International Relations Publishing House, USSR ==Gulf War== Beginning in 1981, Arnett worked for CNN for 18 years, ending in 1999. During the Gulf War, he became a household name worldwide as the only reporter to have live coverage directly from Baghdad, especially during the first 16 hours. His dramatic reports often were accompanied by the sound of air raid sirens blaring and US bombs exploding in the background. Together with two other CNN journalists, Bernard Shaw and John Holliman, Arnett brought continuous coverage from Baghdad for the 16 initial intense hours of the war (17 January 1991). Although 40 foreign journalists were present at the Al-Rashid Hotel in Baghdad at the time, only CNN possessed the means — a private phone line connected to neighboring Amman, Jordan — to communicate to the outside world. CNN broadcast Arnett's extended call live for several hours, with a picture of Arnett as video. Soon the other journalists left Iraq, including the two CNN colleagues, which left Arnett as the sole remaining reporter. His accounts of civilian damage caused by the bombing were not well received by the coalition war administration. Its spokesmen had emphasized terms such as "smart bombs" and "surgical precision" in their public statements, in an effort to project keeping civilian casualties would be at a minimum. White House sources would later attack Arnett, saying that he was being used as a tool for Iraqi disinformation. Two weeks into the war, Arnett was able to obtain an exclusive, uncensored interview with Saddam Hussein. Due to Arnett's reporting from the "other side", for a period of five weeks, the Gulf War was the first to be broadcast live on TV. About halfway through the war, representatives of the CIA approached Arnett. They believed that the Iraqi military was operating a high-level communication network from the basement of the Al Rashid Hotel, which is where Arnett and other staff from CNN were staying. The CIA wanted him out so the Air Force could bomb the hotel, but Arnett refused. He said he had been given a tour of the hotel and denied there was such a facility.Rosenkranz, Keith, Vipers in the Storm (McGraw Hill), p. 299 ==Interview with Osama Bin Laden== In March 1997, Arnett of CNN interviewed Osama bin Laden, leader of Al-Qaeda, after Bin Laden declared jihad on the United States. Asked by Arnett, "What are your future plans?", Bin Laden said, "You'll see them and hear about them in the media, God willing".Arnett interview transcript ==Operation Tailwind== In 1998, Arnett narrated a report on the joint venture (between CNN and Time magazine) program called NewsStand, covering "Operation Tailwind" in Laos in 1970. The report, titled The Valley of Death, claimed that in 1970, the United States Army had used sarin, a nerve agent, against a group of deserting U.S. soldiers in Laos. The men who allegedly conducted the attack were an elite Green Berets A-Team. The report was expressly approved by both CNN Chairman Tom Johnson and CNN President Rick Kaplan. In response, the Pentagon commissioned another report contradicting that of CNN's. CNN subsequently conducted its own investigation. It concluded that the "journalism [in the Valley of Death] was flawed" and retracted the story. While all 12 men of the Green Beret A-Team were wounded in action during Operation Tailwind, no sarin was involved. Due to a number of rebuttals claiming the CNN report was flawed, three or more of the individuals responsible were fired or forced to resign. Arnett was reprimanded, and left the network in April 1999, apparently due to "lingering fallout" from Tailwind. ==Invasion of Iraq 2003== On assignment for NBC and National Geographic, Arnett went to Iraq in 2003 to cover the U.S. invasion. After a press meeting there, he granted an interview to state-run Iraqi TV on 31 March 2003. In it he said: Earlier in the interview he said: When Arnett's remarks sparked a "firestorm of protest", NBC initially defended him, saying he had given the interview as a professional courtesy and that his remarks were "analytical in nature". A day later, though, NBC, MSNBC and National Geographic all severed their relationships with Arnett. In response to Arnett's statement on Iraqi TV, NBC stated: Arnett responded: Later that day, Arnett was hired by the British tabloid, The Daily Mirror, which had opposed the war. A couple of days later he also received work from Greek television channel NET television, and Belgian VTM. ==Academic career== After retiring as a field reporter in 2007, Arnett lives in Los Angeles. He also teaches journalism at Shantou University in China. In New Zealand, the Peter Arnett School of Journalism was named for him at the Southern Institute of Technology; the journalism school closed in 2015.Richard Horgan ( 13 July 2012 ), Peter Arnett Talks About His Chinese Journalism Students, 13 July 2012, Fishbowl.laLara Farrar (10 June 2012), Treading a Fine Line by Teaching Journalism in China, The New York Times ==Personal life== In 1964, Arnett married Nina Nguyen, a Vietnamese woman. They had two children, Elsa and Andrew. Nina and Peter separated in 1983, divorced more than 20 years later, then reconciled in 2006.Ben Stanley, "How NZ’s Peter Arnett, the world’s greatest war correspondent, found peace at last." From The Spin-off, 22 March 2016. Elsa Arnett attended Stuyvesant High School in New York and Harvard University. After graduating, she went into journalism, became a reporter, worked for several months on The Washington Post as an intern and then joined The Boston Globe. She worked with her father on his 1994 memoir about his reporting life. Elsa Arnett is married to former White House lawyer John Yoo."Defending John Yoo" , TribLIVE (Pittsburgh), 15 March 2009. "Dateline D.C. is written by a Washington-based British journalist and political observer." In the 2007 New Year Honours, Arnett was appointed an Officer of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to journalism. ==In popular culture== Peter Arnett appeared in Robert Wiener's book Live from Baghdad. He appeared as a character in the 2002 HBO film of the same name, where he was portrayed by actor Bruce McGill. The book, as well as the film, features Arnett's work as part of Wiener's crew in Baghdad. Arnett joined the team as tensions between Iraq and the West were escalating toward an imminent military encounter. CNN sent Arnett to Baghdad because of his experience in covering military conflicts. Arnett was part of the live coverage beginning on 16 January 1991, the start of the Gulf War air campaign, where he and colleagues Bernard Shaw and John Holliman kept broadcasting from their Al-Rasheed Hotel room amid extensive aerial bombing by the Western Coalition forces. Arnett's interview with Bin Laden in 1997 became the subject of the movie 'A War Story' produced for television. Arnett's role was played by John Leigh. ==Selected works== * Live from the Battlefield: From Vietnam to Baghdad: 35 Years in the World's War Zones. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. * Saigon Has Fallen: A Wartime Recollection by the Pulitzer Prize-Winning Journalist. New York: Rosetta Books/Associated Press, 2015 ==See also== * CNN controversies * List of New Zealand television personalities ==References== ===Bibliography=== * ==External links== * * Sully, François, "Associated Press' Peter Arnett testing the first flame thrower captured from the Vietcong in Vietnam", photograph; 8 December 1965. Copyright Healey Library, UMass Boston; via openvault.wgbh.org. * Category:American television reporters and correspondents Category:American war correspondents Category:American war correspondents of the Vietnam War Category:War correspondents of the Vietnam War Category:1934 births Category:Living people Category:CNN people Category:People from Riverton, New Zealand Category:Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting winners Category:New Zealand television presenters Category:New Zealand emigrants to the United States Category:Officers of the New Zealand Order of Merit Category:People with acquired American citizenship Category:Ngāi Tahu people Category:20th-century American journalists Category:American male journalists |
Hidatsa Park, Indrek. 2012. A Grammar of Hidatsa. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Indiana, Bloomington. is an endangered Siouan language that is related to the Crow language. It is spoken by the Hidatsa tribe, primarily in North Dakota and South Dakota. A description of Hidatsa-Mandan culture, including a grammar and vocabulary of the language, was published in 1877 by Washington Matthews, a government physician who lived among the Hidatsa at the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation. More recently, the language has been the subject of work in the generative grammar tradition. In 2019, it was estimated that there were less than 65 fluent speakers of the language. == Sacagawea == Linguists working on Hidatsa since the 1870s have considered the name of Sacagawea, a guide and interpreter on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, to be of Hidatsa origin. The name is a compound of two common Hidatsa nouns, cagáàga 'bird' and míà 'woman'. The compound is written as Cagáàgawia 'Bird Woman' in modern Hidatsa orthography and pronounced ( is pronounced between vowels in Hidatsa). The double in the name indicates a long vowel and the diacritics a falling pitch pattern. Hidatsa is a pitch-accent language that does not have stress so all syllables in are pronounced with roughly the same relative emphasis. However, most English speakers perceive the accented syllable (the long ) as stressed. In faithful rendering of the name Cagáàgawia to other languages, it is advisable to emphasize the second, long syllable, not the vowel, as is common in English.Park, Indrek. 2012. A Grammar of Hidatsa. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Indiana, Bloomington. p. 36. ==Phonology== === Stress === Primary stress in Hidatsa is predictable and occurs on the first quantity sensitive iamb of the word. Initial heavy syllables result in stress on the first syllable, while initial light syllables result in stress on the second syllable. The vowels of stressed syllables are significantly louder than those of surrounding syllables and of their unstressed counterparts. Metzler, Zachary. 2021. Iambic Intensity in Hidatsa. M.A. Thesis. California State University, Fresno. Fresno, California. ===Vowels=== Short Short Long Long Front Back Front Back High (close) Mid Low (open) Diphthong Hidatsa has five vowels and two diphthongs. It lacks nasal vowels, which is a way it differs from other Siouan languages. (Boyle 2007) The /a/ vowel has three sounds. The long ‘a:’ sounds like the ‘a’ in the English word, ‘father’; ‘ǎ’ has the sound of the ‘a’ in the English word ‘what’; and an obscure sound, ‘ạ’, which represents the short ‘u’ sound in English, like in the word ‘fun’. The /e/ vowel also has three sounds. Unmarked ‘e’ has the English sound ‘ai’, like the initial syllable in the word ‘air’; ‘ě’ has the short English ‘e’ sound, such as in the word ‘den’; ‘e:’ has the sound of the English long ‘e’, like the sound of the ‘e’ in ‘they’. The /i/ vowel has only two sounds. The ‘ǐ’ in Hidatsa sounds like the short ‘i’ sound in English, like in the word ‘pin’; the long ‘i:’ sounds like the English ‘i’ in the word ‘marine’. The /o/ and /u/ vowels have one sound each, the ‘o’ in the English word ‘bone’ and the ‘u’ in the English word ‘tune’, respectively. (Matthews 1877) The /e/ and /o/ vowels are rare and appear as long sounds. Length, as demonstrated in the table above, is phonemically distinct. There is evidence of this within some minimal and near-minimal pairs in the language: ;(1) e/e: :[gáre] /káre/ ‘to stick into’ :[garée] /karé:/ ‘to vomit’ ;(2) a/a: :[miŕa] /wiŕa/ ‘wood’ :[miíraa] /wiíra:/ ‘goose’ ;(3) i/i: :[máashii] /wáaši:/ ‘holy story’ :[máashi] /wáaši/ ‘to buy, to hire’ ===Consonants=== Hidatsa has ten consonant phonemes: Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive () Affricate Fricative Sonorant ~ ~ Unlike the Mississippi Valley Siouan languages, Hidatsa does not have the glottalized or the aspirated stops of Proto-Siouan. It has only one series of voiceless oral stop, /p,t,k/, which are voiced intervocalically as [b,d,g]. Hidatsa has one voiceless affricate, /t͡s/. The two fricatives, /ʃ/ and /x/, are voiceless when they are unaspirated. They are not voiced intervocalically. Hidatsa has three sonorants: two glides, /w/ and /r/, as well as /h/. The glides are realized as [m] and [ŋ] after a pause, most frequently at the beginning of a word.Boyle, John P. "Hidatsa morpho-syntax and clause structure. University of Chicago, Proquest, UMI Dissertations Publishing, 2007. 3272979. ==Morphology== ===Gender=== In Hidatsa, the usage of different words creates a division between masculine and feminine. Words may stand alone or be added to common gender words.Matthews, Washington. Grammar and Dictionary of the Language of the Hidatsa. New York: AMS, 1983. p. 34. Print. Nouns of the masculine gender: 'matsé' ('man'), ṡikàka ('young man'), 'itàka' ('old man'), the terms used for male relations ('itsùka', 'idìṡi', etc.) and their compounds (such as 'makadiṡta-maste' and 'itakaḣe') are the masculine nouns for humans. The word 'kedapi' by itself means "bull" but designates the maleness of any of the lower animals in its suffix form, with or without the interposition of the adverb 'adu'. Nouns of the feminine gender: 'mia' ('woman'), kaduḣe ('old woman'), the terms used for female relations ('idu', 'itakiṡa', etc.) and their compounds (such as 'miakaza', meaning "a young woman") are feminine nouns for humans. The word 'mika', meaning" a mare," the designation for females of the lower animals, with or without the interposition of 'adu'. ===Number=== Hidatsa nouns do not change forms to mark the difference between singular and plural. Some nouns are known to be singular or plural from only the original meaning of the word or how they are used in a sentence. In other cases, numeral adjectives or adjectives such as ahu ('many'), etsa ('all') and kauṡta ('few') are the only indications at discerning number. ===Person=== There are five simple pronouns: 'ma' and 'mi', sometimes contracted to 'm', refer to the first person; 'da' and 'di', sometimes contracted to 'd', to the second person; and 'i' to the third person. They are normally incorporated into other words but can stand out for repetition or emphasis. Both 'ma' and 'da' are the proper nominative forms, used as the nominatives of transitive verbs, but they may also be used as the nominative of certain intransitive verbs in an active sense, such as 'amaki' ("he sits") and 'adamaki' ("you sit"). They may also be prefixed, suffixed, or inserted into verbs, such as 'kikidi' ("he hunts"), 'dakikidi' ("you hunt"), and 'amakakạṡi' ("I write").Matthews, Washington. Grammar and Dictionary of the Language of the Hidatsa. New York: AMS, 1983. p. 37. Print. 'Ma' ("my") is used in the possessive case and is prefixed to the noun to indicate the possessed, in 'intimate or nontransferable' possession; examples include words such as 'maṡạki' ("my hand"), from the original word 'saki' ("hand"). ===Modality=== There are three modes in Hidatsa: infinitive, indicative, and imperative. They are shown in the conjugations of verbs. The infinitive is the same as the third person indicative, which is the simple form of the verb. However, finite verbs are much more commonly used in speech. For example, "I try to cough" would be produced as 'mahua mamahets' ("I cough, I try") rather than as 'hua mamahets' ("to cough, I try)"). In the third person, no distinction is made between the infinitive and the indicative modes. The simple form of the verb is the third person indicative; it is modified by incorporated pronouns for the first and the second persons. The imperative mode has five forms. The first form uses the same form as the second person indicative, which uses verbs that have incorporated pronouns suffixed. The second is made by final ‘i’ or ‘e’ of the infinitive to ‘a’ or using an infinitive ending in a or u. The third is formed by dropping the final ‘i’ of verbs ending in ‘ki’ and sometimes of those ending in ‘ti’. The fourth form adds the auxiliary ‘da’ to the second form of the imperative, usually placed after the verb. The fifth form is made by adding ‘diha’ instead of ‘da’. The fourth and the fifth forms are used when immediate compliance with the order is desired.Matthews, Washington. Grammar and Dictionary of the Language of the Hidatsa. New York: AMS, 1983. p. 45. Print. ===Time=== In Hidatsa, there are two distinct conjugations of verbs related to time: one for the indefinite and one for future time. The indefinite tense is shown by the simple form of the verb, with or without the incorporated pronouns, and it is used for both past and present time. In the future tense, indicative mode, 'mi' and 'miha' are added to the indefinite for the first person, 'di' and 'diha' for the second person. In the third person, the form is the same as in the indefinite.Matthews, Washington. Grammar and Dictionary of the Language of the Hidatsa. New York: AMS, 1983. p. 46. Print. ===Place=== Most adverbs of place are formed from nouns by adding the suffixes 'du', 'ha', 'ka', 'koa', and 'ta', these correspond to prepositions in English. Some examples include 'dumàta' ("the middle"), 'dumàtadu' ("through the middle"), 'dumàtaka' ("the middle"), 'dumàtakoa' ("at the middle"), and 'dumàtata' ("facing in the direction of the middle"). Words formed so are used in the same way as the English adverbs 'windward' and 'forward'. ===Word order=== In Hidatsa, word order is subject-object-verb. ===Unconjugated verbs=== Since there is no copula in Hidatsa, all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns that are used as predicates of nouns are regarded as intransitive verbs. They do not undergo a change of form to denote different modes and tenses. They may take the incorporated pronouns 'mi' and 'di' for their nominatives, which are prefixed. Verbs beginning with consonants are usually prefixed in full: 'liié' ("old, to be old") and 'liie' ("he, she, or it is or was old" or "you are or were old"). Before verbs beginning with vowels, the pronouns are often contracted. Transitive verbs used in the third person or impersonally in a passive sense, with pronouns in the objective case prefixed, also look like unconjugated intransitive verbs. Matthews, Washington. Grammar and Dictionary of the Language of the Hidatsa. New York: AMS, 1983. p. 115. Print. ===Case=== Hidatsa nouns are not inflected to indicate case except (arguably) in the possessive.Matthews, Washington. Grammar and Dictionary of the Language of the Hidatsa. New York: AMS, 1983. p. 96. Print. Possession is shown by the use of possessive pronouns, which are before the noun that is possessed. They are considered to be prefixed to it. Two kinds of possessions are indicated in Hidatsa: intimate (or non-transferable) possession, such as parts of the body, relationships, and anything else that cannot be relinquished; examples are the words 'idakoa' ("his friend or comrade") and 'iko'pa' ("her friend or comrade"). Initimate possession is shown by the simple possessive pronouns 'i', 'di', and 'ma' as well as the contractions 'm' and 'd': 'ạki' ("hand") can turn into 'iṡạki' ("his or her hand") 'diṡạki' ("your hand"), and 'maṡạki' ("my hand"). The other type, acquired possession, indicates transferable possession, anything that can be given to another. It is shown by compound possessive pronouns 'ita', 'dita', and 'mata'. They are all formed by adding '-ta' to the simple pronouns: 'midaki' ("a shield"), 'itamidaki', ("his shield"), 'ditamidaki', ("your shield"), 'matamidaki', ("my shield"). The position of a word in a sentence and the conjugation of the verb that follows usually show whether it is in the nominative or the objective case. Often, it is unmistakable in context.Matthews, Washington. Grammar and Dictionary of the Language of the Hidatsa. New York: AMS, 1983. p. 97. Print. ==Use== By the Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale, originally proposed by linguist Joshua Fishman in 1991, the status of the language is at level 7, or 'Shifting': "The child-bearing generation can use the language among themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children." Research by linguist Victor Golla in 2007 found that out of an ethnic population of 600, only 200 people are able to speak Hidatsa. There are 6 monolingual speakers, and only 50 speak the language semi-fluently; the most proficient speakers are ages 30 and older, and children are familiar with the language only in passing. Conversations in Hidatsa primarily take place between elders in the privacy of the home. Revitalization is still possible since a good number of speakers are of child-bearing age, but emphasis on Hidatsa-language education must be stressed while that is still the case. == References == == External links == *Hidatsa Dictionary * Hidatsa words * Hidatsa Water Buster Account (including clan song) * * * *ELAR archive of Documentation and description of Hidatsa Category:Languages of the United States Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Plains Category:Endangered indigenous languages of the Americas Category:Western Siouan languages Category:Endangered Siouan-Catawban languages |
Suavemente () is the debut studio album by American merenguero recording artist Elvis Crespo. Released by Sony Music Latin on April 14, 1998, the album popularized merengue music and established Crespo as a leading artist in the Latin music market. He collaborated with several songwriters and record producers to create an overall tropical music-flavored recording. With romantic ballads and uptempo songs, Suavemente received favorable reviews from music critics who found the recording to contain energetic and catchy tracks. The album was commercially successful; it became the first merengue recording to peak at number one on the United States Billboard Top Latin Albums chart. Suavemente peaked at number 106 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart. Two of its singles, "Suavemente" and "Tu Sonrisa", topped the U.S. Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart; Crespo was recognized as becoming the first artist to have placed two merengue singles at number one. Suavemente was Crespo's commercial breakthrough, introducing him to the popular music market with the Spanglish remix of its title track. The album received several accolades, including Billboard Latin Music Awards for Album of the Year and New Artist Album of the Year and a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Tropical Performance. It won five Lo Nuestro Awards, including Tropical Album of the Year. The recording has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and has sold more than 4 million copies worldwide. Its title song remains a staple at Latin music nightclubs and festivals, while Suavemente has been ranked among the most essential Latin albums of the past 50 years by Billboard magazine. == Background == In 1993, brothers Héctor and Oscar Serrano formed Grupo Manía in Puerto Rico. They enlisted Alfred Cotto, Reynaldo Santiago, and Elvis Crespo to tour and record two-step merengue music, popularizing the genre to a younger audience. In 1996, Crespo left Grupo Manía and signed with Sony Music Latin (the company which signed his former band), beginning his solo career. He said in a May 1999 Billboard interview that leaving the band was "a very hard decision", since they worked well together. Crespo originally intended for "Suavemente" and "Tu Sonrisa", the singles which brought him international recognition, to be recorded with Grupo Manía. == Release and promotion == The album was released in the United States on April 14, 1998. Suavemente and American merengue singer Manny Manuel's album, Es Mi Tiempo, increased U.S. tropical-music sales by 27 percent over the previous year. On November 28, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified Suavemente gold for shipments of 500,000 copies, the first merengue record certified gold. The album was certified gold in Chile, platinum in Venezuela, and platinum in Central America. During the 1998 Christmas season, Suavemente was among the top- selling Latin albums in the United States. On February 20, 1999, Sony Discos president Oscar Llord expressed an interest in promoting Suavemente in Latin America and Europe since he believed that the album would sell over one million copies. In May, it sold 1,500,000 copies worldwide. Suavemente has sold over 879,000 copies in the United States, making it the 11th bestselling Latin album in the country according to Nielsen SoundScan. Worldwide, it had sold more than 4 million of copies. Crespo performed at the 23rd New York Salsa Festival at Madison Square Garden on September 5, 1998, with El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico, and Latin jazz recording artist Eddie Palmieri. He was part of the Hot Latin Nights show at Walt Disney World's Pleasure Island on September 19, which was broadcast as a two-part Telemundo special on December 14 and 31. On October 11 Crespo (performing with other Latin acts) sang "Suavemente" on the seven-hour Puerto Rico Se Levanta, a benefit concert broadcast live on Telemundo which raised $13 million for victims of Hurricane Georges on Hispaniola. He performed "Suavemente" at the 1999 Billboard Latin Music Awards. Crespo's appearance was praised by Billboard John Lannert, who believed that it foreshadowed possible dominance at future music awards. He appeared at El Concierto Del Amor, an annual tropical-music festival held at the Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford, New Jersey, on February 14, 1999, with fellow salsa singers Jerry Rivera, Frankie Negron, Tito Nieves, and Michael Stuart. To promote Suavemente Crespo toured Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, and Peru in the first quarter of the year, and he performed at Billboards 10th annual Latin Music conference on April 20, 1999. == Reception == In Billboard, Latin music contributor John Lannert called the album a "merengue-bomba disc" and Crespo a "midtempo pop/merengue" artist. In his 2003 book, The Latin Beat, Ed Morales described the title song as a "salsa classic or pop hit." True crime novelist M. William Phelps called "Suavemente" a "romantic Latin ballad" in his 2008 book, I'll Be Watching You. In her 2005 book, Pop Culture Latin America, Lisa Shaw called "Suavemente" "an example of some of the best merengue with a rock-pop sound." According to Batanga magazine, Suavemente is "intoxicating, feverish, pure sabroso merengue. Sizzle in the summer streets to the fast-paced beats, ear busting horns and percussive stamina"; Latina magazine noted the album's "feverish beat". Spanish-language magazine Vistazo called Crespo the new sensation of merengue music, and his album a favorite of listeners who enjoy pachanga. Sony Music International Latin America president Frank Welzer called Crespo a "genius" who wrote "catchy fan-pleasing" songs. Terry Jenkins of AllMusic praised the album's "seductive Latin ballads" and found the focal mode of the recording to be sentimental, strong, lively, and swinging. Business Wire noted its popularity in the American and Latino markets. The Los Angeles Times called Suavemente and Crespo's repertoire "energy-packed". Billboard Lannert wrote that other Latin acts tried to emulate Crespo's style. == Chart history == Suavemente debuted at number six on the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Albums chart for the week ending May 2, 1998. In its second week the album rose to number five, selling 3,000 copies. Suavemente was number three on the chart for the week ending May 16, selling 5,000 copies (a 60-percent increase). The following week the album rose to number two, behind Selena's Anthology box set, and sold 7,000 copies. The sales increase placed Suavemente at number 188 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart, only the second merengue album to make that chart. In its fifth week, album sales fell 50 percent and it dropped to number eight. The following week (which included the Memorial Day weekend), Suavemente moved up to number six. For the week ending June 13, the album re- entered the Billboard 200 chart at number 170 and peaked at number one on the Top Latin Albums chart. The next week it dropped to number three and 197 on the Top Latin Albums and Billboard 200 charts, respectively. Suavemente sold 6,000 copies for the week ending June 13, rising to number two on the Top Latin Albums chart behind Ricky Martin's Vuelve. The album dropped to third the following week. Suavemente sold 6,000 copies the next week, rising to number two behind Vuelve. After five weeks behind Vuelve, Suavemente passed it on the Top Latin Albums chart when its sales increased 16 percent to 8,600 copies. For the week of August 8, 1998, it fell back to number two behind Vuelve. After three weeks of declining sales, Suavemente was number three when it sold 5,000 copies as "Tu Sonrisa" (its second single) topped the Hot Latin Songs chart. It ended 1998 as the year's eighth-bestselling Latin album. Suavemente spent 98 consecutive weeks in the top 10 of the Top Latin Albums chart, the second-longest run in history. The album remained atop the U.S. Tropical Albums chart for seven consecutive weeks after its release. It began sliding down the chart, but remained near the top. Suavemente returned to the top of the Tropical Albums chart after twelve weeks behind the Dance with Me soundtrack. The following week it sold 4,000 copies, remaining at number one. In the album's fourth consecutive week atop the chart, it sold 6,500 copies. During its fifth straight week atop the Tropical Albums chart, it sold 6,000 copies, down 16 percent. Suavemente ended 1998 as the fourth-bestselling tropical-music album. In its ninth consecutive week atop the Tropical Albums chart the album sold 7,000 copies, down 17 percent from the previous week. The following week, its tenth consecutive at number one, it sold 7,500 copies (up seven percent). For the week ending February 6, 1999, although sales of Suavemente dipped 13 percent to 6,500 copies the album remained atop the chart. On the February 27, 1999, chart, album sales increased by 67 percent. The following week sales decreased 30 percent to 7,000 copies, but Suavemente remained atop the Tropical Albums chart for its fourteenth straight week. The album debuted at number 43 on the U.S. Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart for the week ending May 2, 1998; the following week, it rose to number 39. For the week ending May 16, the album jumped to number 13; the following week, it rose to number nine. In subsequent weeks, the album continued to rise up the chart; for the week ending June 13, it was number five. == Singles == After "Suavemente" debuted at number 15 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart for the week ending April 25, 1998, the magazine's John Lannert predicted that Crespo could "easily win a new artist award" in 1999. Billboard music analyst Karl Ross called the album's title song "a sultry [track] about the power of a kiss". For the week ending May 16 "Suavemente" peaked at number one, displacing "Una Fan Enamorada" by Servando y Florentino. Crespo became the first merengue recording artist with a number-one single on the Hot Latin Songs chart since Dominican singer Juan Luis Guerra's "El Costo De la Vida" six years earlier. "Suavemente" remained at number one with 13 million audience impressions, a four-percent increase over the previous week. The song broke the record for most weeks at number one for a tropical-music recording on the Hot Latin Songs chart (six) since Billboard began monitoring Latin airplay in 1986, and it was number one on the Tropical Songs chart for nine consecutive weeks. "Suavemente" ended 1998 as the year's most-successful tropical single. Sony Discos president Oscar Llord told Billboard about the "carefulness" of crossing over into the English-language market, calling the lead single a process done "naturally" as a result of two U.S. radio stations (in Miami and New) York requesting a Spanglish version. The bilingual version was released in Germany in the second quarter of 1999. "Suavemente" became Crespo's most-popular song and a "teenage anthem" in the Latino community. It was the first Sony Music Latin release to debut on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart, peaking at number 84. The album's second single, "Tu Sonrisa", was distributed to U.S. radio stations in the second week of July 1998. It debuted at number 21 on the U.S. Hot Latin Tracks chart, as "Suavemente" remained in the top five. The song peaked at number one on the Tropical Songs chart, Crespo's second number one. "Tu Sonrisa" topped the Hot Latin Tracks chart in its sixth week, the singer's second number one on that chart. It displaced "Te Quiero Tanto Tanto" by Mexican Latin pop group Onda Vaselina, and Crespo became the first merengue artist with two number-one Hot Latin Tracks singles. After a week at number one, "Tu Sonrisa" was displaced by Gloria Estefan's "Oye!". A week later it again topped the chart for one week before being displaced by "Perdido Sin Ti", Martin's fourth single from Vuelve. After the success of "Suavementes bilingual version, Sony Music distributed a club mix of "Tu Sonrisa" to radio stations in February 1999. Billboard Latin music contributor Leila Cobo called the song "catchy" and (with "Suavemente") "irresistible". "Tu Sonrisa" is the fifteenth-most-successful Sony Discos single on the Hot Latin Tracks chart since the chart was established in 1999. "Luna Llena", Suavemente third single, debuted and peaked at number 29 on the Hot Latin Tracks chart for the week ending December 12, 1998. It dropped off the chart after a week before charting on Hot Latin Tracks and Tropical Songs at 33 and 13, respectively, for the week ending January 16, 1999. The song peaked at 26 and 11 on the Hot Latin Songs and Tropical Songs charts, respectively. The fourth and final single from the album, "Nuestra Cancion", was less successful; it peaked at number 17 on the Tropical Songs chart in 1999. == Impact == Suavemente is considered to have revolutionized merengue music, making it a popular subgenre of Latin music, and the album brought Crespo international recognition in the merengue market. The singer is the first merengue artist with an album atop the U.S. Top Latin Albums chart, and two number-one songs on the U.S. Hot Latin Songs chart. Billboard cited Crespo and American singer-actor Carlos Ponce as jump-starting the US market with their albums. According to Billboard Karl Ross, Crespo transcended the U.S. Latino market and his success may have been felt in Europe and the Pacific Rim. Sony Discos president Oscar Llord called Suavemente the "most successful debut album of a Tropical artist in history." Suavemente was listed as the third best-charting and -selling Sony Discos album during the Top Latin Albums twenty-fifth year in 1999. Crespo was ranked fifth on the Hot Latin Songwriters in 1998, eleventh on the Top Latin Albums Artists, seventh on the Hot Latin Tracks Artists, fourth on the Top Tropical Album Artists, and second on the Tropical Tracks Artists lists. Suavemente has been named one of the most essential Latin albums of the past 50 years by Billboard, and its title song became a staple in Latin-music nightclubs. The lead single also became a popular tune in Mexico, where it was used in festivals around the country. "Suavemente" ranked number 219 on Pitchfork's list of the 250 best songs of the 1990s. According to contributor Gio Santiago, "Suavemente" catapulted merengue into the mainstream, introducing it to a wider audience, and ending the genre's waning popularity. Since its release, the song has become a staple at any Latino gathering and elicits attendees to dance once the a cappella opening of the song begins, which is followed by an explosion of horns, güira, and percussion that evokes an endless state of euphoria, according to Santiago. At the 1999 Billboard Latin Music Awards Crespo received four nominations (including Album of the Year and Hot Latin Track of the Year), tying him with Selena for the most nominations in a single year; the record was later broken by Tito El Bambino, with 18 nominations in 2010. He won New Artist Album of the Year and Latin Dance Maxi-Single of the Year. Crespo was the Latin 50 Artist of the Year at the 2000 Billboard Latin Music Awards (the top-selling Latin artist from January 1999 to January 2000). He was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Tropical Latin Performance in 1999, losing to Marc Anthony's Contra la Corriente. At the 11th Premio Lo Nuestros, Crespo received six nominations and won five awards: Tropical Album of the Year, Tropical Song of the Year, Tropical Male Artist of the Year, Tropical-Salsa Duo or Group of the Year (shared with Milly Quezada), and Tropical New Artist of the Year. == 20th anniversary == On April 11, 2019, the album was re- released to celebrate its 20th anniversary. Nine of its tracks were redone into a salsa or mambo version. The song "Abracadabra" was added. == Track listing == * Alternate version of Track #1-9 were made for this edition. * The song "Te Vas" was the only song from the original edition not included nor remade. It was replaced by the song Abracadabra released in 2019. It was the only merengue in this edition as the other 9 songs were remade for another genre. == Personnel == Adapted from AllMusic. Vocals *Elvis Crespo – vocals, backing vocalist, composer, producer *Juan "Tun Tun" Castro – backing vocalist, arranger *Roberto Cora – backing vocalist, arranger, mixing, producer *Henry Garcia – backing vocalist *Raldy Vasquez – backing vocalist Musicians *Luis Aquino – trumpet *Jose Dario del Rosario – trumpet *Jose Diaz – saxophone *Luis A. Cruz – piano, producer *Alexis Fratacelli – guitar *Miguel Gonzalez – bass *Hector Herreras – congas, percussion Production *Marcos Careera – arranger *Israel Raynoso Casado – arranger *Jose Gazmey – executive producer *Richard Marcell – arranger, bass, director, keyboards, piano *Maximo Torres – requinto *Ricky Marti – engineer *Papo Rios – mixing, producer Design *Rafi Claudio – photography *Ed Coreano – designer == Charts == === Weekly charts === Chart (1998) Peak position US Billboard 200 106 US Billboard Top Latin Albums 1 US Billboard Tropical Albums 1 US Billboard Top Heatseekers 4 === Quarterly charts === Chart (1998) Peak position US Billboard Top Latin Albums 11 === Year-end charts === Chart (1998) Peak position US Billboard Top Latin Albums 8 US Billboard Tropical Albums 4 Chart (1999) Peak position US Billboard Top Latin Albums 2 US Billboard Tropical Albums 1 Chart (2000) Peak position US Billboard Top Latin Albums 23 ==Certifications== == See also == *1998 in Latin music *List of number-one Billboard Top Latin Albums from the 1990s *List of number-one Billboard Tropical Albums from the 1990s * List of best-selling Latin albums * List of best-selling Latin albums in the United States ==References== == Sources == * * * * * * * == External links == * Category:Elvis Crespo albums Category:1998 debut albums Category:Sony Discos albums |
The Ars moriendi ("The Art of Dying") are two related Latin texts dating from about 1415 and 1450 which offer advice on the protocols and procedures of a good death, explaining how to "die well" according to Christian precepts of the late Middle Ages. It was written within the historical context of the effects of the macabre horrors of the Black Death 60 years earlier and consequent social upheavals of the 15th century. The earliest versions were most likely composed in southern Germany. It was very popular, translated into most West European languages, and was the first in a western literary tradition of guides to death and dying. About 50,000 copies were printed in the incunabula period before 1501 and further editions were printed after 1501. Its popularity reduced as Erasmus's treatise on preparing for death (de praeparatione ad mortem, 1533) became more popular. There was originally a "long version" and a later "short version" containing eleven woodcut pictures as instructive images which could be easily explained and memorized. These woodcut images were circulated in both print and individual engravings. They could then easily be pinned to a wall for viewing. The authors of the two texts are unknown, but assumed to be Dominican churchmen, as they echo Jean de Gerson's publication, the Opusculum Tripartitu, containing a section named De arte Moriendi. Gerson may have been influenced by earlier references in 'compendia of faith' dating back to the thirteenth century, but the content was uniquely his own. == Long version == The original "long version", called Tactatus (or Speculum) artis bene moriendi, was composed in 1415 by an anonymous Dominican friar, probably at the request of the Council of Constance (1414–1418, Germany).N.F. Blake (1982). "Ars Moriendi". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. v.1, pp547-8. This was widely read and translated into most West European languages, and was very popular in England, where a tradition of consolatory death literature survived until the 17th century. Works in the English tradition include The Way of Dying Well and The Sick Mannes Salve. In 1650, Holy Living and Holy Dying became the "artistic climax" of the tradition that had begun with Ars moriendi.Nancy Beaty (1970). The Craft of Dying: A Study of the Literary Traditions of the Ars Moriendi in England. Ars Moriendi was also among the first books printed with movable type and was widely circulated in nearly 100 editions before 1500, in particular in Germany. The long version survives in about 300 manuscript versions, only one illustrated. Ars moriendi consists of six chapters: # The first chapter explains that dying has a good side, and serves to console the dying man that death is not something to be afraid of. # The second chapter outlines the five temptations that beset a dying man, and how to avoid them. These are lack of faith, despair, impatience, spiritual pride and avarice. # The third chapter lists the seven questions to ask a dying man, along with consolation available to him through the redemptive powers of Christ's love. # The fourth chapter expresses the need to imitate Christ's life. # The fifth chapter addresses the friends and family, outlining the general rules of behavior at the deathbed. # The sixth chapter includes appropriate prayers to be said for a dying man. == Short version == The "short version", whose appearance shortly precedes the introduction in the 1460s of block books (books printed from carved blocks of wood, both text and images on the same block), first dates to around 1450, from the Netherlands. It is mostly an adaptation of the second chapter of the "long version", and contains eleven woodcut pictures. The first ten woodcuts are divided into 5 pairs, with each set showing a picture of the devil presenting one of the 5 temptations, and the second picture showing the proper remedy for that temptation. The last woodcut shows the dying man, presumably having successfully navigated the maze of temptations, being accepted into heaven, and the devils going back to hell in confusion. The "short version" was as popular as the "long version", but there was no English translation, perhaps because educated English people at the time were expected to understand several European languages. There are six extant manuscripts of the short version, most not illustrated, and over twenty extant blockbook illustrated editions, using 13 different sets of blocks.A Hyatt Mayor (1971), Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton, numbers 23-25. == Images == As well as the eleven different sets of blockbook woodcuts, there is a set by Master E. S. in engraving. The lengthy controversy over their respective dating and priority is now resolved by the discovery by Fritz Saxl of an earlier illuminated manuscript, of well before 1450, from whose tradition all the images in the printed versions clearly derive. Studies of the watermarks of the blockbooks by Allen Stevenson at the British Museum in the 1960s confirmed that none of them predated the 1460s, so Master E. S.' engravings are the earliest printed versions, dating from around 1450. The images remain largely the same in all media for the rest of the century.Alan Shestack (1967). Master E. S., exhibition catalogue, Philadelphia Museum of Art, exhibit numbers 4-15 There is the exceptional number of about seventy incunabulum editions, in a variety of languages, from Catalan to Dutch, the earliest from about 1474 from Cologne. Allegorically the images depicted the contest between angels and demons over the fate of the dying man. In his dying agony his soul emerges from his mouth to be received by one of a band of angels. The soul was often depicted as a miniature person who would either be escorted to heaven by the angels or sent to the fires of hell or years in Purgatory.Lyons, M. (2011). Books: A Living History. Getty Publications. Common themes portrayed by illustrators include skeletons, the Last Judgement, corpses, and the forces of good and evil battling over souls.Martyn Lyons (2011). Books: A Living History. == Extended tradition == The popularity of the Ars moriendi texts developed into a broader tradition of writing on the good death. Jeremy Taylor's books Holy Living and Holy Dying, published in 1650 and 1651, exemplify that tradition. It developed in both Protestant and Catholic veins and continued in various forms through the nineteenth century. == London == In England during the 15th century, the Ars Moriendi was popular among laymen. Beginning when clerical scholars formulated the Ars Moriendi into a book, The Book of the Craft of Dying, easily spread the concept of the good death throughout England. More specifically, the Book and the good death concept heavily influenced common Londoners' perceptions and understandings of death. Inspired to achieve and strive for perfection in their everyday life, 15th century common Londoners flocked to the Book to know how one could achieve a good death. In doing so, the Londoners seemed to latch on to a specific characteristic that stuck heavily out from the previously mentioned Ars Moriendi chapters that then again composed the popular Book of the Craft of Dying. == Legality == Throughout the six chapters, there is a common theme that resembles a quasi-legal sentiment shining through in good death tradition. Inspired by the Ars Moriendi and the popular, The Book of the Craft of Dying during the 15th century, Londoners and western Europe at large gravitated towards a quasi-legal relationship with death and God that ensured the rightful passing of not only one's physical belonging but, also one's spiritual soul. This gravitation can be explained when looking at certain chapters of The Book of the Craft of Dying that extremely highlight this development. The Book's instruction that one should find peace with God before dying resembles a concept of settling one’s soul within the good death tradition as the discourse the author uses is very legal-sounding. Especially striking is the use of the word, “will,” when describing one’s relationship with God upon dying. The notion of a will in the good death tradition resembles a physical and metaphysical legal confirmation of the rightful passing of one’s physical and spiritual belongings. Though the word is used more often as a synonym for power in this source, its inclusion must not be overlooked as certain phrases hint towards a quasi-contractual relationship between the dying human and the divine. For instance, the phrase “but he should take his (the dying person) death gladly and willingly… conforming and submitting his belief to God’s will alone.” In this instance, the mention of wills between the dying person and God resembles both a power relationship and also a contractual relationship that imagines the dying person surrendering his spirit in a legal fashion to God in effort to help quell the worries of their soul and thus, “die well… gladly and willingly.” In this fashion, the dying person is essentially signing their soul and spirit over to God, thus partaking in this quasi-legal practice and understanding of death. Also, The Book's instruction to question the dying person is striking material that resembles a quasi-legal practice and understanding of death. Continuing in the same source, a few chapters later, the author instructs the audience to ask certain questions such as, “Do you acknowledge that you have not done as well as you might have done?” and “Do you repent of that?” These questions ring of legal terminology that again help sign the soul over to God in effort to accomplish the soul’s peace before death. If the person is asked and does answer these questions truthfully, then “he shall truly be saved.” Though, if none were asked upon their death, then “without no doubt no man may be saved everlastingly.”[3] Thus, the questioning and response of the dying person is so vital to the accomplishment of the good death that it takes on the importance of a legal matter. Therefore, in a similar vein as the explained double meaning use of the word, “will” in the earlier phrases, it seems again that Ars Moriendi and thus, The Book as well, are reaffirming and popularizing the legal-like attributes that then construct the good death tradition. == Class distinctions == Though the Ars Moriendi and works that pushed the good death concept such as The Book of the Craft of Dying remained the dominant understanding of death throughout the 14th and 15th centuries in western Europe, class distinctions continued to add variety to this conclusion. Laymen and commoners in western Europe heavily understood death through the good death concept and tradition, but at the clerical and noble level of society, there were distinctions that did not totally agree with Ars Moriendi and the good death tradition. At the clerical level, the emerging rise of scholasticism inspired a review of past Christian theology and traditions touching all parts of Christian life - death, was one of these battlegrounds between scholasticism and traditional Christian thought. Here, clerical officials and students hotly debated the over the importance of sin in regarding one's death. For the traditionalists, one's personal sin determined their coming death, thus explaining that when striving to achieve the good death, one must be right with God. This concept is founded back to old Church law Canon 22 of Lateran IV (1215).Joseph Ziegler, “Fourteenth-Century Instructions for Bedside Pastoral Care,” in Medieval Christianity: In Practice, ed. Mary Rubin (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 104-107. Canon 22 states, "so that after spiritual health (through practices of the good death) has been restored to them (the dying person), the application of bodily medicine may be of greater benefit, for the cause being removed the effect will pass away."“Medieval Sourcebook: Twelfth Ecumenical Council: Lateran IV 1215,” Fordham, last modified January 20, 2021, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/lateran4.asp. For those who embraced the scholasticism approach, one's personal sin mattered little. Rather, because of Adam and Eve's original sin, we were all destined to die thus, naturalizing death and somewhat shattered the established narrative that the good death tradition promoted.Joseph Ziegler, “Fourteenth-Century Instructions for Bedside Pastoral Care,” in Medieval Christianity: In Practice, ed. Mary Rubin (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 104-107. One scholar who embraced scholasticism writes of death, “On the causes of disease, that is, why people become ill, I reply, there are three [sic] reasons: the first is spiritual, that is, sin [...] The reason for all this is that the first man was created by God, was placed in terrestrial paradise in a state of innocence […] so that he [God] took care of the active and passive qualities of the elements that were in the human body lest they act against each other […] But because Adam was disobedient to God […] God permitted the elemental qualities to act against each other and consequently the body becomes ill and dies."Liber de introduction loquendi in Joseph Ziegler, “Fourteenth-Century Instructions for Bedside Pastoral Care,” in Medieval Christianity: In Practice, ed. Mary Rubin (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 103-104. Though this division in thought would challenge the previously established Ars Moriendi and good death tradition, the popularity of such works as The Book of the Craft of Dying indicate that this concept continued to thrive under pressure. \----[1] Liber de introduction loquendi in Ziegler, “Fourteenth-Century Instructions for Bedside Pastoral Care,” in Medieval Practice, 103-104. \----[1] The Book of the Craft of Dying, Swanson, Catholic England, 134. [2] The Book of the Craft of Dying, Swanson, Catholic England, 136. [3] The Book of the Craft of Dying, Swanson, Catholic England, 136. \----[1] Binski, Medieval Death, 33-35. [2] The Book of the Craft of Dying, Swanson, Catholic England, 127. [3] The Book of the Craft of Dying, Swanson, Catholic England, 127. == See also == * Bardo Thodol, Tibetan book of the Dead * Book of the Dead, Egyptian book of the Dead * Consolatio * Danse Macabre * Memento mori * Speculum Humanae Salvationis * Vanitas == Notes == == References == * Anonymous. "The Art of Dying Well", in Medieval Popular Religion, 1000–1500, a Reader. Ed. John Shinners, London: Broadview Press, 1997: 525-535. , English translation. * Campbell, Jeffrey (1995) "The Ars Moriendi": An examination, translation, and collation of the manuscripts of the shorter Latin version, Thesis (M.A.), University of Ottawa, 1995, * Caxton, William. Early English translation on Wikisource: The book of the craft of dying (London, 1917). * Caxton, William, c. 1422-1491; Seuse, Heinrich, 1295-1366; Comper, Frances M. M; Congreve, George, 1836-, The book of the craft of dying, and other early English tracts concerning death. London, 1917. * Dugdale, Lydia. Dying in the Twenty-First Century: Toward a New Ethical Framework for the Art of Dying Well (MIT Press, 2015). * Forcen, F. E., & Espi Forcen, C. (2016). "Ars Moriendi: Coping with death in the Late Middle Ages". Palliative & Supportive Care. 14(5), 553–560. == External links == * Digitized images of a photographic reprint the first printed edition (in Latin) * Eleven woodblock pictures presented in framed pairs. German language. * Ars Moriendi page by page {Rosenwald 424} - L'art de Bien Vivre et de Bien Mourir, etcet – at the Library of Congress, circa 1493 * Ars moriendi in Castilian, with an introduction by E. Michael Gerli of Georgetown University. * Ars Moriendi, by Donald F. Duclow. * Danemunro.com, an article on memento mori and ars moriendi appearing in the publication of Dane Munro, Memento Mori, a companion to the most beautiful floor in the world (Malta, 2005) , 2 vols. The ars moriendi eulogies of the Knights of the Order of St John. * Ars moriendi. Germany, c. 1466 24 leaves. 11 illus. 28.7 cm. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress * Ars moriendi. Germany, c. 1470? 14 leaves. illus. 35 cm. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress * Ars moriendi. Germany, c. 1475? 14 leaves (the first blank, wanting). woodcuts: 11 illus. 13.9 cm. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Category:15th-century Latin books Category:15th-century prints Category:Catholic engraving Category:Christian art about death Category:Cultural aspects of death Category:Funerary texts Category:Incunabula |
thumb|Canada population density map also showing the northern United States|upright=1.5 Canada ranks 37th by population, comprising about 0.5% of the world's total, with over 40.0 million Canadians as of 2023. Being, however, the fourth-largest country by land area (second-largest by total area), the vast majority of the country is sparsely inhabited, with most of its population south of the 55th parallel north and just over 60 per cent of Canadians live in just two provinces: Ontario and Quebec. Though Canada's population density is low, many regions in the south, such as the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, have population densities higher than several European countries. Canada has six population centres with more than one million people: Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton and Ottawa. The large size of Canada's north, which is not at present arable, and thus cannot support large human populations, significantly lowers the country's carrying capacity. In 2021, the population density of Canada was 4.2 people per square kilometre. As contrast, Russia's similar figure was 8.4 people per square kilometre. The historical growth of Canada's population is complex and has been influenced in many different ways, such as indigenous populations, expansion of territory, and human migration. Being a new world country, immigration has been, and remains, the most important factor in Canada's population growth. The 2021 Canadian census counted a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 per cent over the 2016 figure. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 per cent overall growth. ==Historical population overview== ===Indigenous peoples=== Scholars vary on the estimated size of the indigenous population in what is now Canada prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact. During the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health. Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. However repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a twenty-five per cent to eighty per cent indigenous population decrease post-contact. Roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot (Huron), who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France. In 1871 there was an enumeration of the indigenous population within the limits of Canada at the time, showing a total of only 102,358 individuals. From 2006 to 2016, the Indigenous population has grown by 42.5 per cent, four times the national rate. According to the 2011 Canadian Census, indigenous peoples (First Nations – 851,560, Inuit – 59,445 and Métis – 451,795) numbered at 1,400,685, or 4.3% of the country's total population. ===New France=== The European population grew slowly under French rule, thus remained relatively low as growth was largely achieved through natural births, rather than by immigration. Most of the French were farmers, and the rate of natural increase among the settlers themselves was very high. The women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France. Yves Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time." The 1666 census of New France was the first census conducted in North America. It was organized by Jean Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666. According to Talon's census there were 3,215 people in New France, comprising 538 separate families. The census showed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women. By the early 1700s the New France settlers were well established along the Saint Lawrence River and Acadian Peninsula with a population around 15,000 to 16,000. Mainly due to natural increase and modest immigration from Northwest France (Brittany, Normandy, Île-de-France, Poitou-Charentes and Pays de la Loire) the population of New France increased to 55,000 according to the last French census of 1754. This was an increase from 42,701 in 1730. ===British Canada=== upright=1.3|thumb|Distribution of the population in Canada for the years 1851, 1871, 1901, 1921 and 1941 During the late 18th and early 19th century Canada under British rule experienced strong population growth. In the wake of the 1775 invasion of Canada by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, approximately 60,000 of the 80,000 Americans loyal to the Crown, designated later as United Empire Loyalists fled to British North America, a large portion of whom migrated to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (separated from Nova Scotia) in 1784. Although the exact numbers cannot be certain because of unregistered migrationJasanoff, p. 357 At least 20,000 went to Nova Scotia, 14,000 to New Brunswick; 1,500 to PEI and 6,000 to Ontario(13,000 including 5,000 blacks went to England and 5,500 to the Caribbean). For the rest of the 1780s additional immigrants arrived from the south. From 1791 An additional 30,000 Americans, called "Late Loyalists," were lured into Ontario in the 1790s by the promise of land and swearing loyalty to the Crown. As a result of the period known as the Great Migration by 1831, Lower Canada's population had reached approximately 553,000, with Upper Canada reaching about 237,000 individuals. The Great Famine of Ireland of the 1840s had significantly increased the pace of Irish immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada, peaking in 1847 with 100,000 distressed individuals. By 1851, the population of the Maritime colonies also reached roughly 533,000 (277,000 in Nova Scotia, 194,000 in New Brunswick and 62,000 in Prince Edward Island). To the west British Columbia had about 55,000 individuals by 1851. Beginning in the late 1850s, the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. By 1861, as a result of natural births and the Great Migration of Canada from the British Isles, the Province of Canada population increased to 3.1 million inhabitants. Newfoundland's population by 1861 reached approximately 125,000 individuals. ===Post-confederation=== The population has increased every year since the establishment of the Dominion of Canada in 1867; however, the population of Newfoundland was not included prior to its entry into confederation as Canada's tenth province in 1949. The first national census of the country was taken in 1871, with a population count around 3,689,000. The year with the least population growth (in real terms) was 1882–1883, when only 30,000 new individuals were enumerated. thumb|upright=1.3|Births and immigration in Canada from 1850 to 2000 The 1911 census was a detailed enumeration of the population showing a count of 7,206,643 individuals. This was an increase of 34% over the 1901 census of 5,371,315. The year with the most population growth was during the peak of the Post-World War II baby boom in 1956–1957, when the population grew by over 529,000, in a single twelve- month period. The Canadian baby boom, defined as the period from 1947 to 1966, saw more than 400,000 babies born annually. The 1996 census recorded a total population of 28,846,761. This was a 5.7% increase over the 1991 census of 27,296,859. The 2001 census had a total population count of 30,007,094. In contrast, the official Statistics Canada population estimate for 2001 was 31,021,300. Canada's total population enumerated by the 2006 census was 31,612,897. This count was lower than the official 1 July 2006 population estimate of 32,623,490 people. Ninety per cent of the population growth between 2001 and 2006 was concentrated in the main metropolitan areas. The 2011 census was the fifteenth decennial census with a total population count of 33,476,688 up 5.9% from 2006. On average, censuses have been taken every five years since 1905. Censuses are required to be taken at least every ten years as mandated in section 8 of the Constitution Act, 1867. ==Components of population growth== A population estimate for 2022 put the total number of people in Canada at 38,232,593. Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022. *One birth every 1 minute *One death every 2 minutes *One net migrant every 2 minutes *Net gain of one person every 2 minutes thumb|upright=1.3|Canada's fertility rate from 1929 to 2019. The rate fell below two in the 1970's. In 2010, Canada's annual population growth rate was 1.238%, or a daily increase of 1,137 individuals. Between 1867 and 2009 Canada's population grew by 979%. Canada had the highest net migration rate (0.61%) of all G-8 member countries between 1994 and 2004. Natural growth accounts for an annual increase of 137,626 persons, at a yearly rate of 0.413%. Between 2001 and 2006, there were 1,446,080 immigrants and 237,418 emigrants, resulting in a net migration of just over 1.2 million people. Since 2001, immigration has ranged between 221,352 and 262,236 immigrants per annum. In 2023, Canada's population jumped by over 1 million people for the first time in the country's history. The population now stands at 39.5 million and is set to pass the 40 million mark later this year. The population growth has largely been fuelled by migrants who have been brought into the country to ease labour shortages. ==Population by years == Prior to Canadian confederation in 1867 the population counts reflected only the former colonies and settlements and not the country to be as a whole with indigenous nations separated. ===Ephemeral European settlements=== Year Area/colony Population Notes 1000 L'Anse aux Meadows (Newfoundland) 30 to 160 Archaeological evidence of a short-lived Norse settlement was found a L'Anse aux Meadows, on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland (carbon dating estimate 990–1050 AD.) There is no record of how many men and women lived at the site at any given time, however archaeological evidence of the dwellings suggest it had the capacity of supporting 30 to 160 individuals. 1541 Cap-Rouge (Quebec City) 400 Jacques Cartier established Charlesbourg-Royal at Cap-Rouge on his third voyage. Even though scurvy was cured through the indigenous remedy (Thuja occidentalis infusion), the impression left is of a general misery with the effort being abandoned. During the winter 35 of Cartier's men perished. 1543 Cap-Rouge (Quebec City) 200 In 1542, Jean-François Roberval tried to re-invigorate the Charlesbourg-Royal colony at Cap-Rouge which Roberval renamed France-Roy, however after a set of disastrous winters the effort was abandoned. En route to Charlesbourg-Royal, Roberval had abandoned his near-relative Marguerite de La Rocque with her lover on the "Isle of Demons" (now called Harrington Island), in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, as punishment for their affair. The young man, their servant and baby died, but Marguerite survived to be rescued by fishermen and returned to France two years later. 1583 St. John Bay (Newfoundland) 260 Humphrey Gilbert with 260 men planned a settlement; however, during exploration of the coast line a ship was lost containing many of the prospective colonists and their provisions. 1598 Sable Island (Nova Scotia) 50 Marquis de La Roche-Mesgouez and 40 convicts (peasants and beggars) with 10 soldiers settled on Sable Island, but this colonization attempt failed, culminating in a revolt with only 11 survivors evacuated. 1600 Tadoussac (Quebec) 16 François Gravé Du Pont with 16 men built a fur trading post at Tadoussac; however, only five of the men survived the winter before returning to France. 1604 Saint Croix (Maine) 79 The St. Croix settlement of Maine was the first real attempt at a year-round base of operation in New France. The expedition was led by Pierre Du Gua de Monts with 79 settlers including François Gravé Du Pont, Royal cartographer Samuel de Champlain, the Baron de Poutrincourt, apothecary Louis Hébert, a priest Nicolas Aubry, and Mathieu de Costa a linguist. The St. Croix settlement was abandoned the following summer for a new habitation at Port- Royal after 35 died of scurvy. ===Former colonies and territories === ==== 17th century ==== Year Area/colony Population Notes 1605 Port Royal (Nova Scotia) 44 The 44 colonists are surviving members of 79 from the now abandoned St. Croix settlement of Maine. However, the habitation at Port-Royal was also abandoned and left in the care of the local Mi'kmaq. The settlement was later moved upstream and to the south bank of the Annapolis River, keeping the name Port-Royal and becoming the capital of Acadia. 1608 Quebec City 28 Samuel de Champlain establishes the colony with 28 settlers. Half of the men that winter the first year die of scurvy or starvation. Nevertheless, new settlers arrive resulting in Quebec being the first permanent settlement, and also the capital of, the French colony of Canada. 1610 Cuper's Cove (Newfoundland) 40 The Newfoundland Colony is established by John Guy his brother Phillip and his brother-in-law William Colston with 39 colonists who spend the winter of 1610–1611 at Cuper's Cove. By the fall of 1613 sixteen structures are completed by about 60 settlers on the site. As England tried to create a foothold in the north, other settlements were established at Bristol's Hope, Renews, New Cambriol, South Falkland and Avalon, an area that became known as the English Shore. However the majority of the population did not stay year round returning in the spring of each year. Over the next 100 years the English colonies of Newfoundland grew very slowly, and had only 3,000 permanent residents by the 1720s. 1629 Quebec city 117 *90 wintering belonged to Kirke's English Expedition that had captured the city. Under brief British control the city begins to grow and be fortified. Prior to 1632 only eight births were recorded among the 60 to 70 permanent European settlers. The first European child born in Quebec had been Hélène Desportes, in 1620. 1641 New France 240 De facto population of Canada (New France) and Acadia, now situated partly in the future United States. 1642 Fort Ville-Marie (Old Montreal) 50 New colony with the majority of immigrants coming directly from France led by Paul de Chomedey and Jeanne Mance, a lay woman. 1666 Canada (New France) 3,215 The 1660s marked the only real "wave" of French settlers arriving until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Following the initial wave of French settlers natural growth was the main contributing factor to population growth. Quebec city 2,100, Trois-Rivieres 455, Montreal 655. (Comprising 528 families with 2,034 men and 1,181 women. Professionals included 3 notaries, 3 schoolmasters, 3 locksmiths, 4 bailiffs, 5 surgeons, 5 bakers, 8 barrel makers, 9 millers, 18 official merchants, 27 joiners, and 36 carpenters.) 1677 Indigenous Nations 10,750 Estimated indigenous population in and around New France territory 10,750, including 2,150 warriors. (Mohawks 5 villages, 96 lodges, 300 warriors - Oneidas 1 village, 100 lodges, 200 warriors - Onondagas 2 villages, 164 lodges, 350 warriors - Cayugas 3 villages, 100 lodges, 300 warriors - Senecas 4 villages, 324 lodges, 1,000 warriors). 1679 Acadia 515 Majority are from the Poitou region of France. 1681 New France 9,677 New France sees new settlements develop as residents leave Quebec City (population 1,345) and Trois-Rivières (150) with Montreal gaining influence (population 1,418). 1687 Newfoundland 663 French population only. 1695 New France 13,639 Population of Saint John River New Brunswick 49. 1698 New France 15,355 English population of Newfoundland at the time 1,500. ====18th century==== Year Area/colony Population Notes 1705 Newfoundland 520 French population only 1706 New France 16,417 Covering territory that is now situated partly in the United States of America and partly in Canada. 1712 New France 18,440 Married - men 2,786, women 2,588. Unmarried - males 6,716, females 6,350. 1718 New France 22,983 Married - men 3,662, women 3,926. Unmarried - males 7,911, females 7,484. 1720 St.John Island (Prince Edward Island) 100 17 families 1730 New France 33,682 Married - men 6,050, women 5,728. Unmarried - males 11,314, females 10,590. 1736 Indigenous Nations 17,575 Estimated population of First Nations in New France that are now within Canada - Abenakis 2,950 - Algonquins, Ottawas, Potawatomi, Saulteaux and Crees 11,475 - Wyandot-Huron 1,300 - Iroquois 1,850. 1737 New France 39,970 Married - men 7,378, women 6,804. Unmarried - males 13,330, females 12,458. 1741 Newfoundland 6,000 English population only. 1749 Nova Scotia 2,544 Married - men, 509 ; women 509. Unmarried - men, 660 ; women, 3. Children-boys, 228 ; girls, 216. Servants-men, 277 ; women, 142. 1749 Île- Royale (Cape Breton) 1,000 French population only. 1749 Acadian Mainland (New Brunswick) 1,000 French population only. 1749 Acadian Peninsula 13,000 French population only. 1749 St. John Island (Prince Edward Island) 1,000 French population only. 1752 Acadia (non-French) 4,203 British and German population only. Men over sixteen years old, 574 ; women over sixteen years old, 607. Children boys, 1,899 ; children girls, 1,123. 1760 New France 70,000 Expulsion of the Acadians three-quarters of the Acadian population of 18,000 forcibly relocated between 1755 and 1764. 1765 Province of Quebec (1763–91) 69,810 French and English populations. 1775 Province of Quebec (1763–91) 90,000 French and English populations. 1785 Newfoundland 10,244 French and English populations. 1790 Nova Scotia 30,000 French and English populations. 1797 St. John Island (Prince Edward Island) 4,500 French and English populations. ====19th century==== Year Area/Province Population 1806 New Brunswick 35,000 1806 Prince Edward Island 9,676 1806 Upper Canada 70,718 1806 Lower Canada 250,000 1806 Newfoundland 26,505 1807 Nova Scotia 65,000 1822 Prince Edward Island 24,600 1823 Newfoundland 52,157 1824 Upper Canada 150,066 1824 New Brunswick 74,176 1825 Upper Canada 157,923 1825 Lower Canada 479,288 1831 Lower Canada 553,134 1832 Upper Canada 263,554 1832 Newfoundland 59,280 1833 Prince Edward Island 32,292 1844 Canada East 697,084 1845 Newfoundland 96,295 1846 Assiniboia (North-West Territories) 4,871 1848 Canada West 725,879 1861 Colony of Vancouver Island 3,024 1869 Newfoundland 146,536 1871 British Columbia 36,247 1871 Manitoba 25,228 1871 Ontario 1,620,851 1871 Quebec 1,191,516 1871 New Brunswick 285,594 1871 Nova Scotia 387,800 1871 Prince Edward Island 94,021 1871 Northwest Territories 48,000 Year Canada as a whole Population Provinces/Area 1871 Indigenous population 102,358 Prince Edward Island 323 - Nova Scotia 1,666 - New Brunswick 1,403 - Quebec 6,988 - Ontario 12,978 - British Columbia 23,000 - Rupert's Land 33,500 - Manitoba 500 and Labrador and the Arctic Watersheds 22,000 ===Canada as a whole since confederation=== ==Census data by years== ==Data projections== In 2006, Statistics Canada projected for the decade 2021 to 2031 the population to grow by more than 5 million, or more than 10%. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 per cent overall growth. The 2016 Canadian census counted a total population of 35.1 million, or 1.5 million under the 2006 projection. In October 2020, the Trudeau government announced its plans to bring in more than 1.2 million immigrants over the subsequent three years, to catch up to the high-growth scenario. ==Modern population distribution == thumb|upright=1.3|Population density of Canadian provinces and territories, 2021 === By province and territory === *List of population centres in Alberta *List of population centres in British Columbia *List of population centres in Manitoba *List of population centres in New Brunswick *List of population centres in Newfoundland and Labrador *List of population centres in the Northwest Territories *List of population centres in Nova Scotia *List of population centres in Nunavut *List of population centres in Ontario *List of population centres in Prince Edward Island *List of population centres in Quebec *List of population centres in Saskatchewan *List of population centres in Yukon ===By cities and municipalities=== *List of largest Canadian cities by census *List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population ===First Nations=== *List of Indian reserves in Canada by population ==See also== *Demographics of Canada *Canada immigration statistics *Immigration to Canada *Interprovincial migration in Canada *List of Canadian provinces and territories by Human Development Index ==References== ==Further reading == * * * ==External links== *Population of Canada - The Daily (Statistics Canada) *Canada's population clock - Statistics Canada *Canada Population – Worldometers *Annual Estimates of Population for Canada, Provinces and Territories, from July 1, 1971 to July 1, 2014 - Economics and Statistics Branch (Newfoundland & Labrador Statistics Agency) *Population and Dwelling Count, 2011 Census – Statistics Canada *Population estimates and projections, 2010 – 2036 – Statistics Canada *Historical population and migration statistical data – Statistics Canada (Archived) *Population Institute of Canada Category:Demographics of Canada |
Maria Elizabeth Ridulph (March 12, 1950 – c. December 1957) was a seven-year- old girl who disappeared from Sycamore, Illinois, on December 3, 1957. Her remains were found almost five months later in a wooded area near Woodbine, Illinois, approximately from her home. Maria was last seen by her friend on her neighborhood corner of Center Cross Street and Archie Place with an unknown man in his early twenties who called himself "Johnny". The case, which was well known in the Chicago area, was one of the oldest cold case murders in the United States to be presumably solved. Jack McCullough, who under his former name John Tessier had been a neighbor of the Ridulph family, was convicted for her murder in September 2012. However, in March 2016, the DeKalb County State's Attorney announced that a post-conviction review of available evidence showed McCullough could not have been present at the place and time of Maria Ridulph's likely abduction. McCullough was released from prison on April 15, 2016, and the charges against him were dismissed on April 22, 2016. McCullough was declared innocent of the crime by the DeKalb County Circuit Court on April 12, 2017.2017 Circuit Court ruling ==Background== Maria Ridulph was born on March 12, 1950, to Michael and Frances Ivy Ridulph in Sycamore, Illinois. She was the youngest of four children and had two sisters and a brother. Although many residents lived or worked on farms in the area, her father Michael worked at one of Sycamore's few factories; her mother Frances was a homemaker. At the time she was abducted, Maria was 7 years old, 44 inches tall, and weighed 53 pounds, with brown hair and brown eyes. She was an honor student, then in second grade. She also received awards for perfect Sunday school attendance at Evangelical Lutheran Church of St. John. According to her mother, Maria was high-strung. "My daughter was a nervous girl and if she got in any trouble would become hysterical," Frances said in a 1957 interview shortly after Maria disappeared. "Someone would probably have to kill her to keep her quiet. I am the only one who could calm her down." Maria was also described as a "screamer" and afraid of the dark. Her best friend was 8-year-old Kathy Sigman, who lived on the same street as the Ridulphs. ==Crime== On the evening of December 3, 1957, Maria begged to be allowed to go outside as it had started to snow. After finishing dinner, Maria and Kathy Sigman went outside in the dark (as the sun had set) near Maria's house and played a game they called "duck the cars", running back and forth trying to avoid the headlights of oncoming cars in the street. According to Kathy, they were approached by a man, whom Kathy later described to police as in his early 20s and tall with a slender chin, light hair, a gap in his teeth, and wearing a colorful sweater. The man, who said his name was "Johnny", told the girls that he was 24 and not married. He asked if they liked dolls and if they liked piggyback rides. He gave Maria a piggyback ride, after which she went back to her house and got a doll to show him. After Maria returned, Kathy ran back to her house to get her mittens, leaving Maria alone with the man. When Kathy returned, Maria and the man were gone. Kathy went to the Ridulph house to tell them she couldn't find Maria. The family initially thought Maria was hiding, and sent Maria's 11-year-old brother to look for her. After he was unable to find her, the Ridulphs called the police, and within an hour, police and armed civilians began a search of the town, but failed to locate Maria or "Johnny", the man with whom she was last seen. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), presuming that Maria might have been abducted across state lines (a federal crime), arrived in Sycamore within two days to help the local and state police in the search. The FBI and police interviewed numerous witnesses who had seen the two girls playing without any other person present between 6 pm and 6:30 pm, and also spoke to family members who had seen or spoken with Maria and Kathy in the course of Maria getting her doll, Kathy getting her mittens, and Kathy reporting Maria's disappearance to the Ridulphs. Based on these interviews, "Johnny" was thought to have approached the girls after 6:30 pm, and the FBI concluded that Maria was abducted between 6:45 and 7 pm. thumb|left|John Tessier in high school c. 1955; at the time he lived with his family near the Ridulph home. Kathy Sigman was the only witness who had seen "Johnny" and was placed in protective custody, as the police and FBI feared that the kidnapper would come back and harm her. The authorities had her look at photos of convicted felons or suspects who bore a resemblance to "Johnny". John Tessier, who was convicted of the crime over 50 years later, lived in the girls' neighborhood and was on the original list of suspects based on a tip, but the police failed to have Kathy identify him after he provided an alibi for the night of the crime (see Suspects). In late December 1957, Kathy was taken to the Dane County Sheriff's Office in Madison, Wisconsin, to see a lineup of possible suspects. She positively identified Thomas Joseph Rivard, described in FBI documents as a 35-year-old man approximately 5 foot 4 inches tall and 156 lbs., with dark blond wavy (bushy) hair. However, Rivard had an alibi, as he was in jail at the time of the kidnapping; police suspected someone else in the lineup as the real culprit and Rivard was merely used to fill out the lineup. Rivard also did not physically resemble Tessier, who was six inches taller and 17 years younger than Rivard.The "People's Answer to Defendant's Pro Se Petition" filed in People v. McCullough on March 24, 2016 states that Tessier was 12 years younger than Rivard, which appears to be an error as sources support Tessier being age 18 at the time of the lineup. When asked years later about the 1957 lineup, Kathy said she did not remember picking Rivard out of the lineup. Maria's disappearance received national news coverage, and both President Dwight D. Eisenhower and FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover took an interest in the case. Law enforcement continued to investigate various suspects in the area, including transients, known sex offenders, and a local man who had given children piggyback rides,Rule 3.8(g) and 3.8(h) Report of the State's Attorney of DeKalb County and Disclosure to the Court and Defendant, People v. McCullough, Gen. No. 11 CF 454 (Ill. Cir. Ct. March 24, 2016). but developed no solid leads. Maria's parents appeared on television and in other media pleading for their daughter's safe return and the public's help in finding her. On April 26, 1958, near Woodbine, Illinois (23 miles east of Galena and approximately 100 miles from Sycamore), two tourists searching for mushrooms in a wooded area along US Route 20 discovered the skeletal remains of a small child, wearing only a shirt, undershirt, and socks, under a partially fallen tree. The decomposed condition of the body indicated it had been there for several months. The body was identified as Maria Ridulph based on dental records, a lock of hair, and the shirts and socks she had been wearing when she disappeared. The rest of Maria's clothing, including her coat, slacks, shoes and an undergarment, was not found. No photographs were taken of the crime scene (although photos were taken of the general location without showing the body) because the coroner, James Furlong, did not want photos of the child's body leaked to newspapers. Because the crime had occurred within Illinois rather than crossing state lines, the FBI withdrew from the case, leaving it to state and local police. The initial autopsy did not determine a cause of death due to the state of decomposition. During an autopsy done 50 years later, a forensic anthropologist determined Maria had likely been stabbed several times in the throat (see Reopening of the case). ==Suspects== ===John Tessier (Jack McCullough)=== John Tessier was born John Cherry on November 27, 1939, in Belfast, Northern Ireland, to British sergeant Samuel Cherry and his wife Eileen McCullough Cherry. Samuel Cherry was killed early in World War II. During the war, Eileen Cherry served as one of the first female airplane spotters with the UK's Royal Air Force and met Ralph Tessier, who was serving with the United States 8th Army-Air Force at RAF Bovingdon, England. She married Ralph Tessier in November 1944, and after the war, she and her son John, then aged 7, followed Ralph to Sycamore, Illinois, where Ralph and Eileen had six more children together over the years. After his mother's marriage, John used the last name Tessier, although he was still sometimes called John Cherry. The Tessier family home in Sycamore was located around the corner from the Ridulph home, less than two blocks away. Ralph Tessier, a sign painter, painted insignia on the doors of Sycamore police cars and was friendly with the police chief. John Tessier was expelled from school in the tenth grade for pushing a teacher and calling her a name. At the time of Maria Ridulph's disappearance, he was 18 years old and living at home with his parents and siblings while making plans to join the U.S. Air Force. thumb|right|The U.S. Post Office at 401 S. Main St. in Rockford, Illinois, where John Tessier (Jack McCullough) said he made a collect call and spoke to military recruiters on the evening of December 3, 1957. On December 4, investigators visited the Tessier home as part of their neighborhood search for Maria. According to Tessier's half-sisters Katherine Tessier (Caulfield) and Jeanne Tessier, their mother told the investigators that John Tessier had been home on the night of December 3, something that they later testified was not true. Shortly thereafter, before Maria's body was found, the FBI investigated Tessier as a possible suspect. Sources differ on whether the investigation was triggered by a tip from a local resident or by John Tessier's own parents seeking to clear their son, who they realized had the same name and general description as "Johnny". Tessier and his parents told FBI investigators that on December 3, 1957, Tessier was in Rockford, Illinois, approximately 40 miles northwest of Sycamore, to enlist in the Air Force. (This story differed from his mother's previous statement, as reported by her daughters, that Tessier had been home all night.) He said he had been in Chicago on December 2 and 3 undergoing physical examinations required for his enlistment. On the morning of December 3, he had visited the Chicago recruiting station (which was corroborated by records) and then spent the day sightseeing in Chicago before returning to Rockford by train that evening, arriving there at 6:45 pm. Upon his arrival in Rockford, he had called his parents to ask for a ride home to Sycamore, since he had taken the train to and from Chicago and left his own car at home. Telephone records were later found showing that a collect call was placed from the Rockford post office to the Tessier home at 6:57 pm that evening by someone who gave his name as "John Tassier" as written down by the operator. After making the call, Tessier then met with officers from the Rockford recruiting station to drop off paperwork relating to his enlistment. The officers confirmed that they spoke with Tessier around 7:15 pm that evening, although one officer also expressed some concerns about Tessier's credibility and conduct.Lachman, PT26. Tessier was brought to the police station to take a lie detector test, which he passed. In view of his alibi and the lie detector test result, Tessier was taken off the suspect list, and the FBI closed out his report on December 10, 1957, noting: "No further investigation is being conducted regarding the above suspect." Kathy Sigman was never shown a photograph of him or asked to identify him. Tessier left Sycamore the next day to report for basic training at Lackland Air Force Base. Tessier served in the U.S. military for thirteen years and rose to the rank of captain. After leaving the service, he moved to Seattle, Washington, where he subsequently graduated from the King County Law Enforcement Academy in June 1974 and became a police officer in the small town of Lacey near Olympia. He later joined the police department in Milton, Washington, where he clashed with the chief of police, who attempted to fire him and documented a long list of complaints about his work and conduct. In 1982, in Tacoma, Washington, Tessier took in a 15-year-old runaway, Michelle Weinman, and her friend, who knew Tessier as a Milton police officer. Weinman later testified that shortly after she began living with Tessier, he fondled her and then performed oral sex on her. Tessier was charged with statutory rape, a felony. After plea negotiations, he eventually pleaded guilty to communication with a minor for immoral purposes, a misdemeanor. He was sentenced to one year of formal probation and was terminated from the Milton Police Department on March 10, 1982. On April 27, 1994, John Tessier legally changed his name to Jack Daniel McCullough, saying that he wanted to honor his late mother. By 2011, McCullough, now in his early 70s, was living at a retirement community in northwest Seattle where he worked as a security guard. ===William Henry Redmond=== In 1997, Sycamore Police Lieutenant Patrick Solar closed the then-40-year-old Ridulph case, naming William Henry Redmond, a former truck driver and carnival worker from Nebraska who had died in 1992, as the man who had likely abducted and killed Maria Ridulph. Redmond had been charged in 1988 with the 1951 murder of an 8-year-old Pennsylvania girl, although that case was dismissed when a police officer refused to reveal the name of a confidential informant.Lachman, p. PT70. Redmond was also a suspect in the 1951 disappearance of 10-year-old Beverly Potts in Ohio. According to Solar, Redmond told a fellow inmate that he committed a crime similar to the Ridulph abduction and murder. Solar also believed that Redmond's appearance and behavior matched that of "Johnny". Solar's report was criticized due to lack of supporting evidence and alleged political motivations. Solar himself acknowledged that the evidence against Redmond was circumstantial and that if Redmond had lived, it would have been difficult to convict him in the Ridulph case unless he confessed. For that reason, Solar called the Ridulph case "closed, but not solved", leaving open the possibility that a better suspect might later be found. When Jack McCullough was later tried in the Ridulph case, the trial judge ruled out any testimony about Redmond on the grounds that he was not a credible suspect. ==Reopening of the case== The case was reopened in 2008 based on new information from McCullough's half-sister Janet Tessier. According to Janet, their mother Eileen Tessier on her deathbed in January 1994 had said, "Those two little girls, and the one that disappeared, John did it. John did it, and you have to tell someone." Janet took the statement as meaning that her half-brother John Tessier (soon to rename himself Jack McCullough) had kidnapped and murdered Maria Ridulph; she had also heard from her older sisters (Katherine Tessier (Caulfield) and Jeanne Tessier) that Eileen had lied to investigators that he was home on the night of the crime. Another of McCullough's half-sisters, Mary Pat Tessier (Hunt), was also present when Eileen spoke to Janet, but later testified that she had only heard her mother say, "He did it." Nevertheless, Mary Pat testified that she had the same understanding as Janet and that her older sisters had suspected John Tessier of the murder for years. At the time, Eileen, a cancer patient, was on morphine and according to her doctor was "disoriented". McCullough, who allegedly had once threatened to kill Janet with a gun and sexually molested his half-sister Jeanne when she was a minor, was estranged from the Tessier family by the time of Eileen's death. He was told not to attend her funeral. Janet Tessier said that she made several fruitless attempts over the next fourteen years to get law enforcement, including the Sycamore police and the FBI (who referred her back to the Sycamore police), to look into her mother's statement. Patrick Solar, who during part of this time was a lieutenant with the Sycamore police and had identified William Henry Redmond as the most likely suspect in the Ridulph murder, told CNN that Janet had never spoken to him, but that he would not have suspected John Tessier (Jack McCullough) because he knew the Tessier family, Ralph Tessier had painted the Sycamore police cars, and John Tessier had been cleared by the FBI in 1957. In 2008, Janet e-mailed an Illinois State Police tip line, resulting in the state police cold case unit undertaking a lengthy investigation into McCullough's background and alibi. Janet's sisters Katherine and Jeanne told investigators of their suspicions, and Jeanne said that John had molested her as a child and other young girls. Another woman alleged that John Tessier had given her a piggyback ride as a child and refused to put her down until her father intervened. State police investigators reviewed evidence and developed a new timeline under which Tessier could have kidnapped Maria and driven to Rockford in time to make a telephone call at 6:57 pm and meet with recruiting officers at 7:15 pm. Under this new timeline, they determined that Maria would have been kidnapped no later than 6:20 pm. The police search for Maria was underway by 7 pm according to Katherine, who said she had returned home from a party at 7 pm to find the search in progress. thumb|left|The unused military- issued train ticket from Rockford to Chicago that was not used as evidence against Jack McCullough at his 2012 murder trial. Hoping to have Kathy Chapman (née Sigman) review a photographic lineup, police took five pictures from the 1957 Sycamore High School yearbook, but John Tessier's picture was not in the yearbook as he had been expelled. Police obtained a contemporary photo of him from his former girlfriend, which differed from the yearbook photos in that Tessier was wearing an open collar rather than a suit and the background was dark rather than light. Chapman identified the picture of Tessier. Along with the picture, Tessier's former girlfriend provided an unused, military-issued train ticket from Rockford to Chicago dated December 1957. The investigators took this to suggest that contrary to Tessier's alibi, Tessier had not taken the train on his trip to Chicago and had instead driven his car there, meaning that he could have driven back to Sycamore afternoon on December 3, kidnapped Maria, and driven to Rockford. The police located a high school friend of Tessier's who recalled seeing Tessier's distinctively painted car in Sycamore that afternoon and said that Tessier did not let anyone else drive his car. In July 2011 the Seattle Police Department, which had joined with the Illinois State Police in the investigation, brought McCullough in for questioning (using a professional interrogator due to McCullough's law enforcement experience). At first, McCullough spoke calmly and cooperated, but when faced with questions about the murder of Maria Ridulph and his whereabouts on the night of the crime, he became evasive and aggressive. After McCullough refused to answer any more questions, he was arrested for the kidnapping and murder of Maria Ridulph and extradited to Illinois. Maria's body was exhumed that same month to check for DNA evidence, but none could be found. However, a forensic anthropologist found that Maria had been stabbed in the throat at least three times by a long, sharp blade, pointing out nicks in her sternum and neck vertebrae, consistent with "at least three" slashes to her throat. Although stabbing was considered a likely cause of death, an appellate court later stated that the findings did not preclude other possible causes of death such as ligature strangulation, which could not be adequately investigated due to the decomposition of soft tissue. News of the arrest in a 54-year-old murder case drew national attention. The lead prosecutor, DeKalb County State's Attorney Clay Campbell, was reluctant to take the case due to its age and the lack of any physical evidence connecting McCullough to the crime. But, after being persuaded by the Ridulph and Tessier families, who all believed that McCullough was guilty, he formally charged McCullough with the kidnapping and murder of Maria. ==Court proceedings== ===Trial=== At the trial in September 2012, the prosecution contended that McCullough was attracted to Maria and decided to kidnap her, but instead ended up killing her, presenting new autopsy reports suggesting Maria was stabbed to death. Although the prosecutors suspected McCullough of molesting Maria, they were unable to prove it and never brought it up in court. Numerous witnesses testified for the prosecution, including Maria's family members, neighbors, law enforcement personnel and Kathy Sigman Chapman, who was the star witness and identified McCullough as "Johnny", the man who had walked up to her and Maria 50 years earlier. Another childhood friend of Maria's testified that she had also been offered a piggyback ride from "Johnny" and identified him as McCullough. Three inmates who were jailed with McCullough testified that he talked about killing Maria. However, their stories were both inconsistent and failed to match the evidence indicating Maria had been stabbed. One inmate said McCullough spoke of strangling Maria with a wire, and another said McCullough accidentally smothered her to stop her from screaming. The defense argued that the prosecutors and police were pressured by the Ridulph and Tessier families to solve the case and implicate McCullough, although there was no physical evidence, motive, or indication that McCullough was in the area when Maria was kidnapped. McCullough did not take the stand in his own defense on the advice of his attorneys. On September 14, 2012, McCullough was convicted of the kidnapping and murder of Maria Ridulph and received a life sentence with the possibility of parole after 20 years. He was 73 years old at the time of sentencing. ===Appeal=== McCullough appealed his convictions. On February 13, 2015, the Illinois Appellate Court (Second District) upheld his murder conviction, but vacated his convictions for kidnapping and abduction of an infant as being outside the three-year statute of limitations in effect for those crimes in 1957. The decision had no effect on McCullough's life sentence, as the sentencing court had provided that the sentences for kidnapping and abduction would "merge" into McCullough's life sentence for murder.People v. McCullough, No. December 2, 1364 (Ill. App. Ct. February 11, 2015). Although the appellate court ruled that Eileen Tessier's deathbed statement should not have been admitted as evidence against McCullough, the court declined to overturn the murder conviction because Judge Hallock did not rely heavily upon the statement in issuing the conviction. ===Post-conviction proceedings overturning conviction=== In 2015, McCullough, acting pro se, filed a petition for post-conviction relief asking that his murder conviction be set aside. After McCullough's petition was initially dismissed by the court as "frivolous and without merit", the public defender who had originally represented McCullough at trial — and who had continued to investigate the case while staying in touch with McCullough, despite the fact that he was no longer appointed to defend McCullough — asked the court to reconsider the dismissal.Motion to Reconsider the Dismissal of Defendant's Post-Conviction Petition, People v. McCullough, Gen. No. 11 CF 454 (Ill. Cir. Ct. October 13, 2015). McCullough filed a successive motion that could not be denied without a hearing from the State Attorney's Office. In response to the motions, DeKalb County State's Attorney Richard Schmack, who had replaced Clay Campbell in that position, conducted an extensive review of the evidence, which led Schmack to conclude that McCullough could not have committed the crime and was actually innocent. According to Schmack, evidence was kept out of the trial that clearly established McCullough's whereabouts on the evening of Maria Ridulph's abduction and supported his alibi. In particular, phone records from Illinois Bell showed that McCullough made a collect call to his mother that evening from a payphone in downtown Rockford rather than from Sycamore as alleged at his trial. Given the timing of the telephone call, the approximately 40-mile distance between Sycamore and Rockford, and icy road conditions, Schmack concluded that McCullough could not possibly have been in Sycamore at the time of Maria Ridulph's disappearance.People's Answer to Defendant's Pro Se Petition Under 735 ILCS 5/2-1401, People v. McCullough, Gen. No. 11 CF 454 (Ill. Cir. Ct. March 24, 2016). Following a March 2016 court hearing, on April 15, 2016, Judge William P. Brady of the Illinois Circuit Court vacated McCullough's original conviction and sentence and ordered a new trial. McCullough, who remained charged with the crime, was released on bond that day pending the new trial. A week later, Judge Brady dismissed the charges against McCullough; however, the dismissal of the murder charge was without prejudice, meaning that McCullough could be tried again for the murder of Maria Ridulph should a prosecutor wish to do so. Brady postponed ruling on a request by Maria's brother Charles Ridulph, backed by the signatures of hundreds of Sycamore citizens including the city's mayor, that a special prosecutor be appointed to replace Schmack on McCullough's case. On August 5, 2016, Judge Brady denied the motion for a special prosecutor; Charles Ridulph then stated that he would not appeal the ruling. McCullough was declared actually innocent of the crime by the DeKalb County Circuit Court on April 12, 2017. ===Freedom of Information Act Requests=== On July 21, 2016, Porter, son-in-law of McCullough, filed a lawsuit (Case 2016-CH-09536 (Cook County, Illinois)) against the Illinois State Police and Sycamore Police Department for refusal to comply with a Freedom of Information Act request related to the investigation of the case. The FOIA request was prompted by Schmack's allegations of police misconduct on November 3, 2015. ==Memorials== The "Maria Ridulph Memorial Map", an eight-foot-square map of Sycamore constructed of steel and porcelain, was mounted on the front exterior of the Sycamore Municipal Building in 1958, in commemoration of Maria Ridulph. The map was removed in 2002 and replaced with a bronze memorial plaque that was installed on a pedestal outside the Municipal Building. The Ridulph family also established a "Maria Ridulph Memorial Fund" that was originally used to pay for the memorial map and was later used as a scholarship, compassion and summer camp fund for local children in need. A portion of the proceeds from Charles Lachman's 2014 book about the case, Footsteps in the Snow, was donated to the fund. ==In popular culture== At the time of McCullough's 2012 trial and conviction, the case was the subject of several news documentaries, including an episode of 48 Hours and a CNN Interactive web feature entitled Taken: The Coldest Case Ever Solved. A true crime book by Charles Lachman, Footsteps in the Snow (2014), also became the basis for a Lifetime Movie Network documentary of the same name. These works, which were published before McCullough's conviction was overturned, presumed that the case had been successfully solved. In contrast, Northern Illinois author Jeffrey Dean Doty self-published a non-fiction book, Piggyback (2014), in which he reviewed evidence and court filings in the case and examined whether McCullough had been wrongfully convicted. As part of his review of McCullough's case, State's Attorney Richard Schmack read Taken, Footsteps in the Snow, and Piggyback, and cited to portions of Taken and Footsteps in his 2016 court filing supporting McCullough's innocence. ==See also== *Disappearance of Beverly Potts *Murder of Amy Mihaljevic *List of solved missing person cases *List of unsolved murders ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * Jack D. McCullough Trial - Northern Public Radio * Convicted By His Own Words On All Charges - Maria Got Justice * Jack McCullough official website - contains all trial transcript, police reports and discovery file related to the case. * Category:1950s missing person cases Category:1957 in Illinois Category:1957 murders in the United States Category:Child murder Category:Deaths by person in Illinois Category:Deaths by stabbing in Illinois Category:December 1957 events in the United States Category:Female murder victims Category:Formerly missing people Category:Missing person cases in Illinois Category:Murder in Illinois Category:Overturned convictions in the United States Category:Sycamore, Illinois Category:Unsolved murders in the United States Category:Incidents of violence against girls |
thumb|upright=1.5|Literacy rate map of India, 2011[http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov- results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter6.pdf Ranking of states and union territories by literacy rate: 2011] Census of India Report (2013) Literacy in India is a key for social-economic progress. The 2011 census, indicated a 2001–2011 literacy growth of 97.2%, which is slower than the growth seen during the previous decade. An old analytical 1990 study estimated that it would take until 2060 for India to achieve universal literacy at then- current rate of progress. Census of India pegged the average literacy rate to be 73% in 2011 while National Statistical Commission surveyed literacy to be 77.7% in 2017–18. Literacy rate in urban areas was 87.7%, higher than rural areas with 73.5%. There is a wide gender disparity in the literacy rate in India and effective literacy rates (age 7 and above) was 84.7% for men and 70.3% for women. The low female literacy rate has a dramatically negative impact on family planning and population stabillisation efforts in India. Studies have indicated that female literacy is a strong predictor of the use of contraception among married Indian couples, even when women do not otherwise have economic independence. The census provided a positive indication that growth in female literacy rates (11.8%) was substantially faster than in male literacy rates (6.9%) in the 2001–2011 decadal period, which means the gender gap appears to be narrowing. Literacy involves a continuum of learning enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society."UNESCO Education Sector, "The Plurality of Literacy and its Implications for Policies and Programmes: Position Paper". Paris: United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, 2004, p. 13, citing an international expert meeting in June 2003 at UNESCO. The National Literacy Mission defines literacy as acquiring the skills of reading, writing and arithmetic and the ability to apply them to one's day-to-day life. The achievement of functional literacy implies (i) self-reliance in 3 R's, (ii) awareness of the causes of deprivation and the ability to move towards amelioration of their condition by participating in the process of development, (iii) acquiring skills to improve economic status and general well-being, and (iv) imbibing values such as national integration, conservation of the environment, women's equality, observance of small family norms. The working definition of literacy in the Indian census since 1991 is as follows:Preventive and social medicine by K. Park, 19th edition(2007), M/s Banarsidas Bhanot, Jabalpur, India ; Literacy rate : Also called the "effective literacy rate"; the total percentage of the population of an area at a particular time aged seven years or above who can read and write with understanding. Here the denominator is the population aged seven years or more. : \text{Effective literacy rate}=\frac{\text{number of literate persons aged 7 or above}}{\text{population aged 7 and above}}\times 100 ; Crude literacy rate The total percentage of the people of an area at a particular time who can read and write with understanding, taking the total population of the area (including below seven years of age) as the denominator. : \text{Crude literacy rate}=\frac{\text{number of literate persons}}{\text{total population}}\times 100 == Literacy Rate in India == Top Performing States in 2018 No State Literacy Rate in Percentage 1 Kerala 99.0% 2 Uttarakhand 96.6% 3 Delhi 88.7% 4 Himachal Pradesh 86.6% 5 Assam 85.9% 6 Maharashtra 84.8% : The report on 'Household Social Consumption: Education in India as part of 75th round of National Sample Survey - from July 2017 to June 2018. ==Comparative literacy statistics on country== The table below shows the adult and youth literacy rates for India and some neighboring countries in 2015. Adult literacy rate is based on the 15+ years age group, while the youth literacy rate is for the 15–24 years age group (i.e. youth is a subset of adults). UNESCO list of countries by literacy rate (2015) Country Adult literacy rate Youth literacy rate ages 15–24 China 96.4%List of countries by literacy rate 99.7% Sri Lanka 92.6% 98.8% Myanmar 93.7% 96.3% World average 86.3%ADULT AND YOUTH LITERACY UNESCO (September 2012) 91.2% India 81% 91.76% Nepal 64.7% 86.9% Bangladesh 61.5% 83.2% Pakistan 58% 80.3% ==Literacy rate disparity== One of the main factors contributing to this relatively low literacy rate is usefulness of education and availability of schools in vicinity in rural areas. There is a shortage of classrooms to accommodate all the students in 2006–2007. In addition, there is no proper sanitation in most schools. The study of 188 government-run primary schools in central and northern India revealed that 59% of the schools had no drinking water facility and 89% no toilets. In 600,000 villages and multiplying urban slum habitats, 'free and compulsory education' is the basic literacy instruction dispensed by barely qualified 'para teachers'. The average pupil teacher ratio for all India is 42:1, implying a teacher shortage. Such inadequacies resulted in a non-standardized school system where literacy rates may differ. Furthermore, the expenditure allocated to education was never above 4.3% of the GDP from 1951 to 2002 despite the target of 6% by the Kothari Commission. This further complicates the literacy problem in India. Severe caste disparities also exist. Discrimination of lower castes has resulted in high dropout rates and low enrollment rates. The National Sample Survey Organisation and the National Family Health Survey collected data in India on the percentage of children completing primary school which are reported to be only 36.8% and 37.7% respectively. On 21 February 2005, the Prime Minister of India said that he was pained to note that "only 47 out of 100 children enrolled in class I reach class VIII, putting the dropout rate at 52.78 percent." It is estimated that at least 35 million, and possibly as many as 60 million, children aged 6–14 years are not in school. The large proportion of illiterate females is another reason for the low literacy rate in India. Inequality based on gender differences resulted in female literacy rates being lower at 65.46% than that of their male counterparts at 82.14%. Due to strong stereotyping of female and male roles, sons are thought of to be more useful and hence are educated. Females are pulled to help out on agricultural farms at home as they are increasingly replacing the males on such activities which require no formal education. Fewer than 2% of girls who engaged in agriculture work attended school. ==Growth of literacy== ===Pre- colonial period=== Prior to the colonial era, education in India typically occurred under the supervision of a guru in traditional schools called gurukulas. The gurukulas were supported by public donations and were one of the earliest forms of public school offices. According to the work of historian Dharampal, based on British documents from the early 1800s, pre- colonial education in India was fairly universal. Dharampal noted that the Hindu temple and/or mosque of each village had a school attached to it and the children of all communities attended these schools. ===British period=== In the colonial era, the community-funded gurukul system and temple-based charity education, began to decline as the centrally funded institutions promoted by the British colonial administration began to gradually take over. From 1881 and 1947, the number of English-language primary schools grew from 82,916 to 134,866 and the number of students attending those institutions grew from 2,061,541 to 10,525,943. Literacy rates among the Indian public, as recorded rose from an estimated 3.2 per cent in 1872, to 16.1 per cent in 1941. In 1944, the British colonial administration presented a plan, called the Sargent Scheme for the educational reconstruction of India, with a goal of producing 100% literacy in the country within 40 years, i.e. by 1984. Although the 40-year time-frame was derided at the time by leaders of the Indian independence movement as being too long a period to achieve universal literacy, India had only just crossed the 74% level by the 2011 census. The British Indian censuses identify a significant difference in literacy rates, by: sex, religion, caste and state of residence,Hunter, William Wilson, Sir, et al. (1908). Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1908–1931; Clarendon Press, Oxford e.g.: 1901 census – literacy rate Male % Female % Madras 11.9 1.1 Bombay 11.6 0.9 Bengal 10.4 0.5 Berar 8.5 0.3 Assam 6.7 0.4 Punjab 6.4 0.3 United Provinces 5.7 0.2 Central Provinces 5.4 0.2 ===Post-independence period=== right|thumb|Literacy in India grew very slowly until Indian independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period. The provision of universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 6–14 was a cherished national ideal and had been given overriding priority by incorporation as a Directive Policy in Article 45 of the Constitution, but it is still to be achieved more than half a century since the Constitution was adopted in 1949. Parliament has passed the Constitution 86th Amendment Act, 2002, to make elementary education a Fundamental Right for children in the age group of 6–14 years.India 2005 In order to provide more funds for education, an education cess of 2 percent has been imposed on all direct and indirect central taxes through the Finance (No. 2) Act, 2004.Economic Survey 2004–05. In 2000–01, there were 60,840 pre- primary and pre-basic schools, and 664,041 primary and junior basic schools.Statistical Pocket Book India 2003 Total enrolment at the primary level has increased from 19,200,000 in 1950–51 to 109,800,000 in 2001–02.India 2005 published by Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. The number of high schools in 2000–01 was higher than the number of primary schools at the time of independence. The literacy rate grew from 18.33 percent in 1951, to 74.04 percent in 2011. During the same period, the population grew from 361 million to 1,210 million. Census of India - literacy rates (age 7+) Year Male % Female % Combined % 1872 ~3.25 1881 8.1 0.35 4.32 1891 8.44 0.42 4.62 1901 9.8 0.6 5.4 1911 10.6 1.0 5.9 1921 12.2 1.8 7.2 1931 15.6 2.9 9.5 1941 24.9 7.3 16.1 1951 27.16 8.86 18.33 1961 40.4 15.35 28.3 1971 45.96 21.97 34.45 1981 56.38 29.76 43.57 1991 64.13 39.29 52.21 2001 75.26 53.67 64.83 2011 82.14 65.46 74.04 ==Literacy rate variations between states== India's literacy rate is at 75%. Kerala has achieved a literacy rate of 93%. Bihar is the least literate state in India, with a literacy of 61.8%. Several other social indicators of the two states are correlated with these rates, such as life expectancy at birth (71.61 for males and 75 for females in Kerala, 65.66 for males and 64.79 for females in Bihar), infant mortality per 1,000 live births (10 in Kerala, 61 in Bihar), birth rate per 1,000 people (16.9 in Kerala, 30.9 in Bihar) and death rate per 1,000 people (6.4 in Kerala, 7.9 in Bihar). Every census since 1881 had indicated rising literacy in the country, but the population growth rate had been high enough that the absolute number of illiterate people rose with every decade. The 2001–2011 decade is the second census period (after the 1991–2001 census period) when the absolute number of Indian illiterate population declined (by 31,196,847 people), indicating that the literacy growth rate is now outstripping the population growth rate. Six Indian states account for about 60% of all illiterates in India: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana). Slightly less than half of all Indian illiterates (48.12%) are in the six states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. ==State Literacy Efforts== Several states in India have executed successful programs to boost literacy rates. Over time, a set of factors have emerged as being key to success: the official will to succeed, deliberate steps to engage the community in administering the program, adequate funding for infrastructure and teachers, and provisioning additional services which are considered valuable by the community (such as free school lunches). ===Bihar=== Bihar has significantly raised the literacy rate as per the 2011 census. Literacy rate in year 1951 was only 13.49%, 21.95% in year 1961, 23.17% in year 1971 and 32.32% in year 1981. The literacy rate has risen from 39% in 1991 to 47% in 2001 to 63.8% in 2011. The Government of Bihar has launched several programs to boost literacy, and its Department of Adult Education won a UNESCO award in 1981. Extensive impoverishment, entrenched hierarchical social divisions and the lack of correlation between educational attainment and job opportunities are often cited in studies of the hurdles literacy programs face in Bihar. Children from "lower castes" are frequently denied school attendance and harassed when they do attend. In areas where there is discrimination, poor funding and impoverished families means that children often cannot afford textbooks and stationery. When children do get educated, general lack of economic progress in the state means that government jobs are the only alternative to farming labor, yet these jobs, in practice, require bribes to secure – which poorer families cannot afford. This leads to educated youths working on the farms, much as uneducated ones do, and leads parents to question the investment of sending children to school in the first place. Bihar's government schools have also faced teacher absenteeism, leading the state government to threaten to withhold of salaries of teachers who failed to conduct classes on a regular basis. To incentivize students to attend, the government announced a Rupee 1 per school-day grant to poor children who show up at school. ===Tripura=== Presently Tripura has the third highest literacy rate in India. According to the 2011 census, literacy level was 93.91 percent in Kerala and 91.58 percent in Mizoram, among the most literate states in the country. The national literacy rate, according to the 2011 census, was 74.04 percent. The Tripura success story is attributed to the involvement of local government bodies, including gram panchayats, NGOs and local clubs under the close supervision of the State Literacy Mission Authority (SLMA) headed by the chief minister. Tripura attained 87.75 percent literacy in the 2011 census, from the 12th position in the 2001 census to the 4th position in the 2011 census. The Tripura Chief Minister said that efforts were underway to literate leftover 5.35 percent people and achieve complete success in a state of about 3.8 million people. The programs were not just implemented to make the state literate but as long-term education programs to ensure all citizens have a certain basic minimum level of education. Tripura has 45 blocks and 23 subdivisions that are served by 68 government-run schools and 30-40 private schools. Among projects implemented by the state government to increase literacy in the state are: * Total literacy drive for people aged between 15 and 50 who have lost the chance of entering formal education fold. A special program – titled improved pace and content learning (IPCL) – has been designed to provide basic education to such people. * 10,000 Anganwadi centers have 100 percent enrollment. * Policy of no-fail till class VIII to prevent children from dropping out. * Midday meals in all schools with an eclectic menu for all days of the week to attract more students. * No tuition fee in government colleges. The holistic education system, implemented with equal interest in Agartala, remote areas and the tribal autonomic areas makes sure that people in Tripura do not just become literate but educated, officials emphasized. One pointer to the government's interest in education is the near-total absence of child labor in Tripura. ===Kerala=== Kerala topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states in India in the year 2006–2007. More than 94% of the rural population has access to a primary school within 1 km, while 98% of the population benefits one school within a distance of 2 km. An upper primary school within a distance of 3 km is available for more than 96% of the people, whose 98% benefit the facility for secondary education within 8 km. The access for rural students to higher educational institutions in cities is facilitated by widely subsidized transport fares. Kerala's educational system has been developed by institutions owned or aided by the government. In the educational system prevailed in the state, schooling is for 10 years which is subdivided into lower primary, upper primary and high school. After 10 years of secondary schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams— liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional undergraduate programs. Kerala launched a "campaign for total literacy" in Ernakulam district in the late 1980s, with a "fusion between the district administration headed by its collector on one side and, on the other side, voluntary groups, social activists and others". On 4 February 1990, the Government of Kerala endeavoured to replicate the initiative on a statewide level, launching the Kerala State Literacy Campaign. First, households were surveyed with door-to-door, multistage survey visits to form an accurate picture of the literacy landscape and areas that needed special focus. Then, Kala Jāthas (cultural troupes) and Sāksharata Pada Yātras (Literacy Foot Marches) were organized to generate awareness of the campaign and create a receptive social atmosphere for the program. An integrated management system was created involving state officials, prominent social figures, local officials and senior voluntary workers to oversee the execution of the campaign. ===Himachal=== Himachal Pradesh underwent a "Schooling Revolution" in the 1961–2001 period that has been called "even more impressive than Kerala's." Kerala has led the nation in literacy rates since the 19th century and seen sustained initiatives for over 150 years, whereas Himachal Pradesh's literacy rate in 1961 was below the national average in every age group. In the three decadal 1961–1991 period, the female literacy in the 15–19 years age group went from 11% to 86%. School attendance for both boys and girls in the 6–14-year age group stood at over 97% each, when measured in the 1998–99 school year. ===Mizoram=== Mizoram is the second most literate state in India (91.58 percent), with Serchhip and Aizawl districts being the two most literate districts in India (literacy rate is 98.76% and 98.50%), both in Mizoram. Mizoram's literacy rate rose rapidly after independence: from 31.14% in 1951 to 88.80% in 2001. As in Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram has a social structure that is relatively free of hierarchy and strong official intent to produce total literacy. The government identified illiterates and organized an administrative structure that engaged officials and community leaders and manned by "animators" who were responsible for teaching five illiterates each. Mizoram established 360 continuing education centers to handle continued education beyond the initial literacy teaching and to provide an educational safety net for school drop-outs. ===Tamil Nadu=== One of the pioneers of the scheme that started providing cooked meals to children in corporation schools in the Madras city in 1923. The program was introduced on a large scale in the 1960s under the chief ministership of K. Kamaraj. The first major thrust came in 1982 when Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, Dr. M. G. Ramachandran, decided to universalize the scheme for all children up to class 10. Tamil Nadu's midday meal program is among the best-known in the country. Starting in 1982, Tamil Nadu took an approach to promote literacy based on free lunches for schoolchildren, "ignoring cynics who said it was an electoral gimmick and economists who said it made little fiscal sense." The then chief minister of Tamil Nadu, MGR launched the program, which resembled a similar initiative in 19th century Japan, because "he had experienced as a child what it was like to go hungry to school with the family having no money to buy food". Eventually, the program covered all children under the age of 15, as well as pregnant women for the first four months of their pregnancy. Tamil Nadu's literacy rate rose from 54.4% in 1981 to 80.3% in 2011. In 2001, the Supreme Court of India instructed all state governments to implement free school lunches in all government-funded schools, but implementation has been patchy due to corruption and social issues. Despite these hurdles, 120 million receive free lunches in Indian schools every day, making it the largest school meal program in the world. ===Rajasthan=== Although the decadal rise from 2001 to 2011 was only 6.7% (60.4% in 2001 to 67.7% in 2011), Rajasthan had the biggest percentage decadal (1991–2001) increase in the literacy of all Indian states, from about 38% to about 61%, a leapfrog that has been termed "spectacular" by some observers. Aggressive state government action, in the form of the District Primary Education Programme, the Shiksha Karmi initiative and the Lok Jumbish program are credited with the rapid improvement. Virtually every village in Rajasthan now has primary school coverage. When statehood was granted to Rajasthan in 1956, it was the least literate state in India with a literacy rate of 18%. ==Literacy efforts== The right to education is a fundamental right, and UNESCO aimed at education for all by 2015. India, along with the Arab states and sub-Saharan Africa, has a literacy level below the threshold level of 75%, but efforts are ongoing to achieve that level. The campaign to achieve at least the threshold literacy level represents the largest ever civil and military mobilization in the country. International Literacy Day is celebrated each year on 8 September with the aim to highlight the importance of literacy to individuals, communities and societies. ===Government efforts=== Financial regulators in India such as RBI, SEBI, IRDAI, PFDRA, etc. have created a joint charter called National Strategy For Financial Education (NSFE), detailing initiatives taken by them for financial literacy in India. Also, other market participants like banks, stock exchanges, broking houses, mutual funds, and insurance companies are actively involved in it. The National Centre For Financial Education (NCFE) in consultation with relevant financial sector regulators and stakeholders has prepared the revised NSFE(2020-2025) ====National Literacy Mission==== The National Literacy Mission, launched in 1988, aimed at attaining a literacy rate of 75 percent by 2007. Its charter is to impart functional literacy to non-literates in the age group of 35–75 years. The Total Literacy Campaign is their principal strategy for the eradication of illiteracy. The Continuing Education Scheme provides a learning continuum to the efforts of the Total Literacy and Post Literacy programs. ====Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan==== The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Hindi for Total Literacy Campaign) was launched in 2001 to ensure that all children in the 6–14-year age-group attend school and complete eight years of schooling by 2010. An important component of the scheme is the Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education, meant primarily for children in areas with no formal school within a one-kilometer radius. The centrally sponsored District Primary Education Programme, launched in 1994, had opened more than 160,000 new schools by 2005, including almost 84,000 alternative schools. ===Non-governmental efforts=== The bulk of Indian illiterates live in the country's rural areas, where social and economic barriers play an important role in keeping the lowest strata of society illiterate. Government programs alone, however well-intentioned, may not be able to dismantle barriers built over centuries. Major social reformation efforts are sometimes required to bring about a change in the rural scenario. Specific mention is to be made regarding the role of the People's Science Movements (PSMs) and Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti (BGVS) in the Literacy Mission in India during the early 1990s. Several non-governmental organisations such as Pratham, ITC, Rotary Club, Lions Club have worked to improve the literacy rate in India. Manthan Sampoorna Vikas Kendra Manthan SVK is a holistic education program initiated by Divya Jyoti Jagriti Sansthan under the guidance of Shri Ashutosh Maharajji. This initiative, started in 2008, has since then reached and spread education to over 5000 underprivileged children across India, with its centers spread in Delhi - NCR, Punjab and Bihar. The main aim of Manthan is to provide not just academic but also mental, physical and emotional education. Manthan has also been working for adult literacy through its Adult Literacy Centres for illiterate women. Vocational education is also given attention to, with Sewing and Stitching Centres for women. The motto of Manthan being Saakshar Bharat, Sashakt Bharat, it has been providing quality education selflessly. ====Mamidipudi Venkatarangaiya Foundation==== Shantha Sinha won a Magsaysay Award in 2003 in recognition of "Her guiding the people of Andhra Pradesh to end the scourge of child labor and send all of their children to school." As head of an extension program at the University of Hyderabad in 1987, she organized a three-month-long camp to prepare children rescued from bonded labor to attend school. Later, in 1991, she guided her family's Mamidipudi Venkatarangaiya Foundation to take up this idea as part of its overriding mission in Andhra Pradesh. Her original transition camps grew into full-fledged residential "bridge schools." The foundation's aim is to create a social climate hostile to child labor, child marriage and other practices that deny children the right to a normal childhood. Today the MV Foundation's bridge schools and programs extend to 4,300 villages. ==See also== * List of Indian states and union territories by literacy rate * Literacy * Education in India * Kerala model * National Literacy Mission Programme * Speech on Education in India by Keshub Chandra Sen delivered at London on 24 May 1870. * Ekal Vidyalaya, non-profit charity organisation dedicated to education and village development in rural India * Asha for Education, a non-profit organisation bringing hope through education. * Pratham, an NGO with literacy programmes * PlanetRead, a non-profit organisation using subtitled Bollywood film songs to increase functional literacy *The current population of India is 1.339 billion. *The current literacy rate is 74.04 ==References== == Sources == * ==Further reading== * Calvi, Rossella, Federico Mantovanelli, and Lauren Hoehn-Velasco. "The Protestant Legacy: Missions and Human Capital in India." (2019) online. * Chaudhary, Latika, and Manuj Garg. "Does history matter? Colonial education investments in India." Economic History Review 68.3 (2015): 937–961. * Chaudhary, Latika. "Taxation and educational development: Evidence from British India." Explorations in Economic History 47.3 (2010): 279-293 online. * Chaudhary, Latika. "Determinants of primary schooling in British India." Journal of Economic History (2009): 269-302 online. * Natarajan, Dandapani. "Extracts from the All India Census Reports on Literacy." (2016) page 11 online ==External links== *National Literacy Mission *Indian Census *National Literacy Policies – India *Need for literacy in India *Growth of literacy in India *Literacy in the context of constitution of India *Find details about Literacy in India *Literacy as seen in the 2001 census * * * Times of India editorial Learn to change, 28 July 2006 *The Statesman editorial Institutionalised sub literacy, 22 August 2006 *Left behind by Bangladesh – The Telegraph report on 2 October 2005 * Provisional Population Totals for Census 2011 31 March 2011 * India languishes in its villages:NSSO Survey * India Literacy Project, a catalyst for 100% literacy in India |
The Khmer Special Forces, also designated 'Khmer SF' for short or Forces Speciales Khmères (FSK) in French, the tier 1 special forces of the Khmer National Armed Forces (commonly known by their French acronym, FANK) during the 1970-75 Cambodian Civil War. ==Origins== The history of the Khmer Special Forces began in October 1971, when the 1st Special Forces Group (Airborne) was organized at Phnom Penh under the command of Lieutenant colonel (later, Brigadier general) Thach Reng. The Khmer SF were actually a creation of Lt. Col. Ronnie Mendoza, a Special Forces-qualified US Army officier assigned to the American Military Equipment Delivery Team, Cambodia (MEDTC) assistance program earlier in June 1971. A prominent member of the MEDTC's Plans and Programs Section, Mendoza focused on providing the Cambodian Army unconventional warfare units capable of carrying out guerrilla operations in the northern and eastern Cambodian provinces under the control of both the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and their Khmer Rouge allies.Conboy, FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975 (2011), p. 203. Two other SF groups, the 2nd Special Forces Group (Airborne) and the 3rd Special Forces Group (Airborne) were activated in the following year. Under the auspices of Operation "Freedom Runner" – a FANK training program set up in November 1971 by the United States Special Forces (USSF) –, Khmer Special Forces teams began to be sent to South Vietnam to attend Parachute courses at the ARVN Airborne Training Centre in Long Thành, and the Special Forces' (SF) course at the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces (LLDB) Dong Ba Thin Training Centre near Cam Ranh Bay. Manned by the USSF Detachment B-51, assisted by New Zealand Army instructors from the 2nd NZ Army Training Team Vietnam (2 NZATTV)Lyles, Vietnam ANZACs - Australian & New Zealand Troops in Vietnam 1962-72 (2004), p. 55, Plate C1. and modelled on the USSF/LLDB own training programs, the course began with four weeks of basic SF skills followed by training in one of six SF job skills: operations and demolitions, light weapons, heavy weapons, humint, radio communications, tactical emergency medical. Other advanced additional courses included anti-tank warfare, combat and patrolling techniques in urban areas, combat search and rescue, counter-ambushes, executive protection, exfil, forward observer, hand and arm signals, hand-to-hand combat, infiltrate the area with a helicopter, jungle warfare, living off the jungle, mountain warfare, parachuting, political warfare, psychological warfare, raiding tactics, reconnaissance tactics, small unit tactics, taekwondo, tracking tactics, use a map and compass, unconventional tactics, and other skills related to special operations. A two-week 'live-fire' field exercise (sometimes complemented by a field operation against NVA/Vietcong (VC) forces in the surrounding areas of the training centre)Conboy and Bowra, The War in Cambodia 1970-75 (1989), p. 11. completed the SF course. More specialised SF training was carried out in the United States and Thailand since December 1972. Khmer SF trainees attended technical courses at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, by the USSF 5th Special Forces Group and at the Royal Thai Army (RTA) Special Warfare Centre at Fort Narai, Lopburi Province by the US 46th Special Forces Company; additional Guerrilla and Commando skills were taught by Thai instructors from the Royal Thai Army Special Forces (RTSF) and Royal Thai Police (RTP) Police Aerial Resupply Unit (PARU) at the latter's Phitsanulok and Hua Hin training camps.Conboy and McCouaig, South-East Asian Special Forces (1991), pp. 48-50. Advanced Ranger/LRRP and radio communications' courses also took place in early 1973 at the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV) Recondo School at Nha Trang, South Vietnam, manned by the USSF Detachment B-36, and at the RTA Recondo School co-located at Ft. Narai, Thailand, before "Freedom Runner" was concluded on July that year. ==Structure and organization== The Khmer Special Forces were closely modelled after the United States Special Forces (USSF) and the South Vietnamese Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces (LLDB), with a total unit strength of 350 Officers and enlisted men, being organized in July 1973 into one separate Headquarter 'C' Detachment, along with three 'B' Detachments and 18 'A' Detachments in turn organized into three Special Forces Groups (SFGs). Unlike an American A-Team however, Khmer SF 'A' Detachments could field up to 15 men, the additional personnel being psychological warfare specialists.Conboy and Bowra, The War in Cambodia 1970-75 (1989), p. 17.Conboy and McCouaig, South-East Asian Special Forces (1991), p. 15, table 2. They were structured as follows: *The 33-man 'C' Detachment, personally commanded by Brig. Gen. Thach Reng, which comprised three 25-man HQ 'B' Detachments sub- divided into five 15-man 'A' Detachments,Conboy and McCouaig, South-East Asian Special Forces (1991), p. 10, table 1. was allocated at the Cambodian capital and served as Headquarters for the Khmer Special Forces Command. *The 1st Special Forces Group, led by Major (later, Colonel) Kim Phong was composed of one 25-man 'B' Detachment and six 15-man 'A' Detachments (A-111, A-112, A-113, A-114, A-115, A-116) deployed in Battambang province. *The 2nd Special Forces Group, led by Captain Sok Thach comprising the B-12 Detachment and six 'A' Detachments (A-121, A-122, A-123, A-124, A-125, A-126) was stationed in Phnom Penh. *The 3rd Special Forces Group, led by Captain Thach Saren was composed of the B-13 Detachment and six 'A' Detachments (A-131, A-132, A-133, A-134, A-135, A-136). The 3rd SFG was given responsibility for operations around the capital, along the lower Mekong-Bassac river corridors, and the coastline. ===Composition=== Khmer Special Forces members' were all airborne-qualified volunteers, though most of the initial cadre was actually formed by "repatriated" ethnic Khmer recruits from the Khmer Krom minority living in South Vietnam. Traditionally aggressive, the Khmer Krom brought with them years of combat experience gained while fighting in the irregular counterinsurgency MIKE Force and CIDG units in South Vietnam under the control of the USSF and the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group (MACV-SOG). The program began in May 1970 when the Americans assembled a first batch of 2,000 Khmer Krom veteran soldiers and airlifted them to Cambodia. Consequently, by February 1972 both the 1st SFG (raised in Cambodia) and 2nd SFG (formed and trained in Thailand) had a large percentage of Khmer Krom repatriates, but gradually native Cambodian recruits began to supplant them over time. Unlike the previous two groups, 3rd SFG, brought to strength in December 1972 and also sent to Thailand for training, had few experienced Khmer Krom members.Conboy and Bowra, The War in Cambodia 1970-75 (1989), pp. 6 and 14.Conboy and McCouaig, South-East Asian Special Forces (1991), pp. 14-15. In fact, one of its A-detachments was filled entirely by Khmer Loeu highlanders from northeastern Cambodia.Conboy, FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975 (2011), p. 204. ==Khmer Special Forces' missions== The missions performed by the Khmer Special Forces during the war were many and varied, ranging from long-range strategic and tactical reconnaissance to deep-penetration raids, pathfinding, and reinforcement duties. In the special forces' unconventional training role, they also raised paramilitary self-defense village militias in rural areas situated behind enemy lines, as well as training airfield security battalions for the Khmer Air Force (KAF) at the Ream infantry training centre. In addition, the Khmer Special Forces provided LRRP instructors for the FANK Recondo School at Battambang which first opened in November 1972.Conboy and Bowra, The War in Cambodia 1970-75 (1989), pp. 15-17; 46. ===Combat operations 1971-74=== Besides unconventional warfare and training operations, the Khmer Special Forces were also engaged on some notable combat operations in support of FANK regular troops. The first true combat assignment of the Khmer Special Forces occurred in May 1972, when they participated in a search-and-destroy operation alongside Army units around Phnom Penh to clear its northern outskirts of Khmer Rouge and NVA light artillery teams, who were harassing the quarters of the Cambodian capital with 122mm rocket and 75mm recoilless rifle fire.Conboy and Bowra, The War in Cambodia 1970-75 (1989), p. 7.Conboy and McCouaig, South-East Asian Special Forces (1991), p. 15. In September 1973, the Khmer Special Forces spearheaded the combined Cambodian Army-Khmer National Navy (MNK) amphibious operation "Castor 21" to retake the provincial capital of Kampong Cham, which had been stormed by Khmer Rouge forces in August.Conboy, FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970–1975 (2011), p. 124.Cambodia Navy - History at GlobalSecurity.org, Accessed 24 Nov 2013 Just prior to the assault, two 'A' Detachments were inserted by helicopter into the insurgent-held southern quarter of the city and used LAW rockets to neutralize an enemy stronghold.Conboy and Bowra, The War in Cambodia 1970-75 (1989), pp. 8 and 17. The role of the Khmer Special Forces teams at the Battle of Kampong Cham was not limited to combat assignments though; their radio operators also assisted coordinating the Khmer Air Force in carrying out successfully aerial resupply drops on behalf of FANK ground units defending the retaken city.Conboy and Bowra, The War in Cambodia 1970-75 (1989), p. 44. This coordinating role was again resumed on June–July 1974 during the siege of the district capital of Kampong Seila in Koh Kong Province, located some 135 Kilometers (84 Miles) south-west of Phnom Penh, down Route 4. At the time, this small town and its beleaguered Government garrison were enduring a record eight-month-long siege by Khmer Rouge forces, with the local civilian population already suffering from starvation. Deviating from the Cambodian Army's standard communications procedures, the garrison made desperate radio appeals to Phnom Penh for relief, a fact that arouse suspicions in the FANK High Command. Fearing that Government relief forces were being lured into a trap, it was decided to send first observers to assess the situation at Kampong Seila and to verify the loyalty of the garrison. After two unsuccessful attempts, a Khmer Special Forces team was heli-lifted into the town and after confirming the reports, aerial ressuply operations were sanctioned to alleviate the starvation and allow the Army garrison to hold out against further insurgent pressure.Conboy and Bowra, The War in Cambodia 1970-75 (1989), p. 9. ===The final days 1974-75=== By March 1975 with all land and river routes leading to Phnom Penh cut, the Khmer Rouge began their final assault on the Cambodian capital. Aside from three 'A' Detachments operating in Battambang and two in Siem Reap, the bulk of the Khmer Special Forces under Brig. Gen. Thach Reng were withdrawn to Phnom Penh to assist in its defense. Two teams secured the Olympic Stadium, where seven KAF UH-1H transport helicopters were being kept to evacuate key members of the government. On the morning of April 17, 1975, after supervising the heliborne evacuation of only a handful of top officials and their families from the improvised helipad at the Olympic Stadium (three of the helicopters had to be abandoned due to technical malfunctions),Sutsakhan, The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse (1980), p. 169. Brig. Gen. Reng handed over the command of the Khmer SF to Colonel Kim Phong and boarded the last helicopter to abandon the Stadium. Left to fend for themselves, Col. Phong and his subordinates planned a massive breakout by land to the south-east towards the South Vietnamese border. Although the Khmer Special Forces escape force managed to sneak out across the southern suburbs of the capital, they never reached the border and were all presumed killed in action. The remaining Khmer Special Forces teams defending the last government-held holdouts at Battambang, including the teaching staff of the Recondo School, and Siem Reap reportedly tried to escape in small groups to Thailand by treeking across hostile territory. Only a handful of Special Forces personnel managed to evade enemy patrols and reach the Thai-Cambodian border; the rest was either killed in action or captured and sent to the Khmer Rouge-run labour camps (also known as the “Killing Fields”), where they died after enduring the terrible working and living conditions during the late 1970s. ==Controversy== A highly capable and well-trained force, unfortunately the Khmer Special Forces remained too small to have a strategic impact in the war. Casualties and manpower shortages affected their tactical deployment which rarely matched the proposed organization, with many 'A' Detachments actually falling below strength. Khmer Special Forces personnel often found themselves being employed in unsuitable tasks to which they had not been trained – in reality, many FANK regional commanders misused them as conventional shock troops on many occasions, such as the sieges and subsequent battles of Kampong Cham and Kampong Seila in 1973–74. Furthermore, a large portion of 2nd Special Forces Group's personnel were siphoned off to protect Phnom Penh from the threat of internal coups d'état, while two more 'A' Detachments from the 3rd SFG were assigned security duties as a VIP protection squad for President Lon Nol when he visited his villa on the coastal city of Kampong Som. ==Khmer Special Forces’ Command== ===Para-Commando Battalion=== The Khmer Special Forces Command was augmented in late 1974 when they assumed operational control over the newly formed Para- Commando Battalion (Bataillon de Commandos Parachutistes – BCP in French). In March 1975, loosely under assignment to the Khmer SF, the Para-Commandos were sent to man the defensive perimeter north-west of Phnom Penh.Conboy and Bowra, The War in Cambodia 1970-75 (1989), pp. 17; 46. ==Weapons and equipment== The Khmer Special Forces used the standard weaponry and equipment of US origin issued to FANK units, complemented by captured Soviet or Chinese small-arms such as AK-47 assault rifles that allowed Special Forces personnel to use ammunition retrieved from enemy caches while on operations. * FN GP35 Pistols * Colt.45 M1911A1 Pistols * Smith & Wesson Model 39 Pistols * TT-33 Pistols * Smith & Wesson Model 10 Revolver * Type 56 assault rifle * Type 56-1 Assault rifle * AKM Assault rifle * AK-47 Assault rifle * AKS-47 Assault rifle * M16A1 Assault rifle * CAR-15 Assault carbine * Ithaca Model 37 pump-action shotguns * RPD Light machine gun * Type 56 Light machine gun * M60 machine gun * RPG-2 Rocket-propelled grenade * RPG-7 Rocket-propelled grenade * M72 LAW Anti-tank rocket launcher * M79 grenade launcherRottman, US Grenade Launchers – M79, M203, and M320 (2017), p. 20. * M203 grenade launcher * M19 Mortar 60 mm * M29 Mortar 81 mm * M18 Claymore anti-personnel mines == See also == * Cambodian Navy SEALs ==Notes== ==References== *Kenneth Conboy, FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975, Equinox Publishing (Asia) Pte Ltd, Djakarta 2011. *Kenneth Conboy, Kenneth Bowra, and Mike Chappell, The War in Cambodia 1970-75, Men-at-arms series 209, Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1989. *Kenneth Conboy and Simon McCouaig, South-East Asian Special Forces, Elite series 33, Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1991. *Sak Sutsakhan, The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse, U.S. Army Center of Military History, Washington D.C. 1980. – available online at Part 1Part 2Part 3 Part 4. ===Secondary sources=== *Gordon L. Rottman and Ron Volstad, US Army Special Forces 1952-84, Elite series 4, Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1985. *Gordon L. Rottman and Ron Volstad, US Army Rangers & LRRP units 1942-87, Elite series 13, Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1987. *Gordon L. Rottman and Ron Volstad, Vietnam Airborne, Elite series 29, Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1990. *Gordon L. Rottman and Kevin Lyles, Green Beret in Vietnam 1957–73, Warrior series 28, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2002. *Gordon L. Rottman, US Grenade Launchers – M79, M203, and M320, Weapon series 57, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2017. *Kevin Lyles, Vietnam ANZACs – Australian & New Zealand Troops in Vietnam 1962-72, Elite series 103, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2004. ==External links== *Khmer National Armed Forces veterans site *Cambodian camouflage patterns 1953-1975 *List of Khmer SF camouflage patterns 1971-75 Category:Military history of Cambodia Category:Special forces of Cambodia Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1975 |
Ru (), sometimes referred as (), (), and (), is a form of traditional Chinese upper garment, or coat, or jacket, which typically has a right closure; however, some of them can also have a front central opening. It is a daily upper garment for women of the Han Chinese ethnic. It can be worn in combination with a skirt in a style called , or a pair of trousers in a style called . The shape and structure of Chinese upper garment, generally referred as (), varied depending on the time period. Clothing style which overlaps and closes to the right originated in China and are referred as being (). The style of which overlaps at the front and closes on the right right in a y-shaped, is known as () and started to be worn in the Shang dynasty. Since then the had been one of the major symbols of the Sino Kingdom and eventually spread throughout Asia. The structure of the jackets worn in the late Qing shared some features of those worn by the Han ethnics in the Ming dynasty. Although the structure of the jacket evolved with time, these forms of jackets continued to be worn in the Republic of China. After the 1930s, these forms of upper garment lost popularity and decreased in use, as qipao and Western dress became more popular. They regained popularity in the 21st century following the Hanfu movement. == Terminology == === === The term () generally refers to clothing. In ancient times, the term referred to an upper outer garment. The term appeared early on in ancient texts to refer to upper garments, such as in the , in the Mao Commentary, in the Analects, and in the I Ching. === / / / === The term () has sometimes been used as a synonym word for the clothing items () and (). ==== and ==== The can refer to both a long or short jacket. The also had different names depending on its characteristics, such as its length and the presence or absence of lining. The (), when referring to a short jacket, can be found with either short or long sleeves. A short is also known as (); a type of is the () which is waist-length. In the Mawangdui Silk Manuscripts, the character 《》refers to a 'short coat'. The also described the as being a form of (. It is also described as a common form of in the . In the Han dynasty, the could be unlined, lined or padded. According to the , a is a padded jacket, which is soft and warm; a () is described as being similar to a which does not have cotton wadding. There is also the term () which appear in texts and has been described as the precursor of the by scholars. According to the , however, the can also be a form of . In the Zhou dynasty, a long was referred as the while the referred to with lining and which was similar to the in terms of form. According to the , a () is also a form of . Other forms of included the () which and could reach the knee- or the hip-level. Other terms, such as (), (), and (), also exist. ==== ==== According to the 《》written by Li Shizhen's time (1518 – 1593 AD), in ancient times, an unlined short garment, (), was called (); and in the time of Li Shizhen's time, the also came to refer to long garments (). The term () typically refers to a form an undershirt.According to Li Shizhen, who quoted the 《》by Wang Rui, the used to called (), an inner unlined garment; it changed name when the of King Han was seeped with sweat when the latter fought with Xiang yu. ==== ==== The term () appears in a Sui dynasty rime dictionary called , published in 601 AD and can be translated as "padded coat", but it can also refer to a lined upper garment. The term was sometimes used to refer to thicker forms of jacket which could be used as winter clothing. A (), for example, was a lined jacket which was used by Han Chinese women as winter clothing; the was typically worn on top of a long-length underneath. === / === The term (), sometimes pronounced (), also exists and is typically associated with the upper garment worn in military clothing called . == Construction and design == === Collar designs === The is a form of jacket or coat, which typically closes to the right and is described as being . However, some styles can be found with a front central opening which can be referred as () or zhiling (). The can also be classified as when it is cross-collared closing on the right side, when it has an overlapping big oblique lapel, when it has a slanted, big lapel, when it is squared collared, and when it is round collared. It can also be found with or without a standing collar, which is referred as . The standing collars started to be incorporated in upper garments by the late Ming dynasty. === Bodice === The length of the bodice may vary; it can be waist-length or knee-length. Slits can also be found at both sides of the lower hems of the bodice. === Sleeves === The length of the sleeves can vary in length, such as wrist-length and elbow length. The shapes of the sleeves can also vary, such as big sleeves, narrow sleeves, large cuffs, mandarin sleeves, flared sleeves. == Cultural significance == === Symbol of Chinese civilization === Clothing style which overlaps and closes to the right originated in China. Chinese robes and jackets must cover the right part in a style called (). The closure is an important symbol of the Han Chinese ethnicity. The () had been one of the major symbols of the Sino Kingdom, and eventually spread throughout Asia. ==== Composition of ==== The structure of the () may have some differences and variations in terms of features depending on time period and styles of upper garment. For example, a style of Ming dynasty have the following features: # Left side of the garment; # Right side of the garment; # Xiu (袖) - Sleeves; it is composed of the side of the body and the mei; sleeves can come in various shapes and each shape has a specific name to describe it based on its shape; # Mei (袂) - a panel of fabric attached to the left side of the garment, between the Ge (袼) and the Qu (袪); # Ren (衽) - A side panel forming the chest part area; the left-side covers the right-side, youren (右衽); # Jin (襟) - lapel (can be found on both sides; the right lapel is hidden); # Qu (袪) - Sleeves cuffs for the wrists; can be narrow or loose; # Ge (袼) - Sleeve root, the part where the sleeve is attached to the body of the garment; # Lacing/ribbons - used to tied and closed the garment; # Du (裻) - Middle seam of the clothes; it is where the Ren is sewed to side of the garment; there is also a middle seam at the back of the garments which joins the back of the left and right side of the garment called Zhongfeng (中缝); # Huling (护领)- a collar guard, it is shorter than the actual collar and is used to prevent the collar from getting dirty or wear off. === Chinese-barbarian dichotomy === The traditional way to distinguish between and is by looking at the direction of the collar. In Ancient China, some ethnic minorities had clothing which generally closed on the left side in a way referred as (). This can be found in the Analects where Confucius himself praised Guan Zhong for preventing the weakened Zhou dynasty from becoming barbarians: Unbound hair and coats which were closed on the left side were associated with the clothing customs of the northern nomadic ethnic groups which were considered as barbarians by the Han Chinese. Therefore, the were used to refer to and/or refer to the rule of foreign nationalities. === Exceptions === However, the rule was not always respected: for example, in some areas (such as Northern Hebei) in the 10th century, some ethnic Han Chinese could also be found wearing clothing. It was also common for the Han Chinese women to adopt under the reign of foreign nationalities, such as in the Yuan dynasty; the use of also continued in some areas of the Ming dynasty despite being Han-Chinese ruled dynasty, which is an atypical feature. Some non-Chinese ethnicities who also adopted -style sometimes maintain their lapels, such as the Khitans in the Liao dynasty. ==== Funeral practices ==== The only moment Han Chinese is supposed to use is when they dressed their deceased. This is due to ancient Chinese beliefs in the Yin and Yang theory, where it is believed that the left is the aspect and stands for life whereas the right is the which stands for death. Based on this belief, the left lapel needs to be outside (i.e. -style) to indicate that the power of is suppressing the , which therefore symbolized the clothing of living people. However, if surpasses (i.e. -style), then clothing becomes the clothing worn by the deceased. It is therefore typically taboo in Chinese clothing for a living person to wear . == History == Clothing style with () closure originated in China. Prior to the Eastern Han, the was the most common form of short robe for both men and women; however, the was preferred by women afterwards. The long could reach the knee-level whereas the short ru was waist-length. The could be found unlined, lined or padded. === Shang dynasty === left|thumb|184x184px|A standing dignitary wearing , consisting of over , Shang dynasty. The () started to be worn in the Shang dynasty. According to historical documents and archaeological findings, the basic form of clothing during Shang was . In the Shang dynasty, the was long reaching the knee-level and would be worn over a skirt called ; the worn by slaveholders had tight sleeves and were also closed on the right side following the -style. === Zhou dynasty === In the Zhou dynasty, there were various forms of as a generic term of upper garments. A typical form of was the . The had different names in this period depending on its characteristics such as length and lining: referred to the long-length ; () referred to the short-length ; referred to the with a lining and was therefore suitable to protect its wearer from the cold in winter if it was filled with silk or flax; the was similar to the in form. === Han dynasty and Three Kingdom period === In the Han dynasty, short waist- length could be worn with trousers or skirts by men and women respectively. In the Han and Wei dynasties, the sleeves of the could be wide or narrow; the was closed to the right. A form of which appeared in the Han and Wei period was a new type of gown which had equal front pieces which were straight instead of being and was fastened with a string; it was also a form of unlined upper garment with straight sleeves and wide cuffs. This was worn by men and women and became popular as it was more convenient for wearing. File:Guardians of Day and Night, Han Dynasty.jpg|Guardians of day and night, Han Dynasty. File:Dahuting mural, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|Women wearing jacket (ru) under their skirts. Eastern Han. === Jin dynasty, Northern and Southern dynasties period === === Sui and Tang dynasties === ==== Tang dynasty ==== The , , and were common garment items for women in the Tang dynasty. The (as a short jacket) and (as an unlined short robe) were used for ceremonial and daily clothing by women. Some jackets in Tang dynasty could be found with narrow sleeves, while other upper garments could be found with loose sleeves. The Tang dynasty could also be a tight jacket or a cotton-padded jacket, which could have embroidered golden line as embellishment at the collar and sleeves or could sometimes be decorated with silk damask. were also worn by women in this period; a form of was the which became popular when the -style declined in popularity. File:韋貴妃墓壁畫1.jpg|Woman wearing jiaoling youren jacket, Tang dynasty. File:Chou Fang 003.jpg|Paintings of women wearing daxiushan (大袖衫) during the Tang dynasty. === Song dynasty === In the Song dynasty, the (shirt with large/broad sleeves) was a form of fashionable formal clothing. Song dynasty, women wore jackets and jackets. The short ru was a daily garment item for women; the closures of the short ru were found either on the left or right of the front of the garment. Clothing worn by the Northern Song dynasty people living in Kaifeng are depicted in the on the painting Qingming Festival on the River by Zhang Zeduan. This painting depicts the clothing worn by people holding different social status, ranks, and occupation: the jackets worn as outer garments were all short, about knee-length or shorter, when worn by coolies, pedlars, peasants, and boat people and children who peddled dried fruits wore short white shan. File:Song dynasty women.jpg|Song dynasty women File:Luo shan in the Song Dynasty 2011-04.JPG|Duijin shan made of luo (罗), Song dynasty. === Liao dynasty === Song dynasty-style fashion, including jackets, continued to be worn by both Han Chinese and non-elite Khitan women in the Liao dynasty; these jackets were waist-length. === Yuan dynasty === Both the and the jackets for women coexisted in the Yuan dynasty. The wearing of (instead of ) was common in the Yuan dynasty. Han Chinese women also wore (), a form of lined jacket, typically over a long-length underneath as winter clothing. === Ming dynasty === Following the end of the Yuan dynasty, the wearing of in women's clothings persisted in the Ming dynasty for at least Chinese women who lived in the province of Shanxi. Ming dynasty portrait paintings showing Chinese women dressing in jackets appeared to be characteristic of ancestral portraits from the province of Shanxi and most likely in the areas neighbouring the province. In the Ming dynasty, the as a long jacket became more prevalent at the expense of the short . According to the Discourse of Northern Learning (Pukhak ŭi; 北學議: 완역정본) by Pak Chega (1750–1805) who visited the Qing dynasty in 1778, in the Ming dynasty, Chinese women's upper garment barely covered the waist during the Hongzhi era (1488–1505); their upper garments then gradually became longer and reached below the knee-level during the Zhengde era (1506–1521). Pak Chega based his description of Chinese women's clothing by using the Records of Daily Study (Rizhilu) by Gu Yanwu (1613–1682), a scholar from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. File:Minggirl.jpg|Woman wearing a waist-length jacket, Ming dynasty. File:孔府藏襖裙.jpg|Waist-length jacket (ao) with pipa sleeves, Ming dynasty. File:2016-05-16 Changling-Mausoleum - Frauenjacke mit Drachen, Kinder und Blumen anagoria 01.JPG|Waist-length fangling ao (square collared jacket), Changling Tomb of the Ming Dynasty. File:Woman's lined jacket in Ming tombs (立领女夹衣).jpg|Waist-length duijin ao (lined jacket), Ming dynasty. File:Daao3.jpg|Portrait of women wearing long jiaoling youren jacket (chang'ao) decorated with buzi, Ming dynasty. File:人物像2.jpg|Noble lady wearing a round-collared jacket as upper garment and a skirt as lower garment (front) Lady-in-waiting wearing a short-sleeved round collar jacket with a skirt (left), Ming dynasty. File:Mingnoblewoman1.jpg|Noble lady wearing a round- collared jacket as upper garment and a skirt as lower garment (front) Lady-in- waiting wearing a short-sleeved round collar jacket with a skirt (left), Ming dynasty. By the late Ming dynasty, jackets with high collars, known as , started to appear. The standup collar were closed with interlocking buttons made of gold and silver, called (). The appearance of interlocking buckle promoted the emergence and the popularity of the standup collar and the Chinese jacket with buttons at the front, and laid the foundation of the use of Chinese knot buckles. In women garments of the Ming dynasty, the standup collar with gold and silver became one of the most distinctive and popular form of clothing structure; it became commonly used in women's clothing reflecting the conservative concept of Ming women's chastity by keeping their bodies covered and due to the climate changes during the Ming dynasty (i.e. the average temperature was low in China). There were at least two types of high collar jackets in the Ming dynasty: () which is jacket with high collar and closes at the front centrally, and () which is a long jacket with stand-up collar, it overlaps from the neck and closes at the right side. The is typically worn with a skirt, called . File:五品曲氏婦人官像.jpg|Noble woman wearing a long jacket with right side closure and a high collar. This is style of jacket is referred as liling dajin changshan (立领大襟长衫). File:Ming noble woman.jpg|Noble woman wearing a long jacket with right side closure and a high collar, Ming dynasty. === Qing dynasty === As Han women were not forced to change into Manchu clothing in the Qing dynasty, Han women of the Qing dynasty followed the style of female jacket worn in the Ming dynasty. The Han Chinese women carefully maintained their pure Han Chinese ethnicity and did not wear Manchu clothing. Over time, the Ming dynasty customs were gradually forgotten. The clothing of the Han and the Manchu eventually influenced each other. However, Manchu women and Han Chinese women never emulated each other's clothing; and as a result, by the end of the nineteenth century, Manchu and Han Chinese women had maintained distinctive clothing. In the early Qing, Han women continued wearing Ming dynasty hanfu; in the South, the jiaoling ao and shan continued to be worn with long skirts by most women while in the North, trousers were more common. In the mid-Qing clothing, fashionable styles were associated to those worn in the late 16th and early 17th century. According to the Discourse of Northern Learning (Pukhak ŭi; 北學議: 완역정본) by Pak Chega (1750–1805) who visited the Qing dynasty in 1778, Chinese women wore upper and lower garments which were similar to those worn in ancient paintings. Pak described the jackets had collars which were round and narrow and were fastened just below the chin; he also described them as being typically long enough to conceal the entire body although in some cases, the jacket would be long enough to be just below the knee-level. Pak also observed that the Chinese women's clothing preserved the old traditions (which were mostly intact) and which he contrasted with the Joseon women's clothing trend which he claimed to be taking more after Mongolian in style, an influence which he attributed to the close relationship between Goryeo and the Yuan dynasty and continued to exist in Joseon during his lifetime. After the Mid-Qing dynasty, Manchu clothing, called qizhuang, started to influence the women's hanfu. In the late 18th and 19th century, there was a dramatic shift in fashion aesthetics. New silhouettes were recorded in various pictorial and written sources, which were different from those worn in the Ming dynasty (i.e. loose and long layered jackets and skirts which were more unstructured), with the appearance of wider and more structured forms of Han Chinese women's jackets (including , , and ). The trend in this period was characterized on the emphasis on decorative trims and accessories which were modular and could be easily produced, purchased and then applied on the clothing (including robes, jackets, and skirts); those forms of modular features included collars, sleeve-bands and border decorations. The borders decoration in contrasting colours were used throughout the clothing history of China and were recorded early on in history (e.g. in the Liji). During this period, auspicious symbols and narrative scenery were especially made into embroidered roundels and borders and became fashionable in Han Chinese women's clothing; this new trend was an influence of the late imperial secularization of arts and culture on textiles. They were also lavished with embroideries which were based on the Chinese symbolic system, which was itself based on Chinese language, mythology, customs, and literature, and belief system (e.g. Confucianist and Taoist motifs). The wide sleeves used in the upper garment were a heritage of the Ming dynasty and a distinctive feature which differentiated Hanfu from Manchu clothing. In terms of length, the long jacket () was about below the hip level or at the knee level but were never as long as the Manchu robes, it was however longer than the waist-length jacket () which appeared to have fallen from popularity during the 18th century. thumb|Chinese women wearing different forms of ao, images extracted from Geschichte des Kostüms, published 1905. The () continued to be worn. In the late Qing, these had neither darts nor shoulder stitching; the front and back panels are connected by the shoulder, and the left and right pieces are more or less symmetrical. It has a front centre closure and then curves crossover to the right before secured with frog buttons in a style called . The front closing, collar, hem, and sleeves cuff have edging of contrasting pipings and side slits. The jackets could also be decorated with appliqué. File:Woman's Short Coat (China), early 19th century (CH 18565493).jpg|Woman's short coat decorated with a Yunjian appliqué, early 19th century. There is a small round neck opening, and overlap buttoned at neck with two ball buttons and at right side seam with three buttons File:China, late 19th century - han Woman's Coat - 1916.1356 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Han women's ao, late 19th century File:Woman's wedding costume from China, Honolulu Museum of Art 10128.1.JPG|Wedding jacket and skirt (aoqun), c. 1900. There was also a special form of ao called mangao,which was typically used as part of a type of Chinese wedding dress attire. left|thumb|Duijin yi worn by a child, Qing dynasty. The (jackets with front opening) were also worn. The in the 19th century could be round neck with no collar or have small stand-up collars.The continued to be worn in the Qing dynasty even in the 19th century by children. File:清 暗花彩緞女戯衣-Woman's Theatrical Jacket MET DP241394.jpg|Woman's theatrical jacket, Qing dynasty, 19th century. File:Child hanfu qing3.jpg|Child's cross-collared jacket, Qing dynasty. File:Child hanfu qing4.jpg|Child's cross-collared jacket, Qing dynasty. === Republic of China === In the early Republic of China, the were found with narrow sleeves; the length of the sleeves could be found wrist- length, and higher standing collar (e.g. saddle/ingot collar or ear-length collar). These high collars were gradually lowered. After the May 4th Movement, these high collars were abandoned due to their inconvenience. In the 1920s, the jackets had curved lower hem at the waist-hip region and low standing collar; it was a component of the ). After the 1930s, these forms of upper garments lost popularity and decreased in use, as they were replaced by qipao and Western dress. File:Wei shiyi.jpg|Woman wearing dajin youren jacket (ao) with skirt, 1920. == 21st century == Following the Hanfu movement in 2003, many various forms, shapes, and styles of Hanfu upper garments have reappeared and regained popularity. File:Jili2.jpg|alt=|Liling dajin changshan (left) and Jiaoling youren duan ao (right), Ming-style, 2013 File:People wearing Hanfu at IDO32 (20200118143522).jpg|alt=|Yellow fangling (square collared) ao, 2020 File:Los estudiantes en el Parque del lago Gantang.jpg|alt=|Pink waist-length yuanlingshan with decorative roundels and jiaoling youren ao, Ming style, 2021 == Influences and derivatives == === East Asia === thumb|Japanese woman wearing a white kimono and hibakama. The closure was adopted by the Japanese in 718 through the Yoro Code which stipulated that all robes had to be closed from the left to the right in a typical Chinese way thumb|Excavated jeogori which overlaps at the front and closes to the right. The closure was also adopted by the Koreans during the Three Kingdoms period who changed the closure of their jeogori from left to right by imitating Chinese jackets; the right closure is a feature which still exists in present-days hanbok. Initially, the jeogori closed at the front, then switched to a left closure before eventually closing to the right side. Closing the jeogori to the right has become standard practice since the sixth century AD. King Hyonjong of Goryeo had been said to have composed a poem in 1018 stating, "Had it not been for Kang, evermore would our coats on the left be bound", when Kang Kamch'an won against the invading Khitan. The Chinese Ming dynasty also bestowed the ceremonial attire and daily clothing to the Joseon queens from the reign of King Munjong to the reign of King Seonjo whenever a new king was enthroned; the bestowed clothing included (襖, called o in Korea), qun (裙, called gun in Korean), and dansam (unlined jacket). The Vietnamese used to wear the áo giao lĩnh (cross-collared robe) which were identical to those worn by Han Chinese people before adopting the precursor of the aodai (known as Áo ngũ thân), a loose-fitting shirt with a stand-up collar and a diagonal right side closure which run from the neck to the armpit and trousers. The standing-up collar and diagonal right closure are two features inspired by Chinese and Manchu clothing. The change in upper garment style along with the adoption of Chinese-style trousers was decreed by the Nguyen Lords who ruled the south region of Vietnam and who wanted to differentiate their people from those living in the north and were ruled by the Trinh Lords. File:世界人物圖卷 越南人.jpg|Two women wearing Áo giao lĩnh in Tonkin around the 1700s. File:Ao ngu than on postcard dated 1904.JPG|Vietnamese women wearing ao ngu than, the precuror of aodai, 1904. The people of Ryukyu wore cross-collar upper garment called dujin (胴衣; ドゥジン), which was only worn by members of the Ryukyu royal family and by the upper-class warrior families. The old-style dujin was initially more Chinese in style before gradually becoming more Japanese in style. File:Zhong Shan Chuan Xin Lu Clothes.jpg|Illustration of Ryukyu upper clothing called Jin (衣) by the people of Ryukyu, 1721, from the Zhongshan chuanxinlu《中山傳信錄》; Men and women wore similar form of jin. File:Dujin-kakan.jpg|Ryukyu woman wearing Chinese-style dujin (胴衣; ドゥジン) upper garment and skirt (called kakan) === America and Europe === British fashion had incorporated key elements from the construction design of Chinese clothing, including the use of wide sleeves and side closure; these designs were then adapted to meet the aesthetic tastes of Europeans. The design of wrap-style closure or neckline, known as () in China, in European garments was the results of the heavy influences of Orientalism which was popular in the 19th century. Chinese also influenced various designs and styles of in the United States. Chinese jackets with wrap closure also influenced American fashion in the early 1900s; an example of such jacket is the (#4777), which appeared in American women's magazine, The Delineator, in 1901. In volume 57, The Delineator described it as being "Ladies' Chinese dressing", and as having "a strong suggestion of the Orient". The was designed to be loose-fitting, a wrap closure on the left side (known as in China) which closes with satin ribbon ties; it also featured deep side vents, which was considered as being a "novel effect", and was trimmed with a single band creating a fancy outline. The of Volume 57 (#4777) reappeared in Volume 58 of The Delineator along with another Chinese-style inspired wrap top (#3920), one of which closed on the right side (known as in China) with a single ribbon. The Ladies' Chinese dressing sac #3920 appeared at least a year earlier and was published in Volume 56 of The Delineator of 1900. Likewise, Japanese Kimono-style with wrap closure, also influenced American summer fashion in the early 1900s; these became known as Misses' or girls' Japanese wrapper or lounging-robe. thumb|Chinese-style garments, including Chinese tops, designed by US designers in 1910s, published from the Chinese Summer dress from Ladies’ Home Journal of June 1913: Vol 30 Issue 6, page 26 and 27 There are also photographic evidences of Chinese robes being used outside its wearer's home as fashion items with little or no adaption from the 1920s. The loosening of women's fashion found in the 1920s loose-fitting fashion, especially the disappearance of nipped-in corset, appears to have also been influenced by the loose lines and roomy armholes of the traditional Chinese robes and jackets along with other factors, such as the experience of freedoms of elite women at that time, the sportswear-designs of Chanel, and the garment designs by Paul Poiret who designed Middle-Eastern inspired garments. == Usage == * Shanku * Ruqun == See also == * Áo giao lĩnh * Banbi * Bijia * Beizi * Paofu * Hanfu * List of Hanfu * Garment collars in Hanfu * Hufu == Notes == == References == Category:Chinese traditional clothing |
Castelseprio was the site of a Roman fort in antiquity, and a significant Lombard town in the early Middle Ages, before being destroyed and abandoned in 1287. It is today preserved as an archaeological park in the modern comune of Castelseprio, near the modern village of the same name. It is in the north of Italy, in the Province of Varese, about 50 km northwest of Milan. thumb|Visitors in the apse, 2017 The fame of Castelseprio lies in the Early Medieval frescoes contained in the apse of the small Church of Santa Maria foris portas, which were only rediscovered in 1944. These frescoes are of exceptional rarity and artistic significance, and show strong Byzantine influence. The dating of the frescoes and the origin of their painter or painters remain controversial, although the first half of the 9th century seems to be emerging as the most likely date. In 2011, the church - and the castrum with the Torba Tower - became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of a group of seven inscribed as Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568-774 A.D.). In 2006, the Italian Ministry of Culture in a submission to UNESCO, said: == History == thumb|Church of Santa Maria foris portas Castelseprio originated as a Roman fort that commanded an important crossroad. During the early Middle Ages, the Lombards occupied the Roman fort, turning it into a fortified citadel or small town. At one point coins were minted there - a sign of its importance. The Church of Santa Maria foris portas ("foris portas" meaning "outside the gates" in Latin) which contains the famous frescoes, lay just outside the walls of the citadel. The early dedication of the church to Mary is an assumption; the first documented mention of a church dedicated to Mary in Castelseprio (which is assumed to be this one) comes from the 13th century. The whole citadel was completely destroyed by Ottone Visconti, Archbishop of Milan, after he captured it in 1287, to prevent it being used again by his rivals. Investigations into the church, which began in 1934, finally uncovered the famous Byzantinesque frescoes below later plaster in 1944. The whole area is now an archaeological zone containing the remains of the walls and of the much larger three-aisled 5th-century Basilica of San Giovanni Evangelista. There is also a baptistry of the 5th to 7th centuries dedicated to St. John the Baptist. This has two fonts, perhaps for the use of different Rites, and is octagonal with a small apse to the east. A third Church of San Paolo has a central hexagonal plan and was built between the 6th and 12th centuries. There are some ruins left from the castle. Nearby is a large tower, once used as a convent. ==Frescoes == thumb|The rear of the church, with the apse. When the Church of Santa Maria foris portas was investigated in 1944, it was found to contain, as well as later frescoes, a highly important and sophisticated cycle of fresco paintings showing very strong Byzantine influence. ===Style=== It is thought by some scholars, including Leveto, that two different hands can be detected, but the origins of these artists are uncertain and subject to speculation. The frescoes are sophisticated, expressive and confident. The artists adapt traditional compositional types to the particular site without strain or disproportion. Poses are natural and rhythmic, and the whole has "a great ardor and conviction, an intense response to the human meaning of the subject" (Schapiro). While some aspects of the frescoes, notably the iconography, are clearly Byzantine, others may draw on the Christian art of Syria or Egypt. The frescoes also have significant aspects which relate most closely to the late antique art of Italy. Several of the buildings are successfully foreshortened, and the relationship between buildings and figures is more effectively managed than in most Byzantine painting. The painting is done with unusual freedom compared to most Byzantine work; it is this feature in particular which relates to much earlier works from the late antiquity such as paintings found in the catacombs of Rome. thumb|The Nativity scene Some art historians see the style as coming from the tradition of Alexandria, from which no other painting on a similar scale remains. John Beckwith is somewhat less enthusiastic than some art historians, describing the frescos as "wholly competent" and worthy of comparison with 7th century works in RomeBeckwith, 156 He believed the "drapery folds ... a complex series of angular ridges emphasized by highlights ... make a decidedly metallic impression, and betray the copyist, who foreshadows in a disturbing way tenth-century mannerisms".Beckwith, 157 ===Subjects=== The Byzantinesque frescoes are located around the curved wall of the apse, and the inward surface of the arch between the apse and the main body of the church. The condition of the frescoes is variable; some parts are well-preserved whilst others are missing completely, or barely visible. Much of the painted area has been pitted to provide a key for the subsequent plastering-over (see the lower area in the middle of the Presentation scene). The subjects of the missing or fragmentary scenes are a matter of some scholarly controversy with some writers proposing that these scenes made up a cycle on the Life of the Virgin, and others one on the Life of Christ; these views are described below. The frescoes are in three registers, the middle register being interrupted by three arched windows. They represent a cycle of the Nativity of Christ and may also have represented early aspects of the Life of Mary, or of Christ. The lowest register has a decorative frieze below which there are a few remains in the centre showing painted curtain railings and religious symbols. This register may not have contained figures. The upper and middle registers contain narrative paintings. The cycle may have been part of a larger scheme of decoration which once included the outer face of the arch and the other walls of the church. thumb|Trial by Bitter Water, a rare subject. Upper register of narratives: *1) Over the main arch, on the side inward to the apse, rather than in the body of the church, is a Hetoimasia,From Greek ἑτοιμασία "preparation": an iconographic motif in Christian art representing an empty throne. or Throne of God with symbols on it, in a roundel, with an archangel on either side, flying in a "victory" pose. Then, on the curved wall of the apse, reading left to right: *2) Annunciation and Visitation - right side incomplete * missing roundel, which possibly contained the bust of Mary *3) Trial by Bitter Water - left side incomplete *4) Bust of Christ Pantocrator, in a roundel over central window of the eastern apse. Below the window in the lowest register are traces of a painted exedra containing a Gospel book on a cushion.Castelseprio Website *5) Dream of Saint Joseph * missing roundel, which possibly contained the bust of John the Baptist. *6) Journey to Bethlehem - incomplete on the right Middle Register On the curved wall, reading from right to left : *7) Nativity, and Annunciation to the shepherds *8) Presentation of Jesus at the Temple Fragmentary remains of two frescoes which may have been: *9) The Flight into Egypt. or (in the Marian interpretation) The Birth of the Virgin) *10) The Massacre of the Innocents or (in the Marian interpretation) The Presentation of the Virgin at the Temple) On the two inner faces of the apsidal arch : *11) Adoration of the Magi, on the inner face of the right side of the arch. *12) on the inner face of the left side of the arch - remnants perhaps from The Dream of the Magi or (in the Marian interpretation) the Rejection of Joachim's Offerings at the Temple) Chronological sequence The alternative chronological sequences of the ten narrative scenes would run as follows: *Nativity of Christ: 2,5,3,6,7,8,11,12,9,10 *Life of Mary: 12,9,10,2,5,3,6,7,8,11 In the Marian version the three missing scenes come at the start of the story, rather than the end. Neither sequence follows a consistent chronological sequence on the wall. Joseph's (first) dream and the trial by bitter water come chronologically between the Annunciation and the Visitation. The Presentation of Jesus in the Temple should, according to Leviticus have happened on the fortieth day after the birth. The timing of the visit of Magi is not mentioned in the Gospels, and apocryphal writings placed it between seven days and two years after the Nativity. The Eastern church, and by the Gothic period the Western church also, at least in art, placed it very soon after the birth, so that the Magi, like the shepherds, are included in Nativity scenes themselves. At this date, however, the Western church tended to place the arrival of the Magi later, though certainly before the Flight to Egypt and the Massacre of the Innocents. Some departure from chronology to enable thematic or typological connections to be emphasised is a common feature of medieval picture cycles. ====The Marian interpretation==== thumb|left|400px|Joseph's Dream scene Some scholars, notably P.D. Leveto,Leveto op cit. interpret the cycle as being "Marian", that is, part of the Life of Mary, rather than specifically representing those scenes associated with the Nativity. Evidence for this interpretation is the presence of the rarely depicted scene of the "Trial by Bitter Water". With this interpretation, the three missing narrative scenes would have had a different content, and the sequence itself would be differently ordered, moving from the left-hand side of the arch to the first two scenes of the lower register, through the top register and then to lower right-hand scenes and finishing with the Magi scene on the opposite side of the arch. In this proposed arrangement, the two scenes of the Birth and Presentation at the Temple of Mary are visually balanced with each other, whilst the Presentation and the Trial by water above it are concerned with Mary's virginity. Also balanced are the two scenes of offerings on either side of the arch wall; in both cases the figures are placed to make their offerings away from the empty arched space, to keep the visual attention focused within the apse. ===Dating=== In 1950, soon after the frescoes were first discovered, a poll of the scholars who attended a conference in Castelseprio showed a rough split between dates in the 7th and 10th century, although the extreme range of dates that have been suggested stretches from the 6th to the 14th century - an almost unprecedented range in medieval art history. Since that time, the range of possible dates has narrowed significantly. Radio-carbon dating of timber and thermoluminescent dating of roof tiles suggest that the church was built in the early to mid-ninth century.Leveto. n.2 - The average estimated date for the tiles was 828, and the timber gave 865 +/- 87, so between 778 and 952. While providing a reasonably sound date for the church structure, this can only be "terminus post quem" for the frescoes, which may have been added later. However, the rough finish on the interior stonework leads many scholars to believe that the frescoes were added as part of the original building programme. thumb|Bust of Christ. A "terminus ante quem" was provided by the discovery of graffiti scratched into the fresco plaster recording a number of clerical appointments, the earliest of which is dated (by the name of the presiding Archbishop of Milan) to 948 at the latest. Many writers feel that a certain interval must have elapsed after the painting of the cycle before the clergy would have treated the paintings in this way. Many art historians have pointed to a relationship between the frescoes and two closely related manuscripts, namely the Joshua Roll (Vatican Library, Ms palatine gr. 431) and the Paris Psalter (Bibliothèque nationale de France Ms Grec. 139) . However, the dating of both manuscripts is likewise controversial. The art historians Kurt Weitzmann and Meyer Schapiro agreed that the artistic quality of the frescoes is superior to that of either manuscript. Kurt Weitzmann preferred a date shortly before 945, and postulated a connection with a marriage between a Lombard princess and a Byzantine prince, which took place in 944. He favoured as the artist an unknown Constantinopolitan artist, trained in the same workshop as the artists of the two manuscripts, on a visit in connection with the marriage. Schapiro preferred a date between the 7th and 9th centuries, in 1957 settling on the 8th century. Most recent writers, relying on the analysis of the timber and roof tiles mentioned above, prefer the first half of the 9th century. Some writers believe the work may have been done by Greek refugees long settled in Italy, or by Italians trained by such artists. Others believe that artists fresh from the Byzantine world were responsible. ===Aspects of the works=== Almost every aspect of the frescoes, from the clothing to the treatment of the nimbus or halo around the infant Christ, has been analysed and compared to other works in great detail. Some examples are: * The inscriptions naming various figures are in Latin, and in Roman script, but the midwife at the Nativity is named as "EMEA", the "E" ("H" in the Greek alphabet) being a form of the Greek for "the". In the Byzantine period it is common to find Greek inscriptions naming figures in paintings which include the definite article. The Greek form of the inscription would be: "H MAIA". * The treatment of the architectural elements within the paintings has been compared to Hellenizing work produced for Moslem patrons in the 8th century, at the Great Mosque in Damascus and elsewhere. * The legend of the doubting midwife, whose withered arm is miraculously cured, shown in the Nativity scene, probably appears only in art from the West during this period. * The Ordeal of the bitter water is otherwise extremely rare in Western iconography, and this is one of the latest of the few Byzantine depictions.G. Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, p. 56 & figs, . Schapiro mentions also 10th-century frescoes in Cappadocia. Schiller describes this scene as "unknown in Western iconography" (p57), but there is a miniature of it in a French 13th century Life of the Virgin in St Petersberg (Fr.Fv.XIV.9 F8r), illustrated in T. Voronova and A Sterligov, Western European Illuminated Manuscripts (in the St Petersberg Public Library), 2003, Sirocco, London The legend comes from the apocryphal Protoevangelium of James and occurs, in the fully developed story, after the Dream of Joseph, in which an angel reassures Joseph who is disturbed to discover Mary's pregnancy, since he knows he has not slept with her. In the legend, others also notice the pregnancy and to dispel gossip and accusations, the priests of the Temple (where Mary had formerly been a temple maid) make the couple undergo the trial of drinking "bitter water" — their reaction to which will prove or disprove their innocence. Naturally they pass. The idea of the trial is clearly based on Numbers 5, 11 ff.Schiller op. cit p57 The legend was part of some Western medieval religious dramas, in which the "detractors" then drank the water, with horrible results. An example is the N-town Pageant series manuscript in the British Library, London (BL MS Cotton Vespasian D.8), which is mid-15th century from the East Midlands of England.Modernised version of the text of the scene from the N-town Pageant series in the British Library, London (BL MS Cotton Vespasian D.8). Mid-15th century from the East Midlands of England. See also Introduction page on the site. File:Maestro di castelseprio, storie dell'infanzia di cristo, datazione incerta tra l'830 e il 950 dc ca., 16 adorazione dei magi 1.jpg|Adoration of the Magi File:Maestro di castelseprio, storie dell'infanzia di cristo, datazione incerta tra l'830 e il 950 dc ca., 18 scena illeggibile.jpg|Uncertain scene, below the trial File:Maestro di castelseprio, storie dell'infanzia di cristo, datazione incerta tra l'830 e il 950 dc ca., 12 arcone con arcangeli ed etimasia 4.jpg|Hetoimasia File:Maestro di castelseprio, storie dell'infanzia di cristo, datazione incerta tra l'830 e il 950 dc ca., 15 natività 5 levatrici.jpg|Detail of the Nativity, the two midwives bathing Jesus File:Maestro di castelseprio, storie dell'infanzia di cristo, datazione incerta tra l'830 e il 950 dc ca., 15 natività 6 annuncio ai pastori 1.jpg|Detail of the Nativity, the Annunciation to the Shepherds File:Maestro di castelseprio, storie dell'infanzia di cristo, datazione incerta tra l'830 e il 950 dc ca., 11 prova delle acque, redentore e sogno di giuseppe.jpg|Centre of the apse File:Maestro di castelseprio, storie dell'infanzia di cristo, datazione incerta tra l'830 e il 950 dc ca., 04.jpg|Chencel arch, from the apse File:CEMS - Trip to Milan 57.jpg|Corner of the apse ==Notes== ==References== *Beckwith, John, Early Christian and Byzantine Art, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 2nd edn. 1979, *The Frescoes of Castelseprio (1952 & 1957) in Meyer Schapiro, Selected Papers, volume 3, Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art, pp 67–142, 1980, Chatto & Windus, London, , originally in The Art Bulletin, June 1952 and Dec 1957. *P.D. Leveto, The Marian theme of the frescoes in S. Maria at Castelseprio, PD Leveto Art Bulletin 72 (1990), 393-413 (JSTOR) ==Further reading== * The Fresco Cycle of S. Maria di Castelseprio by Kurt Weitzmann, 1951, Princeton. * M. Colaone, Il Seprio. I luoghi, la storia, il mistero di una regione nascosta, Monza, Menaresta Editore, 2011. . * There is a very full bibliography on the official website - "Bibliografia" page. ==External links== * Official site — one page in English, but Italian version is very full, with maps, history, bibliography etc. For fresco pictures, click "I monumenti", then "Il ciclo di pitture" on the menu band below. * PD Leveto article in JStor (subscription only beyond first page, which itself has useful information). Category:World Heritage Sites in Italy Category:Byzantine art Category:Fresco paintings in Lombardy Category:Roman towns and cities in Italy Category:Buildings and structures in Lombardy Category:Parks in Lombardy Category:Museums in Lombardy Category:Archaeological museums in Italy Category:Open-air museums in Italy Category:Archaeological sites in Lombardy Category:Ghost towns in Italy Category:National museums of Italy |
This is a sortable table of the townlands in the barony of Imokilly, County Cork, Ireland.The IreAtlas townland database. Retrieved: 2010-09-10.Irish Placenames Database. Retrieved: 2010-09-10. Duplicate names occur where there is more than one townland with the same name in the barony, and also where a townland is known by two alternative names. Names marked in bold typeface are towns and villages, and the word Town appears for those entries in the area column. ==Townland list== Townland Area (acres) Barony Civil parish Poor law union Aghada (Lower) Town Imokilly Aghada Midleton Aghada (Upper) Town Imokilly Aghada Midleton Aghada align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Aghadoe align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Aghavine align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Annistown align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Ardnabourkey align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Ardnahinch align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Ardra Beg align="right" Imokilly Rostellan Midleton Ardra More align="right" Imokilly Rostellan Midleton Attiquin align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Aughane align="right" Imokilly Rostellan Midleton Bakersclose align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Ballinacarroonig align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Ballinbeg align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Ballincourlea align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Ballincurrig align="right" Imokilly Titeskin Midleton Ballindinis align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Ballindinis align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Midleton Ballindinis align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Ballingarrane align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Ballingarrane align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballinrostig Town Imokilly Rostellan Midleton Ballinrostig align="right" Imokilly Rostellan Midleton Ballinteosig align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballintotis align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Ballintra East align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Ballintra West align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Ballintrim align="right" Imokilly Titeskin Midleton Ballinvarrig Lower align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Ballinvarrig Upper align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Ballinvoher align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Ballinvoher align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballinwillin align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballyandreen Town Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Ballyandreen align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Ballybane align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballybraher align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballybraher align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Ballybraher align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Ballybranagan align="right" Imokilly Titeskin Midleton Ballybranagh align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballybutler align="right" Imokilly Garryvoe Midleton Ballycarnane align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Ballycatoo align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Ballyclamasy align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Ballycolman align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballycottin Town Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballycottin align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballycottin Island (small) align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballycottin Island align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballycrenane align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballycrenane align="right" Imokilly Kilcredan Midleton Ballycrenane Beg align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Ballycroneen East align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballycroneen West align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballycurraginny align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Ballydaheen align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Ballydaheen align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballydaniel align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballydaniel align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Ballydavid align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballydekin align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Ballyduff align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballydwyre align="right" Imokilly Rostellan Midleton Ballyfin align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Ballyfin align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballyfleming align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Ballygeany align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballygibbon align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Ballyglassin align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Ballyglavin align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballygrunna align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballyhimikin align="right" Imokilly Garryvoe Midleton Ballyhobert align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Ballyhonock align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Ballyhonock align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Ballyhook align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Ballykenefick align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Ballykilty align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Ballykineally align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Ballyknock align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballyknock align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballyknock align="right" Imokilly Trabolgan Midleton Ballyknock align="right" Imokilly Dungourney Midleton Ballylanders align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Ballyling align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Ballyloagane align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Ballymacandrick align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Ballymacandrick align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballymacask align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Ballymackibbot align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballymacoda Town Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Ballymacoda align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Ballymacooly Beg align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Ballymacooly More align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Ballymacotter align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Ballymadog align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Ballymakeagh align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Ballymakeagh Beg align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Ballymakeagh More align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Ballymaloe Beg align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Ballymaloe More align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Ballynacarriga align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Ballynacarriga align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Ballynacorra Town Imokilly Midleton Midleton Ballynacorra align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Ballynacorra East align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Ballynacorra West align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Ballynafarsid align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Ballynaheila align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballynalahagh align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Ballynametagh align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Ballynamona align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Ballynascarty align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Ballyneague align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Ballynookery align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Ballyonane align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballypherode align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Ballyquirk align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Ballyre align="right" Imokilly Dangandonovan Midleton Ballyregan align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballyriorthy align="right" Imokilly Dungourney Midleton Ballyrobin North align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Ballyrobin South align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Ballyroe align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballyrussell align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Ballyshane align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Ballysimon align="right" Imokilly Dungourney Midleton Ballyskibbole align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Ballysovane align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Ballytibbot align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Ballytigeen align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Ballytrasna align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Ballyvaloon align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Ballyvergan East align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Ballyvergan West align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Ballyvorisheen align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Ballywilliam align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Banshy align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Barnabrow align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Barnageehy East align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Barnageehy West align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Barnaviddane align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Barnfield align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Barradaw align="right" Imokilly Dangandonovan Midleton Bawnadoune align="right" Imokilly Dungourney Midleton Bawnard East align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Bawnard West align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Bawnmore align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Beanfield align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Bohillane align="right" Imokilly Bohillane Midleton Breeda align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Bridgefield align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Bridgetown align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Brooklodge align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Broomfield East align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Broomfield West align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Buckstown align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Burgary align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Burges Lower align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Burges Upper align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Butlerstown align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Cahermone align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Caherultan align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Capel Island align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Carewswood align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Carhoo align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Carlislefort align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Carrigacrump align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Carrigagour align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Carriganass align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Carrigarostig align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Carrigatogher align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Carrigeennamoe align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Carrigkilter align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Carriglusky align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Carriglusky align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Carrignashinny align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Carrigshane align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Castlemartyr Town Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Castlemartyr Town Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Castlemartyr align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Castlemartyr align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Castlemary align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Castleredmond align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Castlerichard align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Castletown align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Churchtown Town Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Churchtown align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Clashadunna East align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Clashadunna West align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Clasharinka align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Clashdermot East align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Clashdermot West align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Clasheel align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Claycastle align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Clonard East align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Clonard West align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Clonmaine align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Clonpriest East align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Clonpriest West align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Cloyne Town Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Cock-and-the-Bull align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Colerenagh align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Commons East align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Commons West align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Coolaha align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Coolbea align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Coolcap align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Coolcloghafinna align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Copperalley align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Coppingerstown align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Corbally align="right" Imokilly Dangandonovan Youghal Corbally align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Corkbeg align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Cornaveigh align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Cornaveigh align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Couragh align="right" Imokilly Dungourney Midleton Creighmore align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Crocane align="right" Imokilly Rostellan Midleton Crowbally align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Curragh align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Curraghboy align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Curraghishal align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Curraghleagh align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Curragrine align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Curraheen align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Deer Park align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Demesne align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Donickmore align="right" Imokilly Clonmult Midleton Dooneenmacotter align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Dower align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Dower align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Drishane Beg align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Drishane More align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Dromadda Beg align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Dromadda East align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Dromadda More align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Dromdihy align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Drominane align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Dromsarane align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Dunsfort align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Dysart align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Farrannamanagh align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Farrantrenchard align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Farsid Town Imokilly Aghada Midleton Finisk align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Finisk align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Finure align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Fortyacres align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Midleton Foxhole align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Garrananassig align="right" Imokilly Bohillane Midleton Garranejames align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Garranekinnefeake align="right" Imokilly Garranekinnefeake Midleton Garrymore align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Garryoughtragh North align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Garryoughtragh South align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Garryvoe Lower align="right" Imokilly Garryvoe Midleton Garryvoe Upper align="right" Imokilly Garryvoe Midleton Gearagh align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Glanagow align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Glanaradotia align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Glanturkin align="right" Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Glebe align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Glebe align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Glebe align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Glenane Beg align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Glenane More align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Glenane Wood align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Glenaphuca align="right" Imokilly Dungourney Midleton Glenawilling align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Glenbradagh align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Glennageare East align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Glennageare West align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Gortaroo align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Gortavadda align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Gortavella align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Gortcorcoran align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Gortnagappul align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Gortnagark align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Gortnahomna Beg align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Gortnahomna More align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Gortnaskehy align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Gortstoke align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Grange align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Greencloyne align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Gurteenina align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Gurteenina align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Gyleen Town Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Hermitage align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Ightermurragh align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Imokishy align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Inch align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Inchanapisha align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Inchiquin align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Innygraga align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Jamesbrook align="right" Imokilly Garranekinnefeake Midleton Kennel align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Kilballycurrane align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Kilbarraree align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Kilbeg align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Kilboy align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Kilbree align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Kilcounty align="right" Imokilly Dangandonovan Midleton Kilcraheen align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Kilcredan align="right" Imokilly Kilcredan Midleton Kilcrone align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Kilderrig align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Kilgrellane align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Killamucky align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Killeagh Town Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Killeagh align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Killeagh Gardens align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Killeennamanagh align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Killinagh align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Killurriga align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Kilmacahill align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Kilmagner align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Kilmountain align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Kilnasudry align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Kilnatoora align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Kilrush align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Kilva align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Knockacrump align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Knockadoon align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Knockadoon(Warren) align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Midleton Knockane align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Midleton Knockane align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Knockanemorney align="right" Imokilly Aghada Midleton Knockanenakirka align="right" Imokilly Dangandonovan Midleton Knockasturkeen align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Knockasturkeen align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Knockattigan align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Knockaverry align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Knockboghil align="right" Imokilly Titeskin Midleton Knockglass align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Knockgorm align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Knockgorm align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Knockgorm align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Knockgriffin (Imokilly) align="right" Imokilly Mogeesha Midleton Knockmonalea East align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Knockmonalea West align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Knocknacally align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Knocknagappagh align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Knocknamadderee align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Knocknaskagh align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Kyle align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Lady's Bridge Town Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Lady's Bridge align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Lagile align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Lahard align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Lickane align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Lisglasheen align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Lismalaghlin align="right" Imokilly Mogeely Midleton Lisquinlan align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton Lissacrue align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Lissanly align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Loughaderry align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Loughane align="right" Imokilly Bohillane Midleton Loughatalia align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Lugfree align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Lurrig align="right" Imokilly Rostellan Midleton Magnershill align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Malapardas align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Mawbrin align="right" Imokilly Titeskin Midleton Maytown align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Meelshane align="right" Imokilly Ballyoughtera Midleton Meenoughter align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal Midleton Town Imokilly Midleton Midleton Midleton Town Imokilly Mogeesha Midleton Moanlahan align="right" Imokilly Killeagh Youghal Moanroe align="right" Imokilly 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Rooskagh align="right" Imokilly Bohillane Midleton Rostellan align="right" Imokilly Garranekinnefeake Midleton Rostellan align="right" Imokilly Rostellan Midleton Scarriff align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Scartlea Town Imokilly Garranekinnefeake Midleton Scartlea Lower align="right" Imokilly Garranekinnefeake Midleton Scartlea Upper align="right" Imokilly Garranekinnefeake Midleton Schoolgardens align="right" Imokilly Ightermurragh Midleton School-land align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Sculleen align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Seafield align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Shanagarry Town Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Shanagarry align="right" Imokilly Bohillane Midleton Shanagarry North align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Shanagarry South align="right" Imokilly Kilmahon Midleton Shanakill align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Shananee align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Shanavagoon align="right" Imokilly Bohillane Midleton Sheanliss align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Sleveen align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Spital align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Springfield align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Summerfield align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Sunville align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Sweetfields align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Tead Beg align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Tead More align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Titeskin align="right" Imokilly Titeskin Midleton Townparks align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Townparks align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Trabolgan align="right" Imokilly Trabolgan Midleton Tullagh align="right" Imokilly Ballintemple Midleton Tullagh align="right" Imokilly Cloyne Midleton Tullagh align="right" Imokilly Inch Middeton Tullaheen Beg align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Tullaheen More align="right" Imokilly Inch Midleton Whitebarn align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Whitegate Town Imokilly Aghada Midleton Whitegate Town Imokilly Corkbeg Midleton Whiterock align="right" Imokilly Midleton Midleton Williamstown align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Yellowford align="right" Imokilly Kilmacdonogh Youghal Youghal Town Imokilly Youghal Youghal Youghal-lands align="right" Imokilly Youghal Youghal Youghal- park align="right" Imokilly Clonpriest Youghal Youghal-park align="right" Imokilly Ardagh Youghal ==References== Imokilly |
Frederick VI (Danish and ; 28 January 17683 December 1839) was King of Denmark from 13 March 1808 to 3 December 1839 and King of Norway from 13 March 1808 to 7 February 1814, making him the last king of Denmark–Norway. From 1784 until his accession, he served as regent during his father's mental illness and was referred to as the "Crown Prince Regent" (). For his motto he chose God and the just cause () and since the time of his reign, succeeding Danish monarchs have also chosen mottos in the Danish language rather than the formerly customary Latin. As Frederick VI had no surviving sons to succeed him (only two daughters), he was succeeded on the throne of Denmark by his half-first cousin Christian, who was his father's half-brother's son. ==Early life== ===Birth and family=== thumb|left|18th-century engraving of the newborn prince with his mother Queen Caroline Matilda The future King Frederick VI was born between 10 and 11 p.m. on 28 January 1768 in the Queen's Bedchamber at Christiansborg Palace, the royal residence in central Copenhagen. Born into the House of Oldenburg, the royal house which had ruled Denmark since its foundation there in the 15th century, he was the first child born to King Christian VII and Queen Caroline Mathilde of Denmark and Norway. He was born 15 months after his parents' wedding, the day before his father's 19th birthday, and while his mother was just 16 years old. The king had shown little interest in the queen after the marriage and only reluctantly visited her in her chambers. The king's advisors had to step in, among other things with love letters written in the king's name, in an attempt to make the marriage lead to a pregnancy and thus an heir to the throne. Frederick's father had been king for two years at the time of the birth, and as the reigning king's eldest son, Frederick automatically became crown prince at birth, and thus replaced his father's half-brother, Hereditary Prince Frederick (Arveprins Frederik), as the heir to the throne. The young prince was baptised already two days after the birth on 30 January at Christiansborg Palace by Ludvig Harboe, Bishop of Zealand, and was named after his late grandfather, King Frederick V. His godparents were King Christian VII (his father), the dowager queen Juliana Maria (his step-grandmother) and his half- uncle, Hereditary Prince Frederick. ===Childhood and upbringing=== At the time of Crown Prince Frederick's birth, conditions at the Danish court were characterized by Christian VII's increasing mental illness, including suspected schizophrenia expressed by catatonic periods. In the resulting intrigues and power struggles which followed, Christian's personal physician, the progressive and radical thinker Johann Friedrich Struensee, became the king's advisor and rose steadily in power during the late 1760s, and from 1770 to 1772, Struensee was de facto regent of the country. Struensee soon also became the confidant of Queen Caroline Mathilde, Frederick's mother, partly because during a smallpox epidemic in the autumn of 1769, in which over 1000 children died, he successfully inoculated Crown Prince Frederick with good results. In doing so, Struensee won the gratitude and trust of the neglected queen and soon became her lover as well. It is widely believed that Struensee was also the biological father of Prince Frederick's only sister Princess Louise Augusta, who was born in 1771. Both the Queen and Struensee were ideologically influenced by Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire and Jean- Jacques Rousseau. Therefore, the queen also fully approved the harsh education recommended by Struensee for the crown prince, who was perceived as weak and needed to be strengthened physically and mentally. While Struensee was in power, the young Frederick was raised at Hirschholm Palace following a somewhat curious interpretation of the educational approach advocated by Rousseau in his famous work Émile. Instead of receiving direct instruction, Frederick was expected to learn everything through his own efforts through playing with two commoner boys as per Struensee's instructions. thumb|upright|Crown Prince Frederick 6 years old. The general ill will against Struensee found expression in a conspiracy against him in the name of the Queen Dowager Juliana Maria, and in the early morning of 17 January 1772 Struensee was deposed in a palace coup. Struensee was later executed, while the king and queen were divorced. Queen Caroline Mathilde was exiled, and the four-year-old Frederick and his sister were left behind, never to see their mother again. After the revolt against Struensee, Frederick's 18-year-old half-uncle Hereditary Prince Frederick was made regent. The real power, however, was held by Hereditary Prince Frederick's mother (Crown Prince Frederick's step-grandmother), Queen Dowager Juliana Maria, aided by Ove Høegh-Guldberg. Frederick was raised under the supervision of Margrethe Marie Thomasine Numsen. ==Crown prince's regency== ===The coup d'état in 1784=== Already in 1782, Crown Prince Frederick came in contact with the minister Andreas Peter Bernstorff, who had been dismissed two years earlier. Later the crown prince entered into a conspiracy with other disaffected persons who were in opposition to the government. Despite the crown prince's age, the government deliberately postponed his confirmation that would confirm the crown prince's adult status. But in 1784, as Crown Prince Frederik turned 16, it could no longer be postponed, and he was finally confirmed on 4 April, and was declared of legal majority. Already, on 14 April 1784, he proceeded to seize the full powers of the regency, dismissing the ministers loyal to the Queen Dowager. It is said that during the coup, he engaged in a fistfight with his half-uncle over the regency. He continued as regent of Denmark-Norway under his father's name until the latter's death in 1808. ===Reforms=== During the first years of the regency, Frederick instituted widespread liberal reforms in the spirit of enlightened absolutism with the assistance of Chief Minister Andreas Peter Bernstorff, including the abolition of serfdom in 1788. ===Marriage=== There was speculation that he was to marry a Prussian princess, a choice supported by his step-grandmother Juliana Maria and her brother-in- law Frederick the Great. To demonstrate his independence, however, he personally selected his first-cousin Marie Sophie of Hesse-Kassel, a member of a German family with close marriage links with the royal families of both Denmark and Great Britain. They married in Gottorp on 31 July 1790 and had eight children. Their eldest daughter, Princess Caroline married her father's first cousin, Ferdinand, Hereditary Prince of Denmark. The youngest, Princess Wilhelmine, became the wife of the future Frederick VII of Denmark. None of Frederick VI's sons survived infancy and when he died, he was succeeded by his half-cousin Christian VIII of Denmark, the son of his half-uncle Prince Frederick. ===The English Wars=== Crises encountered during his reign include disagreement with the British over neutral shipping. This resulted in two British attacks on Copenhagen, the Battle of Copenhagen of 1801 and the Battle of Copenhagen of 1807. The conflict continued in the Gunboat War between Denmark-Norway and the United Kingdom, which lasted until the Treaty of Kiel in 1814. == King of Denmark and loss of Norway == On 13 March 1808, Christian VII died at the age of 59 at Rendsburg during a stay in the Duchy of Holstein. At the death of his father, Frederick finally ascended the thrones of Denmark and Norway in name also as their seventh absolute monarch at the age of 40. When the throne of Sweden seemed likely to become vacant in 1809, Frederick was interested in being elected there as well. Frederick actually was the first monarch of Denmark and Norway to descend from Gustav I of Sweden, who had secured Sweden's independence in 1520s after the period of the Kalmar Union with other Scandinavian countries. However, Frederick's brother-in-law, Prince Christian Augustus of Augustenborg, was first elected to the throne of Sweden, followed by the French Marshal Bernadotte. During the Napoleonic Wars, he tried to maintain neutrality; however, after the British bombardment of Copenhagen, he allied Denmark-Norway with Napoleon.A. N. Ryan, "The Causes of the British Attack upon Copenhagen in 1807." English Historical Review (1953): 37–55. in JSTOR After the French defeat in Russia in 1812, the Allies again asked him to change sides but he refused. Many historians portray the king as stubborn, incompetent, and motivated by a misconceived loyalty towards Napoleon. However, some historians in recent years have provided a different interpretation that sheds a better light on the king. He stayed with Napoleon in order to protect the exposed situation of Norway, which was dependent on grain imports and had become the target of Swedish territorial ambitions. He expected the wars would end with a great international conference in which Napoleon would have a major voice, and would help protect the crown's interests, especially in Norway.Michael Bregnsbo, "The motives behind the foreign political decisions of Frederick VI during the Napoleonic Wars," Scandinavian Journal of History (2014) 39#3 pp 335–352 After the French defeat in the Napoleonic Wars in 1814 and the loss of the Norwegian crown (as a result of the Treaty of Kiel), Frederick VI carried through an authoritarian and reactionary course, giving up the liberal ideas of his years as a prince regent. Censorship and suppression of all opposition together with the poor state of the country's economy made this period of his reign somewhat gloomy, though the king himself in general maintained his position of a well-meaning autocrat. From the 1830s the economic depression was eased a bit and from 1834 the king reluctantly accepted a small democratic innovation by the creation of the Assemblies of the Estate (purely consultative regional assemblies); this had the unintended result of later exacerbating relations between Danes and Germans in Schleswig, whose regional assembly became a forum for constant bickering between the two national groups. ==Later life and succession== thumb|left|Portrait of Frederick VI in his old age, Frederick VI was known as a patron of astronomy and in 1832 offered gold medal prizes to anyone who discovered a comet using a telescope. His successors continued this until 1850. The prize was terminated in the aftermath of the Three Years' War. On 23 February 1827, he granted a Royal Charter giving Serampore College in Danish India the status of a university to confer degrees. It became the third Danish University after those in Copenhagen and Kiel. After the discovery of the Haraldskær Woman in a peat bog in Jutland in the year 1835, Frederick VI ordered a royal interment in an elaborately carved sarcophagus for the Iron Age mummy, decreeing it to be the body of Queen Gunnhild. Later this identification proved incorrect, but the action suited his political agenda at the time. Frederick VI died at the age of 71 at Amalienborg Palace and was buried in Frederick V's chapel in Roskilde Cathedral. Frederick reigned over Denmark for a total of 55 years; 24 years as crown prince regent and 31 years as king. He was the 894th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain and the 654th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1822. The Royal Frederick University (now University of Oslo) in Oslo was named in his honour. As Frederick VI had no surviving sons to succeed him (only two daughters), he was succeeded on the throne of Denmark by his half-first cousin Christian, who was his father's half-brother's son. ==Descendants== Frederick VI and his wife Marie of Hesse-Kassel were the parents of eight children, six of whom died in infancy. Two daughters grew to adulthood and neither of them had children. The eight children of Frederick and Marie were: * Christian (Copenhagen, 22 September 1791 – Copenhagen, 23 September 1791) * Marie Louise (Copenhagen, 19 November 1792 – Frederiksborg, 12 October 1793) * Caroline (Copenhagen, 28 October 1793 – Copenhagen, 31 March 1881), married to her father's first cousin Frederick Ferdinand of Denmark, (d. 1863). Childless. * Louise (Copenhagen, 21 August 1795 – Copenhagen, 7 December 1795) * Christian (Copenhagen, 1 September 1797 – Copenhagen, 5 September 1797) * Juliana Louise (Copenhagen, 12 February 1802 – Copenhagen, 23 February 1802) * Frederikke Marie (3 June 1805 – 14 July 1805) * Vilhelmine Marie (Kiel, 18 January 1808 – Glücksburg, 30 May 1891), married twice; firstly her second cousin Frederick (the future Frederick VII of Denmark), but they divorced, and she married secondly Karl, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, who was eldest brother of the future Christian IX of Denmark. Both her marriages were childless. By his mistress Frederikke Dannemand (Bente Mortensdatter Andersen (Rafsted)), King Frederick VI had these four children: * Lovisa, Countess of Dannemand (16 April 1810 – 28 December 1888), married in 1836 Wilhelm von Zachariae (6 June 1807 – 16 August 1871), and had issue * Karoline, Countess of Dannemand (1812–1844), married in 1837 Adolf Frederik Schack von Brockdorff (Vejle, 7 February 1810 – 18 October 1859), and had issue * Frederik, Count of Dannemand (20 July 1813 – 12 March 1888), married firstly in 1840 Franziska von Scholten (1820–44), without issue, married secondly in 1845 Lovisa Grefvinde Schulin (1815–1884), without issue, and married thirdly in 1884 Wilhelmina Laursen (1840–1886), without issue * Waldemar, Count of Dannemand (6 June 1819 – 4 March 1835) == Honours == He received the following orders and decorations:Kongelig Dansk Hof-og Statscalender Statshaandbog for det danske Monarchie for Aaret 1838, p. 5 (in Danish). Retrieved 10 May 2020 ==Ancestry== ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * * . * * * * == External links == * The Royal Lineage at the website of the Danish Monarchy * Frederik VI at the website of the Royal Danish Collection at Rosenborg Castle * |- Category:1768 births Category:1839 deaths Category:19th-century Norwegian monarchs Category:Norwegian monarchs Category:Dukes of Saxe- Lauenburg Category:Regents of Denmark Category:Dukes of Schleswig Category:Dukes of Holstein Category:Denmark–Norway Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary 3 3 3 Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Category:Extra Knights Companion of the Garter Category:Burials at Roskilde Cathedral Category:19th-century monarchs of Denmark Category:Grand Commanders of the Order of the Dannebrog Category:Monarchs who abdicated Category:Children of Christian VII of Denmark Category:Crown Princes of Denmark Category:Crown Princes of Norway |
thumb|300px|The ATV is commonly called a four-wheeler in Australia, South Africa, parts of Canada, India and the United States. They are used extensively in agriculture, because of their speed and light footprint. An all-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a light utility vehicle (LUV), a quad bike, or simply a quad, as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), is a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, has a seat that is straddled by the operator, and has handlebars. As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. Although it is a street-legal vehicle in some countries, it is not street- legal within most states, territories and provinces of Australia, the United States, or Canada. By the current ANSI definition, ATVs are intended for use by a single operator, but some companies have developed ATVs intended for use by the operator and one passenger. These ATVs are referred to as tandem ATVs. The rider sits on and operates these vehicles like a motorcycle, but the extra wheels give more stability at slower speeds. Although most are equipped with three or four wheels, six-wheel models exist and existed historically for specialized applications. Multiple-user analogues with side-by-side seating are called utility terrain vehicles (UTVs) or side-by-sides to distinguish the classes of vehicle. Both classes tend to have similar powertrain parts. Engine sizes of ATVs currently for sale in the United States (as of 2008 products) range from . ==History== ===19th century=== Royal Enfield built and sold the first powered four-wheeler in 1893. It had many bicycle components, including handle bars. The Royal Enfield resembles a modern ATV-style quad bike but was designed as a form of horseless carriage for road use. Royal Enfield Early History ===Six-wheeled AATVs=== The term "ATV" was originally coined to refer to non-straddle ridden, typically six-wheeled, amphibious ATVs, such as the Jiger produced by the Jiger Corporation, the Amphicat produced by Mobility Unlimited Inc, and the Terra Tiger produced by the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company in the mid-1960s and early 1970s. With the introduction of straddle ridden ATVs, the term AATV was introduced to define the original amphibious ATV category. ===Three-wheeled ATVs=== The first three-wheeled ATV was the Sperry-Rand Tricart. It was designed in 1967 as a graduate project of John Plessinger at the Cranbrook Academy of Arts near Detroit. The Tricart was straddle-ridden with a sit-in rather than sit-on style (similar to the contemporaneous Big Wheel toy). In 1968 Plessinger sold the Tricart patents and design rights to Sperry-Rand New Holland who manufactured them commercially. Numerous small American manufacturers of 3-wheelers followed. These small manufacturers were unable to compete when larger motorcycle companies like Honda entered the market in 1969. thumb|1984 Honda ATC200S, one of the many three-wheeled models made by Honda and other manufacturers Honda introduced their first sit-on straddle-ridden three-wheeled all-terrain vehicle in 1969, known as a US90, as a 1970 Model. Variations would be popularized in the James Bond movie, Diamonds Are Forever and TV shows such as Doctor Who, Magnum, P.I. and Hart to Hart. In 1973, Honda would trademark the term "All Terrain Cycle" (ATC), applying the moniker to all Honda produced Three-wheeled ATVs, and creating the universal name which now associated with all vehicles of this type. Being directly influenced by earlier 6-wheeled AATVs of the sixties, it utilized balloon tires for both a low environmental impact and to compensate for a lack of mechanical suspension. Honda entered the 1980s with a virtual monopoly in the market, due to effective patents on design and engine placement. By 1980, other companies would pay patent royalties to Honda to enter the lucrative ATC field with their own machines. Yamaha introduced their first ATC, the Tri-Moto YZ125. Kawasaki followed suit the next year with the KLT200, while Suzuki produced their first effort, the ALT125, in 1982. As the popularity of ATCs increased dramatically, rapid development ensued. The ability to go anywhere on terrain that most other vehicles could not cross soon made them popular with US and Canadian hunters. As other manufacturers were entering the market, Honda was diversifying, offering the ATC250R, the first Sport ATC intended for competition, in 1981. The 1982 Honda ATC200E Big Red was a landmark model. It featured both suspension and racks, making it the first ATC designed specifically for utility, and would become the world's best-selling ATC. Honda followed that effort in 1983 with the ATC200X, an easy-to-handle four-stroke Sport ATC that was ideal for new riders. Not to be outdone, Kawasaki and Yamaha responded with their own Sport ATCs. 1984 saw the release of the Kawasaki KXT250 Tecate, and Yamaha followed in 1985 with the Tri-Z 250. Both were liquid Cooled 250 cc two-strokes capable of giving the Honda ATC250R competition. In response to growing market, American Specialty manufacturer Tiger also introduced a series of ATCs, Hand-built-to-order models that included the Tiger 500, the largest displacement ATC produced commercially. While Kawasaki and Yamaha both produced Utility ATCs, famously making the KLT 250 Police and Yamahauler respectively, Suzuki turned their attention to building Sport Quads. Honda continued to diversify their line-up (at peak offering 10 distinct models), releasing the larger, fully suspended 250 cc Big Red Utility ATC, and introduced the 350X Sport ATC, their largest displacement machine, in 1985. But the bulk of their sales would prove to be the 200cc line, offering six models and selling over 500,000 units in 3 years. Honda's response to the Tecate and Tri-Z, the liquid cooled 1985 and 1986 ATC250R, remains one of the most desirable ATCs of the era, and aftermarket support still follows the machine. ====U.S. manufacturers==== Main articles: Tiger ATV LTD and Polaris Scrambler 250R/es American-based manufacturers also produced ATCs in this period, albeit in small numbers. Polaris offered the Scrambler in 1985 and 1986, producing appx 1600 units. Speciality manufacturer Tiger ATV also produces a range of ATCs, but their liquidation in 1991 left no official record of how many units were produced. The collector ATV market estimates vary drastically, from 300 to as many as 1000 units total production. Tiger ATCs were offered for three years, with models using two-stroke engines provided by KTM and Rotax. The Tiger 500 is notable for being the fastest consumer ATC available, with tested top speeds of +80 mph from the stock @6500rpm engine and 5 speed gearbox. With final drive gearing changes, the ATC could produce speeds exceeding 100 mph. However, due to the rarity of the machines, much of the public was and remains unaware of the brand, and as all Tiger Models were custom ordered and built to the buyers specifications for the purpose of factory ATV racing, Polaris is generally known as the first American ‘Production’ ATV producer. ====Production pause==== Production of three-wheelers was voluntarily ceased by all manufacturers by 1987, in light of safety concerns, and ahead of any legislation. Though future studies would show that three-wheelers were not considered more unstable than four-wheelers (although accidents are equally severe in both classes), manufacturers agreed to a 10-year moratorium on production, as well as collectively financing a +$100 million ATV safety campaign. Despite the moratorium lifting, manufacturers have not returned to the ATC market, focusing instead on four wheeled ATVs. A ban on sales of new or used three-wheelers and a recall of all remaining three-wheelers has been proposed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Because of the cessation of production, it is widely assumed that the machines are unregistrable, uninsurable, and even illegal, despite a lack of any federal restrictions. All ATCs continue to be governed by the same laws as ATVs, with only select states implementing an older minimum age requirement for use of ATCs. These safety issues with three-wheel ATCs caused a shift in the buying public, as the sales of recently introduced four-wheel ATV models grew rapidly. While three-wheel models ended production in 1987, agreements between the major manufacturers and the Consumer Product Safety Commission to officially cease production and finance safety campaigns moved forward. While the lighter weight of ATCs made them popular with certain riders, manufacturers continued to focus on ATV production. ====Safety concerns==== Safety courses and educational literature has reduced the number and severity of accidents among ATC and ATV riders. As cornering is more challenging on an ATC than with a four-wheeled machine, properly leaning into the turn is required, to counterbalance the weight and keep the machine stable. Careless operators may roll over at high speeds. The lighter front end and smaller footprint of ATCs present both a flipping and steering hazard under acceleration and on inclines. Lateral rollovers may also occur when traversing steep inclines. However, in most terrain with the proper riding technique and safety gear, this issues can be mitigated. ATCs require unique techniques to ride properly, and turning lean requires more exaggeration than ATVs; Throttle steering is another technique commonly used on ATCs in soft terrain and at high speeds, leaning to the inside of the turn and manipulating the throttle to break traction with the rear tires, resulting in the machines turning on axis while maintaining a forward direction. ====Public Law 110-314==== Public Law 110-314, enacted on August 8, 2008, separated ATCs from existing new production ATV safety standards, and requires new standards for three-wheeled ATCs to be drafted. This effectively suspended importation of three-wheeled ATCs, until new standards of safety can be drafted. As of 2020, such standards have not been drafted. While search engines can find informal information suggesting major Japanese manufacturers pressed for this measure due to an influx of inexpensive Chinese ATCs in the American market, no official documentation or cited sources support these claims. Currently, all manufacturers not based in the US are restricted from the manufacture and sale of new Three-Wheeled All Terrain Cycles, until safety standards can be implemented. Below is a summary of Section 232, which effects the ATC ban. (Sec. 232) Requires the CPSC, notwithstanding any other provision of law, to establish as a mandatory consumer product safety standard a specified American National Standard for four-wheeled all-terrain vehicles developed by the Specialty Vehicle Institute of America. Makes it unlawful for any manufacturer or distributor to import or distribute any new all-terrain vehicle unless: (1) the vehicle complies with the standard, is subject to an all-terrain vehicle action plan, and bears a label certifying such compliance and certain other information; and (2) the manufacturer or distributor is in compliance with the action plan. Prohibits the importation of new three-wheeled all-terrain vehicles until a mandatory consumer product safety standard applicable to three-wheeled all-terrain vehicles is in effect. ===Four-wheeled ATVs (1980–present)=== Suzuki was a leader in the development of mass production four-wheeled ATVs. It sold the first model, the 1982 QuadRunner LT125, which was a recreational machine for beginners. Adventure Vehicles of Monroe, Louisiana made the first quad ATV in 1980. They called it the Avenger 400. Prior to that, Adventure Vehicles made 3 wheel ATVs and a dump body utility 3 wheeler using Kohler 8 hp engines and Comet drive systems (Comet centrifugal belt-driven clutch, and a Comet forward, neutral, reverse transaxle, with a rigid rear axle or rear differential option.) The Avenger 400 was a rigid suspension vehicle with a fiberglass body and welded tube construction. It was a rudimentary vehicle reminiscent of the Tote Gote of the 1960s. Suzuki sold the first four-wheeled mini ATV, the LT50, from 1984 to 1987. After the LT50, Suzuki sold the first ATV with a CVT transmission, the LT80, from 1987 to 2006. In 1985 Suzuki introduced to the industry the first high-performance four-wheel ATV, the Suzuki LT250R QuadRacer. This machine was in production for the 1985–1992 model years. During its production run, it underwent three major engineering makeovers. However, the core features were retained. These were: a sophisticated long-travel suspension, a liquid-cooled, two-stroke motor, and a fully-manual five-speed transmission (for 1985–1986 models), and a six-speed transmission (for the '87–'92 models). It was a machine exclusively designed for racing by highly skilled riders. Honda responded a year later with the FourTrax TRX250R—a machine that has not been replicated until recently. It currently remains a trophy winner and competitor to big- bore ATVs. Kawasaki responded with its Tecate-4 250. The TRX250R was very similar to the ATC250R it eventually replaced and is often considered one of the greatest sport ATVs ever built. In 1987, Yamaha Motor Company introduced a different type of high-performance machine, the Banshee 350, which featured a twin-cylinder liquid-cooled two-stroke motor from the RD350LC street motorcycle. Heavier and more difficult to ride in the dirt than the 250s, the Banshee became a popular machine with sand dune riders thanks to its unique power delivery. The Banshee remains popular, but 2006 is the last year it was available in the U.S. (due to EPA emissions regulations); it remained available in Canada until 2008 and in Australia until 2012. The Warrior 350 was introduced in 1987 and went on for years as a light and fast ATV. Shortly after the introduction of the Banshee in 1987, Suzuki released the LT500R QuadRacer. This unique quad was powered by a 500 cc liquid-cooled two-stroke engine with a five-speed transmission. This ATV earned the nickname "Quadzilla" with its remarkable amount of speed and size. While there are claims of 100+ mph () stock Quadzillas, it was officially recorded by 3&4 Wheel Action magazine as reaching a top speed of over in a high-speed shootout in its 1988 June issue, making it the fastest production four-wheeled ATV ever produced. Suzuki discontinued the production of the LT500R in 1990 after just four years. At the same time, the development of utility ATVs was rapidly escalating. The 1986 Honda FourTrax TRX350 4x4 ushered in the era of four- wheel-drive ATVs. Other manufacturers quickly followed suit, and 4x4s have remained the most popular type of ATV ever since. These machines are popular with hunters, farmers, ranchers, and workers at construction sites. Models continue today, to be divided into the sport and utility markets. Sport models are generally small, light, two-wheel-drive vehicles that accelerate quickly, have a manual transmission, and run at speeds up to approximately . Utility models are generally bigger four-wheel-drive vehicles with a maximum speed of up to approximately . They have the ability to haul small loads on attached racks or small dump beds. They may also tow small trailers. Due to the different weights, each has advantages on different types of terrain. A popular model is Yamaha's Raptor 700, which features a nearly 700 cc four- stroke engine. Six-wheel models often have a small dump bed, with an extra set of wheels at the back to increase the payload capacity. They can be either four-wheel-drive (back wheels driving only), or six-wheel-drive. In 2011 LandFighter was founded, "the first Dutch/European ATV brand". The largest part of production takes site in Taiwan, to European standards; the ATVs are finally assembled in the Netherlands. ==Safety and legal regulation== Safety has been a major issue with ATVs due to the high number of deaths and injuries associated with them and the negligible protection offered by the machine. The modern breed of ATVs was introduced in the early 1970s and almost immediately realized alarming injury rates for children and adolescents. Based on analysis of the National Trauma Data Bank, ATVs are more dangerous than dirt bikes, possibly due to crush injuries and failure to wear safety gear such as helmets."ACS: Off-Road Injuries Worse With Four-Wheelers" article by Crystal Phend, Senior Staff Writer, MedPage Today, 6 October 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2010 They are as dangerous as motorcycles, based on mortality and injury scores. More children and women are injured on ATVs, who also present a lower rate of helmet usage. Many common injuries can be prevented with the use of proper protective equipment. Most ATV manufacturers recommend at least a suitable DOT-approved helmet, protective eyewear, gloves and suitable riding boots for all riding conditions. Sport or aggressive riders, or riders on challenging terrain (such as those rock crawling or hillclimbing), may opt for a motocross-style chest protector and knee/shin guards for further protection. Proper tires (suited to a particular terrain) can also play a vital role in preventing injuries. Fatal accidents typically occur when the vehicle rolls over. ===United States=== In the United States, statistics released by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) show that in 2005, there were an estimated 136,700 injuries associated with ATVs treated in US hospital emergency rooms. In 2004, the latest year for which estimates are available, 767 people died in ATV-associated incidents. According to statistics released by CPSC, the risk of injury in 2005 was 171.5 injuries per 10,000 four-wheel ATVs in use. The risk of death in 2004 was 1.1 deaths per 10,000 four-wheelers in use. Focus has shifted to machine size balanced with the usage of ATVs categorized by age ranges and engine displacements—in line with the consent decrees. ATVs are mandated to bear a label from the manufacturer stating that the use of machines greater than 90 cc by riders under the age of 12 is prohibited. This is a 'manufacturer/CPSC recommendation' and not necessarily state law. The American Academy of Pediatrics and the CPSC recommended that no children under the age of 16 should ride ATVs. A Canadian study stated that "associated injury patterns, severity, and costs to the healthcare system" of pediatric injuries associated to ATVs resemble those caused by motor vehicles, and that public policies should reflect this fact. Helmets are underutilized and result in Glasgow Coma Scale scores in children presenting from ATV accidents being similar to those in motorcycle accidents. thumb|Quad bike two- wheel trick-riding on sand dune. The Consumer Product Safety Commission met in March 2005 to discuss the dangers of ATVs. Data from 2004 showed 44,000 injuries and almost 150 fatalities in children while riding ATVs. In response to calls for further regulation, the CPSC's director of compliance, John Gibson Mullan, said that because the statistics were not rising, existing measures were working. The New York Times reported an accusation from a staff member that Mullan, who had previously worked as a lawyer for the ATV industry, had distorted the statistics and prevented further debate. right|thumb|Driving an ATV on a paved road in the Netherlands The United States government maintains a website about the safety of ATVsATVsafety.gov where safety tips are provided, such as not driving ATVs with a passenger (passengers make it difficult or impossible for the driver to shift their weight, as required to drive an ATV) or not driving ATVs on paved roads (ATVs usually have a solid rear axle with no differential). In 1988, the All-terrain Vehicle Safety Institute (ASI) was formed to provide training and education for ATV riders."ATV Safety Institute" The cost of attending the training is minimal and is free for purchasers of new machines that fall within the correct age and size guidelines. Successful completion of a safety training class is, in many states, a minimum requirement for minor-age children to be granted permission to ride on state land. Some states have had to implement their own safety training programs, as the ASI program cannot include those riders with ATVs outside of the age and size guidelines, which may still fall within the states' laws. Effective January 1, 2019, the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission updated ATV lighting requirements, now requiring all categories of ATVs to be equipped with a stop lamp and side reflectors, similar to those required on passenger cars. In industry, agriculture workers are disproportionately at risk for ATV accidents. Most fatalities occur in white men over the age of 55. ===United Kingdom=== A "quad" is recognised by UK law as a vehicle with four wheels and a mass of less than . To drive a quad cycle on a public road, in the UK, requires a category B (car) or B1 (motor vehicles with 4 wheels up to 400 kg unladen or 550 kg if they're designed for carrying goods) licence as well as tax, insurance and registration. In the United Kingdom, the safety issues of cars classed as quad cycles are illustrated by the case of the G-Wiz (REVAi). The electric microcar was given a Euro NCAP specification test, and the results showed that the vehicle's occupants would suffer "serious or life-threatening" injuries in a crash. The UK Department for Transport concluded that there were serious safety concerns when the REVA was crashed at . ===Australia=== After consultation with stakeholders including farmers and quad cycle manufacturers, Australia's Heads of Workplace Safety Authorities (HWSA) in 2011 released a strategy intended to reduce the number of deaths and serious injuries associated with quad-bike use.Quad Bike Industry Solutions Program Trans-Tasman Working Group The development of the report was closely followed by The Weekly Times newspaper and ABC television which reviewed the issue through its 7.30 program. Apart from encouraging of standard safety measures such as helmet-wearing, the strategy also recommend development of a national training curriculum, point of sale material for purchasers and, controversially, a recommendation that owners consider fitting of an after-market anti-crush device which may offer added protection in the event of a roll-over. When the report was released the only model of anti-crush protection on the market was the Australian-made "Quad bar" which was vigorously opposed by the industry through media activity and a poster campaign at regional events for farmers which are often used to showcase new products. The industry argued that the device had not been properly tested and that past studies of tractor-style ROPS such as a full- frame 'cage' around the operator were not only ineffective, but could add to the risk to injury or death. In February 2012, the Melbourne-based Institute for Safety, Compensation and Recovery Research (ISCRR) published a paper which criticised the research claims of the manufacturers in relation to crush protection devices. The paper reviewed research in a number of countries since 1993 in relation to rollover protection and found that the industry's opposition to rollover protection could not be supported because of limitations in past research. It recommended further research on the topic and the development of research tools based on the use of ATV/quadbikes in Australian conditions. ===Germany=== In Germany the legal situation is very unrestrictive, but complex. ====Street legality and registration==== Almost, if not any manufacturer ATV registered at the KBA (Kraftfahrtbundesamt) can be registered for road use in Germany. Vehicle-taxes, insurance and a number plate as well as a MOT (TÜV) are required. ATVs, or more commonly "quads" in Germany, can be accredited in two different ways in Germany. Usually they are taxed and insured as a regular automobile, which results in the tax being calculated by emissions and displacement in 100ccm steps. ATVs registered as an automobile have to be restricted to a power output of 20 hp/15 kW and are allowed to be driven with a passenger, provided a passenger seat is registered in the vehicle papers. The quad needs at least one rear mirror on the left side, minimum 10x5cm. Right side mirror is optional. The vehicle needs a high-/low-beam headlight, brake light, indicators, a number plate mount on front and back, a signal horn and is limited. ATVs under do not need a reverse gear. Over empty weight, a reverse gear and reverse light are required. The maximum engine noise restrictions depend on date of first registration and engine displacement. On the other hand, ATVs can be registered "as agricultural and silvicultural" (LoF/Land oder Forstwirtschaftlich) giving the owner some benefits: The quad can be driven with power outputs more than 20 hp and tax is much cheaper, being calculated by empty weight. Compared to other agricultural vehicles and ATVs, the insurance cost is much lower. However, there are some restrictions and requirements for registering ATVS as an agricultural vehicle: * the ATV may never be driven with a passenger, even if a passenger seat is available. * in addition to the street registration requirements, it needs: ** additional hazard flashers ** a rear fog light ** a minimum of 2 headlights ** a trailer coupling including electric kit for trailer lighting. ** a reverse gear, even under 400 kg empty weight ====Customization==== Custom builds and engine replacements are possible to get street legal, by undergoing a single-acceptance procedure from the MOT(TÜV). This results in some custom quads popularly sporting 4-cycle motorcycle engines street legal. A common example are Yamaha Raptor 700 Conversions to a Yamaha 1000 cc engine from the early Yamaha Fazer and R1. ====Driving license==== ATVS are mostly treated as a regular automobile in Germany, which means no special-vehicle or motorcycle licence is needed. the regular driving license class B (multiple track motorised vehicles up to 3.5 tons) is sufficient even for LoF registered vehicles. This results in Quads being allowed for people of 18 years or older that have a drivers license. It disallows people under the age of 18 to use, even if they have a 50 cc or 125 cc bike license, due to the fact they are treated as automobiles instead of motorcycles. However, since 2013, the class AM was introduced, allowing 16 year olds to drive microcars that do not exceed a speed of 50 km/h (such as the infamous Ellenator) a 16 year old owning the AM licence is allowed to drive an ATV limited to 50 cc and a top speed of 45 km/h ====Special restrictions==== Being treated as an automobile, wearing a helmet was not required for a long time. Since January 2006, helmets are now required for ATVs, three-wheelers, trikes, etc. No additional protective gear is required. Officially, driving a quad requires the owner to always carry a hazard triangle and a First Aid Kit, and additionally a reflective vest if the quad is registered as an agricultural vehicle. Due to the lack of storage room, police usually don't check the back of the vehicle, but if they lack the required equipment, they may be prosecuted. ==Environmental issues== ===Emissions=== ATVs accounted for 58% of the SI (spark ignited) recreational vehicles in the US in the year 2000. That year, recreational SI vehicles produced 0.16% of NOx, 8% of HC, 5% of CO and 0.8% of PM emissions for all vehicles, both highway and nonroad. As a point of comparison, the nonroad SI < 19 kW (~25 hp) category (small spark ignition engines such as lawnmowers) comprised 20% of HC and 23% of CO total emissions. While recreational SI vehicles produce an aggregate of <4% of all HC emissions in the US, based on the relatively small population of ATVs (<1.2M) and small annual usage (<350 hrs), EPA emission regulations now include such engines, starting with the model year 2006. Engines meeting these standards now produce only 3% of the HC emissions that previously unregulated engines did. ===Terrain damage=== While the deep treads on some ATV tires are effective for navigating rocky, muddy and root covered terrain, these treads are also capable of digging channels that may drain bogs, increase sedimentation in streams at crossings and damage groomed snowmobile trails. Proper trail construction techniques can mitigate these effects. In some countries where fencing is not common, such as the US, Canada and Australia, some ATV riders knowingly cross privately owned property in rural areas and travel over public/private properties, where their use is limited only to trails. Subsequently, environmentalists criticize ATV riding as a sport for excessive use in areas which biologists consider to be sensitive, especially wetlands and sand dunes and in much of inland Australia. Because both scientific studies and U.S. National Forest Service personnel have identified unregulated Off-Road Vehicles (ORVs) as the source of major detrimental impacts on national forests, the U.S. Forest Service is currently engaged in the Travel Management Process, wherein individual forests are restricting all off-road motorized travel to approved trails and roads. This is in contrast to its previously allowed, unregulated cross-country travel across all national forest lands, except for specifically designated wilderness areas. Although ORVs had been identified 30 years ago as a threat to wild ecosystems by the Forest Service, only after pressure by an unlikely alliance of environmentalists, private landowners, hunters, ranchers, fishermen, quiet recreationists and forest rangers themselves (who identified ORVs as a "significant law enforcement problem" in national forests). has action been taken. ==Other uses== ATVs using tracks instead of wheels are used at France's Cap Prudhomme in Antarctica.Eacott, John. Stunning Antarctica. Date: 20 November 2009. Retrieved 30 January 2011. ATVs are also used in agriculture to bridge the advantages of trucks and tractors. They are used in a variety of industries for their maneuverability and off-roading ability. These include: * Border control * construction * emergency medical services * land management * law enforcement * military * mineral exploration * oil exploration * pipeline transport * search and rescue * forestry * surveying * wild land fire control ==Sport competition== thumb|right|ATV racing on a motocross track Sport models are built with performance, rather than utility, in mind. To be successful at fast trail riding, an ATV must have light weight, high power, good suspension and a low center of gravity. These machines can be modified for such racing disciplines as motocross, woods racing (also known as cross country), desert racing (also known as Hare Scrambles), hill climbing, ice racing, speedway, Tourist Trophy (TT), flat track, drag racing and others. Throughout the United States and the United Kingdom there are many quad racing clubs with enduro and quadcross sections. GNCC Racing began around 1980 and includes hare scramble and enduro type races. To date, events are mainly held in the eastern part of the United States. GNCC racing features many types of obstacles such as, hill climbing, creek and log crossings, dirt roads and wooded trails. ATV National Motocross ChampionshipATVmotorcross.com was formed around 1985. ATVMX events are hosted at premiere motocross racetracks throughout the United States. ATVMX consists of several groups, including the Pro (AMA Pro) and Amateur (ATVA) series. Friday involves amateur practicing and racing on Saturday and Sunday. Saturday also involves racing for the Pro Am Women and Pro Am Unlimited classes. Sunday involves racing for the Pro and Pro Am production ATVs, but are scored separately. On average weekend over 500 racers will compete. The FIM organizes the Quadcross of Nations at the end of the year. The competition involves teams of three riders representing their nations. There are three motos with two riders of each nation competing per moto. The location of the event changes from year to year. Championship Mud Racing/CMR saw its infancy in 2006 as leaders of the ATV industry recognized a need for uniformity of classes and rules of various local mud bog events. Providing standardized rules created the need for a governing body that both racers and event promoters could turn to and CMR was born. Once unified, a true points series was established and lead to a national championship for what was once nothing more than a hobby for most. In 2007 the finalized board of directors was established and the first races were held in 2008. Currently, the CMR schedule includes eight competition dates spanning from March to November. Points are awarded throughout the season in several different competition classes of ATV and SxS Mud Racing. The 2008 year included Mud Bog and Mudda-Cross competitions, but the 2009 and future seasons will only have Mudda-Cross competitions. Classes range from 0–499 cc to a Super-Modified class which will allow any size ATV in competition. The ultimate goal of The CMR is "to see the growth of ATV Mud Racing as a competitive sport and give competitors a pedestal upon which they can receive the recognition from national media and industry sponsors that they have long deserved." In 2005 the FIM Cross-Country Rallies World Championship started with a Quad Championship and the Dakar Rally added the Quad category in 2008. Because the 2008 Dakar Rally was cancelled, the 2009 Dakar Rally was the first Dakar Rally with Quads. Amateur and professional three-wheeler racing across the United States has also spiked in popularity once again, at levels not seen since the factory teams raced in the 1980s. Part of the appeal is the cheapness of parts, and how easy it is to get into. Races are held at various local and large venues, particularly in Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania, Arizona, Michigan and California. Payouts are sometimes awarded to winners. Each year in June, the world's biggest three-wheeler gathering is held at Haspin Acres, in Laurel, Indiana, for the Trikefest event. Over the course of 3 days complete with camping, hundreds of people gather for the event which features competitive racing such as MX style racing, drag racing, mud racing, hill climbs and other events. For those who wish not to compete, there are also many trails a person can ride. as many as 100 or more three-wheelers show up each year, some built and restored to be raffled off, others brought to ride. The fastest speed recorded on a quad cycle, or ATV given a flying start, is 315.74 km/h (196.19 mph), by Terry Wilmeth (USA), at the Madras Airport in Madras, Oregon, USA, on 15 June 2008. ==See also== * Amphibious ATV * Car * Dune buggy * John Deere * Motorcycle * Motorized tricycle * Non-road engine * Off-road vehicle * Side-by-side vehicle * Tomcar * Quadricycle (EU vehicle classification) ==References== ==External links== * *ATV specs ATV & UTV specifications Category:ATVs Category:Off-road vehicles |
thumb International Talent Support (ITS) is a platform created to give support and visibility to young talents in the field of fashion design, design of accessories and jewelry. The most artistic-oriented designers are also challenged with ITS Artwork, a purely artistic contest. The 16th edition which will be held once again in Trieste on 27 June 2018. thumb|right|220px|Barbara Franchin holding the heart trophy at ITS 2015 Contestants are selected from more than 80 countries around the world. After this selection process, they are invited to Trieste to present their works and are evaluated by a special jury that awards the prizes in the competition. ITS is not just a contest, it includes a Creative Archive showcasing projects of the past finalists: a collection of 16,000 portfolios, 220 dresses, 80 jewelry pieces and 120 accessories, and more than 700 digital photo projects. In addition, it produces a yearly trends report "The Seismographer" and has built a wide network made up of designers, journalists, opinion leaders, design teachers, head hunters, heads of studio and more. The platform was founded and is directed by Barbara Franchin. Here are some of the past ITS jurors: the performance artist Marina Abramovic, photographers Nick Knight, Ari Marcopoulos and Sarah Moon, the Editor in Chief of Vogue Italy Franca Sozzani, the founder of Business of Fashion Imran Amed, the former head curator of the Costume Institute at the Metropolitan Museum in New York Harold Koda the singer-songwriter Mika and designers such as Raf Simons, Viktor & Rolf, Consuelo Castiglioni, Manish Arora as well as journalists like Hilary Alexander, Angelo Flaccavento and Cathy Horyn. Many past finalists hold key positions in the fashion industry, like Demna Gvasalia (Creative Director Balenciaga & founder Vetements), Aitor Throup (Executive Creative Director G-Star Raw) and Peter Pilotto (eponymous line). == ITS 2016 == 2016 marked the fifteenth birthday of ITS, an anniversary edition that welcomed in the jury Demna Gvasalia (founder and artistic director of Vetements and artistic director of Balenciaga), designer Iris Van Herpen and AltaRoma President Silvia Venturini Fendi, while the theme of the event was “Utopia. === Winners === * Mayako Kano, ITS Fashion Award in partnership with OTB * Niels Gundtoft Hansen & Anna Bornhold, OTB Award * Helen Kirkum, ITS Accessories Award in partnership with YKK * Young Jin Jang, YKK Award * Marco Baitella, ITS Artwork Award in partnership with Swatch * Jana Zornik, Swatch Award * Hazuki Katagai, Swatch Art Peace Hotel Award * Sari Rathel, ITS Jewelry Award in partnership with Swarovski * Tatiana Lobanova, Swarovski Award * Justin Smith, Generali Future Award * Anna Bornhold, Modateca Deanna Award * Helen Kirkum, Vogue Talents Award == ITS 2015 == The jury for this edition featured, among others, Massimo Giorgetti (Founder and Creative Director of MSGM), Carlo Capasa (President of the National Chamber of Italian Fashion) and Oriole Cullen (Acting Senior Curator of Contemporary Fashion, Victoria & Albert Museum). Aitor Throup, a finalist in 2006, received a lifetime achievement award. The concept for this edition was "THE FUTURE". === Winners === * Paula Knorr, ITS Fashion Award in partnership with OTB * Yuko Koike, OTB Award and Modateca Deanna Award * Jenifer Thévenaz-Burdet, Eyes on Talents Award * Elina Määttänen, Vogue Talents Award * Isabel Helf, ITS Accessories Award in partnership with YKK * Bianca Chong, YKK Fastening Award * Hiroki Kataoka, ITS Artwork Award in partnership with Swatch * Shay Tako, Swatch Award * Alexis Gautier, Swatch Art Peace Hotel Award * In Wai Kwok, ITS Jewelry Award in partnership with Swarovski * Kota Okuda, ITS Jewelry Award in partnership with Swarovski * Yun Sun Jang, Swarovski Award * Yang Wang, Samsung Galaxy Award * Aitor Throup, Generali Special Award == ITS 2014 == Consuelo Castiglioni (MARNI), Nick Knight, Nicholas Kirkwood and pop star Mika (in the jury for the new ITS ARTWORK contest) were among the jurors. On July 12, the day of the final evening, the event reached the 9th position as a global trending topic on social networks. CNN [4] and France 2 covered the event. The concept for this edition was "Lucid Dreams" === Winners === * Katherine Roberts-Wood, Fashion Collection of the Year and Vogue Talents Award for fashion * Zoe Waters, Diesel Award * Anita Hirlekar, Fashion Special Prize * Natalija Mencej, Camera Nazionale della Moda Italiana Award * Yasuto Kimura, Showstudio Prize * Anna Bornhold, Modateca Award * Mirja Pitkaart, Accessories Collection of the Year * Takafumi Arai, YKK Special Award * Ivana Damjanovic, YKK Award and Eyes on Talents Award * Maiko Takeda, Vogue Talents Award for accessories * Virginia Burlina, Swatch Award * Noriko Nakazato, Swarovski Jewelry Award * Lior Shulak, Swarovski Jewelry Award * Leonie Barth, Samsung GALAXY Award == ITS 2013 == ITS becomes even more present on social with the launch of a live feed that collects any ITS related content. Nicola Formichetti, Carla Sozzani and Yasuhiro Mihara were among the jurors. This edition was characterized by the concept "The Physics of Creativity". === Winners === * Han Chul Lee, Fashion Collection of the Year and Vogue Talents Award * Xiao Li, Diesel Award * Tomohiro Sato, Fashion Special Prize and Modateca Award * Nelly Hoffmann, Yoox.com Award * Felix Chabluk Smith, Business of Fashion Award * Leonard Kahlcke, Accessories Collection of the Year * Percy Lau, YKK Award * Cat Potter, Eyes on Talents Award * Youngwon Kim, Vogue Talents Award for Accessories * Lili Colley, Swarovski Elements Jewelry Award * Milko Boyarov, Swatch Award == ITS 2012 == In 2012, the performance artist Marina Abramovic was in the fashion competition jury with Renzo Rosso and the fashion blogger Susie Bubble. The jury also featured two past finalists, Aitor Throup and Mark Fast, both of whom have since become famous for their respective fashion lines. This edition's concept played with two extremes, "Good or Evil". === Winners === * Ichiro Suzuki, Fashion Collection of the Year * Marius Janusauskas, Diesel Award and D-La Repubblica Award * Luke Brooks, Fashion Special Prize * Mark Goldenberg, Avery Dennison Brand Innovation Award and Vogue Talents Award for fashion * Isabel Vollrath, Saturday Night Fever Award * Shengwei Wang, Modateca Award * Ana Rajcevic, Accessories Collection of the Year * Benjamin John Hall, YKK Award * Victoria Spruce, Vogue Talents Award for accessories * Xiao Zi Yang, Swarovski Elements Jewelry Award == ITS#TEN == The 2011 edition marked the contest's 10th anniversary, with a jury that included Hilary Alexander, the Academy Award for Photography Dante Spinotti and featured the return of Viktor & Rolf. It was the year of the launch of ITS JEWELRY, the competition devoted entirely to jewelry. Shaun Samson, the winner of the Fashion Collection of the Year, participated in the London Fashion Week with his fashion line a short while later. === Winners === * Shaun Samson, Fashion Collection of the Year * Niran Avisar, Diesel Award * Kristian Guerra, Fashion Special Prize and D-La Repubblica Award * Fah Chakshuvej, Maison Martin Margiela Award * Ruth Green, Skunkfunk Sustainability Award * Kevin Kramp, Modateca Award * Oliver Ruuger, Accessories Collection of the Year * Laura Amstein, YKK Award * Anna Schwamborn, Modamont Award * Sarah Vedel Hurtigkarl and Raluca Grada, Swarovski Elements Jewelry Award * Nika Kupyrova, Disaronno Photo Award * Gerardo Vizmanos, SVA PhotoGlobal Award == ITS#NINE == The designers Viktor & Rolf participated as first-time jurors and Nina Nitsche (Maison Martin Margiela) was also part of the jury. Shortly after the event, the winner of Accessories Collection of the Year Sarah Williams established a partnership with another Accessories finalist, Kirsty Ward, launching an exclusive line of custom made accessories. === Winners === * Takashi Nishiyama, Fashion Collection of the Year * Michael Kampe, Diesel Award * Yong Kyun Shin, Fashion Special Prize * Niels Peeraer, RA Award * Sarah Williams, Accessories Collection of the Year and Absolut Award * Emma Yeo, YKK Award * Yuwen Lu, Modamont Award == ITS#EIGHT == Yuima Nakazato became the second finalist in the history of ITS to be selected for two different competitions in two different editions. The edition concept transformed ITS in the "Greatest Show of All", drawing inspiration from the touring circus shows of the early 20th century. === Winners === * Mason Jung, Fashion Collection of the Year * Yuima Nakazato, YKK Award * Ali Forbes, Crystallized Accessories Award * Chau Har Lee, Accessories Collection of the Year * Elise Gettliffe, I-D Styling Award * Alice Knackfuss, Diesel Award * Masha Lamzina, Fashion Special Prize * Michael Van Der Ham, Vertice Award * Saana Wang, Mini Clubman Photo Award * Silvia Noferi, Pitti Immagine Photo Award * Monica Lozano Red, Air Dolomiti Photo Award * Noemie Goudal, Pitti Immagine Photo Award * Clare Bottomley, ITS Photoweb and SVA Photoglobal Award == ITS#SEVEN == Mark Fast's knitwear attracted everyone's attention, and was the prelude to a brand that received a lot of attention as a result of ITS. The finalists of the photography competition Mashid Mohadjerin won the World Press Photo award for a project that started immediately after ITS. Designer Gareth Pugh and photographer Sarah Moon were among the jurors. === Winners === * Valentim Manuel Estevão Quaresma, Accessories Collection of the Year * Benjamin Shun Lai Ng, YKK Award * Tomasz Donocik, YKK Special Prize * Elise Gettliffe, Fashion Special Prize * Yuima Nakazato, Vertice Award * Alithia Spuri- Zampetti, Maria Luisa Award * Mark Fast, I-D Styling Award * Heikki Salonen, Diesel Award * David Steinhorst, Fashion Collection of the Year * Mashid Mohadjerin, ITS Photoweb * Debora Vrizzi, Pitti Immagine Photo Award * Kazutaka Nagashima, Mini Clubman Photo Award * Matthieu Lavanchy, SVA Photoglobal Award * Venetia Dearden, Air Dolomiti Photo Award * Martine Fougeron, Pitti Immagine Photo Award == ITS#SIX == The generation of young talents selected in 2007 featured many finalists that, following ITS, made a name for themselves thanks to their respective brands: Justin Smith, David Longshaw, Taro Horiuchi, Mareunrol, Ek Thongprasert, Heaven Tanudiredja (who was a finalist in both Fashion Accessories, anticipating the launch of her own line of jewelry). === Winners === * Liron Braker, YKK Accessory Award * Anna Sheldon, YKK Special Award * Justin Smith, i-D Styling Award and Maria Luisa Award * Susanne Happle, Accessories Collection of the Year * Ek Thongprasert, Fashion Collection of the Year and Develon Award * Migle Kacerauskiene, Fashion Special Prize * Heaven Tanudiredja, Vertice Award * Taro Horiuchi, Diesel Award * Maria Giulia Giorgiani, Pitti Immagine Photo Award and Finalist Involved In The Mini Clubman Tour * May Heek, SVA Photoglobal Award * Jing Quek, MINI International Photo Award and Pitti Immagine Photo Award == ITS#FIVE == In 2006 the ITS ACCESSORIES contest was inaugurated. Aitor Throup was the revelation of the year with a menswear collection that redesigned the production processes. Franca Sozzani, Raf Simons and Cathy Horyn were on the jury. === Winners === * Heather Blake, Accessories Collection of the Year * Maria Hjelm, YKK Accessory Award * Mikio Sakabe, Special Jury Prize * Matthieu Blazy, Maria Luisa Award * Tamar Daniel (Schreiber), WGSN Best Portfolio * Aitor Throup, Fashion Collection of the Year and I-D Styling Award and ITS 2015 Generali Special Award * Daniel Ivarsson, Diesel Award * Catherine Sundqvist, VMAN / V Magazine Award * Remigiusz Pyrdol, MINI International Photo Award and Le Book Award and Stage Fabbrica == ITS#FOUR == Antonio Marras, Boudicca and Antonio Berardi were on the jury. The ITS PHOTO contest was launched and its jury featured the founder of Visionaire Cecilia Dean. Christopher de Vos, who later worked for Vivienne Westwood before joining forces with Peter Pilotto's homonymous brand, was one of the finalists. === Winners === * Christoph Froehlich, Diesel Award * Eli Effenberger, Maria Luisa Award and Special Jury Prize * Marga Weimans, I-D Styling Award * Mie Albaek Nielsen and Caroline Hansen, Ingeo Sustainability Award * Ryo Yamada, WGSN Best Portfolio Award * Marcus Lereng Wilmont, Collection of the Year * Danielle Mourning, MINI International Photo Award == ITS#THREE == Yoshikazu Yamagata was among the winners of 2004. He would later set up a school in Tokyo that would produce numerous ITS finalists. Peter Pilotto was among the finalists. In the following years he created the Peter Pilotto brand together with a 2005 finalist, Christopher de Vos. Raf Simons was in the jury together with Richard Buckley, Hilary Alexander and Ennio Capasa. === Winners === * Iris Eibelwimmer, Maria Luisa Award * Demna Gvasalia, Collection of the Year * Peter Pilotto, Maria Luisa Award * Takashi Sugioka, 3rd Jury Prize * Steven Hoffman, 2nd Jury Prize * Yoshikazu Yamagata, Special Prize, Ingeo Sustainability Award and WGSN Best Portfolio * Lesley Mobo, Diesel Award == ITS#TWO == The winner Cathy Pill had the honour of being invited to present her collection during the Parisian fashion week, where she continued to present her brand for nearly a decade. Dombrovicz Laurent, Xavier Delcour and Jenny Meirens were some of the jurors. Fabrizio Talia, winner of the Best Womenswear Collection Award, later joined forces with Justin Smith – the two met in 2007 – for the launch of the project (Es) * Artisanal, chosen as a finalist in 2010. === Winners === * Slobodan Mihajlović, Maria Luisa Award * Cathy Pill, Collection of the Year * Anne Ventzel, Best Menswear Collection * Fabrizio Talia, Best Womenswear Collection * Akihiro Kiuchi, Jury Prize * Teppei Sugaya, Diesel Award == ITS#ONE == The jury of the first edition of the International Talent Support featured, among others, Isabella Blow, Editor in Chief of Nylon Magazine Marvin Jarrett, Director of i-D magazine Terry Jones and the Creative Director of Black Book Magazine Evan L.Schindler. === Winners === * Anais Buscail and Vanessa Raveau, PlayStation * Assaf Bitton, INTESABCI Award * Bernadett Penkov, Dupont Total Look * Céline Gautron, Dupont Shirt/Trousers Category * Chu Po Ho, Dupont Knitwear Top Category * Daniele Controversio, Collection of the Year and Dupont Trousers category * Einav Zucker, Diesel Award * Elisa Grazioli, PlayStation * Erik Jan Frenken, Best Womenswear Collection * Rianne Caminada, PlayStation * Roel Ruyten, PlayStation * Vishvajeet Dhir, Best Menswear Collection * Goldy Serussi, Dupont Shirt/Trousers Category == References == Category:Fashion organizations |
Acoustic impedance and specific acoustic impedance are measures of the opposition that a system presents to the acoustic flow resulting from an acoustic pressure applied to the system. The SI unit of acoustic impedance is the pascal-second per cubic metre (), or in the MKS system the rayl per square metre (), while that of specific acoustic impedance is the pascal-second per metre (), or in the MKS system the rayl. There is a close analogy with electrical impedance, which measures the opposition that a system presents to the electric current resulting from a voltage applied to the system. ==Mathematical definitions== ===Acoustic impedance=== For a linear time- invariant system, the relationship between the acoustic pressure applied to the system and the resulting acoustic volume flow rate through a surface perpendicular to the direction of that pressure at its point of application is given by: : p(t) = [R * Q](t), or equivalently by : Q(t) = [G * p](t), where * p is the acoustic pressure; * Q is the acoustic volume flow rate; * * is the convolution operator; * R is the acoustic resistance in the time domain; * G = R −1 is the acoustic conductance in the time domain (R −1 is the convolution inverse of R). Acoustic impedance, denoted Z, is the Laplace transform, or the Fourier transform, or the analytic representation of time domain acoustic resistance: : Z(s) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} \mathcal{L}[R](s) = \frac{\mathcal{L}[p](s)}{\mathcal{L}[Q](s)}, : Z(\omega) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} \mathcal{F}[R](\omega) = \frac{\mathcal{F}[p](\omega)}{\mathcal{F}[Q](\omega)}, : Z(t) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} R_\mathrm{a}(t) = \frac{1}{2}\\!\left[p_\mathrm{a} * \left(Q^{-1}\right)_\mathrm{a}\right]\\!(t), where * \mathcal L is the Laplace transform operator; * \mathcal F is the Fourier transform operator; * subscript "a" is the analytic representation operator; * Q −1 is the convolution inverse of Q. Acoustic resistance, denoted R, and acoustic reactance, denoted X, are the real part and imaginary part of acoustic impedance respectively: : Z(s) = R(s) + iX(s), : Z(\omega) = R(\omega) + iX(\omega), : Z(t) = R(t) + iX(t), where * i is the imaginary unit; * in Z(s), R(s) is not the Laplace transform of the time domain acoustic resistance R(t), Z(s) is; * in Z(ω), R(ω) is not the Fourier transform of the time domain acoustic resistance R(t), Z(ω) is; * in Z(t), R(t) is the time domain acoustic resistance and X(t) is the Hilbert transform of the time domain acoustic resistance R(t), according to the definition of the analytic representation. Inductive acoustic reactance, denoted XL, and capacitive acoustic reactance, denoted XC, are the positive part and negative part of acoustic reactance respectively: : X(s) = X_L(s) - X_C(s), : X(\omega) = X_L(\omega) - X_C(\omega), : X(t) = X_L(t) - X_C(t). Acoustic admittance, denoted Y, is the Laplace transform, or the Fourier transform, or the analytic representation of time domain acoustic conductance: : Y(s) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} \mathcal{L}[G](s) = \frac{1}{Z(s)} = \frac{\mathcal{L}[Q](s)}{\mathcal{L}[p](s)}, : Y(\omega) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} \mathcal{F}[G](\omega) = \frac{1}{Z(\omega)} = \frac{\mathcal{F}[Q](\omega)}{\mathcal{F}[p](\omega)}, : Y(t) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} G_\mathrm{a}(t) = Z^{-1}(t) = \frac{1}{2}\\!\left[Q_\mathrm{a} * \left(p^{-1}\right)_\mathrm{a}\right]\\!(t), where * Z −1 is the convolution inverse of Z; * p −1 is the convolution inverse of p. Acoustic conductance, denoted G, and acoustic susceptance, denoted B, are the real part and imaginary part of acoustic admittance respectively: : Y(s) = G(s) + iB(s), : Y(\omega) = G(\omega) + iB(\omega), : Y(t) = G(t) + iB(t), where * in Y(s), G(s) is not the Laplace transform of the time domain acoustic conductance G(t), Y(s) is; * in Y(ω), G(ω) is not the Fourier transform of the time domain acoustic conductance G(t), Y(ω) is; * in Y(t), G(t) is the time domain acoustic conductance and B(t) is the Hilbert transform of the time domain acoustic conductance G(t), according to the definition of the analytic representation. Acoustic resistance represents the energy transfer of an acoustic wave. The pressure and motion are in phase, so work is done on the medium ahead of the wave. Acoustic reactance represents the pressure that is out of phase with the motion and causes no average energy transfer. For example, a closed bulb connected to an organ pipe will have air moving into it and pressure, but they are out of phase so no net energy is transmitted into it. While the pressure rises, air moves in, and while it falls, it moves out, but the average pressure when the air moves in is the same as that when it moves out, so the power flows back and forth but with no time averaged energy transfer. A further electrical analogy is a capacitor connected across a power line: current flows through the capacitor but it is out of phase with the voltage, so no net power is transmitted into it. ===Specific acoustic impedance=== For a linear time-invariant system, the relationship between the acoustic pressure applied to the system and the resulting particle velocity in the direction of that pressure at its point of application is given by : p(t) = [r * v](t), or equivalently by: : v(t) = [g * p](t), where * p is the acoustic pressure; * v is the particle velocity; * r is the specific acoustic resistance in the time domain; * g = r −1 is the specific acoustic conductance in the time domain (r −1 is the convolution inverse of r). Specific acoustic impedance, denoted z is the Laplace transform, or the Fourier transform, or the analytic representation of time domain specific acoustic resistance: : z(s) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} \mathcal{L}[r](s) = \frac{\mathcal{L}[p](s)}{\mathcal{L}[v](s)}, : z(\omega) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} \mathcal{F}[r](\omega) = \frac{\mathcal{F}[p](\omega)}{\mathcal{F}[v](\omega)}, : z(t) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} r_\mathrm{a}(t) = \frac{1}{2}\\!\left[p_\mathrm{a} * \left(v^{-1}\right)_\mathrm{a}\right]\\!(t), where v −1 is the convolution inverse of v. Specific acoustic resistance, denoted r, and specific acoustic reactance, denoted x, are the real part and imaginary part of specific acoustic impedance respectively: : z(s) = r(s) + ix(s), : z(\omega) = r(\omega) + ix(\omega), : z(t) = r(t) + ix(t), where * in z(s), r(s) is not the Laplace transform of the time domain specific acoustic resistance r(t), z(s) is; * in z(ω), r(ω) is not the Fourier transform of the time domain specific acoustic resistance r(t), z(ω) is; * in z(t), r(t) is the time domain specific acoustic resistance and x(t) is the Hilbert transform of the time domain specific acoustic resistance r(t), according to the definition of the analytic representation. Specific inductive acoustic reactance, denoted xL, and specific capacitive acoustic reactance, denoted xC, are the positive part and negative part of specific acoustic reactance respectively: : x(s) = x_L(s) - x_C(s), : x(\omega) = x_L(\omega) - x_C(\omega), : x(t) = x_L(t) - x_C(t). Specific acoustic admittance, denoted y, is the Laplace transform, or the Fourier transform, or the analytic representation of time domain specific acoustic conductance: : y(s) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} \mathcal{L}[g](s) = \frac{1}{z(s)} = \frac{\mathcal{L}[v](s)}{\mathcal{L}[p](s)}, : y(\omega) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} \mathcal{F}[g](\omega) = \frac{1}{z(\omega)} = \frac{\mathcal{F}[v](\omega)}{\mathcal{F}[p](\omega)}, : y(t) \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{{}={}} g_\mathrm{a}(t) = z^{-1}(t) = \frac{1}{2}\\!\left[v_\mathrm{a} * \left(p^{-1}\right)_\mathrm{a}\right]\\!(t), where * z −1 is the convolution inverse of z; * p −1 is the convolution inverse of p. Specific acoustic conductance, denoted g, and specific acoustic susceptance, denoted b, are the real part and imaginary part of specific acoustic admittance respectively: : y(s) = g(s) + ib(s), : y(\omega) = g(\omega) + ib(\omega), : y(t) = g(t) + ib(t), where * in y(s), g(s) is not the Laplace transform of the time domain acoustic conductance g(t), y(s) is; * in y(ω), g(ω) is not the Fourier transform of the time domain acoustic conductance g(t), y(ω) is; * in y(t), g(t) is the time domain acoustic conductance and b(t) is the Hilbert transform of the time domain acoustic conductance g(t), according to the definition of the analytic representation. Specific acoustic impedance z is an intensive property of a particular medium (e.g., the z of air or water can be specified); on the other hand, acoustic impedance Z is an extensive property of a particular medium and geometry (e.g., the Z of a particular duct filled with air can be specified). ===Acoustic ohm=== The acoustic ohm is a unit of measurement of acoustic impedance. In SI units, pressure is measured in pascals and flow in m3/s, so the acoustic ohm is equal to 1 Pa·s/m3. The acoustic ohm can be applied to fluid flow outside the domain of acoustics. For such applications a hydraulic ohm with an identical definition may be used. A hydraulic ohm measurement would be the ratio of hydraulic pressure to hydraulic volume flow. ===Relationship=== For a one dimensional wave passing through an aperture with area A, the acoustic volume flow rate Q is the volume of medium passing per second through the aperture; if the acoustic flow moves a distance dx = v dt, then the volume of medium passing through is dV = A dx, so: : Q = \frac{\mathrm{d}V}{\mathrm{d}t} = A \frac{\mathrm{d}x}{\mathrm{d}t} = A v. If the wave is one-dimensional, it yields : Z(s) = \frac{\mathcal{L}[p](s)}{\mathcal{L}[Q](s)} = \frac{\mathcal{L}[p](s)}{A \mathcal{L}[v](s)} = \frac{z(s)}{A}, : Z(\omega) = \frac{\mathcal{F}[p](\omega)}{\mathcal{F}[Q](\omega)} = \frac{\mathcal{F}[p](\omega)}{A \mathcal{F}[v](\omega)} = \frac{z(\omega)}{A}, : Z(t) = \frac{1}{2}\\!\left[p_\mathrm{a} * \left(Q^{-1}\right)_\mathrm{a}\right]\\!(t) = \frac{1}{2}\\!\left[p_\mathrm{a} * \left(\frac{v^{-1}}{A}\right)_\mathrm{a}\right]\\!(t) = \frac{z(t)}{A}. ==Characteristic acoustic impedance== ===Characteristic specific acoustic impedance=== The constitutive law of nondispersive linear acoustics in one dimension gives a relation between stress and strain: : p = -\rho c^2 \frac{\partial \delta}{\partial x}, where * p is the acoustic pressure in the medium; * ρ is the volumetric mass density of the medium; * c is the speed of the sound waves traveling in the medium; * δ is the particle displacement; * x is the space variable along the direction of propagation of the sound waves. This equation is valid both for fluids and solids. In * fluids, ρc2 = K (K stands for the bulk modulus); * solids, ρc2 = K + 4/3 G (G stands for the shear modulus) for longitudinal waves and ρc2 = G for transverse waves. Newton's second law applied locally in the medium gives: : \rho \frac{\partial^2 \delta}{\partial t^2} = -\frac{\partial p}{\partial x}. Combining this equation with the previous one yields the one-dimensional wave equation: : \frac{\partial^2 \delta}{\partial t^2} = c^2 \frac{\partial^2 \delta}{\partial x^2}. The plane waves : \delta(\mathbf{r},\, t) = \delta(x,\, t) that are solutions of this wave equation are composed of the sum of two progressive plane waves traveling along x with the same speed and in opposite ways: : \delta(\mathbf{r},\, t) = f(x - ct) + g(x + ct) from which can be derived : v(\mathbf{r},\, t) = \frac{\partial \delta}{\partial t}(\mathbf{r},\, t) = -c\big[f'(x - ct) - g'(x + ct)\big], : p(\mathbf{r},\, t) = -\rho c^2 \frac{\partial \delta}{\partial x}(\mathbf{r},\, t) = -\rho c^2 \big[f'(x - ct) + g'(x + ct)\big]. For progressive plane waves: : \begin{cases} p(\mathbf{r},\, t) = -\rho c^2\, f'(x - ct)\\\ v(\mathbf{r},\, t) = -c\, f'(x - ct) \end{cases} or : \begin{cases} p(\mathbf{r},\, t) = -\rho c^2\, g'(x + ct)\\\ v(\mathbf{r},\, t) = c\, g'(x + ct). \end{cases} Finally, the specific acoustic impedance z is : z(\mathbf{r},\, s) = \frac{\mathcal{L}[p](\mathbf{r},\, s)}{\mathcal{L}[v](\mathbf{r},\, s)} = \pm \rho c, : z(\mathbf{r},\, \omega) = \frac{\mathcal{F}[p](\mathbf{r},\, \omega)}{\mathcal{F}[v](\mathbf{r},\, \omega)} = \pm \rho c, : z(\mathbf{r},\, t) = \frac{1}{2}\\!\left[p_\mathrm{a} * \left(v^{-1}\right)_\mathrm{a}\right]\\!(\mathbf{r},\, t) = \pm \rho c. The absolute value of this specific acoustic impedance is often called characteristic specific acoustic impedance and denoted z0: : z_0 = \rho c. The equations also show that : \frac{p(\mathbf{r},\, t)}{v(\mathbf{r},\, t)} = \pm \rho c = \pm z_0. ===Effect of temperature=== Temperature acts on speed of sound and mass density and thus on specific acoustic impedance. ===Characteristic acoustic impedance=== For a one dimensional wave passing through an aperture with area A, Z = z/A, so if the wave is a progressive plane wave, then: : Z(\mathbf{r},\, s) = \pm \frac{\rho c}{A}, : Z(\mathbf{r},\, \omega) = \pm \frac{\rho c}{A}, : Z(\mathbf{r},\, t) = \pm \frac{\rho c}{A}. The absolute value of this acoustic impedance is often called characteristic acoustic impedance and denoted Z0: : Z_0 = \frac{\rho c}{A}. and the characteristic specific acoustic impedance is : \frac{p(\mathbf{r},\, t)}{Q(\mathbf{r},\, t)} = \pm \frac{\rho c}{A} = \pm Z_0. If the aperture with area A is the start of a pipe and a plane wave is sent into the pipe, the wave passing through the aperture is a progressive plane wave in the absence of reflections, and the usually reflections from the other end of the pipe, whether open or closed, are the sum of waves travelling from one end to the other. (It is possible to have no reflections when the pipe is very long, because of the long time taken for the reflected waves to return, and their attenuation through losses at the pipe wall.) Such reflections and resultant standing waves are very important in the design and operation of musical wind instruments. ==See also== * Acoustic attenuation * Earthquake bomb * Impedance analogy * Mechanical impedance ==References== ==External links== * The Wave Equation for Sound * What Is Acoustic Impedance and Why Is It Important? Category:Acoustics Category:Physical quantities Category:Sound Category:Sound measurements |
Vestfold () is a traditional region, a former county and a current electoral district in Eastern Norway. In 2020 the county became part of the much larger county of Vestfold og Telemark. Located on the western shore of the Oslofjord, it bordered the previous Buskerud and Telemark counties. The county administration was located in Tønsberg, Norway's oldest city,Norum, Roger (2011). Frommer's Norway. Frommer's. Page 4. .Evensberget, Snorre (2012). DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: Norway. Penguin. Page 230. .Ham, Anthony and Stuart Butler (2015). Lonely Planet Norway. Lonely Planet. Page 87. . and the largest city is Sandefjord. With the exception of the city-county of Oslo, Vestfold was the smallest county in Norway by area. Vestfold was the only county in which all municipalities had declared Bokmål to be their sole official written form of the Norwegian language.Vestfold County (Vestfold University College) Vestfold is located west of the Oslofjord, as the name indicates. It includes many smaller, but well-known towns in Norway, such as Larvik, Sandefjord, Tønsberg and Horten; these towns run from Oslo in an almost constant belt of urban areas along the coast, ending in Grenland in neighbouring region Telemark. The river Numedalslågen runs through the county. Many islands are located at the coast. Vestfold is mostly dominated by lowland and is among the best agricultural areas of Norway. Winters last about three months, while pleasant summer temperatures last from May to September, with a July average high of 17 °C (63 °F). Vestfold is traditionally known for shipping and sailing. Sandefjord was formerly a headquarters for the Norwegian whaling fleet, and Horten used to be Norway's main naval port. The coastal towns of Vestfold now engage in fishing and shipbuilding. Some lumbering is carried on in the interior. The area also includes some of the best farmland in Norway. Vestfold merged with neighboring Telemark County on 1 January 2020 as part of a nationwide municipal reform. The new county name is Vestfold og Telemark. Vestfold as a county is expected to be re-established by 1 January 2024, following a vote of the county council of Vestfold og Telemark on 15 February 2022 to split the newly established county into its respective counties that existed before the merger took place; Telemark and Vestfold. ==Etymology== Vestfold is the old name of the region which was revived in modern times. Fold was the old name of the Oslofjord, and the meaning of the name Vestfold is the region west of the Fold (see also Østfold). Before 1919, the county was called Jarlsberg og Larvik Amt. The amt was created in 1821, consisting of the two old counties of Jarlsberg and Larvik. In the Viking Age, Vestfold also referred to Eiker, Drammen, Kongsberg, Lier, now in Buskerud.Vol. XIII: A History Of Norway And The Passion And Miracles of the Blessed Óláfr Anthony Faulkes and Richard Perkins (Viking Society for Northern Research), p. 128)Vestfold - gammelt navn , snl.no Vestfold Hills on Antarctica's Sørsdal Glacier is named after the county. ==History== ===Viking history=== Vestfold is mentioned for the first time in a written source in 813, when Danish kings were in Vestfold to quell an uprising amongst the Fürsts . There may have been as many as six political centers in Vestfold. At that time Kaupang, which was located in Tjølling near Larvik, had been functioning for decades and had a chieftain. Kaupang, which dates from the Viking Era, is believed to be the first town in Norway, although Tønsberg (which dates from ca. 900) is the oldest town in Norway still in existence. At Borre, there was a site for another chieftain. That site held chieftains for more than one hundred years prior to 813. The stone mounds at Mølen have been dated to the Viking Age. The mounds at Haugar in present-day Tønsberg's town centre have been dated to the Viking period. At Farmannshaugen in Sem there seems to have been activity at the time, while activity at Oseberghaugen and Gokstadhaugen dates from a few decades later. An English source from around 890 retells the voyage of Ottar (Ottar fra Hålogaland) "from the farthest North, along Norvegr via Kaupang and Hedeby to England", where Ottar places Kaupang in the land of the Dane - danenes land. Bjørn Brandlien says that "To the degree that Harald Hårfagre gathered a kingdom after the Battle of Hafrsfjord at the end of the 9th century - that especially is connected to Avaldsnes - it does not seem to have made such a great impression on Ottar". Kaupang is mentioned under the name of Skiringssal (Kaupangen i Skiringssal) in Ottar's tales. By the 10th century, the local kings had established themselves. The king or his ombudsman resided in the old Royal Court at Sæheim i Sem, today the Jarlsberg Estate (Jarlsberg Hovedgård) in Tønsberg. The farm Haugar (from Old Norse haugr meaning hill or mound) became the seat for Haugating, the Thing for Vestfold and one of Norway's most important place for the proclamation of kings. The family of Harald Fairhair, who was most likely the first king of Norway, is said to have come from this area. The Danish kings seem to have been weak in Vestfold from around the middle of the 9th century until the middle of the 10th century, but their rule was strengthened there at the end of the 10th century. The Danish kings seem to have tried to control the region until the 13th century. ====Kings ruling some or all of Vestfold==== * Erik Agnarsson * Halfdan Hvitbeinn (part of Vestfold) * Eystein Halfdansson * Halfdan the Mild * Gudrød the Hunter * Halfdan the Black, together with his brother, Olaf Gudrødsson * Ragnvald the Mountain-High, Cousin of Harold Fairhair * Harald Fairhair * Bjørn Farmann * Olaf Haraldsson Geirstadalf, brother of Bjørn * Harald Gudrødsson Grenske, 976–987 ===Whaling=== Whaling was an important 19th century industry in coastal cities such as Larvik, Tønsberg, and Sandefjord, which was the world centre for the world's modern whaling industry. Not only did men from Vestfold County make up practically all the crew on the Norwegian whaling fleet, but many were also involved in the whaling industry in other nations.Tønnessen, Johan Nicolay and Arne Odd Johnsen (1982). The History of Modern Whaling. University of California Press. Page 25. . As an example, the first phase of modern Australian whaling was almost entirely based on workers from Larvik.Tønnessen, Johan Nicolay and Arne Odd Johnsen (1982). The History of Modern Whaling. University of California Press. Page 222. . While the first whaling station in the Faroe Islands was established by Sandefjordians,Joensen, Jóan Pauli (2009). Pilot Whaling in the Faroe Islands: History, Ethnography, Symbol. Faroe University Press. Page 225. . Larvik played a similar role for the Shetland Islands. Tønsberg initiated much of the whaling industry in Iceland and the Hebrides.Tønnessen, Johan Nicolay and Arne Odd Johnsen (1982). The History of Modern Whaling. University of California Press. Page 84. . The largest settlement in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Grytviken, was established by Carl Anton Larsen of Sandefjord on 16 November 1904.Headland, Robert (1992). The Island of South Georgia. CUP Archive. Page 130. . Sandefjordian Nils Larsen's expeditions to Antarctica in the early 20th century led to the Norwegian annexation of Bouvet Island (1927) and Peter I Island (1929). A cove on Peter I Island is named Sandefjord Cove in honor of Nils Larsen's hometown. Sandefjord Harbor is now home to Southern Actor, the only whale-catcher from the Modern Whaling Epoch still to be in its original order. The museum ship is owned by Sandefjord Whaling Museum, Europe's only museum dedicated to whaling.Philpott, Don (1991). Visitor's Guide: Norway. Moorland. Page 76. . Sandefjord has been named the centre of the Modern Whaling Epoch,Holskjær, Lars (2017). Kamper uten tall. Forlagshuset i Vestfold. Page 8. . and has been nicknamed "the whaling capital of the world."Engel, Lyle Kenyon (1963). Scandinavia: A Simon & Schuster Travel Guide. Cornerstone Library. Page 145.Ryder, Simon and Cameron Duffy (2018). Insight Guides Norway. Insight Guides. Page 163. .Alspaugh, Emmanuelle (2006). Fodor's Norway. Fodor's Travel Publications. Page 73. .Bertelsen, Hans Kristian (1985). Sandefjord: A modern city with vast potential. Grafisk Studio. Page 81. . ==Geography== Vestfold was Norway's smallest county, with the exception of the city-county of Oslo. It lies on the western shore of the Oslofjord. Vestfold borders with Buskerud County in the north and with Telemark County in the west. It is bordered by Skagerrak in the North Sea to both the south and east. The county has a total area of and has a coastline. Vestfjellet at is the tallest peak in the county. It is also home to 1,407 islands. Nøtterøy () is the largest island in Vestfold, while Tjøme () is the second-largest island.Bertelsen, Hans Kristian (1998). Bli kjent med Vestfold / Become acquainted with Vestfold. Stavanger Offset AS. Page 191. . There is a total of 634 freshwater lakes in Vestfold, with a total area of 79 square kilometers. Large lakes include Farris, Eikeren, Goksjø, Hallevannet, Akersvannet, and others. Vestfold makes up 0.7 percent of Norway's total land area. Ten Norwegian municipalities are larger in size than Vestfold County. As an example, Kautokeino municipality in Finnmark County is over four times larger than Vestfold County. The county of Finnmark is 22 times larger than Vestfold. ===Geology=== The county's soft soil is composed of varieties of moraine and sedimentary soils. The Ice Age left large parts of Vestfold below sea level, and the most cultivated soil can be found on the marine terraces. Marine clay and sand cover most of the lower lying country in the south-west and north. The Vestfold moraine, a continuation of the Østfold moraine at Moss, is an ice-formed formation which stretches as a cohesive gravel ridge through the county, from Horten in the east to Mølen in the south. ===Preserved areas=== Færder National Park was the county's first national park when the decision was formalized by King Harald V on 23 August 2013. The visitor center is at World's End, and was officially opened by Queen Sonja on 26 June 2015. The national park lies in Nøtterøy- and Tjøme municipalities, and is made up of of ocean and of land. It stretches from Ormøy in the north to Færder Lighthouse in the south. It is one of two marine national parks in Norway, and is made up of coast, skerries, islands and sea bed. Mølen in Larvik is home to Norway's largest stone beach and is an ancient burial site consisting of 230 cairns, some exceeding in diameter. Excavations have dated the rock piles to about 250 A.D. It was the first UNESCO Global Geopark in the Nordics when established in 2008. Mølen is one of Larvik's most popular tourist attractions. It is home to over a hundred species of rock, including Norway's national stone, Larvikite, which is named from the area. It is a crucially important seabird habitat, where over 316 species of bird have been recorded.https://issuu.com/visitvestfold/docs/visit_larvik_2018-2019_web (Page 26). ===Municipalities=== right|Municipalities in Vestfold County Vestfold County has experienced a large reduction in number of municipalities. As of 1949, the county was home to 19 rural municipalities and seven city municipalities. There were 14 municipalities as of 2016, but the number will decrease to 8 by 1 January 2020.Larsen, Erlend (2016). Tre kommuner blir til én: Suksesskriteriene bak nye Sandefjord. E-forl. Page 27. . As of 1 January 2017 the number of municipalities in Vestfold County was reduced from 14 to 12. As of 1 January 2018 the number of municipalities in Vestfold County was reduced from 12 to 9. #Andebu (merged into Sandefjord on 1 January 2017) #Hof (merged into Holmestrand on 1 January 2018) #Holmestrand (added Hof on 1 January 2018) #Horten #Lardal (merged into Larvik on 1 January 2018) #Larvik (added Lardal on 1 January 2018) #Nøtterøy (merged with Tjøme on 1 January 2018 to form the new municipality of Færder) #Re (merged into Tønsberg on 1 January 2020) #Sande (merged into Holmestrand on 1 January 2020) #Sandefjord (added Andebu and Stokke on 1 January 2017) #Stokke (merged into Sandefjord on 1 January 2017) #Svelvik (merged into Drammen on 1 January 2020) #Tjøme (merged with Nøtterøy on 1 January 2018 to form the new municipality of Færder) #Tønsberg (added Re on 1 January 2020) ==Cities== * Holmestrand * Horten * Larvik * Sandefjord * Stavern * Tønsberg ==Parishes== * Andebu * Arnadal (Arendal) * Berg * Borre * Botne * Brunlanes * Fon * Fredricksværn, see Stavern * Hedrum * Hem * Hillestad * Hof * Holmestrand * Horten * Hvarnes * Høyjord * Kjose * Kodal * Konnerud * Kvelde * Langestrand * Lardal * Larvik * Nykirke * Nøtterøy * Ramnes * Sandar * Sande * Sandefjord * Sandeherred, see Sandar * Sankt Laurentii * Sem * Skjee * Skoger * Slagen * Stavern * Stokke * Strømm (Strømmen) * Strømsgodset * Styrvoll * Svarstad * Svelvik * Tanum * Tjølling * Tjøme * Tønsberg * Undrumsdal * Valløy * Vassås * Vivestad * Vor Frue (Maria) * Våle * Åsgårdstrand * Larvik Branch (LDS, early-1927) * Tønsberg Branch (LDS, early-1951) * Larvik (Katolske Apostoliske, 1888–1963) ==Villages== * Andebu * Barkåker * Berger * Bergsåsen * Bjerkøya * Bjørnevåg * Borgheim * Borre * Brekkeåsen * Buerstad * Duken * Eidsfoss * Eik * Eikeberg * Fevang * Fokserød * Fon * Freberg * Føynland * Gjone * Glomstein * Gretteåsen * Grimestad * Gullhaug * Hafallen * Helgeroa * Hem * Hof * Hulebakk * Husvik * Husøy * Hvasser * Høyjord * Hårkollen * Kaupang * Kjose * Kjøpmannskjær * Klever * Kodal * Kvelde * Lahelle * Linnestad * Melsomvik * Nesbrygga * Nesbygda * Nykirke * Ormelet * Oterbekk * Ramnes * Revetal * Rånerudåsen * Råstad * Sande * Selvik * Sem * Skallestad * Skinmo * Skjerve * Skoppum * Solløkka * Solvang * Stavern * Stokke * Storevar * Strand * Strengsdal * Sundbyfoss * Sundene * Svarstad * Svelvik * Svinevoll * Teie * Tenvik * Torød * Ula * Unneberg * Valberg * Vassås * Vear * Veierland * Verdens Ende * Verningen * Vestskogen * Vollen * Årøysund * Åsgårdstrand ==Former Municipalities== * Andebu * Borre * Botne * Brunlanes * Hedrum * Hof * Lardal * Nøtterøy * Ramnes * Sandar * Sem * Skoger * Stavern * Stokke * Strømm * Tjølling * Tjøme * Våle * Åsgårdstrand ==Political strength== Results from parliamentary elections in Vestfold County since 1973: Bold letters represent the alliances (Leftwing Ap+SV. Centre KrF+V+Sp. Rightwing H+Frp). M = Number of elected parliamentarians. Year Ap SV Total M KrF V Sp Total M H Frp Total M 1973 33,8 8,9 42,7 3 10,3 3,0 7,6 20,9 2 26,5 6,6 33,1 2 1977 39,8 2,6 42,4 3 10,2 2,8 7,2 20,2 1 33,7 2,0 35,7 3 1981 33,9 2,9 36,8 3 8,2 3,2 4,2 15,6 0 41,9 4,7 46,6 4 1985 35,4 4,0 39,4 3 7,0 2,7 4,4 14,1 1 40,9 4,8 45,7 3 1989 30,1 8,3 38,4 4 7,1 2,7 4,5 14,3 0 28,9 16,5 45,4 3 1993 35,4 6,5 41,9 3 6,9 2,7 13,2 22,8 1 23,1 10,3 33,2 3 1997 33,5 5,3 38,8 3 12,5 3,2 5,6 21,3 1 18,1 20,1 38,2 3 2001 21,6 11,6 33,2 3 11,0 2,8 3,3 17,1 1 25,5 18,7 44,2 4 2005 30,2 8,4 38,6 4 6,0 5,0 3,6 14,6 0 15,3 29,3 44,6 3 2009 33,7 6,5 40,2 4 4,7 3,0 3,2 10,9 0 19,6 27,2 46,8 3 2013 29,6 3,8 33,4 2 4,9 4,5 3,0 12,4 1 30,0 19,5 49,5 4 2017 28,0 5,0 33,0 2 3,7 3,8 6,3 13,8 1 30,1 16,9 47,0 4 ==Demographics== According to Statistics Norway, Vestfold County was home to 244,967 residents as of 1 January 2016. Immigrants made up 11.9 percent of the population in 2017. Most immigrants were from Poland (4,287 people), followed by Lithuania (2,794) and Iraq (1,549). Despite its small size, Vestfold had the third-highest population density in Norway. However, the population density may still have been considered low; as an example, the population density of the Netherlands was four times higher than that of Vestfold County in 1998. Sandefjord was the most populous city of Vestfold County; one in four people from Vestfold were from Sandefjord, or 25.2 percent of the county population. ==Economy== Traditional industries in Vestfold have included whaling and ship building. For over 50 years in the 19th century, Sandefjord and partially Tønsberg functioned as the world centre for the whaling industry. However, whaling ended in the 1960s and the ship building industry has gradually reduced since the 1980s. Information technology is currently a growing industry, and the county is home to large web shops such as Komplett, MPX.no and netshop.no. 18.9 percent of the county's total area is used for agriculture, the highest percentage of any county in Norway. 70% of agricultural lands are used for the cultivation of grains. Vestfold's farming area makes up five percent of Norway's cultivated areas. However, by area, Vestfold only makes up 0.7 percent of Norway's land area. Vestfold has Norway's most expensive vacation homes. Sandefjord had Norway's most expensive vacation homes in 2012, while Tjøme had the most expensive homes as of 2010. General property values appreciated 28.3 percent between 2010 and 2015. ===Tourism=== Summer tourism is an important industry in Vestfold, particularly in coastal communities such as Sandefjord, Tjøme and Stavern. Coastal cities also have large numbers of vacation homes. There were 534,724 hotel stays in 2015, where the purpose was vacationing for 236,895. Most international tourists were from the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark. There were 781,459 stays at rental cabins or campgrounds in 2015. Consequentially, the population increases drastically during summer months in municipalities such as Sandefjord,Jøranlid, Marianne (1996). 40 trivelige turer i Sandefjord og omegn. Vett Viten. Page 27. . Tjøme, and elsewhere. The population at Tjøme goes from 4,500 to around 50,000 each summer. The population of islands such as Tjøme often quadruple during summer, while summer communities as Stavern often sees a doubling or tripling.Evensberget, Snorre (2014). DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: Norway. Penguin. Page 129. . Tjøme Island is home to nearly as many vacation homes as residential homes. While Tjøme has the nickname Sommerøya ("the Summer Island"), Sandefjord is nicknamed Badebyen ("the Bathing City") due to its many beaches and former spas.Alspaugh, Emmanuelle (2006). Fodor's Norway. Fodor's Travel Publications. Pages F-7 and 73. . Sandefjord is known for its many great beaches,McKay, D. (2004). Fodor's Scandinavia. Fodor's Travel Publications. Page 398. .Alspaugh, Emmanuelle (2006). Fodor's Norway. Fodor's Travel Publications. Page 74. . and it is primarily known as a summer resort community.Berman, Martha (1995). Fielding's Scandinavia. Fielding Worldwide. Page 240. . It first became a bathing destination when sulphur was discovered in 1837.Ebbesen, Jorgen Tandberg (2018). The Sulphureous Bath at Sandefjord in Norway. Sagwan Press. Page 18. . The city gained further recognition when Sandefjord Sulfur Spa and Resort (Kurbadet) was established in 1837. The bath was one of the most visited in Europe during the late 19th century.Jøranlid, Marianne (1996). 40 trivelige turer i Sandefjord og omegn. Vett Viten. Page 36. . Vestfold's most visited tourist attractions include Borre mound cemetery, the largest burial site in Northern Europe, as well as numerous sites along the coast. Architectural sites include the villages of Åsgårdstrand, Karljohansvern in Horten, and Fredriksvern in Stavern. Other important attractions are Sandefjord Whaling Museum, Mølen Geopark in Larvik, as well as Tønsberg Fortress (Slottsfjellet) in Tønsberg. ===Largest companies=== Largest companies in Vestfold County based on operating income in 2015: No. Company Operating income in 2015 (in NOK) 1 Jotun A/S 16 844 327 2 Komplett AS 7 256 700 3 Kongsberg Maritime AS 6 957 840 4 Asko Vestfold Telemark AS 4 617 791 5 Sykehuset i Vestfold HF 4 595 010 ==Culture== Vestfold is the county in Norway with the most traces from the Viking Age. Examples include the Oseberg- and Gokstad Burial Mounds. While the Oseberg Ship was discovered in Tønsberg, the Gokstad Ship was discovered in Sandefjord. The Gokstad Ship is Norway's largest preserved Viking ship. Both ships are now located at the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo. Additional burial mounds are found at Borre mound cemetery and Mølen, an UNESCO Global Geopark. Borre mound cemetery is home to Northern Europe's largest burial mound site from Viking Age. Vestfold is home to 21 churches dating to medieval times. It is also home to one stave church, Høyjord Stave Church in Andebu (Sandefjord). Nearby Andebu Church also has Norway's oldest parish register, dating to 1623. The city of Sandefjord proper is home to Europe's only museum dedicated to whaling, Sandefjord Museum in the city centre. This museum also owns Southern Actor, a whale-catcher turned museum ship. Southern Actor is the only whale-catcher from the Modern Whaling Epoch still to be in its original working order. Also at Sandefjord Harbor is the Harbour Chapel (Bryggekapellet), which is the only floating church in NorwayDavidsen, Roger (2008). Et Sted i Sandefjord. Sandar Historielag. Pages 309 and 370. . and most likely Europe, perhaps the only floating church in the world. The city of Tønsberg is Norway's oldest city, most likely founded in year 871.Schandy, Tom and Tom Helgesen (2012). Naturperler i Vestfold. Forlaget Tom & Tom v/Schandy. Page 100. . Tønsberg is home to Tønsberg Fortress, which is Scandinavia's largest ruin site. It includes ruins from Castrum Tunsbergis, Norway's largest castle in the 13th century. An outdoor music festival is held at Tønsberg Fortress every July. Ruins of a German fortress can be seen at Folehavna Fort on West Island, Sandefjord. ==Transportation== The Vestfold Line is a railway line that runs from Drammen, through a number of towns in Vestfold and ending in the town of Skien in Telemark. European route E18 runs through the county roughly parallel to the railway. There are two international ferry connections, both operated by Color Line. Larvik is connected to the Danish town Hirtshals, the other route is between Sandefjord and Strømstad in Sweden. Fjord Line is also a ferry operator between Sandefjord and Strømstad. In addition there is a domestic route connecting Horten and Moss. Sandefjord Airport Torp is one of Norway's largest airports. Only Bergen- and Oslo Airports have more international flights than Torp Airport. Despite being located 74 miles south of Oslo, Torp is sometimes called Oslo Airport Torp. It is reached with a free shuttle bus from Sandefjord Airport Station on Vestfoldbanen. Torp is regional hub for low-cost carrier Norwegian, as well as low-cost carriers Ryanair and WizzAir also operate from the airport.Macmillan (2008). Let's Go 2009 Europe. Let's Go, Inc. Page 737. . Torp offers direct routes to over 30 international and domestic destinations, including daily flights to European cities such as London and Amsterdam. ==Points of interest== ===Larvik=== * Bøkeskogen, world's northernmost beech tree forest.Bertelsen, Hans Kristian (1998). Bli kjent med Vestfold / Become acquainted with Vestfold. Stavanger Offset AS. Page 63. .Ham, Anthony and Stuart Butler (2015). Lonely Planet Norway. Lonely Planet. Page 91. .Schmidt, Martin (2020). Norwegen. Reise Know-How Verlag Peter Rump. Page 113. . * Kaupang, home to remains for the oldest Nordic town yet discovered. The remains are from one of Scandinavia's earliest urban sites, established in year 800 A.D.Skre, Dagfinn (2007). Kaupang in Skiringssal. Aarhus University Press. Page 13. .Doreen, Taylor-Wilkie (2018). Insight Guides Norway. Insight. Page 157. . * Mølen, Scandinavia's first UNESCO Global Geopark. * Nevlunghavn and Helgeroa, adjacent coastal villages. * Larvik Museum * Fritzøehus, largest privately owned estate in Norway.Aadnevik, Kjell-Einar (2019). Turguide til Larvik og Omegn. Dreyers forlag. Page 92. ISBN 9788282654418. * Stavern, small coastal town, home of Citadell Island ** Fredriksvern, Norway's main naval base from the mid-1750s until 1864. ** Minnehallen (Hall of Remembrance), largest monument in Vestfold. ===Horten=== * Borre National Park, largest burial mound site in Northern Europe. * Løvøy Chapel * Royal Norwegian Navy Museum * Preus Museum * Borre Church, romanesque medieval church constructed in the 1100s. * Tordenskioldeika * Åsgårdstrand, oceanside resort town.Fodor (1987). Fodor's Scandinavia 1988. Fodor's Travel Publications. Page 279. .Nickel, Phyllis and Hans Jakob Valderhaug (2017). Norwegian Cruising Guide—Vol 2: Sweden, West Coast and Norway, Swedish Border to Bergen. Attainable Adventure Cruising Ltd. Pages 85-86. . * Borre Golfbane ===Tønsberg and Færder=== * Tønsberg Fortress, largest ruin park in the Nordic countries. * Oseberg Mound, site of the discovery of the Oseberg Ship * Haugar * Tønsberg Cathedral * Sem Church * Slottsfjellmuseet * Nordbyen * World's End, southernmost point at Tjøme. * Herkelås * Tjøme Church * Færder National Park, first National Park in Vestfold. ===Sandefjord=== * Sandefjord Museum (the Whaling Museum), Europe's only museum dedicated to whaling. ** Southern Actor, only whale-catcher from the Modern Whaling Epoch still to be in its original working order. * Gokstad Mound, site of the discovery of the 9th-century Gokstad Ship. * Gaia ship, replica of the Gokstad Ship docked at Museum's Wharf. * Sandar Church, built on ruins of a 13th-century medieval stone church. Present church was erected in 1792. * Whaler's Monument, rotating bronze monument erected in honor of pioneering whalers. * Sandefjord Church * Istrehågan, ancient burial ground which dates to the Roman Iron Age around 1500-500 BCE. * Kurbadet, former resort spa and one of Europe's most visited baths in the late 19th century. * Folehavna Fort, ruins from a German fortress erected in 1941 during the German occupation of Norway. * Høyjord Stave Church, the only stave church left in Vestfold County. * Langeby, popular bathing beach at West Island. * Goksjø, third-largest lake in Vestfold County. ==Archaeological sites== ===Istrehågan=== Istrehågan is an ancient burial ground which dates to the Roman Iron Age around 1500-500 BCE. It is located at Jåberg in Tjølling, on the border between Sandefjord and Larvik.Jøranlid, Marianne (1996). 40 trivelige turer i Sandefjord og omegn. Vett Viten. Page 123. . The rock settings at Istrehågan resemble a ship. It is long, and meters broad. Archaeological excavations made in 1959-61 uncovered remains of bones, bear claws, pottery shards, a brooch, and more.https://www.visitvestfold.com/Images/Bilder%20Visit%20Vestfold/Vestfold/Dokumenter/viking_trail_engelsk_web_951579.pdf (Page 8). At Haugen farm on the Sandefjord side is Vestfold County's largest collection of petroglyphs.Børresen, Svein E. (2004). Vestfoldboka: en reise i kultur og natur. Skagerrak forl. Page 38. . ===Borre National Park=== At Borrehaugene near Borrre there are 9 large mounds and around 30 smaller ones. It is the largest burial mound site in Northern Europe. Borre mound cemetery most likely contains graves belonging to kings of the Yngling dynasty. It is mentioned in the poem Ynglingatal as the burial site of one of two kings belonging to the royal dynasty of the Ynglingas.Carver, M.O.H. (1992). The Age of Sutton Hoo: The Seventh Century in North-Western Europe. Boydell Press. Page 301. . ===Kaupang=== Kaupang in Skiringssal (Larvik) is home to remains from the oldest Nordic town yet discovered. It was a trade centre established around year 800, making it one of Scandinavia's earliest urban sites. The settlement was abandoned in the mid-10th century. It is located in Kaupang Bay in Viksfjord, Larvik. Archeological finds include melting pots, jewelry parts, casting moulds and casting models. Most of Kaupang remains not excavated. There are replicas of Viking homes at Kaupang today, giving insight to how homes were constructed during the Viking Age.https://issuu.com/visitvestfold/docs/visit_larvik_2018-2019_web (Page 23). ===Oseberg Burial Mound=== Oseberg Mound is located in Tønsberg and is where the Oseberg Ship was discovered. The ship, which dates to 834 A.D., had a length of . Two female skeletons were found in the ship's burial chamber. ===Viking burial site at Gulli=== Gulli, outside Tønsberg, was the site of an archaeological excavation during the period from 2003 to 2004, prior to asphalt being laid for constructing the new E18 (road). There were 60 graves - 20 of those were preserved to a degree that [authorities decided] permitted examinations. "Perhaps the most spectacular [item] was a høvre" - used with a horse's harness. "There are few of those in Norway - one in Trøndelag and a gilded one found in Borre". The artifacts are on display at the Midgard Historical Centre in Borre. ===Fevang=== 19th century archeologists were struck by the many burial mounds and artifacts discovered at Fevang near Torp Airport in Sandefjord. Local farmers had discovered various artifacts in the 19th- and early 20th centuries. Archeologist Nicolay Nicolaysen traveled to Fevang and concluded that Fevang was home to an array of ancient burial mounds. Nicolaysen further discovered that Fevang had been an active graveyard for over 1,000 years - since year 0 A.D. until the first Christian cemeteries were established. Among the artifacts discovered were a gold jewel named Berlokk, which was retrieved in a woman's grave along with two gold beads, two blue glass beads, a hairpin, ceramic, burnt bones, and two clips of bronze. Her tomb is dated to the Old Iron Age, around 0-400 A.D. ===Gokstad Mound=== thumb|left|Interpretive signs at Gokstad Mound Gokstad Mound in Sandefjord was where the Gokstad Ship was excavated by Nicolay Nicolaysen in 1880.Jøranlid, Marianne (1996). 40 trivelige turer i Sandefjord og omegn. Vett Viten. Page 106. . The skeleton of a man was found in the ship, long believed to be Olaf Geirstad-Alf, former king of Vestfold and half-brother of Halfdan the Black, the father of Harald Fairhair, Norway's first king. However, recent discoveries have increased uncertainty and it therefore remains unknown what chieftain was buried at Gokstad.Davidsen, Roger (2008). Et Sted i Sandefjord. Sandar Historielag. Page 210. . The ship, which is the largest found in Norway, is currently located at the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo. The ship was buried along with numerous gifts, including weapons, jewels, a gaming board, fish-hooks, 64 shields, six beds, three smaller boats and kitchen utensils. Twelve horses, eight dogs, two goshawks and two peacocks were also discovered in the grave. Interpretive signs have been put up at the mound and Gaia, an exact replica of the Gokstad Ship, can be seen on Museum's Wharf at Sandefjord Harbor.Jøranlid, Marianne (1996). 40 trivelige turer i Sandefjord og omegn. Vett Viten. Page 24. . ===Mølen=== The Old Norse word Mol translates to cairns, a site often used by ancient peoples to mark a burial site. Mølen, which is Norway's largest stone beach, is home to 230 cairns, which have been built over ages. Some cairns have been dated to 250 A.D. The isthmus of Mølen is home to stone piles, grave mounds, and stone settings, which are all part of a protected historic site. The last Ice Age pushed large amounts of gravel and stones ahead of it, and deposited it as a moraine through all of Vestfold, known as Vestfoldraet. Raet meets the ocean at Mølen, where the moraine sinks into the sea. Its encounter with the Skagerrak ocean waves has uncovered and polished the huge round stone floor for centuries.Bertelsen, Hans Kristian (1998). Bli kjent med Vestfold / Become acquainted with Vestfold. Stavanger Offset AS. Page 54. . ===Bøkeskogen=== Besides being the largest beech tree forest in Norway, and the most northernmost beech tree forest in the world, Bøkeskogen is also an important archeological area. 83-90 burial mounds have been discovered in the forest. Some of these include the largest burial grounds from the Pre-Roman Iron Age in Vestfold County. ==Recreation== At least 238 kilometers of coastal hiking trails can be found in Vestfold County, from Larvik in the south to Svelvik in the north.Larsen, Erlend (2011). På Tur i Vestfold del 2. E-forlag. Page 234. . Hiking trails are found throughout the county, including at World's End in Færder National Park. Furthermore, there is a 35 km (22 mi.) marked trail between the towns of Stavern and Helgeroa. Mølen, Kjærrafossen and Bøkeskogen are also home to various trails. Tønsberg Barrel, an old beacon dated to Sverris saga in the Middle Ages,Larsen, Erlend (2011). På Tur i Vestfold del 2. E-forlag. Pages 297-298. . sits at Yxnøy on Sandefjord's East Island. West Island is home to Folehavna Fort and additional trails.https://issuu.com/visitvestfold/docs/visit_larvik_2018-2019_web (Page 73). Combined, the trails on Sandefjord's East- and West Islands are 45 km (28 mi.), and a part of the international North Sea Trail.Mšbius, Aaron and Michael (2014). Norwegen. DuMont Reiseverlag. Page 168. . Bøkeskogen in Larvik is home to various trails, varying from 2.6 km (1.6 mi.) to 10 km (6.2 mi.) in length. ==Fauna== Vestfold's fauna includes species such as the White-tailed eagle, Roe deer, Moose, European hedgehog, Eurasian eagle-owl, Mountain hare, European badger, European pine marten, and Norway lemming. Rare observations of Gray wolf, European lynx, and Brown bear do occur. A wolf shot in Lardal in 2013 was the first wolf killed in the county in over 100 years. Between 700 and 800 moose are annually hunted in Vestfold. Larvik has one of the highest numbers of moose in Norway. The Harbor seal is the most commonly observed species of seal in Vestfold, and it was estimated to be at minimum 183 seals in Vestfold as of August 2014.https://prosjekt.fylkesmannen.no/Documents/Jomfruland/Dokument/Rapporter/Minirapport%20om%20sel%20i%20forbindelse%20med%20arbeidet%20med%20Jomfruland%20nasjonalpark.pdf (Page 2). Dolphins are uncommon, however, a Common bottlenose dolphin was observed by Nøtterøy in 2014, and a Striped dolphin was observed the same summer at Helgeroa in Larvik. Common European Viper is the only venomous snake found in Norway. There are two non-venomous snake species in Vestfold County: European grass snake and European smooth snake.Larsen, Erlend (2012). På tur i Vestfold: Del 2. E-forlag. Page 10. . Vestfold has a rich avifauna: over 130 bird species have been observed in Svelvik, while Mølen in Larvik has the national record of 320 species. ===Wildlife refuge=== Saltstein is part of a protected habitat for birds. From 2014 surfing was permitted off Saltstein. Besides being an UNESCO Global Geopark, Mølen in Larvik is a habitat for a variety of rare bird species. Mølen became a protected sanctuary for birds in 1970. 320 species of birds have been recorded at Mølen, more species than at any other site in Norway.Nord, Einar and Gunnar Christie Wasberg (1999). Magiske Mølen. Larvik og omegns turistforening. Page 85. ISBN 8299524903. Wildlife preserves include Melsom- and Hemskilen Wildlife Preserves. Hemskilen Wildlife Preserve lies on the Larvik-Sandefjord border and is an important habitat for shorebirds, geese, and Passerines. Melsom Plant- and Wildlife Preserve in Sandefjord is home to various older oaks, some of them home to as many as 1,500 different species of insects. Marøyskjæra Bird Preserve consists of two skerries west of Natholmen Island, which have been important nesting areas for Common tern and Common gull since the 1980s. Over 500 seagulls hatched on the islets in the 1990s. ==In popular culture== Although not filmed in Vestfold, the City of Tønsberg appears in the films Thor (2011) and also in Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), and in Avengers: Endgame Some films shot in Vestfold include: * Norway (2018), movie based on the 2011 Norway attacks, filmed in Tønsberg and Nøtterøy. * Olsenbanden tar gull (1972), filmed in Stavern (Larvik) and Sande in Vestfold. * Baadshah (1999), Tønsberg * Christmas Blood ("Juleblod") (2017), Tønsberg and Sandefjord. * Wisting (2018– ), Larvik and Sandefjord. * Nonni and Manni (1988–89), Horten. * Head Above Water (1993), filmed at East Island in Sandefjord.Davidsen, Roger (2008). Et sted i Sandefjord: lokalhistorisk stedsnavnsleksikon. Sandar historielag. Page 74. ISBN 9788299456753. * Deadline Torp (2005), movie based on the 1994 Torp hostage crisis, filmed in Sandefjord and Larvik. * Valfångare (1939), Sandefjord. * Den starkaste (1929), Sandefjord. ==Gallery== Færder.jpg|Færder National Park Borreparken, gravhaug, Horten kommune, Vestfold.jpg|Borre National Park in Horten Excavation Oseberg ship 1.jpg|The Oseberg Ship was discovered in Tønsberg. Stavern Wasilioff.jpg|Town centre in Stavern Citadellet 1.jpg|Citadellet, 19th-century fortress in Stavern Høyjord stavkirke, MIS.jpg|Høyjord Stave Church, only stave church left in VestfoldBørresen, Svein E. (2004). Vestfoldboka: en reise i kultur og natur. Skagerrak forl. Page 67. . Trollfoss.jpg|Trollfoss in Larvik, the tallest waterfall in Vestfold.Børresen, Svein E. (2004). Vestfoldboka: en reise i kultur og natur. Skagerrak forl. Page 96. .Aadnevik, Kjell-Einar (2019). Turguide til Larvik og Omegn. Dreyers forlag. Page 274. .Schandy, Tom and Tom Helgesen (2012). Naturperler i Vestfold. Forlaget Tom & Tom v/Schandy. Page 192. . ==References== ==External links== *Vestfold photo gallery Category:Former counties of Norway Category:2020 disestablishments in Norway Category:Petty kingdoms of Norway Category:States and territories disestablished in 2020 |
thumb|The Hauptgebäude (main building) was constructed between 1747 and 1750. Today it houses the rector's office and some parts of the university administration as well as a baroque assembly hall. The University of Greifswald (; ), formerly also known as "Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University of Greifswald", is a public research university located in Greifswald, Germany, in the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Founded in 1456 (teaching existed since 1436), it is one of the oldest universities in Europe, with generations of notable alumni and staff having studied or worked in Greifswald. As the fourth oldest university in present Germany, it was temporarily also the oldest university of the Kingdoms of Sweden (1648–1815) and Prussia (1815–1945), respectively. Approximately two-thirds of the 10,179 students are from outside the state, including international students from 90 countries all over the world. Due to the small-town atmosphere, the pronounced architectural presence of the alma mater across town, and the young, academic flair in the streets, Greifswald is often described as a "university with a town built around it" rather than a town with a university. Being a vast research community, the university aims at expanding its academic connections globally. == History == === 1456–1600: Founding === thumb|left|Map of medieval universities in Europe. The University of Greifswald was founded on 17 October 1456 with the approval of the Holy Roman Empire and the Pope. This was possible due to the great commitment of Greifswald's lord mayor, Heinrich Rubenow, who was also to become the university's first rector, with the support of Duke Wartislaw IX of Pomerania and Bishop Henning Iven of the local St Nicolas' Cathedral. The founding took place in the local cathedral, which was later remodeled by Caspar David Friedrich and his brother and can still be visited today. The founding of the university was made possible by a decree that restricted teaching activity at the University of Rostock (founded 1419). Several professors left Rostock for Greifswald to continue their work there, where Heinrich Rubenow took the chance of establishing his own university. Originally, the university consisted of the four traditional divisions: Theology, Philosophy, Medicine and Law. In the late Middle Ages the University of Greifswald was one of the most important centers of science in the Duchy of Pomerania. The rest of Pomeranian schools – including those in Szczecin and Stargard – did not have the university status in this time. Nowadays in Germany, there are only three older universities by count of the years of existence: the University of Heidelberg (established 1386), the University of Leipzig (1409), and the University of Rostock (1419). International co- operation with other institutions of higher education in northern Europe existed already in the earliest years, sparked and accelerated by the transnational trading network Hanse. From 1456 until 1526, 476 Scandinavians were enrolled at Greifswald University and 22 faculty members as well as six rectors came from Scandinavia. This was a relatively high percentage compared to the total number of students at the time. Sources suggest a relatively segregated life of Swedish students in the primarily German university though. The early sixteenth century saw significant co-operation of the university, the Lutheran church, the city and the Duchy of Pomerania. Professors of theology simultaneously served as pastors in the three cathedrals. Professors of medicine usually served as personal physicians of the duke. Professors of law were also working at the local courts while professors of the faculty of philosophy usually taught the sons and daughters of the ducal family. The landed nobility also funded university-related purposes such as scholarships and student bursaries. The Reformation was introduced at the university in 1539. Johannes Bugenhagen, an alumnus of the university, was an important figure during the German and Scandinavian reformation as well as a good friend of Martin Luther. After the secularisation of the monastery at Eldena near Greifswald, Duke Philipp I of Pomerania gave all revenue created by the now secularised Amt Eldena to the university. His successor, Duke Ernst Ludwig, began the construction of a college building, which could only be completed after his death. Duke Philipp Julius presented the university a gown that was used by the rector on ceremonial occasions up until very recently. === 1600–1815: Sweden === In 1604, the Greifswald University Library became the first centralised university library in Germany. The university signed a contract with a book printer from Wittenberg, Germany, for the amount of 2,000 Gulden. This contract lasted nearly a century due to the disruption caused by the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). Hence, the university now owns prestigious early prints of authors and printers such as Johannes Gutenberg or Thomas Thorild. The phrase cuius regio, eius religio as applied to the outcome of the Protestant Reformation is attributed to the early seventeenth century jurist Joachim Stephani (1544–1623) of the University of Greifswald.Steven Ozment, The Age of Reform 1250–1550 (1980) p.259. The Duke of Pomerania was in financial troubles and had not paid the professors. As a solution, he gave the Amt Eldena to the university – a total of 140 square kilometres of land. After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 the western part of Pomerania, including Greifswald and its university, became a fief held by Sweden. From 1806 to 1815 it was formally a part of Sweden. Without entirely losing its character as a German university, it was heavily influenced by Swedish educational policies until 1815. Especially during the second half of the eighteenth century Greifswald was a cultural and scientific bridge between Germany and Sweden. More than 1,500 Swedes studied at Greifswald University. The first university course in the English language in Germany was held in Greifswald in the year 1777. The main administrative building – still in use today – was built during the "good old Swedish years" by Andreas Mayer, a mathematician by profession, in the style of North German Baroque. === 1815–1933: PrussiaFor the integration of the university of Greifswald in Prussia's higher education landscape see Michael Czolkoss: Studien zur Geschichte der Geschichtswissenschaft. Die Universität Greifswald in der preußischen Hochschullandschaft (1830–1865). Marburg: Tectum 2015 === thumb|upright|The Rubenow-Denkmal (Rubenow Memorial) was erected in 1856 for celebration of the 400th anniversary of the university in honour of its founder and first rector, Heinrich Rubenow. When Swedish Pomerania became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1815, the University of Greifswald became the oldest university on Prussian territory. Prussia recognised the potential of science and universities, thus extensive building activity and growing financial support enabled the University of Greifswald to grow further both in size and reputation. In 1856, on the occasion of the 400th anniversary of the university's founding, a monument was unveiled in the presence of King Frederick William IV of Prussia. The monument is still at its place, and was carefully restored for the 550th anniversary in 2006. The Faculty of Law became Faculty of Law and Economics when an economic department was introduced in 1905. In 1912, Otto Jaekel, a professor of paleontology in Greifswald, founded the German Paleontological Society. The Department of Modern Languages was established in 1853. To commemorate the 400th anniversary of the university in 1856, the "Rubenow- Denkmal" (Rubenow Memorial) was built in front of the main building, which is still there at its historic place. The Department of History was founded in 1863 as the first in Prussia and the fourth in all of Germany. The painter Caspar David Friedrich was born in Greifswald and received his first painting instruction by one of the university's members. Today the Department of Fine Art and Art History is named after him. He later painted several oil paintings with motifs from the region, including the one on the left. The spectrum of academic research and teaching was further expanded during the Weimar Republic. The Nordisches Institut (Scandinavian and Finno-Ugric studies) and several other research institutes, e.g. for biological research, Christian archeology, and Palestinian studies, were founded. === 1933–1945: Nazi Germany === In 1933 the university was named after Ernst Moritz Arndt, who was a student of theology in 1791 and later taught history at Greifswald. Here, he published his works "Versuch einer Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft in Pommern und Rügen", "Germanien und Europa" as well as the first part of "Geist der Zeit". The name was suggested by SA and Nazi Party member professor Walther Glawe. The university was gleichgeschalted and reformed according to military needs of the Nazis.See the new study by Henrik Eberle: "Ein wertvolles Instrument." Die Universität Greifswald im Nationalsozialismus. Böhlau, Köln et al. 2015 === 1945–1990: GDR === thumb|University of Greifswald, Old Campus thumb|upright|The main building on 8 October 1956, a few days before the 500th anniversary celebrations of the university All academic activities came to a halt towards the end of the Second World War, and the university was re-opened on 15 February 1946. The name of Ernst Moritz Arndt was initially removed but restored in 1954. Several organisational changes were made during the time of the GDR, most of which were revoked in the 1990s after the German Reunification. === 1990–present: Germany === Freedom of science as well as the autonomy and self-administration of the university were re-established. The Faculty of Law and Economics was re-opened from 1991 to 1993. Extensive renovation took place since 1990. The dinosaur Emausaurus was named after the acronym of the university (Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald) in 1990. Beginning in 1999, the University of Greifswald was among the first in Germany to welcome and introduce the international Bachelor/Master degree system as proposed by the Bologna declaration. The new system has replaced all former 4½-year "Magister" degrees in the arts and humanities and is set to replace the 4½-year "Diplom" formerly awarded in the sciences and in business too. In 2006, the university celebrated its 550th anniversary with a large variety of events. The central ceremony – involving the re-opening of the university's renovated administrative building by President Horst Köhler of Germany, Queen Silvia of Sweden, and Minister President Harald Ringstorff of Mecklenburg- Vorpommern – took place on 17 October 2006. Since the end of the GDR the University of Greifswald has undergone major construction efforts. Between 1991 and 2007, more than 417 million euros were spent on the careful renovation of historic buildings, as well as on the construction of new sites. For instance, 19th century lecture hall ("auditorium maximum") has been carefully restored, just like the university's main administrative building and many other buildings in the historic center of town. A new campus for natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biochemistry), medicine, IT and mathematics is under construction in the eastern part of the city. The new domiciles of Greifswald University Library, the departments of physics, biology and biochemistry have already been completed. The university hospital, which is thought to be completed in 2009, will be the most up-to-date full- scale hospital in Germany, adding to the appeal of the Greifswald Medical School. As a consequence of the construction of the new Greifswald University Hospital building, all historic 19th and early 20th century buildings that were formerly used by the hospital will be transferred to house other disciplines, thus creating an old-town campus for such departments as law and economics, the humanities and social sciences, and improving research and teaching considerably. As one of only 17 out of a total of 52 proposed building projects of "national significance" across Germany, the national government has agreed to subsidise the construction of a new pharmacology research lab (in Germany, education is usually cared for by the German states and not by the national government, which only supports a few projects of national and international importance). Founded in 2000, the Alfried-Krupp Kolleg promotes the Universities international relations by awarding fellowships to Junior and Senior Fellows. Following debates about the appropriateness of having the university named after Ernst Moritz Arndt, in January 2017 the Senate voted to remove his name from the official name of the university. Although the State of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern declared this decision void, a compromise was reached in which Arndt's name is removed from the official name, but can still be used under certain circumstances. As of June 2018 the name "Ernst-Moritz-Arndt Universität Greifswald" is no longer in use. == Organisation == thumb|The Universitätshauptgebäude (university main building) – the seat of the rector and the administration === Central governance === The Rectorate, consisting of the rector, three pro-rectors, and the registrar, represents the university as a whole, sets the main guidelines development, distributes the finances, opens and closes study programmes, and appoints professors. The registrar is the head of the university administration, and manages the university's budget. The rector is elected by the Senate for a four-year term, the registrar for an eight-year term, and the three pro-rectors are elected to serve for two years. The Senate is the second governing institution of the university. The Senate elects the Rectorate, and is itself elected by the members of the university, i.e. by students and members of staff. Senators serve for two years, student senators for one year. The Senate consists of academic staff members (divided into professors and non-professors), students, and non-academic staff members (librarians, administration officials, etc.). Moreover, there is a University Council (Universitätsrat), consisting of six prominent members of the public who are elected by the Senate to advise the university in various ways. The Student's Union (AStA) and the Student Parliament (StuPa) represent the interests of the students. === Faculties === The buildings of the arts and humanities, law, business studies, and theology are scattered about the historic centre of the town of Greifswald. The newly built facilities for the natural sciences, mathematics, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry are situated to the east of the city centre, offering first-class research opportunities. Like many European universities, the University of Greifswald has five faculties (German: ) which are structured into departments, institutes, and chairs. ==== Arts and Humanities==== *Sacred Music and Music * Fine Art * German * History * Modern Languages (including English, Baltic Languages, Scandinavian Languages and Slavic Languages) * Philosophy * Political and Communication Science *Education ==== Law and Economics ==== :Due to an education reform from 2013 in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Law can only be taught at the University of Greifswald. The Faculty of Law in Rostock had to be closed. :Undergraduate degree courses offered at the Faculty of Law and Economics include Business Administration, Law and Management and Law. Master students can enroll for courses such as Health Care Management and Business Administration. ==== University Medicine ==== : The Medical Faculty at the University of Greifswald is among the best-ranked in Germany and the admission requirements are among the highest in Germany. Courses are offered in Human Medicine and Dentistry. ==== Mathematics and Natural Sciences ==== Courses are offered in biology, chemistry, biochemistry, geography, geology, Mathematics, IT, pharmacy, psychology and physics. The physics department of the University of Greifswald, together with the Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik and the Leibniz Institute of Plasma Research and Technology, is a major international research hub in the field of plasma physics, attempting to solve future energy problems with the research reactor Wendelstein 7-X. Since 2007, the Department of Physics takes care of the construction of a space telescope called MuSTAnG (Muon Spaceweather Telescope for Anisotropies at Greifswald), which will be part of a worldwide network of telescopes in Japan, Brazil, Australia and Germany. The telescope will enable physicists and astrononomers at Greifswald University to forecast solar activity and has been co-funded by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt. In addition to MuSTAnG, the university owns an observatory, which is taken care of by a private initiative and open to the public. Greifswald offers two multi-disciplinary approaches to environmental studies, called landscape ecology and environmental sciences bringing together different disciplines such as biology, geography, economics, law, and ethics. The pharmacy department and the biotechnology department are also in the top group in Germany. The government-funded National Research Centre for Animal Disease on the Isle of Riems co-operates loosely with the university and is named Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut in honour of the university's former member of staff, Friedrich Loeffler. The University of Greifswald owns a field station on the German island of Hiddensee. Scientists from the university names a species of freshwater snail, Opacuincola gretathunbergae, after the climate activist Greta Thunberg. ==== Theology ==== The faculty of theology was founded when the university was founded in 1456. Notable theologians have studied or worked here, for example Johannes Bugenhagen who was a close friend of Martin Luther. === Library === Greifswald University Library traces its roots back to the year 1456. In 1604, the first centralised university library in Germany was founded in Greifswald. Today, there are two main libraries, the Central University Library is situated on the Beitzplatz Campus and the Departmental Library can be found on the Loefflerstraße Campus. In addition to the main libraries, several departments and institutes have their own libraries (German: Fachbibliothek). === Academic year === As is customary in Germany, the academic year is divided into two semesters. The "winter term" (Wintersemester) lasts from October to March, and the "summer term" (Sommersemester) from April to September. During the winter term, teaching usually takes place from mid-October to the end of January – the remainder being reserved for exams and the writing of term papers. Teaching during the summer term lasts from mid-April to mid-July. == Cooperation == Aside from teaching and research, one of major tasks of the university is cooperation with partners outside the actual university. === Research partners === The university's research emphasis lies in the field of plasma physics, landscape ecology, medicine, biotechnology, the Middle Ages and the languages and cultures of countries bordering the Baltic Sea. * Alfried Krupp Institute of Advanced Study (Krupp-Kolleg) * Biotechnikum Greifswald * Friedrich Loeffler Institute (National Research Institute of Animal Diseases), Riems Island (FLI) * Leibniz Institute of Plasma Research and Technology (LIPT) * Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics * Nuclear fusion research reactor Wendelstein 7-X * Diabetes Research Centre, Karlsburg (near Greifswald) * Siemens Public Networks, Greifswald * Technology Centre Vorpommern * Technologiepark (under construction) === International cooperation === The University of Greifswald aims to extend and efficiently use its international contacts. The primary geographic focus of international collaboration is Northern Europe and Eastern Europe, which is due to the university's research focus in this area. Partnerships with foreign universities to foster exchange of people (staff and students alike) and ideas is conducted in two different ways. Firstly, through official partnership agreements with foreign universities, which involves the entire university and most or all of her disciplines. Secondly, through contacts of professors, departments, and schools, which usually involves only one or few disciplines. Student exchange from and to Greifswald is co- ordinated by the university's international office (). The University of Greifswald has signed several official partnership agreements with other universities to foster international co-operation through faculty and student exchange and academic co-operation.s partnership agreements In Northern Europe, the university has signed partnership agreements with universities in Denmark (Århus, Holbæk), Finland (Joensuu and Kuopio), and Sweden (Lund). In Eastern Europe, partnership agreements have been signed with universities in the Czech Republic (Brno), Estonia (Tartu), Latvia (Riga), Lithuania (Vilnius, Klaipeda), Poland (Poznan, Szczecin), and Russia (Kaliningrad, Saint Petersburg). Exceptions are the University of Aberdeen as one of the ancient universities of Scotland, and the University of Padua in Italy. The university has also signed various cooperation agreements with universities outside of Europe, e.g. the University of South Australia, the University of Newcastle, Australia, Widener University in Pennsylvania, the University of Manitoba and the University of Saskatchewan (Canada), the National University of Singapore (humanities) or Berkeley (humanities) and the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign (United States). In addition to official partnership agreements (see above) on the university level, there also numerous other channels of international contact on the level of chairs, departments or academic faculties, which often also include student exchange through the ERASMUS programme. Co-operation of this kind takes place with numerous prestigious universities, including those in Barcelona, Bergen, Gothenburg, Graz, Copenhagen, Lancaster, Oslo, Prague, Reykjavík, Stockholm, Southampton, Uppsala or Utrecht. === Public events === The university and its research partners regularly organise events for the general public, in the form of lecture series or public discussions. There is an annual "children's university" week as well as a family university, in which current trends in research are presented in a more popular form. Every semester, the student union organises a "24-hour lecture", in which university researchers, politicians, students and others present topics in short lectures starting at 6 pm on a Friday, and ending at 6 pm on the following Saturday. === Museums and university collections === thumb|Croy tapestry Until post-World War II communist land reforms, the University of Greifswald was a large scale land owner and one of the wealthiest universities in Germany. It owned over 140 square kilometres of arable land, the revenue of which was the basis for its financial independence and wealth. Parts of the land that the university previously possessed have been given back to the university since the German reunification, but some claims are still pending in court. Today, the university again manages some of the land previously owned, including a large forest near Eldena that is open to the public, but the revenue is low compared to other sources of funding. The university-owned forest is administered by university foresters. The former affluence of the university can still be seen in many historic buildings as well as a notable collection of art and other possessions. The university has some its artworks and possessions on display in museums across the country. Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ donated the Croy Tapestry, a tapestry depicting the Reformation from 1554. The university also owns one of only four remaining 36-line Gutenberg Bibles from the year 1458. The university owns various paintings and other artworks as well as a great number of historic books, some of which are lent for exhibition to independent public museums. The University of Greifswald runs Greifswald Botanic Garden. It also has a few collections, some of which are open to visitors: * Anatomical Collection (Anatomische Sammlung) * Archeological Collection (Archäologische Studiensammlung); Christian Archeological Collection (Christlich-archäologische Sammlung) * Botanical Garden (Botanischer Garten) * Neonatological and Gynecological Collection (Geburtshilflich-gynäkologische Sammlung) * State Geological Collection (Geologische Landessammlung) * Graphic Collection (Graphische Sammlung) * Gustav Dalman Collection (theology) (Gustav-Dalman-Sammlung) * Herbarium * Collection of Historic Maps (Historische Kartensammlung) * History of Medicine Collection (Medizinhistorische Sammlung) * Coin Collection (Münzsammlung) * Pathological Collection (Pathologische Sammlung) * Collection of Physics Appliances (Physikalische Gerätesammlung) * Computer Collection (Rechentechnische Sammlung) * Collection of Pre-historic Antiquities (Sammlung vorgeschichtlicher Altertümer) * Zoological Museum (Zoologisches Museum) == Statistics == === Admission === A number of subjects at the University of Greifswald are among the most selective in Germany for undergraduate admissions (e.g. see here for the medical school). A number of other subjects such as the languages and cultures of Northern Europe and the Eastern Europe, philosophy, European history, physics, biochemistry, fine arts, church music have also continually achieved national and international recognition. Moreover, the University of Greifswald is frequently described as one of the most popular universities for undergraduate admission in Germany, which is due to a very good study environment as well as a co-operative spirit between the teaching staff and students. Due to its small size, with only 10,179 students, the university is comparable to other small universities such as St Andrews or Yale. === Rankings === Today, the continued efforts to regain academic leadership are mirrored in national top placements, e.g. in the 2009 Die Zeit university ranking, in several subjects including for instance biology (2009), medicine (2009), geography, law (2008) pharmacy, psychology, dentistry (2009), and business administration (2008). In 2015, the renowned Times Higher Education World University Rankings listed the University of Greifswald among the best 350 universities in the world. === Student body === In the autumn of 2009, there were 12,500 students enrolled in Greifswald, i.e. a quarter of the town's total population of 53,000 were students. According to a 2008 study, Greifswald is Germany's 'youngest city', having the highest percentage of households by people under 30 years of age. In 2008, 59.4 percent of all students were female, the remaining male. Two-thirds of the enrolled students in 2009 came to Greifswald from outside the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and 5.3 percent were foreign nationals. == Student life == Greifswald is situated in close proximity to the sea (near the islands Rügen and Usedom), about 200 km to the north of Germany's capital city, Berlin, and 100 km east of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern's largest city, Rostock. There are train connections, and high-speed autobahn links to Hamburg, Rostock, and Berlin. The city of Greifswald has several museums, a theatre and a philharmonic orchestra as well as a breadth of sports clubs and societies. A medium-sized convention centre called Stadthalle Greifswald exists. According to a 2009 study, 44% of all people in Greifswald use their bicycle for daily transport, which is the highest such rate in Germany. === Athletics === The university's Hochschulsport (college sports) offers a wide range of opportunities to students who wish to do sports. Courses are available in nearly all disciplines, for instance aerobics, American football, football (soccer), dragon boat, fencing, handball, judo, karate, canoeing, lacrosse, rugby, surfing, diving, taekwondo, tennis, table tennis, volleyball or yoga. The regular local sports clubs are frequented by students, too. Greifswald is situated near the sea and the area between isles of Rügen and Usedom is among the most picturesque and best sailing and yachting regions in the whole of Germany. It is renowned for its steady winds. There are a number of sailing and yachting clubs that are frequented by staff and students alike. There are two Sailing Clubs especially for students, the Studentischer Regattaverein, founded in 2007, which offers its Members a wide Range of Sailing Boats to take part in Regattas like Star, J/24, OK Dinghy, Europe, Vaurien, H Dinghy and a Nacra 5.0. The other one, being the oldest Sailing Club in Greifswald, is the Akademischer Seglerverein (Academic Sailing Club). There is a golf club called Hanseatischer Golfclub which is popular with university staff and students alike. It hosts the annual Moritz Golf Cup. === Activities === thumb|The old student cafeteria (Mensa) building, which also contains a not- for-profit student club. The student-run, not-for-profit clubs Mensaclub, Geographenkeller, Geologenkeller, Club 9 and Kiste are very popular and provide an inexpensive way of going out and meeting other students. There are several movie clubs who regularly show movies in German, English or in other languages. Apart from the localities that are run by students, there is an abundance of different pubs, clubs and restaurants. For those wishing to attend music events, there are a number of concerts (rock, pop, etc.) in local pubs and venues throughout the year, as well as the annual "Bach Festival" called Greifswalder Bachwoche and the philharmonic concerts, open air operas and concerts, operas, theatre performances, and ballet are offered by the Theater Vorpommern. Popular destinations for water- and beach-related activities during the summer are the nearby spa towns on the isles of Rügen and Usedom, e.g. Binz, Sellin, Heringsdorf. The coast of Mecklenburg- Vorpommern is one of the most popular summer tourist destinations in Germany. There is also a small beach in Greifswald-Eldena. The Stadtpark (city park) is situated to the northeast of the city centre next to a small zoo. The Ryck river crosses the city, and is only a 2-minute walk from the central market square. There are old boats, a pedestrian bridge and a few bars at the riverbank, which is full of students in the summer. People who enjoy being outdoors make use of the fact that three of Germany's 14 national parks – Jasmund, Müritz and Vorpommersche Boddenlandschaft – can be reached within one hour or less from Greifswald. === Housing === As is customary at German universities, students are generally required to arrange for their own housing. There are a few low-rate student dorms in the town, however a large majority of students share private flats with a couple of other students (German: Wohngemeinschaft, abbreviated WG), or live in single apartments. In recent years, it has become increasingly difficult for newly matriculated students to find appropriate flats in Greifswald, which is due to a growing number of students and a stagnating market. As landlords often prefer their prospective tenants to be fluent in German, this may cause disadvantages for international students wishing to rent their own place. However, the university usually arranges dorm rooms for international students. === Societies === As in any other university town, there are groups and organisations of various colours, e.g. human rights groups, political or religious youth organisations, environmental protection groups, and the like. There is a local ESN chapter for international students. GrIStuF – Greifswald International Students Festival – brings together students from all over the world each summer to discuss, party and compete with each other. The AStA and the student parliament (StuPa) work to represent the interests of all students towards the university and society as a whole. The following music groups are open to faculty and students, e.g. * chamber choir * cathedral choir * university big band * university choir * university symphonic orchestra Nordischer Klang (Nordic Sound) – an international festival of Scandinavian and Nordic culture – takes place each year in Greifswald and is actively supported by students and members of staff. Nordischer Klang introduces the cultures of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden to the German public and is the largest festival of Nordic culture outside of the Nordic countries. It comprises lectures, movies, theatre performances, live jazz music, fine art and literature. PolenmARkT (PolandmARkeT) is a German-polish festival taking place every November in the Hanseatic city Greifswald. It was created in 1997 to connect Germany and Poland – mainly in cultural aspects. It is organized by the PolenmARkT e.V. (an association) and a pool of volunteers. It was supported by the Embassy of Poland, the city Greifswald, the University of Greifswald and its students. Looking back at a 14-year-long period of growth it is one of the most important cultural events in the Hanseatic city. The organiserrs managed to establish the event sustainable into Greifswald's citizens interests. There is a monthly student magazine called moritz-Magazin, which read by the majority of students and publishes stories not only about university politics but also about culture in general. A popular radio98eins local/regional radio station is operated mainly by students and presents independent music and local news. Students who wish to get experience in television may want to join moritzTV the student TV channel. === Fraternities === Greifswald has a number of different student fraternities and sororities, which are called Studentenverbindungen (the singular is Studentenverbindung). Studentenverbindungen have a long tradition as most of them were founded in the 19th century, and they are to some extent comparable to the fraternities in the United States. As traditional symbols (couleur) corporation members wear coloured caps and ribbons at ceremonial occasions (Kommers) and some still practice the traditional academic fencing, a kind of duel, in order to "shape their members for the challenges of life". In the 19th and early 20th century, corporations played an important role in Germany's student life. Today, however, corporations include only a relatively small number of students. Their self-declared mission is to keep academic traditions alive and to create friendships for life. The political views of the fraternities are more or less conservative, but two of them (Rugia and Markomannia) have been linked to the far-right NPD. == Notable people == The University of Greifswald is associated with a number of notable people, including both former students and faculty. For instance, 17th century lawyer David Mevius, two Nobel prize laureates as well as two German chancellors have studied or worked in Greifswald. Johannes Stark (1874–1957) received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1919 (see Nobel Prize Website) "for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields" during his time at the University of Greifswald. In 1939, Gerhard Domagk (1895–1964) received the Nobel Prize in Medicine (see Nobel Prize Website) "for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil". The university was named in honour of its former student and faculty member, the writer, politician and poet Ernst Moritz Arndt. Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 to 1890 and the "engineer" of the Unification of Germany in 1871, had a connection to Greifswald when he studied at the agricultural college, as well as one of his successors, Prince Bernhard von Bülow, who was chancellor of the German Empire from 1900 to 1909. Franz Seldte, a chemist by profession, worked as German labour minister. Johannes Bugenhagen, who introduced the Reformation in much of Northern Germany and Scandinavia was a student at the University of Greifswald and Thomas Thorild, a Swedish poet spent parts of his life in Greifswald. Alfred Gomolka, Member of the European Parliament for the CDU, worked for the university as well as the mathematician Felix Hausdorff. Bernhard Windscheid is one of the fathers of present German civil law. Ferdinand Sauerbruch, Theodor Billroth, Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach and Friedrich Loeffler made important contributions to the field of medical science. Hermann Löns became famous as a poet just like the discovers of Africa explorer Gustav Nachtigal became known around the world. Carl Schmitt, one of the most influential figures of 20th century political science was a member of staff. Mie scattering is named for Gustav Mie, a former professor of physics. Georg Friedrich Schömann, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff were noted classical philologists. Ernst W. Mayr, one of the 20th century's most influential evolutional biologists, studied at the University of Greifswald. A number of public figures received honorary doctorates of the University of Greifswald, including Jacques Delors (former president of the European Commission) and Hannelore Kohl (wife of former German chancellor Helmut Kohl). The University of Greifswald and her research partners have also been visited by a number of heads of states, including then-chancellor of Germany Gerhard Schröder (2000, 2001), chancellor Angela Merkel (2010 and 2013), presidents of Germany Roman Herzog (1997), Horst Köhler (2006Bundespräsident Horst Köhler 2006, the visit has been part of a documentary about Köhler ("Ich bin kein Unterschriftenautomat" Rolf-Seemann-Eggebrecht (2007) youtube video (starting at 5:20)), Joachim Gauck (2013), and Queen Silvia of Sweden (2006Queen Silvia of Sweden 2006 the visit has been part of a documentary about the German President Horst Köhler ("Ich bin kein Unterschriftenautomat" by Rolf-Seemann- Eggebrecht (2007) youtube video (starting at 5:20)). == Quotes == "The University of Greifswald is one of those frequently mentioned 'flagships of science' in our country." – The President of Germany, Horst Köhler, at the 550th anniversary celebrations in 2006 * If I look at the development of some of the universities [in the former eastern part] – for instance Greifswald, Dresden, and Jena – then we have achieved quite a lot. (German: Wenn ich mir die Entwicklung einiger Universitäten anschaue – etwa Greifswald, Dresden und Jena – dann sind wir da schon ein ganzes Stück weiter.) – Bundespräsident Johannes Rau on the development and education in the former GDR, 2004 * Strong and self-confident universities are fountains of fortitude for a whole region, a whole country even, just as everyone can see it happen here in Greifswald. (German: Starke, selbstbewusste Hochschulen sind Kraftquellen für eine ganze Region, ein ganzes Land. Hier in Greifswald lässt sich das sehr genau studieren.) – Bundespräsident Horst Köhler in 2006Bundespräsident Horst Köhler welcome address at the 550th anniversary of the University of Greifswald in 2006) (in German) == See also == * List of medieval universities * List of universities in Germany * List of oldest universities in continuous operation * Medieval university * Greifswald objectivism == References == == Further reading == * Dirk Alvermann & (eds.): Quellen zur Verfassungsgeschichte der Universität Greifswald 1456 – 1815. 3 vols. Stuttgart: Steiner 2011 – 2014. * Dirk Alvermann, Nils Jörn & Jens Olesen (eds.): Die Universität Greifswald in der Bildungslandschaft des Ostseeraums. Berlin: LIT 2007 * Dirk Alvermann & Karl- Heinz Spieß (eds.): Universität und Gesellschaft: Festschrift zur 550-Jahrfeier der Universität Greifswald 1456 – 2006. 2 Vols. Rostock: Hinstorff 2006 * Werner Buchholz: Lexikon Greifswalder Hochschullehrer 1775 bis 2006. Vol. 1. Bad Honnef: Bock 2004 * Johann Gottfried Ludwig Kosegarten: Geschichte der Universität Greifswald mit urkundlichen Beilagen. 2 Vols. Greifswald: Koch 1856–57. == External links == * Category:1450s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire Category:1456 establishments in Europe Category:Educational institutions established in the 15th century Category:Universities and colleges in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania |
Hagström () is a musical instrument manufacturer in Älvdalen, Dalecarlia, Sweden. Their original products were accordions that they initially imported from Germany and then Italy before opening their own facility in 1932. During the late 1950s, the company started making electric guitars and later amplifiers. The early guitars were heavily influenced by the accordion production and had a special look and feel. Hagström were the first company to mass-produce 8 string bass guitars as well as the first to build a guitar/synthesizer hybrid (Swede Patch 2000). The company ceased production in 1983. In 2004 the brand was resurrected and is now in production in China. In 2008 Hagström expanded their line of products and launched their own line of basses including a re-issue of their famous Hagström H8, an 8 string bass. ==Accordions 1925 to 1970== Albin Hagström began importing accordions from Germany and Italy in 1925 and founded "Firma Albin Hagström". Albin expanded his business with shops in Sweden, Norway and Denmark and in 1932 he started manufacturing accordions himself in Älvdalen. In 1936, Hagström hired two Italian accordion builders who helped to update and streamline the manufacturing process. In 1939 Hagström started to establish themselves in USA by opening "Hagstrom Music Company Inc." in Rockefeller Center in New York as well as "Albin Hagstrom Inc." in Jamestown. However, in 1940 the launch was canceled due to World War II and the people hired to run the company disappeared with the company's funds. In 1946 Sven Hillring was sent over from Sweden to oversee a new launch of the new accordion factory in Jamestown, which was in business until 1949. Back in Sweden the brand continued to grow throughout the 1940s and 1950s and at one time had a total of forty-eight shops in northern Europe. In 1953 the accordion production reached its peak with 15,000 units being built. At this time the company also started a number of accordion schools; it is estimated that over 70,000 people have attended these schools. Founder Albin Hagström died in 1952 at the age 47 and was succeeded by Erik Wisén. In 1968 the Super Cromatic was introduced which came to be the last accordion built, with the last one made in 1970. In 1984 the company returned to its roots by once again importing accordions from Germany and Italy. The shops were sold, and employees were encouraged to venture out on their own, which resulted in two new companies in Älvdalen. Musitech was started by Hagstrom and sold to Rolf Lindhamn, who was the official Swedish retailer of Aria and Guild guitars. Per-Åke Olsson who participated in the development of the Super Swede founded Amtech which is producing PA systems and light rigs as well as computer equipment. The original "AB Albin Hagström" company still exists to this day and still owns many of the facilities in Sweden, Norway and Denmark. === Hagströms Accordions === * 1930s ** Excellent – The first accordions manufactured by Hagström. ** Granesso * 1940s ** 389-31 ** "Granesso 70 ** Accordia Superior and Extra * 1950s ** Castello" and Minor – Built in Italy. ** Skandia ** 773 and 813 ** Constellation, Marita and Rosella ** Master 4/5 ** Rigoletto I, II and III ** Rosita I and II ** Consul Maestro and Maestoso ** Constella II and Estrella ** Accordia Royal ** "Diana" Prod in Älvdalen ca 1955–1960. * 1960s ** Walter Special 40 – Named after Andrew Walter, well-known contemporary accordionist. ** Super Cromatic – The last accordion manufactured, widely considered to be one of the best accordions available. ==Guitars: 1958 to 1983== In 1958, Swedish-based Hagström started manufacturing electric guitars, being one of the first to produce the instrument professionally outside of the United States. The early Hagström Deluxe solid body guitars featured a distinctive sparkle and pearloid celluloid finish that was previously used on their line of accordions. Soon Hagström expanded their line-up of guitars to include hollow bodies like the Viking and the Jimmy. In 1961 the first line of Hagström basses was available to the public, this eventually came to include the groundbreaking 8 string bass. Models of electric guitar included the Hagström 1, the H series (h II, h III, h II N), the Swede (Originally called The Hagström LP, or Les Paul, due to the instrument's resemblance to the popular Les Paul manufactured by Gibson Guitars), the Super Swede, the Impala, the Corvette (called the Condor in the US), the Viking, the Swede Patch 2000 (one of the first synthesizer guitars) and the Jimmy (named for Jimmy D'Aquisto, a respected New York luthier brought in by Hagström to design the guitar). Basses include The Swede Bass and the Hagström H8 – the first ever mass-produced eight stringed bass guitar, which found fame when used by the likes of Noel Redding, Jimi Hendrix, Mike Rutherford, and others. Another innovation was the H-Expander Truss Rod, which gives the neck additional strength allowing it to be unusually thin. Thus the action can be set lower than guitar necks built with traditional truss rods. Beside their line of instruments Hagström also produced amplifiers, speakers, effects units, guitar strings and mixing consoles, which were used by ABBA on their first world tour. A very small run of lap steels, banjos and mandolins were also built but are rare to come across. In 1962 Albin's son, Karl-Erik Hagström returned from working five years in the US with establishing their Line O guitars. In 1967 he took over as CEO of the company. In their native Sweden, the company became well known not only for selling music hardware, but also for "teach-yourself" books and mail courses on electric guitar, bass, keyboards etc., learning tools that deliberately took in a rock and pop repertory, chord analysis and tuning apart from teaching how to read music. By recognizing the electric guitar as an instrument in its own right, and not just an amped-up version of the acoustic and by accepting the new repertory, Hagström popularized the instrumental skills of the new music outside of the networks associated with rock clubs, and record shops, and at a time when rock music was barely ever being written about from a musical perspective. Production ended for Swedish-made Hagströms in 1983 as the company were outpriced by other major guitar brands that had moved their stock production lines to Asia. Hagström did make some Japanese prototypes; however, they were not pleased with the workmanship and would rather close down the company than cheapen the brand. The interest in the original Hagström brand still has a cult following around the world and a Hagström Festival takes place in Älvdalen, Sweden around the first week of June every year since 2006. ===Hagström Guitars=== thumb|200px|A vintage Hagström leaning against a Hagström amplifier combo * Standard, DeLuxe and DeLuxe A, 1958–1962 – Sold in America under the name Goya (not to be confused with Goya guitars, acoustic guitars by Levin). Equipped with the Hagströms Speed-O-Matic fretboard, look similar to the Gibson Les Paul. Sometimes called The Glitter Guitars. DeLuxe A was nicknamed the Batman because of its unusual look. * Kent, Kent I och Kent II, 1962–1966 – Sold in America as Hagström F-11, F-200 or F-300, and in England as Futurama. The first Hagström guitar with the "Tremar" tremolo system as standard. Inspired by the Fender Stratocaster. * Hagström Futurama Coronado Automatic, 1963. 200 built specially by Hagström to the requirements of Ben Davis – owner of the Selmer company in London. * Automatic, Impala and Corvette, 1963–1967 – Automatic was a cross between the Impala and the Corvette. The Corvette was named the Condor in America. All models had a glued neck. * Hagström I, II and III, 1964–1976 – Gibson SG-inspired body with a Fender-style headstock. Hagström II and III were sold in America as the F-200 and F-300. The later model H-IIN had the same body, but two humbucking pickups, and rotary knobs instead of slide switches. The H-IIN-OT lacked the tremolo tail. * Viking, Viking 1, Viking II, Viking DeLuxe and Viking I N, 1965–1979 – Hagströms first semi-hollow guitar. With the Viking I N he pickups were changed from single-coils to humbuckers. * Hagström Jimmy, 1969–1979 – Semihollow guitar designed by Jimmy D´Aquisto, available with a regular or oval F-hole. * Swede and Super Swede, 1970–1983 – Last model to be manufactured in Älvdalen. Inspired by the Gibson Les Paul. Super Swede was originally named Swede DeLuxe, but the name was changed after being called the Super Swede in a music magazine. * Scandi, 1976–1980 – Stratocaster-inspired model with three single coil pickups. Also called Hagström III and built in a small run for left-handed players. * Swede Patch 2000, 1976–1979 – A hybrid between a guitar and a synthesizer, required a special technique to play and was very hard to play. * Partner, 1979 – Like the later humbucker version of Hagström II, but with a wraparound bridge/tailpiece. * Ultra Swede, 1983 – Produced in Japan to cut costs but didn't live up to Hagströms standards. ===Hagström Bass Guitars === * Hagström Standard and DeLuxe Bass, 1961 – Hagströms first bass. Based on the designs of their guitars and equipped with Hagström's Speed-O-Matic fretboard. * Kent, 1962 – Sold in America as the Hagström FB. * Coronado IV and VI, 1963 – available with 4 or 6 strings. also fitted with the Hagströms Speed-O-Matic fretboard. * Concord and Concord De Luxe, 1965 – semi-hollow bass. * Hagström II B, 1965 * Hagström H8, 1967 – The world's first 8 string bass. * Hagström Jazz Bass, 1973–1977 * Hagström Scanbass, 1979 – Fretless bass. * Super Swede Bass, 1980 – Last bass built by Hagström in Sweden. ===Decoding Serial Numbers === 1\. Hagstrom used a 6 or 7digit serial number on production (1963–1983) electric guitar and bass models. 2\. The first 3 digits of the serial number indicate the manufacturing Production Run number. The remainder of the number is the sequence number for that unit (guitar or bass) within the production run. The format is PPPNNNN where PPP is the production run number and NNN or NNNN is the sequence number within that production run. 3\. Hagstrom did keep detailed records for each unit produced, and there is a book to that effect but not widely available. you may want to seek it out. Without the book you may be able to determine the year however. Here are some real-world examples: a. Some serial numbers reveal a clear-cut result. For example, serial number 618324 is from the production run 618 which consisted of 1000 Hagstrom II guitars started and completed in 1964. Therefore, all units with a 618NNNN serial number are from the year 1964. b. However, others are less clear. For example, serial number 680873 is a Viking V-1 and the 873rd guitar made in production run 680. That run started in 1965 and completed in 1966. 1000 units were made in that run, so it is impossible with existing records to know if this guitar was actually made in 1965 or made in 1966. We know that this sequence number (873) is a high number in relation to the total of 1000 guitars produced in the run. We can therefore make the guess that it was most likely produced in 1966. The best that can be said in this instance is that the actual manufacture date is no earlier than 1965 and no later than 1966. 4\. Serial numbers were etched on the guitar neck backing plate where the neck is joined to the body. There are instances where the serial number appeared on the input jack plate (seen on a Hagstrom Swede from 1973)as well. This may have been common and an alternative serial number location. 5\. In 1975/76 the numbers “53” were added as a prefix to the serial number (53 PPPNNNN) and should be ignored for decoding purposes. 6\. Production run numbers are in general sequential with some exceptions. In a real-world example: Production runs 706, 707, 708, 709, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, and 718 are verified to have all started in 1967. It can then be predicted that runs 710 and 717 also started in 1967, if those runs occurred. The likelihood of the start date being consistent relative to those adjacent to it is considered high but caution should be used as this may not always have been true. 7\. Any serial number beginning with the digits "500" indicates the model is a prototype. ===Partial Serial Number List === Production Run Data (Principal Contributor Thornton Davis) Production Run PR Start Year PR End Year Model Total in PR Notes 021 1977 1977/78 Hagstrom Swede 600 025 1978 1978 Hagstrom "Jimmy" With f-hole 100 026 1978 1978 Hagstrom "Jimmy" With oval hole 100 055 1979 1979 Viking V-1 245 Production run 055 was the very last run of the Viking model 056 1979 1979 "Hagstrom "Jimmy" With f-hole 302 Designed by James d'Aquisto for Hagstrom in the mid 70's as a jazz guitar 057 1979 1979 Hagstrom "Jimmy" With oval hole 100 Designed by James d'Aquisto for Hagstrom in the mid 70's as a jazz guitar 065 1980 1980 Hagstrom Super Swede 300 The first production run for the Super Swede 076 1980 1981 Hagstrom Super Swede 250 077 1980 1982 Hagstrom Swede 127 077 was one of the very last production runs that the factory produced before closing 078 1983 1983 Hagstrom Super Swede 250 Very Last production run 079 1979 1979 Hagstrom Swede 250 This run never occurred or was canceled 449 1958 1959 Hagstrom Deluxe 197 The earliest Hagstrom production run on record produced Hagstrom Deluxe guitars. The Deluxe has a sparkle finish and Maple neck push button tone controls located on the upper bout in a single cutaway style body. It has 4 pickups paired in twos at the neck and at the bridge. 500 Prototype All prototype Hagstrom guitars and basses were given the serial batch number 500. So if you happen upon one bearing the serial number 500xxx you know it's a prototype. 543 Hagstrom I 545 1963 Hagstrom III Futurama 1002 550 1963 1964 Hagstrom Coronado IV 149 574 1963 1964 Futurama 1000 "Futurama" is the predecessor to the Hagstrom-1 575 1964 1964 Kent Bass 500 584 1963 1964 Futurama 990 587 1964 1964 """Hagstrom"" bass" 500 589 1964 1965 Coronado Bass 200 Often labeled Coronado IV on the Headstock 600 1964 1964 PB-24-G 200 PB-24-G (pre model change to Hagstrom-1) 601 1964 1964 Hagstrom III Futurama 604 1964 1964 Futurama 608 1964 Hagstrom II Predicted to have started in 1964 based on adjacency of similarly numbered runs 609 1964 1964 Hagstrom Bass 500 610 1964 1965 Hagstrom II (F-200 USA) 1000 618 1964 1964 Hagstrom II 1000 619 1965 1965 Hagstrom II-B 620 1964 1965 Kent-1 1000 621 1964 1964 Kent 1-B 500 624 1964 1964 Hagstrom III (F-300 USA) 1000 Hagstrom De Luxe III 625 1965 1965 Hagstrom Deluxe 500 632 1965 Hagstrom II Predicted to have started in 1965 based on adjacency of similarly numbered runs 633 1965 1965 Hagstrom II-B 500 Hagstrom Deluxe bass 638 1965 1966 Hagstrom 12 639 1965 1966 Kent-1 3202 The factory production identifies run 639 as being "Kent 1". The guitar should have the rounded p/u's The factory changed to the squared off p/u's in 1966. Lavender was a standard finish. If it has both logos its possible the guitar is a "transition model" that contains both features and logos from the Kent 1 and the Hagstrom 1. Run 639 was the very last run of the Kent 1 model and they may have run out of the Kent logos and therefore used the Hagstrom logo. The Kent 1 model was replaced with the Hagstrom 1 when run 639 finished. 640 1965 1966 Kent 1-B 1300 Kent Bass Last run for the Kent 1-B 647 1965 1967 Concord Standard C1 Bass 999 650 1965 1966 Hagstrom I 2497 651 1966 1966 Hagstrom I-B 1000 652 1965 1965 Hagstrom II (F-200 USA) 1000 653 1965 1966 Hagstrom III 654 1965 1966 Hagstrom II-B 656 1965 1965 Hagstrom III 1000 658 1966 1967 Coronado IV 659 1966 1966 Hagstrom III (F-300 USA) 100 This run was all Left handed models 660 1966 1966 Hagstrom II-BN 1000 Hagstrom-12 (H12) 663 1966 1966 Hagstrom 12 (F-125 USA) 960 12 string guitar 668 1966 1967 Hagstrom 12 999 12 string guitar 669 1966 1966 Hagstrom I 958 671 1966 1966 Hagstrom II (F-200 USA) 1000 672 1966 1966 Hagstrom II (F-200 USA) 1000 673 1966 1967 Hagstrom II (F-200 USA) 999 674 1967 1967 Hagstrom II (F-200 USA) 999 675 1966 1966 Hagstrom III (F-300 USA) 1001 676 1966 Unknown Hagstrom III (F-300 USA) 1000 677 1966 1967 Hagstrom III (F-300 USA) 999 678 1966 1966 Hagstrom II-B 1098 679 1966 1967 Hagstrom II-B 1003 680 1965 1966 Viking V-1 1000 690 1966 1967 Hagstrom IB bass 1162 693 1966 1966 Viking V-1 1000 695 1966 1967 Viking V-1 1000 696 1966 1967 Concord Standard C1 Bass 1000 699 1966 1967 Hagstrom III (F-300 USA) 1000 700 Hagstrom II-B 706 1967 1967 Hagstrom 12 (F-125 USA) 1000 707 1967 1968 Hagstrom II (F-200 USA) 1000 708 1967 1968 Hagstrom II (F-200 USA) Unknown 709 1967 1967 Hagstrom III (F-300 USA) 997 710 1967 Predicted to have started in 1967 based on adjacency of similarly numbered runs 711 1967 1969 Hagstrom II-B 712 1967 1967 Viking V-1 999 The standard Viking with 6 inline tuners on the headstock 713 1967 1967 Viking V-1 1039 714 1967 1967 Viking V-1 1001 715 1967 1967 Viking V-2 1001 716 1967 1971 Concord Standard C1 Bass 750 There were 3 runs (647-696-716) of the standard Concord between 1965 and 1971 which produced a total of 749 basses 717 1967 Predicted to have started in 1967 based on adjacency of similarly numbered runs 718 1967 1967 Concord Bass C2 Deluxe 723 1967 1968 Hagstrom 8 String 600 726 1968 1969 Hagstrom III (F-300 USA) 650 731 1968 1968 Viking V-1 1000 732 1967 1968 Viking V-2 733 1968 1968 Concord Bass C2 Deluxe 768 1969 1970 Hagstrom II-N (HIIN / F-200N USA) 250 First run of this model mixed headstocks in this run. 770 1970 1970 LP 50 First Run of the Swede L.P. (Les Paul). The name was change to Swede in 1971 778 1970 1970 Hagstrom II 100 784 1970 1970 Hagstrom III (F-300 USA) 955 787 1970 1970 Hagstrom I 200 Considered a rare model due to limited production 788 1970 Unknown Hagstrom II-N (HIIN / F-200N USA) All HIIN in this run had the two sided headstock, presumably 1970 789 1970 1971 LP 200 Production runs 789 & 797 ran back to back, afterward changed the model to the Swede 790 1971 1971 Hagstrom II-BN 400 797 1971 1971 LP 200 804 1971 1971 Hagstrom II-N (HIIN / F-200N USA) 500 806 1970 1972 Hagstrom III 811 1971 1971 Hagstrom Swede 150 812 1971 1971 Hagstrom I-B 150 Bass made for Canadian dealer ARC Sound as "student basses" w/ low price also called model F100B. A total of 652 in 4 production runs between 1971 and 1973 were produced. When ARC Sound went out of business the remaining H-1-B basses in the factory inventory were sold to their UK and European dealers as the F100B. 814 1971 1971 Hagstrom Swede 150 815 1971 1972 Hagstrom Swede Bass 250 821 1971 1972 Hagstrom Swede Bass 300 822 1972 1972 Hagstrom II 828 1972 1972 Viking V-1N 200 836 1971 1971 Hagstrom 1 B 102 839 1972 1972 Viking V-1N 200 Viking-1N features the 3+3 headstock and humbucker pickups. A second toggle switch appears on this model (the 2nd generation of the Viking). The two toggle switches are the pickup selector and the "tone control" which is a phase control for either series or parallel. 846 1972 1973 Hagstrom II-B 277 849 1972 1972 Hagstrom II-N (HIIN / F-200N USA) 15 851 1972 1973 Hagstrom Swede 200 852 1972 1972 Viking V-1N Unknown The Viking-1N features a 3+3 headstock and humbucker pickups 853 1972 1972 Hagstrom 1 B 200 859 1972 1972 Hagstrom II-N (HIIN / F-200N USA) 500 The Hagstrom II-N is the factories version of Gibson SG body shape. H-II-N-OT does not have the vibrato tailpiece 865 1973 1973 Hagstrom 1 B 200 869 1973 1973 Hagstrom Swede 300 871 1973 1973 Viking V-1N 252 The Viking-1N features a 3+3 headstock and humbucker pickups 888 1973 1973 Hagstrom Swede 300 895 1974 1974 Hagstrom Swede 500 905 1974 1974 Hagstrom Swede 500 910 1974 1974 Hagstrom Swede 500 913 1974 1975 Hagstrom Swede 500 929 1975 1975 Hagstrom II-B-NV 10 932 1975 1975 Hagstrom Swede 500 Total is for Standard Swede and does not include Super or Ultra Swede 933 1974 1975 Hagstrom Swede Bass 500 934 1975 1975 Hagstrom Swede Bass 500 938 1975 1976 Hagstrom Swede 500 947 1975 1975 Viking V-1N 200 The Viking-1N features a 3+3 headstock and humbucker pickups 965 1977 1977 "Hagstrom "Jimmy" 200 977 1976 1976 Hagstrom II-N (HIIN / F-200N USA) 250 988 1977 1977 Hagstrom "Jazzbass" 75 ==Guitars: 2004 to present day== As of 2004, Hagström has been reopened for the international market being distributed by "Tricor AB". They are marketing new versions of a great number of the more famous models from Sweden. The official Hagström design team have taken certain liberties with the designs and made some improvements and other deviations from the original Swedish designs. Hagström has again started the production of more exclusive Hagstrom guitars within Europe, which have been specially developed to reproduce the sounds of the originals. These models are called the Northen Series. ===Current Hagström Guitars=== * Deluxe D2H and Deluxe-F D2F. The Deluxe models come with two humbuckers and are single cutaway guitars. They have simple wiring with two potentiometers for master volume and tone control. These models were some of the first made when manufacturing resumed in 2004; however, they are no longer in production. The shape and dimensions of the D2H appear to have been based on that of the early [1958–62] pearloid-covered models such as the Standard 80 [pictured]. * Deuce and Deuce-F. The Deuce models come with two humbuckers and are dual cutaway guitars, where Hagstrom claims that these are siblings based upon the Super Swede model. Both guitars have independent push/pull tone pots for coil splitting each individual pickup. *Fantomen. The Fantomen models come with two humbuckers and are asymmetrical in design closely resembling the Gibson RD. The models come with two volume and two push/pull tone pots. The Fantomen was designed in collaboration with Ghost (Swedish band). *RetroScape. Hagstrom's RetroScape Series consist of authentically recreated guitars from Hagstrom's history. The intention being to bring modern playability to these great designs without compromising any of the retro-vibe. There are two ranges of guitars: the 3-pickup Condor (& its 2-pickup sister the Impala) and the 3-pickup H-III (along with 2-pickup H-II). All of these feature modified headstocks from the 1960s originals as well as an upgraded bridge and re- engineered “Vintage Tremar” vibrato for functional improvement. * UltraLux Series XL-5 and Ultralux Series XL-2. The XL-5 comes with two humbuckers and one single coil pickup, the XL-2 is identical except it lacks the single coil pickup. Equipped with the FCS-2 bridge system. * UltraLux Series Ultra Swede. Comes with a coil tap switch that gives the humbucker pickups a single coil sound when tapped. Also includes "Custom 62" pickups being considered a more aggressive and hot set of pickups. Two Special Edition models were manufactured. One was for the Nitro company who manufactures snowboards and the other for Absolut vodka. * Select Super Swede, Select Swede and Select Ultra Swede. Identical except for the Select Super Swede's longer neck (25,5" compared to 24,75") and the Select Ultra Swede is available with Custom 58 uncovered pickups. * Super Swede – Also offered as Tremar Super Swede, and Tremar Super Swede P-90 (equipped with 3 H-90-S pickups (N/RW/N)(S- Stands for "Spiced" which are specially voiced to provide more of an accentuated Single coil sound)) and a 6-way rotary switch. Hagstrom's "Tremar unit" is Hagstrom's special designed vintage "Tremar" tremolo system which is known to be one of the best "Vintage" type of tremolo units on the market. * Swede . Also offered as Tremar Swede, and Swede-SE using Hagstrom's unique H-90-S pickups. * F-20 and the F-200. The F-200 lacks the tremolo that comes with the F-20 as well as having a set mahogany neck compared to the maple bolt-on neck of the F-20. The F-20 has a one piece 45mm basswood body and uses the FCS-1 tremolo system. The F-200 has a 40mm contoured Mahogany body. * F200P . Available with two H-90 Single coils and FCS-1 tremolo as standard. * Viking, Viking II and Viking IIP. A reissue of the Hagström Viking, the Viking and the Deluxe are identical except for the Deluxe having a flamed top, different inlays on the fingerboard and a different F-hole. The Viking II is a model which uses a bolt-on neck opposed to the Viking which uses a set neck. * HJ-500 and the HJ-600 . A reissue of the original Hagström Jimmy. Tremar HJ-500 using Hagstrom's special designed vintage "Tremar" tremolo system on this model, being a popular choice for rockabilly guitarists, looking for a dependable tremolo unit. * HL-550. Semi-hollow body with a single floating humbucker pickup. * HJ-800 . A reissue of the original Hagström Jimmy, equipped with a Solid Spruce top, Custom 58 pickups, and a 25" scale length. === Current Hagström Bass guitars === * HB-8. Re-issue of the original 8 string bass. * HB-4. *Viking Bass. * FXB-200, -210, -220, -520, and -530 * Beluga II, IIF, III, and IIIF ==Hagströms as collectibles== Ever since 1983, when original production stopped, Hagströms have been sought-after collectors' items. Pat Smear is known for having one of the largest Hagström collections in America and reportedly claimed that Hagströms are the most roadworthy guitars he's ever used. The world's largest collection of Hagström guitars was previously owned by Arne Johansson in Östersund, Sweden and consisted of more than 80 Hagström guitars plus a number amplifiers and other instruments and Hagström products. The entire collection was bought by the publicly owned museum of the Dalarna province, that owned a smaller collection of instruments, on 4 May 2012. Their collection now consists of more than 100 Hagström guitars. The red Viking II that Elvis Presley used on Elvis Presley's '68 Comeback Special was sold in the early nineties for more than $50,000 and was on display at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. A 1981 Super Swede with custom blue and yellow graphics was sold for 60,100 Swedish kronor (approx. US$8,850), making it one of the most expensive Hagströms ever sold. The Guitar Collection features a rare Hagström Futurama Coronado automatic. ==Notable users== * Elvis Presley – 68 Comeback Special * Elias Bender Rønnenfelt – Iceage * Kurt Cobain – Nirvana * David Bowie – Rebel Rebel music video, and in various bands. * Pat Smear – Nirvana, Foo Fighters, and the Germs * Aaron North – The Icarus Line, Nine Inch Nails and Jubilee (band) * Noel Redding – The Jimi Hendrix Experience * Joe Walsh – Eagles, James Gang, Barnstorm * Rutger Gunnarsson – ABBA, played and designed the Hagström Super Swede Bass * Stu Mackenzie – King Gizzard and the Lizard Wizard * Björn Ulvaeus – ABBA * Frank Zappa – The Mothers of Invention and Captain Beefheart * Dweezil Zappa- Zappa Plays Zappa * Bob Hardy – Franz Ferdinand * Nick McCarthy – Franz Ferdinand * Jimi Hendrix – The Jimi Hendrix Experience * Luis Alberto Spinetta * Ryan Ross – Panic! at the Disco and The Young Veins * Josh Homme – Kyuss, Queens of the Stone Age and Them Crooked Vultures * Frances McKee – The Vaselines * Kevin Parker – Tame Impala * Daryl Stuermer – Jean-Luc Ponty * Doc Forrester – Archie Bell & the Drells- and many more * Nameless Ghoul – Ghost ==Media== * Hagström – Allt i musik. Swedish documentary film, first broadcast in 2004 by the K Special television show on SVT2 in Sweden. == References == == External links == * Official Hagstrom guitars * Hagström instruments – Swedish Spare Part website (For Vintage Hagstrom Guitars) Category:Musical instrument manufacturing companies of Sweden Category:Guitar manufacturing companies Category:Bass guitar manufacturing companies Category:Swedish companies established in 1925 |
General Sir Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton, (16 January 1853 – 12 October 1947) was a senior British Army officer who had an extensive British Imperial military career in the Victorian and Edwardian eras. Hamilton was twice recommended for the Victoria Cross, but on the first occasion was considered too young, and on the second too senior. He was wounded in action at the Battle of Majuba during the First Boer War, which rendered his left hand permanently injured. Near the end of his career, he commanded the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force in the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War. ==Early life== Hamilton's father was Colonel Christian Monteith Hamilton, former commanding officer of the 92nd Highlanders. His mother Corinna was the daughter of the 3rd Viscount Gort. His mother died giving birth to his brother, Vereker, who became a well-known artist. Hamilton received his early formal education at Wellington College, Berkshire. His father then sent him to stay with General Drammers, a Hanoverian who had fought against Prussia. ==Military career== Hamilton attended the Royal Military College, Sandhurst in 1870, the first year that entrance to the British Army as an officer was regulated by academic examination rather than by the monetary purchasing of a commission. In 1871 he received a commission as an infantry officer with the Suffolk Regiment, but shortly afterwards transferred to the 2nd Battalion of The Gordon Highlanders, who at that time were on Imperial garrison service in India. On arrival in India Hamilton took part in the Afghan campaign. During the First Boer War he was present at the Battle of Majuba, where he was wounded and taken prisoner of war by the Boers. He later returned to England to recover, where he was treated as a war hero and introduced to Queen Victoria. In 1882 he was made captain and took part in the Nile Expedition of 1884–1885, being promoted to brevet-major. In Burma 1886–1887 he became brevet lieutenant colonel. In Bengal from 1890 to 1893 held the rank of Colonel and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in 1891. He took part in the Chitral Expedition as military secretary to Sir George Stuart White, commander in chief of forces in India. From 1895 to 1898 he held the post of Deputy Quarter Master General in India. In 1897–1898 he commanded the third brigade in the Tirah Campaign, where his left arm was wounded by a shell. He returned to England in April 1898 and was appointed Commandant of the School of Musketry at Hythe. ===Second Boer War=== Amidst mounting tensions between the United Kingdom and the Boer republics in South Africa Lieutenant General White was dispatched to take command in Natal in September 1899, with Hamilton accompanying him as Chief Staff Officer (Assistant Adjutant General). The Second Boer War broke out shortly after their arrival and Hamilton commanded the infantry at the Battle of Elandslaagte. At the Battle of Ladysmith Hamilton continued to lead his brigade-sized column, but played no role in the fighting. Defeated in the field, White's Natal Field Force was besieged in Ladysmith from the beginning of November. Hamilton was given command of the southern sector of the town's defences and successfully fought off the only major assault on the garrison at the Battle of Wagon Hill in January. For his part in the siege, he was frequently mentioned in despatches. After the relief of Ladysmith in February Hamilton took command of a brigade of Mounted Infantry, and from April the Mounted Infantry Division. He was promoted to major general, and knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB). The war correspondent Winston Churchill told of his campaign from Bloemfontein to Pretoria in Ian Hamilton's March (London, 1900, reprinted as the second half of The Boer War), having first met Hamilton in 1897 when they sailed on the same ship. Hamilton travelled 400 miles from Bloemfontein to Pretoria fighting 10 major battles with Boer forces (including the battle of Rooiwal) and fourteen minor ones, and was recommended twice for the Victoria Cross (which was considered inappropriate because of his rank). In May 1901 Hamilton was appointed Military Secretary at the War Office, but the following November he was again asked to return to South Africa as Chief of Staff to the Commander-in-Chief, Lord Kitchener. He arrived in South Africa in late November 1901, and received the local rank of lieutenant general. In April 1902 he took command of the military columns operating in the Western Transvaal. Following the end of hostilities in June 1902, he returned to the UK together with Lord Kitchener on board the SS Orotava, which arrived in Southampton on 12 July. They received an enthusiastic welcome on their arrival to London, with thousands of people lining the streets to watch their procession. In a despatch dated 23 June 1902, Lord Kitchener wrote the following about his work in South Africa: Hamilton was promoted to lieutenant general for distinguished service in the field on 22 August 1902. He returned to his post as Military Secretary at the War Office in September 1902, and the same month accompanied Lord Roberts, Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, and St John Brodrick, Secretary of State for War, on a visit to Germany to attend the German army maneuvers as guest of the Emperor Wilhelm. From 1903 to 1904 he was Quartermaster-General to the Forces. ===Japan=== From 1904 to 1905, Hamilton was the military attaché of the British Indian Army serving with the Japanese army in Manchuria during the Russo-Japanese War. Amongst the several military attachés from Western countries, he was the first to arrive in Japan after the start of the war. He published A Staff Officer's Scrap-Book during the Russo–Japanese War on his experiences and observations during that conflict. This military confrontation between a well-known European army and a less-familiar Asian army was the first time that the tactics of entrenched positions for infantry were defended with machine guns and artillery. This was the first twentieth-century war in which the technology of warfare became increasingly important, factors which came to dominate the evolution of warfare during the First World War. Hamilton wrote that cavalry was obsolete in such a conflict, regarding their role as better accomplished by mounted infantry. He became a supporter of non-traditional tactics such as night attacks and the use of aircraft. Conversely, the successful Japanese infantry assaults convinced him that superior morale would allow an attacker to overcome prepared defensive positions. ==Return to England and Inspector- General of Overseas Forces== Hamilton went on to serve as General Officer Commanding Southern Command between 1905 and 1909 and as Adjutant-General to the Forces between 1909 and 1910., and The London Gazette, 1 June 1909, Issue 28256, p.4160. By 1911 Hamilton had been appointed Inspector-General of Overseas Forces, and by 1913 also, additionally, General Officer Commanding- in-Chief Mediterranean Command, with major-generals in Gibraltar, Malta, and Egypt, plus the forces in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Cyprus seemingly reporting to him. In July 1914 he was returning to the United Kingdom with his appointment about to expire. ==First World War== On 5 August 1914, with the declaration of hostilities between Britain and Germany, Hamilton was appointed as the Commander-in-Chief, Home Army. He also became commander of "Central Force", the predominantly Territorial Force military formation which was charged with repelling any seaborne German invasion of the east coast of England in the early part of the war. ===Gallipoli campaign=== thumb|General Hamilton in a formal pose (1910). In March 1915, Lord Kitchener appointed Hamilton, aged 62, to the command of the Allied Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, with orders to gain control of the Dardanelles straits from the Ottoman Empire and to capture Constantinople. Whilst a senior and respected officer, perhaps more experienced in different campaigns than most, Hamilton was considered too unconventional, too intellectual, and too friendly with politicians to be given a command on the Western Front. Hamilton was not given a chance to take part in planning the campaign. Intelligence reports on the Ottoman Empire's military defensive capacity were poor and underestimated its strength. Whilst the high command of the Greek Army, which possessed far more detailed knowledge of the Ottoman Empire's military capacity, warned Kitchener that a British Expeditionary Force entering the Eastern Mediterranean theatre would require 150,000 troops to capture Gallipoli, Kitchener concluded that a force of 70,000 men would be adequate to overpower any defensive garrison there. The plan to take control of the Dardanelles and open a new front in the war had been considered in various forms since 1914. In November of that year, ships from the Royal Navy had shelled its outer forts, causing the magazine at Seddülbahir castle to explode. In December 1914, a Royal Navy submarine entered the channel and sank the Turkish warship Mesudiye at Çanakkale. These early experiences raised in Kitchener's mind the prospect of an easy victory for a more ambitious operation, but as a consequence of them, the Turks had set about laying sea-mines in the straits to interdict Allied warships ships approaching again and strengthened the forts guarding its approaches. On 3 January 1915, the British First Sea Lord, Admiral Fisher, presented a plan to the British Government for a joint naval and army attack, utilizing 75,000 troops, but only on the proviso that it could be launched with little delay. By 21 January 1915, Fisher wrote privately to Admiral Jellicoe that he could not approve the plan unless 200,000 men were available to carry it through. Winston Churchill, as First Lord of the Admiralty, had initially suggested in September 1914 that the operation would need the support of only 50,000 men, a strength of just over two British Army divisions. Starting on 19 February 1915, British and French warships attempted to take the strait using naval power alone but failed after an abortive attack foundered upon sea mines. Lord Kitchener then decided that an invasion by troops of the Gallipoli peninsula would be required to support the naval operation with a land campaign, led by Hamilton, who became responsible for organising landings there. Hamilton had no specialised landing craft, the disparate troops he had been given had no training for seaborne operations, and supplies for the army had been packed in ways which made them difficult to access for landings. Hamilton believed that the Royal Navy would make further attacks during his campaign; realising its likely losses, however, and fundamentally opposing the idea that tactical losses of its ships in the operation was an acceptable price to pay, the Royal Naval high command declined to mount another attack. With the Gallipoli Campaign stalled, Hamilton was recalled to London on 16 October 1915, effectively ending his military career. ==Later life== In retirement, Hamilton was a leading figure in the ex-servicemen organization, the British Legion, holding the position of Scottish President. He was also a founding member and vice-president of the Anglo-German Association in 1928, which worked to promote rapprochement between Britain and Germany. He maintained a relationship with the Association after Adolf Hitler's rise to power, described himself as "an admirer of the great Adolph Hitler", and dismissed Mein Kampf as a "youthful excess". (In the historian Ian Kershaw's view, however, Hamilton was a pillar of the British Imperial power establishment and not a Nazi supporter, despite his early apparent approval for much of what the early manifestation of Nazi Germany proclaimed). In 1934, at the age of 81, Hamilton was filmed as part of a war documentary film called Forgotten Men. ==Gordon drums== In October 1914, during WWI, the 2nd Battalion Gordon Highlanders landed in Ostend, Belgium, and was transported to the front. They took with them their pipes but the bulky drums were left in Ostend, under the care of the police, because the transport wagons were "overloaded." After Ostend fell to the Germans, the drums were taken to the Armoury Museum in Berlin as a "war trophy." Twenty years later, in 1934, Hamilton, the Regiment's colonel, wrote to Germany's president Marshall von Hindenburg requesting the return of the seven drums and von Hindenburg "immediately" agreed. Hamilton traveled personally to the German capital and received the Gordon drums in a ceremony in which he spoke of his wish that there will be "no more war" between the "old allies of Waterloo." ==Death== Hamilton died on 12 October 1947, aged 94, at his home at Hyde Park Gardens in London. His body was buried at Kilmadock Cemetery, in Doune, Stirlingshire, Scotland. In 2013, his grave was found to have fallen into a semi-derelict condition, and it was refurbished by Stirling Council. ==Personal life== Hamilton spoke German, French and Hindi, and was considered charming, courtly and kind. He appeared frail yet was full of energy. In 1887 he married Jean Muir, the daughter of a Glasgow businessman. They originally had no intention of starting a family, but adopted two children after the War. Along with his professional career, Hamilton was a prolific writer. He published a volume of poetry and a novel contemporarily described as risqué. Examples of his written works include: The Fighting of the Future, Icarus, A Jaunt on a Junk, A Ballad of Hadji, and A Staff Officer's Scrapbook. In the introduction to his Gallipoli Diary, he stated: "There is nothing certain about war, except that one side won't win". He was a cousin of the diarist James Lees-Milne. ==Selected works== Hamilton's known published writings encompass 184 works in 568 publications, in six languages, and 4,455 library holdings. * * * * * * 1915 — Sir Ian Hamilton's Despatches from the Dardanelles, etc. * 1919 — The Millennium * * * 1923 — The Friends of England; Lectures to Members of the British Legion * 1926 — Now and Then * 1939 — When I was a Boy * 1944 — Listening for the Drums * 1957 — The Commander ==Assessments== British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith remarked that he thought that Hamilton had "too much feather in his brain", whereas Charles Bean, a war correspondent who had reported from the scene of the Gallipoli campaign in 1915 and who went on to write Australia's Official History of the 1914–1918 War, considered that Hamilton possessed "a breadth of mind which the army in general does not possess". Writing in his 'Gallipoli Memories', Sir Compton Mackenzie makes it clear that his view was aligned with that of Charles Bean. == Honours, awards and decorations == Hamilton received the honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D) from the University of Glasgow in June 1901. A statue of the then Lt.-Gen Hamilton stands on the Boer War memorial in Cheltenham. ===Decorations=== *DSO : Distinguished Service Order – 1891 Most Honourable Order of the Bath * CB : Companion – 1896 – Chitral relief force * KCB : Knight Commander – 29 November 1900 – in recognition of services in connection with the Campaign in South Africa 1899–1900 * GCB : Knight Grand Cross – 1910 Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George * GCMG : Knight Grand Cross – 1919 ;Foreign *Knight 1st class of the Order of the Crown (Prussia) – during his September 1902 visit to Germany to attend German Army manoeuvres. ==Legacy== * Hamilton Preparatory School, in Ladysmith, KwaZulu- Natal, is named after Hamilton. *His medals are currently held by National Museums Scotland, with the miniatures being held by The Gordon Highlanders Museum. ==See also== * Military attachés and observers in the Russo-Japanese War == References == == Bibliography == * * * Winston Churchill: Ian Hamilton's march (1900) * * * * * ==Further reading== * * == External links == * * * |- |- |- Category:1853 births Category:1947 deaths Category:British military personnel of the First Boer War Category:British Army personnel of the Second Boer War Category:British Army generals of World War I Category:People educated at Wellington College, Berkshire Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Category:Rectors of the University of Edinburgh Category:British Army personnel of the Mahdist War Category:Gordon Highlanders officers Category:Lancashire Militia officers Category:British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Afghan War Category:Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst Category:British military personnel of the Tirah campaign Category:British military personnel of the Chitral Expedition Category:People of the Russo-Japanese War Category:British military attachés Category:British Army generals |
Highlight (Korean: ) is a South Korean boy band formerly known as Beast (Korean: 비스트). The band consists of four members: Yoon Doo-joon, Yang Yo-seob, Lee Gi-kwang, and Son Dong-woon. Originally a six-piece band, Jang Hyun-seung departed from the group in April 2016, and Yong Jun-hyung departed in March 2019. In late 2016, the group moved labels from Cube Entertainment to Around Us Entertainment and subsequently changed their name to Highlight in 2017. The group debuted in 2009 with the EP Beast Is the B2ST. In 2011, they released their first full-length album, Fiction and Fact, and made their Japanese debut with the single, "Shock". As Beast, the group released three Korean full- length albums, nine Korean extended plays, two Japanese full-length albums, and numerous singles. The group re-debuted as Highlight in 2017 with the EP Can You Feel It?. They have since released three more EPs as Highlight. Beast initially received attention for the lack of industry success previously experienced by its members, with media outlets referring to them as a "recycled group". However, the group has achieved significant commercial success and critical accolades and is one of the most awarded groups of all time at the Golden Disc Awards, the Seoul Music Awards, and the Melon Music Awards. ==History== ===2009: Pre-debut documentary and Beast Is the B2ST=== In August 2009, Cube Entertainment publicly introduced its new boy group B2ST (an abbreviation for "Boys To Search for Top") on the TV documentary series MTV B2ST. The group consisted of Yoon Doo-joon, who previously competed on another series to be member of 2PM or 2AM; Jang Hyun-seung, who had competed on a series to be a member of Big Bang; Lee Gi-kwang, who previously debuted as a solo artist under the name AJ; Yang Yo-seob; Yong Jun-hyung; and Son Dong- woon. After changing their name from B2ST to Beast, the group debuted on October 15, 2009 with the extended play Beast Is the B2ST. They began promotions that day for the album and its lead single, "Bad Girl", by holding a live showcase and performing on KBS Music Bank. The EP sold over 10,000 copes in its first week of release and went on to sell 40,000 copies by early 2010, an unusual feat for a Korean rookie group at the time. In December, Beast won the Rookie of the Month award from South Korea's Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism. The group's second single, "Mystery", garnered them an award for Rookie of the Month at the Cyworld Digital Music Awards that December. Beast also won Best New Artist at the 19th Seoul Music Awards in February 2010. === 2010: Shock of the New Era, Mastermind, Lights Go On Again and My Story === Beast released their second EP, Shock of the New Era, on March 1, 2010. Later that month, the group achieved their first music show number-one win on Mnet's M Countdown with the album's lead single "Shock". Beast released a music video for the album's second single, "Take Care of My Girlfriend (Say No)", in April. Shock of the New Era quickly sold 20,000 copies in South Korea, ultimately selling nearly 60,000 copies by the end of the year. In August, Beast received the Golden Disk Award from their international label, Universal Music, in recognition of the group's album sales in Singapore, Malaysia, and Taiwan.thumb|250px|Beast performing in 2010.On September 28, Beast released their third EP, Mastermind. One week later, the group claimed first place on KBS Music Bank with the album's lead single, "Breath". In October, Beast received the Asia Influential Artist Award at the 2010 Asia Song Festival. The group followed up this success with their fourth EP, Lights Go On Again, released on November 9. The album, which includes the single "Beautiful", was the group's first to reach the number-one spot on the Gaon Album Chart. Cumulative sales of Shock of the New Era, Mastermind and Lights Go On Again exceeded 107,000 copies by mid-December, making Beast the only South Korean rookie group to sell over 100,000 albums in 2010. On December 9, Beast was awarded Best New Artist at the 25th Golden Disc Awards. Three days later, they held their first solo concert, "Welcome to Beast Airline", at the Jamsil Indoor Stadium in Seoul to an audience of 10,000. At the concert, the group debuted three duets that they subsequently released online starting on December 21 as part of the digital EP, My Story. === 2011: Japanese debut and Fiction and Fact === Beast released their first Japanese single, a Japanese version of "Shock", on March 16, 2011. The song sold 29,000 copies in one week and debuted at number two on the daily Oricon Singles Chart, the highest-ranking debut by a foreign artist at the time. On May 17, Beast released their first full-length Korean album, Fiction and Fact. The album peaked at number one on the Gaon Album Chart and sold over 142,000 copies by the end of the year. Its singles, "On Rainy Days" and "Fiction" were also commercially successful, selling 2.8 million and 2.6 million copies, respectively, by the end of the year. The album garnered Beast wins for Artist of the Year for the 2nd Quarter at the 2011 Gaon Chart Music Awards and a Bonsang at the 2012 Golden Disc Awards. "Fiction" won Song of the Year at the 2011 KBS Music Festival, and Best Male Dance Performance at the 2011 Mnet Asian Music Awards. On August 10, the group released their first Japanese album, So Beast, which includes Japanese versions of "Shock" and "Bad Girl" as singles. The album debuted in the number-two spot on the daily Oricon Albums Chart, selling over 26,000 copies in its first day of release. In November, Beast was awarded the grand prize of Artist of the Year at the 3rd Melon Music Awards, as well as a commendation from South Korea's Minister of Culture at the 2011 Korean Popular Culture and Arts Awards for the group's contributions to pop culture and the spread of the Korean wave abroad. In early 2012, the group was awarded Best New Artist at the 26th Japan Gold Disc Awards in recognition of the commercial success of their Japanese releases. === 2012–2013: Beautiful Show, Midnight Sun and Hard to Love, How to Love === Beast embarked on their "Beautiful Show" international tour in February 2012, in which the group performed in cities throughout Asia, Europe, and North America. Mid-tour, the group released a self-filmed music video for their 2009 single "Mystery", which subsequently charted at number one on YinYueTai, a major Chinese music video sharing website. On July 21, Beast released their fifth extended play, Midnight Sun, which includes the singles "I Knew It", "Midnight" and "Beautiful Night". The album was written, in large part, by group member Yong Jun-hyung. It debuted at number one on the Gaon Album Chart and marked Beast's first appearance on the Billboard World Albums Chart, peaking at number 15. The album sold over 140,000 copies by the end of the year and garnered the group a Bonsang award at the 27th Golden Disc Awards. In November, Beast won their second consecutive award for Artist of the Year at the 4th Melon Music Awards. On July 19, 2013, Beast released their second full-length Korean album, Hard to Love, How to Love, which was composed by Yong Jun-hyung and his writing partner Kim Tae-joo. The album includes the ballad, "Will You Be Okay?", which was released a month prior and charted at number one on both the Gaon Digital Chart and Billboard's K-Pop Hot 100. The album won the group Bonsang awards at the 28th Golden Disc Awards, 5th Melon Music Awards and 23rd Seoul Music Awards, while the album's lead single, "Shadow", won Best Music Video at the Melon Music Awards. ===2014–2015: Good Luck, Time and Ordinary=== thumb|Beast in 2014.On June 16, 2014, Beast released their sixth extended play, Good Luck. The album debuted at number one on the Gaon Album Chart, while its singles, "No More" and "Good Luck", both reached the number-one spot on the Gaon Digital Chart. "Good Luck" was also a critical success, named the best k-pop song of the year by Billboard and ranked number two for the year by Dazed. The group released their seventh EP, Time, on October 20, 2014 to mark their fifth anniversary since debuting. They released their eighth mini-album Ordinary on July 27, 2015. ===2016: Guess Who?, Hyun-seung's departure, Highlight and new label=== On April 19, 2016, Cube Entertainment released a statement confirming Jang Hyun-seung's departure from the group. The band continued as a five-member group and Hyun-seung proceeded under Cube as a solo artist. The reason for his departure was due to differences in music styles between him and the other members. On June 21, Beast announced the upcoming release of their third full-length album, Highlight. The album was released on July 3, with the pre-release track, Butterfly, released on June 26, and Ribbon as their title tracks. This marked their first comeback as a group of five. On December 15, 2016, Beast officially announced the launch of their new label Around Us Entertainment, subsequently leaving their label of seven years, Cube Entertainment. As the Beast name is trademarked by Cube, Beast was unable to promote under the name legally. ===2017: Rebranding as Highlight, Can You Feel It?, Calling You, and Celebrate=== On February 24, 2017, Around Us Entertainment announced that the members would continue as a group together, now under the name of "Highlight". On March 2, 2017, it was announced that Highlight would officially debut on March 20, 2017 with their mini-album Can You Feel It?. On April 9, 2017, Highlight announced that they would be holding their first concert tour as Highlight and release a repackaged album Calling You on May 29. On October 16, 2017, Highlight released their second EP, Celebrate, in the celebration of their eighth anniversary. === 2018–2020: Military enlistment, Outro, and Jun- hyung's departure === On August 24, 2018, Doo-joon enlisted for mandatory military service. He was discharged on April 10, 2020. It was announced that Highlight's special album, Outro, will be released on November 20, 2018, being promoted with 4 members. On January 24, 2019, Yo-seob began his mandatory military service as a conscripted police officer. On August 30, 2020, he was discharged from the military. On March 13, 2019, Junhyung announced his departure from Highlight after he admitted to watching illegal videos sent to him by singer Jung Joon-young, who is under investigation for secretly filming women during sex. On April 18, 2019, Gi-kwang began his mandatory military service as a conscripted police officer. On November 17, 2020, he was discharged from the military. On May 9, 2019, Dong-woon began his mandatory military service as a conscripted policeman. On December 7, 2020, he was discharged from the military, marking the end of Highlight's military enlistment. === 2021–present: The Blowing, Daydream, and After Sunset === Following a two-and-a-half year hiatus, Highlight made their first comeback as a four-member group on May 3, 2021 with their third EP, The Blowing. On March 21, 2022, Highlight released their fourth studio album, Daydream. After the promotions for Daydream ended, it was announced that Highlight would be holding a three-day concert, INTRO, at Jamsil Indoor Gymnasium from March 20–22. This would mark their first concert as a group in over 3 years, following the COVID-19 outbreak, their military enlistment, and the OUTRO concert in November 2018, where Doo-joon was absent. Tickets were sold out within three days. The group hosted a fan concert titled Highlight Sports Day on October 15–16. On the second day, Highlight announced their comeback by playing a short clip during the concert end credits. The clip featured Lee singing, "Because I'm alone, I'm alone without you," paired with their comeback date. Their 4th EP, After Sunset, was released on November 7, 2022. ==Discography== ===As Beast=== Korean albums * Fiction and Fact (2011) * Hard to Love, How to Love (2013) * Highlight (2016) Japanese albums * So Beast (2011) * Guess Who? (2016) ===As Highlight=== Korean albums * Daydream (2022) ==Filmography== ===Reality shows === * MTV B2ST (2009) * MTV B2ST Almighty (2010) * Idol Maid (2010) * Burning the Beast (2014) * Music-Slip Show "As We Say" (2017) * Ready Player: HIGHLIGHT (2018) * Super Seller (2021) Beast was the topic of a short-lived reality show, MTV B2ST, which was hosted by MTV. The show ran on a weekly basis from August 23 – October 9, 2009, with a total of ten episodes. The program showcased their journey leading up to their debut. It was announced in March 2010 that Beast will be hosting a second season of MTV B2ST entitled MTV Beast Almighty. After last year's broadcast debut, season 2 had fans and viewers' wishes as the concept of the program where the members will have to pick out one wish to grant for every episode. The show ran on a weekly basis from April 10 – May 29, 2010. Beast became the protagonists of the variety show Idol Maid running on a weekly basis from July 21 – October 13, 2010. The group also had a cameo on the sitcom More Charming by the Day. Beast was selected as a PR envoy to promote the audition program Global Super Idol, which aired in November, 2011. They also attended the preliminaries in Korea, Thailand, and China to encourage the contestants and give advice. Global Super Idol is a global audition program that pits finalists from Thailand and China against finalists in Korea. All the finalists will attend the main show in Korea. Since Beast is very popular in Asian countries, including Thailand, Japan, and China, their popularity helped the show become popular too by performing their songs for fans and contestants from all over the world. Beast was a part of 12-episode reality show, Showtime: Burning the Beast, in 2014. It was their first reality show in 4 years, which featured them getting to know each other better through missions. ==Other activities== On December 3, 2010, Beast attended the Patricia Field Collection fashion show located in Seoul Cheongdamdong MCM Haus and was praised by Patricia Field herself for their "distinctive and modern look". For this collection, MCM's Heritage and Patricia Field worked together to show off a modern New Yorker style with a trendy shopper bag, backpack, clutch, and more items and any money earned from it will be donated to the 'Korea Disaster Relief' to benefit the civilians left homeless from the Yeonpyeong incident. In April 2012, Beast collaborated with Jim Rickey to make their own sneaker brand, Beast X Jim Rickey. Beast members were directly involved in the design of these shoes and they are available in 6 different colours. ==Concerts and tours== === Concerts === * Welcome to Beast Airline - Seoul Olympic Stadium, Seoul (December 12, 2010) * Welcome Back to Beast Airlines- Seoul Olympic Stadium, Seoul (February 18–19, 2011) * Beautiful Show 2013 - Olympic Gymnastics Arena, Seoul (July 20–21, 2013) * Beautiful Show 2014 - Olympic Gymnastics Arena, Seoul (August 16–17, 2014) *Beautiful Show in Hong Kong - AsiaWorld–Expo, Hong Kong (May 30, 2015) *Beautiful Show in Taiwan - Tianmu Stadium, Taipei (June 6, 2015) * Beautiful Show 2015 - Olympic Gymnastics Arena, Seoul (August 29–30, 2015) * Beautiful Show 2016 - Olympic Gymnastics Arena, Seoul (August 20–21, 2016) *Celebrate Live 2017 - Jamsil Arena, Seoul (December 21–23, 2017) *Celebrate Live 2018 - Taipei Nangang Exhibition Center, Taipei (March 11, 2018) *OUTRO Live 2018 - Olympic Gymnastics Arena, Seoul (November 24–25, 2018) *INTRO Live 2022 - Jamsil Arena, Seoul (May 20–22, 2022) *INTRO Live in Japan 2022 - Tokyo Dome City Hall, Tokyo (September 18–19, 2022) === Tours === * Beautiful Show - Seoul, Berlin, Shanghai, Singapore, Jakarta, Yokohama, Kobe, Nagoya, Taipei, and Bangkok (February 4 to May 27, 2012) *We Zepp Tour 2012 - Sapporo, Osaka, Hiroshima, Nagoya, Fukuoka, and Tokyo (October 12–30, 2012) * Japan Tour 2014 - Ichihara, Nagoya, Fukuoka, Tokyo, Osaka, and Hiroshima (January 31 to April 3, 2014) * Japan Tour 2015 - Ichihara, Sapporo, Niigata, Nagoya, Tokyo, Fukuoka, Hiroshima, and Kobe (October 30 to November 29, 2015) *Beautiful Show in China 2015-2016 - Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chengdu (December 6, 2015 to 2016) * Guess Who? Tour 2016 - Ichihara, Niigata, Nagoya, Fukuoka, Nagasaki, Saitama, Tokyo, Sapporo, Osaka, and Hiroshima (June 3 to July 2, 2016) * Can You Feel It? Live 2017 - Seoul, Busan, Gwangju, Hong Kong and Taipei (June 2 to September 16, 2017) * Can You Feel It? Live in Japan 2017 - Osaka, Nagoya and Tokyo (August 20–24, 2017) == Awards == ==References== ==External links== *Around US Entertainment Official Website Category:Cube Entertainment artists Category:Universal Music Japan artists Category:K-pop music groups Category:Musical groups established in 2009 Category:South Korean boy bands Category:South Korean dance music groups Category:MAMA Award winners Category:Melon Music Award winners |
Maintenance Philosophy is the mix of strategies that ensure an item works as expected when needed. ==Definition== Maintenance is a form of risk management that is required if and only if an item fails to satisfy the minimum level of specification performance when the items or system is required. Maintenance is optional and may not be required if the partially failed item still satisfies the minimum level of specification performance or if the item is not required for a span of time. Maintenance takes place in four phases. * Failure Detection * Fault isolation * Corrective action * Operational verification An item is said to be degraded when faults exist but normal operation can continue. Automatic recovery is used to avoid the need for maintenance. Automatic recovery from failure is required for systems and resources that cannot be accessed during deployment, such as rockets, missiles, satellites, submersibles, and items that are buried or encapsulated. There are multiple approaches. * Custom items designed specifically for ultra high reliability * Redundant items with reconfiguration features that automatically bypass failure * Lot testing to reduce manufacturing defects Redundant items increase failure rate and reduce reliability if recovery is not automatic. ===Failure Detection=== Failure Detection involves two different maintenance strategies that interact with life-cycle cost and availability. * Conditional * Periodic ====Conditional==== Conditional maintenance relies on indicators that tell users when an item is failed. * System is totally failed and cannot operate as expected * System will function as expected but is degraded This requires automatic fault detection and reporting. Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) requires clearly observable or audible notification that is suitable for unsophisticated and untrained users, which includes the following. * Colored indicator (red or yellow light) * Display showing the phrase failed or degraded next to the item name * Gage with clearly defined green, yellow, and red bands for normal versus faulted * Audible indications, such as a buzzer, bell, or synthesized voice Recovery maintenance actions begin after notification occurs. Items are said to be instrumented when notification takes place automatically upon failure. There are two approaches. * End-To-End (ETE) * Self-reporting devices ETE testing involves an automated process that periodically injects something into the item, then the outputs are examined to determine if they satisfy the level of performance required by the specification. This may be intrusive, and could interfere with normal operation briefly. Self-reporting devices include automatic built-in-test (BIT) features that are less intrusive. Items without the kinds of notifications suitable for CBM have silent failure modes that require periodic preventative maintenance actions. ====Periodic==== thumb|Probability of operational failure accumulates as time passes until diagnostic or preventative maintenance actions eliminate any actual failures.Operational failure will eventually occur when an item is used in its normal mode of operation if there is no intervention. The procedures associated with periodic maintenance are generally called a Periodic Maintenance System (PMS). There is risk that the system will not work as expected, and this risk grows as time passes due to increasing possibility of silent faults that cause operational failure. Periodic maintenance actions control risk of operational failure. This relies on invasive procedures that renders a system inoperable for a brief period while users run manual diagnostic or preventative procedures. The following are a few examples. * Calibration * Built In Test (BIT) * External Diagnostics (instrumentation) * System Operational Test (SOT) The item is down and is unavailable for normal operation during the time while a periodic maintenance procedure is being performed. Failure is statistical. There is a random chance that the system or item will not function when required. Reliability declines as the time passes, and probability of failure increases until action is taken. The item will eventually fail if there is no intervention. Periodic maintenance increasingly reduces operational failure risks as procedure are used more often. Average reliability improves as the time between maintenance actions is reduced. :Reliability = 0.5 \times \left( 1 + e^{ \left( - \lambda \times Time \ Between \ Maintenance \ Actions \right)} \right) As an example, an item with no CBM features will work as expected about 90% of the time if periodic maintenance is performed about 5 times more frequently than the MTBF. :0.9 \approx 0.5 \times \left( 1 + e^{ - 0.2 } \right) ===Fault Isolation=== Fault Isolation is the strategy used to identify the root cause for a failure. There are two methods. * Automatic Fault Isolation * Manual Fault Isolation ====Automatic Fault Isolation==== Automatic Fault Isolation identifies the root cause for failure with no manual intervention. This is generally used to control redundant items when it is necessary to automatically bypass failures. ====Manual Fault Isolation==== Manual Fault Isolation is when maintenance personnel must identify root cause for a failure. This usually requires the following. * Manual diagnostic tests * Test equipment * Spare parts * Documentation * Training Device instrumentation used with CBM is generally used to reduce the time and effort required to isolate root cause. ===Corrective Action=== Corrective Action is the activity that restores performance for the item or system after a failure. There are two kinds of corrective action. * Automatic * Manual ====Automatic Corrective Action==== Automatic correction is possible for redundant systems when fault-detection, fault-isolation, and fault-bypass are all automatic. Automatic corrective action is also called Active Recovery and Self Healing. This technique can be used to increase the MTBF to the length of time an item will be required to be used without maintenance. As an example, failure is expected for space vehicles that can be required to operate correctly for as much as 10 years in a hostile environment. Redundancy can be achieved by launching a large number of satellites, which is a practical solution for things like the Global Positioning System (GPS) because each vehicle occupies a slightly different orbit. This is not possible for geosynchronous orbit, where all functions must be accomplished by one vehicle that performs all functions must maintain stable position over one specific spot over the earth surface. Satellites intended to operate in geosynchronous orbit must incorporate active recovery that prevents total failure when one or more parts fail. Automatic Corrective Action incorporates all of the spare parts into the design to accommodate all of the failures that can be anticipated during a specific period of time. ====Manual Corrective Action==== Manual corrective action is when trained maintenance personnel perform a calibration or replacement action to restore operation. Corrective actions for redundant items includes manual reconfiguration when automatic fault bypass is not available, which depends upon maintenance coverage. Failed part replacement depends upon the Lowest Replaceable Unit (LRU). This could be a part inside an item, or it could be the whole item. This decision is made based on which is less expensive to replace. As an example, a new disk drive costs about $200 to purchase, the technical assistance to replace the disk drive is $500, and a refurbished computer costs about $600. If you replace your own disk drive and install your own operating system, then it is less expensive to purchase the disk drive. If you need technical help then it is less expensive to replace the whole computer. ===Operational Verification=== Operational Verification is any action that is performed to verify that the item or system is operational. This generally involves using the system in its normal mode of operation, which could involve actual operation or simulated operation. ==Reliability== Maintenance is closely associated with reliability because maintenance is required to restore capability that has been lost due to failure. Electronic devices decay in a way that is mathematically equivalent to radioactive decay processes for unstable atoms. Electronic failure is governed by random processes, where Mean Time Between Failure identifies the average number of hours until failure occurs. Lambda \lambda identifies the number of failures expected per hour. : \lambda = \frac{1}{Mean \ Time \ Between \ Failure} Reliability is the probability that a failure will not occur during a specific span of time. :Reliability = e^\left(- \lambda \times Time\right) :Probability \ of \ Failure = 1 - Reliability Failure rate relies on logarithmic math to simplify calculations using \lambda that is very similar to the type of analysis used for electronic circuits. Overall failure rate for a complex item is the sum of all the failure rates for all of the individual components in the item. This applies to situations where failure of one component causes the entire item to fail. The type of calculation is similar to a series electronic circuit. : \lambda = \lambda_1 + \lambda_2 + ... + \lambda_n = \sum_{k=1}^N \lambda_k Overall failure rate for items with full redundant overlap is the inverse of the sum of MTBF for all of the individual redundant items. This applies to situations where all of the components in the item must all fail before the item fails. The type of calculation is similar to a parallel electronic circuit. : \lambda = \left( \dfrac{1}{ \dfrac{1}{\lambda_1} + \dfrac{1}{\lambda_2} + ... + \dfrac{1}{\lambda_n} } \right) = \left( \dfrac{1}{ \sum_{k=1}^N \dfrac{1}{\lambda_k} } \right) A reliability block diagram is used to construct a model for large items. This provides traceability when funding and manpower requirements are identified using reliability calculations. Failure rate for silicon and carbon devices doubles for each 5^oC temperature rise. Electronic devices operating at 60^oC will fail 64 times more frequently than the same kind of items operating at 30^oC. This relationship holds true above 25^oC. Transportation reliability is similar, but values are expressed in terms of distance, such as fault per mile or faults per kilometer. Failure rate can be expressed in terms of the number of cycles. Thermal shock caused by heating and cooling can induce failure when power is cycled on and off. Most mechanical switches are built to operate 10,000 cycles before failure, which is about 30 years for a cycle rate of 1 action per day. Distance, cycle, and decay reliability all have separate contributions that effect the overall failure rate. ==Availability== Availability is generally used with systems that incorporate periodic maintenance. Availability is the probability that an item will operate correctly during a period of time when used at random times during that period. : Availability = \frac{Available \ Time}{Total \ Time} : Total \ Time = Available \ Time + Down \ Time : Down \ Time = Maintenance \ Time + Faulted \ Time Available time is the time while the system is fully operational. Down time is the time while the system is unavailable for normal use, and this consist of the time while periodic maintenance is being performed and the amount of time while the system is faulted. Availability calculations are meaningful for items with replaceable parts only when failure modes have adequate coverage. ::Coverage > Availability ==Readiness== Readiness is meaningful when the item does not require down time for periodic maintenance. This is a useful measurement for items that incorporate automatic recovery or condition based maintenance. Readiness is the probability that an item will operate as expected when used at any random time while the item is in the correct mode of operation. :Readiness = 1 - \lambda \times Mean \ Time \ To \ Recover Mean Time To Recover form manual actions is generally measured or estimated. The following is an example of the kind of values that could be used for estimating the mechanical portion of the recovery time associated with replacing a failed circuit card. * Static wrist strap : 120 seconds * Bolts and screws with captive nut : remove 15 seconds; replace 30 seconds * Bolts and screws with loose nut : remove 30 seconds; replace 60 seconds * Small cables : disconnect 15 seconds; reconnect 60 seconds * Circuit card : remove 30 seconds; insert 120 seconds Readiness calculations are meaningful for items with replaceable parts only when failure modes have adequate coverage. ::Coverage > Readiness ==Coverage== Maintenance coverage evaluates the proportion of faults detected by CBM and PMS. : Coverage = \frac{Faults \ Detected \ By \ CBM + Faults \ Detected \ By \ PMS}{Total \ Possible \ Faults} A rough estimate of coverage can be made by observing the ratio between operational failures and maintenance actions. : Coverage \approx \frac{Total \ Faults \ Excluding \ Operational \ Failure}{Total \ Faults \ Including \ Operational \ Failure} Availability calculations, readiness calculations, and related claims are only valid if coverage exceeds availability. ==Military Versus Commercial== thumb|Military maintenance philosophy versus commercial.Military systems and large commercial systems share reliability constraints. The ability to for a military system to continue operating after battle damage is survivability. Military Maintenance Policy (MMP) is required for defense systems. Designs typically include redundancy with automatic fault detection, automatic fault isolation, and automatic fault bypass. These reconfigure systems without human intervention after combat damage and normal failure. Most Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS) items are deployed in a benign environment, but electronic devices fail much like constant random battle damage. This effect grows worse as size grows. Excessive down-time is a type of design defect that impacts all large systems. As an example, if a system is built from 1,000 individual computers each with a 3-year Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF), then the whole system will have an MTBF of 1 day. If Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) is 3 days, then the system will never work. If the same system includes 1,010 computers, then failure will be rare if the system includes automatic fault detection, automatic fault isolation, and automatic fault bypass. This shows why large commercial systems require the same kind of maintenance philosophy as military systems. ==See also== * ARP4761 * Block diagram * Reliability engineering * System safety ==External links== * OPNAV Instruction 4790.13A, Maintenance of Surface Ship Electronic Equipment, Department of the Navy * OPNAV Instruction 4790.4E, Ships' Maintenance and Material Management (3-M) System Policy, Department of the Navy (periodic maintenance) * OPNAV Instruction 4790.16A, Condition-Based Maintenance Policy, Department of the Navy * OPNAV Instruction 4700.7L, Maintenance Policy For United States Navy Ships, Department of the Navy * OPNAV Instruction 3000.12A, Operational Availability Of Equipments And Weapons Systems, Department of the Navy * OPNAV Instruction 3500.39C, Operational Risk Management, Department of the Navy * OPNAV Instruction 3501.316B, Policy For Baseline Composition And Basic Mission Capabilities Of Major Afloat Navy And Naval Groups, Department of the Navy * OPNAV Instruction 3501.383, Fleet Readiness Reporting Guidance, Department of the Navy * OPNAV Instruction 8000.16C, Naval Ordnance Maintenance Management Program, Department of the Navy * OPNAV Instruction 9070.1, Survivability Policy For Surface Ships Of The U.S. Navy, Department of the Navy ==References== Category:Quality assurance |
The Mare Acidalium quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The quadrangle is located in the northeastern portion of Mars’ western hemisphere and covers 300° to 360° east longitude (0° to 60° west longitude) and 30° to 65° north latitude. The quadrangle uses a Lambert conformal conic projection at a nominal scale of 1:5,000,000 (1:5M). The Mare Acidalium quadrangle is also referred to as MC-4 (Mars Chart-4).Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. "Geodesy and Cartography" in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. Mars. University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992. The southern and northern borders of the quadrangle are approximately 3,065 km and 1,500 km wide, respectively. The north to south distance is about 2,050 km (slightly less than the length of Greenland).Distances calculated using NASA World Wind measuring tool. http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/. The quadrangle covers an approximate area of 4.9 million square km, or a little over 3% of Mars’ surface area.Approximated by integrating latitudinal strips with area of R^2 (L1-L2)(cos(A)dA) from 30° to 65° latitude; where R = 3889 km, A is latitude, and angles expressed in radians. See: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/1340223/calculating-area- enclosed-by-arbitrary-polygon-on-earths-surface. Most of the region called Acidalia Planitia is found in Acidalium quadrangle. Parts of Tempe Terra, Arabia Terra, and Chryse Planitia are also in this quadrangle. This area contains many bright spots on a dark background that may be mud volcanoes. There are also some gullies that are believed to have formed by relatively recent flows of liquid water. ==Origin of name== Mare Acidalium (Acidalian Sea) is the name of a telescopic albedo feature located at 45° N and 330° E on Mars. The feature was named for a well or fountain in Boeotia, Greece. According to classical tradition, it is a location where Venus and the Graces bathed.Blunck, J. 1982. Mars and its Satellites. Exposition Press. Smithtown, N.Y. The name was approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1958.USGS Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Mars. http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/. ==Physiography and geology== The quadrangle contains many interesting features, including gullies and possible shorelines of an ancient northern ocean. Some areas are densely layered. The boundary between the southern highlands and the northern lowlands lies in Mare Acidalium. The "Face on Mars," of great interest to the general public, is located near 40.8 degrees north and 9.6 degrees west, in an area called Cydonia. When Mars Global Surveyor examined it with high resolution, the face turned out to just be an eroded mesa. Mare Acidalium contains the Kasei Valles system of canyons. This huge system is 300 miles wide in some places—Earth's Grand Canyon is only 18 miles wide. == Gullies == The HiRISE image below of Acidalia Colles shows gullies in the northern hemisphere. Gullies occur on steep slopes, especially craters. Gullies are believed to be relatively young because they have few, if any craters, and they lie on top of sand dunes which are themselves young. Usually, each gully has an alcove, channel, and apron. Although many ideas have been put forward to explain them, the most popular involve liquid water either coming from an aquifer or left over from old glaciers. Image:Acidalia Colles Gullies.JPG|Acidalia Colles Gullies and other features, as seen by HiRISE The scale bar is 1,000 meters long. Image:24951bambergwidectx.jpg|Context for next image of Bamberg crater. Box shows where the next image came from. This is a CTX image from Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Image:ESP 024951gulliesandflow.jpg|Gullies and massive flow of material, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Gullies are enlarged in next two images. Location is Bamberg crater. Image:24951gulliesclose.jpg|Close up view of some gullies, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program Image:24951gullyclose.jpg|Close up view of another gully in same HiRISE picture. Picture taken under HiWish program. Image:26574gullies.jpg|Gullies, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Image:ESP 027707_2195gullies.jpg|Gullies in a crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Image:27707gulliesclose.jpg|Close-up of gullies in a crater from previous image. Image taken by HiRISE under HiWish program. ESP 037506 2285gullychannels.jpg|Gullies on wall of crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Location is the Mare Acidalium quadrangle. ESP 037506 2285gullychannelsclose.jpg|Close-up of gully channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. This image shows many streamlined forms and some benches along a channel. These features suggest formation by running water. Benches are usually formed when the water level goes down a bit and stays at that level for a time. Picture was taken with HiRISE under HiWish program. Location is the Mare Acidalium quadrangle. Note this is an enlargement of a previous image. File:ESP 053751 2150gullies.jpg|Gullies, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:55122 2225gulliesclosecolor.jpg|Gullies, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program There is evidence for both theories. Most of the gully alcove heads occur at the same level, just as one would expect of an aquifer. Various measurements and calculations show that liquid water could exist in an aquifer at the usual depths where the gullies begin. One variation of this model is that rising hot magma could have melted ice in the ground and caused water to flow in aquifers. Aquifers are layers that allow water to flow. They may consist of porous sandstone. This layer would be perched on top of another layer that prevents water from going down (in geological terms it would be called impermeable). The only direction the trapped water can flow is horizontally. The water could then flow out onto the surface when the aquifer reaches a break, like a crater wall. Aquifers are quite common on Earth. A good example is "Weeping Rock" in Zion National Park Utah.Harris, A and E. Tuttle. 1990. Geology of National Parks. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa On the other hand, there is evidence for the alternative theory because much of the surface of Mars is covered by a thick smooth mantle that is thought to be a mixture of ice and dust. This ice-rich mantle, a few yards thick, smooths the land, but in places it has a bumpy texture, resembling the surface of a basketball. Under certain conditions the ice could melt and flow down the slopes to create gullies. Since there are few craters on this mantle, the mantle is relatively young. An excellent view of this mantle is in the picture of the Ptolemaeus Crater Rim, as seen by HiRISE. Changes in Mars's orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water comes back to ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor condenses on the particles, then the heavier particles with the water coating fall and pile up on the ground. When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulates the remaining ice.MLA NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (2003, December 18). Mars May Be Emerging From An Ice Age. ScienceDaily. Retrieved February 19, 2009, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/12/031218075443.htmAds by GoogleAdvertise ==Polygonal patterned ground== Polygonal, patterned ground is quite common in some regions of Mars.Kreslavsky, M., Head, J. 2000. Kilometer- scale roughness on Mars: Results from MOLA data analysis. J. Geophys. Res. 105 (E11), 26695–26712. It is commonly believed to be caused by the sublimation of ice from the ground. Sublimation is the direct change of solid ice to a gas. This is similar to what happens to dry ice on the Earth. Places on Mars that display polygonal ground may indicate where future colonists can find water ice. Patterned ground forms in a mantle layer, called latitude dependent mantle, that fell from the sky when the climate was different.Kreslavsky, M.A., Head, J.W., 2002. High-latitude Recent Surface Mantle on Mars: New Results from MOLA and MOC. European Geophysical Society XXVII, Nice. Image:27707gulliesclose.jpg|Close-up of gullies in a crater showing plygons that have been called "gullygons" Image taken by HiRISE under HiWish program. 27707 2195gullygonsclose.jpg|Close-up of gully alcove showing "gullygons" (polygonal patterned ground near gullies), as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note this is an enlargement of a previous image. 27707 2195gullygonsclose2.jpg|Close-up of gully alcove showing "gullygons" (polygonal patterned ground near gullies), as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note this is an enlargement of a previous image. ==Craters== Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. Sometimes craters display layers. Since the collision that produces a crater is like a powerful explosion, rocks from deep underground are tossed unto the surface. Hence, craters can show us what lies deep under the surface. Image:Kunowsky Crater Floor.JPG|Kunowsky Crater Floor, as seen by HiRISE. The scale bar is 500 meters long. Image:Bonestell Crater.JPG|Bonestell Crater, as seen by HiRISE. Scale bar is 1000 meters long. Image:Arandas Crater.JPG|Arandas Crater, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image for a better view of North and South Walls, as well as central hills. Scale bar is 1000 meters long. Image:Exhumedburied Craterin Coprates.jpg|Exhumed Crater in Mare Acidalium, as seen by Mars Global Surveyor. Image:ESP 026594 1470closecraters.jpg|Group of craters that may have struck the surface at the same time after an asteroid broke up. If the craters were formed at different times, they would have wiped away parts of the others. Picture was taken by HiRISE, under HiWish program. Image located in Terra Cimmeria. Image:27136ejectchannelwide.jpg|Crater with ejecta, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. The box shows area enlarged in next image. Image:27136ejectachannel.jpg|Enlarged view of crater ejecta showing channel with a deposit at the end, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Image:27136ejecta.jpg|Close-up of surface near ejecta of crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Melted ice from ground water may have formed small channel. Image:ESP 027538 2265.jpg|Crater wall covered with a smooth mantle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ESP 052749 2285pits.jpg|Crater with pits on floor, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ==Mud volcanoes== Large areas of Mare Acidalium display bright spots on a dark background. It has been suggested that the spots are mud volcanoes.Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.) 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM More than 18,000 of these features, which have an average diameter of about 800 meters, have been mapped.Oehler, D. and C. Allen. 2010. Evidence for pervasive mud volcanism in Acidalia Planitia, Mars. Icarus: 208. 636-657. Mare Acidalium would have received large quantities of mud and fluids form outflow channels, so much mud may have accumulated there. The bright mounds have been found to contain crystalline ferric oxides. Mud volcanism here may be highly significant because long lived conduits for upwelling groundwater could have been produced. These could have been habitats for micro organisms.Komatsu, G., et al. 2014. ASTROBIOLOGICAL POTENTIAL OF MUD VOLCANISM ON MARS. 45th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2014). 1085.pdf Mud volcanoes could have brought up samples from deep zones that could therefore be sampled by robots. An article in Icarus reports on a study of these possible mud volcanoes. The authors compare these Martian features to mud volcanoes found on the Earth. There study using HiRISE images and CRISM data support the idea that these features are indeed mud volcanoes. Nanophase ferric minerals and hydrated minerals found with Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) show that water was involved with the formation of these possible Martian mud volcanoes.Komatsu, G., et al. 2016. Small edifice features in Chryse Planitia, Mars: Assessment of a mud volcano hypothesis. Icarus: 268, 56-75. Image:White craters in Mare Acidalium.JPG|Craters with white centers in Mare Acidalium. Sand dunes are visible in low areas in image. Some of the features may be mud volcanoes. Picture taken by Mars Global Surveyor under the MOC Public Targeting Program. Image:ESP 024701mudvolcanoes.jpg|Mud volcanoes near the edge of the ejecta of a nearby crater, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program. ESP 040775 2235cones.jpg|Large field of cones that may be mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 040775 2235conesclose.jpg|Close-up of possible mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note: this is an enlargement of the previous image. ESP 044665 2240cone.jpg|Possible mud volcano, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ESP 047053 2165cones.jpg|Line of possible mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ESP 046617 2210mudvolcanoes.jpg|Mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ESP 052050 2200mudvolcanoes.jpg|Wide view of field of mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 52050 2200mudvolcanoes.jpg|Close view of mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 52050 2200mudvolcanoesboulders.jpg|Close view of mud volcanoes and boulders, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 52050 2200boulders.jpg|Close view of boulders near mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program The boulders may be from an upper layer. Mud from a mud volcano does not contain boulders, only fine-grain material. Gobustan State Reserve 04.png|Close view of mud volcanoes on Earth Location is Gobustan Azerbaijan. ==Channels in Idaeus Fossae region== There is a 300 km long river system in Idaeus Fossae. It is carved into the highlands of Idaeus Fossae, and it originated from the melting of ice in the ground after asteroid impacts. Dating has determined that the water activity came after most of the water activity ended at the boundary between the Noachian and Hesperian periods. Lakes and fan-shaped deposits were formed by running water in this system as it drained eastward into Liberta Crater and formed a delta deposit. Part of the drainage path is the Moa Valley.Salese, F., G. Di Achille, G. Ori. 2015. SEDIMENTOLOGY OF A RIVER SYSTEM WITH A SERIES OF DAM-BREACH PALEOLAKES AT IDAEUS FOSSAE, MARS. 46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2296.pdf File:29054cutoff.jpg|Stream meander and cutoff, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. This is part of a major drainage system in the Idaeus Fossae region. ESP 045590 2170hanging.jpg|Hanging valley, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program This may have been a waterfall at one time. ESP 045946 2170channel.jpg|Hanging valley that once may have been a waterfall, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ==Channels== There is enormous evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars.Carr, M. 1996. in Water on Mars. Oxford Univ. Press. Images of curved channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the Mariner 9 orbiter.Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. Univ. of Tex. Press, Austin, TX Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Wikisklodowska.jpg|Sklodowska (Martian crater), as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). Small channels are visible along the eroded, southern rim. Wikisklodowskachannels.jpg|Channels in Sklodowska Crater, as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). Note: this is an enlargement of the previous image. WikisklodowskaESP 035500 2130.jpg|Channels in Sklodowska Crater, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program. ESP 045867 2150channels.jpg|Channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ESP 048003 2165channels.jpg|Channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:ESP 055519 2155channels.jpg|Channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:ESP 055374 2175channelnetwork.jpg|Channel network, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ==Ocean== Many researchers have suggested that Mars once had a great ocean in the north. Much evidence for this ocean has been gathered over several decades. New evidence was published in May 2016. A large team of scientists described how some of the surface in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle was altered by two Tsunamis. The tsunamis were caused by asteroids striking the ocean. Both were thought to have been strong enough to create 30 km diameter craters. The first tsunami picked up and carried boulders the size of cars or small houses. The backwash from the wave formed channels by rearranging the boulders. The second came in when the ocean was 300 m lower. The second carried a great deal of ice which was dropped in valleys. Calculations show that the average height of the waves would have been 50 m, but the heights would vary from 10 m to 120 m. Numerical simulations show that in this particular part of the ocean two impact craters of the size of 30 km in diameter would form every 30 million years. The implication here is that a great northern ocean may have existed for millions of years. One argument against an ocean has been the lack of shoreline features. These features may have been washed away by these tsunami events. The parts of Mars studied in this research are Chryse Planitia and northwestern Arabia Terra. These tsunamis affected some surfaces in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle and in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle. ==Pingos== Pingos are believed to be present on Mars. They are mounds that contain cracks. These particular fractures were evidently produced by something emerging from below the brittle surface of Mars. Ice lenses, resulting from the accumulation of ice beneath the surface, possibly created these mounds with fractures. Ice is less dense than rock, so the buried ice rose and pushed upwards on the surface and generated these cracks. An analogous process creates similar sized mounds in arctic tundra on Earth that are known as pingos, an Inuit word. They contain pure water ice, so they would be a great source of water for future colonists on Mars. 44322 2215pingos.jpg|Arrows point to possible pingos, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Pingos contain a core of pure ice. ==Fractured ground== 44322 2215fractures.jpg|Fractures, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program These fractures are believed to eventually turn into canyons because ice in the ground will disappear into the thin Martian atmosphere and the remaining dust will be blown away. ESP 046366 2215fractures.jpg|Wide view of fractured ground, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Cracks form on the Martian surface, and then they turn into large fractures. 46366 2215fractures.jpg|Close view of fractures from the previous image, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:ESP 056968 2140cracks.jpg|Cracks on crater floor, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:56968 2140cracks.jpg|Close view of cracks on crater floor, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:ESP 057311 2125cracks.jpg|Group of cracks, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:ESP 057311 2125crackscraters.jpg|Close view of cracks of various sizes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Ice disappears along crack surfaces and makes crack larger. Note that small craters do not have very big rims; they may be just pits. File:57311 2155crackssmallarge.jpg|Close view of cracks of various sizes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Ice disappears along crack surfaces and makes crack larger. File:57311 2155crackscrater.jpg|Cracks around crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ==Layers== Rock can be formed into layers in a variety of ways. Volcanoes, wind, or water can produce layers Layers can be hardened by the action of groundwater. Martian ground water probably moved hundreds of kilometers, and in the process it dissolved many minerals from the rock it passed through. When ground water surfaces in low areas containing sediments, water evaporates in the thin atmosphere and leaves behind minerals as deposits and/or cementing agents. Consequently, layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together. , ESP 047080 2120layered mesa.jpg|Layers in mesa, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 47080 2120layersclose.jpg|Close view of layers in mesa, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program ESP 048924 2150layers.jpg|Layers and small craters, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Layers are enlarged in next image. 48924 2150layers.jpg|Layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:53490 2230layers.jpg|Close view of layers in a trough, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:ESP 054477 2150mesa.jpg|Layered mesa, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program == Other landscape features in Mare Acidalium quadrangle == Image:Cliff in Mare Acidalium.JPG|Cliff in Kasei Valles system, as seen by HiRISE. Image:Rolling boulders in kasei.JPG|Enlargement of cliff in Kasei Valles system in previous image showing boulders and their tracks, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see a boulder only 2.2 yards across (smaller than a bedroom). Image:Context for fault.JPG|CTX image showing the context for the next image of a fault. Image:Fault in Mare Acidalium.JPG|Close-up of a possible fault in Mare Acidalium, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program. A circle is drawn around crater to show that it may be off round because of movement of the fault. Many other faults are in the region. ESP 045524 2120fan.jpg|Fan with channels on its surface, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 48924 2150ovalpits.jpg|Sample of oval pits in this location of unknown origin, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:57311 2155pit.jpg|Crater with very small rim, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program File:57311 2155smallpits.jpg|Field of small pits, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program == Other Mars quadrangles == == Interactive Mars map == == See also == * Climate of Mars * HiRISE * HiWish * Impact crater * List of quadrangles on Mars * Martian Gullies * Mud volcano * Pingo * Polygonal patterned ground * Water on Mars == References == Category:Mars |
Vehicle audio is equipment installed in a car or other vehicle to provide in- car entertainment and information for the vehicle occupants. Until the 1950s it consisted of a simple AM radio. Additions since then have included FM radio (1952), 8-track tape players, cassette players, record players, CD players, DVD players, Blu-ray players, navigation systems, Bluetooth telephone integration, and smartphone controllers like CarPlay and Android Auto. Once controlled from the dashboard with a few buttons, they can now be controlled by steering wheel controls and voice commands. Initially implemented for listening to music and radio, vehicle audio is now part of car telematics, telecommunication, in-vehicle security, handsfree calling, navigation, and remote diagnostics systems. The same loudspeakers may also be used to minimize road and engine noise with active noise control, or they may be used to augment engine sounds, for instance making a smaller engine sound bigger. ==History== ===Radio=== thumb|upright|1937 Philips Auto Radio. Weighing 24 kg and taking 8 litres of space, it was floor mounted with a wired remote control to be fitted to the dashboard. In 1904, well before commercially viable technology for mobile radio was in place, American inventor and self-described "Father of Radio" Lee de Forest demonstrated a car radio at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis. Around 1920, vacuum tube technology had matured to the point where the availability of radio receivers made radio broadcasting viable. A technical challenge was that the vacuum tubes in the radio receivers required 50 to 250 volt direct current, but car batteries ran at 6V. Voltage was stepped up with a vibrator that provided a pulsating DC which could be converted to a higher voltage with a transformer, rectified, and filtered to create higher-voltage DC. In 1924, Kelly's Motors in NSW, Australia, installed its first car radio. In 1930, the American Galvin Manufacturing Corporation marketed a Motorola branded radio receiver for $130. It was expensive: the contemporary Ford Model A cost $540. A Plymouth sedan, "wired for Philco Transitone radio without extra cost," was advertised in Ladies' Home Journal in 1931. In 1932 in Germany the Blaupunkt AS 5 medium wave and longwave radio was marketed for 465 Reichsmark, about one third of the price of a small car. Because it took nearly 10 litres of space, it could not be located near the driver, and was operated via a steering wheel remote control. In 1933 Crossley Motors offered a factory fitted car radio for £35. By the late 1930s, push button AM radios were considered a standard feature. In 1946, there were an estimated 9 million AM car radios in use. An FM receiver was offered by Blaupunkt in 1952. In 1953, Becker introduced the AM/FM Becker Mexico with a Variometer tuner, basically a station-search or scan function. In April 1955, the Chrysler Corporation announced that it was offering a Mopar model 914HR branded Philco all transistor car radio, as a $150 option for its 1956 Chrysler and Imperial car models. Chrysler Corporation had decided to discontinue its all transistor car radio option at the end of 1956, due to it being too expensive, and replaced it with a cheaper hybrid (transistors and low voltage vacuum tubes) car radio for its new 1957 car models. In 1963, Becker introduced the Monte Carlo, a tubeless solid state radio with no vacuum tubes. From 1974 to 2005, the Autofahrer-Rundfunk- Informationssystem was used by the German ARD network. Developed jointly by the Institut für Rundfunktechnik and Blaupunkt, it indicated the presence of traffic announcements through manipulation of the 57kHz subcarrier of the station's FM signal. ARI was replaced by the Radio Data System. The AM/FM radio combined with a CD player has remained a mainstay of car audio, despite being obsolescent in non-car applications. In the 2010s, internet radio and satellite radio came into competition with FM radio. By this time some models were offering 5.1 surround sound. In 2023, several automobile manufacturers, including Ford Motor Company, announced plans to discontinue offering the AM radio band in new vehicles, starting with the 2024 model year. Ford later reversed its announcement, with chief executive offer Jim Farley citing the importance of AM's emergency alert system. Audi, BMW, Volvo, and Tesla had already started to not offer the AM band on its entertainment systems, specifically on their electric vehicles."Ford Not Nixing AM Radio in 2024 Models after All, CEO Says," Car and Driver, May 23, 2023. Accessed 05-28-23. The previous announcement had several lawmakers introduce bipartisan legislation to require that automobile manufactures include the AM band on their audio/entertainment systems. Accessed 05-29-2023. ===Physical media and connectivity=== Mobile players for physical media have been provided for vinyl records, 8-track tapes, cassette tapes, compact discs, and MP3s. The increased sophistication of the vehicle audio system to accommodate such media has made the audio unit a common target of car break-ins, so these are equipped with anti-theft systems too. Attempts at providing mobile play from media were first made with vinyl records, beginning in the 1950s. The first such player was offered by Chrysler as an option on 1956 Chrysler, Desoto, Dodge, and Plymouth cars. The player was developed by CBS Labs and played a limited selection of specially provided 7-inch discs at 16⅔ RPM. The unit was an expensive option and was dropped after two years. Cheaper options using commonly available 45 rpm records were made by RCA Victor (available only in 1961) and Norelco. All of these players required extra pressure on the needle to avoid skipping during vehicle movement, which caused accelerated wear on the records. In 1962, Muntz introduced the Wayfarer 4-track cartridge tape player. Celebrities, including Frank Sinatra, had these units installed in their cars. In 1965, Ford and Motorola jointly introduced the in-car 8-track tape player as optional equipment for 1966 Ford car models. In 1968, a dashboard car radio with a built-in cassette tape player was introduced by Philips. In subsequent years, cassettes supplanted the 8-track and improved the technology, with longer play times, better tape quality, auto-reverse, and Dolby noise reduction. They were popular throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Cassette players were still found in vehicles as late as the 2005-06 Honda CR-V and 2008 Acura TL. There have also been vehicle audio units which are able to accept both compact cassettes and CDs. Pioneer introduced the CDX-1, the first car CD (compact disc) player, in 1984. It was known for its improved sound quality, instant track skipping, and the format's increased durability over cassette tapes. Car CD changers started to gain popularity in the late 80s and continuing throughout the 90s, with the earlier devices being trunk- mounted and later ones being mounted in the head unit, some able to accommodate six to ten CDs. Stock and aftermarket CD players began appearing in the late 1980s, competing with the cassette. The first car with an OEM CD player was the 1987 Lincoln Town Car, and the last new cars in the American market to be factory-equipped with a cassette deck in the dashboard was the 2010 Lexus SC430, and the Ford Crown Victoria. The car cassette adapter allowed motorists to plug in a portable music player (CD player, MP3 player) into an existing installed cassette tape deck. In the early 21st century, compact digital storage media – Bluetooth-enabled devices, thumb drives, memory cards, and dedicated hard drives – came to be accommodated by vehicle audio systems. Around this time auxiliary input jacks and USB ports were added to connect MP3 players to the vehicle's speakers. Minivans and three-row SUVs have an available rear entertainment system with a DVD player to entertain passengers. The automobile head unit became increasingly important as a housing for front and backup dashcams, navis, and operating systems with multiple functions, such as Android Auto, CarPlay and MirrorLink, allowing a smartphone's music library and navigation apps to be controlled via the vehicle's infotainment system. https://www.cars.com/articles/2015-honda-fit- apps-remind-us-why-apple-carplay-android-auto-rock-1420683234115/ Latest models are coming equipped with features like Bluetooth technology along with HDMI port for better connectivity. Screen size varies from 5-inch to 7-inch for the double Din car stereos. ===Active noise control and noise synthesis=== The automobile sound system may be part of an active noise control system which reduces engine and road noise for the driver and passengers. One or more microphones are used to pick up sound from various places on the vehicle, especially the engine compartment, underside or exhaust pipes, and these signals are handled by a digital signal processor (DSP) then sent to the loudspeakers in such a way that the processed signal reduces or cancels out the outside noise heard inside the car. An early system focused only on engine noise was developed by Lotus and licensed for the 1992 Nissan Bluebird models sold in Japan. Lotus later teamed with Harman in 2009 to develop a more complete noise reduction system, including road and tire noise as well as chassis vibrations. One benefit of active noise control is that the car can weigh less, with less sound-deadening material used, and without a heavy balance shaft in the engine. Removing the balance shaft also increases fuel efficiency. The 2013 Honda Accord used an active noise control system, as did the 2013 Lincoln luxury line and the Ford C-Max and Fusion models. Other operating data may also play a part in the DSP, data such as the engine's speed in revolutions per minute (RPM) or the car's highway speed. A multiple source reduction system may reach as much as 80% of the noise removed. The same system may also be used to synthesize or augment engine noise to make the engine sound more powerful to the driver. For the 2015 Ford Mustang EcoBoost Fastback and EcoBoost Fastback Premium, an "Active Noise Control" system was developed that amplifies the engine sound through the car speakers. A similar system is used in the F-150 pickup truck. Volkswagen uses a Soundaktor, a special speaker to play sounds in cars such as the Golf GTi and Beetle Turbo. BMW plays a recorded sample of its motors through the car speakers, using different samples according to the engine's load and power. ==Components and terms== The stock system is the OEM application that the vehicle's manufacturer specified to be installed when the car was built. Aftermarket components can also be used. * Head unit: Headunit products includes the screen and buttons and are manufactured mainly in DIN form factor, which refers to ISO 7736. Head units come as single DIN or double DIN. * Connectors for car audio, where ISO 10487 Harness Adapter is used. * Capacitors. * Mobile audio power amplifiers. Amplifiers increase the power level of audio signals. Some head units have built-in stereo amplifiers. Other car audio systems use a separate stand-alone amplifier. Every amplifier has a rated power level sometimes noted on the head unit with the built-in amplifier, or on the label of a stand-alone unit. # Coaxial speakers: These are the most common type of car speakers and are often factory-installed. They usually consist of a woofer and a tweeter mounted on the same axis, and are designed to reproduce a wide range of frequencies. # Component speakers: These speakers are designed for higher-end car audio systems and typically consist of separate woofers, tweeters, and crossovers. This allows for more precise sound tuning and a higher level of sound quality. # Subwoofers: These speakers are designed to reproduce low-frequency sounds, particularly bass. They come in various sizes and power levels, and can be used to enhance the bass in a car audio system. # Mid-range speakers: These speakers are designed to reproduce mid-range frequencies, such as vocals and instruments like guitars and pianos. # Tweeters: These speakers are designed to reproduce high-frequency sounds, such as cymbals and other high-pitched instruments. # Sound-deadening material is often used in the door cavities and boot area to dampen excess vibration of the panels in the car in response to loud subwoofer bass tones, especially the boot (trunk). # Optical drives with slot-loading mechanism. ==Legality== Excessively loud sound systems in automobiles violate the noise ordinance of municipalities, some of which have outlawed them. In 2002, the U.S. Department of Justice issued a guide to police officers on how to deal with problems associated with loud audio systems in cars. ==Gallery== File:Autoradio Roehre.jpg|A 1950s Philips car radio using both transistor and valves. This model used a range of valves that only required 12 volts for their plate (anode) voltage. File:Chevrolet Corvette Transistorized Hybrid Car Radio-1956.JPG|GM Delco Transistorized "Hybrid" (vacuum tubes and transistors), first offered as an option on the 1956 Chevrolet Corvette car models File:Kenwood KDC-W4527.jpg|A car stereo head unit in a dashboard File:Lincoln Continental Cabriolet photo-58.JPG|1942 Lincoln Continental Cabriolet radio File:VW Hebmüller (2015-09-12 3701).JPG|Dashboard of VW Hebmüller with Telefunken Radio (1949/50) File:W110 Cockpit.jpg|1964 Mercedes- Benz W110 190c dashboard with original FM Blaupunkt "Frankfurt" head unit. File:FORD Taunus 17M P2(TL) deLuxe Two door 1958 Radio Blaupunkt Köln.jpg|Blaupunkt Köln Radio - German 1958 Ford Taunus 17M P2 deLuxe File:Ford Sierra CLX 1990 Radio.jpg|1990 Ford Sierra CLX Radio-Cassette head unit in a dashboard with cassette storage File:1978 AMC Matador sedan red NC detail of factory AM-FM-stereo-8-track unit.jpg|1978 AMC Matador sedan factory AM-FM-stereo-8-track unit with an album by The Blues Brothers File:2008-04-16 Car audio drivers.jpg|A set of speaker drivers removed from a passenger vehicle File:Lightning Audio 750 Watts Car Audio Amplifier.JPG|A car audio amplifier File:JLaudiosubwoofers.jpg|Two 10-inch subwoofers in the trunk of a car File:Toyota Camry Factory Integrated (In-Dash) Head Unit.jpg|As technology keeps evolving, head units are now paired with the climate control system and other functions ==See also== * List of car audio manufacturers and brands *Active sound design ==References== Category:American inventions Category:Audio players Category:In-car entertainment Category:Radio hobbies Category:Sound production technology Category:Automotive accessories Category:Automotive technologies |
An Officer and a Spy () is a 2019 historical drama film directed by Roman Polanski about the Dreyfus affair, with a screenplay by Polanski and Robert Harris based on Harris's 2013 novel of the same name. The name J'Accuse has its origins in Émile Zola's bold article in l'Aurore in January 1898 in which the famous author accused many persons of France of continuing to support the increasingly blatantly erroneous accusations against Dreyfus. The film had its premiere at the 76th Venice International Film Festival on 30 August 2019, winning the Grand Jury Prize and the FIPRESCI Prize. It received twelve nominations for the 45th César Awards, the most nominations of any eligible film, and eventually won the awards for Best Adaptation, Best Costume Design, and Best Director. The film was also nominated in four categories at the 32nd European Film Awards, including for Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor, and Best Screenwriter, ultimately winning none. It received David di Donatello and Polish Film Awards nominations as Best Foreign and Best European film respectively. ==Plot== In 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, captain in the French army, is found guilty of high treason for passing military secrets to the German Empire. He is degraded and condemned to exile on Devil's Island; his affair triggers a noticeable echo in France since Dreyfus is Jewish. One year later, officer Georges Picquart, former teacher of Dreyfus himself, is appointed head of the secret service section in the French army (Deuxième Bureau). The man, despite alleged anti-Semitic sentiments, is aware that the trial against Dreyfus was rather summary and biased by his origin; therefore, noticing some irregularities in the dossier of the affair, he decides to conduct an investigation to verify the man's guilt. Picquart discovers that the so-called bordereau, the document that would prove his guilt, was not written by Dreyfus, as the graphologist Alphonse Bertillon had declared, but by another soldier: Major Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy. According to Picquart, he is the real spy, but the evidence has been prejudiced or even falsified to the detriment of Dreyfus. Picquart is convinced of Dreyfus' innocence and tries to reopen the trial to exonerate him and arrest Esterhazy, but meets the opposition of his superiors: admitting Dreyfus' innocence would result in a great scandal that would lead to the discovery of corruption in the army, while the man, as a Jew, is the perfect scapegoat. Picquart is then removed from office and sent on a mission far from Paris. However, he manages to return and tell everything to his friend, the lawyer Louis Leblois, who begins to organise a committee for the rehabilitation of Dreyfus, involving his colleague Fernand Labori, members of the Parliament and intellectuals, including the famous author Émile Zola. Picquart's insubordination leads to his arrest, but on the same day Zola publishes in the newspaper L'Aurore the article entitled J'accuse, which would become famous, where he fiercely criticises the irregularities of the trial of Dreyfus and exposes all the people involved in the case. Zola, on a complaint from the government, is tried for defamation and, due to the false declarations made in the courtroom by the soldiers called to witness, the writer is sentenced to one year in prison. While the whole of France is divided between innocent and guilty parties, the intellectuals signing the pro-Dreyfus petition are targeted by popular hatred. Later, after losing a duel against Picquart, Lieutenant Colonel Hubert Joseph Henry, who had testified against Dreyfus, admits he perjured himself, and died shortly after, apparently by suicide. Following Henry's depositions, Picquart is acquitted and released, while Dreyfus is repatriated for a second trial which occur in Rennes in 1899; shortly before the decisive hearing, the lawyer Labori suffers an assassination attempt and is unable to defend Dreyfus. The man is sentenced again, but the sentence to be served is made lighter by the recognition of the extenuating circumstances. Immediately, the Prime Minister grants Dreyfus a pardon. Picquart would like to continue fighting to prove his innocence, but Dreyfus, exhausted, accepts it. Seven years later there will be full acquittal and reintegration into the army. In 1907, Picquart is appointed Minister of War, also thanks to the recognition of the judicial error to the detriment of him. Dreyfus asks him for an audience and protests because the years in which he has unfairly served his sentence have not been recognised, preventing him from reaching the rank of lieutenant colonel. Picquart cannot make this concession to him as the political climate has changed again, which causes Dreyfus' outrage. The two men greet each other with respect, never to see each other again. ==Cast== *Jean Dujardin as Colonel Georges Picquart *Louis Garrel as Captain Alfred Dreyfus *Emmanuelle Seigner as Pauline Monnier *Grégory Gadebois as Hubert- Joseph Henry *Hervé Pierre as Charles-Arthur Gonse *Wladimir Yordanoff as Auguste Mercier *Didier Sandre as Raoul Le Mouton de Boisdeffre *Melvil Poupaud as Fernand Labori *Éric Ruf as Jean Sandherr *Mathieu Amalric as Alphonse Bertillon *Laurent Stocker as Georges-Gabriel de Pellieux *Vincent Perez as Louis Leblois *Michel Vuillermoz as Armand du Paty de Clam *Vincent Grass as Jean-Baptiste Billot *Laurent Natrella as Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy *Bruno Raffaelli as Juge Delegorgue *Pierre Poirot as officier Vallecalle *Paulo Henrique as officer of état major *Stefan Godin as General Darr *Luca Barbareschi as Philippe Monnier *Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina as Bachir *Luce Mouchel as Madame Sandherr *Fabien Tucci as Sûreté agent *Franck Mercadal as Capitaine Calmont *Philippe Magnan as Attorney Brisset *Pierre Forest as Colonel Maurel *Jeanne Rosa as Martha Leblois *Benoît Allemane as Georges Charpentier *Ludovic Paris as Arthur Ranc *Gérard Chaillou as Georges Clemenceau *Nicolas Bridet as Mathieu Dreyfus *André Marcon as Émile Zola *Jean-Marie Frin as President of the Jury *Swan Starosta as Lucie Dreyfus *Thierry Gimenez as Colonel Jouaust *Denis Podalydès as Maître Demange ==Production== Robert Harris was inspired to write the novel by his friend Polanski, who has long had an interest in the Dreyfus affair. Harris followed the novel with a script of the same story, titled D, with Polanski announced as director in 2012. This film was the third occasion Harris has worked with Polanski. Harris previously co-wrote The Ghost Writer with Polanski, which was also an adaptation of one of Harris's novels, The Ghost. The two first worked together in 2007 on a film adaptation of Harris's novel Pompeii,Variety 1 February 2007: Polanski propels 'Pompeii'. Retrieved 30 January 2012 which was cancelled just before filming due to a looming actors' strike.Rotten Tomatoes 12 September 2007: Roman Polanski Flees Pompeii. Retrieved 30 January 2012 Although set in Paris, the film was first scheduled to shoot in Warsaw in 2014, for economic reasons. Production was postponed after Polanski moved to Poland for filming, and the US government filed extradition papers. The Polish government eventually rejected them. By that point, new French film tax credits had been introduced, which allowed the film to shoot on location in Paris. The film was budgeted at €60m and was next set to start production in July 2016, but its production was postponed again while Polanski waited on the availability of a star, whose name was never announced. Filming began on 26 November 2018 and was completed on 28 April 2019. The film was produced by Alain Goldman's Légende Films and distributed by Gaumont. ==Release== The film had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on 30 August 2019. At the Venice Film Festival, the film won the Grand Jury Prize. It was released in France on 13 November 2019, and in Italy on 21 November 2019. ==Reception== An Officer and a Spy holds approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on reviews, with an average of . On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 56 out of 100, based on nine critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". The film received a standing ovation during its premiere in Venice. David Sexton, writing for the Evening Standard, gave the film a rating of four out of five, declaring that: "It's an absolute masterclass in how to make a historical film". The film has received backlash due to parallels Polanski allegedly made between his sexual abuse case and the film's plot. ==Controversy== Polanski's attendance at the Venice Film Festival was his first appearance at a major film event since he was expelled from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in May 2018. During the festival, the head of the jury Lucrecia Martel stated: "I don't separate the man from the art. I think that important aspects of the work emerges in the man. [...] A man who commits a crime of this size who is then condemned, and the victim considers herself satisfied with the compensation is difficult for me to judge... It is difficult to define what is the right approach we have to take with people who have committed certain acts and were judged for them. I think these questions are part of the debate in our times." Martel also stated she would not attend a gala dinner in support of the film. Polanski's producers threatened to pull the film from the festival lineup. Martel later clarified her comments, stating: "According to some reports after today's press conference, I believe my words were deeply misunderstood. Since I don't separate the work from the author and I have recognized a lot of humanity in Polanski's previous films, I am not opposed to the presence of the film in competition. I don't have any prejudice towards it and of course I will watch the film like any other in the competition. If I had any prejudice, I would have resigned my duty as the president of the jury." Alberto Barbera, the festival director of Venice, had previously defended the film being in the lineup, stating: "We are here to see works of art, not to judge the person behind it. I hope we can just discuss about the quality of the film and not about Polanski and the case with L.A. County." U.S. distribution companies rejected invitations to a buyers' presentation during the Cannes Film Festival. Howard Cohen of Roadside Attractions stated: "I think we would consider it, though I'm not even sure how I personally feel. People have been releasing his films for years. Now, we are looking at it through a different lens, with good reason. We have to search our souls if it's the right thing to do. What does it mean to release this movie? I don't think that's a settled question even in my mind." In November 2019, five days before the official release of An Officer and a Spy in France, Polanski faced accusations of rape by a French woman, Valentine Monnier. Upon the release, French feminist groups invaded or blockaded several cinemas, having the film cancelled in some places. When the film was nominated for 12 César Awards in January 2020, women's groups said that the French film academy was acclaiming "an abuser and rapist on the run". Eventually, Polanski as well as other crew members of An Officer and a Spy did not attend the 45th César Awards ceremony. No one was there to accept the awards on Polanski's behalf. The César Award for Best Director to Polanski was poorly received by the audience. Several people walked out in disgust, including Best Actress nominee Adèle Haenel. == Accolades == Award Date of Ceremony Category Recipient(s) Result Ref César Awards 28 February 2020 Best Film An Officer and a Spy Best Director Roman Polanski Best Actor Jean Dujardin Best Supporting Actor Grégory Gadebois Louis Garrel Best Adaptation Roman Polanski and Robert Harris based on the novel by Robert Harris Best Cinematography Paweł Edelman Best Editing Hervé de Luze Best Sound Lucien Balibar, Aymeric Devoldère, Cyril Holtz and Niels Barletta Best Original Music Alexandre Desplat Best Costume Design Pascaline Chavanne Best Production Design Jean Rabasse Bodil Awards 8 May 2021 Best Non-American Film An Officer and a Spy David di Donatello Awards 3 April 2020 Best Foreign Film An Officer and a Spy ==References== ==External links== * * * * * An Officer and a Spy at Filmaffinity Category:2019 films Category:2019 drama films Category:2019 controversies Category:2020 controversies Category:French drama films Category:Italian drama films Category:French courtroom films Category:2010s French-language films Category:Films directed by Roman Polanski Category:Films about the Dreyfus affair Category:Cultural depictions of Alfred Dreyfus Category:Films set in 1894 Category:Films whose director won the Best Director César Award Category:Films shot in Paris Category:Films with screenplays by Roman Polanski Category:Venice Grand Jury Prize winners Category:2010s French films Category:Film controversies Category:Film controversies in France Category:Film controversies in Italy Category:Obscenity controversies in film Category:Sexual-related controversies in film Category:Political controversies in film |
The Danish National Exhibition of 1909 or The National Exhibition in Aarhus 1909 (Danish: Landsudstillingen i Aarhus) was an industry, crafts and culture exhibition held in Aarhus, Denmark in 1909 from 18 May to 3 October. The exhibition displayed some 1850 individual works by architects, artists, craftsmen and businesses and attracted 650.000 visitors. The project was a large undertaking for the city with long-lasting effects on cultural institutions and short-term economic problems. The exhibition fairgrounds was named The white City (Danish: Den Hvide By) based on the architectural expression chosen by the leading architect Anton Rosen. The exhibition was generally received well in the press and was widely considered a success. Although it ran over budget, resulted in significant economic losses and it did not accrue the expected economic benefits to local businesses the exhibition had both more visitors and revenue than projected. Historians have since discussed if it had any benefits to the city but it can be said to have cemented Aarhus as the leading provincial city in Denmark at least in the minds of its people. == Prelude == The large industry and crafts exhibitions started in France where yearly art salons had been held since the 1600s. The terror of the French Revolution in 1789 dampened the French economy and it became necessary to strengthen trade and industry so in 1797 a large exhibition was held in the Louvre. The following year the exhibition moved to a separate area with buildings constructed for the purpose which was the beginning of the large national exhibitions. Industry exhibitions soon popped up across Europe with some 150 national and regional exhibitions being held up to the mid-1800s. In 1851 England held The Great Exhibition, the first World Exposition, which became an annual tradition. The large exhibitions across Europe left an impression in Denmark and from the early 1800s a number of large and small exhibitions were held primarily in Copenhagen. The first was held in 1810 but the first major success was in 1852 when an exhibition was held on the grounds of Christiansborg Palace. The Danish state contributed economically and the exhibition achieved 100.000 visitors in 3 months. Several large exhibitions in Copenhagen followed including the Nordic Exhibition of 1888. In the rest of the country other cities and towns followed the trend. In 1833 and 1834 the council chambers in Aarhus hosted small arts and crafts exhibitions and 1852 the Craftmen's Association held a larger exhibition on Fredens Torv in a building constructed for the purpose. In 1876 a larger exhibition was held in Vennelystparken where a dedicated building complex had been erected. The exhibition was opened by King Christian IX and it was the first major exhibition outside Copenhagen. Around the turn of the century discussions opened to host another large event during the tri-decennial anniversary of the 1876 exhibition. Preparation were underway but in 1904 it was decided to hold an exhibition for Jutland in Horsens in 1906. It was agreed that another regional exhibition in Aarhus so soon after was impractical so plans were changed to instead host a larger national exhibition in 1909. The effort won wide support in the city and wider region but in Copenhagen the media was more split on the issue. Particularly the newspaper Politiken was a vocal opponent and preferred a national exhibition be held in the capital over the smaller cities in Jutland. In the end the plans for an event in Copenhagen didn't work out and Aarhus won support from the state. Aarhus Municipality supported the exhibition with DKK 300.000, the state gave DKK 150.000 and a number of companies and individuals provided an additional guarantee of DKK 300.000 to cover any losses. == Construction == The architect Anton Rosen was commissioned to organize the exhibition since he had experience from events in Odense in 1900 and Haslev in 1906. Rosen was given free rein to decide where the fairgrounds should be placed. He selected an area of 70 acres by the coast south of the city and north of the Marselisborg Forests where present day Strandparken and Tangkrogen is situated. The location had the Bay of Aarhus, forest and city within view which provided a scenic canvas for architects to display their works. The location was ideal from an artistic standpoint but it was also more expensive; roads had to be redirected and the expansion of the nearby Port of Aarhus was put on standby. The planning for the project took 4 years and required thousands of workers that came from across Jutland to work on it. The large area was developed from a basic field to a planned town with a number of large halls, gardens, amusement park and other projects. To accommodate the many guests the newly built Skansepalæet was turned into a hotel with 210 rooms, 430 beds and a café on the ground floor with a view over the fairgrounds. In the Marselisborg Forests the restaurant Varna Palæet was constructed and on Dalgas Avenue and Marselisvej 9 villas were built to demonstrate the best architecture and crafts of the time. In the final days before the opening a number of accidents threatened the project. On 16 May the designer and decorator Valdemar Andersen fell from a scaffold and suffered injuries preventing him from finishing his works. On 17 May a powerful storm flooded the fairgrounds and left foul smelling seaweed behind. The windows in the large exhibition halls were broken and most items had to have been covered in tarps for protection. During the night of 18 May 3000 workers were called in to make repairs and lay out wooden walkways across the flooded areas. However, the exhibition was opened as planned. == The White City == thumb|The royal coach on opening day going to the Vault Hall with the industry exhibition thumb|The Electricity Tower by Anton Rosen The exhibition was opened 18 May 1909 by King Frederick VIII and Queen Louise along with Crown Prince Christian and Crown Princess Alexandrine. The royal entourage drove from the harbor to the fairgrounds in open landaus where the opening ceremony was held in the Solennitetssal (English: Ceremonial Hall) before an audience of 1500 selected guests accompanied by music performed by Royal Conductor Carl Nielsen. The two largest halls, the Vault Hall (Buehallen) and the Column Hall (Søjlehallen), were situated by the main entrance and showcased crafts, industry and furniture design. Accessible from the two large halls was the centerpiece of the exhibition, the iconic Electricity Tower (Danish: Elektricitetstårnet), depicted on many posters and other promotional art. Other halls included Machine Hall showing industrial machines, the Transport Hall focused on cars and trucks, a hall containing the art exhibit and a building housing the Post and Telegraph Agency and various municipal institutions. The Ceremonial Hall was used for the opening ceremony, the lotteries and other official events. Along with the large show halls there was a number of pavilions such as the white Press Pavilion and Politiken's pavilion showing a printing press in action. Outdoor exhibitions included the fishery with an adjacent restaurant, an area for gardening and agriculture and an area with crafts and culture items from Greenland. Tuborg had erected a large Triumphal arch at one end of a basin facing a pagoda pavilion at the other end. For a fee there was admittance to a separate amusement park with carousels, swings, a dance hall, a cinema and an artificial Abyssinian village. Outside the fairgrounds across Dalgas Avenue was an area with changing exhibits featuring cattle and riding shows, gymnastics, dog and rabbit shows and balloon displays. Architectural displays was a central element of exhibitions at the time and a separate Station Town had been erected to showcase best practices in construction and architecture. It was modeled to be an ideal small railway town and was complete with dairy, railway station, pharmacy, community centre and other structures. Additional villas had been constructed on nearby roads some of which were awarded as prizes in lotteries. === Participating architects === * Anton Rosen (manager) – (Politiken's pavilion, elektricity tower, portal). * Einar Ambt * Gustav Bartholin Hagen * Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint – (Town smithy) * Thorvald Jørgensen * Hack Kampmann – (Planning for the Station Town) * Jens Christian Kofoed * Sophus Frederik Kühnel * Sven Risom – (Clog-makers house) * Heinrich Wenck == Historical Exhibit == The exhibition was mainly focused on the machines and products of industrialization and the modern architectural styles but some historical elements had been included. The half-timbered Secherske gård (English: Secher's House) from 1597 was disassembled piece by piece and erected on the fairgrounds where it showcased the lives of the upper classes in the past centuries with young women dressed in traditional folk costumes serving coffee and waiting on visitors. The steam frigate had been decommissioned in 1888 and was scheduled to be broken up in 1908 but was instead saved, restored and placed in the Bay of Aarhus in front of the fairgrounds as a scenic display. == Abyssinian Camp == The exhibition of 1909 featured a curiosity in the form of an imitation African village complete with a group of 80 Abyssinian people from present day Ethiopia. The village was one of the major attractions of the exhibition. It consisted of straw huts, workshops and imitation palm trees. The village was situated by the coast in the amusement park, neighboring the exhibits about the Danish overseas colonies in Greenland and the West Indies. The village was part of a cultural phenomenon in the 19th century with displays of "exotic peoples". In the late 1800s more than 50 such displays took place in Denmark, most in Copenhagen in Tivoli, the Zoo and the Circus Building, but a small number did come to the smaller Danish cities. Vennelystparken hosted a Nubian caravan in 1880, Sami in 1888, Indians in 1901, Japanese in 1902 and finally the Abyssinians in 1909. == Danish-American Day == On 4 July 1909 a Danish-American Day was celebrated. In 1905 the Danish-American editor Ivar Kierkegard had suggested that American Independence Day should be celebrated every year with a festival in Denmark for Danish immigrants and their ancestors in the United States. Max Henius, the leader of the Danish-American Society established in 1906, realized the plans and the first meeting was held in 1909 in Aarhus during the exhibition. In spite of the long journey by sea some 1200 Danish-Americans arrived on the ocean steamer C.F. Tietgen. The city was decorated with Danish and American flags and the facade of the Art Hall was decorated with the same Stars and Stripes that had been used at the main entrance of the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904. The meeting became the precursor to the annual Rebild Festival every year on 4 July in north Jutland. == Legacy == thumb|The Old Town Museum The exhibition had a number of long-lasting effects. The immediate aftermath was economic depression in Aarhus as many local leading businesses and businessmen had incurred significant losses and couldn't invest in the city for some years. The period after the exhibition was a time of growth in the other major provincial cities of Aalborg, Odense and Esbjerg but Aarhus struggled for almost 6 years. However, long-term the exhibition had a significant cultural impact and resulted in a number of prominent landmarks. The Old Town Museum was established with Secher's House, also known as the Mayors House, as the first building with Peter Holm as its first director. The museum has since grown to a major visitor attraction and a neighborhood in its own right. Initially the Mayors House was left standing on the former fairgrounds for almost 5 years but in 1914 Peter Holm managed to collect the funds to have it moved and to establish the museum. During the 2009 centennial of the exhibition Politiken's pavilion, colloquially known as "The Inkwell" (Danish: Blækhuset), was rebuilt in The Old Town. It had previously been moved to Nærum on Zealand where it was used as a communal building for allotments. The pavilion today houses the exhibition hall of the Danish Poster Museum and is a part of the museum's 1950s neighborhood which was built in the 2010s. thumb|Varnapalæet in Marselisborg Forests The exhibition cemented Aarhus as the largest provincial city and psychologically gave it a characteristic self- confidence. When Copenhagen built its first stadium in 1916 Aarhus followed shortly by building the Atletion stadium in 1920 and Aarhus University was established in 1928 almost 40 years before universities were opened in other provincial cities. The logo of Aarhus university features two dolphins referencing the dolphin depicted on the 1909 exhibition seal. In the city Varna Palæet by Eggert Achen and Skansepalæet by Hjalmar Kjær remains the most visible artifacts. Varna Palæet is home to a restaurant in the Marselisborg Forests and Skansepalæet marks the boundary of the dense city center and the larger and more expansive planned developments of later years. The former site of the exhibition is today the public park Tangkrogen on the waterfront and is still used for larger public events. The exhibition had implications outside Aarhus as well. The Rebild Festival was started by the many Danish-American visitors and remains an annual recurring event on the 4th of July celebrating the American Independence Day and the homecoming of Danish emigrants. The Frigate Jutland was moved to Ebeltoft in 1960 where it was restored and is today on permanent display in a dry dock as a visitor attraction. The buildings given as prizes at the exhibition lotteries are still in use today. The villas remain on Marselisvej while the farm house designed by Hack Kampmann was won by a farmer who moved it to Aars where it remains largely intact today. == Significance == Historians are divided on the long-term significance of the exhibition. Johan Bender ses it as an important moment in the development of Aarhus into the primary city in Jutland over Viborg or Aalborg. The exhibition underlined the leading position of the city in Jutland and it was part of the reason why the first university outside Copenhagen was established there and not in Viborg. Historian Erik Korr Johansen has pointed out that the economy of Aarhus suffered in the decades after 1910, that the relative advantage in population growth was diminished and that the central position of the city had already been cemented with the central location on the railroad. The motives are also opaque and have been interpreted differently. According to Erik Korr Johansen industrial businesses had already lost interest in the large exhibitions with the growing importance of advertising and that the exhibition in 1909 was primarily supported by local craftsmen. Johan Bender stresses the agreements and work done across political divides and the identity and historical consciousness in Aarhus resulting from the event. Jens Engberg also consider the organisational and political cooperation of the crafts and employers around 1900 to be important. The banks, industry and crafts worked together against trade unions, the Social Democratic Party and the burgeoning cooperatives. The white city was a prestige project which employers could find common ground in to create a temporary united front against the new political ideas of the 20th century. == Gallery == Landsudstilling, flowers.jpg|Aarhus City Seal in flowers by the main entrance Rosen Landsudstillingen aarhus 1909-2.jpg|View of the fairgrounds from the north Landsudstilling, Abessinierlandsbyen.jpg|The Abyssinian Camp Landsudstilling, Borgmestergården.jpg|Mayor's House or Secher's House and the electricity Tower Landsudstilling, Hovedrestauranten.jpg|The main restaurant Landsudstilling, solennitetssalen.jpg|The Ceremonial Hall during a lottery Landsudstilling, stationsbyen.jpg|The Station Town Landsudstilling, Tombolaer.jpg|Raffle prizes Landsudstilling, udstilling.jpg|Farm equipment exhibition Segl landsudstillingen 1909.jpg|Official seal of the exhibition Rosen Landsudstillingen aarhus 1909-2.jpg|Udstillingen set fra Tangkrogen Landsudstillingen aarhus carsberg industrihallen.jpg|Carlsberg's display in the hall of industry Landsudstillingen aarhus carsberg.jpg|Carlsberg's victory column Pavillon fra Landsudstilling i Aarhus 1909.jpg|Politiken's pavilion in Den Gamle By in 2009 Marselisvej villa Landsudstillingen Aarhus 1909.jpg|One of the demonstration villas constructed ==References== == External links == * Virtual Tour of the 1909 National Exhibit Category:History of Aarhus Category:1909 in Denmark Category:Art exhibitions in Denmark Category:1909 festivals Category:Architecture in Denmark Category:National exhibitions |
Geraldine Carroll (born 21 August 1968) is an English singer. She had a string of hits during the 1990s, including the UK top ten singles, "It's Too Late" (1991), "Don't Be a Stranger" (1993), "The Perfect Year", (1993), and "Escaping" (1996). Carroll released two studio albums, So Close (1993) and Only Human (1996), both of which reached number two on the UK Albums Chart and were certified platinum. She won Best British Female Solo Artist at the 1994 Brit Awards. ==Early career== Carroll was born in Newmarket, England to a Scottish mother and an American father. She started singing aged five, and despite the lack of formal vocal coaching, she won a local talent competition in 1981, at the age of thirteen, with her rendition of Barbra Streisand's "Woman in Love". After leaving school, she worked in various jobs, including a one-day stint as a chambermaid in a Cambridge hotel in 1985. At the age of sixteen, she was signed to Morgan Khan's London-based record label StreetSounds, primarily a compilations company known for its electro music albums. Carroll moved to West London and recorded two singles for the company's StreetWave dance music singles label called "Set It Off" and "One Nation". Released in 1985, both records were credited to a non-existent group called Masquerade, with "One Nation" being a track based around a number of Parliament-Funkadelic songs such as "One Nation Under a Groove" and "Tear the Roof off the Sucker (Give Up the Funk)".Streetwave Records Ltd 1985, catalogue number: KHAN 59 After six unproductive months, she left StreetSounds/StreetWave, with Khan going on to use the Masquerade name again for the number 64 hit "(Solution to) The Problem" and a megamix called the "Streetsounds Real Thing Mix". In 1989, Carroll secured a recording contract with Jive Records/Zomba and released a number of singles in 1989 and 1990. Of particular note was her cover of Dionne Warwick's classic "Walk On By", co- produced by The Pasadenas who also provided vocal arrangement and backing vocals. Although "Walk On By" did not make it to the UK top 40 (peaking at number 95), it was a minor hit in continental Europe. Other solo releases during that era included "People All Around the World" and "Me Sienta Sola (We Are One)", the latter being an underground club hit in the New York scene. In 1990, Carroll provided the vocals to Brothers in Rhythm's single "Peace and Harmony" and Simon Harris' "Don't Stop the Music" (guesting with Monte Luv on this Music of Life single), but unlike the former's "Such a Good Feeling" and the latter's "Bass (How Low Can You Go)", both tracks failed to reach the top 40. After a short time at Jive Records, Carroll was spotted by Dennis Ingoldsby, one half of First Avenue Management, a small and newly founded management group. First Avenue were already managing a dance production duo called Quartz, made up of Ronnie Herel and Dave Rawlings, and so Carroll was brought in to provide vocals for the duo on their cover of Carole King's "It's Too Late". This cover topped the dance charts and reached No. 8 in the UK Singles Chart in early 1991, so a follow-up collaboration was also recorded. This follow-up single was called "Naked Love (Just Say You Want Me)" and reached number 39 in the UK Singles Chart, becoming the last hit single for Quartz. After these two singles with Quartz, First Avenue decided to relaunch Carroll as a solo artist, and was signed to A&M; Records by managing director Howard Berman. Carroll's first solo single (produced and co-written by Nigel Lowis) "Ain't No Man" was released in June 1992, reaching number 16 in the chart. ==Success== To capitalise on the momentum of "Ain't No Man", Carroll and Lowis worked on future singles together, one of which being the top 20 hit "So Close", which was released in December 1992; coincidentally the title of her debut album. Carroll was approached by Robert Clivillés and David Cole of C&C; Music Factory who invited her to New York to become the first British artist to work with them. Carroll interrupted the writing and recording of her album to record "Special Kind of Love", which also reached number 16 in the UK Singles Chart. In January 1993, the album So Close was released in March 1993 and entered the top 10 of the UK Albums Chart. The album continued to generate a string of hits, such as "This Time" (No. 23) and "Express" (No. 12). One of the tracks on the album, "Don't Be a Stranger", a cover version of a song originally recorded by Chyna, was the sixth single from the album, but a new version was recorded for the single release, with the London Session Orchestra providing strings for a new backing track. This completely transformed the song, and when it was released, it became Carroll's biggest chart hit, reaching No. 3 and spending many weeks inside the top 10. Carroll announced her first British tour for November and December 1993 with the then unknown Eternal as supporting guests. To round off a highly successful 1993, Carroll recorded her version of "The Perfect Year" from Andrew Lloyd Webber's "Sunset Boulevard" and released it in December 1993. This was another top 5 hit, peaking at No. 5, and Carroll was to become the only British female to have two singles simultaneously in the top 10 that decade, with "Don't Be a Stranger" still holding high when "The Perfect Year" entered the charts. Carroll was named Best Female Artist at the BRIT Awards in February 1994. She then took a break from her recording and touring obligations, stating that she felt "burned out". Although no new records were released, the album So Close extended its unbroken residency in the top 10 for the main part in 1994, eventually selling over 1.5 million copies in the United Kingdom, making it the fourth biggest-selling album of the year in the United Kingdom, and until Dido's No Angel, the biggest selling debut album by a female artist in the history of the UK charts. The album was also short-listed for the Mercury Music Prize. Towards the end of the year, Carroll announced another national tour in December, selling out over 15 dates. Rumours of new songs from Carroll started to surface in the summer of 1995, but instead of releasing them, she found herself in the midst of contractual problems. Howard Berman, who had originally signed her to A&M;, had moved to Mercury Records but there were problems in convincing them to move Carroll with him. Eventually, Mercury agreed but it was not until May 1996 that the release of a new single was confirmed. "Escaping", a song written by Barry Blue, first recorded by New Zealander Margaret Urlich in 1989 and subsequently a minor hit for Asia Blue in 1992, was finally released in September, almost three years after Carroll's last record. The song entered the chart at No. 3. The B-side track, "Mind Body & Soul" on the other hand, topped the club chart, re-establishing Dina's dominance in the dance genre. A new album, Only Human followed in October. It debuted at No. 2 on the album charts, equalling the position of her debut So Close. "Only Human" was released as a double A-sided (with "Run to You") Christmas single for 1996, but was Carroll's least successful single since "Naked Love", reaching No. 33. Subsequently, no more singles were released from the album, although the popular "Living for the Weekend", co-produced by David Morales, was released on 12" and became a big club smash. During the recording of Only Human, Carroll discovered that she had developed otosclerosis, a hereditary bone disease which affected her ears. She postponed treatment until after all her recording duties had been fulfilled. She had an operation to replace a whole eardrum, but went back to work almost immediately to promote the album. Although any dislodgement by noise could have cost her the sense of hearing, Carroll made a reasonable recovery, despite some inevitable permanent loss. Overall, Carroll considered the making of the second album a very dispiriting experience, and often described Only Human as a "lost baby", despite it selling 500,000 copies and achieving Platinum status. Carroll was nominated for "Best British Female Artist" in the 1997 BRIT Awards. She then went into artistic hibernation, and although there were press reviews of tracks like "Livin' for the Weekend" (reviewed in Billboard Magazine as a promo US single), the decision was made to concentrate on the making of the 3rd album rather than release more singles from the 2nd as Mercury were happy with the sales figures off the back of just two singles. She returned to the drawing board in 1998 for her third album. For this, she went to Los Angeles to work with producer Rhett Lawrence, most famous for his production of Mariah Carey's début album. The collaboration was originally intended only for three tracks, but they ended up recording a full album in Rhett's home studio. The lead single was "One, Two, Three", a radio-friendly mid-tempo love song. This was released in October 1998, with new remixes of "Livin' for the Weekend" to satisfy both her pop and dance music fans. It was her third single to reach No. 16 in the charts. The new album, Dina Carroll, was originally planned for release at the end of 1998, including her cover of the Dusty Springfield song, "Son of a Preacher Man". "Son of a Preacher Man" was originally planned as the follow-up single to "One, Two Three". However, due to the untimely death of Dusty Springfield in early 1999, this single was withheld. At the same time, the album was postponed, because Carroll was not totally happy with some of the mixes on the album. Instead, Carroll's record company decided to relaunch her as a dance diva. A new up-tempo track, "Without Love" was chosen to be the next single, with a host of remixes to suit all sections of the club scene. The single continued her uninterrupted string of Dance Chart-toppers, and re-established her place in the UK music scene when released in July 1999, reaching No. 13 in the UK Singles Chart. A follow-up single, "Say You Love Me", was scheduled for release in November 1999. Part of promotion saw Carroll performing the track live on Dale Winton's Saturday night Lottery Show. The remixed version of the album was planned to follow this single two weeks later. However, Mercury suspended the release of the single, and both the single and the album were shelved. However, Carroll appeared on the charity single "It's Only Rock 'n Roll" along with many other stars such as the Spice Girls. It reached No. 19 in the Christmas charts of 1999. ==Later career== In 2000, First Avenue Management entered into a crisis phase when most of their artists were dropped by their labels, e.g. Eternal, Louise, Dana Dawson, Kele Le Roc, Honeyz, Kéllé Bryan, Michelle Gayle, etc. All of their acts had declining record sales and Carroll was also caught up in this so left First Avenue at the end of 2000. In 2001, Carroll released a new single and a greatest hits compilation, The Very Best of Dina Carroll. Carroll's cover version of Van Morrison's "Someone Like You", featured in the Bridget Jones's Diary soundtrack, reached number 38. To fulfil her contractual obligations to Mercury, Carroll released The Very Best of Dina Carroll in June 2001. It entered the UK Albums Chart at No. 15, despite her only having released two studio albums to date, although they had both sold enough copies to achieve multi-platinum certifications. In 2002, Carroll left her contract with Universal Music Group. In 2003, Carroll recorded a version of the Randy Crawford song, "Almaz". In 2016, Carroll appeared as a guest vocalist on "We Bring the Party" by the Dig Band, produced by long time collaborator Nigel Lowis. Carroll made her live comeback in 2016 as the headline act on the "David Gest Is Not Dead but Alive With Soul" tour. ==Awards and Nominations== {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" |- ! scope="col" | Award ! scope="col" | Year ! scope="col" | Nominee(s) ! scope="col" | Category ! scope="col" | Result ! scope="col" class="unsortable"| |- !scope="row" rowspan=5|Brit Awards | 1993 | rowspan=2|Herself | British Breakthrough Act | | |- | rowspan=3|1994 | British Female Solo Artist | | rowspan=3| |- | So Close | British Album of the Year | |- | "Don't Be a Stranger" | British Single of the Year | |- | 1997 | Herself | British Female Solo Artist | | ==Discography== ===Albums=== Year Album UK Certifications 1993 So Close 2 * BPI: 4× Platinum 1996 Only Human 2 * BPI: Platinum 2001 The Very Best of Dina Carroll 15 * BPI: Silver 2005 The Collection ― "—" denotes releases that did not chart. ===Singles=== Year Song Peak chart positions Certifications UK IRE US 1985 "Set It Off" (with Masquerade) 86 — — "One Nation" (with Masquerade) 54 — — 1989 "People All Around the World" — — — "Me Sienta Sola (We Are One)" — — — "Walk On By" 95 — — 1990 "Peace and Harmony" (with Brothers in Rhythm) 94 — — "Don't Stop the Music" (with Simon Harris and Monte Luv) 84 — — 1991 "It's Too Late" (Quartz introducing Dina Carroll) 8 — — "Naked Love (Just Say You Want Me)" (Quartz and Dina Carroll) 39 — — 1992 "Ain't No Man" 16 — — "Special Kind of Love" 16 — — "So Close" 20 — 95 1993 "This Time" 23 — — "Express" 12 28 — "Don't Be a Stranger" 3 6 — * BPI: Silver "The Perfect Year" 5 4 — * BPI: Silver 1996 "Escaping" 3 14 — "Only Human"/"Run to You" 33 — — "Livin' for the Weekend" — — — 1998 "One, Two, Three" 16 — — 1999 "Without Love" 13 — — "It's Only Rock 'n Roll" (various artists charity single) 19 — — 2001 "Someone Like You" 38 — — 2016 "We Bring the Party" (with the Dig Band) — — — "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory. ==References== ==External links== * Category:1968 births Category:Living people Category:Brit Award winners Category:20th-century Black British women singers Category:English soul singers Category:English people of African- American descent Category:English people of Scottish descent Category:People from Newmarket, Suffolk Category:British contemporary R&B; singers Category:Musicians from Suffolk |
__NOTOC__ The following is a list of unmade and unreleased animated projects by DreamWorks Animation. Some of these films or shows were, or still are, in development limbo. These also include the co-productions the studio collaborated with in the past (i.e. PDI/DreamWorks, Oriental DreamWorks, Aardman Animations, Columbus 81 Productions, Jay Ward Productions, World Events Productions, Double Dare You Productions, Scholastic Corporation and Amblin Entertainment), as well as sequels to their franchises. Contents: 1990s: 199119981999 2000s: 2000200120052006200720082009 2010s: 20102011201220132014201520172018 See alsoExternal sourcesReferences ==1990s == ===1991=== Series Title Description Feature film Bugs: Lights Out Prior to the release of Toy Story and even the formation of the actual DreamWorks company itself, the animation studio PDI was shopping around many pitches for a computer animated film in 1991.PDI Promo Brochure 1990s - Page 6‘Antz’ Hits 20: Re-Visiting PDI’s Tech From 20 Years Ago One of which was a film called Bugs: Lights Out about microscopic insect-like robots who were responsible for the entropy of electronics and machinery. Despite a developed script and some test animations made to pitch the film, the idea was scrapped when the studio was picked up by DreamWorks to make Antz, which said film shares many aspects.YouTubeInterview with PDI founder Carl Rosendahl Part 1YouTube Interview with PDI founder Carl Rosendahl Part 2 ===1998=== Series Title Description Antz Untitled Antz sequel A direct-to-video sequel to Antz was in development at DreamWorks at the time of its release. Like the first film, it was planned to be produced by Pacific Data Images. By early 1999, when DreamWorks closed its television animation unit and merged the direct-to-video unit with the feature animation, the sequel was still planned and was instead considered for theatrical release, but eventually the project was cancelled. Also, under the same name of Antz, Pixar debated with DreamWorks over whether Antz was a rip-off of their 1998 film A Bug's Life. Eventually, these two studios resolved their conflict and didn't try to sue the other company. Feature film Rockumentary In 1998, DreamWorks and PDI started development on a film parodying The Beatles, which featured a Beatles-esque penguin rock band. The idea was scrapped, but after production on Madagascar started, director Eric Darnell decided to revive the penguins and make them a commando unit instead of a rock band. Feature film Tusker In December 1998, DreamWorks and PDI announced their third computer- animated project titled Tusker, which was meant to follow Shrek. It would have been an original story chronicling a herd of elephants crossing southeast Asia. In their travels, they encounter a wide variety of dangers, including a band of marauding poachers. Tim Johnson and Brad Lewis, the co-directors and producers of Antz respectively, were slated to direct and produce the project, and Morgan Freeman, Jodie Foster, Garry Shandling, Dana Carvey, Bruno Kirby and Don Knotts were part of the cast. Television series Jurassic Park: Chaos Effect An animated series based on the 1997 film The Lost World: Jurassic Park was commissioned by Steven Spielberg himself, and was to be developed by DreamWorks under the supervision of Steve Lyons. The series would have been released after the film with the same name and would have involved hybrid dinosaurs similar to Jurassic World, but was eventually shelved due to a variety of internal conflicts. Feature film The Wanderer A traditional animated feature film that was going to be directed by the Brizzi Brothers and Simon Wells of the story of a stray bear who joins a group of circus bears and changes their lives with the voices of Ellen Greene and James Gandolfini. The film's production was canceled following studio changes when Wells went to direct The Time Machine. As of 2012, some concept art was shown online of what the film's characters would've looked like. ===1999=== Series Title Description Feature film Tortoise vs. Hare In October 1999, Aardman announced they were developing a film adaptation of the Aesop fable, The Tortoise and the Hare, with DreamWorks. In July 2001, it was announced that they had postponed production on the film as they continued to rework the script. Bob Hoskins, Orlando Jones, Brenda Blethyn, and Lee Evans were set to voice the characters. Karey Kirkpatrick and Mark Burton were writing the script, though more writers were expected to be brought on to revamp the script. Peter Lord and Nick Park were slated to be executive producers while Richard Goleszowski would serve as director. ==2000s== ===2001=== Series Title Description Feature film Truckers A film based on The Nome Trilogy books was in the works from 2001 to 2011. They acquired the film rights in 2001, and announced plans to combine all three books into a single film. It was to be directed by Andrew Adamson. In late 2008, Danny Boyle was attached to direct Truckers, but the project fell apart as "a victim of this economic crisis". The following year, the Slumdog Millionaire's Oscar-winning screenwriter Simon Beaufoy was hired to work on the project. Plans to move forward with DreamWorks' adaptation resurfaced in 2010 with the announcement that Legend of the Guardians screenwriter John Orloff would pen the script for director Anand Tucker. Tucker was later announced to direct another DWA film Trolls, which was planned to be partially based on a Pratchett novel, before he was replaced by Mike Mitchell. ===2002=== Series Title Description VeggieTales The Bob and Larry Movie The origin story of VeggieTales hosts Bob the Tomato and Larry the Cucumber reveals how they met, how they got their own show, and answers the question how vegetables and fruit talk. This was the first film in the series to feature humans. According to Phil Vischer, "Since Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie was our The Ten Commandments, The Bob and Larry Movie would be our Toy Story." The Bob and Larry Movie was originally planned to be the second VeggieTales movie with a released date in late 2005. It was placed into production in early 2002, toward the end of production of Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie (2002). However, Big Idea Productions fell into bankruptcy in late 2002 and the film was placed on hiatus, deemed too expensive. Phil Vischer then wrote The Pirates Who Don't Do Anything: A VeggieTales Movie to replace this movie. In 2008, it was considered to be the sequel to The Pirates who Don't Do Anything: A VeggieTales Movie, but talks stalled after the 2008 recession had led to the bankruptcy of VeggieTales owners Entertainment Rights and Classic Media. According to Phil Vischer in 2018, "I have a copy of The Bob and Larry script on my laptop, but probably won't release it because it is technically owned by Universal and DreamWorks. It will hopefully be produced in the near future." ===2005=== Series Title Description Feature film Crood Awakening In 2005, DreamWorks started to develop a stop-motion film with Aardman Animations called Crood Awakening, an adaptation of the book called The Twits by Roald Dahl in caveman times. It was cancelled because of the split between the two companies in 2007. Both companies have now made their own prehistoric caveman movies, The Croods for DreamWorks and Early Man for Aardman, but neither of these two films are related to said book. Feature film Route 66 A film that DreamWorks announced in September 2005 to have entered their development pipeline. The concept came from comedian Harland Williams, alongside Conrad Vernon and Rej Bourdages. Williams and Vernon would also pen the screenplay. It would have revolved around Mulligan, a giant golf ball statue standing on a side of Route 66 who goes on a journey to save a giant blueberry statue named Betty when she gets taken away. In 2009, Harland Williams announced in an email inquiry that the movie was shelved. Feature film It Came From Earth! A film that DreamWorks announced in September 2005 to have entered their development pipeline. The concept came from Sheira & Loli's Dittydoodle Works creator Cory Rosenberg, and Josh Lobis and Darin Moiselle were attached to write the script. The film would have been an alien invasion spoof revolving around a planet of martians who gets visited by human astronauts. The project was most likely canned due to similarities to Planet 51. ===2006=== Series Title Description Feature film Punk Farm In April 2006, DreamWorks Animation had the rights to develop a computer-animated film adaptation of the children's book of the same name by Jarrett J. Krosoczka. In June 2011, the project was eventually picked up by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, but with no further news since. ===2007=== Series Title Description Bee Movie Bee Movie sequel While it was never announced by the studio (although Jeffrey Katzenberg briefly joked about one in 2007), comedian Jerry Seinfeld, the producer, writer, and star of 2007's Bee Movie, said that he has no interest in making a sequel. During a Reddit AMA in June 2016, a fan asked about the possibility for Bee Movie 2. Seinfeld responded, Feature film Gullible's Travels In January 2007, DreamWorks announced they had bought a spec script titled Gullible's Travels which would have been about a man who travels through time via a porta potty to find the woman he loves. Steve Bencich and Ron J. Friedman (Open Season, Chicken Little) were slated to write and produce the project. Feature film InterWorld On June 16, 2007, author Neil Gaiman reported in his journal that he had pitched the idea of InterWorld to DreamWorks back in 1996, but the executives were confused on the concept. Along with Michael Raeves, they later published their work into the novel, in which DreamWorks Animation had optioned into producing an animated film. Feature film The Book of Life DreamWorks initially optioned to make The Book of Life back in 2007. However, production was cancelled due to "creative differences" with director Jorge Gutierrez. The film was eventually made at 20th Century Fox Animation and Reel FX Creative Studios and was released by 20th Century Fox (which also had a distribution deal with DreamWorks Animation at that time) in 2014 to critical praise. ===2008=== Series Title Description Feature film Alcatraz Versus the Evil Librarians DreamWorks Animation acquired the film rights to Alcatraz Versus the Evil Librarians in June 2008. On January 3, 2011, Brandon Sanderson, the author of the novel, tweeted that DreamWorks did not renew the rights. ===2009=== Series Title Description Feature film Dinotrux In March 2009, it was announced that the studio had option the rights to the children's book Dinotrux, originally planned as a CG-animated film. It wasn't until 2015 when the studio produced an animated series based on the books for Netflix. The series ended up lasting for eight seasons from 2015 to 2018. Feature film Gil's All Fright Diner In December 2009, it was reported that the studio had set screenwriters Ethan Reiff and Cyrus Voris (Kung Fu Panda) to write a film adaptation of the book, Gil's All Fright Diner, with Barry Sonnenfeld attached to direct the feature. In 2011, the book's author A. Lee Martinez wrote on his blog that he was working with DreamWorks on a project based on an original idea, and not on Gil's All Fright Diner. In March 2013, Martinez expressed uncertainty for any film adaptation: "Your guess is as good as mine. It's all a matter of convincing someone with the clout necessary to make it happen." ==2010s== In the 2010s, several films were announced to be made that were to be released in the next 3–4 years following their announcements. Some of these films were eventually cancelled while others are claimed to be in development and waiting for a release. Most of these films were cancelled due to massive layoffs, creative differences, management changes, no updates on the features, and Comcast eventually buying DreamWorks in 2016. ===2010=== Series Title Description Feature film Alma In October 2010, it was announced that a film adaptation of the animated short Alma was in development with the short's director Rodrigo Blaas slated to direct and Guillermo del Toro was to serve as executive producer. In November 2011, it was reported that the studio has hired Megan Holley, a writer of Sunshine Cleaning, to write a script. Del Toro, who is also helping with the story and the design work, said in June 2012 that the film was in visual development. Feature film Imaginary Enemies In August 2010, DreamWorks Animation announced they were going to make their first live-action/animated project. The project was to be told from the point of view of the imaginary friends who had long been used as scapegoats by unscrupulous children looking for someone else to blame for their misdeeds. Eventually fed up, the imaginary people would come looking for revenge when the kids are grown up. Screenwriters Joe Syracuse and Lisa Addario were attached to write the script. Feature film Maintenance In December 2010, DreamWorks announced they had bought the film rights to the comic book series Maintenance from Oni Press. The film rights were first acquired by Warner Bros. as a potential project for director McG, but DreamWorks then got rights after Warner Bros. dropped out. Feature film Me and My Shadow/Edgar Wright's Shadows On December 10, 2010, DreamWorks Animation announced a project titled Me and My Shadow, scheduled for a March 2013 release date. The plot involved Shadow Stan who serves a shadow to Stanley Grubb, the world's most boring human. Wanting to live a more exciting life, he escapes the "Shadow World" and takes control of Stanley. With Mark Dindal slated as the film's director (who also developed the film's concept and story), the film was meant to combine traditional and CGI animation. In January 2012, Bill Hader, Kate Hudson, and Josh Gad had joined the voice cast. Additionally, Alessandro Carloni had replaced Dindal as director and the release date was pushed back to November 2013. However, in June 2012, its release date was pushed back to March 14, 2014, with Mr. Peabody & Sherman taking its November 2013 release. In February 2013, Me and My Shadow went back into development with Mr. Peabody & Sherman re-assuming its original March 2014 release. In 2012, there was a press screening of Me and My Shadow where Jeffrey Katzenberg fell asleep. The crew working on the movie knew "he wasn't it". After the screening he said it wasn't a $200 million movie, which is what he "needed". On November 19, 2015, Edgar Wright had signed to direct and co-write an animated feature for DreamWorks, in which the story was described as a "new take on a previously developed concept about shadows". In an interview with Collider published in June 2017, Wright explained that he and David Walliams had written three drafts, but the project is in limbo due to management changes at DreamWorks Animation. Even with the project being in limbo, the public attention has risen high of the unreleased film a whole decade after it was announced; though many are eager to see it, the status of Me and My Shadow is uncertain. Feature film Monsterpocalypse In May 2010, DreamWorks announced that it had acquired the rights to a film adaptation of the game. The studio had approached Tim Burton for the project. On July 19, 2010, it was confirmed that Burton was attached to direct,Peter Sciretta (2010-07-19) " Exclusive: Tim Burton Developing Monsterpocalypse, Full Details Revealed". but the film went unproduced partly due to being similar to another Kaiju film called Pacific Rim directed by Guillermo del Toro. Some elements were used for another DreamWorks film Ruby Gillman, Teenage Kraken. On May 3, 2016, Warner Bros. won the bidding war over film rights of the game, with Fede Álvarez co-writing and directing the film. Feature film The Pig Scrolls On April 8, 2010, Pajiba.com reported that the studio was developing an animated feature film based on The Pig Scrolls. As a possible directing job, Barry Sonnenfeld was tasked to develop the film, while Kirk DeMicco wrote the most recent script revision. Feature film Plants vs. Zombies A film based on the video game was pitched. Feature film Vivo In 2010, DreamWorks Animation began production on Vivo, an animated musical film which was based on an idea by Lin-Manuel Miranda and a concept by Peter Barsocchini. The film was to have centered on a kinkajou obsessed with music and adventure who embarks on a treacherous journey from Havana, Cuba, to Miami, Florida in pursuit of his dreams to fulfil his destiny. The film was eventually cancelled by DreamWorks Animation due to a restructuring, but on December 14, 2016, the film was later revived and eventually fast-tracked by Sony Pictures Animation with Kirk DeMicco as the director, and Brandon Jeffords as co-director, and Lisa Stewart and Rich Moore as producers, Laurence Mark as executive producer, and Quiara Alegría Hudes as screenwriter, and Peter Barsocchini as story writer, and Roger Deakins as visual consultant, and Yong Duk Jhun as cinematographer, and released on August 6, 2021, on Netflix, after being delayed multiple times from its original theatrical release date due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ===2011=== Series Title Description Feature film Flawed Dogs In February 2011, it was announced that DreamWorks had optioned the rights of Berkeley Breathed's book Flawed Dogs. In September 2013, it was revealed that Noah Baumbach had been secretly writing and directing the project. Feature film Lidsville In January 2011, a computer-animated musical film adaptation of the Lidsville TV series was announced to be in development with Conrad Vernon slated to direct while Alan Menken would be composing the songs with Glenn Slater. Menken stated that, "The songs will be an homage to '60s psychedelic concept-album rock." However, in June 2016, Lidsville creator Sid Krofft told The Wall Street Journal that, "It was going to be like Hair or Tommy, a full-blown musical. But they went in a strange direction and it just didn't work." Feature film Monkeys of Mumbai In January 2011, it was announced that DreamWorks was fast- tracking a Bollywood-styled musical adaptation of The Ramayana, but told through the point of view of its monkeys. It would have follow two common monkeys who become unlikely heroes in a last ditch effort to stop an ancient, thought-to-be-mythical demon from conquering the world. Stephen Schwartz and A. R. Rahman were attached to compose the songs and score. The project underwent a series of working titles: Monkeys of Bollywood, Monkeys of Mumbai, Mumbai Musical, and Bollywood Superstar Monkey. In June 2011, Kevin Lima had signed on to direct the project. In April 2014, it was announced that Aaron Taylor-Johnson, Lea Michele and Rohan Chand were in talks to join the cast. The film was originally scheduled to be released on December 18, 2015, but its release date was pushed back to March 18, 2016, and March 10, 2017. In December 2017, Lima revealed that DreamWorks quietly cancelled the film in an interview with Den of Geeks UK stating, Feature film Rumblewick In March 2011, DreamWorks announced they were producing an animated adaptation of the book My Unwilling Witch (The Rumblewick Letters) that would be titled Rumblewick. Tim Johnson and Jim Herzfeld were slated to write and direct the project. In September 2016, Brenda Chapman revealed she had worked on the project. ===2012=== Series Title Description Feature film B.O.O.: Bureau of Otherworldly Operations In September 2012, DreamWorks announced they were developing an animated film about ghosts that would have starred Seth Rogen, Matt Bomer, Melissa McCarthy, Bill Murray, Octavia Spencer, Rashida Jones, and Jennifer Coolidge. It was to be directed by Tony Leondis and written by Tom Wheeler from a story by Leondis. It was about two bumbling apparitions who find themselves in an extraordinary after-life adventure when they join the Bureau of Otherworldly Operations (B.O.O.) – the ghost world's elite counter- haunting unit – and ultimately must face off against the planet's greatest haunter. It was scheduled to be released on June 5, 2015, but it was pulled from its release to avoid competition with Disney•Pixar's Inside Out, and also due to a string of box office bombs like Rise of the Guardians, Turbo, and Mr. Peabody and Sherman. In 2015, Leondis later moved from DreamWorks to Sony Pictures Animation to develop his next film, The Emoji Movie. Madagascar Madagascar 4 DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg has stated that there is likely to be a fourth installment in the Madagascar franchise. However, in June 2012, DreamWorks Animation's head of worldwide marketing, Anne Globe, said, "It's too early to tell. There hasn't been a lot of discussion about that." Eric Darnell, who co-directed all three films, spoke of the possibility of the fourth film, noting, "Two things have to happen. One is that the world has to want Madagascar 4, because if they don't want it, it doesn't matter what we do. And the other thing is even if the world wants Madagascar 4, we have to make sure that we have an idea that is incredible, that is great, that is unexpected. If the audience wants it and we have a great idea, we will see – maybe." In June 2014, the film was scheduled to be released on May 18, 2018. In January 2015, Madagascar 4 was removed from the release schedule following a corporate restructuring and DreamWorks Animation's new policy to release two films a year. In April 2017, Tom McGrath said about the film: "There are things in the works, nothing is announced yet, but I think they'll show their faces once more..." Rise of the Guardians Rise of the Guardians sequel Following the release of Rise of the Guardians, the creators expressed hope that the strong A− Cinemascore average for the film and an enthusiastic word- of-mouth would gather support for the "chance to make a sequel or two". This includes co-producer and author of the book it was based on, The Guardians of Childhood by William Joyce, said he was in talks with the studio. He recalled, "There is something that we are proposing that we hope they will want to do." ===2013=== Series Title Description Feature film Larrikins In June 2013, it was announced that Tim Minchin would compose the songs and score for Larrikins, which was based on an original concept by Harry Cripps. The project was about a desert-dwelling bilby named Perry who leaves his home under a rock to go on a road trip with a music band in Australia. In June 2016, it was announced that Minchin and Chris Miller were to direct the film while Margot Robbie, Hugh Jackman, Naomi Watts, Rose Byrne, Ben Mendelsohn, Jacki Weaver, Josh Lawson, Damon Herriman, and Ewen Leslie were to voice characters for the film. The film was slated to be released on February 16, 2018. In March 2017, Minchin announced on his personal blog that the project had been cancelled. Minchin wrote on his blog, Shortly after the film's cancellation, Peter de Sève revealed some concept art for the film via Twitter. Fortunately, however, certain characters from the film later appeared in the 2018 animated short film Bilby. Feature film The Tibet Code When DreamWorks Animation made its then-newest division called Oriental DreamWorks in China, a film was in the works that was based on the Chinese action novel The Tibet Code. However, its production was shut down due to problems at Oriental DreamWorks and the company could not come to terms with the producer who owned the rights to the book. Feature film Untitled Blue-footed Booby film In September 2013, DreamWorks announced that they were developing an animated film about blue- footed booby birds. Writer-director Karey Kirkpatrick was slated to direct and co-write alongside his writing partner Chris Poche. The project was to be about a dim-witted blue-footed booby who learns that it "isn't the size of your brain, but the size of your heart that counts." ===2014=== Series Title Description Feature film Hot Stuff the Little Devil In April 2014, DreamWorks Animation was developing a live-action/CGI film based on the character Hot Stuff the Little Devil, with Lizzie and Wendy Molyneux (Bob's Burgers) set to write the film's script. It was going to be the second attempt for a DreamWorks Animation film to use live-action and computer animation. It would be the second DreamWorks animated film to feature characters from the Classic Media library; the first being Mr. Peabody & Sherman. Since then, there has been no further news on the project. Feature film Zodiac Another animated feature film that was going to be made by Oriental DreamWorks, their first animated feature was going to be called Zodiac about an anthropomorphic kitty in a modern society with anthropomorphic animals trying to make sure he becomes the first cat on the Chinese zodiac while also discovering a sinister conspiracy, set to be released in 2014. However, while the film's storyboards were released online, the film's production was canceled due to some problems at Oriental DreamWorks. Feature film Hitpig In November 2014, Berkeley Breathed announced that he was developing another film for DreamWorks Animation called Hitpig. The film would have been a loose adaptation of his 2008 children's book Pete & Pickles, set within a cyberpunk world, with Pete the pig being reimagined into a futuristic bounty hunter. The film was quietly scrapped not long after but on October 22, 2020, it was announced that Aniventure and Cinesite had revived the project, with Dave Rosenbaum and Tyler Werrin penning the screenplay alongside Breathed and Cinzia Angelini and David Feiss directing. The now completed film is currently set for a 2023/2024 release. Shrek Shrek 5 In February 2014, in an interview with Fox Business Network, Katzenberg hinted that a fifth film may still be made. "We like to let them have a little bit of time to rest," he said of the characters. "But I think you can be confident that we'll have another chapter in the Shrek series. We're not finished, and more importantly, neither is he." On June 15, 2016, after NBCUniversal purchased DreamWorks Animation for $3.8 billion, NBCUniversal chief Steve Burke discussed plans to revive the franchise, as well as other DreamWorks films. In July 2016, The Hollywood Reporter cited sources saying that the fifth film was planned for a 2019 release. In September 2016, Eddie Murphy confirmed that the film was expected to be released in 2019 or 2020, and that the script had been completed. The story for the film was written by Michael McCullers, based on his own idea, with an intention to reinvent the series. However, in November 2018, Variety reported that the movie had been scrapped in favor of a reboot of the Shrek and Puss in Boots franchises produced by Illumination CEO Chris Meledandri, however, the original voice cast may still return, in which it was reiterated in April 2023. ===2015=== Series Title Description Feature film Beekle In May 2015, it was announced that Jason Reitman would write and direct a computer-animated adaptation of the children's book The Adventures of Beekle: The Unimaginary Friend. ===2017=== Series Title Description Feature film Spooky Jack On September 19, 2017, DreamWorks announced an original feature called Spooky Jack, with a planned release date of September 17, 2021. Jason Blum would serve as executive producer, and would've been a co-production with Blumhouse Productions. The premise would have been about three siblings who moved into an eerie new home and discover that all the creatures we’ve been told don't exist actually do. On October 7, 2019, Spooky Jack was removed from the schedule, with its original release date replaced by The Bad Guys, based on the Scholastic book series by Aaron Blabey (which was eventually bumped to an April 22, 2022 release). Concept art for the film have been released. ===2018=== Series Title Description Feature film Yokai Samba On April 11, 2018, it was announced that Leo Matsuda would write and direct Yokai Samba, based on the trade reports that are inspired by a folk story Matsuda heard in his youth about growing up and has Brazilian and Japanese influences. On March 2, 2021, it was announced that Nickelodeon would instead develop the film. ==See also== * List of DreamWorks Animation productions * List of Illumination productions * List of Universal Animation Studios productions * List of Paramount Pictures theatrical animated feature films * List of 20th Century Studios theatrical animated feature films * List of Universal Pictures theatrical animated feature films * List of unproduced Paramount Pictures animated projects * List of unproduced 20th Century Studios animated projects * List of unproduced Universal Pictures animated projects ==References== Category:DreamWorks Animation DreamWorks Animation DreamWorks Animation Unreleased DreamWorks Animation Category:Lists of unproduced works |
Refined coal is the product of the coal-upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain pollutants from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals, raising their calorific values.http://www.nextgenenergy.org/Portals/Nextgen/docs/TechPapers/NextGen_EEE_Clean_new.pdf NextGen Energy Council Breakthrough Paper Coal refining or upgrading technologies are typically pre-combustion treatments and processes that alter the characteristics of coal before it is burned. Pre-combustion coal-upgrading technologies aim to increase efficiency and reduce emissions when coal is burned. Depending on the situation, pre-combustion technology can be used in place of or as a supplement to post-combustion technologies to control emissions from coal-fueled boilers.http://www.fmifuel.com/pcia/index.html Pre Combustion Innovations Alliance A primary benefit of refined coal is the capacity to reduce the net volume of carbon emissions that is currently emitted from power generators and would reduce the number of emissions that is proposed to be managed via emerging carbon sequestration methodologies. Refined coal technologies have primarily been developed in the United States. Several similar technologies have been researched, developed, and tested in Victoria, Australia, including the Densified coal technology (Coldry Process) developed to alter the chemical bonds of brown coal to create a product that is cleaner, stable (not prone to spontaneous combustion), exportable and of sufficiently high calorific value to be a black coal equivalent. == Coal- upgrading technology == Coal-upgrading technology refers to a class of technologies developed to remove moisture, and certain pollutants from low rank coals such as sub-Bituminous coal and lignite (brown coal) and raise their calorific values. Companies in Australia, Germany, and the United States are the principal drivers of these technologies' research, development, and commercialization. === Environmental rationale === Around 30 nations collectively operate more than 1,400 brown coal-fired power stations worldwide. Brown coal power stations that cannot economically dewater brown coal are inefficient and cause high levels of carbon emissions. High-emitting power stations, notably the Hazelwood power station in Australia, attract environmental criticism. Many modern economies, including Greece and Victoria (Australia), are highly dependent on brown coal for electricity. Improved environmental performance and the need for stable economic environment provide incentives for investment to substantially reduce the negative environmental impact of burning raw ('as mined') brown coal. === Economic rationale === Coal-upgrading technologies remove moisture from 'as mined' brown coal and transform the calorific performance of brown coal to a 'cleaner' burning status relatively equivalent to high calorific value black coal. Some coal- upgrading processes result in a densified coal product that is considered to be a Black coal equivalent product suitable for burning in black coal boilers. Victorian brown coal, with a characteristic moisture content of 60% by weight, is regarded as the world's 'wettest' brown coal. The high moisture content is the key reason the state's three major power stations are collectively regarded as the dirtiest carbon emitters in the world. Studies undertaken by the University of Melbourne and Monash University confirm that when moisture is removed from Victorian brown coal, naturally low levels of ash, sulfur, and other elements rank it as being one of the cleanest coals in the world. When dewatered, upgraded brown coal can compete in the export market at comparable prices to black coal. With significant brown coal mining occurring worldwide and mining levels increasing, the need for coal-upgrading technologies has become more apparent. the technologies will help to address the global environmental concern of rising emissions from the burning of brown coal and provide alternative fuel options to rapidly emerging economies such as Vietnam that face difficulty competing for black coal with China, India, Japan, and other nations. Lignite mined in millions of metric tons Country 1970 1980 1990 2000 2001 369.3 388.0 356.5 167.7 175.4 127.0 141.0 137.3 86.4 83.2 5.4 42.3 82.6 83.5 80.5 24.2 32.9 46.0 65.0 67.8 8.1 23.2 51.7 63.3 67.0 32.8 36.9 67.6 61.3 59.5 4.4 15.0 43.8 63.0 57.2 67.0 87.0 71.0 50.1 50.7 13.0 22.0 38.0 40.0 47.0 26.0 43.0 60.0 - - align=left - - - 35.5 35.5 14.1 27.1 33.5 17.9 29.8 5.7 10.0 10.0 26.0 26.5 Total 804.0 1,028.0 1,214.0 877.4 894.8 === Technology comparison === Because of inherent high moisture content, all lignites need to be dried prior to combustion. Depending on the technology type drying is achieved either via a discrete operation or part of a process. The comparison chart identifies different technology drying methods that are in development in different countries and provides a qualitative comparison. Option Drycol ZEMAGZEMAG Clean Energy Technology, Germany Coldry ProcessColdry Process, ECT Limited, Australia RWE-WTARWE-WTE = RWE (Rhenish-Westphalian Electric) WTE technology HTFGHTFG = Delta Drying Technology Ltd WEC-BCBWEC-BCB = White Energy Company, Binderless Coal Briquetting UBCUBC = Upgraded Brown Coal Process, Japan Coal Energy Center & Kobe Steel Ltd. Exergen CHTDExergen company, Continuous Hydrothermal Dewatering technology ed by the CRC for Clean Power KfuelKFuel = Koppelman Fuel, Evergreen Energy, Denver, Colorado, USA LCPLCP = LiMaxTM Coal Process Technology, developed by GB Clean Energy Country of origin United States Germany Australia Germany China Australia Indonesia/Japan Australia Australia United States China Process Description Drycol Microwave Drying indirect contact drying in tubular dryers exothermic reaction. natural evaporation. accelerated drying at 25-30 °C fluidised bed stream drying High temp flue gas fluidised bed drying flash dry coal fines. use pressure to form briquettes mixing crushed coal with oil, heating the mixture to 130-160 °C under 19-19.5 Bar pressure, separating the slurry cake from the oil by a centrifuge and then drying and briquetting it Continuous Hydrothermal Dewatering decarboxylation reaction in the slurry form at 300 degC and 100 Bar, followed by gas/liquid/solid separation and press drying heat and squeeze at 250 °C and 125 Bar, express water from coal heat and squeeze at 200 °C and 100 Bar pyrolytic process that employs heat and pressure in an oxygen-free environment to continue the coalification process that occurs naturally in the earth Drying Description Microwave Drying while keeping coal below 90 deg C drying achieved using low pressure steam of max. 180 °C, 4 bar drying achieved using low-temperature waste heat to provide evaporative drying drying achieved using >100 °C low pressure steam drying achieved using >900 °C flue gas to dry 0–50 mm raw coal with 2-4% system O2 concentration under slight positive pressure drying achieved via exposure to high pressure combustion stream (flash drying) drying achieved by exposure to 130-160 °C under 19-19.5 Bar pressure in oil slurry drying achieved by exposure to high pressure and temperature in a vertical autoclave, followed by a flashing step drying achieved via high pressure and temperature compression drying achieved via high pressure and temperature compression The process employs no additives and extracts both surface and inherent moisture. Grade of heat used for drying Very Low Low Low Medium Low High Medium Medium High High Medium Alternative uses for energy consumed in drying None power generation none power generation coal sales (fines used for combustion coal sales (fines used for combustion n/a electrical energy electrical energy electrical energy power generation Pretreatment requirement Sizing for material handling crushing/screening (normal) (normal) plus mechanical mastication and extrusion (normal) crushing/screening to 50 mm (normal) crushing and mixing wit CO2 exposures n/a n/a Up to 40% reduction in CO2. Net beneficial CO2 position due to low heat and low pressure Up to 30-40% CO2 reduction from the boiler. (Lost steam energy utilised in fluid bed dryer not accounted for) Up to 25-35% CO2 reduction from the boiler zero net improvement due to energy source for drying is coal combustion n/a Up to 40% reduction in CO2 ~15% CO2 reduction in combustion (detailed analysis not available). Zero net improvement due to energy used for heating and compression ~15% CO2 reduction in combustion (detailed analysis unavailable). Utilises energy for heating and compression n/a Waste streams generated from drying clean water none none none none none waste water stream none waste water stream waste water stream none Byproduct streams possible none none demineralised water none none none n/a demineralised water none none tar product Coal output stream description Direct use for briquetting/exporting or power generation coal pellets for use and export input coal for power generation only coal for sale or power generation coal briquettes for use and export coal briquettes for use and export coal for use and export input coal for power generation only input coal for power generation only exportable coal for power generation Coal output moisture level 10 - 30% 5-20% 12-14% 12-14% 6-30% 10-15% n/a 5-10% ~18% ~20% 1-15% Coal output - transportable or exportable long-distance transport long- distance transport non-pyrophoric direct to boiler only short-distance transport non-pyrophoric non-pyrophoric non-pyrophoric pyrophoric pyrophoric hydrophobic, transportable & exportable Industrial maturity Technology in food industry 35 years well established and proven technology, industrial plants of up to 3 MTPA capacity running in Germany and the Czech Republic pilot plant operational for 7 years; extensive database of global testing; commencing feasibility for full-scale commercial operation by 2014 commercial operations in several locations It was used for coking drying since 1955 for over 200 wash plants one commercial scale plant, operations have not exceeded 30% of nameplate capacity pilot plant operational, demonstration plant 2008-2011 Pilot Plant 2002 - 2008, ready for commercialisation. Tested on Victorian and Indonesian coals pilot plant abandoned pilot plant operational 1MTPA plant in Inner Mongolia fully operational since 2012 == History and advantages == === United States === The best known producer of refined coal is a company based in Denver, Colorado called Evergreen Energy Inc.. The company is publicly traded and is listed on the NYSE Arca exchange. According to the company's website and its Form 10-K on file with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, it was founded in 1984 to commercialize a coal-upgrading technology first developed in a Stanford University laboratory by Edward Koppelman. Taking the K from Koppelman's name, Evergreen, formerly KFx Inc., branded its refined coal product as "K-Fuel." Much of the coal in the western United States is known as "lower-rank" coal that falls under the categories of "sub-bituminous" and "lignite" coals. These coals have high moisture levels and can be 20 to 30 percent water. This relatively high moisture content compared to "higher rank" coals like bituminous and anthracite coals make lower-rank coals less efficient. The average heat content of sub-bituminous coal consumed in the United States is approximately 8,500 British thermal units (Btu) per pound. The K-Fuel(R) process uses heat and pressure to remove approximately 30 percent of the moisture from raw, low-rank coal and raises its thermal content to approximately 11,000 Btu per pound. In addition to raising the coal's heat value, a significant amount, up to 70 percent, of the elemental mercury in the coal is removed and, because of its higher efficiency, lower chloride and nitrogen oxides emissions are achieved on a per kilowatt hour generated basis.http://evgenergy.com/documents/BHP_Results_ES.shtml Refined Coal Test Burn Results Black Hills Power The advantages of the refined coal process are more efficient transportation and the ability of utilities to switch to a fuel made of 100 percent refined coal or a blend of raw and refined coals in order to achieve lower emissions and greater efficiency.http://evgenergy.com/documents/EEE-PA-Test-Burn-Ex-Summary.pdf Test Burn Results with Pennsylvania Utility A disadvantage is that the industry requires significant subsidies. An examination of government figures show that in 2007, for every megawatt-hour generated, refined coal received $29.81 in federal support, solar power received $24.34, wind power received $23.37, and nuclear power received $1.59. === Australia === The producer of densified coal in Australia is a company based in Melbourne, Victoria called Environmental Clean Technologies Limited (ECT Limited)Environmental Clean Technologies Limited The company is publicly traded and listed on the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX). The company was listed in 2005 with the primary purpose of commercialising the Coldry Process coal-upgrading methodology first developed in the Chemical Laboratory of Melbourne University by Dr B. A. John in the 1980s. The name of the process derived from the Calleja Group, which acquired the technology in 1994 and developed the technology to pilot demonstration at Maddingley Mine, Bacchus Marsh, Victoria in 2004 before licensing the technology to ECT Limited for further commercialisation in 2005. The State of Victoria contains approximately 25% of the world's known reserves of brown coal (lignite). This coal is also amongst the world's 'wettest' coal, with a typical moisture content of 60 per cent water by weight. High moisture content makes Victorian brown coal an inefficient fuel source and is the primary reason why the Hazelwood power station in the Latrobe Valley is regarded as the world's dirtiest coal-fired power station. The Coldry Process uses low- pressure mechanical shear to create a natural exothermic reaction within the coal that then naturally expels 80 per cent of the moisture content. Expelled moisture is then captured and recovered as distilled water. Victorian brown coal transformed by the Coldry Process has a raised thermal content of 5874 kcal/kg, which is comparable to most export-grade Australian black coal. The advantage of the Coldry Process is its ability to allow power generators to switch to a blend of raw as mined brown coal and Coldry pellets to achieve lower emissions in existing inefficient boilers, or achieve substantially less emissions by introducing black coal boilers and using 100 per cent Coldry refined coal pellets as a black coal equivalent. The Coldry Process provides the added advantage of creating new revenue streams for power generators through the production of a product that can be exported to other countries as a replacement for black coal. Unlike other refined coal processes, the Coldry Process is a commercial methodology that does not require subsidy. == Commercial development == === United States === Evergreen Energy constructed a full-scale coal refinery near Gillette, Wyoming that began operation in late 2005. Designed originally to be a commercial plant, the facility encountered design and operational problems. Evergreen idled the facility in March 2008http://www.evgenergy.com/documents/2008-03-20-EEE_Shareholder_Letter.shtml Evergreen Letter to Shareholders March 2008 and instead used the plant as a process development platform with its engineering, construction and procurement contractor Bechtel Power Corporation. Evergreen is now seeking to construct a coal refinery using the improved Bechtel design at locations in the Midwestern United States and in Asia.http://www.evgenergy.com/documents/2008-11-10-EEE_Shareholder_Letter.shtml Evergreen Letter to Shareholders November 2008 === Australia === Calleja Group constructed a full-scale 16,000 tonne per annum pilot demonstration plant at JBD Business Park at Maddingley Mine near Bacchus Marsh, Victoria that began operation in early 2004. From 2005 ECT Limited upgraded the facility, added a water recovery process with Victorian Government funding in 2007 and operated the plant as a process development platform with its engineering partner ARUP. In 2009 ECT Limited secured and agreement with Thang Long Investment Company (Tincom) of Vietnam to finalise commercial feasibility ahead of construction of a 2 million tonne pa export plant by 2014 and 20 million tonne pa export by 2020. ECT Limited is using the ARUP improved design to secure technology licensing agreements with brown coal suppliers in China, India, Indonesia, Poland, Greece and Russia. === China === GBCE has built and is now operating the world's first industrial-scale coal-upgrading facility. It has capacity to process 1 MTPA of coal feedstock and is located in Holingol, Inner Mongolia, the largest lignite-producing region in China.http://www.gbce.com/en/projects_yield.php The coal is typically high moisture (35 – 40% TM) and 3200 – 3400 kcal gar. Depending on market requirements, it produces 5000–5500 kcal coal (gar) with greatly reduced moisture content (< 10% gar). The plant uses LCP coal-upgrading technology, which is a pyrolytic process that employs heat and pressure in an oxygen-free environment to continue the coalification process that occurs naturally in the earth. The processed coal by this technology is hydrophobic and transportable, which means it will not reabsorb moisture or break up into powder during transportation. == See also == * Bituminous coal * Bergius process * Coal assay * Coldry Process * Coke fuel * Densified coal * Energy value of coal * Fischer–Tropsch process * Karrick process * Leonardite * Lignite * Maddingley Mine * Orders of magnitude (specific energy density) * List of CO2 emitted per million Joule of energy from various fuels == References == Category:Coal |
Zoltán Zubornyák (born 9 September 1961) is a Hungarian actor, culture manager, theatre manager, director, volunteer, art director. ==Culture manager== He has been managing the Ferencváros Cultural Centre, a venue staging numerous pieces; hosting many concerts, alongside exhibitions and various courses, since 2004, for which reason he is also responsible for managing the following institutions: ===Local History Collection=== This institution helps gain insight into the history of Ferencváros named after Emperor Francis I on 4 December 1792; collects and processes written material that still exists, as well as artefacts. The Local Government of Ferencváros purchased an apartment located in a building under Pipa Street 4 back in 1997, which was transformed and made suitable for storing the material collected up till this point, as well as for organising exhibitions. ===József Attila Memorial Place=== The great Hungarian and European poet Attila József was born in Ferencváros. A memorial room was set up in his honour and to commemorate the poet at Gát Street 3, where visitors had the opportunity to gain insight into the life and works of the poet. However, this space proved insufficient, which is why the management of the institution – hand in hand with the Local Government of the 9th District – set up this exhibition in a space double its original size and also extended its contents, which was ceremoniously opened on 11 April 2002, the Day of Poetry. ===Ferencváros Pince Gallery=== This Gallery was opened in 1967 pursuant to the efforts of Zoltán Xantus. According to the intentions of the official cultural policy of this era, the Gallery assumed a sort of vent function in the cultural life of Budapest. As a substitute for the blacklisted Industrial Plan exhibitions, this is where the upcoming generation of young artists had the opportunity to organise their exhibitions dubbed avant-garde. Exhibitions are organised at this Gallery to this day, which assumes the task of presenting every relevant school of contemporary fine and applied art. Its other key role involves introducing young professional artists making their debut to the audience and the general public. The past 17 years has demonstrated that the concept was indeed a good one, as a result of which the Gallery evolved into a popular and prestigious exhibition hall. ===Festival of Ferencváros=== thumb|left|250px|2015, Budapest Open-air performances were first organised on Bakáts Square in 1993. Various genres of chamber music pieces were staged back then. The audience deemed that these pieces were undoubtedly successful, which was also widely publicised. This excellent reception and exceptional interest shown lead to the idea of launching the summer festival organised each year. This event has been called Ferencváros Festival of Games since 1994. Initially, the programme mainly featured classical and pop concerts, chamber and symphony orchestra concerts, whilst productions created by other theatre workshops were invited as guest performers on the stage erected. The programme has since become more diverse. Later on, the programme extended to include dance and ballet performances, as well as musical performances specifically designed by the Festival for this space. An all-encompassing performing arts festival eventually unfolded. This programme has been called Ferencváros Festival since 2007. During the many years of his directorship he designed and directed numerous concerts, theatrical performances, exhibitions, as well as various open-air programmes with the help of my 41 associated employees. Several tens of thousands of people have visited our exhibitions and around 10,000 people visited the Ferencváros Festival in 2010, whilst each season a total of 10–12,000 people come along to pieces staged at the Pince Theatre (14 pieces per month on average). ==Theatre manager== He was the director of Jászai Mari Theatre for 5 years (1996–2001). ===Pince Theatre=== In January 2007 Pince Theatre (a small theatre operating from the cellar of a building in the very heart of the city) set the aim of following in the footsteps of the legendary creative workshop that unfolded during the 60s and 70s. The creative and cultural approach of the theatre is represented by chamber plays with one, two or three characters played by outstanding Hungarian artists. Our performances fill a cultural gap in the sense that the majority of these are not staged in big theatres with a regular troupe of actors. == Cinema manager == 2012-2014 Coronet Cinema Notting Hill Gate (supervisor) Stratford East Picturehouse London (Duty Manager) 2014- ==Cultural creative== Aranytíz Youth Community Centre, Art Director (2001 - 2004) Esztergom Summer Fest, Art Director (2000- 2001) Leader of Ráday Kultucca cultural event (2008-2010). ==Educator== Together with János Móka, they were the first in Hungary to elaborate specialized practical training for theatre education - education of theatre practice identical with and based on the English Theatre in Education (TIE) and Drama in Education programs. This training was launched in the Zsámbék Teacher Training College (now Apor Vilmos Catholic University College) in 1998. He is assistant professor at ELTE and King Sigismund College. He leads workshops at Komlósi media school. ==Volunteer== thumb|right|250px|In Malibu Beach, November 2014 Organization of Ünnepi Filmhét (Film Week) for the 60th birthday of István Szabó, film director with public meetings and film screenings. Organization of the first National Professional Theatre Conference, Exhibition and Fair. Creation and organization of the Tata Summer Theatre Nights. Organization of the Weöres Sándor National Children's Theatre Festival. Budapest Spring Festival, organization of Pasolini Week in 2000 and 2005. Organization of Europe Day in Tata. Management and implementation of Jancsó 80 Week (with Nikita Mikhalkov) events. In the Millennium Year, founder of the initiative to erect a life-size bronze Jászai Mari statue from public donations created by György Szabó, Munkácsy awarded sculptor. Former junior Hungarian champion in épée (team) and member in the Hungarian Team. He won the "Arany Zsiraf Prize" for the lyrics of the "Song of the year of Hungary" category with the song "Egyedul" in 2002. The song was published in 2000 and performed by Bery and Eszter Vaczi. Member of the Friends of Theatre and Art Association (organization of national-scale events). Founding member of the Sikeres Ferencvárosért Egyesület (Association for Successful Ferencváros), and of Ferencvárosi Lokálpatrióta Egyesület (Association of Friends of Ferencváros). New leader of Londoni Magyar Iskola Drama Group for 12–18 years olds from December 2012. ==Producer== ===Repertoire Pieces=== *November 2000 – Sándor Márai: Kaland (play about seduction, love, loneliness, selfishness and carrier) *19 December 2002 – Sándor Márai: Válás Budán (marriage, love and divorce – a strange „love square”) *January 2007 – Puncsék karácsonya (Christmas puppet-show) *January 2007 – Wilhelm Hauff: A kis mukk története (fairy play about a poor boy seeking happiness) *9 February 2007 – Zoltán Egressy: Vesztett éden (historic tragedy about the life of Imre Madách Hungarian playwright) 16 February 2007 – Attila József: Szabad-ötletek jegyzéke két ülésben (poems of the famous Hungarian poet, Attila József, within a framework of free associations) *23 March 2007 – István Vajda: Pedig én jó anya voltam (documentary drama about the last death penalty inflicted in Hungary) *April–May 2007 – Ki kért meg, hogy énekelj? (songs performed by a famous Hungarian actor, Róbert Koltai) *2 July 2007 – István Verebes: Sorsjáték (talk show) *20 September 2007 – Gyula Urbán: Minden egér szereti a sajtot (Every Mouse Likes Cheese – fairy play) *9 October 2007 – Opera prózában Kaposi Gergellyel (Opera talk show with Gergely Kaposi) *2 November 2007 – EXIT – international play – a story of those who did not want to stay *1 December 2007 – Dosztojevszkij: Nasztaszja Filippovna *2 December 2007– Tin Andersén Axell: Garbo (the author's novel adapted for stage) *14 December 2007 – (songs of Mária Mezei by Erika Pápay) *25 November 2007 – Pincekoncertek az opera csillagaival (Opera concert series) *10 January 2008 – Co.ffein projects - Frenák Pál Táncosaival (dance performance) *16 February 2008 – István Csukás - Ferenc Darvas: Ágacska (fairy play) *8 March 2008 – Martin Sherman - Attila Galambos - Tamás Arany: Isadora (one day of the boisterous marriage of Isadora Duncan and Szergej Jeszenyin – musical) *29 March 2008 – Ervin Lázár: The boy and the lions – fairy play *9 May 2008 – William Gibson: Two for the Seesaw *3 October 2008 – Bengt Ahlfors: The last cigar *16 November 2008 – Harold Pinter: Betrayal *9 January 2009 – Sándor Márai: Az igazi (Márai's short novel adapted for stage) *10 January 2009 – Mese a Kutyusról meg a Cicusról (fairy play about a kitten and a puppy) *22 March 2009 – (play about an infamous historic figure, Vlad Tepes, and King Mathias) *11 April 2009 – Kukacmatyi (fairy play) *24 April 2009 – Csaba Kiss: Esti próba (Zampano és Gelsomina) *20 September 2009 – Pince Cabaret *16 October 2009 – Arnold Wesker: Annie Wobbler *14 November 2009 – Evelyne de la Cheneliere: Strawberries in January *5 February 2010 – Leonyid Zorin: Warsaw Melody *19 February 2010 – Chloe Moss: Christmas is Miles Away *18 May 2010 – Sándor Márai: Fizess nevetve! (ironic short stories adapted for stage) *17 September 2010 – Better than Sex – musical from London *24 September 2010 – Keresztanya (Godmother – a gipsy fairy tale adapted for stage) *23 October 2010 – Karnauhova- Brausevich: The scarlet flower ===Guest Performances played=== *9 November 2007 – Nevető tollak *17 November 2007 – Edward Albee: Who is Afraid of Virginia Woolf *17 January 2008 – Improvisation theatre *24 February 2008 – Kezitcsókolom – performance by Kálmán Hollai *11 May 2009 – Mihály Babits: Dagály (play inspired by a beautiful poem of the famous Hungarian poet, Mihály Babits) *24 May 2009 – Alina Nelega: Rudolf Hess' Ten Commandments (Aradi színház) ==Director== *14 August 1998 – Duval – Nádas – Szenes: Potyautas *20 October 1998 – Lars Norén: Night Is Mother to the Day (Az éjszaka a nappal anyja) *20 February 1999 – Beaumarchais: The Marriage of Figaro (Figaro házassága) *23 April 1999 – Endre Fejes – Gábor Presser: Jó estét nyár, jó estét szerelem *4 December 1999 – Erich Kastner: Emil and the Detectives (Emil és a detektívek) *10 November 2000 – Andrew Lloyd Webber: Joseph And The Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (József és a színes szélesvásznú álomkabát) *Exupéry: The Little Prince (A kis herceg) *Goldoni: Mirandolina *Murell: Memoir *Brandon Thomas – Aldobolyi: Charley's Aunt *Friedrich Schiller: Love and Intrigue *Valentin Katayev: Squaring the Circle *Cy Coleman: I Love My Wife *Christopher Hampton: Illuminations *Alain Ayckburn: Bedroom Farce *Ernő Szép: Krémes *Péter Boldizsár: Aprószentek *Ferenc Molnár: A Pál utcai fiúk *Gábor Vaszary: Bubus ==Art director== *1996 – Tibor Miklós: Légy jó mindhalálig (musical) *1996 – : A régi nyár (musical) *1996 – János Bródy: Kőműves Kelemen (rock ballad) *1996 – Thomas Robert: Piége pour un homme seul *1996 – Julian Slade: Winnie the Pooh *1996 – Zsolt Pozsgai: Szeretlek, Faust *1996 – Carlo Goldoni: Locandiera *1996 – Beila Anna – Valló Péter: A kis herceg *1997 – Péter Boldizsár: Aprószentek *1997 – Julius Brammer – Alfred Grünwald: Das Vilchen vom Montmartre (light opera) *1997 – Miklós Benedek: Utazás a koponyám körül (monodrama) *1997 – Brandon Thomas: Charley's Aunt (musical comedy) *1997 – Friedrich Schiller: Kabale und Liebe (tragedy) *1997 – Sándor Török: A Pál utcai fiúk *1997 – Béla Horgas: Hóbogyó és Kányavér *1997 – – : Der Raub der Sabinerinnen (musical comedy) *1997 – Per Olov Enquist: Képcsinálók *1997 – István Csukás: Ágacska *1997 – Angelo Beolco Ruzante: La Moscheta (comedy) *1998 – András Nagy: A papagáj *1998 – Ede Szigligeti: Liliomfi (comedy) *1998 – Gyula Kovács: Az odulakó *1998 – Áron Tamási: Énekes madár *1998 – Deval Jacques: La Prétentaine (comedy) *1998 – Howard Ashman: Little Shop of Horrors(musical horror parody) *1998 – Georges Feydeau: Chat en poche (comedy) *1998 – Lars Norén: Natten ar dagens mor *1998 – Molière: Le Tartuffe ou L’Imposteur *1998 – Éva Schubert – Károly Horváth: Piaf Piaf (musical) *1998 – Frank Wedekind: Frühlings Erwachen *1999 – Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais: Le Mariage de Figaro La Folle Journée *1999 – Roberto Athayde: Apereque a Margarida *1999 – Endre Fejes: Jó estét nyár, jó estét szerelem (musical) *1999 – Tibor Déri – Sándor Pós: Képzelt riport egy amerikai popfesztiválról (musical) *1999 – Friedrich Schiller: Die Rauber *1999 – Gábor Maros: „Fizetek főúr!” *1999 – Molière: L’Avare *1999 – John Murrell: Memoir *1999 – Zoltán Zubornyák: Emil és a detektívek (musical) *2000 – Ferenc Molnár: Harmónia *2000 – Csaba Lászlóffy: Judit *2000 – Victorien Sardou – Émile Moreau: Madame Sens-Gene (comedy) *2000 – Alen Ayckbourn: Bedroom Farce (comedy) *2000 – Tim Rice: Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (musical) *2000 – Sophokles: Antigone ==Actor== Performed as an actor in the following theatres: Miskolc National Theatre, Eger Gárdonyi Géza Theatre, Békéscsaba Jókai Theatre, Tatabánya Jászai Mari Theatre, Kecskemét Katona József Színház, Vidám Színpad, Játékszín, Katona József Theatre and National Theatre. === Theatre === *Ede Szigligeti: Liliomfi... Liliomfi *Sartre: Dirty Hands ... Hugo *Kander and Ebb: Cabaret ... Konferanszié *Brandon Thomas: Charley's Aunt ... Frank Babberley ===Filmography=== thumb|right|250px|As Kornai Béla aka Kábéla in Ballagás *1980 – Ballagás *1985 – Eszterlánc *1990 – Családi kör *1991 – Stalin's Bride *1991 – Isten hátrafele megy *1991 – Meeting Venus *1992 – Új Gálvölgyi-show *1995 – The Brother from Brooklyn *1995 – Öregberény *1996 – Levelek Perzsiából *2005 – Szeress most! *2002 – Wake Up, Mate, Don't You Sleep *2005 – Szeress most! *2008 – Stolen Rhythm *(1991 – 1999) – Szomszédok ==References== * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * * Category:1961 births Category:Living people Category:Hungarian male film actors |
This is a list of over sixty known memorials (statues, busts, fountains and buildings) to the Scottish poet Robert Burns. Of these, the oldest outdoor statue is given to be at Camperdown, Victoria, Australia (1830). thumb|right|upright|Dumfries town centre statue ==Scotland== thumb|160px|Burns Monument, Edinburgh thumb|160px|Statue by John Flaxman, Scottish National Portrait Gallery * Aberdeen – statue near Union Terrace Gardens * Alloway – monument a short distance from his birthplace * Arbroath – statue by Dundee sculptor Scott Sutherland in the grounds of Arbroath Library. Sutherland may be better known for his work of the Commando Memorial. * Ayr – statue in Burns Statue Square * Bathgate – Statue or Rabbie Burns with Highland Mary in grounds of Partnership Centre. * Dalkeith – cast iron drinking fountain originally erected in the High Street in 1899 to commemorate the centenary of the death of Robert Burns in 1896. Removed from the High Street in 1968, the restored monument was relocated back to the High Street in a new location in 2017. * Dumfries – at the end of the town centre, the statue in white marble of Burns leaning on a tree stump, a dog laying across his foot, is opposite Greyfriars Church. The front panel is inscribed: "Erected by the inhabitants of Dumfries (with the aid of many friends) as a loving tribute to their fellow townsman, the national poet of Scotland. April 1882." * Dumfries – mausoleum at burial site in St Michaels Churchyard * Dumfries – Burns House museum * Dundee – statue in Meadowside * Edinburgh – monument on Regent Road, Calton Hill. The marble statue inside by John Flaxman was moved to the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh in 1889.Monuments and Statues of Edinburgh, Michael T.R.B. Turnbull (Chambers) p.4 * Edinburgh – inscription in Makars' Court, outside The Writers' Museum in Edinburgh's Old Town * Eglinton Country Park – bronze statue in the Visitor Centre. * Glasgow – statue in George Square, 1877 by George Edwin Ewing, reliefs by J A Ewing, cast by Cox and Son * Irvine – statue on Irvine Moor * Kilmarnock – statue of Sicilian marble by William Grant Stevenson. Stood in Kay Park from 1879 until moved to the Burns Monument Centre following a fire started by vandals. See Burns Monument. * Kilmarnock – statue at Kilmarnock Cross * Leith – statue on Bernard Street * Mauchline – Burns National Memorial * Montrose – stone statue by William Birnie Rhind (1853–1933) was unveiled in 1912 * Paisley – statue in the Fountain Gardens, by F. W. Pomeroyhttp://www.rescuerabbie.com * Portpatrick – statue produced by local sculptor James Watt, and erected in Portpatrick in 1923 by the village's Burns Club. Damaged by storms in the 1980s, it was refurbished and repainted by the Stranraer Burns Club and Portpatrick Bowls Club in 2016. The statue now overlooks the bowling greens. * Prestonpans – Burns Bicentennial Memorial, erected by the local Burns Club * Stirling – statue outside Albert Halls * Stirling – a white marble bust of Burns, looking to his right, is within the Wallace Monument * Stonehaven - a stone bust of Burns, and an information board entitled "The Fatherland of Robert Burns", is within the Burns Memorial Garden at the corner of David Street and Belmont Brae. ==Australia== * Adelaide, South Australia – A standing Burns in marble holds a book with the right arm, and the left poised away from the body. The statue is outside the State Library of South Australia. Erected May 1894, by the South Australian Caledonian Society. * Ballarat, Victoria – statue of a standing Burns with a dog to his left, in Sturt Street (corner of Lydiard Street) Ballarat. On the grey granite plinth the front panel details his dates and places of birth and death, followed by stanzas from There was a man from Kyle. The other three sides have stanzas from various poems about humanity and learning. * Bendigo, Victoria – bust in the Bendigo Art Gallery * Brisbane, Queensland – statue at Centenary Place. Erected about 1929 by the Brisbane Caledonian Society and Burns Club. In the park is another statue of a similar name, that of Thomas Joseph Byrnes, Premier of Queensland. * Camperdown, Victoria – statue, possibly the oldest existing outside Burns statue, carved in 1830, and the first one in the Southern Hemisphere. Based on a 1786 live painting of Burns, it was displayed at a Crystal Palace exhibition before coming to Australia. Due to vandalism in 2009, the plinth remains in the botanic park but the statue has been moved to the shire council chambers. It is presently being considered for restoration. * Canberra, ACT – statue outside the eponymous Burns Centre, National Circuit, Forrest (1935) * Melbourne, Victoria – statue in Treasury Gardens, with bronze friezes decorating the plinth. The granite plinth is beneath a standing Burns in bronze, with right foot slightly forward, and the right arm almost crossed above the left across the chest. "Erected under the auspices of the Caledonian Society Melbourne 1904", the front brass states the last name of the poet. The plinth followed clockwise displays almost-identical reliefs of scenes from his poems, To a mountain daisy (1786), Tam O'Shanter (1790), and The cotter's Friday night (1785). The sculptor George Anderson Lawson also had later- erected memorials in Vancouver (1928) and Montreal (1930), Canada. * Sydney, New South Wales – statue of Burns with plough, outside the Art Gallery of New South Wales Image:J150W-statue-RobbieBurns.jpg|State Library of South Australia, Adelaide Image:AU Burns Canberra.jpg|Canberra, Australian Capital Territory (1935) Image:Robert Burns Memorial, Brisbane 01.jpg|Robert Burns Memorial in Centenary Place, Brisbane ==Canada== * Edmonton, Alberta – statue in bronze of Burns kneeling, in the grounds of the Hotel Macdonald, by John Warner * Fredericton, New Brunswick – statue on the Green, by the banks of the Saint John River, across from the Provincial Legislature. The Fredericton Society of Saint Andrew sponsored the erection in the Kilmarnock style in 1906. Absent from 2008 to 2011, the statue has been remodelled for flood- proofing. * Halifax, Nova Scotia – statue erected in 1914 by the North British Society. See Victoria Park. * Montreal, Quebec – statue in Dominion Square, erected 1930. See Robert Burns Memorial (Montreal). * Toronto, Ontario – the erect Burns in brass is on top of a light granite plinth in Allan Gardens. Erected 21 July 1902, "to the memory of the poet by his admirers". Scenes reflecting The cotter's Friday night (1785), Tam o' Shanter, John Anderson my jo, and possibly To a mountain daisy (1786). * Vancouver, British Columbia – statue in Stanley Park. See Robert Burns Memorial, Stanley Park. * Victoria, British Columbia – near the southern car park in Beacon Hill Park – his statue sits, almost kneeling, with his arm around Highland Mary. In the grey granite plinth front face, beneath a rampant lion upon a shield, is inscribed "To the memory of Scotia'an immortal bard. Born 1759. Erected by his admirers 1900." Going clockwise from the front panel, an inscription "The golden hours, on angel wings flew o'er me and my dearie;" above a lion's head drinking basin, a shield with the saltire, and a coloured framed picture of the bard (perhaps added after erection) with the words above, "For dear to me as light and life was my sweet Highland Mary." * Windsor, Ontario – large bronze bust presented to the City of Windsor by The Border Cities Burns Club in June 1952. Located on the east side of Jackson Park, beside the parking lot. * Winnipeg, Manitoba – statue in the grounds of the Provincial Legislature, on Kennedy Street. It was erected in 1936 by the Winnipeg Burns Club. File:Robert Burns Montreal.jpg|Montreal Statue by George Anderson Lawson dedicated to Burns in tribute to its founding Scottish community. File:Burns lighter.jpg|Burns statue in Victoria Park (Halifax), Halifax, Nova Scotia by George Anderson Lawson File:Robert Burns statue (4546950296).jpg|Burns statue in Jackson Park, Windsor, Ontario ==England== * London – statue in the Victoria Embankment Gardens (1884). See Robert Burns (Steell). * London – memorial bust in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey (1885) * Newcastle upon Tyne – statue in Walker Park. The statue was erected to commemorate the visit by Burns to Newcastle in 1787 ==New Zealand== * Auckland, North Island – a brass statue in The Domain erected in 1921, with Burns leaning on a plough, on top of a stone plinth. The front panel of the plinth is inscribed: "To the immortal memory of Robert Burns 1759–1796. The peasant bard of Scotland. The strong advocate of universal freedom and the brotherhood of man." * Dunedin, South Island – statue in The Octagon. One of the city's founding fathers was the poet's nephew Thomas Burns. See Robert Burns (Steell). * Hokitika, South Island – statue in Cass Square * Timaru, South Island – statue in Timaru Botanic Gardens File:Robert Burns statue, Auckland 03.jpg|Auckland Domain File:BurnsStatueDunedin.jpg|The Octagon, Dunedin File:Timaru Botanic Gardens - Robert Burns Statue - 2019-07-28.jpg|Timaru Botanic Gardens ==United States== * Albany, New York – statue in Washington Park, unveiled 1888. Sculptured by Albany-born Charles Calverley, the commissioning was part of a will bequest. See Statue of Robert Burns (Albany, New York). * Atlanta, Georgia – replica of Burns' birthplace cottage belonging to the Burns Club Atlanta, constructed in 1911. See Burns Cottage (Atlanta). * Barre, Vermont – statue in front of the old Spaulding High School building. See Robert Burns Memorial (Barre). * Boston, Massachusetts – bronze statue in the Back Bay Fens, by Henry Hudson Kitson and erected in 1920, moved to Winthrop Square in 1975 and relocated back to its original location in 2019. * Cheyenne, Wyoming – bronze statue erected in Gilchrist Park in 1929, by Scottish sculptor Henry Snell Gamley (1865–1928) * Chicago, Illinois – statue in Garfield Park, cast in Edinburgh by William Grant Stevenson, it was commissioned in 1906. Burns stands erect, his right hand clasped to his lapel, the left holding a book. Appearing on each face of the plinth is a single line of four different poems. By 2010, the bronze friezes had been removed. * Denver, Colorado – bronze statue in the city park, donated by the Scots Caledonian Club of Colorado and erected in 1904. Across the granite base, "A poet peasant born who more of fame's immortal power unto his country brings than all her kings". The sculptor was allegedly William Grant Stevenson (1849–1919), who also did the original Kilmarnock statue. * Detroit, Michigan – bronze statue by George Anderson Lawson in Ayr, Scotland, in 1891, it was moved to Cass Park near the downtown and erected in 1921 sponsored by the City of Detroit Burns Club and the ladies auxiliary, The Jean Amour Club. * Houston, Texas – Bust of Robert Burns in the International Sculpture Garden of Hermann Park. Done by Hungarian-American sculptor Ferenc Varga in 2002. * Jacksonville, Florida – a deteriorating limestone bust on a large plinth in Confederate Park, erected in 1930 by the Robert Burns Association of Jacksonville. The four panels were stolen during World War II, allegedly sold for scrap steel. It is located near the corner of Main and Phelps Streets. * Milwaukee, Wisconsin – bronze statue in Burns Square between Prospect and Farwell Avenues on Knapp Street, donated in 1909 by a prosperous grain merchant of Scottish descent. It is based on the Chicago casting of the Kilmarnock monument design. See Robert Burns (Stevenson). * New York City – the statue in Central Park is a twin to the statue in London, and was dedicated in 1880. See Robert Burns (Steell). * Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania – statue at Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens * Quincy, Massachusetts – statue in Robert Burns Park, dedicated in 1925 and moved to the Granite Street in 1971 * San Francisco, California – statue near the Rhododendron Grove, off JFK Drive in Golden Gate Park, erected in 1908. Melvin Earl Cummings' originally commissioned work was sent for casting and was destroyed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire, and had to be redone. * St. Louis, Missouri – statue on the Danforth Campus of Washington University in St. Louis, where he was a favourite poet of many of the university trustees. Artist Robert Aitken (1878–1949) completed the eight-foot high bronze, "erected under the auspices of the Burns Club of St. Louis by admirers of Robert Burns and his genius. 1928." File:Robert Burns in Central park.jpg|Central Park, New York File:RobertBurnsGarfieldPark.jpg|Garfield Park, Chicago File:Robert Burns statue, Schenley Park, Pittsburgh - 1.jpg|Schenley Park, Pittsburgh File:BurnsMonument1909.jpg|Burns Commons, Milwaukee File:20220506 - 26 - Albany, New York - Robert Burns statue, Washington Park.jpg|Washington Park, Albany, New York ==Other countries== * Belfast, Northern Ireland – a small pedestal and bronze statue stands in the reception area of the Linen Hall Library, being presented to the people of Belfast in 1893 * Tallinn, Estonia – statue (bust) in Scottish Park (Šoti Park), Uus 31 (street), beside the Old Town. Formerly the home of Tallinn's Scottish Club (Šoti Klubi), the park is now associated with the Leib restaurant. Opposite the Burns bust is the later bust of Sir Sean Connery, erected 2011. ==Statue styles== Other than text of his poems, a plow may be present to represent his earlier vocation as a farmer. Several statues show Burns' dog, Luath. A number of statues of Burns, and the friezes around the plinths, are reproductions of an original work. Sculptor George Anderson Lawson's original work of Burns with right arm folded above the left, in Ayr, Scotland, in 1892 can be seen at: * Belfast, Northern Ireland (1893), a smaller copy * Melbourne, Australia (1904) * Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (1914) * Detroit, Michigan, USA (1921) * Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (1928) * Montreal, Quebec, Canada (1930) * Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada (1936) It has also been reported a second small copy was presented to the Sorbonne University, Paris, France, in 1938. It was then hidden during the German military occupation of France, and so avoided being melted down. Its present whereabouts is unknown. William Grant Stevenson's Kilmarnock design of Burns holding a book in the left hand whilst the right hand holds the lapel, can be seen at: * Denver, USA (1904) * Chicago, USA (1906) * Milwaukee, USA (1909). The Frederickton, Canada (1906) statue is also in the Kilmarnock style. John Steell has four copies of Burns seated on a stump, looking pensively to the upper right: * New York City, USA (1880) * Dundee, Scotland (1880) * London, England (1884) * Dunedin, New Zealand (1887). == Gallery == File:Au-SA- Adelaide Burns statue.JPG|Adelaide, Australia File:Au-SA-Adelaide Burns statue close-up.JPG|Adelaide, Australia, close-up File:Sco-Arbroath Burns statute.JPG|Arbroath, Scotland File:Au-Vic-Ballarat Burns statue.JPG|Ballarat, Australia File:Au-Vic-Ballarat Burns statue close-up.JPG|Ballarat, Australia, close-up File:Au-Qld-Brisbane Burns statue.JPG|Brisbane, Australia File:Robert Burns statue, Detroit, MI January, 2019.jpg|Detroit, Michigan, USA File:Sco- Dumfries Burns statue.JPG|Dumfries, Scotland File:Sco-Dumfries Burns statue close-up.JPG|Dumfries, Scotland, close-up File:Sco-Dumfries Burns mausoleum.JPG|Dumfries, Scotland, Burns's mausoleum File:Sco-Glasgow Burns statue.JPG|Glasgow, Scotland File:Au-Vic-Melbourne Burns statue.JPG|Melbourne, Australia File:Au-Vic-Melbourne Burns statue close-up.jpg|Melbourne, Australia, close-up File:Can-Que-Montreal Burns statue.jpg|Montreal, Quebec, Canada File:Can-Que-Montreal Burns statue close-up.jpg|Montreal, Quebec, Canada, close-up File:Est-Tal-Burns bust.jpg|Tallinn, Estonia File:Can-Ont- Toronto Burns statue.JPG|Toronto, Ontario, Canada File:Can-Ont-Toronto Burns statue close-up.JPG|Toronto, Ontario, Canada, close-up File:Can-BC-Vancouver Burns statue.jpg|Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada File:Can-BC-Victoria Burns statue.jpg|Victoria, British Columbia, Canada == See also == * Burns memorials by sculptor John Steell == Bibliography == * Sharon Alker, Leith Davis, and Holly Faith Nelson (eds), "Robert Burns and Transatlantic Culture", Ashgate Publishing, 2012, . * Thomas Keith, "Burns Statues in North America, a Survey" in Robert Burns & America, ed. by G. Ross Roy (Fife, Scotland & Columbia, SC: Thomas Cooper Library & Akros Publications, 2001): 23-33 * Thomas Keith "Burns Statues in North America," in The Burns Chronicle (Kilmarnock, Scotland: The Burns Federation, 2001): 71-83 * Elizabeth A. Sudduth (compiler), "The G. Ross Roy Collection of Robert Burns: An Illustrated Catalogue", . == References == Memorials Burns, Robert |
A blue hole is a large marine cavern or sinkhole, which is open to the surface and has developed in a bank or island composed of a carbonate bedrock (limestone or coral reef). Their existence was discovered in the late 20th century by fishermen and recreational divers. Blue holes typically contain tidally influenced water of fresh, marine, or mixed chemistry. They extend below sea level for most of their depth and may provide access to submerged cave passages.Mylroie, J. E., Carew, J. L., and Moore, A. I., (1995), Blue Holes: Definition and Genesis: Carbonates and Evaporites, v. 10, no. 2, p. 225. Well-known examples are the Dragon Hole (in the South China Sea) and, in the Caribbean, the Great Blue Hole and Dean's Blue Hole. Blue holes are distinguished from cenotes in that the latter are inland voids usually containing fresh groundwater rather than seawater. ==Description== Blue holes are roughly circular, steep-walled depressions, and so named for the dramatic contrast between the dark blue, deep waters of their depths and the lighter blue of the shallows around them. Their water circulation is poor, and they are commonly anoxic below a certain depth; this environment is unfavorable for most sea life, but nonetheless can support large numbers of bacteria. The deep blue color is caused by the high transparency of water and bright white carbonate sand. Blue light is the most enduring part of the spectrum; other parts of the spectrum--red, yellow, and finally green--are absorbed during their path through water, but blue light manages to reach the white sand and return upon reflection. The deepest blue hole in the world at 300.89 meters (987 feet) deep is in the South China Sea and is named the Dragon Hole, or Longdong. The second deepest blue hole in the world with underwater entrance at is Dean's Blue Hole, located in a bay west of Clarence Town on Long Island, Bahamas. Other blue holes are about half that depth at around . The diameter of the top entrance ranges typically from (Dean's Blue Hole) to (Great Blue Hole in Belize). The overall largest blue hole (taking into account depth and width) is located 100 kilometers from the coast of Belize. The Great Blue Hole is a massive 300 meters wide and 125 meters deep. ==Formation== Blue holes formed during past ice ages, when the sea level was as low as lower than at present. At those times, these formations were targets of the same erosion from rain and chemical weathering common in all limestone-rich terrains; this ended once they were submerged at the end of the ice age. Most blue holes contain freshwater and saltwater. The halocline is the point in these blue holes where the freshwater meets the saltwater and where a corrosive reaction takes place that eats away at the rock. Over time this can create side passages, or horizontal "arms", that extend from the vertical cave. These side passages can be quite long; e.g., over in the case of the Sawmill Sink in the Bahamas. The means in which blue holes are formed is through Karst processes. Karst processes need a specific type of topography. Rocks like limestone, gypsum and marble are soluble and so dissolution creates passages and cave systems underground. This paired with doline formation allows blue holes to be formed. Doline formation were once closed depressions formed by solution of superficial rock or subsidence collapse into an underground void. Most blue holes are formed through these processes, however, some show no signs of passages or cave systems which are requirements of karst and doline processes. Therefore, these blue holes must have other origins like possibly vertical reef development. Some blue holes however do not experience karst or doline processes during their formation. Some form through bedrock dissolution and collapse which in this case usually is controlled through tidal forcing, while others are controlled by carbonate dissolution, sea level fluctuations, and the presence of eogenetic carbonates. ==Occurrence== Blue holes are typically found on shallow carbonate platforms, exemplified by the Bahama Banks, as well as on and around the Yucatán Peninsula, such as at the Great Blue Hole at Lighthouse Reef Atoll, Belize. Many deep spring basins formed by karst processes and located inland also are called blue holes, for example, Blue Hole in Castalia, Ohio. == Diversity == Many different fossils have been discovered that indicate the type of life forms that existed in blue holes. Other life forms such as marine life and marine fossils have also been noticed; crocodile and tortoise fossils, for instance, have been found in blue holes. Important types of bacterial colonies have also been found in blue holes. Due to the conditions of a blue hole, they are forced to live off of sulfur compounds like hydrogen sulfide, which are toxic to most organisms. These special bacteria have produced many insights into the chemistry and biology of microbial life. Blue holes have a great diversity of microbes. They create biogeochemical pathways creating a unique and diverse environment within the blue holes. In the surface layer, oxygen, DOC, POC and chlorophyll need to be in low levels in order for cyanobacteria to respire. As depth increases, many branches and sub branches of microbes create specific niches based on the chemistry and nutrient availability of that depth. Microorganisms including foraminifera, meiobenthic, and nematodes also follow this pattern of organization, and inhabit the areas of the water column where the nutrients they rely on are most available. Nematodes, which are predominantly non- selective detrivores, are tolerable to the anoxic conditions at the base of blue holes, allowing them to survive where other species cannot. They thrive at the lowest depths of blue holes due to the abundance of organic matter that settles there. Similarly, foraminifera inhabit the lower depths, and even increase in diversity with depth. Meiobenthic organisms cannot survive the high sulfide found at depth, and remain in the surface layers of blue holes. Generally, the diversity of all forms of life is 2-3x greater in blue holes than other diverse areas of the ocean, including coastal and abyssal environments. When the diversity of microorganisms is larger, a proportional increase in larger organisms and their diversity is to be expected. == Sedimentation == Sediment accumulation is quite unique in blue holes. Sedimentation occurs at the center of holes rather than the edges. There are many different kinds of sediment that help preserve fossils and climate records. Main sediments that build up and create layers in blue holes are sapropel, detrital peat and lacustrine marls. Within these layers, microfossils can be found. Sediment cores taken from three blue holes in the Bahamas showed that with depth, more sapropel, detrital and freshwater peat, and lacustrine marls were found. At about 150 cm of sediment core, microfossils of wood, Charophytes and Hydrobiidae were found. == Chemistry == The chemistry of blue holes vary greatly depending on how they were formed. All blue holes have a layer of freshwater at the surface and more saline water as the depth increases. Many have pycnoclines and haloclines that show these zones, similar to the ocean around it. Many blue holes are great sediment traps and can preserve climate and fossil records dating back to the last glacial maximum. The reason blue holes are able to preserve such records is due to the anoxic bottom water most blue holes contain. Stable Hydrogen and Oxygen isotopes can be used to help identify where the water within blue holes comes from. Scientists have discovered that many have meteoric or marine sources of saline water within them. Being able to identify where the water comes from in these columns allows scientists to see how tidally influenced they are. Most blue holes have a range in salinity from fresh water to hypersaline. Conduits and passageways allow for brackish water to enter as well. When the same isotopes of major ions are found in blue holes and in the surrounding ocean, it can be concluded that these blue holes are tidally influenced and have a marine water source, however, if the isotopes are similar to those found in meteoric lenses, then the source is meteoric. == Preservation == Due to water conditions at the bottom of blue holes, fossil preservation is very effective. Insufficient oxygen and light prevent decay; these conditions have resulted in preservation of fossils for thousands of years, allowing scientists to identify the skeletons of species extinct for years, as well as human skeletons. Sediments surrounding the fossils are rich in macro and microfossils (twigs, leaves, pollen, spores, etc.), further improving their preservation. Fossils identified: Tortoise (undescribed species) Caracara (Caracara creightoni) Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus gundlachii) Cooper's Hawk (Accipiter cooperii) Birds (25 species) Snakes (3 species) Bats (4 species) Ancient Native Lucayans Plant fossils are also well preserved at the bottom of blue holes, and using sediment cores it is possible to determine what species of plants and trees existed around the area thousands of years ago. For example, The Bahamas today are dominated by tropical dry evergreens, and tropical pines, but sediment cores from the Abacos blue hole revealed preserved woody species such as Coccoloba, Exothea, Bursera, etc. == Expeditions == Exploring blue holes requires a level of competence and equipment appropriate to the depth and overhead penetration. In 2009 a team of scientists set out to study seven of these blue holes in the Bahamas. Through over 150 dives, the scientists, led by Keith Tinker, investigated bacteria able to live in anoxic environments. This allowed them to make connections to fields such as astrobiology where organisms thrive without oxygen or sunlight. In 2018, another group of scientists set out to explore the Great Blue Hole of Belize using two submarines of the latest technology. One of the major scientific contributions to result from this expedition was the first 3-dimensional map of its interior. The researchers captured features such as stalactites, the hydrogen sulfide layer, and other details that cannot usually be seen by the naked human eye. As part of a three-year study, a group of scientists set out in May and September 2019 to explore a blue hole nicknamed the "Amberjack Hole" located 30 miles off the coast of Sarasota, Florida. Individuals from Mote Marine Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Harbor Branch, Georgia Institute of Technology, the United States Geological Survey, and the NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration participated in the expedition. The expedition gathered information about life around and within the hole, seawater composition, and the hole's bottom sediments. A follow-up expedition is planned in August 2020 to a deeper blue hole named the "Green Banana" off the coast of Florida. In contrast to the various successful expeditions completed, many explorers have perished in their attempts to reach the bottom of a blue hole. The Red Sea Blue Hole located in Egypt is nicknamed the "Divers' Cemetery" because at least 40 divers have died there. == Diving risks== Despite the beauty and allure of blue holes, they are some of the most dangerous waters to dive. Nitrogen Narcosis begins to set in at depths below 70 feet and causes disorientation and changes in consciousness. Divers experiencing Nitrogen Narcosis may become too confused to swim back into shallower waters, and some unfortunately never make it back to the surface. Water clarity and light both decrease significantly with depth, adding to the disorientation divers experience. If the risks weren't already great enough, divers must also remain aware of the animals they may encounter in these holes. Shark species including Bull sharks, reef sharks, and Hammerhead sharks have been seen making use of Blue holes, and while they rarely attack humans, it is important to keep an eye out and remain calm. In recent years, Dean's Blue Hole, and the Great Blue Hole have claimed over 200 lives each, many of which occurred due to divers pushing past the limits of their training. Diving in Blue Holes can be done safely, as long as you remain aware of your equipment, depth, and surroundings, and do not exceed your predetermined limits. ==See also== * Electromagnetic absorption by water * Karst topography * List of sinkholes ==References== ==Further reading== * ==External links== *World's deepest blue hole found in South China Sea *PBS TV program "Extreme Cave Diving" *Bahamas Blue Holes Guide *Bahamas Introduction *The Blue Holes Foundation *Belize Audubon Society *What's a Blue Hole? Explanation at the Bahamas Caves Research Foundation *How Blue Holes Work Category:Cave geology Category:Marine geology .Blue Category:Underwater diving sites Blue |
This is a list of records and statistics for Coventry City F.C., an English professional association football club based in Coventry. The club was founded as Singers F.C. in 1883 and turned professional in 1893, before joining the Football League in 1920. In 1898 the club was renamed Coventry City. Coventry City currently play in the EFL Championship, the second tier of English football. They were relegated out of the top tier for the first time in 34 years in 2001. This list encompasses the major honours won by Coventry City and records set by the club, their managers and their players. The player records section includes details of the club's leading goalscorers and those who have made most appearances in first-team competitions. It also records notable achievements by Coventry City players on the international stage, and the highest transfer fees paid and received by the club. The club's attendance records, both at Ricoh Arena, their home since 2005, and Highfield Road, their home from 1899 to 2005, are also included in the list. ==Team records== ===Record wins and defeats=== Record Details Record league win 9–0 (vs Bristol City, Third Division South, 28 April 1934) Record FA Cup win 7–0 (vs Macclesfield Town, 2 January 1999) Record League Cup win 8–0 (vs Rushden & Diamonds, 2 October 2002) Record European win 4–1 (vs Trakia Plovdiv, Inter- Cities Fairs Cup, 16 September 1970) Record league defeat 2–10 (vs Norwich City, Third Division South, 13 March 1930) Record FA Cup defeat 2–11 (vs Berwick Rangers, 2 November 1901) Record League Cup defeat 1–8 (vs Leicester City, 1 December 1964) Record European defeat 1–6 (vs Bayern Munich, Inter- Cities Fairs Cup, 20 October 1970) ===League sequences=== Record Details Longest unbeaten run 25 matches (26 November 1966 – 13 May 1967) Longest winning streak 6 matches (20 April 1954 – 28 August 1954) 6 matches (25 April 1964 – 5 September 1964) Longest drawing streak 6 matches (28 September 1996 – 16 November 1996) 6 matches (1 November 2003 – 29 November 2003) Longest losing streak 9 matches (30 August 1919 – 11 October 1919) Longest winless streak 19 matches (30 August 1919 – 20 December 1919) Longest scoring run 25 matches (10 September 1966 – 25 February 1967) Longest non-scoring run 11 matches (11 October 1919 – 20 December 1919) Longest clean-sheet run 6 matches (28 April 1934 – 3 September 1934) ===Wins, draws and defeats=== Record Details Most wins in a league season 24 (1935–36) 24 (1958–59) Most draws in a league season 17 (1962–63) Most defeats in a league season 25 (2016–17) Fewest wins in a league season 8 (1995–96) 8 (2000–01) Fewest draws in a league season 5 (1984–85) Fewest defeats in a league season 3 (2019–20) * 6 (1966–67) * Season concluded with 10 games remaining due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ===Points=== Record Details Most points in a season (two points for a win) 60 (in 46 matches, Fourth Division, 1958–59) 60 (in 46 matches, Third Division, 1963–64) Most points in a season (three points for a win) 75 (in 46 matches, Football League Two, 2017–18) Fewest points in a season (two points for a win) 29 (in 42 matches, Second Division, 1919–20) Fewest points in a season (three points for a win) 34 (in 38 matches, Premier League, 2000–01) ===Attendances=== Record Details Highest home attendance at Highfield Road 51,455 (vs Wolverhampton Wanderers, Second Division, 29 April 1967) Highest home attendance at Ricoh/CBS Arena 31,407 (vs Chelsea, FA Cup Quarter Final, 7 March 2009) Highest home attendance at Sixfields Stadium 4,905 (vs Peterborough United, Football League One, 26 December 2013) Highest home attendance at St Andrew's 21,193 (vs Birmingham City, FA Cup 4th Round, 25 January 2020) Highest attendance featuring Coventry City at Wembley Stadium 98,000 (vs Tottenham Hotspur, FA Cup Final, 16 May 1987) ===Club honours=== Correct as of June 2020. ===All-time FA Premier League table=== Correct as of the end of the 2019–20 Premier League season. Teams in bold are part of the 2020–21 Premier League. 47 teams have played at least one season in the Premier League, since it formed for the 1992–93 season. Coventry City were in this league from 1992 until their relegation in 2001. Pos. Club Seasons Pld Win Draw Loss GF GA GD Pts 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Relegated Avg Pts Best Pos. 19 West Bromwich Albion 11 418 106 115 197 444 640 −196 433 3 39.36 8 20 Stoke City 10 342 109 97 136 363 457 −94 424 1 47.11 9 21 Coventry City 9 354 99 112 143 387 490 −103 409 1 45.40 11 22 Sheffield Wednesday 8 316 101 89 126 409 453 −44 392 1 49.00 7 23 Wimbledon 8 316 99 94 123 384 472 −88 391 1 48.88 6 ==Player records== ===Appearances=== Record Details Oldest player to play in a first-team match Alf Wood, 43 years 207 days (vs Plymouth Argyle, 6 December 1958) Youngest player to play in a first-team match Jonson Clarke-Harris, 16 years 21 days (substitute vs Morecambe, 10 August 2010) Youngest player to start a first-team match Brian Hill, 16 years 273 days (vs Gillingham, 30 April 1958) Most consecutive League appearances Steve Ogrizovic, 241 (August 1984–September 1989) ;Most appearances (all competitions) Correct as of match on 27 May 2023. Name Position Years Appearances 1 Steve Ogrizovic GK 1984–2000 601 2 George Curtis DF 1955–1969 538 3 Mick Coop DF 1966–1981 492 4 Brian Borrows DF 1985–1997 477 5 Bill Glazier GK 1964–1975 395 6 Mick Kearns DF 1957–1968 382 7 Michael Doyle MF 2003–2011, 2017–2019 380 8 Richard Shaw DF 1995–2006 362 9 Tommy Hutchison MF 1972–1981 355 10 George Mason DF 1931–1952 350 11 Roy Kirk DF 1951–1960 345 12 Trevor Peake DF 1983–1991 336 13 Frank Austin DF 1950–1963 313 14 Ron Farmer MF 1958–1968 311 15 Marcus Hall DF 1994–2002, 2005–2010 308 16 Peter Hill FW 1948–1962 303 17 Ernie Machin MF 1963–1972 289 18 Micky Gynn MF 1983–1993 285 19 Brian Hill DF 1957–1971 284 20 Cyrille Regis FW 1984–1991 283 21 Gary McSheffrey FW 1998–2006, 2010–2013 281 22 Willie Carr MF 1967–1975 280 23 Dick Mason DF 1946–1954 262 Ronnie Rees MF 1962–1968 262 25 Dave Clements MF 1964–1971 257 26 Lloyd McGrath MF 1982–1994 253 27 Harry Roberts DF 1974–1984 249 28 Alf Wood GK 1935–1951, 1955–1959 246 29 William Lake FW 1928–1939 245 30 Clarrie Bourton FW 1931–1937 241 ===Goals=== Record Details Most goals by one player in a season Clarrie Bourton, 50 (1931–1932, 49 league, 1 FA Cup) Most goals by one player in a game Arthur Bacon, 5 (vs Gillingham, 1933) Clarrie Bourton, 5 (vs Bournemouth, 1931) Cyrille Regis, 5 (vs Chester City, 1985) Billy Smith, 5 (vs Brentford, 1911) Most hat-tricks by one player Clarrie Bourton, 13 Most hat-tricks by one player in a season Clarrie Bourton, 7 (1931–1932) Goals in consecutive league matches Clarrie Bourton, 10 consecutive matches (September 1931–November 1931) Top-flight era top scorer (all competitions) Dion Dublin, 72 goals (1994–1998) Top-flight era top scorer (league) Dion Dublin, 60 goals (1994–1998) Most goals by one player in a season in top-flight Dion Dublin, 23 (1997–1998) Ian Wallace, 23 (1977–1978) Fastest goal Eddie Brown (12 seconds vs Reading, 23 August 1954) Gary McSheffrey (12 seconds vs Colchester, 11 September 2002) Last goal at Highfield Road Andy Whing First goal at Ricoh Arena Claus Bech Jørgensen ;Most goals (all competitions) Correct as of match on 27 May 2023. Name Position Years Goals scored 1 Clarrie Bourton FW 1931–1937 182 2 William Lake FW 1928–1939 123 3 Ted Roberts FW 1936–1952 87 4 Fred Herbert FW 1922–1929 85 Ray Straw FW 1957–1961 85 6 Peter Hill FW 1948–1962 77 7 George Hudson FW 1962–1966 75 8 Leslie Jones FW 1934–1937 73 9 Dion Dublin FW 1994–1998 72 Gary McSheffrey FW 1998–2006, 2010–2013 72 11 Jock Lauderdale FW 1931–1937 63 12 Cyrille Regis FW 1984–1991 62 13 Ian Wallace FW 1976–1980 60 14 George Lowrie FW 1939–1948, 1952–1953 59 15 Mick Ferguson FW 1971–1981, 1984 57 16 Ron Farmer MF 1958–1968 52 Terry Gibson FW 1983–1986 52 Ronnie Rees MF 1962–1968 52 19 Eddy Brown FW 1952–1954 51 Ernie Hunt FW 1968–1973 51 21 Garry Thompson FW 1977–1983 49 22 Harold Redmond Buckle MF 1908–1911 46 23 Neil Martin FW 1968–1971 45 24 Norman Lockhart FW 1947–1952 44 25 Micky Gynn MF 1983–1993 43 Viktor Gyökeres FW 2021– 43 Peter Ndlovu FW 1991–1997 43 28 Bobby Gould FW 1963–1968 42 29 Brian Alderson MF 1970–1975 41 Matt Godden FW 2019– 41 ===Internationals=== Record Details Most international caps while a Coventry City player Magnus Hedman (44, for Sweden, 1997–2002) Most international goals while a Coventry City player Stern John (13, for Trinidad & Tobago, 2004–2007) First Coventry City player to appear at a World Cup Tommy Hutchison (for Scotland at 1974 World Cup) ===Transfers in=== Correct as of June 2020. ;Highest transfer fees paid Coventry City's record signing is Craig Bellamy, who signed for the club from Norwich City for £6.5 million in August 2000. This beat the previous record of £6 million, which the club paid Wolverhampton Wanderers for Robbie Keane in 1999, which made Keane the most expensive teenager in British football. Player From Date Fee 1 Craig Bellamy Norwich City 17 August 2000 £6,500,000 2 Robbie Keane Wolverhampton Wanderers 18 August 1999 £6,000,000 3 Lee Hughes West Bromwich Albion 8 August 2001 £5,000,001 4 Mustapha Hadji Deportivo La Coruña 19 July 1999 £4,000,000 5 Viorel Moldovan Grasshoppers 2 January 1998 £3,250,000 6 Gary McAllister Leeds United 26 July 1996 £3,000,000 7 Robert Jarni Real Betis 1 August 1998 £2,600,000 8 Gary Breen Birmingham City 1 January 1998 £2,500,000 Lee Carsley Blackburn Rovers 1 January 2001 £2,500,000 David Thompson Liverpool 2 August 2000 £2,500,000 11 Stefano Gioacchini Venezia 26 July 1999 £2,000,000 Eoin Jess Aberdeen 23 February 1996 £2,000,000 Muhamed Konjić AS Monaco 13 January 1999 £2,000,000 Noel Whelan Leeds United 16 December 1995 £2,000,000 15 Dion Dublin Manchester United 1 September 1994 £1,950,000 16 Steve Froggatt Wolverhampton Wanderers 1 October 1998 £1,900,000 17 Liam Daish Birmingham City 12 February 1996 £1,500,000 John Salako Crystal Palace 3 August 1995 £1,500,000 19 Gustavo Hamer PEC Zwolle 3 July 2020 £1,350,000 20 Laurent Delorge K.A.A. Gent 12 October 1998 £1,250,000 21 Youssef Chippo FC Porto 28 May 1999 £1,200,000 Freddy Eastwood Wolverhampton Wanderers 12 July 2008 £1,200,000 Marc Edworthy Crystal Palace 26 August 1998 £1,200,000 Cédric Roussel K.A.A. Gent 20 January 2000 £1,200,000 ;Progression of record fee paid Date Player Bought from Fee July 1979 Gary Collier Bristol City £325,000 July 1987 David Speedie Chelsea £780,000 October 1989 Kevin Drinkell Rangers £800,000 January 1990 Kevin Gallacher Dundee United £900,000 September 1994 Dion Dublin Manchester United £1,950,000 December 1995 Noel Whelan Leeds United £2,000,000 July 1996 Gary McAllister Leeds United £3,000,000 January 1998 Viorel Moldovan Grasshoppers £3,250,000 July 1999 Mustapha Hadji Deportivo La Coruña £4,000,000 August 1999 Robbie Keane Wolverhampton Wanderers £6,000,000 August 2000 Craig Bellamy Norwich City £6,500,000 ===Transfers out=== Correct as of June 2020. ;Highest transfer fees received The club's record sale came in August 2000, when they sold Robbie Keane to Inter Milan for £13 million. The sale of Chris Kirkland to Liverpool for £6 million in 2001 set a British record transfer fee for a goalkeeper and the sale of Phil Babb also to Liverpool in 1994 set a British record transfer fee for a defender. Player To Date Fee 1 Robbie Keane Internazionale 1 August 2000 £13,000,000 2 Craig Bellamy Newcastle United 25 June 2001 £6,000,000 John Hartson Celtic 2 August 2001 £6,000,000 Chris Kirkland Liverpool 31 August 2001 £6,000,000 5 Dion Dublin Aston Villa 5 November 1998 £5,750,000 6 George Boateng Aston Villa 20 July 1999 £4,500,000 7 Darren Huckerby Leeds United 11 August 1999 £4,000,000 Gary McSheffrey Birmingham City 16 August 2006 £4,000,000 Viorel Moldovan Fenerbahçe 16 July 1998 £4,000,000 10 Phil Babb Liverpool 1 September 1994 £3,600,000 11 Scott Dann Birmingham City 12 June 2009 £3,500,000 12 Robert Jarni Real Madrid 15 August 1998 £3,400,000 13 James Maddison Norwich City 1 February 2016 £3,000,000 Callum Wilson Bournemouth 4 July 2014 £3,000,000 15 Mustapha Hadji Aston Villa 6 July 2001 £2,500,000 Lee Hughes West Bromwich Albion 29 August 2002 £2,500,000 Sam McCallum Norwich City 31 January 2020 £2,500,000 18 Noel Whelan Middlesbrough 31 July 2000 £2,200,000 19 Lee Carsley Everton 8 February 2002 £1,900,000 20 Tom Bayliss Preston North End 2 August 2019 £1,600,000 Cyrus Christie Derby County 1 July 2014 £1,600,000 Peter Ndlovu Birmingham City 14 July 1997 £1,600,000 ;Progression of record fee received Date Player Sold to Fee July 1980 Ian Wallace Nottingham Forest £1,250,000 March 1993 Kevin Gallacher Blackburn Rovers £1,500,000 September 1994 Phil Babb Liverpool £3,600,000 July 1998 Viorel Moldovan Fenerbahçe £4,000,000 November 1998 Dion Dublin Aston Villa £5,750,000 August 2000 Robbie Keane Internazionale £13,000,000 ==Managerial records== Record Details First manager William Stanley (1883–1885) Longest- serving manager Harry Storer, 19 years, 1 month (between 1931–1945 and 1948–1953) Most matches as manager Harry Storer, 584 (between 1931–1945 and 1948–1953) Most wins as manager Harry Storer, 255 (between 1931–1945 and 1948–1953) Most league titles as manager Jimmy Hill, 2 (1963–64 Third Division and 1966–67 Second Division) Most league promotions as manager Jimmy Hill, 2 (1963–64 Third Division and 1966–67 Second Division) Mark Robins, 2 (2017–18 EFL League Two and 2019–20 EFL League One) Most trophies as manager Mark Robins, 3 (2016–17 EFL Trophy, 2017–18 EFL League Two play-off and 2019–20 EFL League One) Most wins at Wembley Stadium as manager Mark Robins, 2 (2017 EFL Trophy Final, 2018 EFL League Two play-off Final) Most matches in Europe as manager Noel Cantwell, 4 (1970–71 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup) ==References== ==External links== * Coventry City on the box - links to various match videos Category:English football club statistics Records and Statistics Category:Coventry-related lists |
Carlos Javier Correa Oppenheimer Jr. (born September 22, 1994) is a Puerto Rican professional baseball shortstop for the Minnesota Twins of Major League Baseball (MLB). He has previously played in MLB for the Houston Astros, who selected him first overall in the 2012 MLB draft. Correa made his MLB debut with the Astros in 2015, and won the American League (AL) Rookie of the Year Award. In 2017, Correa appeared in the World Baseball Classic, won the AL Player of the Month Award for May, was named an MLB All-Star, and won the World Series. In 2021, he was named to his second All-Star Team and won the Gold Glove and Platinum Glove Awards. After seven seasons with Houston, he entered free agency and signed a three-year deal with the Twins which he later opted out of after his first season with the team. Following agreements with both the San Francisco Giants and New York Mets that fell apart due to failed physicals, Correa re-signed with the Twins. ==Early life and introduction to baseball== Correa was born in Ponce, Puerto Rico, to Carlos Correa Sr. and Sandybel Oppenheimer. Although the family's income was low, they had enough money to build a small house in Barrio Velázquez, a fishing village located in Santa Isabel, Puerto Rico, where Correa was raised. From an early age, Correa often played catch in an alley adjacent to his home, which prompted a neighbor to suggest enrolling him in a youth league, the parent-pitch category, when he was five years old. Correa was assigned to play as a first baseman due to his hitting ability, while his father continued training him every day during their free time. In 1998, Hurricane Georges caused heavy damage to the family's house. This forced his father to take several odd jobs, but he continued training Correa Jr. on a daily basis. When he was seven years old, Correa was performing solidly in Santa Isabel's Playita Cortada American Baseball Congress affiliate, hitting up to 150 home runs. When the team was eliminated, the league's champion, Rio Grande, recruited Correa to play in the championship series held in Atlanta. However, the distance between Santa Isabel and the municipality of Rio Grande made this difficult for the family. His mother worked as well, but when this was not enough, she began selling food. The citizens of Santa Isabel began helping them organize charity games and his original team donated their sales income to help pay for the travel. Correa was Rio Grande's pitcher and was named the tournament's Most Valuable Player after striking out eight batters in a team comeback. By the time that he was 11 years old, the family was traveling to the municipality of Caguas to have him practice with higher-level teams. Correa was also an honor student and received a scholarship to attend Raham Baptist Academy. Three years later, the family moved from Barrio Velázquez due to recurrent floods, but kept close ties with those who stayed behind. Joined by his brother, Jean Carlos, in baseball practices, the family once again was forced to work more odd jobs. Soon after, the Puerto Rico Baseball Academy and High School (PRBAHS) brought Correa in as a scholarship student. His discipline and talent prompted his coaches to work extra hours to improve his bat and they helped by offering transportation when the family's car was totaled in an accident. In 2010, Correa participated in the Perfect Game BCS Finals and the WWBA PG Underclassman World Championships. After attending one of these Perfect Game events, Correa made adjustments to his batting swing with his hitting coach, José Rivera. The following year he appeared at the 2011 PG BCS Under-18 Finals and East Coast Professional Showcase. However, it was Correa's performance at the 2011 PG World and National Showcases that promoted him to the top of his class, earning him a spot in the Aflac-PG All-American Game, where he was named Rawlings' Defensive Player of the Year. He closed the year with an appearance in the PG WBAA World Championships. Correa opened 2012 by being selected the MVP in the Víctor Pellot Excellence Tournament, following an extraordinary performance for a shortstop that included a two-home run game. At the 2012 PG World Showcase, he established a PG record with a 97-miles per hour throw across the infield. After graduating from the PRBAHS, Correa signed a letter of commitment with the University of Miami. Besides competing for the PRBAHS, Correa was also a member of Team Mizuno and the Puerto Rico National Baseball Team that participated in the youth Pan-American tournament. ==Professional career== ===Draft and minor leagues=== thumb|right|Correa at the 2013 Futures Game Despite being the youngest high-profile player to enter the 2012 Major League Baseball draft, in the months leading up to the event the 17-year-old Correa was already projected as a top-ten pick by several major sources, including Sports Illustrated and ESPN. His stock rose during the month before the draft, with outstanding performances in team workouts, including one that reportedly left the Houston Astros' scouts "blown away". On June 4, 2012, the Astros selected him as the first overall pick, ahead of the projected top pick, pitcher Mark Appel. Correa was incredulous, only saying that he must have been dreaming, after entering the stage while hoisting the flag of Puerto Rico. With his selection, Correa became the highest-selected player to be drafted directly from a Puerto Rican high school, besting Ramón Castro's 17th pick in 1994, while joining several other top-10 Puerto Rican picks such as Francisco Lindor and Javier Báez, all of whom had moved to the mainland United States to complete their high school or college education after developing in the local youth leagues. Correa became the third Latino to be the first overall selection in the MLB Draft, after Alex Rodriguez and Adrián González, as well as the first Puerto Rican and Latin American-born player to do so. During the ceremony, he was congratulated by Puerto Rican great Iván Rodríguez. Upon returning to Puerto Rico the following day, Correa was greeted by a victory parade in his native Santa Isabel, which was attended by hundreds of people. Correa signed with the Astros on June 7, 2012, agreeing to a $4.8 million signing bonus. He chose to wear the number 12 in his introduction to the media, donning it in homage to Hall of Famer Roberto Alomar, but abandoned it afterwards. The organization assigned him to their extended spring training team in Kissimmee, Florida. He began his professional career with the Gulf Coast Astros of the Rookie-level Gulf Coast League, and was promoted to Greeneville Astros of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, and batted a combined .258/.305/.400 in 190 at bats. He opened the 2013 season with the Quad City River Bandits of the Class A Midwest League. thumb|left|Correa playing for Quad Cities in 2013 Correa was ranked the top prospect in the Astros' farm system prior to the 2013 season and opened the year on a ten-game hitting streak that was halted by injury. He was selected the team's Player of the Month during this run and became the youngest player selected to play in the 2013 Midwest League All-Star Game, where he represented the Western Division All-Stars. Correa became the first player in the history of the All-Star Futures Game to be selected by popular vote to complete the World Team. He also became the first position player in the River Bandits' history to be selected in his first year with the team. The youngest player in the event, Correa entered the game as a defensive backup in the eighth inning. Despite not having an official at-bat, his pre-game batting practice was scouted as impressive, including some home runs that reached the second deck of Citi Field. When Mark Appel joined the River Bandits in July, this marked the first time that two consecutive first overall draft picks played for the same minor league team. For the 2013 season, he batted .320/.405/.467 in 450 at bats. After the team prevented him from playing for Gigantes de Carolina in Puerto Rico, Correa began a training camp to improve his physique and add speed, which lasted from October to February. On January 14, 2014, the Astros invited Correa to spring training as a non-roster player. They assigned him to the Lancaster JetHawks of the Class A-Advanced California League to start the 2014 season. On June 21, Correa fractured his right fibula, requiring surgery on the fibula and a ligament that ended his season. He batted .325/.416/.510 in 249 at bats over 62 games for Lancaster. The Astros invited Correa to spring training in 2015, and assigned him to minor league camp in late March to prepare for an assignment with the Corpus Christi Hooks of the Class AA Texas League. After Correa hit .385/.459/.727 in 117 at bats over 29 games for Corpus Christi, the Astros promoted him to the Fresno Grizzlies of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League on May 11. In 24 games with the Grizzlies, he hit .276/.345/.449 in 98 at bats with three home runs and 12 RBIs. ===Houston Astros (2015–2021)=== ====American League Rookie of the Year (2015)==== On June 8, 2015, the Astros promoted Correa to the major leagues. He debuted in a 3–1 loss to the Chicago White Sox, going 1-for-4 with a RBI single off of Chris Sale. On June 9, Correa stole his first career base and hit his first MLB home run off of Zach Duke. By stealing three bases in his ninth game, he became the second-youngest player to do so in a century, only trailing Rickey Henderson by 21 days. Correa established a new franchise record for most hits during his first ten games by batting 14. He went on to also break the franchise record for most hits through 15 career games with 20. Correa set a franchise record for most doubles during his first 20 games, batting 9. Five home runs were also hit during this timeframe for a total of 14 extra-base hits, tied for the second-most since the 1993 MLB expansion. Correa also tied two other players by reaching base safely in 18 of these games. He won the American League's Rookie of the Month award for June. On July 5, 2015, Correa became the first player since 1914 to record five games with a minimum of three hits and a home run in 25 plate appearances since his debut. By his 42nd game he was leading the American League in home runs by shortstops. This game was also Correa's seventh with at least three hits, a record for rookies in this league. By hitting nine home runs during this timeframe, he also became the first shortstop in a century to accomplish this in his first 42 games. On August 1, Correa recorded his first multi-homer game, also setting a franchise record by hitting 12 home runs in his first 46 games. By his 50th game he had batted more home runs in that number of games than any other shortstop in history, recording four more than the previous record-holder. On August 19, Correa delivered his first walk-off hit with a single off Tampa Bay Rays pitcher Matt Andriese. On October 12, 2015, Correa became the youngest shortstop to hit a home run in playoff competition, as well as the second youngest player to record a postseason multi-homer game. For the 2015 season with Houston, he batted .279/.345/.512 in 387 at bats. He had the 7th-best Power-Speed # in the American League, at 17.1. Playing 99 games at shortstop, he had a fielding percentage of .967. Following the conclusion of the season, Correa was selected as the Sporting News AL Rookie of Year. At the 2015 Players Choice Awards he received the AL Outstanding Rookie Award. On November 16, 2015, MLB and the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) recognized Correa as the AL Rookie of the Year. He became the first Astro to win a Rookie of the Year award since Jeff Bagwell did in 1991. ====2016==== thumb|right|Correa batting for the Astros in 2016 Correa began the 2016 season by becoming the youngest player in the Astros' history to hit a home run on Opening Day. He missed playing time in September due to a shoulder injury. Correa ended the season with a .274 batting average, a .361 on-base percentage, a .451 slugging percentage, 36 doubles (10th in the AL), 20 home runs, and 96 RBIs in 577 at bats. He hit one ball with an exit velocity of 118.2 mph; the only major leaguer to hit a ball harder in 2016 was Giancarlo Stanton. Baseball-Reference.com calculated that Correa's 2016 season was worth 5.9 wins above replacement. He had four walk-off hits during the season, the most in MLB. ====World Series champion and first All-Star selection (2017)==== For May 2017, Correa was named the AL Player of the Month. He delivered a career-best five consecutive multiple-hit games from May 25–29, and totaled 14 such games on the month. In 26 games, he batted .386, eight doubles, seven home runs, 26 RBI and a 1.130 OPS. His batting average and RBI total led the AL, on-base percentage ranked third, hits and OPS fifth, and slugging tied for sixth. He was selected to play in his first MLB All-Star Game, held at Marlins Park in Miami. On July 18, it was revealed that he had suffered a torn ligament in his left thumb. He was ruled out for six to eight weeks. For the 2017 regular season, Correa batted .315/.391/.550 in 422 at bats with 24 home runs and 84 RBIs. At shortstop, he had a .978 fielding percentage. On October 6, 2017, Correa hit his first home run of the 2017 postseason against the Boston Red Sox in Game 2 of the American League Division Series. Two days later, he would hit his second home run of the postseason. On October 14, he hit his third home run of the post season including a walk-off double leading the Astros to their second win of the ALCS series against the Yankees. Correa and the Astros offense slumped as they lost all three middle games at Yankee Stadium. The Astros won Game 7 by a score of 4–0, advancing to their second World Series in franchise history, to face the National League pennant-winning Los Angeles Dodgers. In Game 2, Correa, along with two Astros teammates–José Altuve and George Springer—and two Dodgers players–Charlie Culberson and Yasiel Puig—all homered in extra innings as the Astros prevailed, 7–6. The five home runs accounted for the most hit in extra innings of any single game in major league history. Correa went 3-for-5 in Game 5 including an RBI double and one of the five home runs by the Astros helping them beat the Dodgers 13–12. His effort helped setting the new record of most total home runs in a World Series. The game lasted over five hours, becoming the second-longest World Series game in history. The Astros won the World Series in Game 7 giving them their first title in franchise history. Three years later, it was revealed in the Houston Astros sign stealing scandal that the Astros had broken MLB rules during their championship season. The team was punished with a $5 million fine and the loss of top draft picks in 2020 and 2021. Correa admitted that his team illegally stole signs to gain an advantagePassan, Jeff. "What to make of Houston Astros owner Jim Crane's public (non-)apology". espn.com. February 14, 2020. Retrieved February 14, 2020. and apologized, saying "We were wrong for everything we did in 2017. It's not what we stand for. It's not what we want to portray as an organization, and we were definitely wrong about all that and we feel really sorry. We affected careers, we affected the game in some way, and looking back at it, it was just bad."The Houston Astros Comment on Their Cheating Scandal: We’re Sorry (New York Times) ====2018==== On June 28, Correa was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to back ailment. He was activated from the 10-day disabled list on August 10. On November 10, he underwent surgery to fix a deviated septum, which caused breathing problems while running the bases. In 2018 he batted .239/.323/.405 in 408 at bats with 15 home runs, 65 RBIs, and 11 sacrifice flies (leading the AL), and was 10th in the league in double plays grounded into (17). On defense, he was second in the league with a .984 fielding percentage at shortstop. ====2019==== Correa missed Opening Day in 2019 due to neck stiffness. On April 3, in a game against the Texas Rangers, he got the 500th hit of his career. Correa was placed on the injured list on May 29 after suffering a rib fracture during a massage at home. On July 12, he was transferred to the 60-day injured list; he was later activated on July 26. On August 15, Correa hit his 100th career home runs in 7–6 loss to the Athletics at Oakland Coliseum. He joined Cal Ripken Jr. and Alex Rodriguez as the only major league shortstops to hit 100 career home runs before their 25th birthday. He was also the youngest Astro to hit the milestone home run. For the regular season, Correa slashed .279/.358/.568 with 21 home runs and 59 RBIs in 280 at bats. On October 13, he hit a walk-off home run in the 11th inning of the second game of the ALCS against the New York Yankees to tie the series at 1–1. ====2020==== In 2020, Correa batted .264/.326/.383 with five home runs and 25 RBIs in 201 at bats. Opposing defenses began to deploy the infield shift in nearly 20% of his plate appearances in 2020, whereas, in previous years, shifts were rarely used when he batted. He led AL shortstops with a fielding percentage of .995. On October 15, in Game 5 of the ALCS, Correa hit a walk-off home run in the 9th inning against the Tampa Bay Rays to force Game 6 of the series. He became only the third player, after David Ortiz and Bernie Williams, to have hit multiple postseason walk-off home runs. ====Platinum Glove Award and second All-Star selection (2021)==== On July 4, 2021, Correa was named a reserve to the MLB All-Star Game, his second career selection. He ranked fifth in the AL in OPS (.926) at the time. On September 21, Correa scored his 100th run on the season. He became the first Astro shortstop to ever score 100 runs in a season. Opposing teams continued to deploy shifts when Correa was batting, but he neutralized the strategy, significantly improving his results. In 2021, Correa batted .279/.366(9th in the AL)/.485 with 104 runs (7th), 26 home runs, and 92 RBIs, and grounded into 16 double plays (10th). He appeared in 148 games, his most since 2016. He established career highs in home runs, with 104 runs scored, and with 269 total bases, and tied his career high with 75 walks. On defense, Correa led the AL with +21 defensive runs saved (DRS) and ranked third among shortstops with 579 total chances, 384 assists and a .981 fielding percentage. Following the regular season, he was awarded both of his first career Gold Glove and AL Platinum Glove Awards in a season in which the Astros were also named the AL Gold Glove Team. The Houston chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) named Correa the Astros' team Most Valuable Player, his first such award. He also won his first Fielding Bible Award and was named a Sporting News AL All-Star at shortstop. On October 12, Correa moved into sixth all-time in postseason runs batted in (RBI) with 54 (tied with Albert Pujols) with his two-run single in Game 4 of the ALDS versus the Chicago White Sox. In Game 6 of the World Series, Correa made his 73rd postseason start as part of the infield unit of José Altuve, Alex Bregman, and Yuli Gurriel, which was more postseason starts by any quartet of teammates in major league history, surpassing the Yankees' Derek Jeter, Tino Martinez, Paul O’Neill, and Bernie Williams, with 68 postseason contests started together. On November 3, 2021, Correa was declared a free agent for the first time in his career. The Astros extended Correa a qualifying offer, valued at $18.4 million for one year, which he rejected. ===Minnesota Twins (2022-present)=== ====2022 season==== On March 22, 2022, Correa signed a three-year contract worth $105.3 million with the Minnesota Twins. The contract included opt-out provisions after the first and second seasons. The $35.1 million average annual salary became the highest for an infielder, topping Anthony Rendon's $35 million annual salary, and was the fourth-highest salary in the AL. He joined center fielder Byron Buxton on the Twins, making them the third pair of players picked first and second in the same draft to then play for one club. The trio of Luis Arráez, Buxton, and Correa each hit consecutive home runs off former Astros teammate Gerrit Cole to open the bottom of the first inning in a contest versus the New York Yankees on June 9, 2022. Correa completed a 3–6 triple play in the fourth inning on August 22, when Texas Rangers batter Nathaniel Lowe lined out to first baseman José Miranda. Miranda then doubled Corey Seager on the first base bag and threw to Correa to put out Marcus Semien at second base. On August 23, Correa returned to Minute Maid Park for his first game as a visitor to play against the Astros and received a standing ovation and video tribute. He singled in the seventh inning off reliever Ryne Stanek to end an Astros' no-hitter started by Justin Verlander. In the 2022 season, he batted .291/.366/.467 in 522 at bats with 70 runs, 22 home runs, and 64 RBIs. On defense, he had a league-leading .983 fielding percentage. ====2022-23 offseason==== On November 2, 2022, Correa opted out of the final two seasons of his contract and became a free agent. On December 15, Correa and the San Francisco Giants agreed to a 13-year contract worth $350 million. A press conference scheduled for December 20 to introduce Correa as a Giant at Oracle Park was cancelled three hours before it was to begin as the Giants found an issue with Correa's physical exam. The Giants were reportedly concerned with Correa's ankle, which he had injured in 2014. As the Giants wanted to renegotiate, Correa's agent, Scott Boras, reached out to other teams and reached an agreement with the New York Mets on a 12-year contract worth $315 million. However, the Mets also had concerns with Correa's ankle from their physical exam. As the Mets attempted to renegotiate with Correa, Boras reengaged with the Twins. On January 11, 2023, Correa re-signed with the Twins for six years and $200 million plus vesting options that could increase the value of the deal to $270 million. == Fielding == As a taller shortstop at and , he relies on footwork and a more upright ready position to hop to the ball. He also utilizes a one-handed pickup to leverage his long arms and range. He also uses a jump hop when throwing to first base while fading towards third base. ==International career== Correa played for Puerto Rico in the 2017 World Baseball Classic. With Francisco Lindor playing shortstop and Javier Baez as the team's second baseman, Correa played as Puerto Rico's third baseman. Correa batted .333 during the tournament, with three home runs, nine RBIs, 10 runs scored, and two stolen bases, including a home run in the semifinals. Following the conclusion of the tournament, he was named to the 2017 All-World Baseball Classic team. Correa opted to not play in the 2023 World Baseball Classic in anticipation of the birth of his second child. ==Personal life== After winning the 2017 World Series, Correa proposed to his girlfriend, Miss Texas USA 2016 Daniella Rodriguez, on national television. They have two dogs named Groot and Rocket. Correa and Rodriguez were married in a courthouse ceremony on November 11, 2019. Correa and Rodriguez announced on Instagram in June 2021 that they were expecting their first child. Their son was born on November 29, 2021. In October 2022, Correa and Rodriguez announced on Instagram that they were expecting their second child. Their second child, a boy, was born on March 11, 2023. Correa makes his home in Houston all year round. He has a younger brother, Jean Carlos Correa, whom the Astros selected in the 2018 MLB draft. His residence is in the Montrose area. He is involved in charity work, including helping children in Houston after Hurricane Harvey and his hometown in Puerto Rico after Hurricane Maria damaged the island in 2017. In March 2020, Correa donated $500,000 in medical equipment to help the city of Houston during the COVID-19 pandemic. ==Awards== Awards won by Carlos Correa Award Category Result / Section Year All-Star Futures Game selection 2013 American League (AL) Rookie of the Month June 2015 Darryl Kile Award 2017 Houston Astros Most Valuable Player (MVP) 2021 Players Choice Award Outstanding Rookie 2015 Premios Juventud Deportista de Alto Voltaje 2016 Sporting News AL All-Star Shortstop 2021 AL Rookie of the Year 2015 ==See also== * Houston Astros award winners and league leaders * List of Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico * List of people from Ponce, Puerto Rico ==References== ==External links== * Category:1994 births Category:Living people Category:American League All-Stars Category:Sportspeople from Ponce, Puerto Rico Category:Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico Category:Major League Baseball shortstops Category:Houston Astros players Category:Minnesota Twins players Category:Gold Glove Award winners Category:Gulf Coast Astros players Category:Greeneville Astros players Category:Quad Cities River Bandits players Category:Lancaster JetHawks players Category:Corpus Christi Hooks players Category:Fresno Grizzlies players Category:Round Rock Express players Category:Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners Category:2017 World Baseball Classic players |
Joshua () also known as Yehoshua ( Yəhōšuaʿ, Tiberian: Yŏhōšuaʿ, lit. 'Yahweh is salvation') or Josue, functioned as Moses' assistant in the books of Exodus and Numbers, and later succeeded Moses as leader of the Israelite tribes in the Book of Joshua of the Hebrew Bible. His name was Hoshea ( Hōšēaʿ, lit. 'Save') the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, but Moses called him "Yehoshua" (translated as "Joshua" in English),Bible the name by which he is commonly known in English. According to the Bible, he was born in Egypt prior to the Exodus. The Hebrew Bible identifies Joshua as one of the twelve spies of Israel sent by Moses to explore the land of Canaan. In Numbers 13:1,Bible and after the death of Moses, he led the Israelite tribes in the conquest of Canaan, and allocated lands to the tribes. According to biblical chronology, Joshua lived some time in the Bronze Age. According to Joshua 24:29,Bible Joshua died at the age of 110. Joshua holds a position of respect among Muslims. Muslims also see Joshua as the leader of the faithful following the death of Moses. In Islam, it is also believed that Yusha bin Nun (Joshua) was the "attendant" of Moses mentioned in the Quran before Moses meets Khidr. Joshua plays a role in Islamic literature, with significant narration in the hadith. ==Name== The English name "Joshua" is a rendering of the Hebrew Yehoshua, and is mostly interpreted as "Yahweh is salvation"; although others have also alternatively interpreted it as "Yahweh is lordly". The theophoric name appears to be constructed from a combination of the Tetragrammaton with the Hebrew noun יְשׁוּעָה (Modern: yəšūʿa, Tiberian: yăšūʿā), meaning "salvation"; derived from the Hebrew root ישׁע (y-š-ʿ), meaning "to save/help/deliver". Other theophoric names sharing a similar meaning can also be found throughout the Hebrew Bible, such as that of the son of David אֱלִישׁוּעַ (ʾĔlīšūaʿ), whose name means "My El (God) is salvation". "Jesus" is the English derivative of the Greek transliteration of "Yehoshua" via Latin. In the Septuagint, all instances of the word "Yehoshua" are rendered as "" (Iēsoūs), the closest Greek pronunciation of the .Bible Numbers 13:16 LXX (and Moses named Hosea, son of Naue, Jesus) Thus, in modern Greek, Joshua is called "Jesus son of Naue" (, toũ Nauḗ) to differentiate him from Jesus. This is also true in some Slavic languages following the Eastern Orthodox tradition (e.g. "", Iisús Navín, in Bulgarian, Serbian and Russian, but not Czech). ==Biblical narrative== ===The Exodus=== Joshua was a major figure in the events of the Exodus. He was charged by Moses with selecting and commanding a militia group for their first battle after exiting Egypt, against the Amalekites in Rephidim,Bible in which they were victorious. He later accompanied Moses when he ascended biblical Mount Sinai to commune with God,Exodus 24:13 visualize God's plan for the Israelite tabernacle and receive the Ten Commandments. Joshua was with Moses when he descended from the mountain, heard the Israelites' celebrations around the Golden Calf,Bible and broke the tablets bearing the words of the commandments. Similarly, in the narrative which refers to Moses being able to speak with God in his tent of meeting outside the camp, Joshua is seen as custodian of the tent ('tabernacle of meeting') when Moses returned to the Israelite encampment.Exodus 33:11 However, when Moses returned to the mountain to re-create the tablets recording the Ten Commandments, Joshua was not present, as the biblical text states "no man shall come up with you".Exodus 34:3 Later, Joshua was identified as one of the twelve spies sent by Moses to explore and report on the land of Canaan,Bible and only he and Caleb gave an encouraging report, a reward for which would be that only these two of their entire generation would enter the promised land.Bible According to Joshua 1:1,Bible God appointed Joshua to succeed Moses as leader of the Israelites along with giving him a blessing of invincibility during his lifetime.Bible The first part of the book of Joshua covers the period when he led the conquest of Canaan. ===Conquest of Canaan=== At the Jordan River, the waters parted, as they had for Moses at the Red Sea. The first battle after the crossing of the Jordan was the Battle of Jericho. Joshua led the destruction of Jericho, then moved on to Ai, a small neighboring city to the west. However, they were defeated with thirty-six Israelite deaths. The defeat was attributed to Achan taking an "accursed thing" from Jericho; and was followed by Achan and his family and animals being stoned to death to restore God's favor. Joshua then went to defeat Ai. The Israelites faced an alliance of five Amorite kings from Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon. At Gibeon, Joshua asked the to cause the sun and moon to stand still, so that he could finish the battle in daylight. According to the text, the sun stopped in the middle of the sky and delayed going down about a full day. This event is most notable because "There has been no day like it before or since, when the heeded the voice of a man, for the Lord fought for Israel."Bible The also fought for the Israelites in this battle, for he hurled huge hailstones from the sky which killed more Canaanites than those which the Israelites slaughtered. From there on, Joshua was able to lead the Israelites to several victories, securing much of the land of Canaan. He presided over the Israelite gatherings at Gilgal and Shiloh which allocated land to the tribes of Israel (Joshua 14:1–5 and 18:1–10), and the Israelites rewarded him with the Ephraimite city of Timnath-heres or Timnath-serah, where he settled (Joshua 19:50). According to the Talmud, Joshua in his book enumerated only those towns on the frontier. ===Death=== When he was "old and well advanced in years",Bible Joshua convened the elders and chiefs of the Israelites and exhorted them to have no fellowship with the native population, because it could lead them to be unfaithful to God.Bible , At a general assembly of the clans at Shechem, he took leave of the people, admonishing them to be loyal to their God, who had been so mightily manifested in the midst of them. As a witness of their promise to serve God, Joshua set up a great stone under an oak by the sanctuary of God. Soon afterward he died, at the age of 110, and was buried at Timnath-heres, in the hill country of Ephraim, north of Mount Gaash.Bible ==Historicity== The prevailing scholarly view is that the Book of Joshua is not a factual account of historical events. The apparent setting of Joshua is the 13th century BCE which was a time of widespread city-destruction, but with a few exceptions (Hazor, Lachish) the destroyed cities are not the ones the Bible associates with Joshua, and the ones it does associate with him show little or no sign of even being occupied at the time. Given its lack of historicity, Carolyn Pressler in her commentary for the Westminster Bible Companion series suggests that readers of Joshua should give priority to its theological message ("what passages teach about God") and be aware of what these would have meant to audiences in the seventh and sixth centuries BCE. Richard Nelson explained that the needs of the centralised monarchy favoured a single story of origins, combining old traditions of an exodus from Egypt, belief in a national god as "divine warrior," and explanations for ruined cities, social stratification and ethnic groups, and contemporary tribes. In the 1930s Martin Noth made a sweeping criticism of the usefulness of the Book of Joshua for history. Noth was a student of Albrecht Alt, who emphasized form criticism and the importance of etiology. Alt and Noth posited a peaceful movement of the Israelites into various areas of Canaan, contra the Biblical account. William Foxwell Albright questioned the "tenacity" of etiologies, which were key to Noth's analysis of the campaigns in Joshua. Archaeological evidence in the 1930s showed that the city of Ai, an early target for conquest in the putative Joshua account, had existed and been destroyed, but in the 22nd century BCE. Some alternate sites for Ai have been proposed which would partially resolve the discrepancy in dates, but these sites have not been widely accepted. In 1951 Kathleen Kenyon showed that Jericho was from the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2100–1550 BCE), not the Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BCE). Kenyon argued that the early Israelite campaign could not be historically corroborated, but rather explained as an etiology of the location and a representation of the Israelite settlement. In 1955, G. Ernest Wright discussed the correlation of archaeological data to the early Israelite campaigns, which he divided into three phases per the Book of Joshua. He pointed to two sets of archaeological findings that "seem to suggest that the biblical account is in general correct regarding the nature of the late thirteenth and twelfth-eleventh centuries in the country" (i.e., "a period of tremendous violence"). He gives particular weight to what were then recent digs at Hazor by Yigael Yadin. It has been argued that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value. The archaeological evidence shows that Jericho and Ai were not occupied in the Near Eastern Late Bronze Age. The story of the conquest perhaps represents the nationalist propaganda of the eighth century BCE kings of Judah and their claims to the territory of the Kingdom of Israel, incorporated into an early form of Joshua written late in the reign of king Josiah (reigned 640–609 BCE). The book was probably revised and completed after the fall of Jerusalem to the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE, and possibly after the return from the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE. ==Views== ===In Judaism=== ====In rabbinical literature==== In rabbinic literature Joshua is regarded as a faithful, humble, deserving, wise man. Biblical verses illustrative of these qualities and of their reward are applied to him. "He that waits on his master shall be honored"Proverbs 27:18 is construed as a reference to Joshua,Numbers Rabbah 12 as is also the first part of the same verse, "Whoso keeps the fig-tree shall eat the fruit thereof".Yalkut Shimoni, Joshua 2; Numbers Rabbah 12:21 That "honor shall uphold the humble in spirit"Proverbs 29:23 is proved by Joshua's victory over Amalek.Numbers Rabbah 13 Not the sons of Moses—as Moses himself had expected—but Joshua was appointed as Moses' successor.Numbers Rabbah 12 Moses was shown how Joshua reproved that Othniel.Yalkut Shimoni, Numbers 776 "God would speak to Moses face to face, like someone would speak to his friend. Then he would return to the camp. But his attendant, Joshua the son of Nun, a young man, would not leave the tent. Joshua never moved from the tent". Didn't Joshua leave the tent to eat, sleep or attend to his needs? This praise shows that Joshua had complete faith in Moses, the Tzaddik. One who has this faith is cognizant of the tzaddik in everything he does; he remains steadfastly with the tzaddik whatever he does.Nachman of Breslov, Likutey Halakhot VII According to rabbinic tradition, Joshua, when dividing the Land of Canaan among the twelve tribes of Israel, planted sea squill () to mark off the butts and bounds of tribal properties. Moreover, Joshua, on dividing the land of Canaan amongst the tribes of Israel, made the tribes agree to ten conditions, the most important of which being the common use of the forests as pasture for cattle, and the common right of fishing in the Sea of Tiberias.Babylonian Talmud (Bava Kamma 80b—81a). Natural springs were to be used for drinking and laundry by all tribes, although the tribe to which the water course fell had the first rights.Maimonides, Mishneh Torah (Hil. Nizkei Mammon 5:3); Acha of Shabha, Sheiltoth, P. Ra’eh 147; Jerusalem Talmud, Baba Bathra 5:1. Even if the source of the natural spring were to originate in a distant tribal territory, and flowed along its course through another tribal territory, the people living in the territory where the water currently passes through have first-rights over the water. Prickly burnet (Sarcopoterium spinosum) and the camelthorn (Alhagi maurorum) could be freely collected as firewood by any member of any tribe, in any tribal territory. ====In prayer==== thumb|upright|The Israelites led by Joshua crossing the Jordan River with the Ark, Old Sacristy, Milan Italy, 15th c. thumb|Robert Hecquet, Israelites led by Joshua Crossing the Jordan River According to Jewish religious tradition, upon making Aliyah by crossing the Jordan River to enter the Land of Israel, Joshua composed the Aleinu prayer thanking God. This idea was first cited in the Kol Bo of the late 14th Century. Several medieval commentators noticed that Joshua's shorter birth name, Hosea, appears in the first few verses of Aleinu in reverse acrostic: ע – עלינו, ש – שלא שם, ו – ואנחנו כורעים, ה – הוא אלוקינו. The Teshuvot HaGeonim, a Geonic responsum, discussed that Joshua composed the Aleinu because although the Israelites had made Aliyah to the Promised Land, they were surrounded by other peoples, and he wanted the Jews to draw a clear distinction between themselves, who knew and accepted the sovereignty of God, and those nations of the world which did not. In the modern era, religious Jews still pray the Aliyah inspired Aleinu three times daily, including on the High Holidays. The Aleinu prayer begins: ===In Christianity=== Most modern Bibles translate to identify Jesus as a better Joshua, as Joshua led Israel into the rest of Canaan, but Jesus leads the people of God into "God's rest". Among the early Church Fathers, Joshua is considered a type of Jesus Christ. The story of Joshua and the Canaanite kings is also alluded to in the 2 Meqabyan, a book considered canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. ===In Islam=== ====Possible Quranic reference==== Joshua (, Yūšaʿ ibn Nūn, /juːʃaʕ ibn nuːn/) is not mentioned by name in the Quran, but his name appears in other Islamic literature. In the Quranic account of the conquest of Canaan, Joshua and Caleb are referenced, but not named, as two "Allah-fearing men", on whom Allah "had bestowed His grace".Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Note. 726 to verse 23: "Among those who returned after spying out the land were two men who had faith and courage. They were Joshua and Caleb. Joshua afterwards succeeded Moses in the leadership after 40 years. These two men pleaded for an immediate entry through the proper Gate, which I understand to mean, 'after taking all due precautions and making all due preparations.' Cf. 2:189 and n. 203. But of course, they said, they must put their trust in Allah for victory." ====Hadith, exegesis, traditions==== Joshua was regarded by some classical scholars as the prophetic successor to Moses (). Al-Tabari relates in his History of the Prophets and Kings that Joshua was one of the twelve spies and Muslim scholars believe that the two believing spies referred to in the Quran are Joshua and Caleb. Joshua was exceptional among the Israelites for being one of the few faithful followers of Allah. Significant events from Joshua's Muslim narratives include the crossing of the Jordan river and the conquest of Bait al-Maqdis.Tabari, History of the Prophets and Kings, Vol. I: 414–429, 498–499, 503–516 The traditional Muslim commentary al-Jalalayn says, "Ahmad [b. Hanbal] reported in his Musnad, the [following] hadīth, 'The sun was never detained for any human, except for Joshua during those days in which he marched towards the Holy House [of Jerusalem]'." Muslim literature includes traditions of Joshua not found in the Hebrew Bible. Joshua is credited with being present at Moses's death and literature records that Moses's garments were with Joshua at the time of his departure.Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. XI, pg. 351, Yusha ibn Nun [Joshua, son of Nun] In Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, Joshua is mentioned as Yusha' bin Nun and is the attendant to Moses during his meeting with Khidr.Bukhari, Book 6, Volume 60, Hadiths 249, 250, 251: Prophetic Commentary on the Qur'an (Tafseer of the Prophet (pbuh))Bukhari, Book 1, Volume 3, Hadith 124: KnowledgeMuslim, Book 30, Hadith 5864: The Book Pertaining to the Excellent Qualities of the Holy Prophet (may Peace be upon them) and His Companions (Kitab Al-Fada'il) ==In art and literature== In the literary tradition of medieval Europe, Joshua is known as one of the Nine Worthies. In The Divine Comedy Joshua's spirit appears to Dante in the Heaven of Mars, where he is grouped with the other "warriors of the faith." Baroque composer Georg Frideric Handel composed the oratorio Joshua in 1747. Composer Franz Waxman composed an oratorio Joshua in 1959. Marc-Antoine Charpentier composed Josue (H.404 and H.404 a), an oratorio for soloists, double chorus, double orchestra and continuo, in 1680. ==In science== According to legend, Mormon pioneers in the United States first referred to the yucca brevifolia agave plant as the Joshua tree because its branches reminded them of Joshua stretching his arms upward in supplication, guiding the travelers westward. Joshua is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of snake, Joshua's blind snake (Trilepida joshuai), the holotype of which was collected at Jericó, Antioquia, Colombia. ==Jewish holidays== thumb|upright=0.6|Israeli poster celebrating Yom HaAliyah (Aliyah Day) from the Yosef Matisyahu Collection The annual commemoration of Joshua's yahrtzeit (the anniversary of his death) is marked on the 26th of Nisan on the Hebrew calendar. Thousands make the pilgrimage to the Tomb of Joshua at Kifl Haris near Nablus, West Bank, on the preceding night. Yom HaAliyah (Aliyah Day; ) is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of the Hebrew month of Nisan, as per the opening clause of the Yom HaAliyah Law, as a Zionist celebration of "Jewish immigration to the Land of Israel as the basis for the existence of the State of Israel", and secondarily "to mark the date of entry into the Land of Israel", i.e. to commemorate Joshua having led the Israelites across the Jordan River into the Land of Israel while carrying the Ark of the Covenant. ==Tomb of Joshua== According to a Samaritan tradition, noted in 1877, the tombs of Joshua and Caleb were in Kifl Haris.Conder and Kitchener, 1882, p. 218 - 219 According to , the tomb of Joshua is in Timnath-heres, and Jewish tradition also places the tombs of Caleb and Nun at that site, which is identified by Orthodox Jews with Kifl Haris. Thousands make the pilgrimage to the tombs on the annual commemoration of Joshua's death, 26th of Nisan on the Hebrew calendar. Joshua is believed by some Muslims to be buried on Joshua's Hill in the Beykoz district of Istanbul. Alternative traditional sites for his tomb are situated in Israel (the Shia shrine at Al-Nabi Yusha'), Jordan (An- Nabi Yusha' bin Noon, a Sunni shrine near the city of Al-SaltMazar Hazrat Yusha’ bin Noon, on the website of the Islamic Supreme Council of Canada Tomb of Prophet Yusha' (photo of the tomb; Islamic view on Prophet Yusha'/Joshua) ), Iran (Historical cemetery of Takht e Foolad in Esfahan) and Iraq (the Nabi Yusha' shrine of Baghdad). A local tradition combining three versions of three different Yushas, including biblical Joshua, places the tomb inside a cave in the Tripoli Mountains, overlooking the coastal town of el-Minyieh near Tripoli, Lebanon.The Shrine of Prophet Yusha/Joshua (pbuh) , Sacred Places in Lebanon - Holy Places in LebanonEl-Nabi Yusha' Mosque and Maqam , at DestinationLebanon.gov.lb, Lebanon Ministry of Tourism ==See also== * Joshua Roll ==References== === Explanatory notes === ===Citations=== === General and cited sources === * * academia.edu * * * * * * Brettler, Marc Zvi, How to read the Bible (Jewish Publication Society, 2005). * * Coogan, Michael D. (ed), The Oxford History of the Biblical World (Oxford University Press, 1998) * * * * Day, John, Yahweh and the gods and goddesses of Canaan (Sheffield Academic Press, 2002) ** * Dever, William, What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? (Eerdmans, 2001) * Dever, William, Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? (Eerdmans, 2003, 2006) * * * Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihay; Schmidt, Brian B., The Quest for the Historical Israel (Society of Biblical Literature, 2007) * Garbini, G., Myth and history in the Bible (Sheffield Academic Press, 2003) * * Graham, M.P, and McKenzie, Steven L., The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998) * * * * * . * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * The Book of Joshua, Douay Rheims Bible Version with annotations By Bishop Challoner * Smith’s Bible Dictionary * Easton's Bible Dictionary & Int. Standard Bible Encyclopedia -14 Jews Category:14th-century BC religious leaders Category:Biblical figures in rabbinic literature Category:Book of Exodus people Category:Book of Numbers people Category:Christian saints from the Old Testament Category:Hebrew Bible judges |
Operando spectroscopy is an analytical methodology wherein the spectroscopic characterization of materials undergoing reaction is coupled simultaneously with measurement of catalytic activity and selectivity. The primary concern of this methodology is to establish structure-reactivity/selectivity relationships of catalysts and thereby yield information about mechanisms. Other uses include those in engineering improvements to existing catalytic materials and processes and in developing new ones. ==Overview and terms== In the context of organometallic catalysis, an in situ reaction involves the real-time measurement of a catalytic process using techniques such as mass spectrometry, NMR, infrared spectroscopy, and gas chromatography to help gain insight into functionality of the catalyst. Approximately 90% of industrial precursor chemicals are synthesized using catalysts. Understanding the catalytic mechanism and active site is crucial to creating catalysts with optimal efficiency and maximal product yield. In situ reactor cell designs typically are incapable of pressure and temperature consistency required for true catalytic reaction studies, making these cells insufficient. Several spectroscopic techniques require liquid helium temperatures, making them inappropriate for real-world studies of catalytic processes. Therefore, the operando reaction method must involve in situ spectroscopic measurement techniques, but under true catalytic kinetic conditions. Operando (Latin for working) spectroscopy refers to continuous spectra collection of a working catalyst, allowing for simultaneous evaluation of both structure and activity/selectivity of the catalyst. ==History== The term operando first appeared in catalytic literature in 2002. It was coined by Miguel A. Bañares, who sought to name the methodology in a way that captured the idea of observing a functional material — in this case a catalyst — under actual working, i.e. device operation, conditions. The first international congress on operando spectroscopy took place in Lunteren, Netherlands, in March 2003, followed by further conferences in 2006 (Toledo, Spain),2009 (Rostock, Germany), 2012 (Brookhaven, USA), and 2015 (Deauville, France)."4th International Congress on Operando Spectroscopy". ps.bnl.gov The name change from in situ to operando for the research field of spectroscopy of catalysts under working conditions was proposed at the Lunteren congress. The analytical principle of measuring the structure, property and function of a material, a component disassembled or as part of a device simultaneously under operation conditions is not restricted to catalysis and catalysts. Batteries and fuel cells have been subject to operando studies with respect to their electrochemical function. ==Methodology== Operando spectroscopy is a class of methodology, rather than a specific spectroscopic technique such as FTIR or NMR. Operando spectroscopy is a logical technological progression in in situ studies. Catalyst scientists would ideally like to have a "motion picture" of each catalytic cycle, whereby the precise bond-making or bond-breaking events taking place at the active site are known; this would allow a visual model of the mechanism to be constructed. The ultimate goal is to determine the structure-activity relationship of the substrate-catalyst species of the same reaction. Having two experiments—the performing of a reaction plus the real- time spectral acquisition of the reaction mixture—on a single reaction facilitates a direct link between the structures of the catalyst and intermediates, and of the catalytic activity/selectivity. Although monitoring a catalytic process in situ can provide information relevant to catalytic function, it is difficult to establish a perfect correlation because of the current physical limitations of in situ reactor cells. Complications arise, for example, for gas phase reactions which require large void volumes, which make it difficult to homogenize heat and mass within the cell. The crux of a successful operando methodology, therefore, is related to the disparity between laboratory setups and industrial setups, i.e., the limitations of properly simulating the catalytic system as it proceeds in industry. The purpose of operando spectroscopy is to measure the catalytic changes that occur within the reactor during operation using time-resolved (and sometimes spatially-resolved) spectroscopy. Time-resolved spectroscopy theoretically monitor the formation and disappearance of intermediate species at the active site of the catalyst as bond are made and broken in real time. However, current operando instrumentation often only works in the second or subsecond time scale and therefore, only relative concentrations of intermediates can be assessed. Spatially resolved spectroscopy combines spectroscopy with microscopy to determine active sites of the catalyst studied and spectator species present in the reaction. ===Cell design=== Operando spectroscopy requires measurement of the catalyst under (ideally) real working conditions, involving comparable temperature and pressure environments to those of industrially catalyzed reactions, but with a spectroscopic device inserted into the reaction vessel. The parameters of the reaction are then measured continuously during the reaction using the appropriate instrumentation, i.e., online mass spectrometry, gas chromatography or IR/NMR spectroscopy. Operando instruments (in situ cells) must ideally allow for spectroscopic measurement under optimal reaction conditions. Most industrial catalysis reactions require excessive pressure and temperature conditions which subsequently degrades the quality of the spectra by lowering the resolution of signals. Currently many complications of this technique arise due to the reaction parameters and the cell design. The catalyst may interact with the components of the operando apparatus; open space in the cell can have an effect on the absorption spectra, and the presence of spectator species in the reaction may complicate analysis of the spectra. Continuing development of operando reaction-cell design is in line with working towards minimizing the need for compromise between optimal catalysis conditions and spectroscopy. http://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/23445/weckhuysen_04_in_situspectroscopyofcatalysts.pdf These reactors must handle specific temperature and pressure requirements while still providing access for spectrometry. Other requirements considered when designing operando experiments include reagent and product flow rates, catalyst position, beam paths, and window positions and sizes. All of these factors must also be accounted for while designing operando experiments, as the spectroscopic techniques used may alter the reaction conditions. An example of this was reported by Tinnemans et al., which noted that local heating by a Raman laser can give spot temperatures exceeding 100 °C. Also, Meunier reports that when using DRIFTS, there is a noticeable temperature difference (on the order of hundreds of degrees) between the crucible core and the exposed surface of the catalyst due to losses caused by the IR-transparent windows necessary for analysis. 450px|thumb|right|Operando apparatus for heterogeneous catalysis ====Raman spectroscopy==== Raman spectroscopy is one of the easiest methods to integrate into a heterogeneous operando experiment, as these reactions typically occur in the gas phase, so there is very low litter interference and good data can be obtained for the species on the catalytic surface. In order to use Raman, all that is required is to insert a small probe containing two optical fibers for excitation and detection. Pressure and heat complications are essentially negligible, due to the nature of the probe. Operando confocal Raman micro-spectroscopy has been applied to the study of fuel cell catalytic layers with flowing reactant streams and controlled temperature. ====UV-vis spectroscopy==== Operando UV-vis spectroscopy is particularly useful for many homogeneous catalytic reactions because organometallic species are often colored. Fiber-optical sensors allow monitoring of the consumption of reactants and production of product within the solution through absorption spectra. Gas consumption as well as pH and electrical conductivity can also be measured using fiber-optic sensors within an operando apparatus. ====IR spectroscopy ==== One case study investigated the formation of gaseous intermediates in the decomposition of CCl in the presence of steam over LaO using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. This experiment produced useful information about the reaction mechanism, active site orientation, and about which species compete for the active site. ====X-ray diffraction==== A case study by Beale et al. involved preparation of iron phosphates and bismuth molybdate catalysts from an amorphous precursor gel. The study found that there were no intermediate phases in the reaction, and helped to determine kinetic and structural information. The article uses the dated term in-situ, but the experiment uses, in essence, an operando method. Although x-ray diffraction does not count as a spectroscopy method, it is often being used as an operando method in various fields, including catalysis. ====X-ray spectroscopy==== X-ray spectroscopy methods can be used for genuine operando analyses of catalysts and other functional materials. The redox dynamics of sulfur with Ni/GDC anode during solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) operation at mid- and low-range temperatures in an operando S K-edge XANES have been studied. Ni is a typical catalyst material for the anode in high temperature SOFCs. The operando spectro-electrochemical cell for this high temperature gas-solid reaction study under electrochemical conditions was based on a typical high temperature heterogeneous catalysis cell, which was further equipped with electric terminals. Very early method development for operando studies on PEM-FC fuel cells was done by Haubold et al. at Forschungszentrum Jülich and HASYLAB. Specifically they developed plexiglas spectro-electrochemical cells for XANES, EXAFS and SAXS and ASAXS studies with control of the electrochemical potential of the fuel cell. Under operation of the fuel cell they determined the change of the particle size of and oxidation state and shell formation of the platinum electrocatalyst. In contrast to the SOFC operation conditions, this was a PEM-FC study in liquid environment under ambient temperature. The same operando method is applied to battery research and yields information on the changes of the oxidation state of electrochemically active elements in a cathode such as Mn via XANES, information on coronation shell and bond length via EXAFS, and information on microstructure changes during battery operation via ASAXS. Since lithium ion batteries are intercalation batteries, information on the chemistry and electronic structure going on in the bulk during operation are of interest. For this, soft x-ray information can be obtained using hard X-ray Raman scattering. Fixed energy methods (FEXRAV) have been developed and applied to the study of the catalytic cycle for the oxygen evolution reaction on iridium oxide. FEXRAV consists of recording the absorption coefficient at a fixed energy while varying at will the electrode potential in an electrochemical cell during the course of an electrochemical reaction. It allows to obtain a rapid screening of several systems under different experimental conditions (e.g., nature of the electrolyte, potential window), preliminary to deeper XAS experiments. The soft X-Ray regime (i.e. with photon energy < 1000 eV) can be profitably used for investigating heterogeneous solid-gas reaction. In this case, it is proved that XAS can be sensitive both to the gas phase and to the solid surface states. ====Gas chromatography==== One case study monitored the dehydrogenation of propane to propene using micro-GC. Reproducibility for the experiment was high. The study found that the catalyst (Cr/AlO) activity increased to a sustained maximum of 10% after 28 minutes — an industrially useful insight into the working stability of a catalyst. ====Mass spectrometry==== Use of mass spectrometry as a second component of an operando experiment allows for optical spectra to be obtained before obtaining a mass spectrum of the analytes. Electrospray ionization allows a wider range of substances to be analysed than other ionization methods, due to its ability to ionize samples without thermal degradation. In 2017, Prof. Frank Crespilho and coworks introduced a new approach to operando DEMS, aiming the enzyme activity evaluation by differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS). NAD- dependent alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) enzymes for ethanol oxidation were investigated by DEMS. The broad mass spectra obtained under bioelectrochemical control and with unprecedented accuracy were used to provide new insight into the enzyme kinetics and mechanisms. ====Impedance spectroscopy==== ==Applications== ===Nanotechnology=== Operando spectroscopy has become a vital tool for surface chemistry. Nanotechnology, used in materials science, involves active catalytic sites on a reagent surface with at least one dimension in the nano-scale of approximately 1–100 nm. As particle size decreases, surface area increases. This results in a more reactive catalytic surface."Nanotechnology Introduction – What is nanotechnology?". Nanowerk. The reduced scale of these reactions affords several opportunities while presenting unique challenges; for example, due to the very small size of the crystals (sometimes <5 nm), any X-ray crystallography diffraction signal may be very weak. As catalysis is a surface process, one particular challenge in catalytic studies is resolving the typically weak spectroscopic signal of the catalytically active surface against that of the inactive bulk structure. Moving from the micro to the nano scale increases the surface to volume ratio of the particles, maximizing the signal of the surface relative to that of the bulk. Furthermore, as the scale of the reaction decreases towards nano scale, individual processes can be discerned that would otherwise be lost in the average signal of a bulk reaction composed of multiple coincident steps and species such as spectators, intermediates, and reactive sites. ===Heterogeneous catalysis=== Operando spectroscopy is widely applicable to heterogeneous catalysis, which is largely used in industrial chemistry. An example of operando methodology to monitor heterogeneous catalysis is the dehydrogenation of propane with molybdenum catalysts commonly used in industrial petroleum. Mo/SiO and Mo/AlO were studied with an operando setup involving EPR/UV-Vis, NMR/UV-Vis, and Raman. The study examined the solid molybdenum catalyst in real time. It was determined that the molybdenum catalyst exhibited propane dehydrogenation activity, but deactivated over time. The spectroscopic data showed that the most likely catalytic active state was in the production of propene. The deactivation of the catalyst was determined to be the result of coke formation and the irreversible formation of crystals, which were difficult to reduce back to . The dehydrogenation of propane can also be achieved with chromium catalysts, through the reduction of to . Propylene is one of the most important organic starting materials is used globally, particularly in the synthesis of various plastics. Therefore, the development of effective catalysts to produce propylene is of great interest.Polyethylene Glycol. wisegeek.com Operando spectroscopy is of great value to the further research and development of such catalysts. ===Homogeneous catalysis=== Combining operando Raman, UV–Vis and ATR-IR is particularly useful for studying homogeneous catalysis in solution. Transition-metal complexes can perform catalytic oxidation reactions on organic molecules; however, much of the corresponding reaction pathways are still unclear. For example, an operando study of the oxidation of veratryl alcohol by salcomine catalyst at high pH determined that the initial oxidation of the two substrate molecules to aldehydes is followed by the reduction of molecular oxygen to water, and that the rate determining step is the detachment of the product. Understanding organometallic catalytic activity on organic molecules is incredibly valuable for the further development of material science and pharmaceuticals. ==References== Category:Spectroscopy Category:Catalysis |
Herberts Cukurs (17 May 1900 – 23 February 1965) was a Latvian aviator and deputy commander of the Arajs Kommando, which carried out the largest mass murders of Latvian Jews in the Holocaust., Season 1, Episode 1: The Spy & The Murderer Although Cukurs never stood trial, the accounts of multiple Holocaust survivors, including Zelma Shepshelovitz, credibly link him to war crimes and crimes against humanity.Kaufmann, The Destruction of the Latvian Jews, at 81 After being identified by a Holocaust survivor in Brazil, who tried to alert authorities after seeing Cukurs' face on the cover of a magazine, Cukurs was investigated and assassinated in 1965 during capture by Nazi hunter operatives from the Israeli intelligence service Mossad. One of the Mossad agents who killed Cukurs, "Künzle", and a journalist, Gad Shimron, authored a book on the experience, The Execution of the Hangman of Riga, in which they referred to Cukurs as the Butcher of Latvia, a name later used by several other sources.Press, The Murder of the Jews of Latvia, at pages 69 to 70.Künzle and Shimron, The Execution of the Hangman of Riga, at page 127.Lumans, Latvia in World War II, at page 240.Eksteins, Walking Since Daybreak, at page 150.Michelson, Max, City of Life, City of Death, at 103. == Biography == === Aviation career (1930s–1941) === thumb|left|Cukurs in Gambia in 1933 As a pioneering long-distance pilot, Cukurs won national acclaim for his international solo flights in the 1930s (Latvia-Gambia and Riga-Tokyo). He was awarded the Harmon Trophy for Latvia in 1933, and was considered a national hero, in analogous fashion to Charles Lindbergh.Operation Last Chance: One Man's Quest to Bring Nazi Criminals to Justice, by Efraim Zuroff, Macmillan, Nov 10, 2009 p. 117 Cukurs built at least three aircraft of his own design. In 1937, he made a tour visiting Japan, China, Indochina and India, flying the C 6 wooden monoplane "Trīs zvaigznes" (registration YL-ABA) of his own creation. The aircraft was powered by a De Havilland Gipsy engine. Cukurs also designed the Cukurs C-6bis prototype dive bomber in 1940. After the Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940, Cukurs was summoned to Moscow in an attempt to recruit him to build planes for the Soviet Union. === Participation in the Arajs Kommando (1941–1944) === In mid-1941, during the German occupation of Latvia, Cukurs became deputy commander of the newly formed Latvian Auxiliary Police unit, the Arajs Kommando. In his book The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941-1945, the Latvian historian Andrew Ezergailis writes that Cukurs played a leading role in the atrocities that were committed in the Riga ghetto in conjunction with the Rumbula massacre on 30 November 1941. Also available in English as: Andrew Ezergailis, The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941–1944: The Missing Center (1996), . After the war, surviving witnesses reported that Cukurs had been present during the ghetto clearance and fired into the mass of Jewish civilians. According to other eyewitness sources, Cukurs was also the most recognizable Latvian SD man at the scene of the Rumbula massacre. Ezergailis states that "although Arājs' men were not the only ones on the ghetto end of the operation, to the degree they participated in the atrocities there, the chief responsibility rests on Herberts Cukurs' shoulders."Ezergailis, The Holocaust in Latvia, at pages 192 and 267, n.55 Cukurs was described as follows: Later, Ezergailis retracted these interpretations, saying that in light of new documents, it would be wrong to claim that Cukurs had participated in the Rumbula shooting or the burning of the Riga synagogues. During interviews with the press, Ezergailis stated that there is no evidence that Cukurs had been at the pits at Rumbula, and that it has not been proven that Cukurs was "the most eager shooter of Jews in Latvia". However, according to eyewitness accounts, Cukurs had participated in the burning of the Riga synagogues and the killing of Jews that he had dragged out of their houses, locked inside the synagogue on Stabu Street, set it on fire and shot with his revolver anyone who broke the windows from inside and tried to get out of the burning building.The Murder of the Jews in Latvia, p. 46. "Eyewitnesses heard the people who were locked inside screaming for help and saw them breaking the synagogue's windows from inside and trying, like living torches, to get outside. Cukurs shot them with his revolver." Time reported at the time of Cukurs' death in 1965, his crimes included setting the Riga synagogue fire, executing over 1,200 Jewish civilians (including infants) forced to stand over a lake (so victims fell into the water) in just one of many massacres he carried out, kidnapping and raping Jewish girls and young women at the Arajs Kommando Headquarters, and his participation in the Rumbula massacre in a forest near Riga. Multiple eyewitnesses said they saw Cukurs snatching infants from the arms of their mothers and shooting them. === Postwar flight and assassination (1944–1965) === thumb|Cukurs in 1965, shortly before his death Cukurs retreated to Germany with German forces and after the war fled to Brazil via the ratlines. The Brazilian Consulate in Marseille issued the visa for permanent residency on 18 December 1945. The visa did not list the name of the Latvian Jewish woman Cukurs kidnapped and pretended was his wife, but it identified three minor children: Gunārs, Antinea and Herberts.Visa number 42575 issued by Brazilian Consulate in Marseilles France on 18 December 1945. In Brazil, Cukurs established a business in São Paulo, flying Republic RC-3 Seabees on scenic flights. While living in South America, he neither hid nor tried to conceal his identity. After it was learned that he would not stand trial for his participation in the Holocaust, Cukurs was assassinated by Nazi hunting Mossad agents, who persuaded him to travel to Uruguay under the pretense of starting an aviation business. An acquaintance named "Anton Künzle", in reality the disguised Mossad agent Yaakov Meidad who had taken part in the capture of Adolf Eichmann in Argentina in 1960, cabled Cukurs from Montevideo. He was invited to a house in a remote suburb of the city that had just been rented by a man from Vienna. Inside, he was ambushed by a group of men. Cukurs fought back against his attackers, and bit the finger of one of the hitmen so hard it was nearly severed. Ultimately, Cukurs was overwhelmed. He was subdued after one of the men hit him in the head with a hammer. Now helpless, Cukurs started pleading with the men to let him speak before they did anything else. He received no response and was promptly shot in the head twice with a suppressed automatic pistol, killing him instantly. His body, found in a trunk on 6 March, had several gunshot wounds elsewhere, and his skull was shattered. Next to his body, several documents were left pertaining to his involvement in the murder of Jews in the Riga Ghetto. Media outlets in South America and Germany received a note stating: The note was initially dismissed as a prank, but then police were notified and the body was discovered. One of the main motives of Cukurs's assassination was to deter West Germany from allowing the statute of limitations to expire on Nazi war crimes. == Legacy and controversy == The American-born Israeli historian and Nazi hunter Efraim Zuroff has pointed out that Cukurs was not prosecuted has allowed for what he believes are "attempts by right-wing nationalists and his family to totally exonerate Cukurs and by other Latvians to question or diminish his individual culpability" and "to restore him to hero status in Latvia and whitewash his massive guilt". In 2004, postal envelopes with the image of Cukurs were issued and distributed by National Power Unity, a far-right nationalist political party in Latvia. The act was condemned by Yad Vashem, as well as Minister of Foreign Affairs of Latvia Artis Pabriks who said that "those who produced such envelopes in Latvia evidently do not understand the tragic history of World War II in Latvia or in Europe". The Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that Cukurs was "guilty of war crimes", and that he "took part in the activities of the notorious Arajs Kommando, which participated in the Holocaust and was responsible for the killing of innocent civilians. The General Prosecutor's Office of Latvia has twice rejected the exoneration of Herberts Cukurs". In summer of 2005, a controversial exhibition "Herberts Cukurs: The Presumption of Innocence" was organized by the culture and art NGO K@2 in Liepāja. In a letter, members of the Latvian Jewish community called the exhibit "an attempt to rehabilitate a war criminal," and criticized Latvian ultra-nationalist politician for his tacit support of it. For his response, in which Kiršteins hinted at the Latvian Jewish community's collaboration with the "state's enemies" during the Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940, he was expelled from People's Party. After seeing the exhibit, director of the museum "Jews in Latvia" Marģers Vestermanis summarized its overall message as "Jews killed our hero." Episode 1 of National Geographic's 2009 series Nazi Hunters recreated Mossad's assassination operation of Cukurs. On 11 October 2014, a musical "Cukurs. Herberts Cukurs", produced by Juris Millers, premiered in Liepāja. "We are not Herbert Cukurs' advocates and we are not his judges," Millers said at the premiere, "I hope this performance will make you think." Another performance initially scheduled for 17 March, the day after the Remembrance day of the Latvian legionnaires, was postponed in fear of "serious provocations". The musical was criticised by Zuroff who tweeted he was "utterly disgusted" by it, Russian President Vladimir Putin called the musical a "vivid example" of open manifestations of neo-Nazism that he alleged had become "routine" in Latvia and other Baltic countries. Minister of Foreign Affairs of Latvia Edgars Rinkēvičs said the production “is not in good taste” and "cannot, in any way, be supported", but defended the producer's right to free speech. In 2020, Stephan Talty published an account of the Mossad's hunt for Cukurs, titled The Good Assassin: How a Mossad Agent and a Band of Survivors Hunted Down the Butcher of Latvia. == Family == Cukurs had a daughter, Antinea Dolores, in marriage named Antinea Dolores Cukurs Rizzotto. Her granddaughter, Cukurs' great-granddaughter, is Latvian-Brazilian singer Laura Rizzotto. == Notes == == References == * Angrick, Angrej, and Klein, Peter, The "Final Solution" in Riga: Exploitation and Annihilation, 1941-1944, Berghahn Books, 2009 ; originally published as Die „Endlösung“ in Riga., Darmstadt 2006, * Ezergailis, Andrew, The Holocaust in Latvia 1941-1944—The Missing Center, Historical Institute of Latvia (in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) Riga 1996 * Goñi, Uki. The Real Odessa: Smuggling the Nazis to Perón's Argentina, Granta, New York 2002 * Kaufmann, Max, Die Vernichtung des Judens Lettlands (The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia), Munich, 1947, English translation by Laimdota Mazzarins available on- line as Churbn Lettland -- The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia (all references in this article are to page numbers in the on-line edition) * Künzle, Anton, Shimron, Gad, and Massad, Uriel, The Execution of the Hangman of Riga: The Only Execution of a Nazi War Criminal by the Mossad, Mitchell, Valentine & Co., 2004 * Michelson, Max, City of Life, City of Death: Memories of Riga, University Press of Colorado (2001) * Press, Bernard, The Murder of the Jews in Latvia, Northwestern University Press, 2000 == External links == * Herbert Cukurs' flight to Gambia, 1933-1934 , historical information and images. * Herbert Cukurs' flight to Tokyo, 1936-1937 , historical information and images. * Herberts Cukurs and his airplanes in Brazil * Collection of photos related to Herberts Cukurs * Discovery Of Body Of Herbert Cukurs, Alleged Nazi War Criminal (1965). Archivo Reuters Uruguay. Category:1900 births Category:1965 deaths Category:1965 murders in Uruguay Category:Arajs Kommando personnel Category:Assassinated military personnel Category:Assassinated Latvian people Category:Assassinated Nazis Category:Deaths by firearm in Uruguay Category:Executed mass murderers Category:Holocaust perpetrators in Latvia Category:Latvian aviators Category:Executed Latvian collaborators with Nazi Germany Category:Latvian military personnel of the Latvian War of Independence Category:Latvian expatriates in Uruguay Category:Latvian fascists Category:Latvian murder victims Category:Military personnel from Liepāja Category:Nazis executed by firearm Category:Nazis in South America Category:People from Courland Governorate Category:People killed in Mossad operations Category:People murdered in Uruguay Category:Riga Ghetto Category:World War II pilots |
Darmstadtium (110Ds) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 269Ds in 1994. There are 11 known radioisotopes from 267Ds to 281Ds (with many gaps) and 2 or 3 known isomers. The longest-lived isotope is 281Ds with a half-life of 14 seconds. == List of isotopes == |- | 267DsUnconfirmed isotope | style="text-align:right" | 110 | style="text-align:right" | 157 | 267.14377(15)# | 10(8) µs [] | α ? | 263Hs ? | 3/2+# |- | 269Ds | style="text-align:right" | 110 | style="text-align:right" | 159 | 269.14475(3) | 230(110) µs [] | α | 265Hs | 3/2+# |- | 270Ds | style="text-align:right" | 110 | style="text-align:right" | 160 | 270.14458(5) | | α | 266Hs | 0+ |- | rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 270mDs | rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1040 keV | rowspan=2| | α (70%) | 266Hs | rowspan=2|10-# |- | IT (30%) | 270Ds |- | 271Ds | style="text-align:right" | 110 | style="text-align:right" | 161 | 271.14595(10)# | 210(170) ms | α | 267Hs | 11/2−# |- | style="text-indent:1em" | 271mDs | colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 29(29) keV | 1.3(5) ms | α | 267Hs | 9/2+# |- | 273Ds | style="text-align:right" | 110 | style="text-align:right" | 163 | 273.14856(14)# | 240(100) µs | α | 269Hs | 13/2−# |- |275Ds | style="text- align:right" | 110 | style="text-align:right" | 165 |275.15203(45)# |62 µs |α |271Hs | |- | rowspan=2|276Ds | rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 110 | rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 166 | rowspan=2|276.15303(59)# | rowspan=2|~66 µs | SF (67%) | (various) | rowspan=2|0+ |- | α (33%) | 272Hs |- | 277DsNot directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 285Fl | style="text-align:right" | 110 | style="text-align:right" | 167 | 277.15591(41)# | | α | 273Hs | 11/2+# |- | rowspan=2|279DsNot directly synthesized, occurs as decay product of 283Cn | rowspan=2 style="text- align:right" | 110 | rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 169 | rowspan=2|279.16010(64)# | rowspan=2| | SF (87%) | (various) | rowspan=2| |- | α (13%) | 275Hs |- | 280DsNot directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 288Fl | style="text-align:right" | 110 | style="text-align:right" | 170 | 280.16131(89)# | | SF | (various) | 0+ |- | rowspan=2|281DsNot directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 289Fl | rowspan=2 style="text- align:right" | 110 | rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 171 | rowspan=2|281.16451(59)# | rowspan=2|14(3) s | SF (90%) | (various) | rowspan=2|3/2+# |- | α (10%) | 277Hs ==Isotopes and nuclear properties== ===Nucleosynthesis=== Superheavy elements such as darmstadtium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle accelerators that induce fusion reactions. Whereas most of the isotopes of darmstadtium can be synthesized directly this way, some heavier ones have only been observed as decay products of elements with higher atomic numbers. Depending on the energies involved, the former are separated into "hot" and "cold". In hot fusion reactions, very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets (actinides), giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50 MeV) that may either fission or evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons. In cold fusion reactions, the produced fused nuclei have a relatively low excitation energy (~10–20 MeV), which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to the ground state, they require emission of only one or two neutrons, and thus, allows for the generation of more neutron-rich products. The latter is a distinct concept from that of where nuclear fusion claimed to be achieved at room temperature conditions (see cold fusion). The table below contains various combinations of targets and projectiles which could be used to form compound nuclei with Z = 110\. Target Projectile CN Attempt result 208Pb 62Ni 270Ds 207Pb 64Ni 271Ds 208Pb 64Ni 272Ds 209Bi 59Co 268Ds 226Ra 50Ti 276Ds http://www1.jinr.ru/Reports/2008/english/06_flnr_e.pdf 232Th 44Ca 276Ds 232Th 48Ca 280Ds 233U 40Ar 273Ds 235U 40Ar 275Ds 238U 40Ar 278Ds 244Pu 34S 278Ds 244Pu 36S 280Ds 248Cm 30Si 278Ds 250Cm 30Si 280Ds ====Cold fusion==== Before the first successful synthesis of darmstadtium in 1994 by the GSI team, scientists at GSI also tried to synthesize darmstadtium by bombarding lead-208 with nickel-64 in 1985. No darmstadtium atoms were identified. After an upgrade of their facilities, the team at GSI successfully detected 9 atoms of 271Ds in two runs of their discovery experiment in 1994. This reaction was successfully repeated in 2000 by GSI (4 atoms), in 2000 (preprint) and 2004 by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) (9 atoms in total) and in 2002 by RIKEN (14 atoms). The GSI team studied the analogous reaction with nickel-62 instead of nickel-64 in 1994 as part of their discovery experiment. Three atoms of 269Ds were detected. A fourth decay chain was measured but was subsequently retracted. In addition to the official discovery reactions, in October–November 2000, the team at GSI also studied the analogous reaction using a lead-207 target in order to synthesize the new isotope 270Ds. They succeeded in synthesising eight atoms of 270Ds, relating to a ground state isomer, 270Ds, and a high-spin metastable state, 270mDs. In 1986, a team at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia, studied the reaction: :Bi + Co → Ds + n They were unable to detect any darmstadtium atoms. In 1995, the team at LBNL reported that they had succeeded in detecting a single atom of 267Ds using this reaction. However, several decays were not measured and further research is required to confirm this discovery. ====Hot fusion==== In the late 1980s, the GSI team attempted to synthesize element 110 by bombarding a target consisting of various uranium isotopes—233U, 235U, and 238U—with accelerated argon-40 ions. No atoms were detected; a limiting cross section of 21 pb was reported. In September 1994, the team at Dubna detected a single atom of 273Ds by bombarding a plutonium-244 target with accelerated sulfur-34 ions. Experiments were done in 2004 at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) in Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus 280Ds, produced in the reaction: :Th + Ca → Ds* → fission The result revealed how compound nuclei such as this fission predominantly by expelling magic and doubly magic nuclei such as 132Sn (Z = 50, N = 82). No darmstadtium atoms were obtained.Flerov lab annual report 2004 A compound nucleus is a loose combination of nucleons that have not arranged themselves into nuclear shells yet. It has no internal structure and is held together only by the collision forces between the target and projectile nuclei. It is estimated that it requires around 10−14 s for the nucleons to arrange themselves into nuclear shells, at which point the compound nucleus becomes a nuclide, and this number is used by IUPAC as the minimum half-life a claimed isotope must have in order to be recognized as being discovered. The 232Th+48Ca reaction was attempted again at the FLNR in 2022; it was predicted that the 48Ca-induced reaction leading to element 110 would have a lower yield than those leading to lighter or heavier elements. Six atoms of 276Ds were reported, with lifetimes ranging between and ; four decayed by spontaneous fission and two decayed via a two-alpha sequence to 272Hs and the spontaneously fissioning 268Sg. Detailed decay and cross-section data are not yet available.SHE Factory Experiments - FLNR The JINR team repeated this reaction in 2023 at a higher beam energy to corroborate these findings and found 275Ds. They intend to further study the reaction and find 274Ds. ====As decay product==== List of darmstadtium isotopes observed by decay Evaporation residue Observed darmstadtium isotope 277Cn 273Ds 285Fl, 281Cn 277Ds 291Lv, 287Fl, 283Cn 279Ds 288Fl, 284Cn 280Ds 288Mc, 284Nh, 280Rg ? 280Ds ? 293Lv, 289Fl, 285Cn 281Ds Darmstadtium has been observed as a decay product of copernicium. Copernicium currently has seven known isotopes, four of which have been shown to alpha decay into darmstadtium, with mass numbers 273, 277, and 279–281. To date, all of these bar 273Ds have only been produced by decay of copernicium. Parent copernicium nuclei can be themselves decay products of flerovium or livermorium. Darmstadtium may also have been produced in the electron capture decay of roentgenium nuclei which are themselves daughters of nihonium and moscovium. For example, in 2004, the Dubna team (JINR) identified darmstadtium-281 as a product in the decay of livermorium via an alpha decay sequence: : → + : → + : → + ====Retracted isotopes==== ;280Ds The first synthesis of element 114 resulted in two atoms assigned to 288Fl, decaying to the 280Ds, which underwent spontaneous fission. The assignment was later changed to 289Fl and the darmstadtium isotope to 281Ds. Hence, 280Ds remained unknown until 2016, when it was populated by the hitherto unknown alpha decay of 284Cn (previously, that nucleus was only known to undergo spontaneous fission). The discovery of 280Ds in this decay chain was confirmed in 2021; it undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of 360 µs. ;277Ds In the claimed synthesis of 293Og in 1999, the isotope 277Ds was identified as decaying by 10.18 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of 3.0 ms. This claim was retracted in 2001. This isotope was finally created in 2010 and its decay data supported the fabrication of previous data.see Oganesson ;273mDs In the synthesis of 277Cn in 1996 by GSI (see copernicium), one decay chain proceeded via 273Ds, which decayed by emission of a 9.73 MeV alpha particle with a lifetime of 170 ms. This would have been assigned to an isomeric level. This data could not be confirmed and thus this isotope is currently unknown or unconfirmed. ;272Ds In the first attempt to synthesize darmstadtium, a 10 ms SF activity was assigned to 272Ds in the reaction 232Th(44Ca,4n). Given current understanding regarding stability, this isotope has been retracted from the table of isotopes. ====Nuclear isomerism==== thumb|250px|right|The current partial decay level scheme for 270Ds proposed following the work of Hofmann et al. in 2000 at GSI ;281Ds The production of 281Ds by the decay of 289Fl or 293Lv has produced two very different decay modes. The most common and readily confirmed mode is spontaneous fission with a half-life of 11 s. A much rarer and as yet unconfirmed mode is alpha decay by emission of an alpha particle with energy 8.77 MeV with an observed half-life of around 3.7 min. This decay is associated with a unique decay pathway from the parent nuclides and must be assigned to an isomeric level. The half-life suggests that it must be assigned to an isomeric state but further research is required to confirm these reports. It was suggested in 2016 that this unknown activity might be due to 282Mt, the great-granddaughter of 290Fl via electron capture and two consecutive alpha decays. ;271Ds Decay data from the direct synthesis of 271Ds clearly indicates the presence of two nuclear isomers. The first emits alpha particles with energies 10.74 and 10.69 MeV and has a half-life of 1.63 ms. The other only emits alpha particles with an energy of 10.71 MeV and has a half-life of 69 ms. The first has been assigned to the ground state and the latter to an isomeric level. It has been suggested that the closeness of the alpha decay energies indicates that the isomeric level may decay primarily by delayed isomeric transition to the ground state, resulting in an identical measured alpha energy and a combined half-life for the two processes. ;270Ds The direct production of 270Ds has clearly identified two nuclear isomers. The ground state decays by alpha emission into the ground state of 266Hs by emitting an alpha particle with energy 11.03 MeV and has a half-life of 0.10 ms. The metastable state decays by alpha emission, emitting alpha particles with energies of 12.15, 11.15, and 10.95 MeV, and has a half-life of 6 ms. When the metastable state emits an alpha particle of energy 12.15 MeV, it decays into the ground state of 266Hs, indicating that it has 1.12 MeV of excess energy. ===Chemical yields of isotopes=== ====Cold fusion==== The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions producing darmstadtium isotopes directly. Data in bold represent maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel. Projectile Target CN 1n 2n 3n 62Ni 208Pb 270Ds 3.5 pb 64Ni 208Pb 272Ds 15 pb, 9.9 MeV ===Fission of compound nuclei with Z = 110=== Experiments have been performed in 2004 at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus 280Ds. The nuclear reaction used is 232Th+48Ca. The result revealed how nuclei such as this fission predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei such as 132Sn (Z = 50, N = 82).see Flerov lab annual report 2004 ===Theoretical calculations=== ====Decay characteristics==== Theoretical calculation in a quantum tunneling model reproduces the experimental alpha decay half-live data. It also predicts that the isotope 294Ds would have alpha decay half-life of the order of 311 years. ====Evaporation residue cross sections==== The below table contains various targets-projectile combinations for which calculations have provided estimates for cross section yields from various neutron evaporation channels. The channel with the highest expected yield is given. DNS = Di-nuclear system; σ = cross section Target Projectile CN Channel (product) σmax Model Ref 208Pb 64Ni 272Ds 1n (271Ds) 10 pb DNS 232Th 48Ca 280Ds 4n (276Ds) 0.2 pb DNS 230Th 48Ca 278Ds 4n (274Ds) 1 pb DNS 238U 40Ar 278Ds 4n (274Ds) 2 pb DNS 244Pu 36S 280Ds 4n (276Ds) 0.61 pb DNS 248Cm 30Si 278Ds 4n (274Ds) 65.32 pb DNS 250Cm 30Si 280Ds 4n (276Ds) 3.54 pb DNS == References == * Isotope masses from: ** ** * Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from: ** ** * Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources. ** ** ** Category:Darmstadtium Darmstadtium |
The following is a sortable table of all songs by Frank Sinatra: * The column Song lists the song title. * The column Year lists the year in which the song was recorded. **（Note: Such words as a, an, and the are not recognized as first words of titles）: ABCDFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUWYZ Song title Year(s) recorded Songwriters Ac-cent-tchu-ate the Positive 1950 (television) Harold Arlen, Johnny Mercer Accidents Will Happen 1950 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Adeste Fideles 1946, 1957 John Francis Wade Ad-Lib Blues 1954 (film) Yip Harburg, Burton Lane An Affair to Remember (Our Love Affair) 1962 Harold Adamson, Leo McCarey, Harry Warren After You've Gone 1984 Henry Creamer, Turner Layton Ain't She Sweet 1962 Milton Ager, Jack Yellen Ain't Cha Ever Comin' Back? 1947 Axel Stordahl, Irving Taylor, Paul Weston Air For English Horn 1945 Alec Wilder Alice Blue Gown 1940 (radio) Joseph McCarthy, Harry Tierney All Alone 1962 Irving Berlin All By Myself 1976 Eric Carmen All I Do Is Dream of You 1958 Nacio Herb Brown, Arthur Freed All I Need is the Girl 1967 Stephen Sondheim, Jule Styne All My Tomorrows 1958, 1969 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen All of Me 1946, 1947, 1954 Gerald Marks, Seymour Simons All of You 1979 Cole Porter All or Nothing at All 1939, 1961, 1966, 1977 Arthur Altman, Jack Lawrence All the Things You Are 1945 Oscar Hammerstein II, Jerome Kern All the Way 1957, 1963 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen All the Way Home 1983 Teddy Randazzo All This and Heaven Too 1940 Eddie DeLange, Jimmy Van Heusen All Through the Day 1946 Oscar Hammerstein II, Jerome Kern Almost Like Being in Love 1947, 1961 Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe Always 1946, 1947, 1960 Irving Berlin America the Beautiful 1945, 1963 Samuel A. Ward American Beauty Rose 1950, 1961 Arthur Altman, Mack David, Redd Evans Among My Souvenirs 1946, 1954 Edgar Leslie, Lawrence Wright And Then You Kissed Me 1944 (radio) Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen ASCAP Angel Eyes 1958, 1971, 1978 Earl Brent, Matt Dennis Anything 1940 Eddie DeLange, P. Napoleon, Frank Signorelli Anything Goes 1956 Cole Porter Anytime (I'll Be There) 1975 Paul Anka Anytime, Anywhere 1953 Imogen Carpenter, Lenny Adelson Any Time at All 1964 Baker Knight April in Paris 1950, 1957, 1961 Vernon Duke, Yip Harburg April Played the Fiddle 1940 Johnny Burke, James Monaco Are You Lonesome Tonight? 1962 Lou Handman, Roy Turk Aren't You Glad You're You? 1945 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Around the World 1957 Harold Adamson, Victor Young As Long as I Live 1960 (television) Harold Adamson, Ted Koehler As Time Goes By 1961 Herman Hupfeld As You Desire Me 1961 Allie Wrubel At Least a Little in Love 1940 unknown At Long Last Love 1956, 1962 Cole Porter Autumn in New York 1947, 1957 Vernon Duke Autumn Leaves 1957 Joseph Kosma, Johnny Mercer, Jacques Prévert Available 1964 Sammy Cahn, Ned Wynn, L. B. Marks Ave Maria 1945 Franz Schubert Azure-Te (Paris Blues) 1952 William Davis, Donald Wolf A Baby Just Like You 1975 John Denver, Joe Henry Baby, Won't You Please Come Home? 1957 Charles Warfield, Clarence Williams Bad, Bad Leroy Brown 1973, 1974 (live) Jim Croce Bali Ha'i 1949 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down) 1973, 1981 Sonny Bono Barbara 1977 Mack David, Jimmy Van Heusen Baubles, Bangles and Beads 1958, 1967 George Forrest, Robert Wright The Beautiful Strangers 1969 Rod McKuen Be Careful, It's My Heart 1942, 1960 Irving Berlin Before the Music Ends 1979 Gordon Jenkins Begin the Beguine 1946 Cole Porter Bein' Green 1970 Joe Raposo The Bells of Christmas 1968 Traditional The Best I Ever Had 1976 Danny Hice, Ruby Hice The Best is Yet to Come 1964, 1994 Cy Coleman, Carolyn Leigh The Best of Everything 1984 Fred Ebb, John Kander Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea 1959 Harold Arlen, Ted Koehler Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered 1957, 1963, 1994 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers Bim Bam Baby 1952 Sammy Mysels The Birth of the Blues 1952, 1957 Buddy G. DeSylva, Lew Brown, Ray Henderson Black 1956 Victor Young Blame It on My Youth 1956 Edward Heyman, Oscar Levant Blue 1956 Alec Wilder Blue Hawaii 1957 Ralph Rainger, Leo Robin Blue Lace 1968 Bill Jacob, Patty Jacob, Riz Ortolani Blue Moon 1960 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers Blue Skies 1941, 1946 Irving Berlin Blues in the Night 1958 Harold Arlen, Johnny Mercer Body and Soul 1947, 1984 Edward Heyman, Robert Sour, Frank Eyton, Johnny Green Bonita 1969 Antonio Carlos Jobim, Ray Gilbert, Gene Lees Bop Goes My Heart 1948 Walter Bishop Sr., Jule Styne Born Free 1967 John Barry, Don Black Both Sides Now 1968 Joni Mitchell The Boys Night Out 1962 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Brazil 1957 Ary Barroso, Bob Russell The Brooklyn Bridge 1946 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Brown 1956 Jeff Alexander Buds Won't Bud 1940 (radio) Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg But Beautiful 1947 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen But None Like You 1947 Ray Noble But Not for Me 1979 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin. By the Time I Get to Phoenix 1968 Jimmy Webb Bye Bye Baby 1948 Leo Robin, Jule Styne Bye Bye Blackbird 1988 (live recording) Mort Dixon, Ray Henderson California 1963 Jimmy Van Heusen, Sammy Cahn Call Me 1966 Tony Hatch Call Me Irresponsible 1963 Jimmy Van Heusen, Sammy Cahn The Call of the Canyon 1940 Billy Hill Collegiate 1957 (television) Nat Bonx, Moe Jaffe Can I Steal a Little Love? 1956 Phil Tuminello Can't We Be Friends 1955 Paul James, Kay Swift Can't You Just See Yourself? 1947 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Carolina in the Morning 1963 (live recording) Walter Donaldson, Gus Kahn Castle Rock 1951 Ervin Drake, Al Sears, Jimmy Shirl Catana 1947 Eddie DeLange, Alfred Newman C'est Magnifique 1959 Cole Porter Change Partners 1967 Irving Berlin The Charm of You 1944 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Charmaine 1962 Lew Pollack, Erno Rapee Chattanoogie Shoe Shine Boy 1950 Harry Stone, Jack Stapp Cheek to Cheek 1958 Irving Berlin Cherry Pies Ought to Be You 1950 Cole Porter Chicago (That Toddlin' Town) 1957 Fred Fisher Christmas Dreaming 1947 Irving Gordon, Lester Lee Christmas Memories 1975 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Don Costa The Christmas Song 1957 Mel Tormé, Bob Wells The Christmas Waltz 1954, 1957, 1968 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Ciribiribin 1939 Alberto Pestalozza, Carlo Tiochet Close Enough for Love 1982 Johnny Mandel, Paul Williams Close to You 1943, 1956 Jerry Livingston, Carl Lampl, Al Hoffman. (They Long to Be) Close to You 1970 Burt Bacharach, Hal David The Coffee Song 1946, 1960 Bob Hilliard, Dick Miles Come Back to Me 1967 Burton Lane, Alan Jay Lerner Come Back to Sorrento 1950 Claude Aveling, Ernesto De Curtis, Giambattista De Curtis Come Blow Your Horn 1963 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Come Dance with Me 1958 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Come Fly with Me 1957, 1965, 1994 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Come Out, Come Out, Wherever You Are 1944 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Come Rain or Come Shine 1961, 1993 Harold Arlen, Johnny Mercer Come Waltz with Me 1962 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Comme Ci Comme Ca 1948 Bruno Coquatrix, Pierre Dudan, Alex Kramer, Joan Whitney Kramer The Continental 1950, 1964 Con Conrad, Herb Magidson A Cottage for Sale 1959 Larry Conley, Willard Robison Could 'Ja? 1946 Bill Carey, Carl T. Fischer Crazy Love 1957 Sammy Cahn, Phil Tuminello The Cradle Song 1944 Johannes Brahms Cuddle up a Little Closer, Lovey Mine 1958 Otto Harbach, Karl Hoschna The Curse of an Aching Heart 1961 Henry Fink, Al Piantadosi Cycles 1968 Gayle Caldwell Dancing in the Dark 1958 Arthur Schwartz, Howard Dietz Dancing on the Ceiling 1955 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers The Day After Forever 1946 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Day by Day 1945, 1961 Axel Stordahl, Sammy Cahn, Paul Weston Day In, Day Out 1953, 1954, 1958 Rube Bloom, Johnny Mercer Manhã De Carnaval (A Day in the Life of a Fool) 1969 Luiz Bonfá, Antônio Maria. The Days of Wine and Roses 1964 Henry Mancini, Johnny Mercer Daybreak 1942, 1961 Harold Adamson, Ferde Grofe Dear Heart 1964 Ray Evans, Jay Livingston, Henry Mancini Dear Little Boy of Mine 1950 Ernest Ball, J. Keirn Brennan Deep in a Dream 1955 Eddie DeLange, Jimmy Van Heusen Deep Night 1951 Rudy Vallee, Charlie Henderson Desafinado 1969 Antonio Carlos Jobim, Newton Mendonça, Jon Hendricks, Gene Lees Devil May Care 1940 Johnny Burke, Harry Warren Dick Haymes, Dick Todd and Como 1944 Johnny Burke, Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Didn't We 1969 Jimmy Webb Dig Down Deep 1942 Walter Hirsch, S. Marco, Gerald Marks Dindi 1967 Antonio Carlos Jobim, Ray Gilbert, Aloysio de Oliveira Do I Worry? 1941 Bobby Worth, Stanley Cowan Do You Know Why? 1940 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Dolores 1941 Frank Loesser, Louis Alter Don'cha Go 'Way Mad 1962 Illinois Jacquet, Jimmy Mundy, Al Stillman. Don't Be a Do-Badder 1964 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Don't Be that Way 1961 Benny Goodman, Mitchell Parish, Edgar Sampson Don't Blame Me 1953 Dorothy Fields, Jimmy McHugh Don't Change Your Mind About Me 1954 Lenny Adelson, Imogen Carpenter Don't Cry, Joe 1949, 1961 Joe Marsala Don't Ever Be Afraid to Go Home 1952 Bob Hilliard, Carl Sigman Don't Ever Go Away (Por Causa de Você) 1969 Ray Gilbert, Delores Duran, Antonio Carlos Jobim Don't Forget Tonight, Tomorrow 1945 Jay Milton, Ukie Sherin Don't Get Around Much Anymore 1965 (television) Duke Ellington, Bob Russell Don't Like Goodbyes 1956 Harold Arlen, Truman Capote Don't Make a Beggar of Me 1953 Al Sherman Don't Sleep in the Subway 1967 Tony Hatch, Jackie Trent Don't Take Your Love From Me 1961 Henry Nemo Don't Wait Too Long 1965 Sunny Skylar Don't Worry 'Bout Me 1953 Rube Bloom, Ted Koehler. Down Where the Trade Winds Play 1942 (radio) unknown Downtown 1966 Tony Hatch Dream 1945, 1960 Johnny Mercer Dream a Little Dream of Me 1958 Fabian Andre, Gus Kahn, Wilbur Schwandt Dream Away 1973 Paul Williams, John Williams Drinking Again 1967 Johnny Mercer, Doris Tauber. Dry Your Eyes 1976 Neil Diamond, Robbie Robertson The Dum Dot Song (I Put a Penny in the Gum Slot) 1946 Julian Kay Early American 1964 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen East of the Sun (and West of the Moon) 1940, 1961 Brooks Bowman Ebb Tide 1958 Robert Maxwell, Carl Sigman Elizabeth 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes Embraceable You 1944, 1960, 1994 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin Emily (Theme from The Americanization of Emily) 1964, 1977 John Mandel, Johnny Mercer Empty Is (spoken) 1969 Rod McKuen Empty Tables 1973, 1974, 1976 Johnny Mercer, Jimmy Van Heusen The End of a Love Affair 1956 Edward C. Redding Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born) 1976 Barbra Streisand, Paul Williams Ever Homeward 1947 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Every Day of My Life 1939 M. Beck, B. Hays, Harry James Every Man Should Marry 1949 Benny Davis, Abner Silver Everybody Has the Right to Be Wrong (At Least Once) 1965 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Everybody Loves Somebody 1947, 1957 Sam Coslow, Irving Taylor, Ken Lane Everybody Ought to Be in Love 1977 Paul Anka Everybody's Twistin' 1962 Rube Bloom, Ted Koehler Everything Happens to Me 1941, 1956, 1974, 1981 Tom Adair, Matt Dennis Exactly Like You 1946, 1949 Dorothy Fields, Jimmy McHugh Exodus 1962 Ernest Gold The Fable of the Rose 1940 Josef Myrow, Bickley Reichner Fairy Tale 1955 Jerry Livingston, Dok Stanford Faithful 1951 Mary Ann Kennedy, Candy Parton, Pam Rose Falling In Love with Love 1961 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers Farewell, Farewell to Love 1951 George Siravo, Jack Wolf Feelin' Kinda Sunday 1970 Nino Tempo, Annette Tucker, Kathleen Wakefield Feet of Clay 1952 Alex Kramer, Joan Whitney Kramer, Hy Zaret A Fella With An Umbrella 1948 Irving Berlin A Fellow Needs a Girl 1947 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers A Fine Romance 1960 Dorothy Fields, Jerome Kern The First Noël 1957 Traditional Five Hundred Guys 1956 David Cantor, Irving Kosloff Five Minutes More 1946, 1961 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Flowers Mean Forgiveness 1956 Al Frisch, Edward R. White, Mack Wolfson Fly Me to the Moon 1964 Bart Howard A Foggy Day 1953, 1960, 1994 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin Follow Me 1967 Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe Fools Rush In (Where Angels Fear to Tread) 1940, 1947, 1960 Rube Bloom, Johnny Mercer For a While 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes For Every Man There's a Woman 1947 Harold Arlen, Leo Robin For Once in My Life 1969, 1994 Ron Miller, Orlando Murden For the Good Times 1979 Kris Kristofferson Forget Domani 1965 Norman Newell, Riz Ortolani Forget to Remember 1969 Victoria Pike, Teddy Randazzo A Friend of Yours 1945 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Free for All 1941 Tom Adair, Matt Dennis French Foreign Legion 1958 Aaron Schroeder, Guy Wood Frenesi 1941 (radio) Ray Charles, Alberto Domínguez, Bob Russell From Here to Eternity 1953 Fred Karger, Robert Wells From Promise to Promise 1969 Rod McKuen From the Bottom of My Heart 1939 Roy Ingraham, Jack Murray From the Bottom to the Top 1955 Gee Wilson From This Day Forward 1946 Robert Bernard, Mort Greene, Leigh Harline, Jan Wiley From This Moment On 1956 Cole Porter Fugue for Tinhorns 1963 Frank Loesser Full Moon and Empty Arms 1945 Buddy Kaye, Ted Mossman The Future 1979 Gordon Jenkins The Gal that Got Away 1954, 1981 Harold Arlen, Ira Gershwin The Game is Over 1970 John Denver A Garden in the Rain 1962 Carroll Gibbons, James Dyrenforth Gentle on My Mind 1968 John Hartford Get Happy 1954 Harold Arlen, Ted Koehler Get Me to the Church on Time 1966 Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe The Girl from Ipanema 1967 Vinícius de Moraes, Norman Gimbel, Antônio Carlos Jobim The Girl Next Door 1953, 1962 Hugh Martin, Ralph Blane The Girl That I Marry 1946 Irving Berlin The Girls I Never Kissed 1986, 1988 Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller Give Her Love 1966 Jim Harbert Glad to Be Unhappy 1955 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers Go Tell it on the Mountain 1964 Traditional God's Country 1950 Haven Gillespie, Beasley Smith Goin' Out of My Head 1969 Teddy Randazzo, Bobby Weinstein Gold 1956 Nelson Riddle Golden Moment 1965 Kenny Jacobson, Rhoda Roberts The Good Life 1964 Sacha Distel, Jack Reardon A Good Man is Hard to Find 1951 Eddie Green Gone with the Wind 1958 Allie Wrubel, Herb Magidson Good Thing Going 1981 Stephen Sondheim Goodbye 1958 Gordon Jenkins Goodbye Lover, Goodbye 1969 unknown Goodbye (She Quietly Says) 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes Goodnight Irene 1950 Traditional Goodnight My Love 1958 Mack Gordon, Harry Revel Goodnight Sweetheart 1958 Ray Noble, Jimmy Campbell and Reg Connelly, Rudy Vallee Goody Goody 1962 Matty Malneck, Johnny Mercer. Gotta Be This or That 1945 (radio) Sunny Skylar Granada 1961 Agustín Lara Gray 1956 Alec Wilder Green 1956 Gordon Jenkins Guess I'll Hang My Tears Out to Dry 1946, 1958, 1993 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Gunga Din 1966 Jim Croce, Rudyard Kipling Guys and Dolls 1963 Frank Loesser The Gypsy 1962 Billy Reid Half as Lovely (Twice as True) 1954 Sammy Gallop, Lew Spence Half Way Down the Street 1940 (radio) unknown Hallelujah, I Love Her So 1969 Ray Charles Happy Birthday to You 1994 (live performance) Patty Hill, Mildred J. Hill Hark the Herald Angels Sing 1957 Traditional Have You Met Miss Jones? 1960, 1961 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas 1947, 1957, 1963 Ralph Blane, Hugh Martin He's My Guy 1957 Gene DePaul, Don Raye Head on My Pillow 1940 Pierre Connor, Bissel Palmer Hear My Song Violetta 1940 Buddy Bernier, Robert Emmerich, Othmar Klase, Rudolph Inkesch Hello, Dolly! 1964 Jerry Herman Hello, Young Lovers 1951, 1954, 1965 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Help Yourself to My Heart 1947 Buddy Kaye, Sammy Timberg Here Comes the Night 1939 H. Edelstein, C. Hohengarten, Frank Loesser Here Goes 1958 Sammy Cahn Here's That Rainy Day 1959 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Here's to Love 1941 (radio) Mina Anna Arenson Here's to the Band 1983 Sharman Howe, Alfred Nittoli, Artie Schroeck Here's to the Losers 1963 Robert Wells, Jack Segal Hey! Jealous Lover 1956 Sammy Cahn, Kay Twomey, Bee Walker Hey Look, No Crying 1981 Susan Birkenhead, Jule Styne Hidden Persuasion 1960 Wainwright Churchill III High Hopes 1959 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Hit the Road to Dreamland 1958 Harold Arlen, Johnny Mercer Home on the Range 1946 Brewster M. Higley, Daniel E. Kelley Homesick That's All 1945 Gordon Jenkins Hooray for Love 1982 Harold Arlen, Leo Robin The House I Live In 1945, 1964, 1994 Lewis Allan, Earl Robinson How About You? 1941, 1956 Burton Lane, Ralph Freed How Am I to Know 1940 (radio) Jack King, Dorothy Parker How Are You Fixed for Love? 1958 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen How Could You Do a Thing Like That to Me? 1955 Tyree Glenn, Allan Roberts How Cute Can You Be? 1946 Bill Carey, Carl T. Fischer How Deep is the Ocean? 1946, 1960 Irving Berlin How Do You Do Without Me? 1941 Joe Bushkin, John DeVries How Do You Keep the Music Playing? 1983, 1984, 1994 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Michel Legrand How High the Moon 1967 (television) Nancy Hamilton, Morgan Lewis How Insensitive 1967 Antônio Carlos Jobim, Norman Gimbel, Vinícius de Moraes (How Little It Matters) How Little We Know 1956, 1963 Carolyn Leigh, Phil Springers How Old am I? 1965 Gordon Jenkins A Hundred Years from Today 1984 Victor Young, Ned Washington, Joe Young The Hucklebuck 1949 Roy Alfred, A. Gibson The Hurt Doesn't Go Away 1973 Joe Raposo Hush-A-Bye-Island 1946 Harold Adamson, Jimmy McHugh I Am Loved 1950 Cole Porter I Begged Her 1944 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne I Believe 1946, 1957 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne I Believe I'm Gonna Love You 1975 Harry Lloyd, Gloria Skleroy I Believe In You 1964 Frank Loesser I Can Read Between the Lines 1953 Sid Frank, Ramon M Getzov I Can't Believe I'm Losing You 1964 Don Costa, Phil Zeller I Can't Believe That You're In Love With Me 1960 Clarence Gaskill, Jimmy McHugh I Can't Get Started 1959 Vernon Duke Ira Gershwin I Can't Give You Anything But Love 1959 (live recording), 1959 (television) Dorothy Fields, Jimmy McHugh I Can't Stop Loving You 1964 Don Gibson I Concentrate on You 1947, 1960, 1967 Cole Porter I Could Have Danced All Night 1958 Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe I Could Have Told You 1953 Carl Sigman, Jimmy Van Heusen I Could Make You Care 1940 Sammy Cahn, Saul Chaplin I Could Write a Book 1952, 1957 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers I Couldn't Care Less 1958 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen I Couldn't Sleep a Wink Last Night 1943, 1956 Harold Adamson, Jimmy McHugh I Cover the Waterfront 1957 Johnny Green, Edward Heyman I Didn't Know What Time It Was 1957 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers I Don't Know Why (I Just Do) 1945 Fred E. Ahlert, Roy Turk I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance with You 1945, 1959 Victor Young, Ned Washington, Bing Crosby I Dream of You 1944 Marjorie Goetschius, Edna Osser I Fall in Love Too Easily 1944 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne I Fall in Love With You Ev’ryday 1946 Sam H. Stept I Get a Kick Out of You 1953, 1962 Cole Porter I Get Along Without You Very Well (Except Sometimes) 1955 Hoagy Carmichael I Give You My Word 1941 (radio) Al Kavelin, Lyn I Got a Gal I Love (In North And South Dakota) 1946 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen (I Got A Woman Crazy For Me) She's Funny That Way 1943-8 Neil Moret, Richard A. Whiting I Got It Bad (And That Ain't Good) 1956 Duke Ellington, Paul Francis Webster I Got Plenty o' Nuttin' 1956 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin, DuBose Heyward I Gotta Right to Sing the Blues 1962 Harold Arlen, Ted Koehler I Guess I'll Have to Change My Plan 1956 Howard Dietz, Arthur Schwartz I Guess I'll Have to Dream the Rest 1941, 1950 Martin Block, Bud Green, Mickey Stoner I Had the Craziest Dream 1979 Mack Gordon, Harry Warren I Hadn't Anyone Till You 1961 Ray Noble I Have But One Heart 1945 Johnny Farrow, Marty Symes I Have Dreamed 1963 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers, I Haven't Time to Be a Millionaire 1940 Johnny Burke, James Monaco I Hear a Rhapsody 1952 George Fragos, Jack Baker, Dick Gasparre, Richard Bard I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day 1964 John D Marks I Left My Heart in San Francisco 1962 George Cory, Douglass Cross I Like the Sunrise 1967 Duke Ellington I Like to Lead When I Dance 1964 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen I Love My Wife 1976 Cy Coleman, Michael Stewart I Love Paris 1959, 1960 Cole Porter I Love You 1946, 1953, 1962 Cole Porter I Love You 1953 Harry Archer, Harlan Thompson I Love You 1946 George Forest, Robert Wright I Loved Her 1981 Gordon Jenkins I May Be Wrong (But I Think You're Wonderful) 1958 (television) Harry Ruskin, Henry Sullivan I Never Knew 1961 Ted Fio Rito, Gus Kahn I Only Have Eyes for You 1945, 1962 Al Dubin, Harry Warren I Saw Your Face in a Cloud 1940 (radio) Robert Fetters I See It Now 1965 William Engvick, Alec Wilder I See Your Face Before Me 1955 Howard Dietz, Arthur Schwartz I Should Care 1945 Sammy Cahn, Axel Stordahl, Paul Weston I Sing the Songs 1976 Bruce Johnston I Think of You 1941, 1957 Jack Elliott, Don Marcotte I Thought About You 1955, 1956 Johnny Mercer, Jimmy Van Heusen I Tried 1941 Clark Dennis, Paul Hand, Carl Nutter I Wanna Be Around 1964 Johnny Mercer, Sadie Vimmerstedt I Want to Thank Your Folks 1946 Bennie Benjamin, George David Weiss I Went Down to Virginia 1947 David Mann, Redd Evans I Whistle a Happy Tune 1951 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers I Will Drink the Wine 1970 Paul Ryan I Will Wait for You 1966 Marc Demy, Norman Gimbel, Michel Legrand I Wish I Were in Love Again 1956 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers I Wish You Love 1964 Léo Chauliac, Charles Trenet, Albert A. Beach I Wished on the Moon 1965 Dorothy Parker, Ralph Rainger I Won't Dance 1956, 1962 Oscar Hammerstein II, Otto Harbach, Jerome Kern I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now Joseph E. Howard I Would Be In Love (Anyway) 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes I Wouldn't Trade Christmas 1968 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen I'd Know You Anywhere 1940 Johnny Mercer, Jimmy McHugh Ida, Sweet As Apple Cider 1941 (radio) Eddie Leonard, Eddie Munson If 1974 David Gates If Ever I Would Leave You 1962 Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe If I Ever Love Again 1949 Russ Carlyle, Dick Reynolds If I Forget You 1947 Irving Caesar If I Had Three Wishes 1955 Claude Baum, Lew Spence If I Had You 1947, 1956, 1962 Jimmy Campbell and Reg Connelly, Ted Shapiro If I Loved You 1945 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers If I Only Had a Match 1947 Arthur Johnston, George W. Meyer, Lee Morris If I Should Lose You 1984 Ralph Rainger, Leo Robin If I Steal a Kiss 1947 Nacio Herb Brown, Edward Heyman If It's the Last Thing I Do 1956 Sammy Cahn, Saul Chaplin If Loveliness Were Music 1944 Bert Reisfeld, Mickey Stoner If Only She'd Look My Way 1950 Alan Melville, Ivor Novello If This Isn't Love 1954 (film) Yip Harburg, Burton Lane If You Are But a Dream 1944, 1957 Nat Bonx, Jack Fulton, Moe Jaffe If You Never Come to Me 1967 Ray Gilbert, Antonio Carlos Jobim If You Go Away 1969 Jacques Brel, Rod McKuen If You Never Come to Me 1967 Ray Gilbert, Antonio Carlos Jobim, Aloysio de Oliveria If You Please 1943 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen If You Stub Your Toe on the Moon 1949 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen I'll Be Around 1955 Alec Wilder I'll Be Home for Christmas 1957 Kim Gannon, Walter Kent, Buck Ram I'll Be Seeing You 1940, 1961, 1961 Sammy Fain, Irving Kahal I'll Follow My Secret Heart 1962 Noël Coward I'll Make Up for Everything 1947 Ross Parker I'll Never Be The Same 1955 Gus Kahn, Matty Malneck, Frank Signorelli I'll Never Let a Day Pass By 1941 Frank Loesser, Victor Schertzinger I'll Never Smile Again 1940, 1959, 1965 Ruth Lowe I'll Only Miss Her When I Think of Her 1965 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen I'll Remember April 1961 Gene de Paul, Patricia Johnston, Don Raye I'll See You Again 1961 Noël Coward I'll See You in My Dreams 1940 (radio) Isham Jones, Gus Kahn I'll Take Tallulah 1942 Yip Harburg, Burton Lane Ill Wind 1955 Harold Arlen, Ted Koehler I'm a Fool to Want You 1951, 1957 Joel Herron, Frank Sinatra, Jack Wolf I'm Beginning to See the Light 1962 Duke Ellington, Don George, Johnny Hodges, Harry James I'm Getting Sentimental Over You 1961 George Bassman, Ned Washington I'm Glad There Is You 1947 Jimmy Dorsey, Paul Madeira I'm Gonna Live Till I Die 1954 Manny Curtis, Al Hoffman, Walter Kent I'm Gonna Make It All the Way 1973 Floyd Huddleston I'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Write Myself a Letter 1954, 1962 Fred E. Ahlert, Joe Young I'm in the Mood for Love 1942 (radio) Dorothy Fields, Jimmy McHugh I'm Not Afraid 1970 Jacques Brel, Gérard Jouannest, Rod McKuen I'm Sorry I Made You Cry 1946 N.J. Clesi I'm Walking Behind You 1953 Billy Reid Imagination 1940, 1961 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen The Impatient Years 1955 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen The Impossible Dream 1966 Joe Darion, Mitch Leigh In the Blue of Evening 1942, 1961 Tom Adair, Alfonso D'Artega In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening 1964 Hoagy Carmichael, Johnny Mercer In the Shadow of the Moon 1969 Earl Brown, Heinz Keissling In the Still of the Night 1960 Cole Porter In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning 1955, 1963 Bob Hilliard, David Mann Indian Summer 1967 Al Dubin, Victor Herbert Indescreet 1962 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Innamorata 1957 (television) Jack Brooks, Harry Warren Is There a Chance for Me? 1940 William Granzow Isle of Capri 1957 Wilhelm Grosz, Jimmy Kennedy Isn't She Lovely? 1979 Stevie Wonder It All Came True 1947 Sunny Skylar It All Comes Back to Me Now 1941 Alex Kramer, Joan Whitney Kramer, Hy Zaret It All Depends on You 1949, 1958, 1960 Buddy G. DeSylva, Lew Brown, Ray Henderson It Came Upon a Midnight Clear 1947, 1957 Edmund Sears, Richard Storrs Willis It Came to Me 1940 Louis DePyro It Could Happen to You 1956 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen It Gets Lonely Early 1965 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen It Had to Be You 1963, 1979 Isham Jones, Gus Kahn It Happened in Monterey 1956 Billy Rose, Mabel Wayne It Happens Every Spring 1949 Mack David, Josef Myrow It Might as Well Be Spring 1961, 1964 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers It Never Entered My Mind 1947, 1955, 1981 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers It Only Happens When I Dance With You 1948 Irving Berlin It Started All Over Again 1942, 1961 Bill Carey, Carl T. Fischer It Was a Very Good Year 1965, 1966 (liveSinatra: Nothing but the Best) Ervin Drake It Worries Me 1954 Fritz Schulz-Reichel, Carl Sigman, Ernst Verch It's a Blue World 1961 Bob Wright, Chet Forrest It's a Lonesome Old Town 1958 Charles Kisco, Harry Tobias It's a Long Way (From Your House to My House) 1951 Roy C. Bennett, Sid Tepper It's a Lovely Day Tomorrow 1940 Irving Berlin It's a Wonderful World 1961 Harold Adamson, Jan Savitt, Johnny Watson It's All So New to Me 1941 (radio) Pearl Black It's All Right With Me 1959, 1984 Cole Porter It's All Up to You 1946 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne It's Always You 1940, 1961 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen) It's Been a Long, Long Time 1945 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne It's Easy to Remember 1956 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers It's Funny to Everyone but Me 1939 Jack Lawrence It's Nice to Go Trav'ling 1957 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen It's Only a Paper Moon 1950, 1960 Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg, Billy Rose It's Only Money 1951 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne It's Over, It's Over, It's Over 1960 Matt Dennis, Don Stanford It's Sunday 1983 Susan Birkenhead, Jule Styne It's the Same Old Dream 1946, 1957 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne I've Been There 1979 Gordon Jenkins I've Been to Town 1969 Rod McKuen I've Got a Crush on You 1947, 1960, 1993 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin. I've Got a Home in That Rock 1945 Traditional I've Got a Restless Spell 1940 (radio) Nancy Lampe I've Got My Eyes on You 1940 Cole Porter I've Got My Love to Keep Me Warm 1960 Irving Berlin I've Got the World on a String 1953, 1993 Harold Arlen, Ted Koehler I've Got You Under My Skin 1956, 1963, 1993 Cole Porter I've Grown Accustomed to Her Face 1962 Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe I've Had My Moments 1956 Walter Donaldson, Gus Kahn I've Heard That Song Before 1961 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne I've Lost My Heart Again 1940 Leo Robin I've Never Been in Love Before 1963 Frank Loesser Jeepers Creepers 1954 Johnny Mercer, Harry Warren Jesus is a Rock (In a Weary Land) 1945 Traditional Jingle Bells 1946, 1957 James Lord Pierpont June in January 1942 (radio) Ralph Rainger, Leo Robin Just an Old Stone House 1945 Alec Wilder Just as Though You Were Here 1942, 1974 John Benson Brooks, Eddie DeLange Just Close Your Eyes 1943-8 John M. Elliot, Sam Mineo, Lewis Rodgers Just for Now 1947 Dick Redmond Just Friends 1959 Sam M. Lewis, John Klenner Just in Time 1958 Betty Comden, Adolph Green, Jule Styne Just One of Those Things 1954, 1961 (live) Cole Porter (Just One Way to Say) I Love You 1949 Irving Berlin Just the Way You Are 1979 Billy Joel Kiss Me Again 1944 Victor Herbert, Henry Martyn Blossom Kisses and Tears 1949, 1950 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne L.A. Is My Lady 1984 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Quincy Jones, Peggy Lipton Lady Day 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes The Lady from Twentynine Palms 1939 Allie Wrubel The Lady Is a Tramp 1956, 1993 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers The Lamp Is Low 1939 Peter DeRose, Mitchell Parish, Maurice Ravel The Lamplighter's Serenade 1942 Hoagy Carmichael, Paul Francis Webster The Last Call for Love 1942 Yip Harburg, Burton Lane, M. Cummings The Last Dance 1958, 1960 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Last Night When We Were Young 1954, 1965 Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg Laura 1947, 1957 Johnny Mercer, David Raksin Lean Baby 1953 Roy Alfred, Billy May Learn to Croon 1940 (radio) Sam Coslow, Arthur Johnston Learnin' the Blues 1955, 1962 Dolores Vicki Silvers Leave It All to Me 1988 unknown Leaving on a Jet Plane 1970 John Denver Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow! 1950 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Let Me Love You Tonight 1943-8 Mitchell Parish, René Touzet Let Me Try Again 1973 Paul Anka, Sammy Cahn, Romvald Figuier, Michel Jourdan, Caravelli Let There Be Love 1962 (television) Ian Grant, Lionel Rand Let Us Break Bread Together 1964 Roy Ringwald Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love 1959 Cole Porter Let's Face the Music and Dance 1960, 1979 Irving Berlin Let's Fall in Love 1960 Harold Arlen, Ted Koehler Let's Get Away from It All 1941, 1957 Tom Adair, Matt Dennis Let's Put Out the Lights (and Go to Sleep) 1958 Herman Hupfeld Let's Start the New Year Right 1943 Irving Berlin Let's Take An Old-Fashioned Walk 1949 Irving Berlin Life is So Peculiar 1950 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Life's a Trippy Thing 1970 Howard Greenfield, Linda Laurie Light a Candle in the Chapel 1942 Duke Leonard, Ed G. Nelson, Harry Pease Like a Sad Song 1976 John Denver Like Someone in Love 1953 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Lilly Belle 1945 Dave Franklin, Irving Taylor Linda 1977 Jack Lawrence The Little Drummer Boy 1964 Katherine Kennicott Davis, Henry Onorati, Harry Simeone Little Girl Blue 1953 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers Little Green Apples 1968 Bobby Russell A Little Learning is a Dangerous Thing 1947 D. Jacobs, Sy Oliver London by Night 1950, 1957, 1962 Carroll Coates Lonely Town 1957 Leonard Bernstein, Betty Comden, Adolph Green Lonesome Cities 1969 Rod McKuen The Lonesome Road 1956 Gene Austin, Nathaniel Shilkret Long Ago (And Far Away) 1943-8 Ira Gershwin, Jerome Kern A Long Night 1981 Loonis McGlohon, Alec Wilder The Look of Love 1962 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Look Out for Jimmy Valentine 1967 (television) Gus Edwards, Edward Madden Look to Your Heart 1955 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Looking at the World Thru Rose Colored Glasses 1962 Tommie Malie, Jimmy Steiger Looking for Yesterday 1940 Eddie DeLange, Jimmy Van Heusen The Lord's Prayer 1949 Albert Hay Malotte Lost in the Stars 1946, 1963 Maxwell Anderson, Kurt Weill Love and Marriage 1955, 1965 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing 1964 Sammy Fain, Paul Francis Webster Love Is Here to Stay 1955 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin Love Is Just Around the Corner 1962 Lewis E. Gensler, Leo Robin (Love Is) The Tender Trap 1955, 1962 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Love Isn't Just for the Young 1963 Bernard Knee, Herbert L. Miller Love Lies 1940 Ralph Freed, Joseph Meyer, Carl Sigman Love Locked Out 1956 Max Kester, Ray Noble Love Looks So Well On You 1959 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Lew Spence Love Makes Us Whatever We Want to Be 1982 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Love Me 1951 Ned Washington, Victor Young Love Me as I Am 1941 Frank Loesser, Louis Alter Love Me Tender 1979 Elvis Presley, Vera Matson Love Means Love 1950 Bonnie Lake, Carl Sigman Love Walked In 1961 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin A Lovely Way to Spend an Evening 1943 Harold Adamson, Jimmy McHugh Lover 1950, 1961 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers A Lover Is Blue 1940 Charles Carpenter, Jimmy Mundy, James Oliver Young, Love's Been Good to Me 1969 Rod McKuen Luck Be a Lady 1963, 1994 Frank Loesser Luna Rossa (Blushing Moon) 1952 Vincenzo de Crescenzo, Renato Matassa, Antonio Viscione, Kermit Goell Lush Life 1958 Billy Strayhorn MacArthur Park 1979 Jimmy Webb Mack the Knife 1984, 1986, 1994 Bertolt Brecht, Kurt Weill Mad About You 1949 Ned Washington, Victor Young Make Believe Oscar Hammerstein II, Jerome Kern Makin' Whoopee 1956 Walter Donaldson, Gus Kahn Mama Will Bark 1951 Dick Manning Mam'selle 1947, 1960 Mack Gordon, Edmund Goulding A Man Alone 1969 Rod McKuen The Man I Love 1957 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin The Man in the Looking Glass 1965 Bart Howard Maria 1962 Leonard Bernstein, Stephen Sondheim Marie 1940 (radio) Irving Berlin Maybe This Time 1995 Fred Ebb, John Kander Maybe You'll Be There 1957 Rube Bloom, Sammy Gallop Me and My Shadow 1962 Dave Dreyer, Al Jolson, Billy Rose Mean to Me 1947 Fred E. Ahlert, Roy Turk Meditation 1967 Antonio Carlos Jobim, Norman Gimbel, Newton Mendonça Meet Me at the Copa 1950 Sammy Cahn, Axel Stordahl Meet Me Tonight in Dreamland 1954 (radio) Leo Friedman, Beth Slater Whitson Melancholy Mood 1939 William Schumann, V. Knight Melody of Love 1954 Hans Engelmann, Tom Glazer Memories Are Made of This 1957 (television), 1988 (live recording) Richard Dehr, Terry Gilkyson, Frank Miller Memories of You 1956, 1961 Eubie Blake, Andy Razaf Merry Christmas Little Angel 1975 unknown Michael and Peter 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes Mighty Lak' a Rose 1945 Ethelbert Nevin., Frank Lebby Stanton A Million Dreams Ago 1961 Eddie Howard, Dick Jurgens, Lew Quadling Mind if I Make Love to You? 1956 Cole Porter Mister Booze 1964 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Mistletoe and Holly 1957 Hank Sanicola, Frank Sinatra, Doc Stanford Misty 1961 Johnny Burke, Erroll Garner Moment to Moment 1965 Henry Mancini, Johnny Mercer Moments in the Moonlight 1940 Richard Himber, Irving Gordon, Alvin Kaufman Monday Morning Quarterback 1981 Don Costa, Pamela Phillips-Oland Monique 1958 Elmer Bernstein, Sammy Cahn Montmartre, Montmartre 1959 Cole Porter Mood Indigo 1955 Barney Bigard, Duke Ellington, Irving Mills Moody River 1968 Gary Bruce The Moon Got in My Eyes 1965 Johnny Burke, Arthur Johnston Moon Love 1965 Mack David, André Kostelanetz Moon River 1964 Henry Mancini, Johnny Mercer Moon Song 1965 Sam Coslow, Arthur Johnston The Moon Was Yellow 1945, 1958, 1965 Fred E. Ahlert, Edgar Leslie The Moon Won't Talk 1941 (radio) unknown Moonlight Becomes You 1965 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Moonlight in Vermont 1957, 1994 John Blackburn, Karl Suessdorf Moonlight Mood 1965 Harold Adamson, Peter DeRose Moonlight on the Ganges 1961 Sherman Myers, Chester Wallace Moonlight Serenade 1965 Glenn Miller, Mitchell Parish More 1964 Nino Oliviero, Riz Ortolani The More I See You 1983 Mack Gordon, Harry Warren More Than You Know 1979 Edward Eliscu, Vincent Youmans, Billy Rose The Most Beautiful Girl In The World 1966 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers Mr. Success 1958 Edwin Grienes, Hank Sanicola, Frank Sinatra Mrs. Robinson 1969 Paul Simon The Music Stopped 1943, 1946, 1947 Harold Adamson, Jimmy McHugh My Baby Just Cares for Me 1966 Walter Donaldson, Gus Kahn My Blue Heaven 1950, 1960 Walter Donaldson, George A. Whiting My Buddy 1939 Walter Donaldson, Gus Kahn My Cousin Louella 1947 Bernard Bierman, Jack Manus My First Edition 1941 Carol Bailey My Foolish Heart 1988 Ned Washington, Victor Young My Funny Valentine 1953, 1994 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers My Girl 1952 Charles Freed My Heart Stood Still 1963 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers My Kind of Girl 1962 Leslie Bricusse My Kind of Town (Chicago Is) 1964, 1966 (liveSinatra at the Sands), 1974 (liveThe Main Event – Live), 1994 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen My Love for You 1947 Abner Silver, Sid Wayne My Memoirs 1941 (radio) Ferguson, Greenough My Melancholy Baby 1945 Ernie Burnett, George A. Norton My One and Only Love 1953 Robert Mellin, Guy Wood My Romance 1946, 1947 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers My Shawl 1945 Stanley Adams, Xavier Cugat My Shining Hour 1979 Harold Arlen, Johnny Mercer My Silent Love 1942 Edward Heyman, Isham Jones, Dana Suesse My Sweet Lady 1970 John Denver My Way 1969, 1994 Paul Anka, Claude François, Jacques Revaux My Way of Life 1968 Bert Kaempfert, Herbert Rehbein, Carl Sigman Name It and It's Yours 1961 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Nancy (With the Laughing Face) 1944, 1945, 1963, 1977 Phil Silvers, Jimmy Van Heusen Nature Boy 1948 Eden Ahbez The Nearness of You 1947, 1960 Hoagy Carmichael, Ned Washington Necessity 1954 (film) Yip Harburg, Burton Lane Neiani 1941 Sy Oliver, Axel Stordahl New York, New York 1979 Fred Ebb, John Kander Nevertheless (I'm in Love with You) 1950, 1960 Bert Kalmar, Harry Ruby Nice 'n' Easy 1960 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Lew Spence Nice Work if You Can Get It 1956, 1962 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin Night (spoken) 1969 Rod McKuen Night After Night 1949 Sammy Cahn, Axel Stordahl, Paul Weston Night and Day 1942, 1947, 1956, 1961, 1977 Cole Porter The Night Is Young and You're So Beautiful 1945 Irving Kahal, Billy Rose, Dana Suesse The Night We Called it a Day 1942, 1947, 1957 Tom Adair, Matt Dennis A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square 1962 Eric Maschwitz, Manning Sherwin No One Ever Tells You 1956 Hub Atwood, Carroll Coates No Orchids for My Lady 1948 Jack Strachey, Alan Stranks Noah 1973 Joe Raposo Nobody Wins 1973 Kris Kristofferson None But the Lonely Heart 1946, 1947, 1959 Pëtr Il´ic Cajkovskij Not as a Stranger 1955 Buddy Kaye, Jimmy Van Heusen Not So Long Ago 1940 Clay A. Boland, Bickley Reichner Nothing But the Best 1962 Johnny Rotella Nothing in Common 1958 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Now Is the Hour 1962 Maewa Kaihau, Clement Scott, Dorothy Stewart. O Little Town of Bethlehem 1947, 1957 Phillips Brooks, Lewis Redner Ode to Billie Joe 1967 (television) Bobbie Gentry Oh Bess, Oh Where's My Bess? 1946 George Gershwin, DuBose Heyward Oh, Babe, What Would You Say? 1975 Eileen Sylvia Smith Oh How I Miss You Tonight 1962 Benny Davis, Joe Burke, Mark Fisher. Oh Marie 1957 (television), 1988 (live recording) Eduardo Di Capua Oh! Look at Me Now 1941, 1956 Joe Bushkin, John DeVries Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin' 1943 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Oh! What It Seemed to Be 1945, 1963 Bennie Benjamin, Frankie Carle, George David Weiss Oh, You Crazy Moon 1965 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Old MacDonald Had a Farm 1960 Traditional Ol' Man River 1944, 1963 Oscar Hammerstein II, Jerome Kern Old Devil Moon 1956, 1963 Yip Harburg, Burton Lane An Old Fashioned Christmas 1964 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen The Old Master Painter 1949 Haven Gillespie, Beasley Smith Old School Teacher 1945 Willard Robison The Oldest Established (Permanent Floating Crap Game in New York) 1963 Frank Loesser On a Clear Day (You Can See Forever) 1966 Burton Lane, Alan Jay Lerner On a Little Street in Singapore 1939 Billy Hill, Peter DeRose On the Road to Mandalay 1957 Rudyard Kipling, Oley Speaks On the Sunny Side of the Street 1961 Dorothy Fields, Jimmy McHugh Once I Loved 1967 Ray Gilbert, Antonio Carlos Jobim, Vinicius de Moraes Once in a While 1940 Michael Edwards, Bud Green Once in Love with Amy 1948 Frank Loesser (Once Upon a) Moonlight Night 1946 Irving Bibo, Sidney Clare Once Upon a Time 1965 Lee Adams, Charles Strouse One Finger Melody 1950 Kermit Goell, Al Hoffman, Fred Spielman One for My Baby (and One More for the Road) 1947, 1958, 1993 Harold Arlen, Johnny Mercer The One I Love (Belongs to Somebody Else) 1940, 1959, 1961 Isham Jones, Gus Kahn One Love 1946 Leo Robin, David Rose One Note Samba 1969 Antonio Carlos Jobim, Newton Mendonça One Red Rose 1941 (radio) Willard Moyle The Only Couple on the Floor 1975 Irving Daine, Johnny Durrill Only Forever 1940 (radio) Johnny Burke, James Monaco Only One to a Customer 1986 Carolyn Leigh, Jule Styne Only the Lonely 1958 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Opening Theme 1940 (radio) unknown Orange 1956 Nelson Riddle Our Love 1939 Buddy Bernier, Robert Emmerich, Larry Clinton Our Love Affair 1940 Roger Freed, Roger Edens Our Town 1955 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Out Beyond the Window (spoken) 1969 Rod McKuen Out of Nowhere 1942 (radio) Johnny Green, Edward Heyman Over the Rainbow 1945 Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg Pale Moon 1941 Frederic Knight Logan, Jesse G. M. Glick Paper Doll 1961 Johnny S. Black Paradise 1945 Nacio Herb Brown, Gordon Clifford Pass Me By 1964 Cy Coleman, Carolyn Leigh Peachtree Street 1950 Jimmy Saunders, Frank Sinatra, Leni Mason Pennies from Heaven 1956, 1962 Johnny Burke, Arthur Johnston People Will Say We're in Love 1943 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Pick Yourself Up 1962 Dorothy Fields, Jerome Kern Please Be Kind 1962 Sammy Cahn, Saul Chaplin Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone 1961 Sidney Clare, Sam H. Stept Pocketful of Miracles 1961 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Poinciana 1946, 1947 Buddy Bernier, Nat Simon Polka Dots and Moonbeams 1940, 1961 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Poor Butterfly 1967 John Golden, Raymond Hubbell Poor You 1942 Yip Harburg, Burton Lane Prairie Night 1941 (radio) unknown Pretty Colors 1968 Al Gorgoni, Chip Taylor A Pretty Girl is Like a Melody 1942 (radio) Irving Berlin Prisoner of Love 1961 Russ Columbo, Clarence Gaskill, Leo Robin P.S. I Love You 1956 Gordon Jenkins, Johnny Mercer Purple 1956 Billy May Put Your Dreams Away (For Another Day) 1945, 1957, 1963 Ruth Lowe, Paul Mann, Stephan Weiss Quiet Nights of Quiet Stars 1967 Antonio Carlos Jobim, Gene Lees Rain (Falling From The Skies) 1953 Gunther Finlay, Robert Mellin Rain in My Heart 1968 Victoria Pike, Teddy Randazzo Reaching for the Moon 1965 Irving Berlin Red 1956 André Previn Remember 1962, 1978 Irving Berlin Remember Me in Your Dreams 1950 Hal David, Morty Nevins The Right Girl for Me 1949 Betty Comden, Roger Edens, Adolph Green Ring-a-Ding-Ding! 1960 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen River Stay 'Way from My Door 1960 Matt Dixon, Harry M. Woods Roses of Picardy 1962 Frederick Weatherly, Haydn Wood The Saddest Thing of All 1974, 1975 Pierre Leroyer, Michel Legrand, Edward Ruault, Carl Sigman Same Old Saturday Night 1955 Sammy Cahn, Frank Reardon Same Old Song and Dance 1958 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen, Bobby Worth Sand and Sea 1966 Gilbert Bécaud, Mack David, Maurice Vidalin Santa Claus Is Coming to Town 1947 John Frederick Coots, Haven Gillespie Satin Doll Duke Ellington, Johnny Mercer, Billy Strayhorn Satisfy Me One More Time 1974 Floyd Huddleston Saturday Night (Is the Loneliest Night of the Week) 1944, 1958 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Say Hello! 1981 Richard Behrke, Sammy Cahn Say It 1940 Jimmy McHugh, Frank Loesser Searching 1982, 1983 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne The Sea Song 1954 Dorothy Fields, Arthur Schwartz The Second Time Around 1960, 1963, Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Secret Love 1964 Sammy Fain, Paul Francis Webster See the Show Again 1994 Barry Manilow, Adrienne Anderson Send in the Clowns 1973, 1976 Stephen Sondheim Senorita (I Offer You the Moon) 1947 Nacio Herb Brown, Edward Heyman Sentimental Baby 1960 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Lew Spence Sentimental Journey 1961 Les Brown, Arthur Green, Ben Homer September in the Rain 1960 Al Dubin, Harry Warren The September of My Years 1965 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen September Song 1946, 1961, 1965 Maxwell Anderson, Kurt Weill Serenade in Blue 1962 Mack Gordon, Harry Warren Serenade of the Bells Al Goodhart, Kay Twomey, Al Urbano Shadows on the Sand 1940 Stanley Adams, Will Grosz The Shadow of Your Smile 1966 Johnny Mandel, Paul Francis Webster Shake Down the Stars 1940 Eddie DeLange, Jimmy Van Heusen She Says 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes Sheila 1950 Christopher R. Hayward, Frank Sinatra, Robert B. Staver She's Funny That Way 1944, 1960 Neil Moret, Richard A. Whiting Should I? 1950, 1960 Arthur Freed, Nacio Herb Brown Side by Side 1957 (television), 1988 (live recording) Harry M. Woods Silent Night 1945, 1957, 1991 Traditional Silver 1956 Elmer Bernstein Since Marie Has Left Paree 1964 Hy Glaser, Jerry Solomon The Single Man 1969 Rod McKuen A Sinner Kissed an Angel 1941 Mack David, Larry Shayne The Sky Fell Down 1940 Louis Alter, Edward Heyman Sleep Warm 1958 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Lew Spence Sleepy Time Gal 1958 Joseph R. Alden, Raymond B. Egan, Ange Lorenzo, Richard A. Whiting On a Slow Boat to China 1957 (television) Frank Loesser Slow Dance 1945 Alec Wilder Speak Low 1943-8 Ogden Nash, Kurt Weill Snootie Little Cutie 1942 Bobby Troup So Far 1947 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers So in Love 1963 Cole Porter So Long, My Love 1957 Sammy Cahn, Lew Spence So They Tell Me 1946 J. Gale, Arthur Kent, Harold Mott So You're the One 1941 (radio) unknown Softly As I Leave You 1964 Giorgio Calabrese, Tony De Vita, Hal Shaper. Soliloquy 1946, 1955, 1963 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Some Enchanted Evening 1949, 1963, 1967 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Some of Your Sweetness (Got into My Heart) 1940 (radio) G. Clayborn, J. Clayborn Some Other Time (I Could Resist You) 1944 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Some Other Time (We'll Catch Up) Leonard Bernstein, Betty Comden, Adolph Green Some Traveling Music (spoken) 1969 Rod McKuen Somebody Loves Me 1940 Buddy DeSylva, George Gershwin, Ballard MacDonald Someone to Light Up My Life 1969 Antonio Carlos Jobim, Gene Lees, Vinícius de Moraes Someone To Watch Over Me 1945, 1954 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin Somethin' Stupid 1967 Carson Parks Something 1970, 1979 George Harrison Something Old, Something New 1946 Ramey Idriss, George Tibbles Something Wonderful 1957, 1962 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers, Something Wonderful Happens in Summer 1956, 1957 Joe Bushkin, John DeVries Something's Gotta Give 1958 Johnny Mercer Somewhere a Voice is Calling 1942 Eileen Newton, Arthur F. Tate Somewhere Along the Way 1961 Kurt Adams, Sammy Gallop Somewhere in the Night 1946 Mack Gordon, Josef Myrow Somewhere in Your Heart 1964 Russell Faith, Clarence Keltner Somewhere My Love (Lara's Theme) 1966 Maurice Jarre, Paul Francis Webster The Song is Ended (but the Melody Lingers On) 1962 Irving Berlin, Beda Loehner The Song Is You 1942, 1946, 1947, 1958, 1979 Oscar Hammerstein II, Jerome Kern Song of the Sabia 1969 Chico Buarque, Norman Gimbel, Antonio Carlos Jobim Song Sung Blue 1979 Neil Diamond Song Without Words 1979 Gordon Jenkins The Song's Gotta Come from the Heart 1946 (film) Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Sonny Boy 1944 (radio) Lew Brown, Buddy DeSylva, Ray Henderson, Al Jolson Sorry 1949 Buddy Pepper, Richard A. Whiting South of the Border 1953 Michael Carr, Jimmy Kennedy South - To a Warmer Place 1981 Loonis McGlohon, Alec Wilder S'posin' 1947, 1960 Paul Denniker, Andy Razaf Spring Is Here 1947, 1958 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers Star 1968 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Stardust 1940, 1961 Hoagy Carmichael, Mitchell Parish Stargazer 1976 Neil Diamond Stars Fell on Alabama 1956 Mitchell Parish, Frank Perkins Stars in Your Eyes 1945 Mort Greene, Ricardo López Méndez, Gabriel Ruiz (composer) Stay with Me (Main Theme from The Cardinal) 1963 Carolyn Leigh, Jerome Moross The Stars Will Remember 1947 Don Pelosi, Leo Towers Stella by Starlight 1947 Ned Washington, Victor Young Stompin' at the Savoy 1967 (television) Benny Goodman, Edgar Sampson, Chick Webb Stormy Weather 1944, 1959, 1984 Harold Arlen, Ted Koehler Strange Music 1946, 1947 Edvard Grieg Strangers in the Night 1966 Bert Kaempfert, Charles Singleton, Eddie Snyder Street of Dreams 1942, 1979 Sam M. Lewis, Victor Young (On the Island of) Stromboli 1949, 1964 K. Lane, Taylor Style 1964 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen The Summer Knows 1974 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Michel Legrand Summer Me, Winter Me 1979 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Michel Legrand Summer Wind 1966, 1993 Heinz Meier, Johnny Mercer Sunday 1954 Chester Conn, Bennie Krueger, Ned Miller, Jule Styne Sunday, Monday or Always 1943 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Sunflower 1948 Mack David, Russ Morgan Sunny 1967 Bobby Hebb Sunrise in the Morning 1970 Paul Ryan Sunrise Over Taxco 1941 (radio) Elliot, Pardue Sunshine Cake 1949 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen The Sunshine of Your Smile 1941 Leonard Cooke, Lillian Ray Sure Thing 1949 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen The Surrey with the Fringe on Top 1945 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Sweet and Lovely 1983 Gus Arnheim, Neil Moret, Harry Tobias Sweet Caroline 1974 Neil Diamond Sweet Chariot 1963 (live recording) Duke Ellington, Irving Mills Sweet Lorraine 1946, 1977 Cliff Burwell, Mitchell Parish The Sweetheart of Sigma Chi 1957 (radio) Bryan Stokes, F. Dudleigh Vernor Swinging on a Star 1964 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen Swingin' Down the Lane 1956 Isham Jones, Gus Kahn Take a Chance 1953 David Raksin, Don Stanford Take Me 1942, 1961 Rube Bloom, Mack David Take Me Out to the Ball Game 1946 (film) Jack Norworth, Albert Von Tilzer Take My Love 1950 Joel Herron, Frank Sinatra, Jack Wolf Take the A Train 1965 (television) Billy Strayhorn Taking a Chance on Love 1954 Vernon Duke, John Latouche, Ted Fetter Talk to Me 1959 Eddie Snyder, Rudy Vallee, Stanley Kahan Talk to Me Baby 1963 Robert E. Dolan, Johnny Mercer Tammy 1962 Jay Livingston, Ray Evans Tangerine 1962 Johnny Mercer, Victor Schertzinger Tea for Two 1946 (radio), 1947 Irving Caesar, Vincent Youmans Teach Me Tonight 1984 Sammy Cahn, Gene De Paul Tell Her You Love Her 1957 Homer Denison, Hugh Halliday, Sol Parker Tell Her (You Love Her Each Day) 1965 Samuel Ward, Charles Watkins Tell Me at Midnight 1940 Clay A. Boland, Bickley Reichner Tenderly 1980 Walter Gross, Jack Lawrence Tennessee News Boy (The Newsboy Blues) 1952 Percy Faith, Dick Manning Thanks for the Memory 1981 Leo Robin, Ralph Rainger That Great Come and Get It Day 1954 (film) Yip Harburg, Burton Lane That Lucky Old Sun 1949 Haven Gillespie, Beasley Smith That Old Black Magic 1946, 1961, 1975 Harold Arlen, Johnny Mercer That Old Feeling 1947, 1960 Lew Brown, Sammy Fain That's All 1961 Alan Brandt, Bob Haymes That's For Me 1945 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers That's How Much I Love You 1946 Eddy Arnold, Wally Fowler That's How It Goes 1941 (radio) L. Martin, M. Gentile That's Life 1966 Kelly Gordon, Dean Kay That's What God Looks Like to Me 1978, 1979 Lois Irwin, Lan O'Kun Them There Eyes 1982 Maceo Pinkard, Doris Tauber, William Tracey Theme from New York, New York 1979, 1993 Fred Ebb, John Kander Theme and Variations 1945 Alec Wilder Then I'll Be Tired of You 1957 Yip Harburg, Arthur Schwartz Then Suddenly Love 1964 Roy Alfred, Paul Vance There Are Such Things 1942, 1961 Stanley Adams, Abel Baer, George W. Meyer There But for You Go I 1947 Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe There Goes That Song Again 1943 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne There I Go 1941 (radio) Weiser, Hy Zaret There Used to Be a Ballpark 1973 Joe Raposo There Will Never Be Another You 1961 Mack Gordon, Harry Warren (There'll Be a) Hot Time in the Town of Berlin 1943-8 Joe Bushkin, John DeVries There's a Flaw in My Flue 1956 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen There's a Long Long Trail 1954 (radio), 1957 (television) Alonzo Elliot, Stoddard King There's a Small Hotel 1957 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers There's No Business Like Show Business 1946 (radio) Irving Berlin There's No You 1944, 1957 Tom Adair, Hal Hopper There's Something Missing 1950, 1951 Rule, O'Brien, Bennie Benjamin, George David Weiss, Downey These Boots Are Made for Walkin' 1966 (television) Lee Hazlewood These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You) 1945, 1961 Eric Maschwitz, Jack Strachey They All Laughed 1979 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin They Came to Cordura 1958 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen They Can't Take That Away from Me 1953, 1962, 1993 George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin They Say It's Wonderful 1946 Irving Berlin The Things I Love 1941 (radio) H. Barlow, L. Harris, Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky The Things We Did Last Summer 1946 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne This Can't Be Love 1949 (radio), 1958 (television) Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers This Happy Madness (Estrada Branca) 1969 Antonio Carlos Jobim, Gene Lees, Vinicius de Moraes This Is All I Ask 1965 Gordon Jenkins This Is My Love 1967 James Harbert This Is My Song 1967 Charlie Chaplin This Is No Dream 1939 Benny Davis, Tommy Dorsey, Ted Shapiro This Is the Beginning of the End 1940 Mack Gordon This Is the Night 1946 Louis Bellin, Redd Evans This Love of Mine 1941, 1955 Barry Parker, Henry W. Sanicola, Frank Sinatra This Nearly Was Mine 1963 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers This Town 1967 Lee Hazlewood This Was My Love 1959 Jim Harbert Three Coins in the Fountain 1954, 1964 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree 1974 L. Russell Brown, Irwin Levine Till We Meet Again 1954 (radio) Raymond B. Egan, Richard A. Whiting Time After Time 1946, 1957 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne Tina 1960 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen To Love a Child 1981 Hal David, Joe Raposo To Love and Be Loved 1958 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen Together 1962 Lew Brown, Buddy De Sylva, Ray Henderson Tony Rome 1967 (television) Lee Hazlewood Too Close for Comfort 1958 Jerry Bock, Larry Holofcener, George David Weiss Too Marvelous for Words 1956 Johnny Mercer, Richard A. Whiting Too Romantic 1940 Johnny Burke, James Monaco Trade Winds 1940 Cliff Friend, Charles Tobias The Train 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes Triste 1969 Antonio Carlos Jobim Try a Little Tenderness 1945, 1960 Jimmy Campbell and Reg Connelly, Harry M. Woods The Twelve Days Of Christmas 1968 Traditional Twin Soliloquies (Wonder How it Feels) 1963 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Two Hearts are Better Than One 1946 Oscar Hammerstein II, Jerome Kern Two Hearts, Two Kisses (Make One Love) 1955 Henry Stone, Otis Williams Two in Love 1941 Meredith Willson Until the Real Thing Comes Along 1984 Sammy Cahn, Saul Chaplin, L.E. Freeman Up, Up and Away 1967 (television) Jimmy Webb Violets for Your Furs 1941, 1953 Tom Adair, Matt Dennis The Very Thought of You 1962 Ray Noble Volare 1980 (live recording) Franco Migliacci, Domenico Modugno Wait for Me (Johnny Concho Theme) 1956 Nelson Riddle, Dok Stanford Wait Till You See Her 1956 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers Walk Away 1973 Elmer Bernstein, Carolyn Leigh Walking Down to Washington 1961 unknown Walkin' in the Sunshine 1952 Bob Merrill Wandering 1968 Gayle Caldwell Was the Last Time I Saw You (The Last Time) 1943-8 Marjorie Goetschius, Edna Osser Watch What Happens 1969 Jacques Demy, Norman Gimbel, Michel Legrand Drinking Water (Agua de Beber) 1969 Antonio Carlos Jobim, Norman Gimbel, Vinicius de Moraes Watertown 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes Wave 1969 Antonio Carlos Jobim The Way You Look Tonight 1964 Dorothy Fields, Jerome Kern We Just Couldn't Say Goodbye 1947 Harry M. Woods We Kiss in a Shadow 1951 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers We Open in Venice 1963 Cole Porter We Three (My Echo, My Shadow, and Me) 1940 Nelson Cogane, Sammy Mysels, Dick Robertson We Wish You the Merriest 1964 Les Brown The Wedding of Lili Marlene 1949 Tommie Connor, Johnny Reine Weep They Will 1955 Bill Carey, Carl T. Fischer Well, Did You Evah! 1956 Cole Porter We'll Be Together Again 1956 Carl T. Fischer, Frankie Laine We'll Gather Lilacs in the Spring 1962 Ivor Novello We'll Meet Again 1962 Hughie Charles, Ross Parker We're Glad That We're Italian 1959 (live recording) Sammy Cahn We're Just a Kiss Apart 1949 Leo Robin, Jule Styne What a Funny Girl (You Used to Be) 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes What Are You Doing the Rest of Your Life? 1974 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Michel Legrand What Do I Care for a Dame? 1957 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers What Is This Thing Called Love? 1955 Cole Porter What Makes the Sunset? 1944 Sammy Cahn, Jule Styne What Now My Love 1966, 1993 Gilbert Bécaud, Pierre Leroyer, Carl Sigman What Time Does the Next Miracle Leave? 1979 Gordon Jenkins Whatever Happened to Christmas? 1968 Jimmy Webb What'll I Do 1947, 1962 Irving Berlin What's New? 1958 Johnny Burke, Bob Haggart What's Now is Now 1969 Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes When I Lost You 1962 Irving Berlin When Daylight Dawns 1941 (radio) Bea Huberdo When I Stop Loving You 1954 Cates, Copeland, Green, When I Take My Sugar to Tea 1960 Sammy Fain, Irving Kahal, Pierre Norman When I'm Not Near the Girl I Love 1963 Yip Harburg, Burton Lane When is Sometime? 1947 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen When Joanna Loved Me 1987 (live recording) Jack Segal, Robert Wells When Love Comes Again 1941 Gerry Deane, Lou Halmy When No One Cares 1959 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen When Sleepy Stars Begin to Fall 1941 (radio) Sibyl Allen When Somebody Loves You 1965 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen When the Sun Goes Down 1950 Walter O'Keefe, Irvine C. Orton When the Wind Was Green 1965 Henry Stinson When the World Was Young 1961 Johnny Mercer, M. Philippe-Gerard, Angele Marie T. Vannier When You Awake 1940, 1947 Henry Nemo When Your Lover Has Gone 1944, 1955 Einar Aaron Swan When You're Smiling 1950, 1960 Mark Fisher, Joe Goodwin, Larry Shay, Where Are You? 1957 Harold Adamson, Jimmy McHugh Where Do You Go? 1959 Arnold Sundgaard, Alec Wilder Where Do You Keep Your Heart? 1940 Fred E. Ahlert, Al Stillman Where is the One? 1947, 1957 Edwin Finckel, Alec Wilder Where or When 1945, 1958, 1994 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers While the Angelus Was Ringing 1948 Jean Villard Gilles, Dick Manning Whispering 1940 Richard Coburn, Vincent Rose, John Schonberger White 1956 Victor Young White Christmas 1944, 1947, 1954 Irving Berlin Who 1940 (radio) Oscar Hammerstein II, Otto Harbach, Jerome Kern Who Told You I Cared? 1939 Bert Reisfeld, George Whiting Who Wants to be a Millionaire? 1956 Cole Porter Why Am I Still Dreaming? 1940 (radio) unknown Why Can't You Behave? 1948 Cole Porter Why Remind Me? 1949 Doris Tauber, Sis Willner Why Should I Cry Over You? 1953 Chester Conn, Ned Miller Why Shouldn't I? 1945 Cole Porter Why Shouldn't it Happen to Us? 1946 Mann Holiner, Alberta Nichols Why Try to Change Me Now? 1952, 1959 Cy Coleman, Joseph A. McCarthy Why Was I Born? 1947 Oscar Hammerstein II, Jerome Kern Willow Weep for Me 1958 Ann Ronell Winchester Cathedral 1966 Geoff Stephens Winners 1973 Joe Raposo Winter Wonderland 1949 Felix Bernard, Richard B. Smith Wishing Will Make It So 1939 Buddy DeSylva Witchcraft 1957, 1963, 1993 Cy Coleman, Carolyn Leigh With Every Breath I Take 1956 Ralph Rainger, Leo Robin Without a Song 1941, 1961 Edward Eliscu, Billy Rose, Vincent Youmans Wives and Lovers 1964 Burt Bacharach, Hal David The World Is in My Arms 1940 Yip Harburg, Burton Lane World War None 1979 Gordon Jenkins The World We Knew (Over and Over) 1967 Bert Kaempfert, Herbert Rehbein, Carl Sigman Wrap Your Troubles In Dreams 1954 Harry Barris, Ted Koehler, Billy Moll Ya Better Stop 1953 Cliff Ferre, Mark McIntyre Yearning (Just For You) 1940 Joe Burke, Benny Davis Yellow 1956 Jeff Alexander Yellow Days 1967 Alan Bernstein, Alarcon Carrillo Yes Indeed 1945 (radio), 1958 (TV), 1961 Sy Oliver Yes Sir, That's My Baby 1966 Walter Donaldson, Gus Kahn Yesterday 1969 John Lennon, Paul McCartney Yesterdays 1961 Otto Harbach, Jerome Kern You and I 1941 Meredith Willson You and Me 1978, 1979 Peter Allen, Carole Bayer Sager You and the Night and the Music 1960 Howard Dietz, Arthur Schwartz You Are My Sunshine 1944 (radio) Jimmie Davis, Charles Mitchell You Are the Sunshine of My Life 1974, 1975 Stevie Wonder You Are There 1967 Harry Sukman, Paul Francis Webster You Are Too Beautiful 1945 Lorenz Hart, Richard Rodgers You Brought a New Kind of Love to Me 1956, 1963 Pierre Connor, Sammy Fain, Irving Kahal You Can Take My Word for It, Baby 1946 Ticker Freeman, Irving Taylor You Cast a Spell Over Me 1940 (radio) unknown You Don't Remind Me 1950 Cole Porter You Do Something to Me 1950, 1960 Cole Porter You Forgot All the Words 1955 Bernie Wayne, E.H. Jay You Go to My Head 1945, 1960 J. Fred Coots, Haven Gillespie You Got the Best of Me 1941 Joy Font You Lucky People, You 1941 Johnny Burke, Jimmy Van Heusen You Make Me Feel So Young 1956, 1993 Mack Gordon, Josef Myrow You Might Have Belonged to Another 1941 P. West, L. Harmon You Must Believe In Spring 1982 Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Jacques Demy, Michel Legrand You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby 1959 (television) Johnny Mercer, Harry Warren You, My Love 1954 Mack Gordon, Jimmy Van Heusen You Never Had It So Good 1964 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen You Really Fill the Bill 1940 Warren Hull You Turned My World Around 1974 Kim Carnes, Bert Kaempfert, Herbert Rehbein, David Ellingson You Walk By 1940 (radio) unknown You Will Be My Music 1973 Joe Raposo You'd Be So Easy to Love 1960 Cole Porter You'd Be So Nice to Come Home To 1956 Cole Porter You'll Always Be the One I Love 1957 Sunny Skylar, Ticker Freeman You'll Get Yours 1955 Jimmy Van Heusen, Don Stanford You'll Know it When it Happens 1946 J.J. Loeb, Carmen Lombardo You'll Never Know 1943 Mack Gordon, Harry Warren You'll Never Walk Alone 1945, 1963 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Young At Heart 1953, 1963 Carolyn Leigh, Johnny Richards Younger Than Springtime 1967 Oscar Hammerstein II, Richard Rodgers Your Cheatin' Heart 1952 Hank Williams Your Love for Me 1956 Sol Parker You're a Lucky Fellow, Mr. Smith 1964 Francis Burke, Hughie Prince, Don Raye You're Breaking My Heart (All Over Again) 1940 James Cavanaugh, Arthur Altman, John Redmond You're Cheatin' Yourself (If You're Cheatin' on Me) 1957 Al Hoffman, Dick Manning You're Driving Me Crazy 1966 Walter Donaldson You're Getting to Be a Habit With Me 1956 Al Dubin, Harry Warren You're Gonna Hear from Me 1966 André Previn, Dory Previn You're Lonely and I'm Lonely 1940 Irving Berlin You're My Girl 1947 Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen You're Nobody till Somebody Loves You 1961 James Cavanaugh, Russ Morgan, Larry Stock You're Part of My Heart 1941 (radio) Virginia Sloane You're Sensational 1956 Cole Porter You're Stepping on My Toes 1941 (radio) Robert Terry You're So Right (For What's Wrong in My Life) 1973 Victoria Pike, Teddy Randazzo, Roger Joyce You're the One (For Me) 1951 Ned Washington, Victor Young You're the Top 1944 (radio) Cole Porter Yours Is My Heart Alone 1940 , Franz Lehár, Fritz Löhner-Beda Zing! Went the Strings of My Heart 1960 James F. Hanley ==References== == External links == *Blue Eyes - Frank Sinatra discography Sinatra, Frank Category:Frank Sinatra |
thumb|200px|alt=Aphex Twin performing in 2007|James performing in 2007 Richard D. James is an English musician who has recorded songs since 1991. Over the course of his career, he has released songs under many aliases, his most well- known being Aphex Twin. James has also released music under the pseudonyms, AFX, Polygon Window, Analogue Bubblebath, Dice Man, GAK, Caustic Window, Power-Pill, Bradley Strider, The Tuss, Mike & Rich (with Mike Paradinas), and Universal Indicator (with Mike Dred). All songs written and produced by Richard D. James, except where noted. Name of song, pseudonym, original release, length, and year of release Song Pseudonym Original release Length Year ".000890569" AFX Analogue Bubblebath Vol 3 (EP) 4:31 1993 ".0180871a" AFX Analogue Bubblebath Vol 3 (EP) 3:45 1993 ".0180871b" AFX Analogue Bubblebath Vol 3 (EP) 4:10 1993 ".1993841" AFX Analogue Bubblebath Vol 3 (EP) 5:43 1993 ".215061" AFX Analogue Bubblebath Vol 3 (EP) 4:16 1993 ".38" AFX Analogue Bubblebath Vol 3 (EP) 0:38 1993 ".55278037732581" AFX Analogue Bubblebath Vol 3 (EP) 4:18 1993 ".942937" AFX Analogue Bubblebath Vol 3 (EP) 4:31 1993 "0035 1-Audio" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 0:26 2015 "101 Rainbows Ambient Mix" Caustic Window Caustic Window 8:52 2014 "180db_" [130] Aphex Twin Syro 3:11 2014 "1st 44" Aphex Twin Collapse (EP) 6:10 2018 "1st rushup m,+3" The Tuss Rushup Edge (2017 reissue) 2:17 2017 "2 Analogue Talks" AFX Analord 6 (EP) 1:45 2005 "28 organ 1.1 [ru,ec,+9]" Aphex Twin Come to Daddy (2017 reissue) 6:40 2017 "24 TSIM 2" Aphex Twin 6:08 2017 "2X202-ST5" Aphex Twin Cheetah (EP) 8:13 2016 "3 Gerald Remix" Aphex Twin 5:24 2017 "3 Notes Con" AFX Analord 11 (EP) (2009 reissue) 4:54 2009 "4 bit 9d api+e+6" [126.26] Aphex Twin Syro 4:28 2014 "4" Aphex Twin Richard D. James Album 3:37 1996 "42DIMENSIT10" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 3:06 2017 "42DIMENSIT3 e3" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 4:40 2017 "46 Analord-Masplid" AFX Untitled (AFX / LFO) (EP) 4:41 2005 "4x Atlantis take1" AFX orphans 3:49 2017 "54 Cymru Beats" Aphex Twin Drukqs 5:59 2001 "73-Yips" Aphex Twin On (EP) 4:14 1993 "Abundance10edit[2 R8's, FZ20m & a 909]" Aphex Twin Collapse (EP) 6:20 2018 "Acrid Avid Jam Shred" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 7:38 1995 "Actium" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 7:32 1992 "Afx237 v.7" Aphex Twin Drukqs 4:15 2001 "AFX 114" Caustic Window Joyrex J4 EP (EP) 1:20 1992 "AFX 2" Aphex Twin Analogue Bubblebath Vol I (EP) 5:26 1991 "AFX 6/b" AFX Analogue Bubblebath Vol 3 (EP) 0:31 1993 "AFX Acid 04" AFX Analord 7 (EP) 5:37 2005 "afxfm e" Aphex Twin Barcelona 16.06.23 (EP)'' TBA 2023 "AFX Tribal Kik" Caustic Window Caustic Window 1:06 2014 "Ageispolis" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 5:23 1992 "Airflow" Caustic Window Caustic Window 5:06 2014 "aisatsana" [102] Aphex Twin Syro 5:21 2014 "Akunk" The Tuss Confederation Trough (EP) (LP release) 4:42 2007 "Alberto Balsalm" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 5:11 1995 "Alien Fanny Farts" Aphex Twin Analog Bubblebath Vol 2 (EP) 3:59 1991 "Alspacka" The Tuss Confederation Trough (EP) 4:56 2007 "Analogue Bubblebath" Aphex Twin Analogue Bubblebath Vol I (EP) 4:41 1991 "Analoggins" AFX Analord 6 (EP) 7:17 2005 "Analord 158b" AFX Analord 1 (EP) 1:40 2005 "Arched Maid via RDJ" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb EP.2 (EP) 5:23 1995 "Astroblaster" Caustic Window Joyrex J5 EP (EP) 5:27 1992 "At the Heart of It All" Aphex Twin 26 Mixes for Cash 3:49 2003 "Audax Powder" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves 4:36 1993 "Aussois" Aphex Twin Drukqs 0:07 2001 "Avril 14th" Aphex Twin Drukqs 2:05 2001 "avril 14th half speed alternative version [re-recorded 2009 Nagra]" Aphex Twin Drukqs (2017 reissue) 5:07 2017 "avril 14th reversed music not audio [re-recorded 2009 Nagra]" Aphex Twin Drukqs (2017 reissue) 2:12 2017 "Backdoor.Berbew.Q" AFX Analord 8 (EP) 4:57 2005 "Backdoor.Netshadow" AFX Analord 9 (EP) 4:49 2005 "Backdoor.Ranky.S" AFX Analord 11 (EP) 6:00 2005 "Backdoor.Spybooter.A" AFX Analord 8 (EP) 5:06 2005 "bank lullaby" Aphex Twin Come to Daddy (2017 reissue) 1:49 2017 "Batine Acid" AFX Analord 6 (EP) 5:26 2005 "Bbydhyonchord" Aphex Twin Drukqs 2:21 2001 "The Beauty of Being Numb (Section B)" Aphex Twin 26 Mixes for Cash 3:27 2003 "Beetles" Aphex Twin Girl/Boy (EP) 1:31 1996 "Beskhu3epnm" Aphex Twin Drukqs 1:58 2001 "Bike Pump Meets Bucket" Polygon Window Quoth (EP) 5:58 1993 "Bit" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb EP (EP) 0:06 1995 "Bit 4" Aphex Twin Drukqs 0:18 2001 "Blackbox Life Recorder 21f" Aphex Twin 4:26 2023 "Blue Calx" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 7:20 1994 "Blur" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 5:08 1994 "Bodmin 1" AFX Analord 6 (EP) (2009 reissue) 4:36 2009 "Bodmin 2" AFX Analord 6 (EP) (2009 reissue) 4:17 2009 "Bodmin 3" AFX Analord 6 (EP) (2009 reissue) 5:26 2009 "bonus EMT beats" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) 4:46 2015 "Boxing Day" AFX Analord 3 (EP) 6:36 2005 "Bradley's Beat Part One" Bradley Strider Bradley's Beat (EP) 6:10 1991 "Bradley's Beat Part Two" Bradley Strider Bradley's Beat (EP) 3:32 1991 "Breath March" AFX Analord 4 (EP) 3:46 2005 "Brivert & Muonds" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers (2016 reissue) 6:17 2016 "Btoum-Roumada" Aphex Twin Drukqs 1:56 2001 "Bu Bu Bu Ba" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 6:51 1996 "Bubble 'n' Squeek 2" AFX Analord 1 (EP) 1:31 2005 "Bucephalus Bouncing Ball" Aphex Twin Come to Daddy (EP) 5:46 1997 "Bwoon Dub" AFX Analord 2 (EP) 5:56 2005 "Canticle Drawl" AFX Analord 1 (EP) 1:45 2005 "Carn Marth" Aphex Twin Richard D. James Album 2:33 1996 "Carnival Acid" AFX Analord 2 (EP) (2009 reissue) 3:32 2009 "CHEETA1b ms800" Aphex Twin Cheetah (EP) 0:27 2016 "CHEETA2 ms800" Aphex Twin Cheetah (EP) 0:37 2016 "CHEETAHT2 [Ld spectrum]" Aphex Twin Cheetah (EP) 5:53 2016 "CHEETAHT7b" Aphex Twin Cheetah (EP) 6:43 2016 "Children Talking" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb EP (EP) 5:19 1995 "choirDrilll" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb - Extras (EP) 4:12 2017 "Cilonen" AFX Analord 5 (EP) 5:34 2005 "CIRCLONT14" [152.97] (syrobonkus mix) Aphex Twin Syro 7:21 2014 "CIRCLONT6A" [141.98] (syrobonkus mix) Aphex Twin Syro 6:00 2014 "CIRKLON3 [Колхозная mix]" Aphex Twin Cheetah (EP) 8:13 2016 "CIRKLON 1" Aphex Twin Cheetah (EP) 7:17 2016 "Clayhill Dub" Caustic Window Joyrex J9ii (EP) 3:23 1993 "Cliffs" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 7:27 1994 "clissold 101[dat28 otari] 48k" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves (2017 reissue) 5:43 2017 "Clissold Bathroom" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers (2016 reissue) 0:54 2016 "Cock/Ver10" Aphex Twin Drukqs 5:17 2001 "Come On You Slags!" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 5:45 1995 "Come to Daddy" Aphex Twin Come to Daddy (EP) 4:42 1997 "computerband 2000 m,+3" The Tuss Rushup Edge (2017 reissue) 2:22 2017 "consciousness utopia" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do (2017 reissue) 7:18 2017 "consta-lume" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do (2017 reissue) 7:04 2017 "Cordialatron" Caustic Window Joyrex J4 EP (EP) 4:43 1992 "Cornish Acid" Aphex Twin Richard D. James Album 2:14 1996 "Cow Cud Is a Twin" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 5:34 1995 "Crying in Your Face" AFX Analord 4 (EP) 4:23 2005 "Cunt" Caustic Window Caustic Window 4:16 2014 "Curtains" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 8:51 1994 "Custodian Discount" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb EP (EP) 4:25 1995 "D-Scape" Aphex Twin On (EP) 6:54 1993 "Death Fuck" The Tuss Rushup Edge 6:38 2007 "Delphium" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 5:26 1992 "Digeridoo" Aphex Twin Digeridoo (EP) 7:11 1992 "disk aud1_12" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 0:10 2015 "disk prep calrec2 barn dance [slo]" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 4:22 2015 "diskhat1" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 2:26 2015 "diskhat2" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 0:38 2015 "diskhat ALL prepared1mixed 13" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 5:22 2015 "DISKPREPT1" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 3:30 2015 "DISKPREPT4" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 1:53 2015 "dmx acid test" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) 1:17 2015 "Dodeccaheedron" Aphex Twin Xylem Tube EP 5:48 1992 "Domino" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 7:18 1994 "Donkey Rhubarb" Aphex Twin Donkey Rhubarb (EP) 6:08 1995 "dRuQks Prepared uN 1" Aphex Twin Drukqs (2017 reissue) 3:01 2017 "efil pearls ,e,+4" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do (2017 reissue) 5:57 2017 "Eggy Toast" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 4:07 1996 "em2500 M253X" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 1:50 2017 "end E2" Aphex Twin Syro (2017 reissue) 5:19 2017 "Entrance to Exit" Aphex Twin Analogue Bubblebath Vol I (EP) 4:22 1991 "Every Day" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb EP.2 (EP) 3:44 1995 "Fantasia" Caustic Window Joyrex J9i (EP) 6:01 1993 "Father" Aphex Twin Drukqs 0:51 2001 "Fenix Funk 5" Aphex Twin Analord 10 (EP) 8:52 2005 "Flim" Aphex Twin Come to Daddy (EP) 2:57 1997 "Fingerbib" Aphex Twin Richard D. James Album 3:48 1996 "Fingertrips" Caustic Window Caustic Window 4:17 2014 "Fingry" Caustic Window Caustic Window 4:51 2014 "Flap Head" Aphex Twin Digeridoo (EP) 6:41 1992 "Flutey" Caustic Window Caustic Window 8:20 2014 "Flutternozzle" AFX Analord 4 (EP) (2009 reissue) 6:28 2009 "forgotten life path" Aphex Twin Come to Daddy (2017 reissue) 2:28 2017 "" Aphex Twin 5:43 1999 "Fredugolon 6" The Tuss Confederation Trough (EP) 5:34 2007 "Funny Little Man" Aphex Twin Come to Daddy (EP) 4:22 1997 "fz pseudotimestretch+e+3" [138.85] Aphex Twin Syro 0:58 2014 "GAK 1" GAK GAK (EP) 6:35 1994 "GAK 2" GAK GAK (EP) 6:14 1994 "GAK 3" GAK GAK (EP) 5:22 1994 "GAK 4" GAK GAK (EP) 6:03 1994 "gak5 e, +3" GAK GAK (EP) (2017 reissue) 1:37 2017 "gak6 e, +3" GAK GAK (EP) (2017 reissue) 5:25 2017 "gak7 e, +3" GAK GAK (EP) (2017 reissue) 6:00 2017 "gak bass,e, +2" GAK GAK (EP) (2017 reissue) 3:29 2017 "gak police er,2" GAK GAK (EP) (2017 reissue) 4:28 2017 "" Caustic Window Joyrex J9ii (EP) 6:08 1993 "get a baby" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb - Extras (EP) 2:27 2017 "Giant Deflating Football" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 6:22 1996 "Girl/Boy" Aphex Twin Girl/Boy (EP) 4:52 1996 "Gong Acid" AFX Analord 5 (EP) (2009 reissue) 3:05 2005 "Good Gumpas" Aphex Twin Richard D. James Album 2:02 1996 "goodbye jo [original live mixdown]" The Tuss Rushup Edge (2017 reissue) 4:05 2017 "Goodbye Rute" The Tuss Rushup Edge 5:21 2007 "Grass" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 8:55 1994 "Green Calx" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 6:05 1992 "Grey Stripe" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 4:45 1994 "Growth Inst. [Blonder]+6,Ru" Aphex Twin Girl/Boy (EP) (2017 reissue) 2:37 2017 "Grumpy Acid" AFX Analord 1 (EP) 3:21 2005 "Gwarek2" Aphex Twin Drukqs 6:38 2001 "Gwely Mernans" Aphex Twin Drukqs 5:00 2001 "GX1 Solo" The Tuss Confederation Trough (EP) (CD release) 5:01 2007 "Halibut Acid" AFX Analord 4 (EP) 6:07 2005 "Hangable Auto Bulb" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb EP (EP) 6:48 1995 "Hankie" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 4:39 1994 "HAT 2B 2012B" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 1:25 2015 "HAT5C 0001 rec-4" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 4:46 2015 "Hedphelym" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 6:00 1992 "Heliosphan" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 4:51 1992 "Hexagon" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 5:58 1994 "Home Made Polysynth" AFX Analord 4 (EP) 4:07 2005 "Humanoid Must Not Escape" Caustic Window Joyrex J9i (EP) 5:41 1993 "Hy a Scullyas Lyf Adhagrow" Aphex Twin Drukqs 2:10 2001 "I'm Self Employed" AFX Analord 6 (EP) 4:26 2005 "i" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 1:17 1992 "Icct Hedral (edit)" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 6:07 1995 "If It Really Is Me" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves 7:01 1993 "Iketa" Polygon Window Quoth (EP) 4:30 1993 "In the Maze Park" AFX Analord 4 (EP) (2009 reissue) 1:31 2009 "Inkey$" Aphex Twin Girl/Boy (EP) 1:24 1996 "Isoprophlex" Aphex Twin Analogue Bubblebath Vol I (EP) 5:20 1991 "Italic Eyeball" Caustic Window Joyrex J4 EP (EP) 4:24 1992 "IZ-US" Aphex Twin Come to Daddy (EP) 2:57 1997 "Jazzphase" Caustic Window Caustic Window 4:23 2014 "Jelly Fish" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 6:30 1996 "Jelly Fish (Mix 2)" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers (2016 reissue) 5:21 2016 "Joyrex J4" Caustic Window Joyrex J4 EP (EP) 4:27 1992 "Joyrex J5" Caustic Window Joyrex J5 EP (EP) 6:54 1992 "Jynweythek" Aphex Twin Drukqs 2:14 2001 "Kesson Dalek" Aphex Twin Drukqs 1:18 2001 "Kladfvgbung Micshk" Aphex Twin Drukqs 2:00 2001 "Klopjob" AFX Analord 3 (EP) 5:24 2005 "korg 1b" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 3:00 2017 "korg funk 5" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 3:27 2017 "ktpa1" AFX Smojphace (EP) 7:29 2003 "ktpa2" AFX Smojphace (EP) 3:38 2003 "Laricheard" AFX Analord 2 (EP) 2:15 2005 "Last Rushup 10" The Tuss Rushup Edge 6:35 2007 "Laughable Butane Bob" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb EP (EP) 2:58 1995 "Leaving Home" Bradley Strider Bradley's Robot (EP) 7:40 1993 "Lichen" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 4:15 1994 "Linmiri" Bradley Strider Bradley's Robot (EP) 5:53 1993 "Liptons B Acid" AFX Analord 9 (EP) (2009 reissue) 5:47 2009 "Lisbon Acid" AFX Analord 7 (EP) 8:29 2005 "Logan Rock Witch" Aphex Twin Richard D. James Album 3:33 1996 "Lornaderek" Aphex Twin Drukqs 0:30 2001 "Love 7" AFX Analord 11 (EP) (2009 reissue) 4:45 2009 "Mangle 11" Aphex Twin Drukqs (2017 reissue) 5:55 2017 "MARCHROMT30A edit 2b 96" [104.98] Aphex Twin Syro (Japanese edition) 7:19 2014 "Matchsticks" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 5:41 1994 "MC-4 Acid" AFX Analord 1 (EP) 3:47 2005 "Meltphace 6" Aphex Twin Drukqs 6:14 2001 "merry maidens e,ru,ec +4" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do (2017 reissue) 2:18 2017 "Metapharstic" Aphex Twin Classics 4:33 1994 "Midievil Rave" AFX Analord 3 (EP) 2:44 2005 "midi pipe2c edit,+3" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) (2017 reissue) 4:09 2017 "midi pipe1c sds3time cube/klonedrm" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) 2:27 2015 "Midievil Rave 2" AFX Analord 3 (EP) 4:00 2005 "Milkman Bonus Beets" Aphex Twin Girl/Boy (EP) (2017 reissue) 1:33 2017 "Milkman Instrumentil" Aphex Twin Girl/Boy (EP) (2017 reissue) 1:35 2017 "minipops 67" [120.2] (source field mix) Aphex Twin Syro 4:47 2014 "Mookid" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 3:51 1995 "Mould" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 3:31 1994 "Mr. Frosty" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 6:51 1996 "MT1 T29R2" Aphex Twin Collapse (EP) 6:04 2018 "MT1T1 bedroom microtune" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 3:47 2017 "MT1T2 olpedroom" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 1:57 2017 "Mt Saint Michel + Saint Michaels Mount" Aphex Twin Drukqs 8:02 2001 "Mumbly" Caustic Window Caustic Window 5:31 2014 "Naks 11 [Mono]" AFX Untitled (AFX / LFO) (EP) 2:56 2005 "Nannou" Aphex Twin 4:13 1999 "Nanou2" Aphex Twin Drukqs 3:22 2001 "NEOTEKT72" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) 6:10 2015 "Next Heap With" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 4:43 1995 "NgaiModu" Bradley Strider Bradley's Robot (EP) 5:54 1993 "Nightmail 1" AFX orphans 5:02 2017 "no cares [48k]" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do (2017 reissue) 2:49 2017 "no stillson 6 cirk" Aphex Twin Houston, TX 12.17.16 (EP) 10:43 2016 "no stillson 6 cirk mix2" Aphex Twin Houston, TX 12.17.16 (EP) 10:13 2016 "Not Disturbing Mammoth 1 [Mono]" AFX Analord 11 (EP) (2009 reissue) 2:05 2009 "Not Disturbing Mammoth 2 [Mono]" AFX Analord 11 (EP) (2009 reissue) 2:00 2009 "oberheim blacet1b" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) 3:25 2015 "Omgyjya-Switch7" Aphex Twin Drukqs 4:46 2001 "On" Aphex Twin On (EP) 7:03 1993 "On the Romance Tip" Caustic Window Joyrex J5 EP (EP) 5:04 1992 "Orban Eq Trx 4" Aphex Twin Drukqs 1:27 2001 "Organ Plodder" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers (2016 reissue) 4:15 2016 "oslo 2 +6.1" The Tuss Rushup Edge (2017 reissue) 2:52 2017 "Pac-Man" Power-Pill Pac-Man (EP) 3:32 1992 "Pancake Lizard" Aphex Twin Donkey Rhubarb (EP) 4:31 1995 "PAPAT4" [155] (pineal mix) Aphex Twin Syro 4:18 2014 "Parallel Stripes" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 8:00 1994 "Peek 824545201" Aphex Twin Richard D. James Album 3:05 1996 "Petiatil Cx Htdui" Aphex Twin Drukqs 2:05 2001 "Phlange Phace" Aphex Twin Xylem Tube EP 5:02 1992 "Phlaps" Caustic Window Caustic Window 3:50 2014 "Phloam" Aphex Twin Digeridoo (EP) 5:31 1992 "Phonatacid" AFX Analord 2 (EP) 9:47 2005 "Phone Pranks" Caustic Window Caustic Window 2:16 2014 "piano un1 arpej" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 0:50 2015 "piano un10 it happened" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 1:48 2015 "Pigeon Street" Caustic Window Joyrex J4 EP (EP) 0:21 1992 "Pissed Up in SE1" AFX Analord 2 (EP) 5:14 2005 "Pitcard" AFX Analord 7 (EP) 6:18 2005 "Polygon Window" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves 5:24 1993 "Polynomial-C" Aphex Twin Xylem Tube EP 4:44 1992 "Pop Corn" Caustic Window Joyrex J4 EP (EP) 3:38 1992 "Popeye" Caustic Window Caustic Window 1:19 2014 "Portamento Gosh" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers (2016 reissue) 2:02 2016 "Portreath Harbour" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves (2001 reissue) 4:44 2001 "Prep Gwarlek 3b" Aphex Twin Drukqs 1:13 2001 "pretend analog extmix 2b,e2,ru" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) (2017 reissue) 5:25 2017 "produk 29" [101] Aphex Twin Syro 5:03 2014 "Pthex" Aphex Twin Collapse (EP) 4:57 2018 "Ptolemy" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 7:10 1992 "Pulsewidth" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 3:46 1992 "PWSteal.Bancos.Q" AFX Analord 9 (EP) 4:50 2005 "PWSteal.Ldpinch.D" AFX Analord 8 (EP) 3:44 2005 "QKThr" Aphex Twin Drukqs 1:27 2001 "Quino – phec" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves 4:42 1993 "Quixote" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves 6:00 1993 "Quoth" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves 5:34 1993 "r8m neotek beat" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) 1:42 2015 "Radiator" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 6:34 1994 "Redruth School" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves (2001 reissue) 2:43 2001 "Reg" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 5:57 1996 "Reunion 2" AFX Analord 5 (EP) 5:10 2005 "Revpok" Caustic Window Caustic Window 3:43 2014 "rfc pt8" Aphex Twin Barcelona 16.06.23 (EP)'' TBA 2023 "Rhubarb" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 7:44 1994 "rozzboxv2mam+4" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) (2017 reissue) 4:35 2017 "Ruglen Holon" Aphex Twin Drukqs 1:45 2001 "Run the Place Red (AFX Mix)" AFX Smojphace (EP) 5:06 2003 "Rushup i Bank 12" The Tuss Rushup Edge 4:40 2007 "" The Tuss Rushup Edge (2017 reissue) 4:57 2017 "s950tx16wasr10" [163.97] (earth portal mix) Aphex Twin Syro 6:01 2014 "SAW2 CD1 TRK2 (Original Mix)" Aphex Twin 26 Mixes for Cash 6:30 2003 "Schottkey 7th Path" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 5:08 1992 "sekonda e,+2" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do (2017 reissue) 10:44 2017 "serge fenix Rendered 2" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) 3:16 2015 "Shiny Metal Rods" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 5:33 1994 "Shiz Ko E" The Tuss Rushup Edge 3:08 2007 "simple slamming b 2" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) 3:51 2015 "sk8 littletune HS-PC202" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 2:26 2017 "snar2" Aphex Twin Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 (EP) 0:20 2015 "Snivel Chew" AFX Analord 6 (EP) 4:02 2005 "Soundlab20" Aphex Twin London 14.09.2019 (EP) 6:57 2019 "" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 7:46 1996 "Spots" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 7:09 1994 "Squidge in the Fridge" Caustic Window Caustic Window 4:09 2014 "Stabbij" AFX Analord 3 (EP) (2009 reissue) 4:21 2009 "Start as You Mean to Go On" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 6:05 1995 "Steppingfilter 101" AFX Analord 1 (EP) 4:45 2005 "Stomper 101mod Detunekik" Caustic Window Caustic Window 7:26 2014 "Stone in Focus" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II (LP release) 10:11 1994 "stride portugal" The Tuss Rushup Edge (2017 reissue) 3:33 2017 "Strotha Tynhe" Aphex Twin Drukqs 2:03 2001 "Supremacy II" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves 4:04 1993 "Synthacon 9" The Tuss Rushup Edge 6:21 2007 "syro u473t8+e" [141.98] (piezoluminescence mix) Aphex Twin Syro 6:32 2014 "T03 delta 1" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 4:01 2017 "T08 dx1+5" AFX London 03.06.17 (Expanded edition) 4:41 2017 "T13 Quadraverbia N+3" AFX London 03.06.17 (Expanded edition) 3:14 2017 "T16.5 MADMA with nastya+5.2" AFX London 03.06.17 (Expanded edition) 4:56 2017 "T17 Phase out +3" AFX London 03.06.17 (Expanded edition) 4:24 2017 "T18A pole1" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 3:44 2017 "T20A eve 441" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 2:37 2017 "T23 441" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 2:51 2017 "T47 smodge" AFX London 03.06.17 (EP) 1:41 2017 "T63 neotek 2h949 +3 [bonus beats]" AFX London 03.06.17 (Expanded edition) 1:32 2017 "T69T07 stasspa+3" AFX London 03.06.17 (Expanded edition) 5:16 2017 "T69 Collapse" Aphex Twin Collapse (EP) 5:22 2018 "Taking Control" Aphex Twin Drukqs 7:08 2001 "talkin2u mix2 +9" The Tuss Rushup Edge (2017 reissue) 3:08 2017 "Tamphex (Hedphuq Mix)" Aphex Twin Xylem Tube EP 6:31 1992 "Tassels" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 7:30 1994 "th1 [evnslower]" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II (2017 reissue) 11:07 2017 "Tha" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 9:06 1992 "To Cure a Weakling Child" Aphex Twin Richard D. James Album 4:03 1996 "To Cure a Weakling Child, Contour Regard" Aphex Twin Come to Daddy (EP) 5:09 1997 "Tree" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 9:58 1994 "Trojan.KILLAV.E" AFX Analord 9 (EP) 3:03 2005 "tuning1" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 0:49 2017 "tuning2" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 1:07 2017 "tuning3" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 0:49 2017 "tuning4" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 1:19 2017 "tuning5" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 0:53 2017 "tuning seq1" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 1:03 2017 "tuning seq1 ph2" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 1:49 2017 "tuning seq2" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 1:35 2017 "tuning seq2 ph2" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 1:52 2017 "tuning seq3" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 2:17 2017 "tuning seq4" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 2:10 2017 "tuning seq5" AFX Korg Trax+Tunings for falling asleep 1:21 2017 "umil 25-01" AFX Orphaned Deejay Selek 2006–08 (EP) (2017 reissue) 4:48 2017 "Untitled" Aphex Twin Analog Bubblebath Vol 2 (EP) 3:44 1991 "" ("Elephant Song") AFX Analogue Bubblebath 4 (EP) 6:22 1994 "" ("Gibbon") AFX Analogue Bubblebath 4 (EP) 5:08 1994 "" ("Cuckoo") AFX Analogue Bubblebath 4 (EP) 6:04 1994 "" ("Sloth") AFX Analogue Bubblebath 4 (EP) 8:21 1994 "" ("Knievel") AFX Analogue Bubblebath 4 (EP) (2003 CD reissue) 0:27 2003 "" Bradley Strider Bradley's Robot (EP) 5:50 1993 "" Caustic Window Joyrex J5 EP (EP) 3:42 1992 "" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves 6:24 1993 "Upright Kangaroo" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 3:31 1996 "UT1 – dot" Polygon Window Surfing on Sine Waves 5:17 1993 "Vaz Deferenz" Aphex Twin Donkey Rhubarb (EP) 5:49 1995 "VBS.Redlof.B" AFX Analord 11 (EP) 4:39 2005 "Ventolin" Aphex Twin Ventolin (EP) 4:29 1995 "Vodka" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 4:12 1996 "Vodka (Mix 2)" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers (2016 reissue) 4:22 2016 "Vordhosbn" Aphex Twin Drukqs 4:42 2001 "W32.Aphex@mm" AFX Analord 9 (EP) 3:52 2005 "W32.Deadcode.A" AFX Analord 8 (EP) 6:18 2005 "W32.Mydoom.AU@mm" AFX Analord 11 (EP) 8:47 2005 "Wabby Acid" AFX Analord 7 (EP) (2009 reissue) 3:33 2009 "Wabby Legs" AFX Hangable Auto Bulb EP (EP) 5:29 1995 "Waltz" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers (2016 reissue) 5:24 2016 "Wax the Nip" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 4:19 1995 "" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 4:50 1995 "We Are the Music Makers" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 7:43 1992 "We Are the Music Makers (Hardcore Mix)" Caustic Window Joyrex J9ii (EP) 3:59 1993 "We Have Arrived (Aphex Twin QQT Mix)" Aphex Twin Classics 4:23 1994 "We Have Arrived (Aphex Twin TTQ Mix)" Aphex Twin Classics 4:23 1994 "Weathered Stone" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 6:54 1994 "Wet Tip Hen Ax" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do 5:17 1995 "Where's Your Girlfriend?" AFX Analord 1 (EP) 5:06 2005 "White Blur 1" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 2:43 1994 "White Blur 2" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 11:27 1994 "winding road ,e,+4.1" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do (2017 reissue) 3:15 2017 "Windowlicker" Aphex Twin 6:07 1999 "Windowlicker (Acid Edit)" Aphex Twin 26 Mixes for Cash 4:15 2003 "Windowsill" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 7:16 1994 "Winner Takes All" Mike & Rich Expert Knob Twiddlers 5:44 1996 "with my family [48k]" Aphex Twin ...I Care Because You Do (2017 reissue) 4:11 2017 "Xepha" Aphex Twin On (EP) 5:42 1993 "XMAS_EVET10" [120] (thanaton3 mix) Aphex Twin Syro 10:31 2014 "Xmd 5a" Aphex Twin Analord 10 (EP) 7:55 2005 "Xtal" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92 4:54 1992 "Yellow Calx" Aphex Twin Richard D. James Album 3:04 1996 "Z Twig" Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works Volume II 2:05 1994 "Ziggomatic 17" Aphex Twin Drukqs 8:28 2001 ==Notes== ==References== James, Richard D. |
Desertion is the abandonment of a military duty or post without permission (a pass, liberty or leave) and is done with the intention of not returning. This contrasts with unauthorized absence (UA) or absence without leave (AWOL ), which are temporary forms of absence. ==Desertion versus absence without leave== In the United States Army, United States Air Force, British Armed Forces, Australian Defence Force, New Zealand Defence Force, Singapore Armed Forces and Canadian Armed Forces, military personnel will become AWOL if absent from their post without a valid pass, liberty or leave. The United States Marine Corps, United States Navy, and United States Coast Guard generally refer to this as unauthorized absence. Personnel are dropped from their unit rolls after thirty days and then listed as deserters; however, as a matter of U.S. military law, desertion is not measured by time away from the unit, but rather: * by leaving or remaining absent from their unit, organization, or place of duty, where there has been a determined intent to not return; * if that intent is determined to be to avoid hazardous duty or shirk contractual obligation; * if they enlist or accept an appointment in the same or another branch of service without disclosing the fact that they have not been properly separated from current service. People who are away for more than thirty days but return voluntarily or indicate a credible intent to return may still be considered AWOL. Those who are away for fewer than thirty days but can credibly be shown to have no intent to return (for example, by joining the armed forces of another country) may nevertheless be tried for desertion. On rare occasions, they may be tried for treason if enough evidence is found. There are similar concepts to desertion. Missing movement occurs when a member of the armed forces fails to arrive at the appointed time to deploy (or "move out") with their assigned unit, ship, or aircraft. In the United States Armed Forces, this is a violation of the Article 87 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). The offense is similar to absence without leave but may draw more severe punishment. Failure to repair consists of missing a formation or failing to appear at an assigned place and time when so ordered. It is a lesser offense within article 86 of the UCMJ. See: DUSTWUN An additional duty status code — absent-unknown, or AUN — was established by the U.S. military in 2020 to prompt unit actions and police investigations during the first 48 hours that a Soldier is missing. ==By country== ===Australia=== During the First World War, the Australian Government refused to allow members of the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) to be executed for desertion, despite pressure from the British Government and military to do so. The AIF had the highest rate of soldiers going absent without leave of any of the national contingents in the British Expeditionary Force, and the proportion of soldiers who deserted was also higher than that of other forces on the Western Front in France.Lambley (2012); especially pp.6-60. ===Austria=== In 2011, Vienna decided to honour Austrian Wehrmacht deserters. On 24 October 2014, a Memorial for the Victims of Nazi Military Justice was inaugurated on Vienna's Ballhausplatz by Austria's President Heinz Fischer. The monument was created by German artist Olaf Nicolai and is located opposite the President's office and the Austrian Chancellery. The inscription on top of the three step sculpture features a poem by Scottish poet Ian Hamilton Finlay (1924–2006) with just two words: all alone. ===Colombia=== In Colombia, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Spanish: FARC) insurgency were highly affected by desertion during the armed conflict with the Military Forces of Colombia. The Colombian Ministry of Defense reported 19,504 deserters from the FARC between August 2002 and their collective demobilization in 2017, despite potentially severe punishment, including execution, for attempted desertion in the FARC. Organizational decline contributed to FARC's high desertion rate which peaked in the year 2008. A later stalemate between the FARC and government forces gave rise to the Colombian peace process. ===France=== thumb|"Convoy of Deserters - Paris" in the book "Cassell's History of the War between France and Germany. 1870-1871" Many individuals who were conscripted by the French First Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars deserted. There were rough estimates to the number of individuals that deserted during the time of the Levée en masse, but due to many factors, like the inability to manage and keep track of all the armies or differentiating between men with similar names, the exact number is unclear. In 1800, the Minister of War (Carnot) reported that there were 175,000 deserters based on the number of individuals that sought the benefits following the amnesty put in place. From 1914 to 1918 between 600 and 650 French soldiers were executed for desertion. In 2013, a report for the French Ministry of Veteran Affairs recommended that they be pardoned. Conversely, France considered as highly praiseworthy the act of citizens of Alsace-Lorraine who during WWI deserted from the German army. After the war it was decided to award all such deserters the Escapees' Medal (). ===Germany=== During the First World War, only 18 Germans who deserted were executed. However, the Germans executed 15,000 men who deserted from the Wehrmacht during the Second World War. In June 1988 the Initiative for the Creation of a Memorial to Deserters who deserted the Wehrmacht came to life in Ulm. ===Ireland=== Éire/Ireland was neutral during the Second World War; the Irish Army expanded to 40,000 men, but they had little to do once it became clear in 1942 that invasion (either by Nazi Germany or by the British Empire) was unlikely. Soldiers were put to work cutting trees and cutting peat; morale was low and pay was bad. Of the 60,000 men who passed through the army in 1940–45, about 7,000 men deserted, about half of them deciding to fight on the Allied side, most joining the British Army. Once the war was over, EPO 362 order meant deserters were allowed to return to Ireland; they were not imprisoned, but lost rights to an army pension and could not work for the state or claim unemployment benefits for 7 years. They were also seen as traitors by some Irish people in their homes. Decades after, the morality of their actions was debated; on the one hand, they had illegally abandoned their country's armed forces at a time when it was threatened with invasion — indeed, it was argued that their acts were treasonous at a time when Britain may have been planning to seize control of Ireland's ports (see Plan W); on the other hand, they chose to leave a safe if tedious posting in order to risk their lives fighting against fascism, and many were motivated by genuine idealism. In 2012, the Minister for Justice and Equality Alan Shatter issued a pardon and amnesty to all World War II-era deserters from the Irish Defence Forces. ===New Zealand=== During the First World War 28 New Zealand soldiers were sentenced to death for desertion; of these, five were executed. These soldiers were posthumously pardoned in 2000 through the Pardon for Soldiers of the Great War Act. Those who deserted before reaching the front were imprisoned in what were claimed to be harsh conditions. ===Russia=== On 20 September 2022, the day before the mobilization, the Putin-controlled State Duma of Russia unanimously adopted amendments to include the concepts of mobilization, martial law and wartime in the Criminal Code, and introduced several articles related to military operations. Desertion during a period of mobilization or wartime will be punished by up to 10 years in jail. In December 2022, Kazakhstan deported back to Russia a Russian officer who was trying to avoid the Russo-Ukrainian war. ===Soviet Union=== ====World War II==== Order No. 270, dated 16 August 1941, was issued by Joseph Stalin. The order required superiors to shoot deserters on the spot. Their family members were subjected to arrest. Order No. 227, dated 28 July 1942, directed that each Army must create "blocking detachments" (barrier troops) which would shoot "cowards" and fleeing panicked troops at the rear. Over the course of the war, the Soviets executed 158,000 troops for desertion.Patriots ignore greatest brutality. The Sydney Morning Herald. August 13, 2007. ====Soviet–Afghan War==== Many Soviet soldier deserters of the Soviet–Afghan War explain their reasons for desertion as political and in response to internal disorganization and disillusionment regarding their position in the war. Analyses of desertion rates argue that motivations were far less ideological than individual accounts claim. Desertion rates increased prior to announcements of upcoming operations, and were highest during the summer and winter. Seasonal desertions were probably a response to the harsh weather conditions of the winter and immense field work required in the summer. A significant jump in desertion in 1989 when the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan may suggest a higher concern regarding returning home, rather than an overall opposition towards the war itself. =====Inter-ethnic explanation for desertion===== In the beginning of the Soviet invasion, the majority of Soviet forces were soldiers of Central Asian republics. The Soviets believed that shared ideologies between Muslim Central Asians and Afghan soldiers would build trust and morale within the army. However, Central Asians' longstanding historical frustrations with Moscow degraded soldiers' willingness to fight for the Red Army. As Afghan desertion grew and Soviet opposition was strengthened within Afghanistan, the Soviet plan overtly backfired. The personal histories of Central Asian ethnic groups – especially between Pashtuns, Uzbeks, and Tajiks, caused tension within the Soviet military. Non- Russian ethnic groups easily related the situation in Afghanistan to Communist takeover of their own states' forced induction into the USSR. Ethnic Russians suspected Central Asians of opposition, and fighting within the army was prevalent. Upon entering Afghanistan, many Central Asians were exposed to the Koran for the first time uninfluenced by Soviet propagandist versions, and felt a stronger connection towards the opposition than their own comrades. The highest rates of desertion were found among border troops, ranging from 60 to 80% during the first year of the Soviet invasion. In these areas, strong ethnic clashes and cultural factors influenced desertion. As Afghan soldiers continued to desert the Soviet army, a united Islamic Alliance for the Liberation of Afghanistan began to form. Moderates and fundamentalists banded together to oppose Soviet intervention. The Islamic ideology solidified a strong base of opposition by January 1980, overriding ethnic, tribal, geographic and economic differences among Afghans willing to fight the Soviet invasion, which attracted Central Asian deserters. By March 1980, the Soviet army made an executive decision to replace Central Asian troops with the European sectors of the USSR to avoid further religious and ethnic complications, drastically reducing Soviet forces. =====Soviet disillusionment upon entering the war===== Soviet soldiers entered the war under the impression that their roles were primarily related to the organization of Afghan forces and society. Soviet media portrayed the Soviet intervention as a necessary means of protecting the Communist uprising from outside opposition. Propaganda declared that Soviets were providing aid to villagers and improving Afghanistan by planting trees, improving public buildings and "generally acting as good neighbors". Upon entering Afghanistan, Soviet soldiers became immediately aware of the falsity of the reported situation. In major cities, Afghan youth that originally supported the leftist movement soon turned to Soviet oppositional forces for patriotic and religious reasons. The opposition built resistance in cities, calling Soviet soldiers infidels that were forcing an imperialist Communist invasive government on Afghanistan's people. As Afghan troops continued to abandon the Soviet army to support the mujahideen, they became anti-Russian and antigovernment. Opposition forces emphasized the Soviets' atheism, demanding support for the Muslim faith from civilians. The hostility shown towards soldiers, who entered the war believing their assistance was requested, grew defensive. The opposition circulated pamphlets within Soviet camps stationed in cities, calling for Afghan freedom from the aggressive Communist influence and a right to establish their own government. The native Afghan army fell from 90,000 to 30,000 by mid-1980, forcing Soviets into more extreme combative positions. The mujahideen's widespread presence among Afghan civilians in rural regions made it difficult for Soviet soldiers to distinguish between the civilians they believed they were fighting for and the official opposition. Soldiers who had entered the war with idealistic viewpoints of their roles were quickly disillusioned. =====Problems in Soviet army structure and living standards===== The structure of the Soviet army, in comparison to the mujahideen, set the Soviets at a serious fighting disadvantage. While the mujahideen structure was based on kinship and social cohesion, the Soviet army was bureaucratic. Because of this, mujahideen could significantly weaken the Soviet army by the elimination of a field commander or officer. Resistance forces were locally based, more ready to address and mobilize the Afghan population for support. The Soviet army was centrally organized; its regime structure emphasized rank and position, paying less attention to the well-being and effectiveness of its army. The initial Soviet plan relied on Afghan troops' support in the mountainous regions of Afghanistan. The majority of the Afghan army support crumbled easily as forces lacked strong ideological support for Communism from the beginning. The Afghan army, comprising 100,000 men before 1978, was reduced to 15,000 within the first year of the Soviet invasion. Of the Afghan troops that remained, many were considered untrustworthy to Soviet troops. Afghans that deserted often took artillery with them, supplying the mujahideen. Soviet troops, to fill Afghan soldiers' place, were pushed into mountainous tribal regions of the East. Soviet tanks and modern warfare was ineffective in the rural, mountainous regions of Afghanistan. Mujahideen tactics of ambush prevented Soviets from developing successful counterattacks. In 1980, the Soviet army began to rely on smaller and more cohesive units, a response to mirror mujahideen tactics. A decrease in unit size, while solving organizational issues, promoted field leaders to head more violent and aggressive missions, promoting Soviet desertion. Often, small forces would engage in rapes, looting, and general violence beyond what higher ranks ordered, increasing negative sanctions in undesirable locations. Within the Soviet army, serious drug and alcohol problems significantly reduced the effectiveness of soldiers. Resources became further depleted as soldiers pushed into the mountains; drugs were rampantly abused and available, often supplied by Afghans. Supplies of heating fuel, wood, and food ran low at bases. Soviet soldiers often resorted to trading weapons and ammunition in exchange for drugs or food. As morale decreased and infections of hepatitis and typhus spread, soldiers became further disheartened. =====Soviet deserters to the mujahideen===== Interviews with Soviet soldier deserters confirm that much of Soviet desertion was in response to widespread Afghan opposition rather than personal aggravation towards the Soviet army. Armed with modern artillery against ill-equipped villagers, Soviet soldiers developed a sense of guilt for the widespread killing of innocent civilians and their unfair artillery advantage. Soviet deserters found support and acceptance within Afghan villages. After entering the mujahideen, many deserters came to recognize the falsity of Soviet propaganda from the beginning. Unable to legitimize the unnecessary killing and mistreatment of the Afghan people, many deserters could not face returning home and justifying their own actions and the unnecessary deaths of comrades. Upon deserting to the mujahideen, soldiers immersed themselves into Afghan culture. Hoping to rectify their position as the enemy, deserters learned the Afghan language and converted to Islam. ===United Kingdom=== Historically, one who was paid to enlist and then deserted could be arrested under a type of writ known as arrestando ipsum qui pecuniam recepit, or "For arresting one who received money". ====Napoleonic Wars==== During the Napoleonic Wars desertion was a massive drain on British army resources, despite the threat of court martial and the possibility of the capital punishment for the crime. Many deserters were harboured by citizens who were sympathetic to them. ====First World War==== "306 British and Commonwealth soldiers were executed for...desertion during World War I," records the Shot at Dawn Memorial. Of these, 25 were Canadian, 22 Irishmen and five New Zealanders. "During the period between August 1914 and March 1920 more than 20,000 servicemen were convicted by courts-martial of offences which carried the death sentence. Only 3,000 of those men were ordered to be put to death and of those just over 10% were executed." ====Second World War==== Throughout the Second World War, almost 100,000 British and Commonwealth troops deserted from the armed forces. Capital punishment for desertion was abolished in 1930 so most were imprisoned. ====Iraq War==== On 28 May 2006, the UK military reported over 1,000 absent without leave since the beginning of the Iraq War, with 566 missing from 2005 and that part of 2006. The Ministry of Defence said that levels of absence were fairly constant and "only one person has been found guilty of deserting the Army since 1989". ===United States=== ====Legal definition==== thumb|A United States wartime poster deprecating absence According to the United States Uniform Code of Military Justice, desertion is defined as: ====War of 1812==== The desertion rate for American soldiers in the War of 1812 was 12.7%, according to available service records. Desertion was especially common in 1814, when enlistment bonuses were increased from $16 to $124, inducing many men to desert one unit and enlist in another to get two bonuses. ====Mexican–American War==== During the Mexican–American War, the desertion rate in the U.S. Army was 8.3% (9,200 out of 111,000), compared to 12.7% during the War of 1812 and usual peacetime rates of about 14.8% per year. Many men deserted in order to join another U.S. unit and get a second enlistment bonus. Others deserted because of the miserable conditions in camp, or in 1849–1850 were using the army to get free transportation to California, where they deserted to join the California Gold Rush.Foos (2002) p 25. Several hundred deserters went over to the Mexican side; nearly all were recent immigrants from Europe with weak ties to the United States. The most famous group was the Saint Patrick's Battalion, about half of whom were Catholics from Ireland, anti-Catholic prejudice reportedly being another reason for desertion. The Mexicans issued broadsides and leaflets enticing U.S. soldiers with promises of money, land grants, and officers' commissions. Mexican guerrillas shadowed the U.S. Army, and captured men who took unauthorized leave or fell out of the ranks. The guerrillas coerced these men to join the Mexican ranks—threatening to kill them if they failed to comply. The generous promises proved illusory for most deserters, who risked execution if captured by U.S. forces. About fifty of the San Patricios were tried and hanged following their capture at Churubusco in August 1847. High desertion rates were a major problem for the Mexican army, depleting forces on the eve of battle. Most of the soldiers were peasants who had a loyalty to their village and family but not to the generals who conscripted them. Often hungry and ill, never well paid, under-equipped and only partially trained, the soldiers were held in contempt by their officers and had little reason to fight the Americans. Looking for their opportunity, many slipped away from camp to find their way back to their home village. ====American Civil War ==== During the American Civil War, both the Union and Confederacy had a desertion problem. From its 2.5 million or so men, the Union Army saw about 200,000 desertions. Over 100,000 deserted the Confederate army, which was less than a million men and possibly as little as a third the size of the Union Army. New York suffered 44,913 desertions by the war's end, and Pennsylvania recorded 24,050, with Ohio reporting desertions at 18,354. About 1 out of 3 deserters returned to their regiments, either voluntarily or after being arrested and being sent back. Many of the desertions were by "professional" bounty men, men who would enlist to collect the often large cash bonuses and then desert at the earliest opportunity to repeat another enlistment elsewhere. If caught they would face execution; otherwise it could prove a very lucrative criminal enterprise.Shannon Smith Bennett, "Draft Resistance and Rioting." in Maggi M. Morehouse and Zoe Trodd, eds., Civil War America: A Social and Cultural History with Primary Sources (2013) ch 1Peter Levine, "Draft evasion in the North during the Civil War, 1863–1865." Journal of American History (1981): 816–834. online The total number of Confederate deserters was officially 103,400. Desertion was a major factor for the Confederacy in the last two years of the war. According to Mark A. Weitz, Confederate soldiers fought to defend their families, not a nation.Mark A. Weitz, A higher duty: desertion among Georgia troops during the Civil War (U of Nebraska Press, 2005). He argues that a hegemonic "planter class" brought Georgia into the war with "little support from non-slaveholders" (p. 12), and the ambivalence of non- slaveholders toward secession, he maintains, was the key to understanding desertion. The privations of the home front and camp life, combined with the terror of battle, undermined the weak attachment of southern soldiers to the Confederacy. For Georgian troops, Sherman's march through their home counties triggered the most desertions. thumb|The execution of a U.S. deserter in the Federal Camp, Alexandria Adoption of a localist identity caused soldiers to desert as well. When soldiers implemented a local identity, they neglected to think of themselves as Southerners fighting a Southern cause. When they replaced their Southern identity with their previous local identity, they lost their motive to fight and, therefore, deserted the army. A growing threat to the solidarity of the Confederacy was dissatisfaction in the Appalachian mountain districts caused by lingering unionism and a distrust of the slave power. Many of their soldiers deserted, returned home, and formed a military force that fought off regular army units trying to punish them. North Carolina lost 23% of its soldiers (24,122) to desertion. The state provided more soldiers per capita than any other Confederate state, and had more deserters as well. ====First World War==== Desertion still occurred among American armed forces after the U.S. joined the First World War on 6 April 1917. Between 6 April 1917, and 31 December 1918, the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) charged 5,584 servicemen and convicted 2,657 for desertion. 24 AEF troops were eventually sentenced to death, but all managed to avoid execution after President Woodrow Wilson commuted their death sentences to prison terms. Deserters were often publicly humiliated. One U.S. Navy deserter, Henry Holscher, later joined a UK regiment and won the Military Medal. ====Second World War==== Over 20,000 American soldiers were tried and sentenced for desertion. Forty-nine were sentenced to death, though forty-eight of these death sentences were subsequently commuted. Only one U.S. soldier, Private Eddie Slovik, was executed for desertion in World War II.Kimmelman, Benedict B., "The Example of Private Slovik", American Heritage, September—October 1987, pp. 97—104. ====Vietnam War==== According to the Department of Defense, 503,926 United States servicemen deserted during the Vietnam War between 1 July 1966 to 31 December 1973. Some of these migrated to Canada. Among those who deserted to Canada were Andy Barrie, host of Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio's Metro Morning, and Jack Todd, sports columnist for the Montreal Gazette. Other countries also gave asylum to deserted U.S. soldiers. For example, Sweden allows asylum for foreign soldiers deserting from war, if the war does not align with the current goals of Swedish foreign policy. ====Iraq War==== According to the Pentagon, more than 5,500 military personnel deserted in 2003–2004, following the Iraq invasion and occupation. The number had reached about 8,000 by the first quarter of 2006. Almost all of these soldiers deserted within the United States. There has been only one reported case of a desertion in Iraq. The Army, Navy, and Air Force reported 7,978 desertions in 2001, compared with 3,456 in 2005. The Marine Corps showed 1,603 Marines in desertion status in 2001. That had declined to 148 by 2005. ====Penalties==== Before the Civil War, deserters from the Army were flogged; after 1861, tattoos or branding were also used. The maximum U.S. penalty for desertion in wartime remains death, although this punishment was last applied to Eddie Slovik in 1945. No U.S. serviceman has received more than 24 months imprisonment for desertion or missing movement after September 11, 2001. A U.S. service member who is AWOL/UA may be punished with non-judicial punishment (NJP) or by court martial under Article 86 of the UCMJ for repeat or more severe offenses. Many AWOL/UA service members are also given a discharge in lieu of court-martial. The 2012 edition of the United States Manual for Courts-Martial states that: ==Legal status of desertion in cases of war crime== Under international law, ultimate "duty" or "responsibility" is not necessarily always to a "government" nor to "a superior", as seen in the fourth of the Nuremberg Principles, which states: Although a soldier under direct orders, in battle, is normally not subject to prosecution for war crimes, there is legal language supporting a soldier's refusal to commit such crimes, in military contexts outside of immediate peril. In 1998, UNCHR resolution 1998/77 recognized that "persons [already] performing military service may develop conscientious objections" while performing military service. This opens the possibility of desertion as a response to cases in which the soldier is required to perform crimes against humanity as part of his mandatory military duty. The principle was tested unsuccessfully in the case of U.S. Army deserter Jeremy Hinzman, which resulted in a Canadian federal immigration board rejecting refugee status to a deserter invoking Nuremberg Article IV. ==See also== * Barratry (admiralty law) * Canada and Iraq War resisters * Conscientious objector * Decimation (Roman army) * Defection * Draft evasion * Eddie Slovik, a U.S. Army soldier executed for desertion * Green Cadres * List of Iraq War resisters * Mutiny * No call, no show, in civilian employment * Nuremberg Principle IV * Resistance Inside the Army * Running the gauntlet * War resister ==Notes== ==References== ==Works cited== * * Peter S. Bearman; "Desertion as Localism: Army Unit Solidarity and Group Norms in the U.S. Civil War", Social Forces, Vol. 70, 1991. * * Desmond Bruce Lambley, March in the Guilty Bastard, Zeus Publications, (Burleigh, Qld), 2012. : includes an alphabetical listing of more than 17,000 Australian soldiers who were court-martialled by the AIF during World War I. * Ella Lonn; Desertion during the Civil War University of Nebraska Press, 1928 (reprinted 1998). * Aaron W. Marrs; "Desertion and Loyalty in the South Carolina Infantry, 1861–1865", Civil War History, Vol. 50, 2004. * * Mark A. Weitz; A Higher Duty: Desertion among Georgia Troops during the Civil War, University of Nebraska Press, 2000. * Mark A. Weitz; "Preparing for the Prodigal Sons: The Development of the Union Desertion Policy during the Civil War", Civil War History, Vol. 45, 1999. ==Further reading== * David Cortright. Soldiers in Revolt: GI Resistance During the Vietnam War. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2005. * Charles Glass. Deserter: The Last Untold Story of the Second World War. Harperpress, 2013. * Maria Fritsche. "Proving One's Manliness: Masculine Self- perceptions of Austrian Deserters in the Second World War". Gender & History, 24/1 (2012), pp. 35–55. * Fred Halstead. GIs Speak Out Against the War: The Case of the Ft. Jackson 8. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. * Kevin Linch. "Desertion from the British Army during the Napoleonic Wars". Journal of Social History, Vol. 49, No. 4 (Summer 2016), pp. 808–828. * Peter Rohrbacher. "Pater Wilhelm Schmidt im Schweizer Exil: Interaktionen mit Wehrmachtsdeserteuren und Nachrichtendiensten, 1943–1945". Paideuma: Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde, no. 62 (2016), pp. 203–221. * Jack Todd. Desertion: In the Time of Vietnam. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001. * Chris Lombardi. I Ain’t Marching Anymore: Dissenters, Deserters, and Objectors to America’s Wars. New York: The New Press, 2020. ==External links== * Missing movement from About.com * Memorial to German World War II deserters in Ulm, Germany at the Sites of Memory webpage * Memorial to all deserters in Stuttgart, Germany at the Sites of Memory webpage * AWOL Information Category:Crimes Category:Pacifism Category:Political crimes |
Jacob Mironovich Lomakin (; November 4, 1904 – August 16, 1958) was a Soviet diplomat, journalist and economist.Vladimir Pozner, Parting with illusions, The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990, p. 44Christopher Hampton, Tales of HollywoodSusan Lisa Carruthers, Cold war captives: imprisonment, escape, and brainwashing, University of California Press, 2009, Chapter 1, pp 53-54 ==World War II U.S.-Soviet Alliance, San Francisco (1942-1944)== In 1939 the graduate of the Moscow Textile Institute (with expertise in engineering and economics) and editor of newspaper “Light Industry” was appointed as TASS journalist in New York City.cdn.un.org/unyearbook/yun/pdf/1947-48/1947-48_1108.pdf The eruption of WWII initiated Lomakin's diplomatic career: in 1941 as Vice-Consul in NYC and in 1942-1944 as Consul General in San Francisco.https://sanfrancisco.mid.ru>en_US/istoricheskaa-spravka During the WWII U.S.-Soviet Alliance he was active in the Lend-Lease program and at meetings for raising funds to aid the Red Army. These meetings were funded by numerous anti-fascist organizations, among them the International Committee of the Red Cross, American Russian Institute and Russian War Relief. Together with progressive cultural figures, military and governmental officials of the United States, Lomakin advocated the opening of the Second Front.Christopher Hampton “Tales of Hollywood”Victor Arnautoff and the Politics of Art, Robert W. Cherny, Univ. of Illinois Press, 2017, page 138Sausalito News, vol.58, number 47, 25 November 1943-California Digital Collection ==Cold War onset, New York (1946-1948). United Nations subcommittee on Freedom of Information and the Press== In 1946-1948 Lomakin combines the duties of Consul General in New York City with work at the United Nations (UN) subcommittee on Freedom of Information and the Press. "Mr. Lomakin was elected as an individual - rather than a member of the Soviet delegation by the Economic and Social Council. Members were to be chosen by the Human Rights Commission, in consultation with the Secretary General Trygve Lie."Herald Tribune, Thursday Aug.26, 1948New York Times, March 26, 1947 “Lomakin’s election confirms that his erudition in economics and journalism was widely known.”Herald Tribune, March 28, 1947 “A near-facsimile of cinemanful James Cagney, ebullient Consul Lomakin had no battery of deadpan advisers... Unlike icily aloof Andrei Gromyko, Lomakin chatted easily with whose near him. He called the other delegates “fellow experts” and he uttered such un-Soviet statements as “We don’t need to be consulting Moscow all the time,” and ”I will go along with what the majority thinks. …(when) the subcommission promptly voted - nine against Lomakin - to put censorship problem on the agenda. They seemed almost sorry to do it; he was such an agreeable Russian.”Time Magazine, June 2, 1947, UNITED NATIONS:Such an Agreeable Russian “Lomakin looks like a member of the Notre Dame backfield and talks like Sir George Bernard Shaw.”UN press Journal “United Nations World”, March, 1948, page 59, Twelve Men in Search of Freedom At UN sessions, Lomakin opposed the incitement of hostility between the USSR and its WWII Allies, which, he said, day after day manifested itself in various forms in print and radio, and offered to focus on eradicating the consequences of fascism. He pointed out that if the media picks up and replicates the same version, then this lack of alternative is in itself censorship. Lomakin warned about the unlawful incitement of hatred. He insisted that journalists should be held accountable for the information they bring to the court of readers and listeners. According to him, “if the media is given too much freedom, they start trading news, as selling tobacco, thinking only about making the most profit.”Time magazine, Feb. 2, 1948. The Press. You're anotherexcept from Jacob Lomakin’s speech on January 22, 1948 at the meeting of United Nations subcommittee on Freedom of Information and the Press In August 1948 the truthfulness of this remark came to life during the Kasenkina Case.Kasenkina Case ==August 1948, Kasenkina case== According to Ellis M. Zacharias (a retired Rear Admiral and senior Intelligence Officer of the US Navy) the personal tragedy of a mentally unstable Soviet school teacher, Oksana Kasenkina “was immensely overheated by the mass media into a noisy and ambiguous affair.” Her erratic behavior at the time of McCarthyism and the Berlin Blockade “was promptly used as a welcome opportunity for effective anti-Soviet propaganda... It was Mme Kasenkina whose fears and indecisions precipitated the crisis.”Ellis M. Zacharias, Behind Closed Doors: The Secret History of the Cold War, G. Putnam”s sons, New York, 1950, Chapter 8, p. 85 On July 31, 1948, she deserted her Soviet employers on the eve of her projected departure for Moscow. Vladimir Zenzinov, a former member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party brought her to Reed Farm belonging to the Tolstoy Foundation. Countess Alexandra Tolstoy provided her shelter and a job. She worked in the kitchen serving farm workers, many of whom were previously active in the White movement. Five days later. the Soviet teacher smuggled a letter to Consul Lomakin. "The letter certainly imparted no suggestion that its author was driven by an overwhelming desire to begin life over in United States, borne aloft by her ardor for freedom and hatred of Soviet tyranny..." The letter's most unambiguous statement is in its concluding plea to the Consul: "I implore you, I implore you, don’t let me perish here. I have lost my will power."Cold War Captives. Imprisonment, Escape and Brainwashing, Susan Carruthers, University of California Press, 2009, Chapter 1Consulate-General of Russia in New York City The letter ended with the handwritten address of the farm.State Department Decimal File, 1945-1949, Box 3069 NACP Consulate primary activities include the protection of interest of their citizens temporary or permanently residing in the host country.Consul (representative) Her plea for help was so imperative and personal that left Lomakin no alternative to take the dangerous mission to Reed Farm himself. Before heading to the farm the Consulate requested help from the Police Dept. of New York - “the Consul General was going to Reed Farm to get a woman who was in a highly nervous state and asked for help”.New York Herald Tribune, Aug.8, p. 29, Thriller:Red vs White; Soviet Consul, a Countess, F.B.I in it When Lomakin arrived Kasenkina came out with a suitcase. A number of men attempted to forcibly restrain the executive car from leaving. After talking to Kasenkina Countess Tolstoy stopped them saying that the teacher decided to leave with the Consul “on her own free will”.Official Memorandum - US Government. National Archives Administration, Washington, DC, document FW 702.6111/8-948, State Department Decimal File, 1945-49, Box 3060, RG 59, NACP) As soon as the car left she called the nearby police station with a complaint. “Shortly after federal help had been enlisted a policemen who had been sent to the Farm returned with the information that the allegation that Kasenkina had been taken away by force had been withdrawn. Farm authorities, the policemen said, told him that they believed she had gone willingly.”New York Herald Tribune, Aug.8, p. 29, Thriller:Red vs White; Soviet Consul, a Countess, F.B.I in it Three hours after arriving at the Consulate Lomakin invited a large group of mass media workers for an emergency press conference. He showed Kasenkina's handwritten letter and read extracts in English translation. Photostatic copies of the letter were given to the United States Department of State and Federal Bureau of Investigation hoping for a fair resolution of the conflict.Susan Lisa Carruthers, Cold war captives: imprisonment, escape, and brainwashing, University of California Press, 2009, Chapter 1, 53-54 On August 8, 1948, articles detailing the conference as “Red vs White woman “kidnapping” were printed in the Internationally circulated New York newspapers.New York Times, Aug.8,1948, p.1 and 48, Russian Factions here, was over “kidnapping” womanNew York Herald Tribune, Aug.8, p.1 and 29, Thriller:Red vs White; Soviet Consul, a Countess, F.B.I in it Karl E. Mundt the representative of the House Un-American Activities Committee wanted to quiz the Soviet teacher as a link to spy case. “She must be trusted by the Russians because she had been selected to teach Russian children - “a job given only to people they can trust”.New York Herald Tribune, Aug.8, p.1 and 29, Mundt sees link to spy case, says he wanted to quiz soviet teacher The following days the press and radio accused Lomakin of forcibly kidnapping Kasenkina and the letter was called a fake. Day and night the Consulate building on East 61st street was surrounded by reporters and anti-communists. On Aug.12, 1948 the New York State Supreme Court Justice Samuel Dickstein approved a habeas corpus, requiring Lomakin to produce the teacher to court.New York Herald Tribune, August 12, 1948, Writ Orders Mrs. Kosenkina be brought into Court Today, by Charles Grutzer Paradoxically, in 1999 declassified Soviet files revealed that Dickstein, a former Democratic Congressmen, also known as the "father of McCarthyism", for many years was a paid spy for Soviet Secret Service NKVD.Weinstein, Allen; Vassiliev, Alexander, The Haunted Wood:Soviet Espionage in America-The Stalin Era. Modern Library, pp. 140-150. New York Times, May 22, 2013; A Soviet Spy in Congress still has his street, by Sam RogersThe Congressman who spied for Russia. The strange case of Samuel Dickstein, by Peter Duffy, Politico, 2014, 10The Manhattan street (still) named after a Soviet spy, New York Times, May 10, 2017, by Tammy La Gorce Lomakin refused, saying the teacher is sick. The same day Kasenkina fell from a high third floor window to a concrete fenced yard. In Lomakin”s version, she jumped in suicidal despair. “At the hospital Kasenkina explained her action by the fact that she wanted to end it all." No statements about the desire to obtain political asylum. In the hospital communication of Kasenkina with Soviet representatives was banned, while visits by Vladimir Zenzinov, countess Tolstoy and reporters were permitted. The mass media called her action as "leap to freedom."Susan Lisa Carruthers, Cold war captives: imprisonment, escape, and brainwashing, University of California Press, 2009, Chapter 1, 53-54 and harshly predicted: "Soviet Consul May Face Firing Squad" and "Failure to Hold Kasenkina May Mean Death".New York Enquirer, August 16, 1948 “With headlines blazing and loudspeakers blaring … The judgement of some men who rushed headlong to Mme Kasenkina’s bedside to take charge of her relations with press and radio were not to be trusted… By inspiring headlines and stimulating the news stories below them, they drove the State Department to a diplomatic action whose severity was out of proportion to the incident.”Ellis M. Zacharias, Behind Closed Doors: The Secret History of the Cold War, G. Putnam”s sons, New York, 1950, Chapter 8, 85 On August 19, 1948, the Department of State requested the President to revoke the exequatur issued to Consul General Lomakin. The same day President Truman approved the decision of the State Department. Consul General Lomakin was declared persona non grata on the grounds that he kidnapped a woman and held her in custody.Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, Eastern Europe, The Soviet Union, vol. lV- Office of Historian, doc.681, 702.6111/8-1948 The Kasenkina Case coincided in time with the neck-to-neck presidential campaign of President Harry Truman and New York Governor Thomas Dewey.United States presidential election, 1948 The revoke of the exequatur came long before the State Department received translation of Kasenkina's letter and ahead of FBI graphology expertise that confirmed her handwriting.State Department Decimal File, 1945-49, Box 3069, RG59, NACP Walter Bedell Smith, the U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union, wrote of the negative impact the Kasenkina case had on the settlement of the Berlin Blockade.Lieutenant General Walter Bedell Smith, My Three Years in Moscow, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1950, p 74 Cancellation of a high-ranking diplomat exequatur is rare and is always seen as a blow to the prestige of the country. In retaliation the Government of the USSR ended negotiations on lifting the Berlin Blockade, and closed its consulates in New York and San Francisco.New York Times, Aug. 25, 1948; Russia closes Consulates in U.S., asks we quit ours in the Far East, as she backs actions on teachers According to Ellis M. Zacharias: “at the moment of Lomakin’s expulsion we lost the initiative to the Russians… became deprived of the major diplomatic listening post at the far end of the gigantic Soviet Empire... let the Berlin negotiations end in disagreement… a failure that was to cost us millions of dollars spent on the airlift.” He considered Lomakin as “a positive factor in Russo-American relations, one in a rapidly diminishing group of pro-American Soviet officials left behind from the short term of Maxim Litvinov in Washington. It was, therefore, both ill timed and ill advised to pick on Lomakin and to hand him his passport in a nebulous diplomatic fracas whose propaganda value had already been skillfully exploited."Ellis M. Zacharias, Behind Closed Doors: The Secret History of the Cold War, G. Putnam”s sons, New York, 1950, Chapter 8, p. 86 The USSR-US consular relations were restored only 24 years later, in 1972. On August 26, 1948, it was admitted: “Lomakin still a member of U.N. Sub-Group. Ousted Consul might claim immunity accorded to U.N. personnel to return here.New York Herald Tribune, Aug. 26, 1948; Lomakin still a member of U.N. Sub-Group. Ousted Consul might claim immunity accorded to U.N. personnel to return here On August 27, 1948 Jacob Lomakin with wife and two children boarded steamliner “Stockholm” and left the United States. The tickets were booked for a planned vacation six weeks before the Kasenkina case became an International incident.Daily Mirror, Aug.24, 1948, p.16, Lomakin booked tickets for departure 6 weeks before the Kasenkina case became an International incidentNew York Times, Aug.24, 1948, p.3, Soviet Consul General here prepares to sail aboard the Stockholm Kasenkina's letters and other documents concerning the case were kept classified top secret by State Department and FBI for 50 years. They became open to the public in 1998 at the National Archives at College Park, Maryland.Official Memorandum - US Government. National Archives Administration, Washington, DC, document FW 702.6111/8-948, State Department Decimal File, 1945-49, Box 3060, RG59, NACP) The Archives of the Russian and USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs are kept classified unconventionally, wherefore little is known of Lomakin's activities during the last 10 years of his life. 1948–1949, Deputy Head of Press Department, USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1949–1953, Deputy Head Department of Foreign Policy, CPSU Central Committee 1953–1956, Beijing, Minister Counselor of the USSR Embassy 1956–1958, Moscow, Counselor of the Department of International Organizations, USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs Jacob Lomakin died August 16, 1958New York Times, Aug. 17,1958, Jacob M. Lomakin Soviet Aide, Dies and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery. ==Notes== ==References== Category:1904 births Category:1958 deaths Category:20th-century Russian economists Category:20th-century Russian journalists Category:People from Borisoglebsky Uyezd (Tambov Governorate) Category:Communist Party of the Soviet Union members Category:Moscow State Textile University alumni Category:Recipients of the Order of the Badge of Honour Category:Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour Category:Cold War diplomats Category:Russian diplomats Category:Russian economists Category:Russian male journalists Category:Soviet diplomats Category:Soviet economists Category:Soviet journalists Category:Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery |
The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded on July 23, 1953, in Jacksonville, Florida, as Instant Burger King. Inspired by the McDonald brothers' original store location in San Bernardino, California, the founders and owners, Keith J. Cramer and his stepfather Matthew Burns, began searching for a concept. After purchasing the rights to two pieces of equipment called "Insta" machines, the two opened their first stores around a cooking device known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, they required all of their franchises to carry the device. After the original company began to falter in 1959, it was purchased by its Miami, Florida, franchisees James McLamore and David R. Edgerton. The two initiated a corporate restructuring of the chain; the first step being to rename the company, Burger King. The duo ran the company as an independent entity for eight years, eventually expanding to over 250 locations in the United States, when they sold it to the Pillsbury Company in 1967. Pillsbury's management made several attempts at reorganization or restructuring the restaurant chain in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The most prominent change came in 1978 when Burger King hired McDonald's executive Donald N. Smith to help revamp the company. In a plan called Operation Phoenix, Smith initiated a restructuring of corporate business practices at all levels of the company. Changes to the company included updated franchise agreements, a broadening of the menu, and new store designs to standardize the look and feel of the company. While these efforts were initially effective, many of them were eventually discarded, resulting in Burger King falling into a fiscal slump that damaged the financial performance of both Burger King and its parent. Poor operating performance and ineffectual leadership continued to bog the company down for many years, even after it was acquired in 1989 by the British entertainment conglomerate Grand Metropolitan and its successor Diageo. Eventually, the institutional neglect of the brand by Diageo damaged the company to the point where major franchises were driven out of business and its total value was significantly decreased. Diageo eventually decided to divest itself of the loss-making chain and put the company up for sale in 2000. In the 21st century, the company returned to independence when it was purchased from Diageo, by a group of investment firms led by TPG Capital for in 2002. The new owners rapidly moved to revitalize and reorganize the company, culminating with the company being taken public in 2006 with a highly successful initial public offering. The firm's strategy for turning the chain around included a new advertising agency and new ad campaigns, a revamped menu strategy, a series of programs designed to revamp individual stores, and a new restaurant concept called the BK Whopper Bar. These changes re-energized the company. Despite the successes of the new owners, the effects of the financial crisis of 2007–2010 weakened the company's financial outlook while those of its immediate competitor McDonald's grew. The falling value of Burger King eventually lead to TPG and its partners divesting their interest in the chain in a sale to 3G Capital of Brazil. Analysts from financial firms UBS and Stifel Nicolaus agreed that 3G will have to invest heavily in the company to help reverse its fortunes. After the deal was completed, the company's stock was removed from the New York Stock Exchange, ending a four-year period as a public company. The delisting of its stock was designed to help the company repair its fundamental business structures and continue working to close the gap with McDonald's without having to worry about pleasing shareholders. 3G later took the company public again after a series of changes to its operations and structure. Burger King would eventually be merged with Canadian-based donut and coffee chain Tim Hortons. == History == === Insta-Burger King === thumb|The 1950s–60s Burger King logo Burger King was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta- Burger King by Keith J. Kramer and his wife's uncle, Matthew Burns. Their first stores were centered around a piece of equipment known as the Insta- Broiler, which was very effective at cooking burgers. It proved so successful that, as they grew through franchising, they required all of their franchises to carry the device. While the Jacksonville chain kept expanding, two friends named James McLamore and David R. Edgerton, both alumni of the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration were seeking an opportunity to open their own business. McLamore had visited the original hamburger stand belonging to Dick and Mac McDonald in San Bernardino, California, and sensing potential in their innovative assembly line-based production system, decided to open a similar operation. McLamore and Edgerton acquired a license to operate an Insta-Burger King franchise and opened their first location on 4 December 1954 at 3090 NW 36th Street in Miami. By 1959, the pair had stores at several locations within the Miami-Dade area, and operations were growing at a fast rate. However, the partners discovered that the insta-broiler units' heating elements were prone to degradation from the drippings of the beef patties. The pair eventually created a mechanized gas grill that avoided the problems by cooking the meat patties in a different way inside the unit. The new cooking appliance, which they called a flame broiler, moved the patties over the flame vertically on a chain link conveyor over the heating elements, a design that imparted grill lines on the patties similar to those made on a charcoal grill. The new unit worked so well that they made the decision to replace all of their Insta-Broilers with the newly designed unit. Even though the original Insta-Burger King had rapidly expanded throughout the state and its operations totaled more than 40 locations by 1955, the group ran into financial difficulties. McLamore and Edgarton purchased the national rights to the chain in 1959 and rechristened the company as Burger King of Miami. The company eventually became known as Burger King Corporation and began selling territorial licenses to private franchisees across the US by 1959. Besides the creation of the company's signature piece of equipment, the flame broiler, the company added two more features during this period that have since become closely associated with the chain. The first to be created was its mascot, the Burger King in 1955. The character would become a staple of its advertising over the next 60 years. The second creation was the company's signature sandwich, the Whopper. It was created in 1957 by James McLamore and originally sold for 37 cents. McLamore created the burger after he noticed that a rival restaurant was having success selling a larger burger. Believing that the success of the rival product was its size, he devised the Whopper. The name was chosen because he felt that it conveyed "imagery of something big". Finally, the company made its first forays into advertising in the new medium of television with commercials for the chain in 1958. === Pillsbury Company === thumb|One of Minneapolis-based Pillsbury Company buildings, part of the company's home facility In 1967, the Pillsbury Company acquired Burger King and its parent company Burger King Corporation from McLamore and Edgerton. At the time of the purchase, BK had grown to 274 restaurants in the United States and had an estimated value of . With the acquisition, Pillsbury was faced with a lack of consistency within the franchise framework. The Burger King Corporation franchising system set up by McLamore and Edgerton allowed the company to expand a great pace, but the lack of contractual restraints and controls on its franchisee operation led to inconsistencies in its products that in turn were a drag on the reputation of the chain. Additionally, the agreements gave the company too little power to prevent its franchises from doing as they wished with the business. One of the prime examples of the deficiencies in its former franchise structure can be illustrated by the relationship between Burger King and a Louisiana-based franchisee. Chart House, owned by brothers Billy and Jimmy Trotter, opened its first BK franchise in that state in 1963. By 1970 the Trotters' company had grown to over 350 stores across the country, with its own purchasing system, training program and inspection system. In 1973 Chart House attempted to purchase the chain from Pillsbury for , but Pillsbury declined. The Trotters then put forth a second plan that would have Pillsbury and Chart House spin off their respective holdings and merge the two entities into a separate jointly controlled company, which Pillsbury also declined. After the failed bids, the relationship between Pilsbury and the Trotters soured. When Chart House purchased several restaurants in Boston and Houston in 1979, Burger King sued the selling franchisees for not respecting their contractual right of first refusal and won, preventing the sale. The two parties eventually reach a settlement where Chart House kept the Houston locations in their portfolio. In the early 1980s Chart House spun off its Burger King restaurants to focus on its higher end chains; its Burger King holding company, DiversiFoods, was eventually acquired by Pillsbury in 1984 and folded into Burger King's operations. With the ongoing conflict with Chart House on the mind of the company's board in 1978, Burger King hired McDonald's executive Donald N. Smith to help revamp the company. Smith initiated a restructuring of all future franchising agreements. New owners were barred from living more than an hour's drive from their restaurants, corporations were not permitted to own franchises, and franchisees could no longer operate other chains. This new policy effectively limited the size of franchisees and prevented larger franchises from challenging Burger King as Chart House had. It also became a requirement for the corporation to own the properties of any new store and lease them to franchisees. This policy would allow the company to take over the operations of failing stores or evict those owners who would not conform to the company guidelines and policies. Beyond the changes to the franchise system, Smith also restructured Burger King's corporate operations to better compete against his former employer as well as then up and coming chain Wendy's. He broadened the product offering by adding the Burger King specialty sandwich line in 1979, and also added many non-hamburger sandwiches including new chicken and fish offerings. The new line was one of the first attempts by a major fast food chain to target a specific demographic, in this case adults aged between 18 and 34 years, members of which were presumably willing spend more on a higher quality product. The new products were successful and the company's sales increased by 15%. After Smith's departure from the company for soft drinks producer PepsiCo in 1980, the company began to see a system-wide decline in sales. Pillsbury executive vice president of restaurant operations Norman E. Brinker was tasked with turning the brand around and strengthening its position against its main rival, McDonald's. One of his first acts was to initiate an advertising plan emphasizing claims that Burger King's flame- broiled burgers were better and larger than its rival's. The program, arguably the first attack ads on a food chain by a competitor, was controversial in that before it fast food ads only made allusions to the competition without ever mentioning them by name. McDonald's sued Burger King, their ad agency at the time J. Walter Thompson. The child actress Sarah Michelle Gellar was also implicated in the lawsuit because of her appearance in these television commercials. The suit was settled the following year on undisclosed terms. Despite the controversy, the ad plan, dubbed the Burger Wars, boosted same store sales. Brinker continued working for the company in this capacity until 1982 when he was promoted to president of Pillsbury's food service division, which included the company's other chains beyond Burger King. Brinker left the company in 1984 to take the helm at Dallas-based gourmet burger chain Chili's. With the departure of Smith and Brinker, Pillsbury allowed many of their changes to be relaxed, as well as scaled back on construction of new locations which had the effect of stalling corporate growth. By failing to follow through on the changes of the two men, Pillsbury caused its own value to diminish as it derived more than one third of its sales and two thirds of its profits from the burger chain. When the British alcoholic beverages company Grand Metropolitan PLC made a hostile bid for Pillsbury, the company devised a plan to spin off the financially flailing restaurant unit in hopes to raise an estimated US$2 billion that could be used to fend off the unwanted suitor. The complex potentially tax-free stock split plan would have led to the chain, along with its distribution system Distron, becoming a separate entity for the first time in over twenty years. Hoping that the special dividends created by the spin-off would have convinced shareholders not to accept the hostile bid, Pillsbury had its plans partially scuttled when the company's franchisees rejected the plan despite parts of which that would have given the franchises part ownership in the company and a seat on its new board. In a letter to Pillsbury chairman Phillip L. Smith, franchise representative Bill N. Pothitos stated that franchisees disapproved of the transaction on the grounds that they "strongly oppose this proposed course of conduct for one reason and one reason alone: It so restricts the ability of the Burger King Corporation to engage in future competitive growth and reinvestment in the Burger King system that our economic interests and investments will be placed in jeopardy." Another option floated by the company in December 1988 was to sell Burger King to a third party, a proposal that drew a favorable response from its franchises, never came to fruition. On top of the failure of the franchises to approve the spin-off, a series of lawsuits complicated the divestiture. Two legal challenges to the parent company were filed by investors, one in Pillsbury's home state of Minnesota and another in the state where it was incorporated, Delaware, in which the legality of the stock tender plan was questioned. These three events eventually forced Pillsbury to give up its bid to fend off Grand Metropolitan and agree to be acquired in November 1988 for a sum of US$5.7 billion. === Grand Metropolitan === Between the time of the initial sales agreement in November 1988 and the finalization of the acquisition of Pillsbury in January 1989, Grand Metropolitan set about putting its own corporate stamp on Burger King; the stated goal of Grand Met CEO Allen Sheppard was to upgrade the overall performance of the chain and improve its standing as the second largest fast-food burger chain globally. To that end, he had the company initiate a three-prong strategy of evaluation of operations, personnel moves, and structural changes and improvements to fortify the company. Following through on the CEO's opinion that the company needed a consistent marketing plan and management team to succeed, the company began its moves by replacing its chairman and CEO Jerry W. Levin with its own choice of executives, Barry J. Gibbons, chairman and managing director of Grand Metropolitan Retailing, Ltd., as chief executive and Ian A. Martin, Grand Met's top executive in the United States, as chairman. The moves came to no surprise to Wall Street analysts and franchisees, as they were expected due to reservations about Levin after his appointment by the outgoing management at Pillsbury. Grand Met's first major restructuring move was the dismantling of Burger Kings 50-year-old purchasing and distribution arm, Distron. Unhappy with the distribution group, the company originally thought to dispose of the division after the purchase but instead decided to reorganize it into two separate groups, one for procurement (Burger King Purchasing or BKP) and another for distribution (Burger King Distribution Services or BKDS). With the restructuring, the company eliminated many positions and ended up laying off over a hundred staff members as a consequence. During the five years that led up to the purchase, the restaurant chain had a series of a half dozen ad programs accompanied by even more marketing directors, a situation that led Adweek to describe it as "ill-conceived marketing and downright sloppy strategic planning" in 1987. In order to reverse the trend, in December 1988 Grand Met set about reevaluating all aspects of the programs from the messages the company was sending to the customer through its commercials to the possibility of dropping its advertising agency of record, N. W. Ayer. After a six-month evaluation, BK dropped Ayer in favor of a two-way combination of D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles (DMB&B;) for overall programs and Saatchi & Saatchi for specific advertising programs such as the introduction of new products. The company hoped that the "dual-agency partnership" would provide a synergy that would bring together "some of the best minds in the advertising business" to establish a brand identity, or as a company spokesman stated, "what the consumers take away with them after they visit us--what we stand for..." Grand Met also made several moves in an attempt to broaden BK's business operations while expanding its presence globally. The first move by the company was the creation of the BK Expressway business concept, a new store format designed for locations where a traditional stand-alone restaurant was impractical. The company introduced two separate formats designed to operate in different business environments; the first concept was intended as a kiosk-type store that would be placed in locations such as sports venues and airports. The second concept store, designed with two drive-thrus and a minimal or even non-existent dining room, was designed to go in locations that were limited by high land costs or limited space. Both types of these new, smaller stores operated with a condensed menu prepared on new equipment designed specifically for the more compact footprints of the new locations. Expressway locations were also designed with lower start-up costs in mind; franchisees were wooed with the promise of a much smaller investment, approximately one third as much, than would be required to open a more traditional location. In August of the same year, Grand Met set about expanding Burger King's operations in Europe by acquiring UK-based United Biscuits restaurant operations, including the nearly 400-location burger chain Wimpy. With the purchase, described as a "rare opportunity" by CEO Sheppard, Grand Met set about converting certain Wimpy locations that employed a counter service system into Burger King locations. The merger of the United Biscuits properties with BK grew the company from about 30 restaurants in the UK to more than 60 within a year of the purchase, with another 30 locations added in early 1990. While other "Wimpy" locations are still in operation presently, they are now independent from BK and no longer have the presence they once did. The 1990s led off with Grand Met taking Burger King's soft drink contract to Coca-Cola from Pepsi. Traditionally Burger King had sold soft drinks from the Coca-Cola Company in the United States, but in 1983, PepsiCo was able to garner the US$444 million beverage supplier contract from its rival. Despite extreme market debate over the future of the contract, it was renewed for a second term in 1987. A sweetened contract that strengthened marketing and advertising program ties between Burger King and itself allowed Pepsi to keep supplying soft drinks to BK. Leading up to the decision, Pepsi had sponsored over 100 separate cross-promotions and product tie-ins, including a Fourth of July promotion where BK gave away a free Pepsi with each purchase. This fit into the goals of BK, which was looking for a partner that would provide "outstanding, impactful promotional support." However, the contract only lasted three more years when, partially based upon Pepsi's growth as a restaurant operator with Pepsico's own fast food division (which is now an independent unit called Yum! Brands), Burger King moved its beverage contract back to Coca-Cola. Accompanying the reintroduction of Coca-Cola, BK introduced its first major chicken sandwich since 1977; the new BK Broiler sandwich was a broiled sandwich targeting more health-conscious customers. The BK Broiler was a rapid hit and within six months of its introduction was selling more than a million units daily system wide. The company made an advertising coup that same year when it signed a 10-picture contract with the Walt Disney Company. The deal, which included such Disney films as The Lion King, Aladdin and Toy Story, came at the height of Disney's commercial rebirth. Accompanied with the new BK Kid's Club program, the company saw an impressive growth within the children's market. The company's new Kid's Club, its first major foray into a children's targeted ad campaign since the Burger King/Burger King Kingdom program of the 1970s, saw phenomenal growth with more than one million children signing up for the program within two months of its introduction. While many of the moves made by Grand Met were successful in generating additional sales and growth, the company continued to experience problems. While Fortune Magazine named CEO Gibbons as its Turnaround Champion for his success in reversing the fortunes of the company, several news outlets claimed that the changes he introduced were problematic because they deprived the company of valuable assets. thumb|left|The interior of Burger King's headquarters after Hurricane Andrew in 1992 In 1992, Hurricane Andrew destroyed the company headquarters. The building, located on Old Cutler Rd. in Miami, was right in the center of the path of the hurricane. Located on the shoreline at the terminus of 184th St. (Eureka Drive), the highest storm surge levels was recorded (16.9 ft) at the site. The building suffered more than in damage and pushed the company from its offices during one of its more significant product pushes. Not only was the company forced from its facilities, roughly 300 members of its 700+ staff were left homeless. Immediately after the storm, Gibbons began a program to help get the company back on track. The company's recovery was helped due to pre-planning before the storm's landfall; Corporate backoffice data was moved to Seattle, Washington before the storm struck in order to safeguard critical records, and the company established a temporary "command center" at the Doral Resort and Country Club in Miami within eight days of the hurricanes passing. Additional operations were temporarily decentralized by temporarily shifting some corporate functions to regional offices. The facility would eventually take more than a year to rebuild, finally opening in September 1993. Not only did Gibbons work to repair the damage to the company offices, he made it a priority to allow its staff to deal with their personal situations. He made staff members job descriptions more flexible, encouraging staff members to take the initiative to perform a wide range of tasks. A corporate day care system was established, allowing staff to bring their children to work. Staff members were allowed to take off as much time as needed to reestablish themselves and corporate dress codes were relaxed. The company brought in counselors, insurance experts, tax consultants, child care advisers and construction companies to help the staff reorient themselves. The company also went so far as to arrange emergency loans for its employees. By 1993, Gibbons had tired of the post, and named a new successor to the post. He initially resigned his post as CEO of the company and was replaced by his chosen successor, COO James B. Adamson. Gibbons retained his position as chairman until he left the company Adamson continued the company's plans to expand into new markets such as universities, gas stations, airports and sports arenas with the intention of looking into new channels of distribution. Over the next year and a half he worked on a series of initiatives to strengthen the company; in a back to basics campaign, he oversaw a streamlining Burger King's menu and worked to improve and strengthen relations with franchisees. His changes were credited with a 28 percent increase in sales in BK's fiscal year 1995 and same store sales that were up 6 percent. He left in early 1995 when Denny's made him an offer to take the reins of the competitor; he left the company credited with fixing the deficiencies left by Gibbons and was temporarily replaced with David Nash. He was elevated to chairman in July, with Robert Lowes as CEO. Lowes became chairman in November. === Diageo === In 1997, Grand Metropolitan merged with Guinness to form a company called Diageo in a deal worth US$22 billion. Franchisees alleged that Diageo ignored the chain in favor of its liquor business; there were two more CEOs in the time Diageo owned the company. This institutionalized neglect further hurt the standing of the brand, in turn causing significant financial damage to Burger King's franchisees. By the time of the sale, Burger King's revenues and market share had declined significantly, and the company had fallen to a near tie for second place with rival Wendy's in the US market for hamburger chain restaurants. For many years leading into the early 2000s, Burger King and its various owners plus many of its larger franchisees closed many under- performing stores. Several of its largest franchisees entered bankruptcy due to the issues surrounding the performance of the brand. Diageo maintained ownership of BK until 2000 when Diageo decided to focus solely on their beverage products and divest itself of the chain. In 2001, the company put forth a plan to float approximately 20 percent of BKC on the NYSE. Burger King's franchises representation group, The National Franchise Association (NFA), sought to block this because it believed that any money raised from the issue would not be put into helping bolster the then flagging BK, but would instead end up being used to help Diageo bolster its liquor brands. Instead, the NFA sought to purchase the chain from Diageo, but the deal collapsed when the NFA was unable to put together an acceptable financing package. === TPG Capital === thumb|Burger King's current global headquarters in suburban Miami- Dade county In 2002, a troika of private equity firms led by TPG Capital with associates Bain Capital and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners agreed to purchase BK from Diageo for , with the sale becoming complete in December of that year. The new owners, through several new CEOs, moved to revitalize and reorganize the company, the first major move was to rename the BK parent as Burger King Brands. The investment group initially planned to take BK public within the two years of the acquisition, this was delayed until 2006. On 1 February 2006, Out-going CEO Greg Brenneman announced TPG's plans to turn Burger King into a publicly traded company by issuing an initial public offering (IPO). On February 16, the company announced it had filed its registration for the IPO with the Securities & Exchange Commission. Burger King began trading on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol BKC on May 18, 2006. The stock sale generated $425 million in revenue, the largest IPO of a US-based restaurant chain on record. The proceeds from the sale were used by the company help pay back a loan taken out taken by the company in February used to pay dividends to the investment firms. According to one analyst at Renaissance Capital, Wall Street investors were not alarmed by the large payout due to the increased financial stability of the company resulting from changes made by the investor groups during the interim between the purchase in 2002 and the stock offering. Incoming CEO John W. Chidsey backed the payouts, stating that the financial firms spent considerable time and capital turning the company around. By the middle of its fiscal year 2008, the company had seen significant domestic growth for the first time in several years; for more than a dozen financial quarters, the company showed revenue increases and domestic expansion. During the first half of the calendar year 2008, the company initiated a plan to revitalize its stores with a program to replace or remodel almost all of its North American locations by the beginning of its fiscal year 2009 in July 2008. The renovation plan was credited with helping the company increase same-store sales by as much as 5.4 percent over the previous fiscal year versus its competitors McDonald's and Yum Brand's 3 percent increase, but the total costs of the renovation program affected the company's revenue stream for the final quarters of its 2008 fiscal year. Wall Street analysts had originally projected net income to be approximately 27¢ per share, but the company only reported a 25¢ per share profit. The smaller profit announcement temporarily drove Burger King's stock prices down after the announcement. Despite the lower than expected profit and small decline in stock value, Wall Street analysts were upbeat about Burger King's future earnings because it was felt that the renovations would contribute to future profits; one such analyst stated that the renovations would "pay for themselves". Further modernization plans were introduced in 2009 with the company's "20/20" store designs and its "BK Whopper Bar" concept. The 20/20 concept, officially unveiled in Amsterdam on 10 October, featured a radical new design that featured bright colors, corrugated metal accents and plain brick walls that are designed to compete with chains in the fast casual restaurant market segment. A new system of in-store advertising was also introduced as part of the new format, static menu boards are to be replaced with high definition video displays. With the introduction of the 20/20 format, all future Burger King locations will be constructed using the design framework. Additionally, any future restaurant renovations must also conform to the new standard. The primary drawback of the design is its costs to the individual owners of BK restaurants; franchises must pay between to renovate their buildings to Burger King specs. The Whopper Bar is a concept from the company that upends its traditional fast food operations with a newer high end concept designed to compete with fast casual and casual dining restaurants. The new format is described by the company as a more "playful" variation on the standard Burger King location. The locations feature an open kitchen with a semi-circular metal counter top designed to allow customers to watch as its "Whopperistas" put together the order. The exposed kitchen concept allows customers to view the preparation of their foods. Decoration of the new locations is limited to plasma televisions playing looped videos of open flames. The concept is similar to the McCafé concept from rival McDonald's, and like the McCafé locations they are designed to go into malls, airports and casinos and other areas with limited amounts of space. With the opening of its Whopper Bar locations in the United States during 2010, Burger King reported that it would be the first time in its North American locations that beer would be available for purchase. Although beer is available at fast food restaurants throughout Europe, including Burger King, this is the first time a major fast food chain has attempted to sell beer in the United States. The company will be selling products from SABMiller and Anheuser-Busch including Budweiser, Bud Lite and Miller Lite in aluminum bottles designed to maintain temperature. The move, designed to target the important 30-and-under demographic, has been called risky by industry analysts because of the company is known as a fast food purveyor and not as an alcoholic beverages seller. Other industry consultants have disagreed with the assessment, believing that the move is a practical one because the company is growing with its aging customer base. === 3G Capital === The latest chapter in the company's ownership history began in September 2010 when TPG and its partners announced it would sell their 31 percent stake in Burger King to another private equity company, 3G Capital, for US$24 per share, or . Between March 2004 and March 2009, the company experienced a score of consecutive profitable quarters that were credited with re-energizing the company, however with the slowing of the economy during the financial crisis of 2007-2010 the company's business has declined while its immediate competitor McDonald's grew. Analysts, including John Glass of Morgan Stanley and David Tarantino of Robert W. Baird & Co., part of the reasons for the company's slowed performance is its continue reliance on the super fan. Market-research firm Sandelman & Associates reported that this segment had seen a decline in visits by this demographic group by more than 50 percent during the recession, while restaurant industry analyst Bonnie Riggs at market-research firm NPD Group reported the 18–24 transferred much of its business from the fast food segment to the fast casual segment, compounding the decline. The offer, representing a 46 percent premium over the stocks selling price at the time, came as a surprise to Burger King CEO John Chidsey. The proposed sale was expected to help the company repair its fundamental business structures and continue working to close the gap with McDonald's. Analysts commenting on the transaction stated that 3G will have to invest heavily in the company to help reverse its fortunes. David Palmer from UBS stated the company will need to work with its large group of franchise owners to brighten its locations and stabilize sales which could take several years and require significant reinvestment, while Steve West of Stifel Nicolaus stated that Burger King will need at least a year to right its fundamentals. Upon completion of the acquisition in October 2010, 3G began an immediate restructuring of the company. Seven of the top executives were released, while another 261 employees were laid off from the company's headquarters. Chidsey eventually resigned in April 2011, being replaced Alex Behring, one of 3G's managing partners. The position of CEO was taken over by Bernardo Hees shortly after the acquisition. As part of the restructuring, 3G also moved to change many aspects of corporate operations throughout 2011–2012. One of the first moves was to terminate Burger King's relationship with ad agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky, replacing it with McGarryBowen. 3G also began a menu restructuring, with the first product being a revamped version of BK's Chicken Tenders product. Other new or reformulated products would follow. In terms of its franchise operations, Burger King initiated a move to become more like competitors Subway and KFC and began to sell off the majority of corporately owned restaurants in order to become an exclusive franchised operation. 3G also moved to mend relations with its American franchises, which had become rather rancorous during TPG's tenure. Several lawsuits were settled and corporate policies that were at the center of the corporate disputes with the franchises were ended or amended. In 2011 they partnered with British venture capital firm Justice Holdings to take the company public again. They also initiated a massive expansion of operations via franchising in the BRIC nations and Africa with more than 2500 new planned locations. In August 2014, Burger King announced its intent to acquire the Canadian restaurant and coffee shop chain Tim Hortons. 3G Capital purchased Tim Hortons at $65.50 per-share, and a new holding company was formed, based in Oakville, Ontario, Canada. 3G holds a 51% majority stake, Tim Hortons' existing shareholders owning 22%, and a 27% stake held by Burger King shareholders. Berkshire Hathaway partially funded the purchase by buying $3 billion worth of preferred shares. Burger King CEO Daniel Schwartz became CEO of the company, with existing Tim Hortons CEO Marc Caira becoming vice- chairman and director. The two chains retained separate operations post- merger, with Burger King remaining in its Miami headquarters. The deal was subject to approval by Tim Hortons shareholders and Canadian regulatory authorities. A Tim Hortons representative stated that the proposed merger would allow Tim Hortons to leverage Burger King's resources for international growth. The combined company became the third-largest international chain of fast food restaurants. From 1995 to 2005, Tim Hortons had been owned by Wendy's Restaurants, a competitor to Burger King. Although "tax inversions" (in which a company decreases the amount of taxes it pays by moving its headquarters to a country with lower rates, but maintains the majority of their operations in their previous location) have been a recent financial trend, it will not have as much of an impact on Burger King's reincorporation in Canada: the corporate tax rate in the United States is 39.1%, Canada's corporate tax rate is only 26%, but Burger King had used various sheltering techniques to reduce its tax rate to 27.5%. As a high-profile instance of tax inversion, news of the merger was criticized by U.S. politicians, who felt that the move would result in a loss of tax revenue to foreign interests, and could result in further government pressure against inversions (which had, until the Burger King merger, been primarily invoked by pharmaceutical firms). == Timelines == === Key dates === Some key dates include: * 1953: Insta-Burger King is founded in Jacksonville, FL, by Keith Kramer and Matthew Burns. * 1954: James McLamore and David Edgerton purchase Insta-Burger King and rename it Burger King. * 1955: The Burger King character is created. * 1957: The Whopper is launched. * 1958: BK releases its first TV advertisement. * 1959: Burger King establishes its franchising system. * 1967: Burger King ceases to be an independent entity when the Pillsbury Company purchases it for US$18 million ($128.3 million adjusted for inflation, 2014). * 1977: Donald N. Smith is brought in from rival McDonald's to help restructure the company and its franchising system. * 1980: Smith leaves the company for PepsiCo. * 1981: Norman E. Brinker is made head of Pillsbury's restaurant division, including Burger King. * 1982: Burger King produces one of the first attack advertisements when it airs several commercials disparaging its competitor's fried burgers. * 1984: Brinker leaves the company when he purchases Chili's. * 1989: Pillsbury is purchased by British liquor company Grand Metropolitan for $5.7 billion (bn)/£3.6 bn. * 1996: Company co-founder James McLamore dies. * 1997: A $22 bn/£13.9 bn merger between Grand Metropolitan and Guinness results in the formation of a new parent company, Diageo. * 2000: Diageo investigates a possible IPO or sale of the company. * 2001: A North American franchise group seeks to purchase the company. * 2002: Capital investment firm Texas Pacific Group purchases Burger King from Diageo in a deal initially worth $2.2 bn/£1.4 bn. ** The deal between TPG and Diageo nearly fails, but eventually goes through at $1.6 bn/£1 bn. * 2006: Burger King is listed on the NYSE with the stock symbol BKC when the chain goes public in an IPO. * 2009: Company opens its 12,000th store, located in Beijing. * 2010: Brazil-based 3G Capital acquires Burger King in a deal worth $3.26 bn/BRL$5.6 bn. * 2011: Burger King begins a yearlong revamp of its menu and advertising programs. * 2012: Burger King is taken public once again on the NYSE with the symbol BKW. * 2014: Burger King merges with Canadian donut/coffee chain Tim Hortons in a deal worth $18 bn/CAD$19.6 bn. *2019: Burger King plans to close up to 250 low- volume locations per year, with closures coming into effect in 2020. === Ownership history === Since being founded in 1954, Burger King has undergone five changes of ownership. Further, during the ownership tenure of Grand Metropolitan, Grand Met merged with Guinness in 1997 to form a new company, Diageo. TPG Capital's ownership was shared with Bain Capital and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, both of which held minority shares. During 3G Capital's ownership, 3G divested a 29% stake of the chain to Justice Holdings of Great Britain when the chain was again taken public in 2012. When Burger King merged with Tim Hortons in 2014, Berkshire Hathaway bought into the newly combined chain as part of an debt-equity financing deal. Ownership Beginning End Key people Notes Insta-Burger King 1953 1959 Kieth Kramer, Kenneth Burns Burger King 1959 1967 James McLamore, David R. Edgerton Pillsbury 1967 1988 Donald N. Smith, Norman E. Brinker Grand Met/Diageo 1988 2002 TPG Capital 2002 2010 3G Capital 2010 present === CEO history === Since its founding, Burger King has had more than twenty CEOs. Name Start of tenure End of tenure Ownership Notes Adamson James B. Grand Metropolitan Blum, Brad TPG Capital Brenneman, Greg D. Diageo/TPG Capital Chairman & CEO Brinker, Norman E. Pillsbury Chairman & CEO Campbell, J. Jeffery Pillsbury Chairman & CEO Chidsey, John W. TPG Capital Dasburg, John Diageo Chairman, president & CEO Gibbons, Barry J. Grand Metropolitan Hees, Bernardo 3G Capital Levin, Jerry W. Grand Metropolitan Lowes, Robert C. Grand Metropolitan McLamore, James Burger King Corporation Chairman, president & founder Malamatinas, Dennis Grand Metropolitan Nash, David Grand Metropolitan Interim CEO Neeb, Louis P. Pillsbury Chairman & CEO Olcott, Charles Pillsbury/Grand Metropolitan Paszat, Leselie Pillsbury Chairman & CEO Rosewall, Arthur A. Pillsbury Chairman & CEO Schwartz, Daniel Current 3G Capital Storm, Colin Diageo Interim CEO Smith, Donald N. Pillsbury == See also == * History of KFC * History of McDonald's == References == Category:Burger King Burger King |
David Rice (1947 – March 11, 2016) (also known as Mondo we Langa) and Edward Poindexter were charged and convicted of the murder of Omaha Police Officer Larry Minard. Minard died when a suitcase bomb containing dynamite exploded in a North Omaha home on August 17, 1970. Officer John Tess was also injured in the explosion. Rice died on March 11, 2016. He was 68 years old and had been in poor health. Poindexter and Rice had been members of the Black Panther Party. Their case was, and continues to be, controversial. The Omaha Police recommended withholding exculpatory evidence, a tape of a 911 call, from being played at the trial. The two men had been targeted by the FBI's COINTELPRO (Counter Intelligence Program), which operated against and infiltrated anti- war and civil rights groups, including the Omaha Black Panthers.Jones, Charles E. The Black Panther Party (Reconsidered). Black Classic Press (1988) p 426-427 Amnesty International has been following the case and in 1999 recommended a retrial or release for Rice and Poindexter.AIUSA asked the London International Secretariate in 1999 to adopt the two as political prisoners, but this hasn't been done. The state's parole board recommended the men for release, but political leaders have not acted on these recommendations. ==Rice and Poindexter== David Rice was born in Omaha on May 21, 1947, graduated from Creighton Preparatory School and took courses at Creighton University. Both are Catholic institutions of learning. He wrote for the local underground paper, Buffalo Chip, from 1969 to 1970 and was a member of the Black Panther Party (BPP). He played guitar at Holy Family Roman Catholic Church, a center of progressive activism in the 1960s and 1970s under the pastorate of Fr. John McCaslin. Rice also ran a breakfast program for inner-city youth and was a well-known community activist. At the time of his death on March 12, 2016, David Rice/Mondo we Langa was a published poet and playwright. Even writing from prison, he had become a major voice for justice and the arts in Nebraska. Ed Poindexter was born in Omaha in 1944. He is a Vietnam War veteran. Like Rice, Poindexter was a community activist in North Omaha and a delegate to the 1968 county Democratic convention. He has published books on self-esteem and has worked on educating and motivating prison inmates who are near release. In the late 1970s, he transferred to prison in Minnesota to earn a master's degree, and transferred back to Nebraska in 2006. ==Context of the events in the summer of 1970== In the wake of the 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., racial tensions in cities across America were high. In March 1968, riots in Omaha led to the shooting of a local high school student during an event in support of segregationist George Wallace's presidential campaign. In the summer of 1970, there was a rash of bombings in the Midwest. Five bombings had occurred in neighboring Iowa, explosions occurred in Wisconsin and Minnesota, and both a police precinct and the Component Concept Corporation suffered bomb damage in Omaha. Members associated with the Black Panther Party were the prime suspects in these bombings. The national BPP had revoked the Omaha chapter for inactivity, so at the time of the August 17, 1970, bombing, Rice and Poindexter were officers of an organization called the National Committee to Combat Fascism. In July, a warrant was issued to the ATF to search NCCF headquarters for 60 machine guns and 180 sticks of dynamite. The warrant was based on information provided to agent Thomas Sledge by a 12-year-old girl, Marialice Clark, who was the sister of Linda Clark, a girlfriend of Ed Poindexter. Sledge spelled Clark's name incorrectly in his affidavit as Mary Ellis Clark. Sledge claimed that Clark watched five men make a bomb out of dynamite, including Frank and Will Peak, two cousins of Duane Peak, a 16-year-old who would be the state's main witness against Rice and Poindexter. The affidavit claimed the men planted the bomb at Components Concepts Corporation, took a photograph of it there, and came back to NCCF headquarters and showed the photograph to Marialice Clark. The Omaha FBI called the Justice Department in Washington because they had an informant in the NCCF chapter and knew there were no machine guns or dynamite located there. The Justice Department ordered the US Attorney in Omaha, J. William Gallup, to rescind the warrant and cancel the raid. An attorney in the criminal division of the DOJ told him that due to the murders of Fred Hampton and Mark Clark in Chicago in December, 1969, the DOJ wanted no more raids on Black Panther houses. ==August 17== At 2 a.m., a call was made to the Omaha police 911 operator reporting a woman dragged screaming into a vacant house at 2867 Ohio Street. Patrolman James Sledge and his partner Michael Lamson were assigned to the call. (Sledge was the younger brother of ATF agent Thomas Sledge, who himself had been an Omaha Police officer.) Two other cruisers volunteered to go on the call including Larry Minard and John Tess and Paul Rust. A total of four cars carrying eight police officers arrived at 2867 Ohio Street. No neighbors corroborated the information that a woman had been dragged screaming into the vacant house. The caller had given a boarded up house as his address. The police officers noticed a suitcase on its side lying halfway inside and halfway outside the doorway. Five officers stepped over the suitcase and entered the house. Larry Minard tripped over the suitcase as he left 2867 Ohio. The resultant explosion killed him and seriously injured Tess. ==Duane Peak== After hiding out for nearly a week, Duane Peak was arrested for the crime on August 28. In his first statement to police, without having consulted an attorney, Peak said that there was an envelope for him at NCCF headquarters on Sunday, August 16. Inside, a note told him to go in back of the Lothrop Drug store and pick up a suitcase, which he did before 5 p.m. He was instructed to take the suitcase to an address near 28th and Ohio at 11 p.m. that night and leave it on the field side of a fence. The note told him to go to a particular payphone before 2 a.m. and wait for a phone call. The phone rang and a woman's voice told him to call 911 and report a woman dragged into 2867 Ohio. The police report indicates that he admitted to placing the 911 call. Peak implicated neither Rice nor Poindexter in his first statement. There are no police reports for August 29 or August 30, so it is unknown who talked to him over the weekend, though in his February 4, 1971, deposition, Peak said that Lt. James Perry interrogated him several times over that weekend. On Monday, August 31, Peak told the County Attorney Art O'Leary in a deposition, that Poindexter had made the bomb at Rice's house, told him to plant it, and then lure the police to the vacant house with an anonymous 911 call. (Peak allegedly carried a suitcase bomb with a clothespin triggering device into three vehicles and to two different residences from 5 p.m. to 11 p.m. that day, at one point putting it in the trunk of a car because there were seven passengers in the car including his two small nieces.) ATF Agent Tom Sledge, brother of the Omaha police officer assigned to the call, was present during Peak's deposition, as were two Omaha Police officers, Bill Coleman and Pitmon Foxall and Peak's attorney, Tom Carey, although Peak had to ask the County Attorney who Carey was. In this deposition, Peak told the County Attorney that he wanted to "get out of this whole thing." He cannot remember details of his story, such as the name of a woman who drove him from NCCF headquarters to David Rice's house to pick up the suitcase bomb. The County Attorney provided him Norma Aufrecht's name. Peak repeatedly said that Edward Poindexter got a box of dynamite and a suitcase out of David Rice's basement. At the trial, he would change his testimony to implicate another NCCF member, when his new testimony was that Raleigh House drove Duane with a suitcase full of dynamite to David Rice's house, Edward Poindexter took three sticks to make the bomb and put the remaining sticks in a box, which he took into the basement. Peak also claimed that he put the suitcase in the middle of the room standing up, and that someone else must have laid it down in the doorway and armed it to explode. He refused to say that he attached the bomb to the floor, which annoyed Art O'Leary who told him on page 25, "As a practical matter, it doesn't make any difference what the truth is concerning you at all." At other points in the deposition, Peak said that police officers told him Panthers were coming from out of town to eliminate him. He specifically said that Foxall told him he was the last person seen carrying a suitcase at 28th and Ohio that night. In an interview with the Washington Post on January 8, 1978, County Prosecutor Art O'Leary admitted that he had made a deal with Duane Peak to prosecute him as a juvenile in return for his testimony. O'Leary acknowledged that without Peak's testimony, the pair would not have been convicted. ===Preliminary hearing=== At a preliminary hearing on September 28, Peak took the stand and recanted his story, testifying instead that neither Poindexter nor Rice were involved. After a recess, Peak implicated Poindexter and Rice. Peak was at that time wearing dark glasses, which he removed at the request of Rice's attorney, David Herzog. Peak appeared to those present to have been beaten. Herzog asked Peak if he had been threatened during the recess, and if he had discussed his confession to help him remember it. Peak replied in the affirmative to both questions, telling the court that his lawyer was not present when he discussed his confession with county attorney O'Leary.Taken from a letter to the court in support of the parole of David Rice by Former Nebraska Gov. Frank Morrison Sr. who was trial attorney for Poindexter, reported in Schmitz, Rae Ann. "More Facts on the We Langa Case". Omaha World-Herald, December 22, 1994. ===April 1971 trial=== Poindexter and Rice were tried in Douglas County District Court by a jury consisting of eleven white jurors and one black juror. Deliberations lasted four days before both men were found guilty. The jurors had the opportunity to choose the death penalty or life in prison. They gave them life in prison. The black juror later stated that he voted with the majority on the condition that the death sentence was not imposed. The case was built upon both Duane Peak's testimony and ATF laboratory analysis of a piece of wire and pliers found in David Rice's house. Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms Bureau witness Roland Wilder admitted there were 25 points of dissimilarity, and only 15 points of similarity, between a piece of sheet lead cut with Rice's pliers and a piece of wire found in a house next door to the blast site. The type of dynamite the police claimed to have found in David Rice's basement was similar to residue from the bomb. An ATF chemist testified that chunks of dynamite, visible to the naked eye, were found in Poindexter's jacket pocket and Rice's pants pocket. The chemist, Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms lab tech Kenneth Snow, conceded at the trial to defense attorneys that these traces could have come from matches. None of the attorneys asked him if the particles could have been planted, due to the volume of material found in the pockets. To establish the characters of the pair, the prosecutor presented the court with newsletter articles in which Rice and Poindexter publicly advocated violence toward police.Burbach, Chris. "At Rallies to Free Pair, Supporters See Gains The Rice-Poindexter Case" Omaha World Herald August 30, 2000, chemicals came from matches and wire inconsistencies noted in Schmitz, Rae Ann. "More Facts on the We Langa Case", Omaha World-Herald, December 22, 1994 Both Rice and Poindexter had alibis for the night of the bombing, who testified for the defense. Poindexter went to a movie with a girl named Linda Walker, who was the daughter of a New York City police officer. They were together when they heard the blast. Rice was at a party from 8 p.m. to 4 a.m. at Rae Ann Schmitz's house. She testified as a first year law student and eventually became a member of his legal defense team. Cousins of Duane Peak, Frank and Will Peak, testified that Duane Peak's story of what he did the week before the bombing was a lie. Will Peak provided Poindexter with an alibi for the night that he was accused of building the bomb in David Rice's kitchen. The jury ignored it all. Norma Aufrecht, who allegedly drove Duane Peak from NCCF headquarters to David Rice's house, did not testify. She was charged with conspiracy to commit first degree murder and accessory after the fact. She would have testified that she did not drive Duane Peak on Sunday, August 16, but she was never deposed by the defense. She fled Omaha in fear and did not return to live there for 10 years after the trial. ===Controversy over evidence=== Neither Rice's nor Poindexter's fingerprints were found on the dynamite alleged to have been found in Rice's house. During post-conviction hearings, officers were not clear as to the exact location of the dynamite in Rice's basement and changed testimony as to which officer found it. Accusations have been made that the dynamite was planted, suspicions which were even held by ex-Omaha police officer Marvin McClarty. Shortly after Rice's conviction, his house burned to the ground. This eliminated any possibility of exploring the accuracy of police testimony about the dynamite. Luther Payne, Conroy Gray and Lamont Mitchell were arrested in July, 1970, while transporting dynamite (according to one police report) to the house of an uncle of Vivian Strong, a teenage girl who had been shot in the head by Omaha Police Officer James Loder in 1969. The true destination was Jim Uding's car lot on 72nd Street. Uding was a "fence" and Omaha Police informant who had agreed to buy the dynamite for $10. Shortly after the convictions of Rice and Poindexter, charges against Payne, Gray and Mitchell were dropped. On October 23, 1980, a copy of the 911 call that lured police to the North Omaha home was discovered at the police station. The tape had never been played at trial. After the trial, in post- conviction proceedings Lt. James Perry testified that he destroyed the tape in 1978 because the trial was "over as far as he was concerned." An FBI memo dated 10/13/70, released after a Freedom of Information Act request, quotes Omaha Assistant Chief of Police Glenn Gates as advising that "any use of tapes of this call might be prejudicial to the police murder trial against two accomplices of PEAK and therefore... he wishes no use of this tape until after the murder trials of PEAK and the two accomplices has been completed." Expert analysis hired by the defense determined in 2006 that the voice on the tape was not the voice of Duane Peak. State and Federal appeals courts denied a new trial based on the voice analysis. The deposition of Duane Peak submitting to voice analysis can be heard in its entirety on YouTube, along with a one- minute comparison of the 911 caller with Peak's voice. Peak claimed that he lowered his voice to disguise it. Alternately, in his February 4, 1971, deposition, he claimed to have shouted and raised his voice to sound like he was excited. In that deposition, he also claimed that he gave the 911 operator an address on Pratt Street and that the operator asked him his home phone number. In the weeks after the bombing, Peak's brother was said to have identified the voice as Peak's.Cooper, Todd. "After 35 years, witness still says he was 911 caller. Duane Peak holds firm on the recording that led to the death of an Omaha officer and the convictions of two men in the 1970s." Omaha World-Herald. May 14, 2006 ===Circumstantial evidence=== The state also brought forward as evidence at trial, political literature the two men had written. These included the opinion that "I believe that pigs look very good roasting on a stick... Barbecue for the pig", which had been published by "David L. Rice, Deputy Minister of Information", in a 1970 publication of the United Front Against Fascism.Buttry, Stephen. "Officer's 1970 Murder Still Resounds Killers Paroled in Post-1971 Crimes" Omaha World Herald, March 2, 1997 These articles were among many published by various political groups, in the context of the Vietnam War and the Civil Rights Movement. Former Nebraska Governor Frank B. Morrison, who had represented Poindexter at his trial, is quoted: "The reason they were suspected was because they were members of the Black Panthers. [Authorities] had a couple of young Blacks who everybody knew used incendiary language — hateful things that irritated the police. They weren't convicted of murder. They were convicted of rhetoric. The only thing these young fellas did was try to combat all the racial discrimination of the time the wrong way." In a 1990 British documentary made by George Case and Joe Bullman of Twenty/Twenty Productions, the officer in charge of the investigation, Detective Jack Swanson, affirmed the Omaha Police Department's fear of the Black Panther Party: "We feel we got the two main players in Rice and Poindexter, and I think we did the right thing at the time, because the Black Panther Party ... completely disappeared from the city of Omaha ... and it's ... been the end of that sort of thing in the city of Omaha — and that's 21 years ago." ==Appeals== At Rice's appeal in March 1974, Judge Warren Urbom of the Federal District Court found that the police had no probable cause to allow a search of his home, where they had allegedly found the dynamite. Judge Urbom noted the inconsistencies in Lt. James Perry's testimony about the reasons for a search warrant, and concluded "[I]t is impossible for me to credit his testimony."Rice v. Wolff, 388 F. Supp. 185 (D. Neb. 1974) He overturned Rice's conviction and ordered a new trial, in which the evidence of the dynamite could not be used to corroborate the state's case. This ruling was upheld by the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals in 1975.Rice v. Wolff, 513 F.2d 1280 (8th Cir. 1975) The State of Nebraska then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. The Supreme Court decided Wolff v. Rice, along with a landmark Fourth Amendment case, Stone v. Powell.Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. 465 (1976) The Court held that Fourth Amendment claims would no longer be appealed through the federal courts on a writ of habeas corpus. Beginning with Stone v. Powell, state prisoners could only appeal Fourth Amendment claims to the U.S. Supreme Court on a writ of certiorari from the state's supreme court. Rice's appellate counsel, Father William Cunningham, a Jesuit priest, said to the U.S. Supreme Court at the end of oral arguments that if the Court changed habeas corpus procedures, his client should not be "penalized" and told "at this stage of the game that he has pursued the wrong avenue." When David Rice applied for a writ of certiorari, per the new rules promulgated under Stone v. Powell, he was told it was too late. His trial attorney, David Herzog, maintains that David Rice has been held in prison in violation of the Constitution for 44 years. ==COINTELPRO== After COINTELPRO became public (in 1971) and the Freedom of Information Act was amended (in 1974), Rice and Poindexter were able to access their FBI files. Each file was over a thousand pages long, though they only received small portions upon request. In 1978, Amnesty International published a report finding that irregular conduct by the FBI during its COINTELPRO operations had undermined the fairness of trials of a number of political activists during the 1970s. This led to the 1980 conviction (and 1981 pardon by President Ronald W. Reagan) of FBI Director L. Patrick Gray and Agent Edward S. Miller. However, beyond the general campaign to discredit and smear BPP members, the particular links between COINTELPRO and this case were uncertain until Senator Chuck Hagel facilitated release on over a thousand pages of relevant documents in 2001. ==Commuting sentences== In 1993, the Nebraska Parole Board voted unanimously to commute both men's sentences to time served. The Pardons Board in Nebraska consisted of the governor, the attorney general and the secretary of state. They took no action to commute the sentences per the 1993 recommendation. One Board member has even asserted that there are "no circumstances" under which he would consider commutation. In 2014, Ed Poindexter was denied parole. He would not be considered again for 10 years, at which time he would be 79 years of age. Rice died in March 2016. ==See also== * Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska * Timeline of riots and civil unrest in Omaha, Nebraska * Crime in Omaha ==References== ==External links== * Three minute video "Duane Peak's suitcase." * One minute comparison of Duane Peak's voice with 911 call * 30 minute deposition of Duane Peak 2006 voice analysis * "Nebraska's Two Political Prisoners: * Fraternal Order of Police viewpoint * Online memorial for Officer Larry Minard Category:Members of the Black Panther Party Category:History of North Omaha, Nebraska Category:African-American history in Omaha, Nebraska Category:Murder in Nebraska Category:1970 in Nebraska Category:Crimes in Omaha, Nebraska Category:Explosions in the United States Category:1970 murders in the United States Category:August 1970 events in the United States |
A supercentenarian (sometimes hyphenated as super-centenarian) is someone who has lived to or passed their 110th birthday. This age is achieved by about one in 1,000 centenarians. Anderson et al. concluded that supercentenarians live a life typically free of major age-related diseases until shortly before maximum human lifespan is reached (theoretically estimated to be 126 years). ==European supercentenarians== European supercentenarians are residents or emigrants from Europe who have attained or surpassed 110 years of age. , the Gerontology Research Group (GRG) had validated the longevity claims of more than 600 European supercentenarians. The oldest European and the world's oldest person ever recorded was Frenchwoman Jeanne Calment, who lived to the age of 122 years and 164 days. This has been disputed by some researchers.Gibbs P, Zak N. A Review of Longevity Validations to 2020. April 2021. The oldest European man ever was Christian Mortensen from Denmark, who emigrated to the United States where he died aged 115 years and 252 days. The oldest non-emigrant European man was Spaniard Joan Riudavets Moll, who lived 114 years and 81 days. Beyond the 50 oldest Europeans in aggregate, there are more detailed lists of the oldest Belgian, British, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, German, Irish, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Spanish and Swedish people. ===Oldest European residents ever=== Below is a list of the oldest 50 supercentenarians who have died or are living in Europe. The list including all known and validated supercentenarians who died before 2015 was compiled by the Gerontology Research Group (GRG). Later cases were sourced either from more recent (GRG) data, from administrative reports or from press coverage, as indicated in the table. Rank Name Sex Birth date Death date Age Country 1 Jeanne Calment F 21 February 1875 4 August 1997 France 2 Lucile Randon F 11 February 1904 17 January 2023 France 3 Emma Morano F 29 November 1899 15 April 2017 Italy 4 Jeanne Bot F 14 January 1905 22 May 2021 France 5 Maria Branyas F 4 March 1907 Living Spain 6 Maria Giuseppa Robucci F 20 March 1903 18 June 2019 Italy 7 Tekla Juniewicz F 10 June 1906 19 August 2022 Poland 8 Ana María Vela Rubio F 29 October 1901 15 December 2017 Spain 9 Giuseppina Projetto F 30 May 1902 6 July 2018 Italy 10 Charlotte Hughes F 1 August 1877 17 March 1993 United Kingdom 11 Maria de Jesus F 10 September 1893 2 January 2009 Portugal 12 Marie Josephine Gaudette F 25 March 1902 13 July 2017 Italy 13 Katerina Karnarou F 25 July 1905 29 October 2020 Greece 14 Valentine Ligny F 22 October 1906 4 January 2022 France 15 Hendrikje van Andel-Schipper F 29 June 1890 30 August 2005 Netherlands 16 Marie Brémont F 25 April 1886 6 June 2001 France 17 Annie Jennings F 12 November 1884 20 November 1999 United Kingdom 18 Eva Morris F 8 November 1885 2 November 2000 United Kingdom 19 Maria do Couto Maia F 24 October 1890 25 July 2005 Portugal 20 Venere Pizzinato F 23 November 1896 2 August 2011 Italy 21 Ethel Lang F 27 May 1900 15 January 2015 United Kingdom 22 María Antonia Castro F 10 June 1881 16 January 1996 Spain 23 Anna Eliza Williams F 2 June 1873 27 December 1987 United Kingdom 24 Lydie Vellard F 18 March 1875 17 September 1989 France 25 Gabrielle des Robert F 4 June 1904 3 December 2018 France 26 Camille Loiseau F 13 February 1892 12 August 2006 France 27 Anne Primout F 5 October 1890 26 March 2005 France 28 Geertje Kuijntjes F 19 July 1905 24 December 2019 Netherlands 29 Lucy Jane Askew F 8 September 1883 9 December 1997 United Kingdom 30 María Carmen del López F 3 April 1883 3 July 1997 Spain 31 Honorine Rondello F 28 July 1903 19 October 2017 France 32 Joan Riudavets Moll M 15 December 1889 5 March 2004 Spain 33 Anne Brasz-Later F 16 July 1906 2 September 2020 Netherlands 33 Marie-Louise Taterode F 17 July 1906 3 September 2020 France 35 Florrie Baldwin F 31 March 1896 8 May 2010 United Kingdom 36 Amy Hulmes F 5 October 1887 27 October 2001 United Kingdom 37 Marie Liguinen F 26 March 1901 2 April 2015 France 38 Marie- Thérèse Bardet F 2 June 1898 8 June 2012 France 38 Gustav Gerneth M 15 October 1905 21 October 2019 Germany 40 Virginia Dighero-Zolezzi F 24 December 1891 28 December 2005 Italy 41 Maria Redaelli-Granoli F 3 April 1899 2 April 2013 Italy 42 Grace Adelaide Jones F 7 December 1899 14 November 2013 United Kingdom 43 Olive Boar F 29 September 1904 28 August 2018 United Kingdom 44 Olympe Amaury F 19 June 1901 12 May 2015 France 45 Bessie Camm F 20 June 1904 11 May 2018 United Kingdom 46 Ethel Caterham F 21 August 1909 Living United Kingdom 47 Rosa Ann Comfort F 21 January 1879 6 November 1992 United Kingdom 48 Marcelle Narbonne F 25 March 1898 1 January 2012 France 49 Anna Benericetti F 22 March 1906 11 December 2019 Italy 50 Clémentine Solignac F 7 September 1894 25 May 2008 France ===Oldest European emigrants ever=== Below is a list of the oldest five supercentenarians born in Europe who emigrated to another continent and either died or are still living there. Rank Name Sex Birth date Death date Age Country of birth Country of death 1 Dina Manfredini F 4 April 1897 17 December 2012 Italy United States 2 Christian Mortensen M 16 August 1882 25 April 1998 Denmark United States 3 Augusta Holtz F 3 August 1871 21 October 1986 Germany United States 4 Goldie Steinberg F 30 October 1900 16 August 2015 Moldova United States 5 Grace Clawson F 15 November 1887 28 May 2002 United Kingdom United States == African supercentenarians == This is an incomplete list of people born in Africa who have lived at least 110 years. Most of the listed persons were born in former colonies that already maintained systematic birth records in the 19th century. Many other supercentenarian cases likely exist in Africa, but are not adequately documented. Name Sex Birth date Death date Age Country of birth Country of death or residence Adelina Domingues F 19 February 1888 21 August 2002 Cape Verde United States Anne Primout F 5 October 1890 26 March 2005 French Algeria France Marcelle Narbonne F 25 March 1898 1 January 2012 French Algeria France Marie-Isabelle Diaz F 22 February 1898 29 October 2011 French Algeria Réunion, France Julia Sinédia-Cazour F 12 July 1892 6 October 2005 Réunion, France Réunion, France Rosalie Wolpe F 25 August 1909 30 December 2021 Transvaal Colony South Africa Nancy Marie F 26 January 1909 11 May 2021 Seychelles Seychelles Inácia Carmelino F 17 June 1911 Living Angola Portugal Consuelo Moreno-López F 5 February 1893 13 November 2004 Sultanate of Morocco United States Emile Fourcade M 29 July 1884 29 December 1995 French Algeria France Johanna Booysen F 17 January 1857 16 June 1968 South African Republic South Africa Elisabelle Lallemand F 14 February 1912 Living Réunion, France France Marguerite Woodfield Pouponneau F 15 August 1912 Living Seychelles Seychelles Jean-Clémentis Amano M 7 October 1908 15 June 2019 Réunion, France Réunion, France Virginia Monteiro F 28 March 1895 7 April 2005 Cape Verde United States == Asian supercentenarians == This is an incomplete list of supercentenarians who were born or died in Asia, or are living there. According to the Gerontology Research Group, the verified oldest Asian person ever is Kane Tanaka of Japan, who died on 19 April 2022, aged 119 years and 107 days. The verified oldest man is Jiroemon Kimura, also from Japan, who died on 12 June 2013, aged 116 years and 54 days. As of , the oldest living person in Asia is Fusa Tatsumi. The vast majority of verified Asian cases of supercentenarians come from Japan, which has kept birth records for more than a century, while other Asian countries have historically been less meticulous about keeping such records. According to The Washington Post, China and India have many supercentenarians, but none are confirmed, as their governments did not track births prior to the early 1900s. === Japan === === Notable supercentenarians from other Asian countries === Name Sex Birth date Death date Age Country of birth Country of death or residence Israel Kristal M 15 September 1903 11 August 2017 Congress Poland, Russian Empire Israel Shivakumara Swami M 1 April 1907 21 January 2019 Mysore, British Raj India Qin Hanzhang M 19 February 1908 15 August 2019 Qing China China Ram Nath Sharma M 5 November 1904 1 December 2015 United Provinces, British Raj India Zhou Youguang M 13 January 1906 14 January 2017 Qing China China Nicholas Kao Se Tseien M 15 January 1897 11 December 2007 Qing China China Huang Mulan F 9 July 1906 7 February 2017 Qing China China Zheng Ji M 6 May 1900 29 July 2010 Qing China China === Oldest known Asian emigrants === Name Sex Birth date Death date Age Country of birth Country of death or residence Lucy Mirigian F 15 August 1906 12 February 2021 Ottoman Armenia United States Shige Mineshiba F 18 May 1909 6 January 2023 Japan Canada Lucy d'Abreu F 24 May 1892 7 December 2005 Mysore, British Raj (now India) United Kingdom Ito Konno Kinase F 31 December 1889 24 January 2003 Japan United States Ethel Farrell F 27 November 1902 20 December 2015 British Raj Australia Sum Ying Fung F 27 January 1899 6 December 2011 Qing China Canada Foon Hay Lum F 30 July 1908 24 April 2020 Qing China Canada Adma Tura (née Messen) F 25 December 1906 1 September 2018 Ottoman Lebanon France Juliana Young Koo F 26 September 1905 24 May 2017 Qing China United States Henry Tseng M 12 July 1907 27 February 2019 Japan United States Zenson Nakahodo M 8 May 1908 6 March 2019 Japan Peru == Supercentenarians in Oceania == Below is a list of supercentenarians who have died or are living in Oceania. The list including all known and validated supercentenarians who died before 2015 was compiled by the Gerontology Research Group (GRG). Later cases were sourced either from more recent GRG data, from administrative reports or from press coverage, as indicated in the table. All Australian supercentenarians born prior to 1 January 1901 were born in the British colonies of Australia. Rank Name Sex Birth date Death date Age Country of birth Country of death or residence 1 Christina Cock F 25 December 1887 22 May 2002 Australia Australia 2 Beatrice Mears F 4 March 1888 3 December 2001 Australia Australia 3 Florence Finch F 22 December 1893 10 April 2007 United Kingdom New Zealand 4 Ethel Farrell F 27 November 1902 20 December 2015 India Australia 5 Molly Yeomans F 1 July 1888 30 May 2001 Australia Australia 6 Caroline Mockridge F 11 December 1874 6 November 1987 Australia Australia 7 Myra Nicholson F 14 December 1894 20 September 2007 Australia Australia 8 Violet "Vi" Robbins F 28 February 1902 8 October 2014 Australia Australia 9 E. Beatrice Riley F 13 October 1896 15 May 2009 Australia Australia 10 Margaret Vivian F 25 February 1906 21 September 2018 United Kingdom Australia 11 Jane Gray F 1 December 1901 7 June 2014 United Kingdom Australia 12 Marie-Louise L'Huillier F 26 June 1895 28 December 2007 New Caledonia, France New Caledonia, France 13 Jessie Hurley F 15 June 1890 6 August 2002 Australia Australia 14 Miriam Schmierer F 20 August 1899 29 September 2011 Australia Australia 15 Myrtle Jones F 18 April 1897 12 January 2009 Australia Australia 16 Stella Correll F 23 December 1888 7 September 2000 Australia Australia 17 Jane Piercy F 2 September 1869 3 May 1981 Australia Australia 18 Marjorie Cooke F 5 January 1906 1 September 2017 Australia Australia 19 Dexter Kruger M 13 January 1910 20 July 2021 Australia Australia 20 Thelma McLeod F 13 February 1907 19 July 2018 Australia Australia 21 Jack Lockett M 22 January 1891 25 May 2002 Australia Australia 22 Mary Gwendoline Moore F 2 December 1911 31 March 2023 United Kingdom Australia 23 Mabel Crosby F 7 September 1909 30 December 2020 United Kingdom Australia 24 Eva McConnell F 5 May 1901 15 August 2012 Australia Australia 25 Alice Lindsay F 31 March 1893 1 July 2004 Australia Australia 26 Mary Whitehurst F 20 October 1905 2 January 2017 United Kingdom Australia 27 Madeline Anderson F 4 May 1907 19 June 2018 New Zealand New Zealand 28 Ada Stoyles Furby F 22 July 1903 27 July 2014 United Kingdom Australia 29 Ada Cleggett F 27 January 1885 8 December 1995 Australia Australia 30 Catherina van der Linden F 26 August 1912 Living Netherlands Australia 31 Doreen Washington F 24 May 1898 4 February 2009 Australia Australia 32 Helen Stamelos F 30 November 1906 7 August 2017 Greece Australia 33 Agnes Kluckhenn F 1 April 1909 24 November 2019 United Kingdom Australia 34 Frances Maude Wilson F 23 March 1903 24 October 2013 New Zealand New Zealand 35 Marie Piacentino F 25 November 1888 21 June 1999 Italy Australia 36 Mary Hurley F 4 May 1880 16 November 1990 Australia Australia 37 Catherine Lawrence F 8 December 1902 16 June 2013 Australia Australia 38 Joan Edith Brennan F 10 March 1912 30 July 2022 United Kingdom New Zealand 39 Peg Griffin F 25 May 1904 6 October 2014 New Zealand New Zealand 40 Evelyn Vigor F 9 January 1906 26 April 2016 Australia Australia 41 Jean McCarthy F 4 May 1908 12 August 2018 Australia Australia 42 John Campbell Ross M 11 March 1899 3 June 2009 Australia Australia 43 Linda Wiggins F 17 September 1908 2 December 2018 New Zealand New Zealand 44 Blanche Coward F 17 December 1901 27 February 2012 United Kingdom Australia 45 Claude Choules M 3 March 1901 5 May 2011 United Kingdom Australia 46 Ethel Booth F 25 December 1890 18 February 2001 New Zealand New Zealand 47 Marija Ruljancich F 13 June 1913 Living Croatia Australia 48 Phyllis Lee F 3 November 1907 20 December 2017 United Kingdom Australia 49 Ada Sharp F 6 April 1861 15 May 1971 Australia Australia 50 Frank Mawer M 15 August 1912 17 September 2022Australia's oldest man, Frank Mawer, dies aged 110 after contracting COVID-19 ABC, 20 September 2022 Australia Australia == North American supercentenarians == === United States === === Canada === === Other North American countries and territories === Rank Name Sex Birth date Death date Age Country of birth Country of death or residence 1 Violet Brown F 10 March 1900 15 September 2017 British West Indies Jamaica 2 Emiliano Mercado del Toro M 21 August 1891 24 January 2007 Puerto Rico, Spain Puerto Rico, U.S. 3 Antonia Gerena Rivera F 19 May 1900 2 June 2015 Puerto Rico, U.S. Puerto Rico, U.S. 4 Ramona Trinidad Iglesias- Jordan F 31 August 1889 29 May 2004 Puerto Rico, Spain Puerto Rico, U.S. 5 Eugénie Blanchard F 16 February 1896 4 November 2010 Guadeloupe, France Saint Barthélemy, France 6 Faustina Sarmiento-Pupo F 15 February 1905 16 September 2019 Cuba Cuba 7 Tomás Pinales Figuereo M 31 March 1906 24 September 2020 Dominican Republic Dominican Republic 8 Dominga Velasco F 12 May 1901 11 October 2015 Mexico United States 9 Soledad Mexia F 13 August 1899 30 August 2013 Mexico United States 10 Luce Maced F 2 May 1886 25 February 2000 Guadeloupe, France Martinique, France 11 Clara Cedeño-Tello F 12 August 1906 11 January 2020 Panama Panama 12 Ursula Krigger F 22 April 1902 10 September 2015 Danish West Indies U.S. Virgin Islands 13 Julie Montabord F 17 April 1906 18 July 2019 Martinique, France Martinique, France 14 James Sisnett M 22 February 1900 23 May 2013 British West Indies Barbados 14 Wenceslao Leyva González M 28 September 1903 27 December 2016 Mexico Mexico 16 Domingo Villa Avisencio M 26 August 1906 3 November 2019 Mexico Mexico 17 Bienvenida Vergara Jaen de Cano F 6 April 1904 6 June 2017 Panama Panama 18 Antonia Valderrama- Ocampo F 11 April 1907 9 June 2020 Mexico Mexico 19 Susana Gutiérrez Godoy F 24 May 1910 Living Mexico Mexico 20 Emilio Flores Márquez M 8 August 1908 12 August 2021 Puerto Rico, U.S. Puerto Rico, U.S. 21 Irèna Martial F 28 June 1909 29 June 2022 Guadeloupe, France Guadeloupe, France 22 Enriqueta Moreno Casares F 15 July 1910 Living Mexico Mexico 23 Celmira Somoza Sotelo F 21 August 1910 Living Nicaragua Nicaragua 24 Irénise Moulonguet F 6 November 1900 28 May 2013 Martinique, France Martinique, France 25 Ambrosia Acosta-Teran F 21 February 1904 25 August 2016 Mexico Mexico 26 Jules Théobald M 17 April 1909 5 October 2021 Martinique, France Martinique, France 27 Marita Camacho Quirós F 10 March 1911 Living Costa Rica Costa Rica 28 Jorge Durán Coral M 23 April 1909 21 July 2021 Mexico Mexico 29 Brigida Dearroyo F 7 October 1888 31 December 2000 Puerto Rico, Spain Puerto Rico, U.S. 30 Mathilde Octavie Tafna F 16 March 1895 1 May 2007 Guadeloupe, France Guadeloupe, France 31 Millicent Yearwood F 20 July 1907 22 August 2019 British West Indies Barbados 32 Martina Sánchez Soto F 30 January 1911 8 January 2023 Mexico Mexico 33 Louisea McDonald F 1 December 1910 3 September 2022 British West Indies Jamaica 34 Elvira Josefa Paredes F 19 October 1908 10 July 2020 Panama Panama 35 Santos Hildebrando Rivas García M 17 August 1911 17 April 2023 El Salvador El Salvador 36 Félicité Jandia F 12 February 1881 7 October 1992 Martinique, France Martinique, France 37 Una Lardy F 25 December 1911 Living British West Indies Trinidad and Tobago 38 Francisco Juárez Iglesias M 8 May 1911 25 October 2022 Mexico Mexico 39 Melville Williams M 21 February 1910 21 July 2021 British West Indies Barbados 40 Sabina Garay F 10 February 1912 27 April 2023 El Salvador El Salvador 41 Rosalind Hill F 30 March 1899 18 January 2010 British West Indies United States 42 Rafael Chinchilla M 23 October 1912 Living El Salvador El Salvador 43 Louise Bilon F 15 August 1896 25 January 2007 Martinique, France Martinique, France 44 Ismène Baffard F 24 October 1898 4 March 2009 Guadeloupe, France Guadeloupe, France 45 Véronique Louis-Sidney F 23 June 1900 13 August 2010 Martinique, France Martinique, France == South American supercentenarians == Beyond the 50 oldest South Americans in aggregate, there is a more detailed list of the oldest Brazilian people. Rank Name Sex Birth date Death date Age Country of birth Country of death or residence 1 Francisca Celsa dos Santos F 21 October 1904 5 October 2021 Brazil Brazil 2 María Capovilla F 14 September 1889 27 August 2006 Ecuador Ecuador 3 Antonia da Santa Cruz F 13 June 1905 23 January 2022 Brazil Brazil 4 Casilda Benegas Gallego F 8 April 1907 28 June 2022 Paraguay Argentina 5 Inah Canabarro Lucas F 8 June 1908 Living Brazil Brazil 6 Sofia Rojas F 13 August 1907 30 July 2022 Colombia Colombia 7 Maria Gomes Valentim F 9 July 1896 21 June 2011 Brazil Brazil 8 Eudoxie Baboul F 1 October 1901 1 July 2016 French Guiana French Guiana 9 Horacio Celi Mendoza M 3 January 1897 25 September 2011 Peru Peru 10 Eleonora Camargo Veiga F 14 August 1901 7 March 2016 Brazil Brazil 11 Evangelista Luisa Lopez de Contarino F 21 June 1907 28 August 2021 Argentina Argentina 12 Carmen Jaramillo-Chavarria F 17 May 1906 15 July 2020 Colombia Colombia 13 Juan Vicente Pérez M 27 May 1909 Living Venezuela Venezuela 14 Juana Aritama de Fuentes F 24 June 1907 21 May 2021 Colombia Colombia 15 Dolores Velez Bravo F 21 November 1907 12 October 2021 Ecuador Ecuador 16 Luzia Mohrs F 23 March 1904 16 October 2017 Germany Brazil 17 Alida Victória Grubba Rudge F 10 July 1903 23 December 2016 Brazil Brazil 18 Ada Avila F 14 January 1910 11 June 2023 Ecuador United States 19 Eusebio Quintero López M 6 March 1910 Living Colombia Colombia 20 Efraín Antonio Ríos García M 4 April 1910 Living Colombia Colombia 21 Virginia Secundina Moyano F 17 May 1904 20 June 2017 Argentina Argentina 22 Francisca Mangonez Martínez F 4 July 1910 Living Colombia Colombia 23 Delio Venturotti M 25 October 1909 1 June 2022 Italy Brazil 24 Maria de Paiva Pereira F 26 December 1907 1 July 2020 Brazil Brazil 25 Natalia Villanueva Ruiz F 24 February 1911 Living Colombia Colombia 26 Luisa Roncoroni de Bizzozero F 30 June 1903 1 September 2015 Argentina Argentina 27 Claudina Higuita de Robledo F 30 October 1910 20 December 2022 Colombia Colombia 28 Ana Sara Marquez de Ramirez F 25 July 1904 27 August 2016 Colombia Colombia 29 Isabel Alvarado López 9 August 1911 Living Venezuela Venezuela 30 Manuel Benavente Sanhueza M 25 September 1909 21 March 2021 Chile Chile 31 Nora Ettori F 5 April 1907 22 August 2018 Brazil Italy 32 Eloise Chandler F 21 January 1910 12 May 2021 British Guiana Canada 33 Manolita Piña F 24 February 1883 11 June 1994 Spain Uruguay 33 Irene Sinclair F 23 September 1908 8 January 2020 British Guiana United Kingdom 35 Daniel Guzmán-García M 6 February 1897 21 May 2008 Colombia Colombia 36 Maria Luisa BenjaminRECORD: MARY LOUISA BENJAMIN A CUMPLI 111 AÑA AWE! F 23 July 1910 1 November 2021 British West Indies Aruba 37 Teresa Moraga Jara F 29 January 1912 5 May 2023 Chile Chile 38 Moacyr Nunes Barroso M 31 March 1909 20 April 2020 Brazil Brazil 39 Zenson Nakahodo M 8 May 1908 6 March 2019 Japan Peru 40 Dorothea Duisberg 7 October 1912 Living Germany Chile 41 Julio César Mora Tapia M 10 March 1910 22 October 2020 Ecuador Ecuador 42 Julia Dougherty F 20 August 1893 4 December 2003 Peru United States == References == Supercentenarians Category:Lists of supercentenarians |
Oncogenomics is a sub-field of genomics that characterizes cancer-associated genes. It focuses on genomic, epigenomic and transcript alterations in cancer. Cancer is a genetic disease caused by accumulation of DNA mutations and epigenetic alterations leading to unrestrained cell proliferation and neoplasm formation. The goal of oncogenomics is to identify new oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes that may provide new insights into cancer diagnosis, predicting clinical outcome of cancers and new targets for cancer therapies. The success of targeted cancer therapies such as Gleevec, Herceptin and Avastin raised the hope for oncogenomics to elucidate new targets for cancer treatment. thumb|500px|Overall goals of oncogenomics Besides understanding the underlying genetic mechanisms that initiate or drive cancer progression, oncogenomics targets personalized cancer treatment. Cancer develops due to DNA mutations and epigenetic alterations that accumulate randomly. Identifying and targeting the mutations in an individual patient may lead to increased treatment efficacy. The completion of the Human Genome Project facilitated the field of oncogenomics and increased the abilities of researchers to find oncogenes. Sequencing technologies and global methylation profiling techniques have been applied to the study of oncogenomics. ==History== The genomics era began in the 1990s, with the generation of DNA sequences of many organisms. In the 21st century, the completion of the Human Genome Project enabled the study of functional genomics and examining tumor genomes. Cancer is a main focus. The epigenomics era largely began more recently, about 2000. One major source of epigenetic change is altered methylation of CpG islands at the promoter region of genes (see DNA methylation in cancer). A number of recently devised methods can assess the DNA methylation status in cancers versus normal tissues. Some methods assess methylation of CpGs located in different classes of loci, including CpG islands, shores, and shelves as well as promoters, gene bodies, and intergenic regions. Cancer is also a major focus of epigenetic studies. Access to whole cancer genome sequencing is important to cancer (or cancer genome) research because: * Mutations are the immediate cause of cancer and define the tumor phenotype. * Access to cancerous and normal tissue samples from the same patient and the fact that most cancer mutations represent somatic events, allow the identification of cancer-specific mutations. * Cancer mutations are cumulative and sometimes are related to disease stage. Metastasis and drug resistance are distinguishable. Access to methylation profiling is important to cancer research because: * Epi-drivers, along with Mut-drivers, can act as immediate causes of cancers * Cancer epimutations are cumulative and sometimes related to disease stage === Whole genome sequencing === The first cancer genome was sequenced in 2008. This study sequenced a typical acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) genome and its normal counterpart genome obtained from the same patient. The comparison revealed ten mutated genes. Two were already thought to contribute to tumor progression: an internal tandem duplication of the FLT3 receptor tyrosine kinase gene, which activates kinase signaling and is associated with a poor prognosis and a four base insertion in exon 12 of the NPM1 gene (NPMc). These mutations are found in 25-30% of AML tumors and are thought to contribute to disease progression rather than to cause it directly. The remaining 8 were new mutations and all were single base changes: Four were in families that are strongly associated with cancer pathogenesis (PTPRT, CDH24, PCLKC and SLC15A1). The other four had no previous association with cancer pathogenesis. They did have potential functions in metabolic pathways that suggested mechanisms by which they could act to promote cancer (KNDC1, GPR124, EB12, GRINC1B) These genes are involved in pathways known to contribute to cancer pathogenesis, but before this study most would not have been candidates for targeted gene therapy. This analysis validated the approach of whole cancer genome sequencing in identifying somatic mutations and the importance of parallel sequencing of normal and tumor cell genomes. In 2011, the genome of an exceptional bladder cancer patient whose tumor had been eliminated by the drug everolimus was sequenced, revealing mutations in two genes, TSC1 and NF2. The mutations disregulated mTOR, the protein inhibited by everolimus, allowing it to reproduce without limit. As a result, in 2015, the Exceptional Responders Initiative was created at the National Cancer Institute. The initiative allows such exceptional patients (who have responded positively for at least six months to a cancer drug that usually fails) to have their genomes sequenced to identify the relevant mutations. Once identified, other patients could be screened for those mutations and then be given the drug. In 2016 To that end, a nationwide cancer drug trial began in 2015, involving up to twenty-four hundred centers. Patients with appropriate mutations are matched with one of more than forty drugs. In 2014 the Center for Molecular Oncology rolled out the MSK-IMPACT test, a screening tool that looks for mutations in 341 cancer-associated genes. By 2015 more than five thousand patients had been screened. Patients with appropriate mutations are eligible to enroll in clinical trials that provide targeted therapy. ==Technologies== thumb|600px|Current technologies being used in Oncogenomics.Genomics technologies include: ===Genome sequencing=== * DNA sequencing: Pyrosequencing-based sequencers offer a relatively low-cost method to generate sequence data. * Array Comparative Genome Hybridization: This technique measures the DNA copy number differences between normal and cancer genomes. It uses the fluorescence intensity from fluorescent-labeled samples, which are hybridized to known probes on a microarray. * Representational oligonucleotide microarray analysis: Detects copy number variation using amplified restriction-digested genomic fragments that are hybridized to human oligonucleotides, achieving a resolution between 30 and 35 kbit/s. * Digital Karyotyping: Detects copy number variation using genomics tags obtained via restriction enzyme digests. These tags are then linked to into ditags, concatenated, cloned, sequenced and mapped back to the reference genome to evaluate tag density. * Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC)-end sequencing (end-sequence profiling): Identifies chromosomal breakpoints by generating a BAC library from a cancer genome and sequencing their ends. The BAC clones that contain chromosome aberrations have end sequences that do not map to a similar region of the reference genome, thus identifying a chromosomal breakpoint. ===Transcriptomes=== * Microarrays: Assess transcript abundance. Useful in classification, prognosis, raise the possibility of differential treatment approaches and aid identification of mutations in the proteins' coding regions. The relative abundance of alternative transcripts has become an important feature of cancer research. Particular alternative transcript forms correlate with specific cancer types. * RNA-Seq ===Bioinformatics and functional analysis of oncogenes=== Bioinformatics technologies allow the statistical analysis of genomic data. The functional characteristics of oncogenes has yet to be established. Potential functions include their transformational capabilities relating to tumour formation and specific roles at each stage of cancer development. After the detection of somatic cancer mutations across a cohort of cancer samples, bioinformatic computational analyses can be carried out to identify likely functional and likely driver mutations. There are three main approaches routinely used for this identification: mapping mutations, assessing the effect of mutation of the function of a protein or a regulatory element and finding signs of positive selection across a cohort of tumors. The approaches are not necessarily sequential however, there are important relationships of precedence between elements from the different approaches. Different tools are used at each step. ===Operomics=== Operomics aims to integrate genomics, transcriptomics and proteomics to understand the molecular mechanisms that underlie the cancer development. ==Comparative oncogenomics== Comparative oncogenomics uses cross-species comparisons to identify oncogenes. This research involves studying cancer genomes, transcriptomes and proteomes in model organisms such as mice, identifying potential oncogenes and referring back to human cancer samples to see whether homologues of these oncogenes are important in causing human cancers. Genetic alterations in mouse models are similar to those found in human cancers. These models are generated by methods including retroviral insertion mutagenesis or graft transplantation of cancerous cells. ==Source of cancer driver mutations, cancer mutagenesis== Mutations provide the raw material for natural selection in evolution and can be caused by errors of DNA replication, the action of exogenous mutagens or endogenous DNA damage. The machinery of replication and genome maintenance can be damaged by mutations, or altered by physiological conditions and differential levels of expression in cancer (see references in ). As pointed out by Gao et al., the stability and integrity of the human genome are maintained by the DNA-damage response (DDR) system. Un-repaired DNA damage is a major cause of mutations that drive carcinogenesis. If DNA repair is deficient, DNA damage tends to accumulate. Such excess DNA damage can increase mutational errors during DNA replication due to error-prone translesion synthesis. Excess DNA damage can also increase epigenetic alterations due to errors during DNA repair. Such mutations and epigenetic alterations can give rise to cancer. DDR genes are often repressed in human cancer by epigenetic mechanisms. Such repression may involve DNA methylation of promoter regions or repression of DDR genes by a microRNA. Epigenetic repression of DDR genes occurs more frequently than gene mutation in many types of cancer (see Cancer epigenetics). Thus, epigenetic repression often plays a more important role than mutation in reducing expression of DDR genes. This reduced expression of DDR genes is likely an important driver of carcinogenesis. Nucleotide sequence context influences mutation probability and analysis of mutational (mutable) DNA motifs can be essential for understanding the mechanisms of mutagenesis in cancer. Such motifs represent the fingerprints of interactions between DNA and mutagens, between DNA and repair/replication/modification enzymes. Examples of motifs are the AID motif WRCY/RGYW (W = A or T, R = purine and Y = pyrimidine) with C to T/G/A mutations, and error-prone DNA pol η attributed AID-related mutations (A to G/C/G) in WA/TW motifs. Another (agnostic) way to analyze the observed mutational spectra and DNA sequence context of mutations in tumors involves pooling all mutations of different types and contexts from cancer samples into a discrete distribution. If multiple cancer samples are available, their context-dependent mutations can be represented in the form of a nonnegative matrix. This matrix can be further decomposed into components (mutational signatures) which ideally should describe individual mutagenic factors. Several computational methods have been proposed for solving this decomposition problem. The first implementation of Non-negative Matrix Factorization (NMF) method is available in Sanger Institute Mutational Signature Framework in the form of a MATLAB package. On the other hand, if mutations from a single tumor sample are only available, the DeconstructSigs R package and MutaGene server may provide the identification of contributions of different mutational signatures for a single tumor sample. In addition, MutaGene server provides mutagen or cancer-specific mutational background models and signatures that can be applied to calculate expected DNA and protein site mutability to decouple relative contributions of mutagenesis and selection in carcinogenesis. ==Synthetic lethality== Synthetic lethality arises when a combination of deficiencies in the expression of two or more genes leads to cell death, whereas a deficiency in only one of these genes does not. The deficiencies can arise through mutations, epigenetic alterations or inhibitors of one of the genes. The therapeutic potential of synthetic lethality as an efficacious anti-cancer strategy is continually improving. Recently, the applicability of synthetic lethality to targeted cancer therapy has heightened due to the recent work of scientists including Ronald A. DePinho and colleagues, in what is termed 'collateral lethality'. Muller et al. found that passenger genes, with chromosomal proximity to tumor suppressor genes, are collaterally deleted in some cancers. Thus, the identification of collaterally deleted redundant genes carrying out an essential cellular function may be the untapped reservoir for then pursuing a synthetic lethality approach. Collateral lethality therefore holds great potential in identification of novel and selective therapeutic targets in oncology. In 2012, Muller et al. identified that homozygous deletion of redundant-essential glycolytic ENO1 gene in human glioblastoma (GBM) is the consequence of proximity to 1p36 tumor suppressor locus deletions and may hold potential for a synthetic lethality approach to GBM inhibition. ENO1 is one of three homologous genes (ENO2, ENO3) that encodes the mammalian alpha-enolase enzyme. ENO2, which encodes enolase 2, is mostly expressed in neural tissues, leading to the postulation that in ENO1-deleted GBM, ENO2 may be the ideal target as the redundant homologue of ENO1. Muller found that both genetic and pharmacological ENO2 inhibition in GBM cells with homozygous ENO1 deletion elicits a synthetic lethality outcome by selective killing of GBM cells. In 2016, Muller and colleagues discovered antibiotic SF2312 as a highly potent nanomolar-range enolase inhibitor which preferentially inhibits glioma cell proliferation and glycolytic flux in ENO1-deleted cells. SF2312 was shown to be more efficacious than pan-enolase inhibitor PhAH and have more specificity for ENO2 inhibition over ENO1. Subsequent work by the same team showed that the same approach could be applied to pancreatic cancer, whereby homozygously deleted SMAD4 results in the collateral deletion of mitochondrial malic enzyme 2 (ME2), an oxidative decarboxylase essential for redox homeostasis. Dey et al. show that ME2 genomic deletion in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells results in high endogenous reactive oxygen species, consistent with KRAS- driven pancreatic cancer, and essentially primes ME2-null cells for synthetic lethality by depletion of redundant NAD(P)+-dependent isoform ME3. The effects of ME3 depletion were found to be mediated by inhibition of de novo nucleotide synthesis resulting from AMPK activation and mitochondrial ROS-mediated apoptosis. Meanwhile, Oike et al. demonstrated the generalizability of the concept by targeting redundant essential-genes in process other than metabolism, namely the SMARCA4 and SMARCA2 subunits in the chromatin- remodeling SWI/SNF complex. Some oncogenes are essential for survival of all cells (not only cancer cells). Thus, drugs that knock out these oncogenes (and thereby kill cancer cells) may also damage normal cells, inducing significant illness. However, other genes may be essential to cancer cells but not to healthy cells. Treatments based on the principle of synthetic lethality have prolonged the survival of cancer patients, and show promise for future advances in reversal of carcinogenesis. A major type of synthetic lethality operates on the DNA repair defect that often initiates a cancer, and is still present in the tumor cells. Some examples are given here. BRCA1 or BRCA2 expression is deficient in a majority of high-grade breast and ovarian cancers, usually due to epigenetic methylation of its promoter or epigenetic repression by an over-expressed microRNA (see articles BRCA1 and BRCA2). BRCA1 and BRCA2 are important components of the major pathway for homologous recombinational repair of double-strand breaks. If one or the other is deficient, it increases the risk of cancer, especially breast or ovarian cancer. A back-up DNA repair pathway, for some of the damages usually repaired by BRCA1 and BRCA2, depends on PARP1. Thus, many ovarian cancers respond to an FDA-approved treatment with a PARP inhibitor, causing synthetic lethality to cancer cells deficient in BRCA1 or BRCA2. This treatment is also being evaluated for breast cancer and numerous other cancers in Phase III clinical trials in 2016. There are two pathways for homologous recombinational repair of double-strand breaks. The major pathway depends on BRCA1, PALB2 and BRCA2 while an alternative pathway depends on RAD52. Pre-clinical studies, involving epigenetically reduced or mutated BRCA-deficient cells (in culture or injected into mice), show that inhibition of RAD52 is synthetically lethal with BRCA- deficiency. Mutations in genes employed in DNA mismatch repair (MMR) cause a high mutation rate. In tumors, such frequent subsequent mutations often generate “non-self” immunogenic antigens. A human Phase II clinical trial, with 41 patients, evaluated one synthetic lethal approach for tumors with or without MMR defects. The product of gene PD-1 ordinarily represses cytotoxic immune responses. Inhibition of this gene allows a greater immune response. When cancer patients with a defect in MMR in their tumors were exposed to an inhibitor of PD-1, 67% - 78% of patients experienced immune-related progression-free survival. In contrast, for patients without defective MMR, addition of PD-1 inhibitor generated only 11% of patients with immune-related progression-free survival. Thus inhibition of PD-1 is primarily synthetically lethal with MMR defects. ARID1A, a chromatin modifier, is required for non- homologous end joining, a major pathway that repairs double-strand breaks in DNA, and also has transcription regulatory roles. ARID1A mutations are one of the 12 most common carcinogenic mutations. Mutation or epigenetically decreased expression of ARID1A has been found in 17 types of cancer. Pre- clinical studies in cells and in mice show that synthetic lethality for ARID1A deficiency occurs by either inhibition of the methyltransferase activity of EZH2, or with addition of the kinase inhibitor dasatinib. Another approach is to individually knock out each gene in a genome and observe the effect on normal and cancerous cells. If the knockout of an otherwise nonessential gene has little or no effect on healthy cells, but is lethal to cancerous cells containing a mutated oncogene, then the system-wide suppression of the suppressed gene can destroy cancerous cells while leaving healthy ones relatively undamaged. The technique was used to identify PARP-1 inhibitors to treat BRCA1/BRCA2-associated cancers. In this case, the combined presence of PARP-1 inhibition and of the cancer-associated mutations in BRCA genes is lethal only to the cancerous cells. ==Databases for cancer research== The Cancer Genome Project is an initiative to map out all somatic mutations in cancer. The project systematically sequences the exons and flanking splice junctions of the genomes of primary tumors and cancerous cell lines. COSMIC software displays the data generated from these experiments. As of February 2008, the CGP had identified 4,746 genes and 2,985 mutations in 1,848 tumours. The Cancer Genome Anatomy Project includes information of research on cancer genomes, transcriptomes and proteomes. Progenetix is an oncogenomic reference database, presenting cytogenetic and molecular-cytogenetic tumor data. Oncomine has compiled data from cancer transcriptome profiles. The integrative oncogenomics database IntOGen and the Gitools datasets integrate multidimensional human oncogenomic data classified by tumor type. The first version of IntOGen focused on the role of deregulated gene expression and CNV in cancer. A later version emphasized mutational cancer driver genes across 28 tumor types,. All releases of IntOGen data are made available at the IntOGen database. The International Cancer Genome Consortium is the biggest project to collect human cancer genome data. The data is accessible through the ICGC website. The BioExpress® Oncology Suite contains gene expression data from primary, metastatic and benign tumor samples and normal samples, including matched adjacent controls. The suite includes hematological malignancy samples for many well-known cancers. Specific databases for model animals include the Retrovirus Tagged Cancer Gene Database (RTCGD) that compiled research on retroviral and transposon insertional mutagenesis in mouse tumors. ==Gene families== Mutational analysis of entire gene families revealed that genes of the same family have similar functions, as predicted by similar coding sequences and protein domains. Two such classes are the kinase family, involved in adding phosphate groups to proteins and the phosphatase family, involved with removing phosphate groups from proteins. These families were first examined because of their apparent role in transducing cellular signals of cell growth or death. In particular, more than 50% of colorectal cancers carry a mutation in a kinase or phosphatase gene. Phosphatidylinositold 3-kinases (PIK3CA) gene encodes for lipid kinases that commonly contain mutations in colorectal, breast, gastric, lung and various other cancers. Drug therapies can inhibit PIK3CA. Another example is the BRAF gene, one of the first to be implicated in melanomas. BRAF encodes a serine/threonine kinase that is involved in the RAS-RAF-MAPK growth signaling pathway. Mutations in BRAF cause constitutive phosphorylation and activity in 59% of melanomas. Before BRAF, the genetic mechanism of melanoma development was unknown and therefore prognosis for patients was poor. == Mitochondrial DNA == Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations are linked the formation of tumors. Four types of mtDNA mutations have been identified: ===Point mutations=== Point mutations have been observed in the coding and non-coding region of the mtDNA contained in cancer cells. In individuals with bladder, head/neck and lung cancers, the point mutations within the coding region show signs of resembling each other. This suggests that when a healthy cell transforms into a tumor cell (a neoplastic transformation) the mitochondria seem to become homogenous. Abundant point mutations located within the non-coding region, D-loop, of the cancerous mitochondria suggest that mutations within this region might be an important characteristic in some cancers. ===Deletions=== This type of mutation is sporadically detected due to its small size ( < 1kb). The appearance of certain specific mtDNA mutations (264-bp deletion and 66-bp deletion in the complex 1 subunit gene ND1) in multiple types of cancer provide some evidence that small mtDNA deletions might appear at the beginning of tumorigenesis. It also suggests that the amount of mitochondria containing these deletions increases as the tumor progresses. An exception is a relatively large deletion that appears in many cancers (known as the "common deletion"), but more mtDNA large scale deletions have been found in normal cells compared to tumor cells. This may be due to a seemingly adaptive process of tumor cells to eliminate any mitochondria that contain these large scale deletions (the "common deletion" is > 4kb). ===Insertions=== Two small mtDNA insertions of ~260 and ~520 bp can be present in breast cancer, gastric cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and colon cancer and in normal cells. No correlation between these insertions and cancer are established. ===Copy number mutations=== The characterization of mtDNA via real-time polymerase chain reaction assays shows the presence of quantitative alteration of mtDNA copy number in many cancers. Increase in copy number is expected to occur because of oxidative stress. On the other hand, decrease is thought to be caused by somatic point mutations in the replication origin site of the H-strand and/or the D310 homopolymeric c-stretch in the D-loop region, mutations in the p53 (tumor suppressor gene) mediated pathway and/or inefficient enzyme activity due to POLG mutations. Any increase/decrease in copy number then remains constant within tumor cells. The fact that the amount of mtDNA is constant in tumor cells suggests that the amount of mtDNA is controlled by a much more complicated system in tumor cells, rather than simply altered as a consequence of abnormal cell proliferation. The role of mtDNA content in human cancers apparently varies for particular tumor types or sites. Mutations in mitochondrial DNA in various cancers Cancer Type Location of Point mutations Nucleotide Position of Deletions Increase of mtDNA copy # Decrease of mtDNA copy # D-Loop mRNAs tRNAs rRNAs Bladder X X X 15,642-15,662 Breast X X X X 8470-13,447 and 8482-13459 X Head and neck X X X X 8470-13,447 and 8482-13459 X Oral X X 8470-13,447 and 8482-13459 Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) X X X X 306-556 and 3894-3960 X Esophageal X X X 8470-13,447 and 8482-13459 X Gastric X X X 298-348 X Prostate X X 8470-13,447 and 8482-13459 X 57.7% (500/867) contained somatic point putations and of the 1172 mutations surveyed 37.8% (443/1127) were located in the D-loop control region, 13.1% (154/1172) were located in the tRNA or rRNA genes and 49.1% (575/1127) were found in the mRNA genes needed for producing complexes required for mitochondrial respiration. ===Diagnostic applications=== Some anticancer drugs target mtDNA and have shown positive results in killing tumor cells. Research has used mitochondrial mutations as biomarkers for cancer cell therapy. It is easier to target mutation within mitochondrial DNA versus nuclear DNA because the mitochondrial genome is much smaller and easier to screen for specific mutations. MtDNA content alterations found in blood samples might be able to serve as a screening marker for predicting future cancer susceptibility as well as tracking malignant tumor progression. Along with these potential helpful characteristics of mtDNA, it is not under the control of the cell cycle and is important for maintaining ATP generation and mitochondrial homeostasis. These characteristics make targeting mtDNA a practical therapeutic strategy. ==Cancer biomarkers== Several biomarkers can be useful in cancer staging, prognosis and treatment. They can range from single- nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), chromosomal aberrations, changes in DNA copy number, microsatellite instability, promoter region methylation, or even high or low protein levels. == See also == * Personalized Onco-genomics * Oncotecture * The Cancer Genome Atlas * International Cancer Genome Consortium == References == Category:Applied genetics Category:Biotechnology Category:Medical genetics |
Old East Slavic (traditionally also Old Russian; ; ; ) was a language used during the 5th–16th centuries (alternatively, from the 7th or 8th century to the 13th or 14th century) by the East Slavs from which the Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn, and Ukrainian languages later evolved. == Terminology == The name of the language is known as Old East Slavic, in reference to the modern family of East Slavic languages. Its original speakers were the Slavic tribes inhabiting territories of today's Belarus, the western edge of Russia, and western and central Ukraine. However, the term Old East Slavic is not universally applied. The language is traditionally also known as Old Russian, (; ); however, the term has been described as a misnomer, because the initial stages of the language which it denotes predate the dialectal divisions marking the nascent distinction between modern East Slavic languages (Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian). Old East Slavic is therefore the more appropriate term. Some scholars have also called the language Rus'ian, Rusian, or Rus' language (), although these are less commonly used forms. In the last four decades, Kievan Rus' or Rus' have also replaced "Old Russia" (as well as "Kievan Russia" such as in George Vernadsky's books from 1943–69 "History of Russia") as the primary name for the lands in which Old East Slavic was spoken. According to historian Donald Ostrowski, this is not only more historically accurate, as "Rus'" was the name commonly used, it avoids giving priority to the Great Russian nationality, which projecting backwards would be highly anachronistic. Ukrainian-American linguist George Shevelov used the term Common Russian or Common Eastern Slavic to refer to the hypothetical language of the East Slavs. In the context of the history of Ukrainian, however, he referred to historical phases of the language as Proto-Ukrainian and Old Ukrainian, using criteria based on the available sources: the PU period (up to the mid 11th century) having no sources written down by speakers in Ukraine, and the OU period (from the mid 11th to the 14th century) represented by texts chiefly compiled in Church Slavonic but preserving evidence of Old East Slavic in Ukraine. The periodization of the literary language represents great changes and breaks resulting from events in cultural and political history; in contrast, the spoken language of Ukraine "shows a surprising continuity in development from prehistoric times to our day." American Slavist Alexander M. Schenker pointed out that modern terms for the medieval language of the East Slavs varied depending on the political context. He suggested using the neutral term East Slavic for that language. ==General considerations== 300px|right|Map and tree of Balto-Slavic languages, according to Kassian and A. Dybo left|thumb|Development of the East Slavic languages The language was a descendant of the Proto-Slavic language and retained many of its features. It developed so-called pleophony (or polnoglasie 'full vocalisation'), which came to differentiate the newly evolving East Slavic from other Slavic dialects. For instance, Common Slavic 'settlement, town' was reflected as OESl. gorodъ, Common Slavic 'milk' > OESl. moloko, and Common Slavic 'cow' > OESl korova. Other Slavic dialects differed by resolving the closed-syllable clusters *eRC and *aRC as liquid metathesis (South Slavic and West Slavic), or by no change at all (see the article on Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony for a detailed account). Since extant written records of the language are sparse, it is difficult to assess the level of its unity. In consideration of the number of tribes and clans that constituted Kievan Rus, it is probable that there were many dialects of Old East Slavonic. Therefore, today we may speak definitively only of the languages of surviving manuscripts, which, according to some interpretations, show regional divergence from the beginning of the historical records. By c. 1150 it had the weakest local variations among the four regional macrodialects of Common Slavic, c. 800–c. 1000, which had just begun to differentiate into its branches. With time, it evolved into several more diversified forms, which were the predecessors of the modern Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn and Ukrainian languages. The regional languages were distinguishable starting in the 12th or 13th century. Thus different variations evolved of the Russian language in the regions of Novgorod, Moscow, South Russia and meanwhile the Ukrainian language was also formed. Each of these languages preserves much of the Old East Slavic grammar and vocabulary. The Russian language in particular borrows more words from Church Slavonic than does Ukrainian. However, findings by Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak suggest that, until the 14th or 15th century, major language differences were not between the regions occupied by modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, but rather between the north-west (around modern Velikiy Novgorod and Pskov) and the center (around modern Kyiv, Suzdal, Rostov, Moscow as well as Belarus) of the East Slavic territories. The Old Novgorodian dialect of that time differed from the central East Slavic dialects as well as from all other Slavic languages much more than in later centuries. According to Zaliznyak, the Russian language developed as a convergence of that dialect and the central ones, whereas Ukrainian and Belarusian were continuation of development of the central dialects of the East Slavs. Also, Russian linguist Sergey Nikolaev, analysing historical development of Slavic dialects’ accent system, concluded that a number of other tribes in Kievan Rus came from different Slavic branches and spoke distant Slavic dialects. Another Russian linguist G. A. Khaburgaev as well as a number of Ukrainian linguists (Stepan Smal-Stotsky, Ivan Ohienko, George Shevelov, Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo) deny the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. According to them, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages. When after the end of the 'Tatar yoke' the territory of former Kievan Rus was divided between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the medieval Rus' principality Grand Principality of Moscow, two separate literary traditions emerged in these states, Ruthenian in the west and medieval Russian in the east. == Literary language of Rus' == thumb|A page from Svyatoslav's Miscellanies (1073). The political unification of the region into the state called Kievan Rus', from which modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine trace their origins, occurred approximately a century before the adoption of Christianity in 988 and the establishment of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic as the liturgical and literary language. Documentation of the Old East Slavic language of this period is scanty, making it difficult at best fully to determine the relationship between the literary language and its spoken dialects. There are references in Byzantine sources to pre-Christian Slavs in European Russia using some form of writing. Despite some suggestive archaeological finds and a corroboration by the tenth-century monk Chernorizets Hrabar that ancient Slavs wrote in "strokes and incisions", the exact nature of this system is unknown. Although the Glagolitic alphabet was briefly introduced, as witnessed by church inscriptions in Novgorod, it was soon entirely superseded by Cyrillic. The samples of birch-bark writing excavated in Novgorod have provided crucial information about the pure tenth- century vernacular in North-West Russia, almost entirely free of Church Slavonic influence. It is also known that borrowings and calques from Byzantine Greek began to enter the vernacular at this time, and that simultaneously the literary language in its turn began to be modified towards Eastern Slavic. The following excerpts illustrate two of the most famous literary monuments. NOTE: The spelling of the original excerpt has been partly modernized. The translations are best attempts at being literal, not literary. === Primary Chronicle === , from the Laurentian Codex, 1377: 500px Original Се повѣсти времѧньных лѣт ‧ ѿкꙋдꙋ єсть пошла рꙋскаꙗ земѧ ‧ кто въ києвѣ нача первѣє кнѧжит ‧ и ѿкꙋдꙋ рꙋскаꙗ землѧ стала єсть ~ Russian Вот повести минувших лет, откуда пошла русскaя земля, кто в Киеве начал первым княжить, и откуда русская земля стала быть. Ukrainian Це повісті минулих літ, звідки пішла Руська земля, хто в Києві почав перший княжити, і звідки Руська земля стала бути. Belarusian Вось аповесці мінулых гадоў: адкуль пайшла руская зямля, хто ў Кіеве першым пачаў княжыць, і адкуль руская зямля паўстала. English These are the narratives of bygone years regarding the origin of the land of Rus', the first princes of Kiev, and from what source the land of Rus' had its beginning. In this usage example of the language, the fall of the yers is in progress or arguably complete: several words end with a consonant, e.g. кнѧжит "to rule" < кънѧжити (modern Uk , R , B ). South Slavic features include времѧньнъıх "bygone" (modern R , Uk , B ). Correct use of perfect and aorist: єсть пошла "is/has come" (modern B , R , Uk ), нача "began" (modern Uk , B , R ) as a development of the old perfect. Note the style of punctuation. === Tale of Igor's Campaign === Слово о пълку Игоревѣ. , from the Pskov manuscript, fifteenth cent. Original Не лѣпо ли ны бяшетъ братїє, начяти старыми словесы трудныхъ повѣстїй о пълку Игоревѣ, Игоря Святъславлича? Начати же ся тъй пѣсни по былинамъ сего времени, а не по замышленїю Бояню. Боянъ бо вѣщїй, аще кому хотяше пѣснь творити, то растѣкашется мыслію по древу, сѣрымъ вълкомъ по земли, шизымъ орломъ подъ облакы. Transliteration Ne lěpo li ny bjašetŭ bratije, načjati starymi slovesy trudnyxŭ pověstij o pŭlku Igorevě, Igorja Svjatŭslaviča? Načati že sia tŭj pěsni po bylinamŭ sego vremeni, a ne po zamyšleniju Bojanju. Bojanŭ bo věščij, ašče komu xotjaše pěsnĭ tvoriti, to rastěkašetsja mysliju po drevu, sěrymŭ vŭlkomŭ po zemli, šizymŭ orlomŭ podŭ oblaky. English Would it not be meet, o brothers, for us to begin with the old words the martial telling of the host of Igor, of Igor Sviatoslavlich? And to begin in the way of the true tales of this time, and not in the way of Bojan's inventions. For the wise Bojan, if he wished to devote to someone [his] song, would fly like a squirrel in the trees, like a grey wolf over land, like a bluish eagle beneath the clouds. Illustrates the sung epics, with typical use of metaphor and simile. It has been suggested that the phrase растекаться мыслью по древу (to run in thought upon/over wood), which has become proverbial in modern Russian with the meaning "to speak ornately, at length, excessively," is a misreading of an original мысію (akin to "mouse") from "run like a squirrel/mouse on a tree"; however, the reading мыслью is present in both the manuscript copy of 1790 and the first edition of 1800, and in all subsequent scholarly editions. == Old East Slavic literature == The Old East Slavic language developed a certain literature of its own, though much of it (in hand with those of the Slavic languages that were, after all, written down) was influenced as regards style and vocabulary by religious texts written in Church Slavonic. Surviving literary monuments include the legal code Justice of the Rus (Руська правда ), a corpus of hagiography and homily, the epic Song of Igor (Слово о полку игореве ) and the earliest surviving manuscript of the Primary Chronicle (Повесть временных лет ) – the Laurentian codex (Лаврентьевский список ) of 1377. The earliest dated specimen of Old East Slavic (or, rather, of Church Slavonic with pronounced East Slavic interference) must be considered the written Sermon on Law and Grace(Slovo o zakone i blagodati), by Hilarion, metropolitan of Kiev. In this work there is a panegyric on Prince Vladimir of Kiev, the hero of so much of East Slavic popular poetry. It is rivalled by another panegyric on Vladimir, written a decade later by Yakov the Monk. Other eleventh-century writers are Theodosius, a monk of the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra, who wrote on the Latin faith and some Pouchenia or Instructions, and Luka Zhidiata, bishop of Novgorod, who has left a curious Discourse to the Brethren. From the writings of Theodosius we see that many pagan habits were still in vogue among the people. He finds fault with them for allowing these to continue, and also for their drunkenness; nor do the monks escape his censures. Zhidiata writes in a more vernacular style than many of his contemporaries; he eschews the declamatory tone of the Byzantine authors. And here may be mentioned the many lives of the saints and the Fathers to be found in early East Slavic literature, starting with the two Lives of Sts Boris and Gleb, written in the late eleventh century and attributed to Jacob the Monk and to Nestor the Chronicler. With the so-called Primary Chronicle, also attributed to Nestor, begins the long series of the Russian annalists. There is a regular catena of these chronicles, extending with only two breaks to the seventeenth century. Besides the work attributed to Nestor the Chronicler, there are the chronicles of Novgorod, Kiev, Volhynia and many others. Every town of any importance could boast of its annalists, Pskov and Suzdal among others. In the twelfth century we have the sermons of bishop Cyril of Turov, which are attempts to imitate in Old East Slavic the florid Byzantine style. In his sermon on Holy Week, Christianity is represented under the form of spring, Paganism and Judaism under that of winter, and evil thoughts are spoken of as boisterous winds. There are also the works of early travellers, as the igumen Daniel, who visited the Holy Land at the end of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth century. A later traveller was Afanasiy Nikitin, a merchant of Tver, who visited India in 1470. He has left a record of his adventures, which has been translated into English and published for the Hakluyt Society. A curious monument of old Slavonic times is the Pouchenie (Instruction), written by Vladimir Monomakh for the benefit of his sons. This composition is generally found inserted in the Chronicle of Nestor; it gives a fine picture of the daily life of a Slavonic prince. The Paterik of the Kievan Caves Monastery is a typical medieval collection of stories from the life of monks, featuring devils, angels, ghosts, and miraculous resurrections. Lay of Igor's Campaign narrates the expedition of Igor Svyatoslavich, prince of Novhorod-Siverskyi against the Cumans. It is neither epic nor a poem but is written in rhythmic prose. An interesting aspect of the text is its mix of Christianity and ancient Slavic religion. Igor's wife Yaroslavna famously invokes natural forces from the walls of Putyvl. Christian motifs present along with depersonalised pagan gods in the form of artistic images. Another aspect, which sets the book apart from contemporary Western epics, are its numerous and vivid descriptions of nature, and the role which nature plays in human lives. Of the whole bulk of the Old East Slavic literature, the Lay is the only work familiar to every educated Russian or Ukrainian. Its brooding flow of images, murky metaphors, and ever changing rhythm have not been successfully rendered into English yet. Indeed, the meanings of many words found in it have not been satisfactorily explained by scholars. The Zadonshchina is a sort of prose poem much in the style of the Tale of Igor's Campaign, and the resemblance of the latter to this piece furnishes an additional proof of its genuineness. This account of the battle of Kulikovo, which was gained by Dmitri Donskoi over the Mongols in 1380, has come down in three important versions. The early laws of Rus’ present many features of interest, such as the Russkaya Pravda of Yaroslav the Wise, which is preserved in the chronicle of Novgorod; the date is between 1018 and 1072. == Study == The earliest attempts to compile a comprehensive lexicon of Old East Slavic were undertaken by Alexander Vostokov and Izmail Sreznevsky in the nineteenth century. Sreznevsky's Materials for the Dictionary of the Old Russian Language on the Basis of Written Records (1893–1903), though incomplete, remained a standard reference until the appearance of a 24-volume academic dictionary in 1975–99. == Notable texts == * Bylinas * The Tale of Igor's Campaign – the most outstanding literary work in this language * Russkaya Pravda – an eleventh-century legal code issued by Yaroslav the Wise * Praying of Daniel the Immured * A Journey Beyond the Three Seas ==See also== * Outline of Slavic history and culture * List of Slavic studies journals * History of the East Slavic languages * List of Latvian words borrowed from Old East Slavic * Old Russian literature ==Notes== == References == * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==General references== * * * * ==Further reading== == External links == * Old Russian Online by Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the Linguistics Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin * Ostromir's Gospel Online * Online library of the Old Russian texts * The Pushkin House, a great 12-volumed collection of ancient texts of the 11th–17th centuries with parallel Russian translations * Izbornyk, library of Old East Slavic chronicles with Ukrainian and Russian translations Category:Belarusian language Category:Russian language Category:Ukrainian language |
Kalahandi district is a district of Odisha in India. Archaeological evidence of Stone Age and Iron Age human settlement has been recovered from the region.B.Mishra, J. Bengal Art, Vol.9&10, 2004–2005, 383–410 Asurgarh offered an advanced, well civilised, cultured and urban human settlement about 2000 years ago in the region.P.Mohanty, B. Mishra, Op. Cit,2000; C.R. Mishra, S. Pradhan, op. cit. 1989–1990, Infra, F.N.79 In South Asia it is believed that the lands of Kalahandi district and Koraput district were the ancient places where people started cultivation of paddy. In ancient time it was known as Mahakantara (meaning great forest) and Karunda Mandal, which means treasure of precious stones like karandam (corundum/manik), garnet (red stone), beruz, neelam (sapphire/blue stone), and alexandrite, etc. Manikeswari (the goddess of Manikya or Karandam) is the clan deity of Kalahandi may also signify its historical name. It was a princely state in British India and in post independence period it merged with Odisha state in India as Kalahandi district comprising current Kalahandi district and Nuapada district. In 1967, Kashipur block from Kalahandi district was transferred to Rayagada district for administrative reason. Despite its backwardness it is one of the rich regions in history, agriculture, forest resources, gemstone, bauxite, folk dance, folk music, folklore, handicrafts and arts. In 1993, Nuapada sub-division was carved out as a separate district, but Kalahandi (Lok Sabha constituency) continues to constitute present Kalahandi district and Nuapada district together. == History == The archaeological record of the Tel Valley reveals the presence of the primates in its zones during the Pleistocenephase. Paleolithic is being documented in Kalahandi, like Moter river basin in Dharamgarh region.R.P. Prusty, 1992, Paleolithic Vestiges from Kalahandi, Odisha Historical Research Journal, XXXVII, no.1-5, pp.55–66, Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar One of the largest size axe of late Stone Age culture has been recovered from Kalahandi.P. Mohanty, B. Mishra, Op. Cit,2001, p.47 Tel river civilisation put light towards a great civilisation existing in Kalahandi in the past that is recently getting explored. The discovered archaeological wealth of Tel Valley suggest a well civilised, urbanised, cultured people inhabited on this land mass around 2000 years ago and Asurgarh was its capital. Kalahandi along with Koraput and Bastar was part of Kantara referred in Ramayana and Mahabharata.Mahabharata Sabhaparva, 31, sloka-11-16 In the 4th century BC Kalahandi region was known as Indravana from where precious gem-stones and diamond were collected for the imperial Maurya treasury.Proceedings, Indian History Congress, 1947, 10th session, 178 During the period of Maurya emperor Ashoka, Kalahandi along with Koraput and Bastar region was called Atavi Land. This land was unconquered as per Ashokan record.B. Mishra, op.cit., 2003–2004 In the beginning of Christian era probably it was known as Mahavana.N. K. Sahu, 1964, op. cit. In the 4th century AD Vyaghraraja was ruling over Mahakantara comprising Kalahandi, undivided Koraput and Bastar region.N. K. Sahu, op.cit., 1964, p.200 Asurgarh was capital of Mahakantara.ibid.7 After Vyaghraraja, the Nala kings like Bhavadatta Varman, Arthapati and Skanda Varman ruled over south part of this region up to about 500, the territory was known as Nalavadi-visayaN. K. Sahu, Utkal University, History of Orissa, 433 and rest of Mahakantara, lower part of Tel river valley was ruled by king Tastikara and his scions, the kingdom was known as Parvatad-waraka, whose headquarters was Talabhamraka near Belkhandi. In the 6th century a new kingdom developed in the Kalahandi tract under King Tustikara, but very little is known about other kings of his family. Maraguda valley was identified as capital of Sarabapuriyas.S.P.Tiwari, Comprehensive History of Orissa, 95–96 During Sarabapuriyas in the 6th century, Kalahandi lost its political entities and merged with eastern part of South Kosal or Kosal.J. P. Singh Deo, op.cit. But this was also for a short period as in succeeding phase it assumed a distinct name Trikalinga. By the 9th–10th centuries the region including Western Odisha, Kalahandi, Koraput and Bastar was known as Trikalinga.M.N.Das(Ed)Sidelight on History and Culture of Orissa, 36 The Somavamsi king Mahabhavagupta I Janmejaya (925 – 960) assumed the title Trikalingadhipati.Orissa District Gazetteers, Kalahandi, 46–49 Trikalinga was short lived and Chindakangas carved out a new kingdom called Chakrakota Mandala or Bramarakota Mandala,ibid.47 which later one expanded to whole Kalahandi and Koraput. === Naga dynasty of Kalahandi === The Naga dynasty started ruling Kalahandi in 1006. The Nagas of Kalahandi are the only dynasty in Odisha having a record of thousand years (1050–1948). During the 12th century Chkrakota Mandal was incorporated with the Ganga realm of Kalinga, and renamed "Kamala Mandala",ibid.41 thus Kalahandi region became part of Kalinga as a feudatory of the Eastern Gangas under Nagas rules and continued till the 14th century. After 14th century Nagas owed allegiance from Eastern Gangas to the Suryavamsi Gajapatis. This territory assumed independence after the downfall of the Gajapatis of Odisha in 1568. According to tradition the Kalahandi kingdom commanded sovereign power over eighteen garbs. It was occupied by the Bhonslas of Nagpur in the middle of the 18th century but still it was a Gadajat under Nagas rule. In 1853 the Nagpur state lapsed to the British Crown as Raghujee III died without an heir. Then Kalahandi became a princely state under British and known as Karonda Mandal. Maharaja Pratap Keshari Deo, the Ex-Maharaja of Kalahandi, in one of his articles expressed his view that the historical significance of naming Kalahandi as Karunda Mandala is based on the availability of Corundum in this region. Manikeswari (the goddess of Manikya), the clan deity of the Naga kings of Kalahandi may have also necessitated the adoption of the name. After Indian independence in 1947, Kalahandi joined India on 1 January 1948. On 1 November 1949, Patna Balangir district and Subarnapur district together constituted a separate district and the Nuapada sub-division of Sambalpur was added to the Kalahandi district. In 1967, Kashipur block of Kalahandi district was transferred to Rayagada division for administrative purpose. In 1993, Raja Ravi Gupta along with his siblings and prajaa reinvented Nuapada. Nuapada sub- division was carved out as a separate district, but Kalahandi (Lok Sabha constituency) continues to constitute present Kalahandi district and Nuapada district together. ===Post-independence=== ====Kalahandi Syndrome==== Kalahandi hit the headlines in newspapers for the repeated drought situation that has broken the economic backbone of the cultivators. A long history of drought covering more than a century in Kalahandi has occurred. Drought had occurred in Kalahandi in 1868, 1884 and 1897. The famine of 1899 is otherwise known as "Chhapan Salar Durbhikshya". The effect of the famine, according to the District Gazetteers, were of a magnitude unprecedented in any previous famine. This famine left a terrible socio-economic gloom in this area. In 1819–1820, another drought occurred followed by cholera, influenza and malnutrition due to lack of foodstuff. A series of droughts in 1822–1823, 1825–1826, 1829–1830, 1854–1855 and 1855–56 occurred in Kalahandi. The terrible drought of 1865–66, which occurred in Kalahandi, totally broke down the economic backbone of the people. Due to lack of rain, three-fourths of the crop production failed. The effect of the drought continued to be felt in 1967. As regards this drought, the following description from the District Gazetteers is worth quoting. :"The bulk of the population which constituted the landless agricultural labourers became unemployed due to suspension of all sorts of agricultural operations. The worst sufferers were the landed gentry, who, because of the drought, could not reap a harvest nor could they take to manual labour to which they were not accustomed. The pastures lost the greenery and the bovine population therefore was equally starved. Everywhere there was an acute shortage of water." Again in 1974–75 and in 1985 drought occurred like the Human Census occurring once in ten years. After the severe drought of 1956 and 1966, the rich cultivators of this area came down to the status of middle class cultivators and the middle class cultivators into ordinary ones. They all turned into Sukhbasis. The daily wage labourers and landless are generally called "Sukhbasi" in Kalahandi meaning those who live happily. A proverb for Sukhbasi runs thus: "Gai nai goru, sukhe nid karu" which means the men without cattle have happy sound sleep. Continuous occurrence of drought along with the irregular rainfall has resulted in crop failures and thus people became poorer to poorer. The state's Bureau of Statistics and Economics has analyzed the rainfall of South Western Kalahandi and has reported that "there is a year of drought in every three or four years". Along with the drought the problems such as rural unemployment, non- industrialization, growth of population and rapid deforestation are some of the major problems of Kalahandi. Hence being gripped both by nature and men, the rural inhabitant of Kalahandi has found no other way of survival. As a result, either he has migrated from his motherland or lived in the wasteland as a crippled soldier. Kalahandi has been in the news since the middle of the 1980s when India Today reported sale of a child by its parents due to financial crisis. (pages 247-248) That article led the then prime minister Rajiv Gandhi to pay a visit to the district and brought the district to the attention of the national stage for its acute poverty and famine. Subsequently, similar reported cases of starvation deaths and sale of children have led to the announcement of a host of relief efforts and development projects. This backward phenomena despite richness of Kalahandi was called Kalahandi Syndrome by social workers. Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao announced the famous KBK project for backward undivided Kalahandi, Bolangir and Koraput districts in 1994. Nonetheless, Kalahandi has not been able to take off despite of hosts of programmes, largely because of lacuna at implementation stage. As the basic infrastructure is dismal state, the development progress is very slow. Kalahandi is more often used a symbol of backwardness in popular media and among politicians or social workers. Use of Kalahandi in popular literature has been controversial. In a literary conference, "Rajya Sastriya Lekhaka Sammilani" in 1994 at Bhawanipatna, many invited speakers and local intellectuals pointed out that it's not wise to use the name "Kalahandi" as synonym for starvation death. Starvation death does not imply image of Kalahandi completely and by using it for starvation death other rich aspects of life in Kalahandi are being ignored. Starvation death was just one side of a coin, like poverty in Odisha or India. However, there are many writers, philosophers, social workers, journalists, politicians etc., particularly in India who are continue to use the name in literature, articles and reviews. According to Tapan Kumar Pradhan although the drought situation in Kalahandi was a moderate natural disaster, the starvation deaths were a completely avoidable manmade disaster. (pages 249-250) The Kalahandi film made by Indian film director Gautam Ghose received critical notice. Rahul Gandhi's comparison of Purulia with Kalahandi had brought political controversy in West Bengal. ===Political marginalization in recent times=== thumb|Sabha Mandap, Bhawanipatna Palace Politically, the district does not have much importance in state or national politics. Though in 2000 and 2004 elections Biju Janata Dal- Bharatiya Janata Party combined had won all the MLA and MP seats in Kalahandi, in 2009 election people opted for Indian National Congress except Dharamgarh MLA constituency, which is largely seen as ongoing political negligence to this region. Bhakta Charan Das, as third time Indian National Congress MP from the district did not receive any Union Ministry in Manmohan Singh's Ministry. During the Chandrasekhar regime (1990–91), Bhakta Charan Das was part of the union ministry in the Railway and Sports department. No other MPs in last three decades have made it to any important post of national or state level. Pradeep Naik the seating MLA from Bhawanipatna Constituency is leader of opposition of Odisha assembly. Bhupinder Singh, Jagannath Pattnaik and Rasa Bihari Behera had been among the opposition leader, senior leaders, ministers in Odisha. Despite trio of them being in an important ministry like Revenue and Tourism, Agriculture they failed to make it to limelight. Earlier Pushpendra Singh Deo was a state and later on cabinet minister and currently Dibya Shankar Mishra is a state minister in Naveen Patnaik Government in Odisha since 2000. Political disappointment in the region is raising. Kalahandi highlighted for starvation and poverty is often marginalised in Odisha state and Indian national politics. This discrimination is thought to be due to national politics. Immediately after independence Kalahandi Lok Sabha Constituency was represented by non-congress candidate for 30 years, the period India was ruled by Congress Party. Thus, Kalahandi Lok Sabha Constituency was neglected and left out of development initiatives when the Congress ruled at the centre. Indira Gandhi visited Kalahandi in the early 1980s; Rajiv Gandhi visited in 1984; Sonia Gandhi visited in 2004, and Rahul Gandhi visited in 2008, 2009 and 2010. Since 1980, the Indian National Congress has been ruling for 20 years at the centre. Despite late prime ministers Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, P.V. Narasimha Rao, and present leaders Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Sonia Gandhi, Rahul Gandhi etc. Tall claims for developing Kalahandi, little was done for long-term sustainable development in higher education, national highway, railway and industry during those leadership at Delhi. Few initiatives taken in post-independence of India for developing Kalahandi were only during non-congress rule in India such as Upper Indiravati Irrigation Project (during Moraji Desai as Prime Minister of India), Lanjigarh road – Jungarh and possibility of extending to Nabarangpur district (during Chandrasekhar as Prime Minister of India), National Highway 201 & 217 passing through Kalahandi (during Atal Bihari Vajpayee as Prime Minister of India), all these projects are not yet fully accomplished. The Central government of India has established two public sector factories such as HAL factory and NALCO factory in the neighbouring Koraput district (part of KBK), a Lok Sabha constituency held by congress party since independence, and an ordnance factory in Balangir district (part of KBK) leaving only Kalahhani among KBK for such development in the region. No public sector industrial investment has been taken place in Kalahandi since past 62 years. Local need in major infrastructure in railway, highways and demand for a railway factory and Central University is not yet addressed. In 2008, "India Today" survey put Kalahandi among the bottom five Lok Sabha Constituency in Socio-economic and infrastructure development in India. ====Administrative Setup==== Kalahandi has been divided into two sub-divisions namely Bhawanipatna subdivision and Dharamgarh subdivision and 13 blocks. * Blocks under Bhawanipatna subdivision are: Bhawanipatna, Kesinga, Lanjigarh, Narla, Karlamunda, M. Rampur, and T. Rampur. * Blocks under Dharamgarh Sub-Division are: Dharamgarh, Junagarh, Koksara, Jaipatna, Kalampur, and Golamunda. ====Struggle for irrigation project==== When Kalahandi was a princely state, a major irrigation project was initiated on Indravati River to build Indravati Dam by Maharaja Pratap Keshari Deo around 1939–47, and along with engineer Bhubaneswar Behera and administrator Ram Chandra Patra he visualized and prepared the blue print. However, in 1948 princely state of Kalahandi was merged as part of Odisha state and this could not be materialized. In post independence period as member of parliament Pratap Keshari Deo fought from 1950 to 1979 but was not able succeed as he was in the opposition of congress party until new Govt. formed by late prime minister Maraji Desai in 1978, who accepted Deo's proposal to construct the Indravati dam for hydroelectricity generation and irrigation purposes. Many people think such delay was due to Congress Party which was ruling India since independence and was not in a favour of development of a Lok Sabha Constituency which was represented by non-congress party. After late prime minister Moraji Desai's approval and foundation stone in 1978, the project took more than two decades to be realised and was alleged with corruption. However, the project is a major boost to agricultural development today known as Upper Indravati Hydroelectric and irrigation project. There are still concerns and lack for government funds to irrigate Koksara, Golamunda and Bhawanipatan blocks in Kalahandi through this projects as every year lots of water is released from the dam through Hati river without using for irrigation. The Jonk River dam at Patora and Jonk river bridge and canal systems also took decades to complete due to corruption. (pages 34-39 & 221-223) Similarly water shades in Tel river for irrigation in Kalahandi is one of the basic demands of local farmers which is not getting Government support. ====Struggle for a central university==== Refer to video Part I, II and III Kalahandi was struggling for a higher educational institution since independence. Earlier proposal to establish a Government Engineering College or a state University in Kalahandi or Koraput region in the 1980s was later on shifted to some other part in Odisha for political reasons. A team visited by planning commission to Kalahandi Balangir Koraput (KBK) region had suggested to establish an agriculture college in the region. Since 1988 people of Kalahandi are seriously demanding a Central University in Kalahandi as it is central to all KBK districts and has good railway connectivity to major cities in India from Kesinga railway station. In the 1990s when state Government of Odisha proposed to establish a university in northern Odisha, people of Kalahandi repeated their demand for such a university in Kalahandi as well. Then Chief Minister of Odisha Biju Patnaik while addressing publicly in Government College Bhawanipatna said Government could not establish University if people want to establish University in their neighbourhood. But Mr Giridhar Gomang, Chief Minister of Odisha later in 1999 agreed to establish two Universities in Baripada and Balasore due to public protest making people of Kalahandi highly disappointed. This otherwise unorganized and weak demand took serious turn when leading academician Prof. Gopa Bandhu Behera established "Kalahandi Sikhya Vikas Parishad' in Bhawanipatna in 1999 through it and "Central University Kriya Committee" the struggle for a Central University in Kalahandi continued seriously. Many memoranda were submitted to both state and central Government in this regards since then. In the meantime, in 2006–07, non-resident Indians of Odisha origin and activists in Bhubaneswar started campaigning for central universities in every state and that of one in KBK districts of Odisha. Few NRI advocated for such higher educational institutions in Kalahandi. When Government of India announced to establish 12 Central Universities in various states not having any Central University across India which included Odisha, a delegation from Kalahandi consisting intellectuals, general people and politicians met Odisha's Chief Minister Naveen Patnaik in May 2008 to establish the Central University in Kalahandi.The New Indian Express, Bhubaneswar Edition, 8 May 2008 Naveen Patnaik promised and asked them to find out land details for establishing it in Kalahandi. People of Kalahandi sent the land details through district of Collector of Kalahandi in July 2008. However, without studying it, Odisha's Chief Minister unilaterally announced to establish proposed Central University of Odisha in Koraput,The Statesman, Bhubaneswar Edition, 11 August 2008 though it was expected to come up in Bhawanipatna. Again a team from Kalahandi visited Chief minister immediately after the announcement and Chief minister of Odisha promised visiting delegation of Kalahandi to establish a Government Engineering and Agriculture Colleges in Bhawanipatna.The Telegraph (Kolkata), 29 December 2008 People of Kalahandi though welcome establishment of such the colleges, Kalahandi Sikhya Vikas Parisad and Central University Kriya Committee said it's not a replacement for the Central UniversityThe New Indian Express, Bhubaneswar Edition, 28 December 2008 as estimated cost for the proposed Central University is with an area of of land, whereas both Engineering and Agriculture Colleges are estimated to be 100 million as per Government announcement so far. Subsequently, on 26 Dec 2008 leading academician from abroad demanded to covert Government Autonomous College Bhawanipatna to a university in the line of university tag given to Ravenshaw College, UCE Burla and Khallikote College. Coincidentally next day on 27 Dec 2008 Odisha chief minister officially announced an Engineering College and an Agriculture College at Bhawanipatna keeping his earlier promise. However, the demand to covert Government Autonomous College Bhawanipatna to a university was further taken by students, Kalahandi Sikhya Vikas Parisad, academicians, and local leaders for over a decade. Finally, Odisha Government announced to convert Government Autonomous College Bhawanipatna to a university in Feb 2019, just before the assembly election. Few NRI also had demanded to either establish a Central Agriculture University or a state agriculture university in Kalahandi because of its agriculture potential and central location in the KBK region, subsequently then Union minister of Agriculture asked Odisha Govt. to study this referring to letter by Kalahandi MP and before election of 2014 Odisha Govt. had included in its manifesto to establish second Agriculture University in an area under KBK districts. Although academicians, Kalahandi Sikhya Vikas Parishad and people have been demanding to establish Agriculture University in Bhawanipatna, no progress has been made yet. ====Struggle for railway lines and rail factory==== Kalahandi and Nuapada districts have a higher number of migrant workers than other states. Agriculture alone is not enough for employment generation for this region and needs industrial development. Since 2008, non- resident Indian of Kalahandi origin have initiated and appealed to establish a railway factory in the backward KBK region. In the 2010-11 budget Indian railway has proposed a Wagon factory to be established in Bhubaneswar or Kalahandi. But Odisha Government proposed to establish such Wagon factory in Ganjam district, which was highly criticized by intellectuals, non-resident Indians, local people and politicians. Protest continued in Kalahandi region by local leaders, people and NRI for two years. Due to public pressure in the 2013-2014 railway budget announcement was made for setting up a Wagon Periodical Overhauling Workshop in Kalahandi, and again this was shifted to Vishakapatnam (Vadlapudi) because of technical reason. Moreover, in the 2017-18 union budget, an Electric Loco Periodical Overhauling Workshop was announced to be set up in Kalahandi with an investment of Rs 186 crore. Not much progress has been made since then. Lanjigarh–Junagarh section under East Coast Railway Zone was completed in March 2014, which was sanctioned when local MP Bhakta Charan Das was minister of state for railway in 1990–91. The surveyed railway line, Kantabanji (Balangir) -Jeypore (Koraput) via Nuapada, Kalahandi and Nabarangpur districts, needs approval, funding and immediate implementation. Similarly Junagarh Road-Nabarangpur rail line project is pending for 8 years to get budgetary approval despite appeal from locals and academicians. NRI of Odisha origin initiated demanding to survey for Raipur- Rajim-Gariabandh-Debhog-Dharamagrh-Junagarh since 2008, Lanjigarh road- Phulbani-Angul (Talcher) since 2009 and Bhawanipatna-Kesinga since 2011, and survey by Indian railway was approved for Talcher-Phulbani-Lanjigarh in 2010, Raipur- Rajim-Gariabandh-Debhog-Dharamagrh-Junagarh in 2012, Bhawanipatna- Kesinga in 2017 for but not much progress has been made for these projects. == Geography == Kalahandi lies in between 19.3 N and 21.5 N latitudes and 82.20 E and 83.47 E longitudesOrissa District Gazetteers, Kalahandi, 2 and occupies the south western portion of Odisha, bordered to the north by the Balangir district and Nuapada district, to the south by the Nabarangpur district, Koraput district and Rayagada district, and to the east by the Rayagada district, Kandhamal district and Boudh district. It has an area of 8,364.89 square kilometres and ranks 7th in area among the 30 districts of Odisha. The district headquarters is at Bhawanipatna which stands almost in the central location of the district. Bhawanipatna and Dharamgarh are two sub-divisions of Kalahandi. Junagarh, Jaipatna, Kesinga, Lanjigarh and Mukhiguda are other major towns in Kalahandi. Tel is the main river of Kalahandi. Other notably rivers are Indravati, Udanti, Hati, Utei, Sagada, Rahul, Nagabali, Mudra, etc. The topography of Kalahandi consists of plain land, hills & mountains. Kalahandi is surrounded by hills. Its border with Nabarangpur, Koraput, Rayagada and Kandhamal districts are hilly and mountainous. The district is primarily agricultural, with over one third of the district area covered with dense jungle forest. Industry is very limited, but bauxite and graphite deposits can be commercially exploited. == Economy == In 2006 the Ministry of Panchayati Raj named Kalahandi one of the country's 250 most backward districts (out of a total of 640). It is one of the 19 districts in Odisha currently receiving funds from the Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme (BRGF). ===Agriculture=== Kalahandi is largely an agriculture based economy. During Bengal famine Kalahandi alone had sent 100,000 tons of rice. During the 1930s princely state of Kalahandi had proposed to build upper Indravati project but subsequent merger of princely state with India delayed the project . It got approved in 1978 and yet to be fully completed. In the meantime drought occurred in the 1960s and lately in the 1980s. In the 1980s Kalahandi become infamous for drought, child selling, malnutrition and starvation death and social worker referred it as 'Kalahandi Syndrome'. Though KBK project was announced in the 1990s by central Government specially for undivided Kalahandi, Balangir and Koraput districts primarily keeping poverty, backwardness and starvation death in mind, undivided Kalahandi district continued to remain politically ignored. Kalahandi is an example of disparity/contrasts that exist in many parts of the developing/underdeveloped world. On the one side, this district is famous for famine and starvation deaths: this is the same district that is rich with agriculture. Dharamgarh sub-division was historical known for rice production in Odisha. Since the 2000s the Indravati Water Project, second biggest in the state has changed the landscape of southern Kalahandi, leading to two crops in a year. Because of this, blocks like Kalampur, Jaipatna, Dharamgarh, Jungarh, Bhawanipatna etc. are witnessing rapid agricultural growth. This has boasted the highest number of rice mills in Kalahandi among districts in Odisha. The number of rice mills in the district was around 150 in the year 2004–05. More than 70% have been built in the five years after commissioning of the Indravati project. ===Forest resources=== Forest based products like Mahua, Kendu leaf, wood, timber and bamboos contribute local economy largely. Kalahandi supplied substantial raw materials to paper mills in neighbouring Rayagada and Jeypore. ===Gem stone=== Kalahandi was famous for gemstone (Karonda Mandal) in ancient times. Its rich gemstone deposit included cat's eye, sapphire, ruby, garnet, crystal, topaz, moonstone, diamond, tourmaline, acquamarine, beryle, alexandrite, etc. The distribution and occurrence of precious and semi- precious gemstones and other commercial commodities of the region have found place in the accounts of Panini (5th century BC), Kautilya (3rd century BC), Ptolemy (2nd century AD), Wuang Chuang (7th century AD) and Travenier (19th century AD). Until recently, Kalahandi, along with Balangir, supplied gem stones for handicraft work that can be found in Delhi Haat. Jiligndara, near Junagarh of Kalahandi, has one of the largest ruby deposits of Asia as per Geological Survey of India.P.Mohanty, B.Mishra, Environment and stone age culture of Kalahandi, Orissa in Peoples and Environment in India, edited by K.K.Mishra, M.L.K.Murty, p.42 ===Industry=== Vedanta Alumina Limited (VAL), a subsidiary of Sterlite Industries, a major aluminium processor has made major investments by establishing a 1 MTPA Alumina Refinery and 75 MW Captive Power Plant at Lanjigarh. Though this project has received criticism from environmentalists, especially from tribals of Niyamgiri; supporters of VAL claims it has brought significant changes in Socio-Economic scenario of Lanjigarh and Kalahandi. The Union Environment Ministry in August 2010, rejected earlier clearances granted to a joint venture led by the Vedanta Group company Sterlite Industries for mining bauxite from Niyamgiri hills making the company to depend on bauxite from outside Odisha. The company's proposal for Expansion of the Refinery to 6 MTPA, which would have made it one of the largest refinery in the world, was halted by India's environment ministry. ==Transport== === Air === thumb|Utkela Airstrip, Kalahandi Utkela Airstrip (VEUK) is present near the city () which is scheduled to be operational with daily flights to state capital Bhubaneshwar and Raipur in the coming month of September by private air service provider Air Odisha under UDAN scheme by Ministry of Civil Aviation, Govt. of India. Another one, Lanjigarh Airstrip (FR44733)() is private airstrip conducting VIP and chartered planes. Swami Vivekananda Airport at Raipur, Chhattisgarh is away. Biju Patnaik International Airport in the state capital, Bhubaneswar is 427 km away by road and 631 km by rail. ===Rail=== thumb|Bhawanipatna Railway Station Bhawanipatna railway station was inaugurated on 12 August 2012. It is situated on Lanjigarh-Junagarh rail line. Currently there are 3 trains (1 express and 2 passengers) running from Bhawanipatna to Bhubaneswar, Raipur and Sambalpur. === Road === thumb|Old Bus Stand, Bhawanipatna Highways connecting Bhawanipatna to various cities: *NH-26 - Bargarh - Bolangir - Bhawanipatna - Nabarangpur - Koraput - Vizianagram - Natavalsa *SH-16 - Bhawanipatna - Khariar - Raipur *SH-6 - Bhawanipatna - Chhatiguda - Ambodala - Muniguda *SH-6A - M.Rampur - Narla - Chhatiguda *SH-44 - Bhawanipatna - Gunupur - Thuamul Rampur - Kashipur - Tikri Bhawanipatna Bus Stand is one of the biggest bus stand in Odisha present on NH-26. Both Private and Govt. buses are available from here. Bhawanipatna is one of the division of Odisha State Road Transport Corporation (O.S.R.T.C.) that runs Govt. Buses from Bhawanipatna to Bhubaneshwar, Vishakhapatnam, Sambalpur, Berhampur, Cuttack, Jeypore. Private Buses (A/C Sleeper Coaches) provide transportation facility to different cities in Odisha and Raipur, Durg etc. in Chhattisgarh. Newly added taxi facility and auto facility including Biju Gaon Gadi throughout Bhawanipatna and villages nearer to it, is adding an advantage to the transport facility. ==Demographics== According to the 2011 census Kalahandi district has a population of 1,576,869, roughly equal to the nation of Gabon or the US state of Idaho. This gives it a ranking of 317th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was 17.79%. Kalahandi has a sex ratio of 1003 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 59.22%. 7.74% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 18.17% and 28.50% of the population respectively. === Language === At the time of the 2011 Census of India, 95.22% of the population in the district spoke Odia, 3.40% Kui and 0.85% Hindi as their first language. The language spoken by the people of Kalahandi is Kalahandia, a dialect of Odia. Minor languages of the district after Odia are Hindi and Kui. ==Culture== Kalahandi is a rich land in culture and festivals.Kalahandi: Loka Anusthan, edited by Jayanta Kumar Behera, Dr Dolagobinda Bisi, Parameswar Mund, Mahabir Sanskrutika Anusthan, 1998 Since it is a melting point of southern Odisha and Western Odisha with a substantial tribal population, those living in hills as well as plain land, their culture, tradition, languages and belief along with mainstream Hindu culture have made Kalahandi region rich with culture and festivals. The mixture of Aryan and tribal culture makes Kalahandi region rich in its culture and festivals. In pre-independence period Kalahandi was largely inspired to Saivaism, Vaishanivism and Shakti puja. Shakti Puja is largely accepted among tribal, perhaps due to which Kalahandi was well known for celebrating Shati Puja. However, affect induction of Kalahandi as part of Odisha state, dominance of coastal Oriya culture in the state is increasingly influencing the local culture. Celebration of Rathajatra and construction of Jaggannath temple in Kalahandi has been increasingly realised unlike in old days of Radha Krishna temple. ===Local custom=== The majority of the population are Hindu, a small minority being Christian, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist and Jain. 28% of the population are tribal people which has the majority of the impact on the local customaries and influenced the dialect. === Art & craft === Literally 'Kalahandi' means 'pot of arts'. This name has been possibly derived from "Gudahandi Caves" containing pre-historic paintings in red and black colours. Kalahandi is a rich land in terms of art and craft. Stone from Kalahandi is well known to make jewellery. Habasipuri pattern is well established in handloom Saree. Wood craft from Khaipadar is famous for export and domestic market. === Dance & music === Kalahandi has the wide varieties of dance forms comprising tribal and non-tribal dance. Among the districts level in Odisha, it has the maximum dance form. Overall Kalahandi life is associated with music and dance. Some of the dance found in Kalahandi such as Dalkhai, Jaiphula, Rasarkeli, Sajani etc. have similarities with the dance form in Balangir, Sambalpur, etc. regionsC. Pasayat, (Ed.) (2008), Paschima Odisara Lokageeta (in Oriya), Bhubaneswar: Folklore Foundation whereas Sari song, Pholia song, song related to nature etc. has similarities with Koraput region. However, Boria song, Nialimali, Kalakolik etc. mostly found in Kalahandi. On the other hand, Ghumura, Madali, Dandari, Dhab, Bajasalia etc. folk form found in Kalahandi can be composed songs. Ghumura dance is the most sought folk dance in Kalahandi. It is classified as folk dance as the dress code of Ghumura resembles more like a tribal dance, but recent researchers argueLoka Nutrya Ghumura, edited by Parameswar Mund, Mahabir Sanskrutika Anusthan, June 2002 different mudra and dance form present in Ghumura bear more resemblance with other classical dance form of India. The timeline of Ghumura dance is not clear. Many researchers claimThe Heroic Dance Ghumura, Edited by Sanjay Kumar, Mahabir Sanskrutika, 2002 it was a war dance in ancient India and used by Ravana in Ramayana. Ghumura dance is depicted in Sun Temple of Konark confirming this dance form is since the medieval period. Ghumura dance has evolved from a war dance to a dance form for cultural and social activities. The dance is associated with social entertainment, relaxation, love, devotion and friendly brotherhood among all class, creed and religion in the present days. Traditionally this dance is also associated with Nuakhai and Dasahara celebration in Kalahandi and large parts of south western Odisha. Ghumura dance is still hidden in the village level in south western Odisha and some parts of bordering Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Kalahandi region has taken a leading rule in popularising and retaining its unique identity of Ghumura dance. Ghumura dance has got the opportunity to represent the nation in international events Delhi, Moscow, and other places. == Notable people == * Bhubaneswar Behera: Engineer, academic, administrator and author. *Pratap Keshari Deo: Ruler, politician, social worker, archeologist and first visualized and took the initiative in the Indravati project. * Ram Chandra Patra, IAS (retd.): (1919-2013) Bureaucrat, social worker and administrator who took the initiative in the Indravati project.Samabad, 2000Keun Mahatabanak Pain, Gana nath Das, The Prajatantra, 2 January 1988 * Kishen Pattnaik: Socialist leader. born 1930 in Kalahandi. Became National president of Samajwadi Yuvjan Sabha and was elected to Lok Sabha from Sambalpur aged 32 ==Education== thumb|Government College of Engineering, Bhawanipatna thumb|College of Agriculture, Bhawanipatna (OUAT) Through the Western Odisha Development Council, the state government has been initiated a private medical college with a tie up with one South India based organisation in Junagarh block of Kalahandi since 2004, admissions took place in 2013 September later which was closed in 2015 due to inefficiency of proper management. Odisha state Government has announced Government College of Engineering Kalahandi and Agriculture College at Bhawanipatna in 2009 but local demand for a Central University in Kalahandi has not been accomplished. Another Medical College is being proposed State Government by support from Vedanta Alumina Company, Lanjigarh around 100 crores will be given by this private company by some exchange of allotment for Bauxite Mines to that Company by the State. This Medical College was proposed due to a long-standing agitation by the Students' of Sardar Raja Medical College & Hospital led by M Sameer Krishna Reddy and Local People led by Shri Dr A K Nanda, eminent Botany Scholar and politicians Shri Pradipta Naik, Shri Himansu Meher, Shri Bhakta Charan Das, Dharmendra Pradhan, Vasant Panda, Manmohan Samal and K V Singhdeo. Technical Colleges * College of Agriculture, Bhawanipatna * Government College of Engineering, Kalahandi * Government Polytechnic College Bhawanipatna * College of Teacher's Education, Bhawanipatna * Sardar Rajas Medical College & Research Centre, Jaring( Closed) Non-technical Colleges * Binayak Residential college, Bhawanipatna * Government Women's College Bhawanipatna * Jayaprakash Sandhya Mahavidyalaya, Bhawanipatna * Pragati Degree College, Bhawanipatna * Saraswati Degree College, Bhawanipatna * Sastriji Science College, Bhawanipatna University * Kalahandi University ==Hospitals== thumb|District Headquarters Hospital, Bhawanipatna * District Headquarters Hospital, Bhawanipatna * Maa Manikeswari Multi-speciality Hospital, Bhawanipatna * Kesinga Hospital * Sub- Divisional Hospital, Dharamgarh ==Establishment== * Upper Indravati Hydro- electricity Project, Mukhiguda * Vedanta Alumina Refinery, Lanjigarh (private) * Ret Irrigation Project, Dhusguda Near Chhatikuda ==Politics== ===Vidhan sabha constituencies=== The following is a list of the 5 Vidhan sabha constituenciesAssembly Constituencies and their EXtentSeats of Odisha of Kalahandi district and the elected members of that area No. Constituency Reservation Extent of the Assembly Constituency (Blocks) Member of 15th Assembly Party 77 Lanjigarh ST Lanjigarh, Thuamul Rampur, Jaipatana (part), , Bhawanipatna (part) Balabhadra Majhi BJD 78 Junagarh None Junagarh (NAC), Junagarh, Golamunda Dibyashankar Mishra BJD 79 Dharmagarh None Dharmagarh, Koksara, Kalampur, Jaipatana (part) Mousadhi Bag BJD 80 Bhawanipatna SC Bhawanipatna (M), Kesinga (NAC), Bhawanipatna (PART), Kesinga (part) Pradipta Kumar Naik BJP 81 Narla None Madanpur-Rampur, Narla, Karlamunda, Kesinga (part) Dhaneswar Majhi BJD == See also == * History of Kalahandi * Kalahandi (poem) * Ghumura Dance * Kalahandia Oriya == References == * == External links == * * Kalahandi Info * Map of Kalahandi * Map of Kalahandi * Antodaya Kalahandi * Indravati Project * Sahabhagi Vikash Abhiyan * www.abhyutthanam.com * www.dkyo.org Category:Districts of Odisha |
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