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4681 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope | Pope | This article is about Popes in general. For the current Pope, see Pope Francis.
The Pope is the head of the Catholic Church.
Popes are elected by Cardinals of the Catholic Church. Once they are elected they hold the position until they die or resign. Usually they do not resign, though; Pope Benedict XVI is the only Pope to resign in the last 500 years. A newly elected Pope chooses a regnal name. Everyone is told this new name when the Habemus Papam is read out. The current pope (Francis) was called Jorge Bergoglio before he became a pope.
The name Pope comes from the Greek word pappas, meaning "father". Catholics believe that when making statements ex cathedra, that is official statements teaching about faith and morals, the Pope is infallible - which means God will not allow his followers to be misled by allowing their leader to make a wrong statement. Only two of any Pope's statements have been ex cathedra.
Popes today travel to many countries around the world preaching. The Pope is the only person in the world who both leads the church and government. Like other bishops he wears a big hat called a mitre and holds a staff called a crosier.
Recent popes
Some recent Popes, and the time they were Pope:
Pope John XXIII, 1958-1963
Pope Paul VI, 1963-1978
Pope John Paul I, 1978
Pope John Paul II, 1978-2005
Pope Benedict XVI, 2005-2013
Pope Francis, current pope
The Popes in Avignon
During parts of the Middle Ages, the French kings had a lot of influence in Europe. For this reason, seven popes (and two anti-popes) lived in Avignon, rather than Rome. The Avignon Papacy was from 1309 to 1377. During that time, the popes were known for their greed and corruption. These popes were allies of France; the enemies of France were also their enemies.
The Bishops of Rome who lived in Avignon were:
Pope Clement V: 1305β1314
Pope John XXII: 1316β1334
Pope Benedict XII: 1334β1342
Pope Clement VI: 1342β1352
Pope Innocent VI: 1352β1362
Pope Urban V: 1362β1370
Pope Gregory XI: 1370β1378
Two antipopes were based in Avignon as well:
Clement VII: 1378β1394
Benedict XIII: 1394β1423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)
Antipopes were people that were elected by small groups who did not like the official choice.
Catherine of Siena convinced pope Gregory XI to move back to Rome. Unfortunately, he died shortly after moving. The cardinals then elected Urban VI to be the next pope. The French cardinals did not recognise this election as legitimate. They declared the papal see as vacant; which led to the Western Schism. The schism lasted until the Council of Constance in 1417. During this time, there was a pope in Rome, an Antipope in Avignon, and for some time, a second antipope. Each of the three was recognised as legitimate pope by different European powers. This led to a big split in the church as a whole. The council elected Pope Martin V as a new pope, recognised by all parties.
Related pages
Abdication
Habemus Papam
Papal name
References
Other websites
Christian religious occupations |
4685 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Andreas%20Fault | San Andreas Fault | The San Andreas Fault is a right-moving ('dextral') strike-slip fault. It marks the boundary between the North American Plate on the east and the Pacific Plate on the west. The fault was the cause of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. It first appeared about 20 million years ago.
The San Andreas Fault is a zone several miles wide with multiple strands. The main active strand runs both on and off-shore between Cape Mendocino and the Sea of Cortez. From Cape Mendocino, it runs offshore to Tomales Bay. Then it goes southward through Bolinas Lagoon, just west of the San Francisco Peninsula, to come onshore again at Daly City, through the hills of the Peninsula. Crystal Springs reservoir is formed by the fault itself.
In the Santa Cruz mountains, it bends slightly eastward. This is the site of the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. The fault continues south through the historic mission at San Juan Bautista and through the town of Hollister (where active creep can be seen to offset sidewalks and even houses). The Transverse Ranges north of Santa Barbara are formed by compression. Strands of the fault snake under the Los Angeles Basin. From there it connects into the active spreading under the Sea of Cortez.
The San Andreas fault was discovered by Andrew Lawson in 1895, who climbed into the faulted serpentinite well where the south tower of the Golden Gate Bridge was being poured. In spite of the extreme deformation of the serpentinite, Lawson declared the bridge perfectly safe. The events of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake would seem to support his conclusion: the ruptured strand was not the one he observed in the footprint of the bridge.
References
Geography of California
Faults
San Francisco Bay Area |
4689 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Void%20%28astronomy%29 | Void (astronomy) | In astronomy, voids are the empty spaces between filaments. Both filaments and Voids are one of the largest-scale structures in the Universe. There are no or few galaxies in voids. Most voids have a diameter of 11 to 150 Mpc.
Especially large voids are the empty spaces without many superclusters.
These voids are sometimes called supervoids.
A 1994 official counting ("The structure of the Universe traced by rich clusters of galaxies.", see References) lists a total of 27 supervoids with a distance of up to 740 Mpc. Some of supervoids chosen from the list are given below.
Other websites
Universe family tree: Void
References
U. Lindner, J. Einasto, M. Einasto, W. Freudling, K. Fricke, E. Tago: The structure of supervoids. I. Void hierarchy in the Northern Local Supervoid., Astron. Astrophys., v.301, p.329 (1995)
M. Einasto, J. Einasto, E. Tago, G. B. Dalton, H Andernach: The structure of the Universe traced by rich clusters of galaxies., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 269, 301 (1994)
Astronomical objects |
4690 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20mouse | Computer mouse | A computer mouse is an input device that is used with a computer. Moving a mouse along a flat surface can move the cursor to different items on the screen. Items can be moved or selected by pushing the mouse buttons (called clicking). Today's mouse have two buttons, the left button and right button, with a scroll wheel in between the two. Today, many computer mouse use wireless technology and have no wire.
There are many types of mouse. Optical mouse, wireless mouse, mechanical mouse, trackball mouse. A computer mouse is a handheld hardware input device that controls a cursor in a GUI and can move and select text, icons, files, and folders. For desktop computers, the mouse is placed on a flat surface such as a mouse pad or a desk and is placed in front of your computer. The picture to the right is an example of a desktop computer mouse with two buttons and a wheel. The mouse was originally known as the X-Y position Indicator for a display system and was invented by Douglas Engelbart in 1963 while working at Xerox PARC. However, due to Alto's lack of success, the first widely used application of the mouse was with the Apple Lisa computer.
Today this device is on virtually every computer. The primary function is to move the mouse pointer on the screen. The mouse pointer can be used for many actions on the computer. Clicking or double clicking an icon, folder, or other object will open a document or execute the program. Users can also move an icon, folder, or other object by clicking a mouse button and dragging the object with the mouse pointer. Pointing to an item on the screen means moving your mouse so the pointer appears to be touching the item. When you point to something, a small box often appears that describes the item.
History
In 1964 Douglas Engelbart (1925-2013), a researcher at Stanford Research Institute, wanted to find a way to make using computers easier. In those days, computers were large and expensive. Using them was very hard because everything had to be typed in on a keyboard. This command line interface is still used by some people, such as programmers, to get things done faster.
After studying and designing for a long time, Engelbart succeeded in inventing an input device which he named 'XY index'. At first, it needed two hands to use, but it was changed so that only one hand was needed to use it. This model was more like the mouse that we use today, but was made up of a big ball that the user had to roll in different directions to move the cursor.
The computer mouse began to be widely used when Xerox Palo Alto Research introduced a GUI in 1981, where the mouse was used to click things on the screen. This was also the case with the Macintosh operating system from Apple of Apple Inc when it came out in 1984, as well as Microsoft Windows. Windows became popular over the years, so over time computer mice became used with many computers.
In 1991, the company Logitech invented the wireless mouse. Unlike a normal mouse, wireless mice were connected by radio signals. Newer wireless mice use Bluetooth or WiFi to connect wireless mice to computers.
Uses
On most computers, the user can move the mouse to move the cursor in the same direction. To choose something that is on the screen, the user can move the cursor to it and "click" the left mouse button. The right button is used to open menus that are different depending on where the cursor is. The other mouse buttons can do different things, depending on the software. Most mice have two buttons to click.
Most mice also have the "scroll wheel"βa small wheel found between the two main mouse buttons. The user can move the wheel back and forth to "scroll" through things like a website or folder. "Scrolling" means moving the words or pictures up or down on the screen, so another part of the page comes into view. The wheel can also be pressed, to click it like another button.
A mouse can also be connected to and used the same way with a laptop computer, but unlike a desktop computer, one does not have to be connected to use the laptop. This is because along with the keyboard, laptops have a built-in input device called a trackpad which does the same thing as a mouse. Similarly, tablet computers have a touchscreen as an input device, but some, like the Microsoft Surface and those that use Android, also work with mice.
Related pages
Touchpad
Trackball
Touchscreen
References
Other websites
Mouse (computing) Citizendium
Computer hardware
Data input |
4693 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy | Metallurgy | Metallurgy is the study of metals. Alloys (mixtures of metals) are also studied. There are two main branches of Metallurgy. They are physical and chemical metallurgy. A Metallurgist is individual who researches, manufactures and develops metal items that range from car parts to semiconductors.
Metallurgists and Metallurgical Engineers often work for consulting engineering firms; mining and manufacturing companies; and in government and universities. Many metallurgists hold a Bachelor of Engineering or similar 4- year degree.
Common Job Tasks
Study the properties metals and alloys through scientific experiments
Plan and design machines and processes to concentrate, extract, refine and process metals.
Work in a manner that is environmentally and economically conscious.
Chemical Metallurgy
Chemical Metallurgy is the study of extracting and refining metals through chemical reactions. This field also commonly involves corrosion prevention and surface treatment of metals. Scientific concepts such as thermodynamics, the study of heat flow and kinetics, the study of the speed of reactions are very central to chemical metallurgy.
Metallurgists are very interested in the chemical reactions that occur with different elements. Chemical reactions are carried out on a large scale to obtain a useful product.
For example, the production of steel in a blast furnace involves turning different Iron and oxide compounds into pure Iron.
3Fe2O4 + CO ->2FeO4 + CO2
Fe3O4 + CO -> 3FeO +CO2
FeO + CO ->Fe + CO2
Physical Metallurgy
Physical metallurgy is the science of making useful properties out of metals. This field focus on the physical property of metals and alloys such as strength and hardness. Properties of metals might be electrical, magnetic and physical in nature. These properties can be changed by alloying or heat treatment.
There are many ways to make metals. For example, large parts may be created by pouring liquid metal into a large cast in a process called casting.
Important factors in physical metallurgy include time and temperature in which the metal is made and cooled. Metals undergo different phase changes, the particular position and type of crystal structure inside the metal will determine if a metal is brittle or flexible.
Smelting
Ores are rocks that have a chemical compound of a metal with oxygen, called an oxide. Separating the oxygen from the metal is called smelting. This is done with chemistry or electricity, usually at very high temperatures. This is the first step in metallurgy. A rock containing enough metal to be profitable is called ore.
Alloys
An alloy is a combination of a metal with one or more elements. The metal mixture must be a solid to be called as an alloy. A common way to combine metals into an alloy is by melting them, mixing and then allowing them to solidify by cooling at room temperature. Alloys have been known since 50,000 BCE and have been continuously studied and improved.
Common Example of alloys include:
Chromium alloys: Good at withstanding high temperature and have good resistance to corrosion. Common composition include a mixture of chromium and Nickel
Cast Iron: Often used in making pots and pans. Cast Iron is a mixture of Iron and around 1-3% Carbon. It is often made using a blast furnace.
Bronze: Copper with 12-15% Tin and minor additions of other metals such as manganese, aluminum and zinc. Bronze is a common metal found in archeological sites.
Metal parts
Another part of metallurgy is making parts from metals. These parts must be made so they will not break when they are used. Metallurgists look to make metal that meets the needs of the process it will be used in. Sometimes the metal must be lightweight or low in density. Other times it must be tough (not easily broken). The metallurgist must follow directions when making the part to know what metal to use. the process of metal selection is known as the materials selection process. Metallurgists use mathematical equations to determine what are the most important physical features of the metal. Common desired characteristics include ductility, toughness, corrosion resistance, and strength. Different metals and their associated features are often graphed on Ashby plots.
A metal starts as a block, called an ingot. Metallurgists must know how to make a metal part from an ingot. Parts are made from ingots different ways. When a big hammer is used, it is called forging. To make thin metals, a metal is put between two rolls and moved, called rolling.
Making metal hot makes it easier to change the shape of a metal part. For this reason, most metal parts are made using hot metal. This is hot work.
Two metal parts can be put together with much heat. This is called welding. Iron is easy to weld.
Tools
Metallurgists use many tools to determine the characterizes of metal using a technique called metallography. One of the most useful tools is the Scanning Electron Microscope. To use an SEM a metal sample is polished and hit with electrons to produce a clear image of the metal. This permits for the metal microstructure to be seen. A microstructure is what the metal looks like when zoomed in very closely. There are many types of microstructure such as pearlite and ferrite.
Metals are sometimes pulled until they break using a tensiometer. This is the tension test. Information such as plastic and elastic deformation can be determined from these tests.
It is also common for metallurgists to use computer simulations to predict heat flow or the cost of making a particular product. Common software used in metallurgy include ABAQUS and ANSYS.
References
Metals
Materials science
Chemistry |
4700 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing%20aircraft | Fixed-wing aircraft | A fixed-wing aircraft is a kind of aircraft. An aircraft is a machine that can fly, but is heavier than air. Fixed-wing aircraft are sometimes called airplanes, aeroplanes or sometimes just "planes". All fixed-wing aircraft have wings that use forward airspeed to generate lift. Gliders are fixed-wing aircraft that do not have engines.
History
A steam-powered unmanned fixed-wing aircraft, that weighed , was built by John Stringfellow, in Chard, Somerset, England in 1848. It could fly by itself without needing to be dropped from high up. There were gliders before this, but they had to fly by being pushed off a building or hill.
The first man who flew (took off, steered, and landed) a motor-powered aircraft was Orville Wright in 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA.
Modern day
Today, fixed-wing aircraft fly between many cities all over the world, carrying people and cargo. Big cities usually have an international airport, where large fixed-wing aircraft can land and take off safely. Some large cities like New York City and London have more than one airport. Two major makers of fixed-wing aircraft are Airbus and Boeing.
Advances in technology have made fixed-wing aircraft more efficient. Things like winglets and more efficient turbofans have helped to do this.
Parts
Most fixed-wing aircraft have certain parts in common.
The wings are the most important part because they are what makes the plane fly. The wings create a force called lift that goes against gravity which makes the plane get off the ground. When air flows around the wing (which happens when the plane moves forward) the wing pushes air down, which in turn pushes the plane up. Lift can also be explained using Bernoulli's principle; since wings are designed so that air goes faster on the top of the wing than on the bottom, the higher pressure on the bottom will push the plane up. Some wings have panels on the back called flaps. Flaps can be extended to make the wing bigger. This makes the wing make more lift, but also more drag. This lets the plane fly slower without stalling, so flaps are often used during takeoff and landing.
The tail (also called the vertical stabilizer) is a large flat panel normally at the back of the plane. This helps the plane fly straight. Some planes have more than one tail, like the Antonov An-225. Some planes also have no tail, like the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit.
Engines push the plane forward. This makes air flow over the wings, which makes the plane fly. Some planes have propellers that the engine turns. Others have jet engines. Some fixed-wing aircraft, such as gliders, don't have engines. Instead they use gravity to give them forward speed.
The fuselage is the part of the plane that holds the people and cargo. It is normally shaped like a cylinder. The fuselage might have windows or doors.
The landing gear or undercarriage is what supports the plane on the ground. It can be wheels if the plane lands on the ground, or floats if the plane lands in the water. If the plane lands in snow, the landing gear usually has skis. Many planes can retract (bring inside the fuselage) their landing gear to make less drag.
Uses
Transportation
Fixed-wing aircraft have long been used as airliners for moving passengers from place to place. Cargo aircraft carry cargo across seas and long distances, and passenger aircraft also carry some cargo.
Uses in War
The first aircraft for war bombing was used in Libya in 1911 by Italy against the Ottoman Empire. Some fixed-wing aircraft are used by air forces to defend countries. These may be fighter aircraft, using guns or missiles for combat with other aircraft. They may be bombers, dropping bombs on ground targets.
Fixed-wing aircraft allow people to travel longer distances, and faster than ships or trains. Aircraft can fly from New York to London in about 7 hours. It would take one week or more on a ship. Militaries use airplanes to carry their soldiers quickly from place to place.
Airplanes are also used by the military to see many things on the ground easily. This is called surveillance or reconnaissance. Often, fixed-wing aircraft will take photographs as well, which can be used for military planning later.
Safety
Statistics show that riding in a plane is safer than driving in a car.
Image gallery
References
Aircraft
Aerospace engineering |
4701 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft | Aircraft | An aircraft is a flying machine.
The word aircraft originally meant airships and balloons. It comes from the words air and craft, a term from boating as were many early aviation words.
There are many different kinds of aircraft.
Some aircraft keep in the sky by moving air over their wings. Examples are aeroplanes, helicopters, and gliders. Some aircraft keep in the sky by floating. Examples are balloons and airships.
Most aircraft use engine power. Examples are aeroplanes, helicopter, and airships. Gliders and balloons use no power. A few aircraft use muscle power.
Big aeroplanes for transporting people are called airliners. Airliners are the quickest way to travel. Airliners can fly over mountains and bad weather. Airliners have complex technology to make them fly quickly, safely and for less money.
A few fighter aircraft can fly at 3,200Β km/h (2,000Β mph).
The person who drives an aircraft is called the pilot.
Scales, sizes and speeds
Sizes
Smallest
The smallest aircraft is a nano-aircraft.
Largest
These are the largest aircrafts. They are:
The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume is the British Airlander 10.
The largest aircraft by weight and largest regularly used fixed-wing aircraft is the Antonov An-225 Mriya.
The largest military aircraft and the second largest airplane is the Antonov An-124 Ruslan.
Related pages
Flight recorder
Aircraft videos
References
Aerospace engineering |
4702 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria%2C%20British%20Columbia | Victoria, British Columbia | Victoria is the capital city of the province of British Columbia, Canada. It is named after Queen Victoria. Over 350,000 people live in the Victoria area. Many people work for the government or in tourism. It is warmer than other Canadian cities in the winter, so many Canadians move there when they retire.
Victoria is on Vancouver Island. Most people travel there by boat (ferry) from Vancouver, or from Washington State. Victoria has three ferry docks and an airport, Victoria International Airport.
Victoria has one of the mildest climates in Canada, with gardens blooming year-round.
Some tourist attractions are the Butchart Gardens and the Royal British Columbia Museum. Some of the best-known buildings are the government buildings and the Empress Hotel, and both are by the Inner Harbour.
The first people to live in the area were the Coast Salish native people. People from England built Fort Victoria in 1843. Victoria became a city in 1862.
18,000 students study at the University of Victoria. Other people study at Camosun College, Royal Roads University, University Canada West, Victoria College of Art, and the Canadian College of Performing Arts. Students from all over the world study at Pearson College, near Victoria.
The Canadian navy has ships in a part of the city called Esquimalt.
Some of the parks include Beacon Hill Park, East Sooke Park, Mount Work Park, and Mount Douglas Park.
There are many flowers in Victoria; it is called the "city of gardens." It is a lot drier than places nearby, and has little snow.
Some well-known people from Victoria are:
Jamie Benn (hockey)
Emily Carr (art)
Steve Nash (basketball)
David Foster (music)
Nelly Furtado (singer)
Kyle Germaine Johnson (Pro Biker)
Regions of Victoria
The Victoria area is made up of 13 parts. Four of them make up Greater Victoria:
Victoria
Saanich
Esquimalt
Oak Bay
Three of them make up the Saanich Peninsula:
Sidney
Central Saanich
North Saanich
The others make up the Western Communities:
Colwood
Langford
View Royal
Metchosin
Sooke
Highlands |
4705 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez%20Canal | Suez Canal | The Suez Canal (Arabic: ΩΩΨ§Ψ© Ψ§ΩΨ³ΩΩΨ³, QanΔ al-Suways, French: Le Canal de Suez) is a canal in Egypt. It lies west of the Sinai Peninsula. The canal is 163 km long (101 miles) and, at its narrowest point, 200 m wide (656 ft). It runs between Port Said (BΕ«r Sa'Δ«d) on the Mediterranean Sea, and Suez (al-Suways) on the Red Sea. It was built by a French company. The canal was started in 1859 and finished in 1869.
The canal allows ships to travel between Europe and Asia without having to go the way around Africa. This saves time and fuel. It was built for Europeans to go to and from the Indian Ocean.
History
In 1859, the Suez Canal was built by Ferdinand de Lesseps of the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company, and took 10 years to build. The first ship passed through the canal 17 November, 1869; Giuseppe Verdi wrote the famous opera Aida for this ceremony .
The canal made it possible to easily transport goods across the world. The canal also allowed Europeans to travel to East Africa, and this area was soon controlled by European powers. The British tried to stop it, fearing that it would increase French power in the Indian Ocean. Later, they bought shares in the company.
The success of the Suez Canal encouraged the French to try to build the Panama Canal. But they did not finish it. The Panama Canal was finished later.
The canal was a central point during the Six Day War in 1967. A UN peacekeeping force has been stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1974, to avoid more wars. The canal reopened in 1975.
About 15,000 ships pass through the canal each year, which is about 14% of world shipping. Each ship takes up to 16 hours to cross the canal. In 2015 a central part of the canal was expanded so more ships can go through and go faster.
The canal was blocked for part of late March 2021 by the Ever Given, a container ship, which became stuck diagonally.
References
1869 establishments
19th-century establishments in Egypt
Canals
Buildings and structures in Egypt
Transport in Egypt |
4706 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal | Canal | A canal is a waterway made by humans. For many centuries, canals have been built as a way of transporting heavy goods in barges or boats. Canals usually connect lakes, rivers, or oceans. The Panama Canal is a famous canal that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. Many canals are reinforced with clay or concrete on the sides.
Other canals are used for irrigation or hydropower.
References |
4707 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars%20%28mythology%29 | Mars (mythology) | Mars is the god of war in Roman mythology. Mars is the son of Juno and Jupiter. Mars is the father of Romulus and Remus. The planet Mars and the month March are named after him. He was the god of war, murder, and bloodshed. His Greek name is Ares. He tried many times to start wars between the gods.
Related pages
Ares - Greek mythology version of Mars
Tyr - Norse mythology version of Mars
Roman gods and goddesses |
4708 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cessna | Cessna | Cessna is a company that makes airplanes. They are in Wichita, Kansas in the United States. They make small aircraft that can hold 2 to 4 people.
Cessna aircraft
Cessna 172
Cessna 152
Cessna 182
Other websites
Cessna website
Aircraft companies
Wichita, Kansas |
4710 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing | Clothing | Clothing is an item or fabric, usually sewn together to cover part of the human body. Humans are the only animals which wear clothing, and all people do wear suitable clothing.
The torso (body) can be covered by shirts, arms by sleeves, legs by pants or skirts, hands by gloves, feet by footwear, and head by headgear or masks. In cold climates, people also wear heavy, thick coats such as trenchcoats.
Clothing protects the human body from the hot sun and high temperatures in warm tropical countries. Clothing such as thick wool coats and boots keeps the human body warm in very cold temperatures (such as in the arctic). To some extent, clothing protects people from damage to their body.
Clothing is also worn for decoration, as a fashion (clothing). People from different cultures wear different clothing, and have different beliefs and customs about what type of clothing should be worn.
For many people, clothing is a status symbol. It helps people project an image. Often, clothing is a form of self-expression. Adults in different social or work situations present different views of themselves by the clothes they wear. Young people have an entirely different form of dress to express their personalities. Often people will simply follow popular fashion styles so that they will fit in. Clothing is far more than just a means to protect our bodies.
Origin of clothing
There is no easy way to be sure when clothing was first developed, because it was prehistoric and clothing is perishable. Some information comes from studying lice. The body louse lives in clothing, and diverged from head lice about 107,000 years ago. This suggests that clothing existed at that time. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42,000β72,000 BC.
A cloak made of the fur of squirrels, from a cave in Italy, has been dated to 23.000 years BP, and may be among the oldest items of clothing. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco, a country in the northwestern part of Africa.
Things that are not clothing
People often decorate their bodies with makeup or perfume, and they also cut or change the hair on their heads and faces. They might also go in for body modification: tattoos, scarifications, and body piercings. But makeup and tattoos are not kinds of clothing.
Things that are carried and not worn, like wallets, purses, canes, and umbrellas, are called accessories, but they are not kinds of clothing, either. Jewelry and eyeglasses are also accessories that are put on the body. Nail polish is also put on the fingertips and can be interpreted as makeup.
What clothing is made of
Clothing is often made of:
Cloth
Natural fibres, such as cotton, flax, wool, hemp, ramie, silk
Synthetic fabric, such as nylon, polyester, acrylic
Fur
Leather
Needed to make clothing
Cloth
Scissors or knives.
Needles and thread.
Sewing machine or weaving wheel
Related pages
Fashion
Fashion design
Human timeline
References |
4711 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoe | Shoe | A shoe is a type of footwear. It is an item of clothing. Shoes come in pairs, with one shoe for each foot.
There are many different types of shoes. Athletic shoes, for example, are lightweight to make running, walking or jogging easier. The sole of the shoe is also softer. Shoes for formal wear are made of leather. They are worn for business and ceremonial functions. They are also worn for fashion. Slippers are a kind of indoor shoe. They are often worn when it is cold. Shoes with a high heel are called high heels. Tall shoes are boots. Rubber boots are used in wet places.
People usually wear shoes in public. They are worn for hygiene, style, and comfort.
They are usually worn with socks
Other websites
Basic English 850 words
Footwear |
4712 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footwear | Footwear | Footwear is an item of clothing made by humans that covers and protects the foot, including the soles of the feet. Footwear allows people to walk on rough surfaces such as gravel roads without hurting their feet. Some types of footwear such as boots help to keep people's feet dry, or help to keep people's feet warm in cold weather.
Types of Footwear
Shoes are a type of footwear that protects the foot and the soles of the feet. Shoes are made of many different types of materials, such as leather, fabric, and plastic. There are several types of shoes:
Athletic shoes (also called "running shoes") are made of fabric, rubber, and plastic. They are made for people to wear while they are doing sports or recreational activities. Athletic shoes like spikes, give grip to sprinting on the athletic track.
Dress shoes are made for people to wear when they are wearing formal clothes such as a suit and tie or a tuxedo. Dress shoes are normally made from dark-colored leather that is shined using shoe polish. People working in professions such as business, law, and politics wear dress shoes. People working in restaurants or retail stores may also wear dress shoes.
Work shoes are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work shoes often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work shoes are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals.
Sandals are a type of footwear that consists of a covering for the sole of the feet and straps or ties which hold the sandal onto the foot. Sandals are worn in warm countries, such as the Philippines and Cuba. Sandals are also worn indoors in some places, such as in saunas.
Boots are a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well.
Rain boots (or rubber boots) are made from rubber or plastic. Rain boots protect a person's feet from water and rain. People who work on fishing boats and farmers wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in chemical factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals.
Winter boots are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as leather, fabric, or plastic. Winter boots are insulated with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry.
Work boots (or "construction boots") are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of steel in the sole to protect the foot from sharp nails. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site.
Socks are an article of clothing for the foot, ankle, and calf (the lower part of the leg, below the knee). Socks absorb perspiration (sweat) from the feet. Socks also protect the foot from chafing (rubbing) against the shoe or boot, which can cause blisters. Both men and women wear socks. Socks are usually made from cotton or synthetic fabrics. There are several types of socks:
Athletic socks are made of cotton or synthetic fabric. They are made for people to wear while they are doing sports or recreational activities.
Dress socks are made for people to wear when they are wearing dress shoes and formal clothes such as a suit and tie or a tuxedo. Dress socks are normally made from dark-colored fabric (often black or dark blue-colored). People working in professions such as business, law, and politics wear dress socks. People working in restaurants or retail stores may also wear dress socks.
Winter socks are designed to keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter socks during the cold season. Winter socks can be made from many different materials, but most winter socks are made with wool. Wool is a warm fabric which helps to insulate the feet and keep them warm.
There are also foot and leg coverings for women which are related to socks. These articles of clothing, which are made from polyester or other synthetic materials, are called pantyhose, nylons, or tights.
How footwear is made
By hand
People in many countries make their own footwear by hand, using simple tools. A simple pair of sandals can be made by hand cutting a foot-shaped sole out of a thick, flexible material such as rubber. Next, straps of fabric, rope or leather can be added with a needle and thread. A simple pair of boots can be made by hand by using animal hide with fur, and sewing it with strong thread.
In a factory
Many people wear footwear that is made in a factory. The machines in shoe factories and boot factories can make footwear much more quickly than people who are making footwear by hand with a needle and thread. |
4713 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caf%C3%A9 | CafΓ© | A cafΓ© is a type of restaurant which typically serves coffee and tea, in addition to light refreshments such as baked goods or snacks. The term "cafΓ©" comes from the French word meaning "coffee".
A cafΓ© setting is known as a casual social environment where you can find people reading newspapers and magazines, playing board games, studying or chatting with others about current events. It is also regarded as a place where information can be exchanged.
A café is sometimes called a coffeehouse or a coffee shop or tea shop in English, a café in French and a bar in Italian (cafe or café is the common spelling used in English, French, Spanish, Portuguese et al. however the word is spelled "caffè" in Italian). It shares some characteristics of a bar and some characteristics of a restaurant given its selection of foods and beverages served, but is distinct from a cafeteria which is a type of restaurant where customers can choose from many dishes displayed on a serving line. In some countries, cafés are designed to more closely resemble restaurants whereby offering a range of hot meals and possibly licensed to serve alcohol. Most British cafés however, do not sell alcohol likely due to the prominent pub culture.
CafΓ© Variations
In the Netherlands, cannabis-selling cafΓ©s face an uncertain future under a planned new law banning smoking in public places. The cafΓ©s, which attract millions of tourists each year, allow customers to buy marijuana over the counter and openly smoke it. The acronym CAFE, Cannabis and Fine Edibles is used in Canada to represent the largest retail chain in the Country, post-legalization.
A new type of cafΓ©, known as the Internet cafΓ©, was introduced in the 1990s and went hand in hand with the rising prevalence of computers in society. Computers and Internet access in a contemporary atmosphere created a youthful, modern public space compared to existing locales including traditional bars and old-fashioned diners. Nowadays, many cafΓ©s offer public wireless Internet or even have computers, telephones, and newspapers for customer use. Further integrating internet usage to the cafΓ© atmosphere, some stores like Starbucks allow you to order directly from your smartphone, tablet, or other devices through their free store app or websites online.
More recently alongside the growing popularity of geek and gaming culture, gaming cafΓ©s have also begun to open in cities worldwide. These cafΓ©s offer a library of board games and tabletop games, from childhood classics such as Monopoly to indie games, for customers to play at their leisure for a nominal fee.
Cafe is a place of Work and Food. You can get a combination of work place as well as hotel.
Food and drink
Restaurants |
4714 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz | Jazz | Jazz is a type of music which was invented in the United States. Jazz music combines African-American music with European music. Jazz first became popular in the 1910s. Some common jazz instruments include the saxophone, trumpet, guitar, piano, double bass, and drums.
What is jazz?
It is difficult to give an exact definition for "jazz". A singer Nina Simone said, "Jazz is not just music, it is a way of life, it is a way of being, a way of thinking". But when we talk about jazz as music, one important part of jazz is improvisation (improv), which means the person playing is making music up as they go along. If a jazz band is playing a song, the song may have several solos where one player will improvise while the rest of the band, except for the rhythm section (such as the piano, bass, or drums), does not play. Most jazz is very rhythmic, which is called "swing," and uses "blue" notes. Blue notes is referred as a musical term in blues.
History
Jazz began in the United States in the early 20th century. Jazz music was first based on the music of African slaves who were forced to work in the plantations of the southern United States. This included call and response songs, spirituals, chants and blue notes. These characteristics are what developed blues, a sad song that slaves sung during their labor. These influences were indirect, through earlier musical forms such as ragtime.
Jazz also has musical styles from European music, as well as the brass and stringed instruments and (sometimes) the use of musical notation.
There have been different types of jazz through time. New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s. Dixieland jazz was also popular. In the 1930s, there was swing jazz, which was also called big band jazz. In the 1940s, bebop became a major type of jazz, with fast songs and complex harmony.
Large jazz bands, which are called big bands, were also popular in the 1940s. Big bands usually have 5 saxophone players, 4 or 5 trumpet players, 4 trombone players, a piano player or guitar player, an acoustic bass player, a drummer, and sometimes a singer.
In the 1950s, there was hard bop jazz. In the 1960s, there was modern jazz and free jazz. In the 1970s, jazz fusion began to blend jazz music with rock music. Some jazz is still played with the same improv methods as it did at its beginning, except with modern electronic instruments.
International Jazz Day
April 30 is an "International Jazz Day". Each year jazz concerts and educational events take place around the world. This is the day to increase understanding to jazz. The United Nations Education and Science Organization (UNESCO) also take part in this event. People celebrate the day, because they believe the history of jazz has something to do with peace, freedom and equality.
References
Other websites
Jazz β A documentary movie by Ken Burns on PBS
Free 1920s Jazz Collection available for downloading at Archive.org
Jazz Foundation of America
Jazz at the Smithsonian Museum
Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website
Smithsonian Jazz Oral History Program | National Museum of American History
African-American history |
4715 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee | Coffee | Coffee is a plant (Coffea) and the name of the drink that is made from this plant. The coffee plant is a bush or tree that can grow up to ten meters (about 32 feet) high, but is usually cut shorter. Coffee plants originally grew in Africa, and now also grow in South America, Central America and Southeast Asia. They are an important crop for the economies of many countries.
The first branded coffee to be sold commercially to the public was NescafΓ© in 1879. The drink is made from the seeds of the coffee plant, called coffee beans. Coffee is usually served hot, and is a popular drink in many countries. Coffee contains a chemical called caffeine, a mild drug that keeps people awake.
To make a drink from coffee beans, the beans must first be specially prepared by drying the beans and then roasting. The beans are dried a short time after they are picked. This preserves them and makes them ready to be packed or roasted. Before the beans are made into a drink, they must be roasted or ground (crushed into tiny pieces in a coffee mill). When the ground coffee is placed into boiling water, the flavour and dark brown colour of the beans goes into the water. Making coffee is called brewing coffee. There are several different ways that coffee can be brewed.
Coffee contains a number of useful nutrients, including riboflavin, niacin, magnesium, potassium, and various phenolic compounds, or antioxidants.
Coffee types
There are two main types of coffee plants. The Coffea arabica, the most common. Most of the world's coffee is made from Arabica beans, and the Coffea robusta, which is easier to grow in places where Arabica will not grow.
Robusta is cheaper and has more caffeine than Arabica and it is used in many commercial coffee products. But Robusta tastes bitter and acidic, so people only drink it with other things. Better quality Robustas are in some espresso blends.
In the past, people gave names to new Arabica coffees from the port they came from. The two oldest Arabica coffees are "Mocha" and "Java". Today, names are more specific. They tell us the country, region, and sometimes even the property where they come from.
Preparing coffee
Aging
Some sorts of coffee taste better if the beans are "aged". This means that after they are picked, the beans are dried and then kept from three to eight years. This "aging" gives the coffee a less acidic taste. Coffee that has been aged is often mixed or "blended" with other coffee that is not aged.
Roasting
"Roasting" is one of the important stages in making coffee beans into coffee. When a coffee bean is roasted, it grows nearly two times bigger and changes from green to yellow to brown.
The length of time that the coffee beans are roasted makes the coffee taste different. Some types of coffee, such as Mocha and Java, are roasted for a short time. It is easy to tell from the flavour where the coffee is from. When coffee is roasted for a long time, it is harder to tell the different types apart. Green coffee beans can be bought and roasted at home in the oven.
Grinding
Before the coffee is made into a drink, it is "ground" in a small grinding machine called a "coffee mill". The coffee mill breaks the beans into very small pieces. Coffee is turned into a drink in several different ways. For some ways of making coffee, such as "espresso" it is best to have the coffee ground into fine powder but for other types of coffee-making, such as "filtered coffee", the coffee is in larger pieces to stop it going through the filter. Finely ground coffee makes a stronger taste.
Brewing
Coffee is made into a drink by putting the coffee into boiling water. This is called "brewing" coffee.
There are many ways to brew coffee. Four of the most popular are:
Boiling: The coffee and the water are put into a pot on top of the stove and boiled slowly together. This way of making coffee has been used for hundreds of years. It is the way that coffee is usually made in the Middle East, North Africa, Turkey and Greece.
Pressure: The boiling water is forced through the ground coffee by a machine. This type of coffee is called Espresso and the machine is called an "Espresso machine" or "Coffee system". Espresso machines are often found in cafes and restaurants. Espresso is a very strong coffee that can be used to make other coffee drinks.
Gravity: Filtered coffee is made by gravity because the boiling water falls from a machine onto the coffee. The coffee grounds are held in a paper or metal "filter" that the water can run through, but the little coffee pieces cannot. The water becomes coloured and flavoured as it runs through the coffee and into a coffee pot.
Steeping: Boiling water is poured onto the coffee and it is allowed to stand for a little while, until the water has taken the colour and flavour. This is often done in a cafetière, which is a tall glass or coffee pot which has a special filter inside that can be pushed down when the coffee is ready so that the person does not drink the coffee grounds. Another way of steeping coffee is to have coffee grounds in a small packet, the right size to make one cup of coffee. The packet is placed in the cup and water poured over it. Then the packet is removed.
How people drink their coffee
Black coffee is coffee with no milk in it.
White coffee is coffee with milk in it.
CafΓ© au lait is coffee made with a lot of hot milk. It is often sweet.
Espresso is very strong coffee. In Australia, it is often called a "short black".
Cappuccino is espresso with frothed milk (milk mixed with air). A well-made cappuccino should be made of strong coffee. When the frothy milk is poured gently into the coffee cup, it should be white on top and have a ring of darker coffee around the edge. Cappuccino coffee sometimes has cocoa sprinkled on top.
Latte is made like a cappuccino but with added milk and a very thin layer of foam.
"Flat white" is a double espresso where milk micro foam is added to the crema (an emulsion of the oils in the coffee beans when combined with hot water that floats) on the double espresso.
Americano is espresso with a lot of hot water.
Irish coffee is coffee with whiskey and with cream on the top.
Iced coffee is espresso in a tall glass with crushed ice, cold milk and ice cream.
Vietnamese style coffee (Cafe Sua Da) is filtered coffee poured over ice into a glass with sweet condensed milk (thick milk which has had the water removed).
FrappΓ© has several meanings. It is a mix of instant coffee, milk, sugar, and foam. Another form of the drink is blended frozen coffee. And the last is a milkshake, a thick milkshake.
Instant coffee
"Instant coffee" is a very quick way to make a cup of coffee to drink. It is made in a factory and sold in jars or packets. First, strong coffee is made using ground coffee and boiling water. Then, the coffee grounds are filtered out. The coffee liquid is dried out until nothing is left except granules (little crunchy pieces), or fine powder. This is then put into jars or packets. As soon as a spoonful of "instant coffee" is added to boiling water, it dissolves in the water to make coffee to drink. The taste can be very different from fresh coffee. Part of the reason for the different taste is that Robusta coffee beans are usually used for making instant coffee. Robusta coffee beans do not cost as much as Arabica.
When people drink coffee
The United States buys the most coffee; Germany is next. People in Finland drink the most coffee for each person. In Canada, the United States and Europe, some restaurants sell mainly coffee; they are referred to as "cafΓ©s" or "coffeehouses". CafΓ©s often sell food, but the type of food is different from one country to another.
In some countries, for example, those in northern Europe, people like having coffee parties. At these parties, people have coffee and cake.
In many countries, people drink coffee at work; in the United States and England, for example, people drink it in the morning. In other countries, such as Mexico, people drink it in the evening to help them stay awake.
Health problems
Coffee contains the drug caffeine. Caffeine is a mild stimulant which helps to keep people awake. Caffeine, like many drugs, can be addictive and can cause health problems.
Consuming high amounts of caffeine may increase the risk of anxiety, especially among people with panic disorder or social anxiety disorder. Less commonly, it may trigger mania and psychosis in those who are susceptible.
Some studies have looked at the health risks of coffee. In February 2003, there was a study in Denmark of 18,478 women to find out if coffee had an effect on pregnancy and birth. It was found that if a woman drank between four and seven cups of coffee a day, it did not seem to make a big change to the number of babies that were born dead, (stillborn). But the women in the study who drank eight or more cups of coffee a day had three times as much chance of having a stillborn baby.
For this, and other reasons, some people drink coffee substitutes or decaffeinated coffee instead.
The BMJ quotes a study that concluded that there are health benefits for drinking up to four coffee cups per day. However, drinking coffee is not recommended for pregnant women and for women who are in danger of fractured bones. According to the BMJ not everyone agrees with these findings
Related pages
Infusion
Tea
Mate (drink)
References
Other websites
How to grow coffee plant? and Caffeine Content Chart - Help with caffeine addiction
Coffee & Conservation and Gourmet Coffee Facts - Resources on organic coffee
What is the strongest coffee?
How to make a latte at home?
KΓ‘vΓ©ra Fel!
Keurig Coffee - Facts & Statistics of Keurig Coffee [Infographic] |
4716 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beef | Beef | Beef is a type of meat that comes from cattle. Beef could also include meats from other bovines. There are different types of beef. Beef is popular in the United States.
Types of beef
Ground beef
Steak
Corned beef
Steak rump
Beef can also be in different types of grading such as:
Prime
Choice
Select
Beef Companies
Yoshinoya |
4717 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyaena | Hyaena | Hyaenas (sometimes Hyenas) are mammals. They are the family Hyaenidae, in the order Carnivora. They live in Africa, and in west and south Asia. In the past they had a much wider distribution. Now there are two subfamilies with four species.
With only four species, it is the fourth-smallest family in the Carnivora, and one of the smallest in the class Mammalia. Despite their low diversity, hyenas are unique and vital components to most African and some Asian ecosystems.
Hyaena walk much like bears because their front legs are longer than their back. Hyaenas are known to have one of the world's strongest bites. Its function is to crush bone.
Relationships
Hyaenas look much like canids, but they are actually in the Feliformia, with cats and mongooses. Although related to felines and viverrids, their life style is similar to canids.
Convergent evolution has taken place. Both hyaenas and canids are non-climbing, running hunters which catch prey with their teeth rather than claws. Both eat food quickly and may store it. Their calloused feet have large, blunt, nonretractable nails, good for running and making sharp turns. However, the hyaenas' grooming, scent marking, defecating habits, mating, and parental behaviour are similar to the behaviour of other feliforms. Hyenas are matriarchal. This means that females dominate and males are inferior.
Hunting
Hyaenas were long said to be cowardly scavengers, but they kill as much as 95% of the food they eat (especially spotted hyaenas). They can drive off leopards or lionesses from their kills. Hyenas are mostly nocturnal animals, but may leave their lairs in the early morning. Except for the very social spotted hyaena, hyenas are generally not gregarious animals, though they may live in family groups and come together at kills.
Hyaenas are intelligent creatures. They work together well and are cooperative. They have strategic hunting methods and work to steal and protect food it from other predators. Hyaenas' main targets are zebra and wildebeest. Their main rival is the lion. Whether hyaenas do or do not chase lions off their kills is mostly a matter of numbers.
Taxonomy
Family Hyaenidae
Subfamily Hyaeninae
Spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta)
Striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena)
Brown hyaena, (Hyaena brunnea, formerly Parahyaena brunnea)
Subfamily Protelinae
Aardwolf (Proteles cristatus)
References |
4718 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table%20salt | Table salt | Table salt is a mineral composed mainly of sodium chloride (NaCl). This is a chemical compound, one of many salts. Salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite.
When salt (sodium chloride) is mixed with water, the salt dissolves into the water, creating a saline solution. Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about of solids per litre, a salinity of 3.5%.
Salt can be made by either evaporation or can be mined. To get sea salt, man-made holes are built then filled with sea water. The water evaporates and leaves salt behind.
Salt
Sodium compounds
Chlorine compounds |
4719 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk | Silk | Silk is a natural fibre made by the silk worm cocoon. Silk fibres are very strong and are often used to make cloth.
The cloth from silk can be made into rugs, bedding, or can be used to write or paint on. In the past, silk was used to make parachutes. The practice of growing silkworms for silk production is called sericulture.
Most spiders make a natural fibre of their own that is also called silk.
History
The Chinese invented silk cloth in 3000 B.C. and traded it across the world through the Silk Road because it was very valuable and costly. They were the only ones producing it and selling it to the world until 522 CE.
Chemical properties
Silk that is made by the silk worm is made up of two main proteins, sericin and fibroin.
Fibroin is the structural center of the silk and gives it its strength. It is made up of amino acids, which make the fibers strong and hard to break. The tensile strength is there because of hydrogen bonds. When silk is stretched, there is a strong force on these many bonds, so they do not break.
Serecin is the sticky material which surrounds the fibroin and gives it protection from the outside. Silk is resistant to most mineral acids, except for sulfuric acid, which dissolves it. Perspiration gives the silk a yellowish colour.
Related pages
Silk Road
Basic English 850 words
Fibers
Cloth |
4726 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Beatles | The Beatles | The Beatles were an English rock-pop band, started in Liverpool, England in 1960. The members were John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr. Most people say they are the most successful and influential band in the history of popular music. The group were a main part of the creation of 1960s counterculture. They began as a skiffle and beat band and were influenced by 1950s American rock and roll. The later years of the band up to 1970, the band became experimental with genres such as different types of rock, ballads and even the theory of Helter Skelter and I Want You (Sheβs So Heavy) being the origins of metal/punk. Many bands look at the Beatles as influential with their music throughout their 10 years.
Their main songwriters were Lennon and McCartney. Before The Beatles became popular, they played in clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over three years between 1960 and 1963, with Stuart Sutcliffe playing bass. They went through many drummers, including Pete Best, before finally asking Ringo Starr to join in 1962. Sutcliffe also quit, meaning Paul McCartney started playing the bass instead. Brian Epstein was their manager and George Martin produced most of their music. Their first single was "Love Me Do", in late 1962. It was a hit and they became popular in the United Kingdom. As they became more popular, the press called the popularity "Beatlemania".
By 1964, the Beatles were worldwide stars and led the "British Invasion" of the United States. They brought out some of the best-selling albums of the 1960s, with twelve studio albums. They broke-up in 1970. John Lennon was later murdered in New York City in 1980 and George Harrison died of lung cancer in 2001. McCartney and Starr still make music.
History of the Beatles
Starting in 1956, John Lennon and several of his friends played in a British band called the Quarrymen. Over the next few years, the members of the band changed, and by 1960, the band was called the Beatles. They did not have their first hit until 1962. In February 1963 their song, "Please Please Me", reached the number 1 position on the British charts. This was the first of a record 15 British number 1 singles. They first came to the United States in 1964. They were met at the John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City by thousands of screaming American teenagers. The Beatles were so popular that they were attacked by screaming fans everywhere they went around the world. The effect they had on their fans was known as 'Beatlemania'. The Beatles made their first live American television appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show on 9 February 1964. About 74 million viewers β about half of the American population β watched the group perform on the show. Beatles songs soon filled the top 5 places on the American top 40 chart - a record that has never been matched.
After the Beatles became so popular in the United States, other British bands, such as The Rolling Stones, The Animals, The Kinks and Gerry and the Pacemakers had songs become hits there as well. So many British bands became popular after the Beatles' success that this time became known in America as the "British Invasion".
Towards the mid 1960s, The Beatles became bolder with their style of music. This largely started in 1965, with the release of the album "Rubber Soul", and hit a peak in 1967 with the release of "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", which was named as the greatest album of all time by Rolling Stone Magazine. They were also named the most influential artists of all time by Rolling Stone magazine, because their music, clothing style, and attitudes shaped much of what was popular among young people in the 1960s.
The Beatles became so popular that no regular concert venue was big enough for their concerts. This led to them playing the first ever stadium rock concert at Shea Stadium in America, to around 50,000 people. The Beatles stopped touring and playing live music in 1966 because they were sick of audiences screaming so loudly that their music could not be heard. They were also tired of the pressures of touring. Among other things, they were so popular that thousands of people would gather outside the hotels they stayed in day and night meaning that they could never leave their rooms unless they were playing a concert.
The Beatles broke up in 1970 because of the pressures of fame and each member becoming more independent both in their personal lives and musically. In 1973 the two-disc sets "1962-1966" (the "Red Album") and "1967-1970" "(the "Blue Album") were released. These were both re-released on CD in 1993.
After breaking up
The band was still very popular all over the world after they broke up. They are the best-selling music acts of all time, with sales between 600 million to 1 billion records. Their music is still important and still influences many musicians. Musicians today perform cover versions of Beatles songs, and people everywhere still listen to their music. Their song 'Yesterday' has been recorded by more artists than any other song. It is also the song that has been played the most on radio ever.
The Beatles made thirteen albums and twenty-six singles together. They also started their own record label, Apple Records. They made two movies, A Hard Day's Night and Help!, where they appeared as actors. Later they made Magical Mystery Tour, a television special. Yellow Submarine was a cartoon movie based on their music. Let It Be showed them working on a new album.
After the Beatles broke up in 1969, all four members started their own solo careers.
John Lennon became a famous peace activist in the late 1960s and early 1970s. He wrote successful songs including "Give Peace a Chance", "Imagine", and "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)". John Lennon was murdered on December 8, 1980 outside his home in New York. Part of Central Park in New York and an airport in Liverpool are named in his honor.
The other three Beatles got together in the 1990s to make two new records. They used demo recordings of two John Lennon songs and added their own new parts. Producer Jeff Lynne helped them so all four members could appear on the songs. The songs were "Free as a Bird" and "Real Love". Both were top 5 hits in the UK in 1995 and 1996.
Paul McCartney started the band "Wings" with his wife Linda. In 1977 his song, "Mull of Kintyre", became the biggest selling single in British history. It sold even more copies than the Beatles' singles. Paul McCartney was knighted in 1997.
George Harrison and Ringo Starr had early success as solo artists but were less successful later on. Harrison formed the group the Traveling Wilburys in the 80s with other rock legends Bob Dylan, Roy Orbison, Tom Petty, and Jeff Lynne. Harrison died of lung cancer on November 29, 2001. Starr still tours the world with his "All Starr Band" and was knighted in 2018.
Albums
The Beatles made 13 very successful albums during their active years from 1960-1970. Listed below are the albums made during their career.
Please Please Me (1963)
With the Beatles (1963)
A Hard Day's Night (1964)
Beatles for Sale (1964)
Help! (1965)
Rubber Soul (1965)
Revolver (1966)
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967)
Magical Mystery Tour (1967) (Double EP)
Yellow Submarine (1968)
The Beatles (better known as the "White Album") (1968)
Let It Be (1969)
Abbey Road (1969)
Compilations
The Beatles 1962-1966 and The Beatles 1967-1970 (1973)
Rock and Roll Music (1976)
Love Songs (1978)
Rarities (1980)
Reel Music (1982)
20 Greatest Hits (1983)
Past Masters (1987, two volumes)
The Beatles Anthology (1995, three volumes)
The Beatles: 1 (2000)
Love (2006)
Movies
A Hard Day's Night (1964), directed by Richard Lester, co-starred Wilfrid Brambell, Norman Rossington, John Junkin, Lionel Blair, Victor Spinetti, and Derek Nimmo
Help! (1965), directed by Lester, co-starred Leo McKern, Eleanor Bron, Victor Spinetti and Roy Kinnear
Magical Mystery Tour (1967), hour-long TV special, with Ivor Cutler and Jessie Robins
Yellow Submarine, (1968) cartoon
Let It Be (1969), documentary film about the making of the album with the same name; producer George Martin and road manager Mal Evans appear briefly on camera, as do Yoko Ono/his uncle Nizaemon Kataoka (13th)admired performance of Kouichirou OHI/Tazou Sumita; his grandson (TOM)TAKASHI OHI/倧δΊε also a worldly respectable follow,; and Heather McCartney
Children of the Beatles
Paul McCartney's daughter Stella McCartney has had a successful career as a clothing designer.
John Lennon's sons Sean Lennon and Julian Lennon have had successful musical careers. Sean has been involved in a number of bands: Cibo Matto, and Dopo Yume.
References
Other websites
The Beatles homepage
Beatles Website
Beatles
Musical groups disestablished in 1970
1960s British music groups
1970s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1960s establishments in England
1970s British music groups
British pop rock bands
English pop music groups
English rock bands
Musical groups established in 1960
Musical groups from Liverpool
Musical quartets
1960 in the United Kingdom |
4733 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation | Reincarnation | Reincarnation is the name of the idea that people are born again in another body after they die and this cycle continues over many lifetimes. Rebirth or "transmigration" is the preferred term for those believers who do not believe in eternal souls. Many Hindus, Jainists, Celtic pagans, Buddhists, and people who follow some African religions believe in reincarnation or rebirth/ transmigration. Carnate means βof fleshβ, and reincarnate means to βreenter the flesh".
Belief in reincarnation or rebirth/transmigration
The belief is held in many religions except Islam and Christianity, although 20 to 30 percent of Christians in western countries also believe in reincarnation.
Ethnologists have documented the belief among nearly all the traditional religions of ethnic groups in Africa, North and South America, and Australia/Oceania. The tribes of north-west North America continue to believe in reincarnation despite negative attitudes towards it on the part of Christian missionaries and churches.
Reincarnation in Hinduism
Hindus believe in reincarnation, the process where the soul repeatedly takes on a physical body through being born on Earth. Ancient scriptures of Hinduism starting around 700Β BC teach that the soul, or immortal βselfβ, takes birth time and time again. The soul survives and continues its long journey until it is one with God. Hindus believe that the soul never dies, but inhabits one body after another during its evolutionary journey guided by karma. Karma (literally: action) is the sum of one's actions, and the force that determines one's next reincarnation.
The soul evolves from immaturity to spiritual illumination. Therefore, each reincarnating soul chooses a home and a family which can best fulfill its next step of learning and maturation. Each life on Earth is similar to a class in school. Maturation of the soul on Earth means fulfilling its worldly desires, which can only be experienced through a body.
At death the soul leaves the physical body. But the soul does not die. It lives on in a subtle body called the astral body. The astral body exists in a nonphysical dimension called the astral plane. Here the soul continues to have experiences until it is born again in another physical body as a baby.
After many lifetimes of following dharma (right way of living), the soul is fully matured in love, wisdom and knowledge of God. There is no longer a need for physical birth, for all lessons have been learned, all karmas fulfilled. When all desire has vanished, the person will not be born again anymore.
Reincarnation research
Ian Stevenson found that the best research evidence supporting the belief in reincarnation comes from the cases of young children who, typically between the ages of 2 and 5, make statements about a previous life they claim to have had before being born. Some 35 per cent of the children also have birthmarks or birth defects which often correspond to injuries or illness experienced by the deceased person who the subject remembers. Medical documents have confirmed this correspondence in more than forty cases.
Related pages
Resurrection
Life Before Life
Ian Stevenson
References
Theology
Cultural studies
Afterlife |
4738 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBay | EBay | eBay is a website. It is a place for online auctions. Anybody can sell almost anything they want there. People can buy many things there as well.
People have to send what they sell themselves, usually using mail. Some items may be collected by the buyer such as items to large or heavy to post. Buyers can transfer the money in any way they want as long as the sellers accept payments made that way. A lot of people use PayPal to transfer the money. PayPal was owned by the same people as eBay until 2015. Margaret Whitman was the CEO of eBay from 1998 to 2008.
History
eBay was started in 1995 by Pierre Omidyar. It was first called Auctionweb. The name 'eBay' came later when he tried to register a domain name for his planned name EchoBay. It was already taken so he shortened the name to 'eBay'.
Statistics
Millions of items are bought on eBay every day. It is often very cheap to list an item on eBay. Total costs are usually below ordinary auction house costs. Many people look at others' items because they are interested in them.
Other websites
eBay site
eBay Resource Guide
Most watched items on eBay
Websites |
4739 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard%20Schr%C3%B6der | Gerhard SchrΓΆder | Gerhard SchrΓΆder was Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005.
He was born on 7 April 1944 in Mossenberg, North Rhine-Westphalia.
After school he learned retail sales in a Lemgo from 1958 to 1961.
After that he made his abitur (highest school exam in Germany) in Bielefeld. Then he studied law in GΓΆttingen. After that he worked as a lawyer.
He joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1963 and became chairman of its youth organisation in 1978.
In 1986 he became a member of the State Parliament of Lower Saxony.
In 1990 he was elected as Prime-Minister of Lower Saxony.
He became the chancellor of Germany in 1998. After elections in 2005, he was replaced by Angela Merkel. He is a member of the SPD (Social Democratic Party of Germany).
Other websites
1944 births
Living people
Chancellors of Germany
Former members of the German Bundestag
German lawyers
Ministers-President of Lower Saxony
Politicians from North Rhine-Westphalia |
4740 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne | Melbourne | Melbourne is the second largest city in Australia. It is the capital of Victoria, which is a state in the south-east of Australia. The population of Melbourne is 3.7 million, second only to Sydney.
Melbourne is a multicultural city (it welcomes people and cultures from all over the world). It is famous for its trams (small short trains). The centre of Melbourne is around a river called the Yarra River. Melbourne also has many big parks and gardens and some beaches.
There are many things to do in Melbourne. Visitors in Melbourne can go to museums, look at art, eat food at restaurants, go to shops and visitors can enjoy of international events like Australian Open and Formula One both in the early year.
Melbourne has been the winner of the Economist's 'World's most liveable city' award for the 7th time in a row (Winner from 2010 - 2017).
There is a lot of industry (factories) and commerce (buying and selling) in Melbourne. Many of Australia's largest companies and many large companies from other countries work there. It is home to Australia's largest seaport. There are a number of universities (the University of Melbourne, Monash University, Deakin University, Victoria University, La Trobe University, RMIT University, Swinburne University and the Australian Catholic University). Much of A ustralia's automotive (car) industry is there, for example the engine maker "Holden", and "Ford" and "Toyota" car builders, Although all three of these companies have announced plans to move their manufacturing plants overseas with Ford already shutting down its manufacturing plant in Broadmeadows.
History
Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. In 1851, some people found gold near Melbourne. Melbourne grew very quickly because people came from all over the world to look for gold. At the end of the 19th century, Melbourne was called "Marvellous Melbourne" ("marvellous" means "wonderful"). Melbourne was the biggest and most important city in Australia for many years, but now Sydney is bigger (but not more important). The first Australian government was in Melbourne from 1901 until 1927 when it moved to Canberra.
Population
Many people from different countries live in Melbourne. In fact 43% of the people living in Melbourne were born outside Australia or have parents from another country. All together people from 233 countries live in Melbourne and people with 116 different religions. The population (1991) is 3,156,700, and has grown in 2006 to 3,720,300.
Events
1901 - Opening of the first Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia
1956 - The Olympic Games were in Melbourne.
2006 - The Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games
time zone
Australia uses three main different time zone.
Sister cities
Melbourne has six sister cities. They are:
Osaka, Japan (1978)
Tianjin, China (PRC) (1980)
Thessaloniki, Greece (1984)
Boston, United States (1985)
Saint Petersburg, Russia (1989)
Milan, Italy (2004)
Climate
Places to visit
Federation Square
Queen Victoria Market
National Gallery of Melbourne
Melbourne Zoo
Flinder Street Station
Luna Park
Melbourne Museum
Eureka Tower
Crown Casino
St Kilda Beach, Victoria
MCG (Melbourne Cricket Ground)
Related pages
List of tallest buildings in Melbourne
https://travellingexpo.com/2019/03/16/melbourne-%f0%9f%87%a6%f0%9f%87%ba/
References
Former national capitals
Olympic cities |
4741 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria | Victoria | Victoria might mean:
Victoria (name), a female name
Victoria (Australian state), a state in Australia
Victoria, British Columbia, capital city of British Columbia, Canada
Victoria, Seychelles, capital of Seychelles
Queen Victoria, a former Queen of the United Kingdom.
Roman version of the Greek goddess Nike (mythology) |
4742 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra | Canberra | Canberra is the capital city of Australia. There are 403,468 people who live there. It doesnβt belong to a state but it is in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT).
Canberra was started in 1913 and in the middle of the city is Lake Burley-Griffin . This lake was created especially for the city. There was a competition to design the new capital city of Australia. The competition was won by an architect from Chicago in the United States of America. His name was Walter Burley Griffin. Griffin designed his triangular town as a garden town, so its size expanded over a big area. But as Canberra grew larger and larger, the lake was no longer in the middle of the town, but the people who are in charge of planning the city make sure Canberra is as close to Griffin's original plan as possible. Canberra has a size in area nearly as big as Berlin, but the number of people who live there is much smaller.
Before Canberra was founded, Australiaβs two most important cities, Sydney and Melbourne, were arguing which city should be the capital of the continent. First Melbourne was elected the capital, but in 1908 there was a vote. The result: an area of 2400 square kilometers was given to the country by New South Wales to build Canberra in. This was the place, 300 kilometers away from Sydney and with a distance of 650 kilometers to Melbourne, where a few years later Canberra was built.
The name Canberra is pronounced in various ways and most commonly now as "CAN-brugh" making it sound almost an English name - Canborough ! Some say "CAN-buh-ruh" ; a small number of people may pronounce it "can-BEAR-ruh" ; at an earlier time "can-BERR-a" was very common and that form is still heard although often looked down upon as ignorant and incorrect. But while now an uncommon pronunciation it may be closest to the original name and pronunciation. In the 19th century a farming property on the Limestone Plains was named "Canberry" (or "Camberry") and some think this name is derived in turn from the name of the local tribe - the Ngambri or Kamberra or Camberri people. (Others have suggested the name is derived from an Aboriginal word meaning "meeting place").
Canberra has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the KΓΆppen climate classification). Due to Canberra's inland location and fairly high altitude, summers are warm to hot with frequent heat waves and droughts and winters are fairly cold with frequent frosts during the nights. Snow is only common on the mountains.
Tourists who visit Canberra come to see the many national monuments and other famous sights. Some places to visit are the Government House, Parliament House, the High Court of Australia, the Australian War Memorial, the National Gallery of Australia, the Royal Australian Mint, Telstra Tower, the National Library of Australia, and the National Museum of Australia.
References
1913 establishments
1910s establishments in Australia |
4743 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney | Sydney | Sydney is a city on the east coast of Australia which is the capital city of New South Wales. About five million people live in Sydney which makes it the biggest city in Oceania. Sydney started in 1788, when the Captain Arthur Phillip brought the First Fleet to settle in Australia. The settlers were mostly convicts from crowded prisons in England and Ireland, with a group of soldiers to guard them. The country is home to more than 200 spoken languages with a large population of overseas-born residents.
In Sydney, there are many famous buildings: the Sydney Opera House, the Queen Victoria Building and the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Sydney has a large harbour and many beaches. The most famous beach is Bondi Beach, some other famous beaches are Coogee Beach and Manly Beach. A popular coastal walk to do is the Bondi to Coogee Coastal Walk. Famous parts of the harbour are Darling Harbour and Circular Quay.
The most famous sports ground in Sydney is ANZ Stadium (which used to be called "Stadium Australia") because it was built for the 2000 Summer Olympics. Another stadium in Sydney is the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG). Other high-profile global events held in Sydney were: 2007 APEC Leaders Conference, 2008 World Youth Day and the 2014 G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors meeting.
Sydney has many things to see and do. These include visiting Taronga Zoo (a park for animals) on the northern side of the harbour, eating food, looking at art or watching sports (like cricket or rugby) or walking down George Street which has many nice shops. Sydney has some of Australia's best shopping, and the Blue Mountains are about two hours' drive away to the west. Many people go to Sydney City to watch the great fireworks display over the harbour on New Year's Eve. Sydney holds events throughout the year that attract tourists from around the world, some namely events are Vivid Sydney, Royal Easter Show, and more. The first people to occupy the area were Australian Aboriginals.
Geography
Sydney is a city located on the West Coast of Australia. It is currently the largest city in Australia, and the continent of Oceania. Sydney is known for having been the original landing spot for the British. It is situated next to the Blue Mountains.
Events
Sydney is home to a range of events that happen throughout the year, drawing many tourists and visitors to the city. One of Sydney's biggest event holding convention centre is the newly rebuilt International Convention Centre located by Darling Harbour, Sydney.
Vivid Sydney
Vivid Sydney is held every year in June in the winter and is a display of light shows, art installations and music from local and international artists. In 2016, Vivid Sydney will run for 23 spectacular nights from May 27 to June 18.
Royal Easter Show
The Royal Easter Show is held in Sydney Olympic Park throughout the Easter public holiday period in April. It is a family attraction with rides, carnival games, showbags and food tents. There are also agriculture shows where children can learn more about farm animals as well as animal feeding areas. Shows such as woodcutting and animal competitions are popular every year.
Mercedes Benz Fashion Weekend
Mercedes Benz Fashion weekend runs for two days every year and features runway shows by leading Australian designers. The event is attended by fashion journalists, magazine editors, bloggers and fashion buyers. There are also Styling Sessions and VIP parties at the home of fashion week in Carriageworks in the inner city suburb of Redfern.
Related pages
First Fleet
Australia
Koala
References
Olympic cities
1788 establishments in Australia |
4746 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse%20effect | Greenhouse effect | The greenhouse effect occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere (the air around the Earth) trap infrared radiation. This makes the planet become warmer, similar to the way it makes a greenhouse become warmer.
The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases; the most important greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are: water vapor, carbon dioxide(CO2), and methane. When there is more greenhouse gas in the air, the air holds more heat. This is why more greenhouse gases cause climate change and global warming.
The greenhouse effect is natural. It is important for life on Earth. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average temperature would be around -18 or -19 degrees Celsius (0 or 1 degree Fahrenheit). Earth would be locked in an ice age. Because of the greenhouse effect, the Earth's actual average temperature is 14 degrees Celsius (57 degrees Fahrenheit).
The problem is that recently, the greenhouse effect has become stronger. This is because humans have been using large amounts of fossil fuels, which release carbon dioxide when they are burned. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, it has caused the planet to warm over the past 150 years.
About 10,000 years ago, before people started burning large amounts of fossil fuels, there were 260 to 280 parts per million (ppm) of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, but now there is over 400Β ppm. Most scientists say that having 350Β ppm or less is safe for the environment and that species on the planet can adapt to this level. Higher levels can make severe problems for animal and marine life that are already being seen today, such as ocean acidification.
The greenhouse effect was first proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824. Mars, Venus and other planets with atmospheres also have greenhouse effects. The effect on Venus is especially strong because Venus has so much CO2. This is why Venus is hotter than Mercury, even though Mercury is closer to the sun. The first person to predict that carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels (and other combustion processes) could cause global warming was Svante Arrhenius.
Related pages
Greenhouse gas
Global warming
References
Other websites
The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on the greenhouse effect
Study of Ice Age bolsters carbon and warming link February 28, 2013 The New York Times
Rutgers University: Earth Radiation Budget
Greenhouse effect -Citizendium
Weather
Climate change
Greenhouse gases
Ecology |
4749 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20War | World War | A World War is a war in which most of the countries in the world fight or help.
There have been two World Wars so far, World War I and World War II. Several wars such as the Seven Years' War were fought in many places around the world, but they were wars among European countries.
After World War II, many people were scared that a World War III might start, probably between the United States and Western Europe on one side and the Soviet Union and maybe China on the other. After World War II, countries had many powerful weapons, including jet bomber airplanes, which could carry many powerful bombs fast and far; nuclear weapons which could destroy many buildings and kill many people instantly; and missiles which could carry nuclear weapons to other countries very fast.
Many people were afraid that World War III might start during the Cold War. After the end of the Soviet Union, people were less afraid that World War III would begin. However, many countries still have powerful weapons and can still use them.
Albert Einstein is supposed to have said, "I don't know what weapons countries might use to fight World War III, but wars after that will be fought with sticks and stones". That is because World War III would probably be so large that it would destroy civilization.
War |
4751 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/European | European | European may mean:
A person or attribute of the continent of Europe
A person or attribute of the European Union
A person descended from a European ethnic group
A Citizen of the European Union
European windstorm, an extratropical cyclone that affects Europe
Biology
European ash, a tree. It is a kind of ash. It can be found throughout Europe. It is a deciduous tree that grows to a height of 20β35 metres
European magpie, a bird that lives in Europe, much of Asia, and Northwest Africa. It is one of several birds in the crow family named as magpies
European robin, a small bird that is found in many parts of Europe
European badger, a species of badger. Its genus is Meles. It is native to almost all of Europe.
European honey bee, a species of bee
European sprat, a kind of fish |
4753 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing%20radiation | Ionizing radiation | Ionizing radiation is a process in physics where something sends out particles or waves that can ionize an atom or molecule through atomic interactions.
The strength of ionizing radiation depends on the energy of the individual particles or waves, and not a function of the number of particles or waves present. The material that the radiation can ionize depends on the ionization energy of the material.
Ionizing radiation can be electromagnetic radiation or subatomic particles.
Electromagnetic:
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves of highest energy.
X-rays are less energetic.
Ultraviolet radiation only ionizes some materials.
Subatomic particle radiation includes:
Alpha particle radiation, made of helium nuclei
Beta particle radiation, made of energetic electrons or positrons
Neutron radiation, made of neutrons
Some radiation can go through the human body and other objects. Usually when people use the term radiation, they are talking specifically about potentially harmful types of ionizing radiation. If something produces this sort of radiation, we can say it is radioactive.
There is a little radiation all around us all the time, which people's bodies are used to, but larger amounts of radiation can make people sick or kill them. Natural ionizing radiation is produced by radioactive decay of some chemical elements, such as uranium. Stars and other things in outer space also make radiation. See cosmic ray. Some isotopes that are radioactive only stay radioactive for much less than a second. Other things can stay radioactive for thousands of years.
People and anything that lives gives off radiation naturally, because of the potassium and Carbon-14 inside.
Some of the machines that make radiation are called particle accelerators. Scientists use these machines to make radiation so they can study it.
X-ray machines also make radiation, so doctors can see the inside of the human body and help people. Nuclear weapons (atomic weapons) use a nuclear reaction to produce massive amounts of energy, in the form of heat, light, and radiation. This radiation is spread by the dust, ash, and smoke produced by the blast.
Nuclear reactors are used to make electricity. They make a lot of radiation, but the reactors are built carefully to keep the radiation inside the reactor. But many people are afraid that if there were a problem with the reactor, radioactive material could escape into the environment, harming or killing many animals and people. Also, the parts of the reactor stay radioactive, and can kill people, for hundreds or thousands of years, so people are not sure where they can keep parts of old reactors safely away from people.
Uses
X-ray machines also make radiation, so doctors can see the inside of the human body and help people. Nuclear weapons (atomic weapons) use a nuclear reaction to produce massive amounts of energy, in the form of heat, light, and radiation.
Nuclear reactors are used to make electricity. They make a lot of radiation, but the reactors are built carefully to keep the radiation inside the reactor.
Alpha radiation is used in static eliminators and smoke detectors. Ionizing radiation are used to sterilize medical instruments. It is also used in food irradiation and the sterile insect technique.
Related pages
Acute radiation syndrome
Other websites
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulates most commercial radiation sources and non-medical exposures in the US:
Biological Effects of Low Level Exposures: Radiation Hormesis
Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank β Ionizing Radiation
RISC-RAD is a European research project on assessment of low dose cancer risk
UNSCEAR 2000 Report, Volume 1: Sources
UNSCEAR 2000 Report, Volume 2: Effects
Beginners Guide to Ionising Radiation Measurement
Quantities, units and their relationships
Plans for homemade ionizing radiation meter
List of common household radioactive items
Ionizing radiation -Citizendium
Nuclear physics |
4757 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Click | Click | Click is an onomatopoeia. It is sometimes used to indicate pressing the button on a computer mouse.
Computing |
4759 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz%20Aldrin | Buzz Aldrin | Dr. Edwin Eugene "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr., retired Colonel (born January 20, 1930) is an American pilot and astronaut. He was one of the Apollo 11 astronauts and the second person to have ever walked on the moon.
Early life
Aldrin was born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey. He earned a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the military academy West Point in 1951. After graduate and postgraduate studies, he received a ScD in Aeronautics and Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963.From his earlier activity as a fighter pilot in the Korean War he won several medals, including the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.
Apollo 11 mission
Aldrin was the second person in history to set foot on the Moon (after Neil Armstrong, during the Apollo 11 mission).
The Lunar Lander Module landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969.
He was 39 when he set foot on the moon.
He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the NASA Exceptional Service Medal. After the death of Michael Collins in 2021, Aldrin became the last surviving member of the Apollo 11 crew.
Later life
Aldrin left NASA in March 1972. He has been married three times: to Joan Archer, to Beverly Zile, and to his current wife, Lois Driggs Cannon. He had three children with Joan, named James, Janice and Andrew. He married Cannon on Valentine's Day, 1988. He is the oldest contestant on the television series Dancing with the Stars. He competed in 2010.
References
1930 births
Living people
American astronauts
American aviators
Apollo astronauts
People from Glen Ridge, New Jersey
Scientists from New Jersey |
4760 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis | Tuberculosis | Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. In the past, people called it consumption.
TB is caused by several types of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The disease usually attacks the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body.
How it spreads
The bacteria can travel through the air and spread from one person to the next. This happens when infected people cough, sneeze, or spit.
Of every 100 people with TB, between five and ten people show symptoms. In these people, the disease is called active. Tuberculosis kills more than half of the people who are infected if they do not get treatment.
Detection and treatment
Diagnosis of active TB relies on radiology. Doctors often look at an X-ray of the chest. In addition, they check body fluids. These fluids have microbes in them, which are grown in cell cultures. The cell cultures are then analysed to see if the person is infected with TB.
If the patient has TB, but does not show symptoms, the disease is 'latent'. Doctors use a skin test, called the Mantoux test, to detect latent TB. They often do blood tests too.
There is a vaccine against some forms of tuberculosis. It is called bacillus CalmetteβGuΓ©rin vaccine.
TB used to be easily treated and cured with antibiotics. However, the bacterium is now highly resistant to most antibiotics. This resistance makes treatment difficult. Many different kinds of antibiotics need to be given over a long period of time. There is a form of tuberculosis that is resistant to all drugs.
Symptoms
Tuberculosis can have many symptoms. The most common include:
A cough that does not go away, especially if the person is coughing up blood (this is called hemoptysis)
Chest pain
Not having any appetite
Weakness
Weight loss
Chills
Very pale skin
Listless eyes
Fever
Sweating a lot at night
Difficulty breathing
Feeling very tired
People are also more likely to get tuberculosis if they live close to other people who have TB. For example, TB can spread easily in homeless shelters, prisons, and immigrant communities.
How common is TB?
Experts believe that one third of the world population is infected with M. tuberculosis. New infections occur at a rate of one per second. In 2007, about 13.7 million chronic cases were active globally. In 2010, about 8.8Β million new cases developed and nearly 1.5Β million people died from the disease, most of them in developing countries. The number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2006, and new cases have decreased since 2002.
Tuberculosis does not happen at the same rate around the world. About eighty percent of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive for TB, but only five to ten percent of people in the United States do.
People usually get tuberculosis because of a weakened immune system. Many people with HIV and AIDS can also get tuberculosis.
References
Other websites
Frequently asked Questions about TB at CDC.gov
ExplainTB: Multilingual audiovisual information on tuberculosis
Diseases caused by bacteria
Pulmonology |
4761 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20%28word%29 | American (word) | The word American is used to mean a person or a thing from the United States or any country in the Americas - North America, Central America, and South America. In English, the most common use of this word is to mean a person or a thing from the United States.
Even though the islands in the Caribbean Sea are close to the Americas, people who speak English do not usually use the word "American" for people or things from these islands.
Due to the ambiguity of the word, some languages avoid using the word to refer to someone and/or thing from the United States and use more specific demonyms instead, such as Spanish estadounidense and German US-Amerikaner, for example. Yankee is sometimes used within the English language too (though the word historically refers specifically to a inhabitant of New England).
A Native American is someone who is mostly descended from the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans arrived. Native Americans are also called First Nations and Indians.
There is no language "American." Some important languages used in the Americas are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Some people still use Native American languages. Quechua is the largest.
North America
South America |
4772 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain | Grain | Grain is the seeds of some special kinds of grass. The main types of commercial grain crops are cereals. People grow different kinds of grain as food. The different kinds of grain are perhaps one of the most important foods in the world.
Some kinds of grain are:
Barley
Maize or Indian corn (or simply as "corn")
Millet
Oats
Rice
Wheat
87% of all grain grown by farmers around the world is maize. Grains contain carbohydrates that people can eat. In poorer countries, grains are a large part of the food supply. In richer countries, they are still important as food, but not as important as in poorer countries. Growing grain uses a lot of water. About 1,000 tons of water is needed to grow one ton of grain.
Many different foods are made from different types of grain. Grain is often ground into a powder called flour. Flour can be made into breads, cakes, or noodles.
Different kinds of beer are made from barley malt, wheat, and other grains.
Tortillas are made from a special flour of dried maize (corn) called masa.
References
Basic English 850 words |
4774 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clause | Clause | A clause is a part of a sentence. Each clause is made up of a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a predicate (what happens in a sentence). Each predicate has only one main verb. I love you is a sentence which has only one clause. I love you and I will always love you is a sentence which has two clauses. The two clauses are I love you and I will always love you. These clauses are joined together by the word and, which is a conjunction). Clauses may be independent or dependent.
In use
Two clauses can be joined with a pronoun. For example: I live in London, which is in England. Here, I live in London is the first clause, and which is in England is the second clause. The word which is a pronoun which takes the place of London. It joins the two clauses. A sentence can contain many clauses. But sentences with fewer clauses are easier to understand.
Dependent and independent clauses
A simple sentence may also be called an independent clause. It may be a part of a compound or complex sentence, but it can also stand on its own as a simple sentence (or independent clause).
A subordinate clause also called a dependent clause is one which cannot stand by itself. This is because it does not express a complete thought. It contains both a subject and a verb. A subordinate clause always depends on a main clause. The main clause is almost always an independent clause, therefore the main clause by itself makes sense and can stand on its own. However, the subordinating clause does not. For example, I love you makes perfect sense left on its own. However, and always will, does not. The only time a sentence can be made up of only dependent clauses is when they are joined by correlative conjunctions: conjunction pairs like "either/or", "neither/nor", and "not only/but also".
References
Other websites
Clauses: the Essential Building-Blocks
Purdue Owl: Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses
Grammar |
4775 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism | Marxism | Marxism is the name for a set of political and economic ideas.
The basic ideas are that:
The world is split into multiple classes (groups) of people. The two main classes are the working class and the ruling class. The working class is exploited by the ruling class.
There is a class conflict
When workers realize their exploitation, they will revolt and take over ownership of factories and materials (dictatorship of the proletariat)
Communism (stateless, classless society with free enterprise).
The idea that people who have been exploited will not in turn exploit those who they were made to believe exploited them
These ideas come from the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and their most notable work is The Communist Manifesto. They have had a lot of influence in many countries. Marxism influenced other political views, such as social democracy and reformist socialism. Both believe that the ideas of Marx and Engels can be achieved through what Marx called 'bourgeois democracy'.
People disagree a lot on how a Marxist society should be organized: "Marxist political economists differ over their definitions of capitalism, socialism and communism. These differences are so fundamental, the arguments among... Marxist political economists have sometimes been as intense as their oppositions to capitalism".
Key ideas
The working class vs. the capitalist class
Marxism says that people in the world are organized into different groups, or classes, based on what they do for work.
Most people are called "workers" because they work in factories, offices, or farms for money. They belong to the "working class" (or "proletariat"). These people do not own the places they work in or the materials they need for their work.
Another group, who are not as big as the working class, are "capitalists" (or "bourgeoisie"). They own the factories, land, and buildings that the workers work in. They also own some of the tools the workers have to use. Marx calls capitalists the "Ruling Class" because they live off of the work of all the workers. He also says that the capitalists own the government, army, and courts.
In Marxist views, capital is the "means of production" and money which the capitalist can invest in different places of business, so that they can "profit" or gain more capital.
Most workers work for companies owned by either capitalists or "petit-bourgeois" (small-time exploiters). The capitalist pays the worker in exchange for the worker's time. The capitalist has bought a period of time from the worker, which the worker must then use to labor for the capitalist. According to Marxist thinking, this is the only way that a capitalist can create extra money from a commodity (a piece of merchandise). The capitalist exploits the worker's time as much as they can. The capitalist receives a certain price for the commodity the worker made. The capitalist builds up capital by paying the worker less than that price. In this way, the capitalist exploits the worker's labor by:
Not paying the worker what their labor was worth
Keeping the extra money that they did not pay the worker
Here is an example of exploitation of labor. Jane is a shoemaker. She works for Michael, who owns a shoe factory that can make 60 pairs of shoes in a day. Jane makes 60 pairs of shoes every day. Michael pays Jane $20 a day. However, Michael sells each pair of shoes for $2 each. This means he makes $120 in a day. After he pays Jane her $20 wage, Michael has $100 left over. However he then has to pay for materials which cost $1 for each pair, so that's $60 each day. Then running expenses of the factory cost him $10 a day. So he only gets $30 at the end of the day for managing the business. This remaining wealth is called "Profit" or "Surplus [extra] Value." In other words, even though Jane makes 60 shoes every day, she only gets paid the value of 10 pairs of shoes. The rest of the day, while she is making the other 50 shoes, she is creating money for her boss. Her labor is making him richer and helping him earn money.
It is this Surplus Value, or Profit, which Marxism thinks as an exploitation of labor. This exploitation allows the smaller class (capitalists) to live without working while making a profit, while the bigger class (the workers) have to work for the capitalists to survive under usually poor working conditions.
Marxism says that factories, tools, and work places cannot create new value on their own. They are like a blueberry bush: it has no value on its own. People have to create that value by laboring. For example, someone spends a day picking blueberries. Those blueberries can now be traded or eaten because of the labor that was put in to pick them.
Class struggle
Marxist thinking claims that capitalists and workers are constantly struggling. They call this "Dialectical Materialism." This is the idea that the history of humans is the history of conflict between classes. Different classes with different interests argue or fight each other. Social change (or in its absence, social stagnation) is the result.
Marxism says that capitalists want to exploit the workers as much as possible and make their pay as low as they can. The capitalists do this to create as much profit for themselves as possible, as quickly as possible. Workers, on the other hand, have to struggle to keep their wages up and to keep the "rate of exploitation" low, so that they can live more peaceful lives. This is what Marxism calls "class struggle": where workers and their bosses fight against each other to gain for themselves.
Marxists think that all of written human history has been divided by economic classes. One example is feudal society (a medieval society controlled by feudal lords and nobles). The ruling class got their power and wealth from the labor of peasants (farmers). But as peasants demanded more and more for themselves, small shopkeepers and tradespeople began to appear. Many of these people formed guilds and eventually began to employ workers. These workers were able to gain wealth for themselves at these jobs. These historical events created capitalism.
In this way, Marxists think that history has been pushed forward by class struggle. They think that change will be born from this struggle, just like capitalism was. However, they also think that capitalism will give way to communism; as the exploitation of workers becomes worse it will lead workers to revolt against their capitalist rulers.
Materialism
The core of Marxist thinking is called Materialism. Materialism is a philosophical view that says that communities develop from the "ground up". It says that the "higher" qualities of culture (like art, manners, customs, and religions) are actually founded on the "lower" or simpler qualities of life. These qualities include having enough of what people need to survive, like food and shelter; who has money and what they have to do to get it; who is allowed to work, and who is forced to work.
Changes in the higher qualities of culture (sometimes called the "Superstructure") are often linked to changes in the lower qualities of life (sometimes called the "Base"). One example is that in medieval times, people thought "honor" or duty to people with more power than them was very important. Today, in Western countries, many people see ambition (being someone who works hard for their own goals) as more important. This is because, in medieval times, people worked their entire lives under lords who depended on them not only for work but for war. Today, people work for themselves more, and our society lets some people move up from being poor to being rich. In this case, what people see as good and important depends on how the rulers get value out of their workers.
A "classless society"
Marxism recognizes that in earlier time periods, we lived first under rulers who owned everything. Then we lived under lords who owned land with workers who lived and worked on that land. In Marx's time, people lived under governments that allowed many people to own property. Eventually, Marxists believe that we will move to a society where everyone owns everything in common. This will be called communism.
In other words, human society has always been based on the economic forces that human beings can control. For Marxism, this means that each society would take its form based on its "mode of production."
Marxists believe that humans' ability to produce goods and services today means people can move beyond the conflicts of a society that is divided into classes. Many Marxists believe that there will always be revolts and with the right conditions revolutions. In these revolutions, the workers will fight the capitalists. If they win, they will set up a socialist "workers' state" (a form of government where the workers are the rulers of society). This workers' state will only be temporary. Its job will be to take power away from the capitalists, until all the capitalist countries in the world are defeated, and social classes no longer exist.
Marxists believe that if the working class makes itself the ruling class, and destroys the basis for class society (private property, or what Marx called "Bourgeois Property"), there will be a "classless society." In a Marxist society, no social classes are in conflict, and there is no government anymore. The state will no longer be needed. There would be no countries. The world will have no borders. There will be communes around the world. Workers will organize production of goods and services based on what people need, not based on profits.
Beliefs about modern communism
Some Marxists say that modern "communism" is not communism at all. They say that "communist" countries like the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, Cuba, and Vietnam are really using different forms of capitalism, often with heavily "nationalized" industries. A thinker named Tony Cliff was one of the biggest supporters of these ideas. He wrote that states like the Soviet Union and Communist China (before 1980) were "State-Capitalist."
Not all communists, socialists, or Marxists agree on this question. However, many strong supporters of Marxism agree that:
With socialism, workers have democratic control over economic decisions and social justice
An economy produces things (makes goods and services) based on what people need
Socialism will die and change into communism when capitalism is defeated
Distinction between Marxism, communism and socialism
People use these terms interchangeably but this is incorrect. These concepts have different meanings:
Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism.
Socialism is a way of organizing a society in which the means of production are owned and controlled by the working class, instead of the capitalists.
Communism is the theoretical classless, stateless society that Marx proposed would arise after the demise of capitalism.
Related pages
Karl Marx
Friedrich Engels
The Communist Manifesto, by Marx and Engels
Socialism
Communism
Marxist economics
Reading
Citations |
4779 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred | Sacred | The words sacred or holy are sometimes used interchangeably and are often misunderstood to mean "important" or "special" instead of "set apart" and "pure."
According to Websters 1828 Dictionary (the more accurate definition given the spiritual context- Christian and beyond), sacred means "...separated from that which is common, vulgar, polluted, or open... or Holy." Holy, means "Properly, whole, entire or perfect, in a moral sense. Hence, pure in heart, temper or dispositions; free from sin and sinful affections. Applied to the Supreme Being, holy signifies perfectly pure, immaculate and complete in moral character..."
Most religions have sacred books that provide teachings or doctrines associated with the religion. These books are "set apart," from other books published and associated with the religion. There is a deeper connection to these books over the others.
For Christians this book is called the Bible. Muslim peoples have another book, they call the Qur'an. Jews call their book the Torah. Similarly, the Book of Mormon is also considered as a sacred book in Mormonism.
Some religious people deem specific places sacred because of their mention in the sacred books. Jerusalem is seen as sacred by Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Mecca is sacred in Islam, and Ise Grand Shrine in Mie Prefecture is sacred in Japanese Shinto. In Hinduism the river Ganges is seen as holy.
Related pages
Pilgrimage
Icon
Other websites
Holiness in the Bible
Religion |
4781 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich | ZΓΌrich | ZΓΌrich or Zurich ( ; Swiss German: ZΓΌri [ΛtΝ‘syΙΎi]) is a city in Switzerland. ZΓΌrich is the capital city of the Canton of ZΓΌrich. About 415,000 people live in the city and over 1.5 million live in the metropolitan area. This makes ZΓΌrich the biggest city in Switzerland.
Geography
Zurich is located in the North of Switzerland, and it is 408 m (1,339 ft) above sea level. It is at the northern end of Lake Zurich and is surrounded by hills; at the left side of the lake, there is the Albis mountain range, including the Felsenegg (accessible by Zurich's only cable car) and Zurichβs "house mountain" Uetliberg. At the right side of the lake, there are the hills Zollikerberg, with the prominent Dolder hotel and ZΓΌrichberg. The rivers Limmat and Sihl flow through the city. The Limmat and the Sihl flow through the city, whereby the river Sihl is connected to the Lake Zurich through the Schanzengraben, which used to be a part of the city fortress.
Left side of the Lake:
The architectural beauty of the Enge station, made of Ticino granite, the Rietberg Museum with its beautiful park, the Enge bathing establishment and the Rote Fabrik give this district a Mediterranean feel.
Right side of the Lake:
This district starts behind the Opera House and stretches as far as the Tiefenbrunnen lakeside resort. Boutiques, villas, the Chinawiese (Chinese meadow) and, of course, the Utoquais lakeside establishment are the highlights of this area.
The city is divided into twelve districts (known as Kreis in German), numbered 1 to 12. The first district is the old town of Zurich.
History
The history of Zurich starts with prehistoric settlements that were found at the border of todayβs Lake Zurich. There were different settlements and some date back to 500 BC. From 100 BC , Celtic people inhabited the area. When the Romans arrived, they built a military base, which they called βTuricumβ. This is where the term Zurich originated . The Alemanni and the Franks (Germanic tribes) also took hold of ZΓΌrich later.
In 1218, the last member of ZΓΌrich βs ruling family died. After that, ZΓΌrich became a free city. Its location in Europe contributed to its economic development.
In 1336, Rudolf Brun and the tradesmen of the city stormed the Town Hall. After that, half of the government was made up of tradesmen . The tradesmen grouped themselves into guilds.
The Canton joined Switzerland in 1351.
During the Protestant Reformation period (16th century), the city became the head of Protestant Switzerland . It was in contact with other Protestant Swiss cities , like Bern and Geneva. Protestant refugees came to ZΓΌrich , and further contributed to the cityβs economic development.
During the 17th and the 18th century, the city grew culturally and economically .
Economy
In the city of ZΓΌrich, most of the people work in the commerce part of the economy. ZΓΌrich is one of the largest financial centres in the world. Many famous banks and insurance companies are located here, for example UBS, Credit Suisse, Swiss Life and Swiss Re.
The airport of ZΓΌrich is located about to the north, in a town called Kloten. ZΓΌrich Airport ("Flughafen ZΓΌrich", IATA:ZRH) is the biggest airport in Switzerland. ZΓΌrich Main Station is the busiest train station in Switzerland with many national and international connections.
The headquarters of FIFA (FΓ©dΓ©ration Internationale de Football Association) is also in ZΓΌrich.
Public transport
Many people in Zurich use public transport. Roughly 50% of people who live in Zurich use it to get to work or school. The ZVV network uses at least four types of transport β trains, trams, buses (both diesel and electric, also called trolley buses) and boats on the lake and river. The public transport network also includes funicular railways and even cable cars like the one between Adliswil and Felsenegg. Tickets are valid on all main types of public transportation. The boats run on the Limmat and the Lake ZΓΌrich. It connects surrounding towns between Zurich and Rapperswil.
Education
Zurich has two universities. ETH ZΓΌrich is ranked among the top universities in the world. Over 20 Nobel Prize winners have studied or worked there, for example Albert Einstein. The other university is the University of ZΓΌrich. It is the largest university in Switzerland.
Zurichβs Educational System:
All children living in the Canton of Zurich have the right to education in compulsory Public Schools (Volksschule), which are free of charge. The compulsory education in the canton of Zurich generally begins at the age of four and is of 11 years duration. The compulsory period of Education includes Kindergarten, Primary School and Secondary School, where the children receive basic education qualifying them for access to vocational education and training (VET/ apprenticeship) or to continuative intermediate schools. Kindergarten is the first step of the compulsory education, where the children stay for two years before moving on to primary school, which is divided into lower level (Grade 1-3) and middle level (grade 4-6), thus takes six years to complete.
After grade 6 of primary school, the students have two different options. They either pass on to secondary school or change over to baccalaureate school (Gymnasium). To change over to long-term baccalaureate school, the students need to pass an admission examination.
After primary school, students pass on to secondary school, which takes 3 years to complete. During this time, students acquire the skills to successfully transition to a Vocational Education and Training School (VET School) or they enter Intermediate School after having passed the admission examination. (https://www.zh.ch/en/bildung/bildungssystem.html#-1461266662)
Primary and Secondary Schools:
The total number of scholars in public schools in the Canton of Zurich in 2019 was 275260, 49,7% of them were women. Instead, in Private schools the number of scholars was 29021, 48,1% of them were women. Since the 2014 school year, there has been a sharp increase in the number of primary school pupils in the canton of Zurich.The growth from the 2018 school year to the 2019 school year 2019 was 2.4%, i.e. around 100 classes.
The number of public schools in the Canton of Zurich is 504.
The number of teachers teaching in public schools is 15962.
(https://www.zh.ch/content/dam/zhweb/bilder-dokumente/themen/bildung/bildungssystem/zahlen/die_schulen_im_kanton_zuerich_2019_2020.pdf)
ETH ZΓΌrich
Zurich has two universities: ETH and UZH. ETH ZΓΌrich is a public research university in the city of ZΓΌrich, that was founded by the Swiss Federal Government in 1984 with the stated mission to educate engineers and scientists. The school focuses primarily on science, technology, engineering and mathematics. ETH ZΓΌrich is ranked among the top universities in the world. Typically, popular rankings place the institution as the best university in continental Europe and ETH Zurich is consistently ranked among the top 1-5 universities in Europe, and among the top 3-10 best universities of the world. Over 20 Nobel Price winners have studied or worked there, for example Albert Einsteins. For Swiss students, ETH Zurich is not selective in its undergraduate admission procedures. Like every public university in Switzerland, ETH Zurich is obliged to grant admission to every Swiss resident who took the Matura.. ETH Zurich has two campuses. The main building was constructed 1858β1864 outside and right above the eastern border of the town, but nowadays it is located right in the heart of the city. In the year of ETH Zurich's 150th anniversary, an extensive project called "Science City" for the HΓΆnggerberg Campus was started with the goal to transform the campus into an attractive district based on the principle of sustainability. The annual Polyball is the most prestigious public event at ETH Zurich, with a long tradition since the 1880s. At the end of November, the Polyball welcomes around 10,000 dancers, music-lovers and partygoers in the extensively decorated main building of ETH Zurich. The amicable rivalry between ETH Zurich and its neighbor, the University of Zurich, has been cultivated since 1951 (Uni-Poly). There has been an annual rowing match between teams from the two institutions on the river Limmat.
UZH UNIVERSITY
The University of Zurich was founded in 1833 and it was the first university in Europe to be founded by the state rather than the church or a monarch. It is closely linked with ETH in the fields of bioscience and finance.Β According to the GWTS Leiden Ranking, the University of Zurich ranked 37th in the world in social sciences and humanities. Bachelor courses are taught in Swiss German but use of English is increasing in many faculties. The only bachelors program taught entirely in English is the English language and literacy program.All Master courses at the Faculty of Science are held in English. Master courses in Economics and Finance are mainly held in English, while the Master of Science in Quantitative Finance is held completely in English.
Gallery
References
Other websites
Stadt ZΓΌrich β official website
Imperial free cities |
4782 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation | Translation | Translation means to copy writing or speech from one language into a different language.
The people who do translation are called translators. A translator who is copying a book into another language may use a language dictionary to find out how a word is written in another language. A translator who works with the spoken word is also called an interpreter. Translators can work independently as freelancers or by being hired by translation agencies. People translate poetry, novels, drama, or short stories are called literary translators.
In computer technology, translation from a programming language to a machine language is called compiling.
There are free translators on the internet.
Related pages
Bible translations
Concept
Machine translation
Useful resources related to the subject:
The Impact of Translation in New York City
Choosing the Perfect Translation Agency for your Company
Adapt your Translation for a better Understanding of Inter-culture
Language |
4783 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut | Astronaut | An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person who goes into outer space. The Soviet Union and countries that it was friends with used the word cosmonaut. Western countries including the United States said astronaut. Astronauts are also called "taikonauts" in China or "spationaute" in France.
The first person to go into space was a Russian from the Soviet Union. His name was Yuri Gagarin. This happened on April 12, 1961. The first and second people to walk on the Moon were the Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. This happened on July 20, 1969. No astronauts have gone to the moon since 1972. No people have visited any other planets yet.
Astronauts used to go into space using many different ways, but now they only go on the American SpaceX Crew-1, the Russian Soyuz, or the Chinese Shenzhou. Several countries have worked together to build an International Space Station where people stay and work in space for long periods of time.
A few countries and companies are trying to make more ways to get people into space. The United States is building a very big rocket called the Space Launch System. Some American companies, for example Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and SpaceX, are being paid by the United States to make ways for people to go to space.
Related pages
Spaceflight |
4788 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker | Hacker | A hacker originally meant someone who likes to do new things with computers. Now hacker is used to mean "someone who tries to get into another person's computer using computer software such as Trojan horse programs, computer viruses, and worms that can hurt other people computers". The correct name for a person doing these illegal things was cracker, but many news stories used the word hacker even though it was in error. Another meaning of hacker is someone who can change or program something, like how people can change or program a Furby to say something insulting or humorous.
A person doing something illegal with a computer belonging to someone else without asking for permission from the owner is also called a hacker.
In the recent years computers were becoming increasingly more complex. This also means that people with bad intentions have more opportunities to use them for criminal purposes. Computer engineers aren't always able to find vulnerable places in the computer code. Hackers find such places, and use them.
There are also hackers who use the same skills for good purposes. Such hackers are called white hat hackers. They help computer engineers to find vulnerable places and correct problems.
A lot of skills are often required to be a hacker. A hacker should be able to find problems or solutions that most other people cannot find.
References
Computing
Internet security |
4790 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting | Broadcasting | In communications, such as radio and television, broadcasting means sending information such as television shows or music electronically to a large audience. The information is sent through the air in radio waves, through a wire, or by a communications satellite, and then the television viewers or radio listeners pick up the signal using their television sets and radio receivers. Gugliemo Marconi invented wireless telegraphy, in December 1901 he transmitted first radio signals across the Atlantic Ocean. This was point to point. Experiments with voice broadcasting began a few years later, and it grew rapidly in the 1920s.
Types of broadcasters
Different broadcasters use different radio waves and different modulating methods. amplitude modulation on medium waves was the first to be much used.
Some television networks are said to be broadcasting, even if they are only or mainly on cable TV rather than by radio waves.
Public broadcasters
Many countries have Public broadcasting, using money from the government to broadcast television shows and radio programs. Examples include the BBC in Britain, NHK in Japan, and the CBC in Canada.
In the United States, most public broadcast radio and television stations are run by educational groups (such as colleges or universities) or by a state's educational department. Public broadcasters, by law, cannot accept or display commercial advertising. However, businesses can make donations to a public broadcaster. Most are part of the Public Broadcasting System.
PBS is different than the other public broadcasters such as BBC, NHK and CBC, because the PBS gets a lot of its funding (money) from donations by viewers and listeners. Public broadcasters make programs that the private companies are not interested in making, such as educational children's shows, documentaries, and public affairs shows about current issues.
Private broadcasters
As well, there are private broadcasting companies. These are companies that broadcast television and radio programs. To make money, private broadcasting companies sell advertisements called commercials.
Community broadcasters
A third type of broadcaster is community broadcasters. There are community television stations and community radio stations.
Community television stations are often provided on cable networks. Community television stations usually have shows about local issues and community events. Some community television stations film and broadcast community cultural activities, such as musical performances or town hall meetings.
Community radio stations play music and have public affairs shows about community issues. Community radio stations are usually small organizations that are run by volunteers. Community radio stations often get their funding (money) from local governments, local universities, and from donations by listeners. Some community radio stations also have poetry readings by local poets, or performances by local musicians or singers.
Other meanings
Broadcasting can also mean sending a message to many users on a computer network at exactly the same time, or sending a message from one computer to many other computers, giving information about itself, such as its name and location.
Sending information to a small selected group is called narrowcasting.
Mass media
el:ΑαδιοΟΟΞ½Ξ―Ξ± |
4793 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism | Socialism | Socialism is an economic and political system where workers own the general means of production (i. e. farms, factories, tools, and raw materials). This can be achieved through decentralized and direct worker-ownership or centralized state-ownership of the means of production. This is different from capitalism, where the means of production are privately owned by capital holders.
Forms of socialism
There are many kinds of socialism. In all types, at least in principle, the State or workers own the means of production. The major differences between the different varieties are the role of the free market (market planning), how the means of production are controlled, the role of management of workers, and the government's role in the economy.
Collectivization
One kind of socialism is "collectivization." In this system, money and goods are shared more equally among the people, with the government in control. In theory, this system results in the gap between classes getting smaller, with the state helping the nation's poorest people, while the richest agree to higher taxes and economic restrictions.
Communism as a goal
Socialists with more radical views believe that socialism will evolve into what they see as a more advanced system: communism, with no state, money, hierarchy or social classes whatsoever. In Marxist theory, socialism is a temporary social state between capitalism and communism, although some socialists have no intention of transitioning to communism.
Many label these economic theories into one as "communism" when they mean the Marxist and Leninist ideas and beliefs of Russia's Bolshevik party. Marx believed that capitalism followed the economic and political system of feudalism. He also believed that capitalism would unfairly treat many people and that those people would eventually revolt and switch to socialism. He also thought that socialism could be another bridge on a path to communism. However, many people incorrectly use the term "Communist" to refer to a socialist state as a pejorative insult. Others call this 'State Socialism,' to distinguish it from the communist goal that does not need a state or any form of government. To non-communists, the word 'socialism' is now used mostly for attempts to come close to this goal in a democratic state.
Democratic socialism
Democratic socialism is the belief that both the economy and society should be run democratically (as opposed to authoritarianism)βto meet public needs, not to make profits for a few. To achieve a more just society, many structures of our government and economy must be radically transformed through greater economic and social democracy so that ordinary people can participate in the many decisions that affect their lives.
Social democracy
Social democracy is a form of capitalism that attempts to mix parts of socialism with capitalism. It is not a form of socialism, but shares some ideas with it. In this system, despite there still being private property, the government generates tax revenue, typically from the wealthiest in the society and corporations, and distributes it to the poor, or even everyone in the society, via in the form of social programs. These programs range from single-payer healthcare, to other welfare programs such as expanding SNAP benefits. While the intentions of social democracy and socialism can be similar or shared, social democracy keeps the capitalist system intact, and tries to reforms it. Achieving socialism would mean completely getting rid of the capitalist system. Social democracy is often confused with democratic socialism due to the similar names and having the same short term goals. The biggest difference is social democrats want to stop reforming capitalism when they think their reforms are good enough, but democratic socialists will not stop until capitalism is gone. Some examples of social democracies are the Scandinavian countries.
In social democracies, some services and industries are subsidized (given money to help them run), or partly controlled by the government, or both. For example, education, health care, housing, utility companies and public transportation are some industries that might be owned/supported by the government in a social democracy. For the most part, people working in these industries are paid by the government, with money paid by the people as taxes. A strong Welfare system is key to social democracy.
Other
Many people and countries see socialism differently. The Socialist International is an organization dedicated to the cause of promoting socialist ideals, and has ties with many socialist parties, especially Social Democratic parties.
History
The followers of a Welshman, Robert Owen, began calling themselves socialists in 1841. Owen is seen as a founder of the Co-operative Movement in Britain. He said that workers should own the companies they worked for. The workers would then share the profits among themselves. He set up a new model factory in New Lanark, Scotland.
Karl Marx is the most well-known creator of the theory of socialism, and of communism. He wrote a book about capitalism, socialism, and communism, called "A critique of the social economy". Friedrich Engels co-wrote the book, and paid for much of Marx's work and research.
Many socialist political parties were formed during the 19th century and early part of the 20th century. During the decolonization movement in the 20th century, many armies fighting for independence planned to establish socialist countries.
Related pages
Capitalism
Communism
Social democracy
References
Forms of government |
4794 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninism | Leninism | Leninism is a way of thinking about how the communist party should be organized. It says it should be a dictatorship of the proletariat (the working class holds the power). It is thought to be one of the first steps towards socialism (where the workers own the factories, etc.). It is one part of MarxismβLeninism, which emphasizes the transition from capitalism to socialism.
Beliefs
Vladimir Lenin was a Russian Marxist. He had a set of ideas based on Marxism. Lenin's development of Marxism has become known as Leninism. These ideas include:
Democratic Centralism, also known as the idea of the vanguard party. Like other communists, Lenin wanted to see a socialist revolution led by the working class. But he thought the workers needed strong leadership in the form of a Revolutionary Party based on Democratic Centralism. Lenin wanted Communist political parties in every country to lead the revolution. He thought the vanguard party would need to have strong discipline, or it would fail.
The idea that capitalism is the cause of imperialism (empire-building). He thought that imperialism was the "highest stage" of capitalism.
Accepting the idea that the oppressed ethnic minorities (smaller groups of people) should get to have Nationalism and decide how they should be governed.
Teaching the proletariat (working class) about politics, especially Marxism.
References
Other websites
Books by Vladimir Lenin
What Is To Be Done?.
Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism.
The State and Revolution.
"The Lenin Archive".
"First Conference of the Communist International".
Other similar links
"Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy".
"An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky".
Rosa Luxemburg. "Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy".
Karl Korsch. "Lenin's Philosophy".
"Cyber Leninism".
"Leninist Ebooks" .
Anton Pannekoek. "Lenin as a Philosopher".
Paul Mattick. "The Lenin Legend".
Paul Craig Roberts. "Dead Labor: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered".
Communism
Marxism |
4796 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik | Bolshevik | A Bolshevik was a Russian communist in the early 20th century. They are also called the Bolshevik Communists. The majority of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was a Marxist political party.
At the party congress in 1903, members disagreed with each other. The party divided into two groups, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. They were called Bolsheviks because it means "those who are more." Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik group. The more moderate group, the Mensheviks (meaning "those of the minority") were led by Julius Martov. Although the Bolsheviks were called "those who are more", before 1917 there were more Mensheviks. Many of Lenin's opponents were afraid that he liked to control things too much.
In 1905 the Bolshevik group became a separate political party, the RSDLP(B) the 'b' in brackets standing for 'Bolshevik'.
Revolution
After the February Revolution, some of the Mensheviks took positions in the Russian Provisional Government. Lenin said socialists must oppose the Provisional Government. The government began to falter and Lenin started to have more authority. Because of this, many Mensheviks joined the Bolsheviks.
The Bolsheviks led the October Revolution in Russia in 1917. They said they created the world's first Workers' State. The Mensheviks opposed the government led by the Bolsheviks. Many ended up in prison or were killed. After that, they opposed the Bolsheviks from outside Russia, in exile.
After the Revolution, the Bolshevik Party was called the Russian Communist Party.
Russian Revolution |
4797 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam%20Hussein | Saddam Hussein | Saddam Hussein Revinathan (28 April 1937 β 30 December 2006) was the President of Iraq, from July 16, 1979 to April 9, 2003, when he was removed from his position during the War in Iraq led by the United States. During his time as president, he might have killed more than a million people through war and genocide, which he denied.
Childhood
Saddam Hussein was born in the village of Al-Awja, in the Tikrit in Iraq. He never knew his father, Hussein 'Abd al-Majid, who disappeared five months before Saddam was born. Shortly before Saddam was born, Saddam's twelve-year-old brother died of cancer, leaving his mother very depressed in the final months of the pregnancy. She tried to kill herself near the end of the pregnancy and did not want to care for Saddam when he was born. Saddam was sent to the family of an uncle, Khairallah Tulfah, until he was three.
At 10, Saddam ran away from the family to return to live with his uncle, who was a devout Sunni Muslim, in Baghdad. According to Saddam, in 1957, at the age of 20, Saddam became part of the Ba'ath Party. The Ba'ath party is an Arab political party that supports socialism.
In 1958, Hussein was arrested for killing his brother-in-law because he was a communist activist. He spent six months in prison.
Rise in the Ba'ath party
A year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abdul Karim Qassim got rid of Faisal II of Iraq. The Baathists were against the new regime, and in 1959, Saddam was involved in the attempted murder of Prime Minister Qassim. Saddam was shot in the leg, but managed to get away to Syria. Later, he moved to Egypt. He was sentenced to death. In exile, he attended the University of Cairo law school.
Army officers, including some with the Ba'ath party, came to power in Iraq in a military coup in 1963. However, the new regime was kicked out quickly. Saddam returned to Iraq, but was imprisoned in 1964 when an anti-Ba'ath group led by Abdul Rahman Arif took power. He escaped from jail in 1967 and became one of the leading members of the party.
Gaining power
In 1976, Saddam was made a general in the Iraqi army. He quickly became the most important person of the regime. He slowly began to gain more power over Iraq's government and the Ba'ath party. As Iraq's weak, old President, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, became more unable to do the duties of his office, Saddam began to take on an more important role as the head of the Iraqi government. He soon became the creator of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations.
Conflict with Iran
In 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown by the Islamic Revolution, giving way to an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini. The influence of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam grew in the region, particularly in countries with large Shi'ite populations, especially Iraq. Saddam was afraid that radical Islamic ideas were quickly spreading inside his country among most of the Shi'ite people. He worried that these ideas would go against his leadership.
There had also been a rivalry between Saddam and Khomeini since the 1970s. Khomeini was exiled from Iran in 1964. He began living in Iraq, at the Shi'ite holy city of An Najaf. There, he became involved with Iraqi Shi'ites and gained many religious and political followers throughout the world. Under pressure from the Shah, who had agreed to a rapprochement between Iraq and Iran in 1975, Saddam agreed to kick Khomeini out in 1978. After the Islamic Revolution, Khomeini thought defeating Saddam's government may have been the second most important thing to do, only behind keeping his power in Iran.
The Iran-Iraq War
After Khomeini gained power, small battles between Iraq and revolutionary Iran happened for ten months. The two countries were fighting over who controlled the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which divides Iran and Iraq.
Iraq and Iran officially went to war with each other on September 22, 1980. Saddam used the disagreement over the waterway as an excuse to go to war with Iran. However, the war was more likely an attempt by Saddam - supported by both the United States and the Soviet Union - to have Iraq stop radical revolutions like the one in Iran from spreading any further.
In the first days of the war, there was heavy ground fighting around major ports as Iraq launched an attack on Iran's oil-rich, Arab-populated province of Khuzestan. After making some gains, Iraq's troops began to suffer losses from human-wave attacks by Iran. By 1982, Iraq was looking to end the war.
Chemical warfare
During the war, Iraq used chemical warfare against Iranian forces and Kurdish separatists. On March 16, 1988, Saddam ordered Iraqi troops to stop a Kurdish uprising. Iraq attacked the Kurdish town of Halabjah with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents, killing 5000 people, mostly women and children.
Saddam reached out to other Arab governments for cash and political help. The Iranians, hoping to bring down Saddam's non-religious government and start a Shi'ite rebellion in Iraq, refused a cease-fire until 1988.
End of the war
The eight-year war ended in a tie. There were hundreds of thousands of casualties. Perhaps 1.7 million died on both sides. Both economies, previously healthy and growing, were left in ruins.
Saddam was also stuck with a debt of roughly $75 billion. Borrowing money from the U.S. was making Iraq into its client state, embarrassing a strongman who had sought to define and dominate Arab nationalism. Saddam also borrowed a large amount of money from other Arab states during the 1980s to fight Iran. Faced with rebuilding Iraq's infrastructure, Saddam desperately sought out cash once again, this time for postwar reconstruction.
After the war: Tensions with Kuwait
Saddam was pressuring Kuwait to forgive its share of his debt, some $30 billion. (This would mean Iraq would not have to pay back Kuwait's $30 million.) Saddam argued that the struggle with Iran had been fought for the benefit of the other Persian Gulf Arab states as much as for Iraq. Because of this, he said, a share of Iraqi debt should be forgiven.
Saddam had pushed oil-exporting countries to raise oil prices and cut back production. Not only did Kuwait refuse to do this; they also helped support OPEC's opposition to the production cuts that Saddam had requested. Kuwait was pumping large amounts of oil, and keeping prices low, when Iraq needed to sell high-priced oil from its wells to pay off a huge debt.
The fact that Kuwait had so much oil made the region even more tense. Even though Kuwait had fewer people, it had about as much oil in reserve as Iraq. Together, Iraq and Kuwait had 20 percent of the world's known oil reserves.
The Kuwaiti monarchy made Saddam even angrier by drilling oil out of Iraqi wells. At the time, Saddam's regime was not disliked by most of the world. Saddam complained about the drilling to the United States State Department. Although this had gone on for years, Saddam now needed oil money to get rid of a looming economic crisis. Saddam still had an experienced and well-equipped army, which he used to influence regional affairs. He later ordered troops to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border.
As Iraqi-Kuwaiti relations rapidly grew worse, Saddam was getting different information about how the United States would respond to an invasion. The United States had been working on starting a good relationship with Iraq for roughly a decade. The Reagan administration gave Saddam roughly $40 billion worth of arms in the 1980s to fight Iran, nearly all of it on credit. The U.S. also sent billions of dollars of food and arms to Saddam to keep him from forming a strong alliance with the Soviets.
The U.S. ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, met with Saddam in a meeting on July 25. Saddam said he wanted to keep talks going. U.S. officials tried to take a calm, relaxing tone with Iraq. They explained that neither President George H.W. Bush or Secretary of State James Baker wanted military force to be used. However, they also said that they would not take any position on the Iraqi-Kuwaiti dispute and did not want to become involved.
Later, Iraq and Kuwait met for a final negotiation session, which failed. Saddam then sent his troops into Kuwait.
The Gulf War
In August 2, 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, causing an international crisis. The invasion of Kuwait gave Iraq, with its own substantial oil fields, control of 20 percent of the Persian Gulf oil. The U.S. helped Saddam Hussein in the war with Iran, but with Iraq's take over of the oil-rich emirate of Kuwait in August of 1990, the United States led a United Nations force that drove Saddam from Kuwait in February 1991.
Because the United States and the Soviet Union were cooperating in the United Nations Security Council, the Security Council was able to pass resolutions. These resolutions gave Iraq a deadline to leave Kuwait.
Saddam ignored the Security Council deadline. On January 16, 1991, coalition of U.S. and Security Council troops launched missile attacks on Iraq. The United States and a group of allies it had quickly gathered, including Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia, made Saddam's army move from Kuwait in January 1991.
Israel, though Saddam attacked it with Iraqi missiles, did not fight back. It did not want to anger Arab states into leaving the coalition. But Saddam had focused attention on the Palestinian problem by promising to make his forces leave from Kuwait if Israel would leave the West Bank, the Golan Heights, and the Gaza Strip. Saddam's proposal further split the Arab world, pitting U.S. and Western-supported Arab states against the Palestinians.
175,000 Iraqis were taken prisoner and about 85,000 died. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to get rid of all poison gas and germ weapons, and to allow UN observers to inspect the sites.
After the war
All of the different religions and the violence the war had created caused after-war rebellions. After the war, fighting between Shi'ite Muslims, Kurds, and dissident military units was bad. This was a problem to Saddam's rule. Saddam acted by stopping all rebellions in their tracks, especially in the North.
Before the war ended, the United States had encouraged Iraqis to rise up against Saddam. However, when the Shi'ites, Kurds, and dissidents did rise up against Saddam, the United States did not support them.
Without United States support for these rebellions, Saddam survived them. He was then left completely in control of Iraq. The country's economy and army never recovered from the Gulf War. However, Saddam often claimed that Iraq had won the Gulf War, and the United States had lost. This made Saddam popular in many parts of the Arab world.
Saddam liked to show himself as a strict Muslim. This was to calm down the religious parts of the society. He brought back some parts of Sharia law. This included the 2001 law that said homosexuality could be punished by the death penalty. The phrase "Allahu Akbar" ("God is great"), in Saddam's handwriting, was added to the Iraq national flag.
1991-2003
Relations between the United States and Iraq remained tense after the Gulf War. In 1993, the United States decided to attack Iraq, because it thought evidence showed Iraq had sponsored a plan to kill former President George H.W. Bush. On June 26, 1993, the United States launched a missile attack aimed at Iraq's intelligence headquarters in Baghdad.
The United Nations placed a trade embargo on Iraq, blocking Iraqi oil exports. This caused hardship in Iraq and almost destroyed the Iraqi economy and state infrastructure. Only smuggling across the Syrian border, and humanitarian aid kept Iraq from crisis. Later, limited amounts of income from the United Nations oil-for-food program started flowing into Iraq. On December 9, 1996, the United Nations allowed Baghdad to begin selling limited amounts of oil for food and medicine.
U.S. officials continued to accuse Saddam of violating the Gulf War's cease-fire agreement, by developing weapons of mass destruction and other banned weapons, and by violating the UN-imposed sanctions and "no-fly zones." Isolated military strikes by U.S. and British forces continued on Iraq, the largest being Operation Desert Fox in 1998.
After two years of intermittent activity, U.S. and British warplanes struck harder at sites near Baghdad in February 2001.
Saddam's base of Tikriti tribesmen, family members, and other supporters was divided after the war and in the following years. This added to the regime's increasingly repressive and arbitrary nature. Domestic repression inside Iraq grew worse, and Saddam's sons, Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein, became increasingly powerful and carried out a private reign of terror. They likely had a leading hand when, in August 1995, two of Saddam Hussein's sons-in-law, who held high positions in the Iraqi military, defected to Jordan. Both were killed after returning to Iraq the following February.
2003 invasion of Iraq
In 2003, the United States led an invasion of Iraq. The main reason for the invasion was President George W. Bush's claim that Saddam had weapons of mass destruction. Bush argued that this made Saddam a major threat to Western allies, such as oil-rich Saudi Arabia and Israel; to Western oil supplies from the Persian Gulf states; and to Middle East stability in general. The President before Bush, Bill Clinton (1993-2001), maintained sanctions and made occasional air strikes in the "Iraqi no-fly zones" or other restrictions, in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by his many political enemies. However, this never happened.
Things changed in the United States after the September 11, 2001 attacks. In his January 2002 State of the Union Address to the United States Congress, President Bush said that Iraq, Iran, and North Korea were an "axis of evil." Bush also argued that Iraq had supported Al-Qaeda, the terrorists who attacked the United States on September 11.
As the war was looming on February 24, 2003, Saddam Hussein talked with CBS News anchor Dan Rather for more than three hoursβhis first interview with a U.S. reporter in over ten years. CBS aired the taped interview later that week.
The Iraqi government and military collapsed within three weeks after the beginning of the U.S.-led invasion on March 20. The United States tried at least twice to kill Saddam with targeted air strikes, but both failed to hit their target. By the beginning of April, Coalition forces controlled much of Iraq. The resistance of the much-weakened Iraqi Army either crumbled or shifted to guerrilla tactics, and it appeared that Saddam had lost control of Iraq. He was last seen in a video which showed him in the Baghdad suburbs surrounded by supporters. When Baghdad fell to the Coalition on April 9, Saddam was nowhere to be found.
Pursuit and capture
Even when Baghdad was taken over, and most of the fighting had stopped, people still did not know where Saddam was. For a few weeks, some people said they saw Saddam, and some videotapes of Saddam talking came out, but still nobody knows if they were true or not.
Although Saddam was placed at the top of the "most-wanted list," he could not be found, even when the other leaders of the Iraqi regime were arrested. His sons and political heirs, Uday and Qusay, were killed in July 2003 in a clash with U.S. forces after a tip from an Iraqi.
On 14 December 2003, the Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA) of Iran first reported that Saddam Hussein had been arrested. These reports were soon confirmed by other members of the Governing Council, by U.S. military sources, and by British Prime Minister Tony Blair.
Shortly afterwards, the U.S. Civil Administrator in Iraq, Paul Bremer, held a press conference in Baghdad. He officially announced Saddam's capture by saying, "Ladies and gentlemen, we got him!" United States soldiers found Saddam around 8:30 PM Iraqi time on 13 December, in what was called Operation Red Dawn. Saddam was hiding in an underground "spider hole" at a farmhouse in ad-Dawr, near his hometown of Tikrit.
The first photos taken of Saddam after the soldiers found him did not look like the photos taken when he was President of Iraq. He had grown long hair and a long beard. Later on, he shaved his beard to confirm his identity. DNA tests proved that he really was Saddam Hussein. People who talked with him after the soldiers found him said he was healthy, and wanted to talk to people and do what they told him to do. Paul Bremer said that Saddam would have a trial, but that he did not know yet what kind of trial.
The Iraqi Special Tribunal was in charge of Saddam Hussein's trial, and the trials of some people that helped him to be President of Iraq.
In November 2006, Saddam Hussein was found guilty of 148 murders. On December 30, 2006, he was put to death. The hanging was recorded by officials of the government. A witness also secretly recorded the hanging with a cell phone camera, which included sound. The recording showed Saddam being calm as he was prepared for his final moments. Witnesses and executioners could be heard teasing Saddam as the rope was placed on his head, and he was put on the trap door. He was in the middle of a prayer when the trap door beneath him opened, and he was killed. Later, pictures and live video of Saddam's taunting and execution, and of his dead corpse were shown on many Internet sites.
Saddam was buried in his hometown, Al-Awja, Iraq, the next day.
Personal
Saddam had been married three times. His first marriage was to his first cousin, Sajida Talfah. She was the oldest daughter of Saddam's uncle, Khairallah Talfah. Together, Saddam and Sajida had two sons, Uday Saddam Hussein and Qusay Hussein, and three daughters, Rana, Raghad and Hala.
In early 1997, Sajida was put under house arrest, along with her daughters Raghad and Rana, because they were suspected of being involved in an attempted assassination on Uday on 12 December 1996. General Adnan Khairallah Tuffah, who was Sajida's brother and Saddam Hussein's boyhood friend, was allegedly executed because of his growing popularity.
Saddam Hussein also married two other women. The second was Samira Shahbandar, whom he married in 1986 after forcing her husband to divorce her. She was said to have been his favorite wife. His third wife was Nidal al-Hamdani, the general manager of the Solar Energy Research Center in the Council of Scientific Research, whose husband apparently was also persuaded to divorce his wife.
In August 1995, Rana; her husband, Hussein Kamel al Majid; Raghad; her husband, Saddam Kamel Majid; and their children defected to Jordan. They returned to Iraq when they were promised that Saddam Hussein would pardon them. Within three days of their return in February 1996, both of the Majid brothers were executed.
Saddam's daughter Hala is married to Jamal Mustafa, the deputy head of Iraq's Tribal Affairs Office. Neither has been known to be involved in politics. Another cousin was Ali Hassan al-Majid, also known in the United States as "Chemical Ali," who was accused of ordering the use of poison gas in 1988.
Execution
Saddam was scheduled to die on Thursday night, 28 December 2006. Because of last-minute legal appeals in Iraq's Supreme Court of Appeals, Saddam's execution came about 40 hours later. Saddam Hussein was hanged on 30 December 2006 at 6:05 AM, Iraqi time. Saddam refused to wear a hood. He was pronounced dead at 6:10 AM Baghdad time. Baghdad had curfews on those days, which required people to be off the streets by evening.
Notes
2 See PBS Frontline (2003), "The survival of Saddam: secrets of his life and leadership: interview with SaΓ―d K. Aburish" at .
3 From Elisabeth Bumiller's interview of Jerrold M. Post, the founder of the Center for the Analysis of Personality and Political Behavior at the CIA in the New York Times' (May 15, 2004) on the importance of events during Saddam Hussein's youth. It can be read online at .
8 The full text of Bush's 2002 State of the Union address can be read online (BBC News) at .
Other websites
The Saddam Hussein Sourcebook - Provided by the National Security Archive.
1937 births
2006 deaths
Criminals
Former dictators
Generals
Iraqi military people
Murderers
Muslims
People executed by hanging
Presidents of Iraq
Prime Ministers of Iraq
People from Tikrit
Vice Presidents of Iraq |
4804 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20traditional%20star%20names | List of traditional star names | This is a list of traditional names for stars, mostly from Arabic and Latin.
To find out more about any of these stars, look them up in the SIMBAD international database:
SIMBAD online
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
P
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
Related pages
List of stars
Other websites
Jim Kaler's star page
Lists of stars |
4805 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tectonic%20plates | List of tectonic plates | This is a list of the biggest tectonic plates on Earth. Including small ones, there are about a hundred tectonic plates. These are only the large ones.
Primary plates
These seven plates make up most of the seven continents, and the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
African plate
Antarctic plate
Indo-Australian plate
North American plate
Pacific plate
South American plate
Eurasian plate
Secondary plates
These plates are generally shown on major plate maps, with the exception of the Arabian and Indian plates, which are smaller than the others.
Arabian plate
Caribbean plate
Cocos plate
Juan de Fuca plate
Indian plate
Nazca plate
Philippine Sea plate ( also known as the Filipino plate)
Scotia plate
Somali plate
Panama Plate
Tertiary plates
These are parts of major plates, and bits and pieces of ancient plates that became broken up.
Agean plate
Related pages
Plate tectonics
Other websites
Bird, P. (2003) An updated digital model of plate boundaries also available as a large (13 mb) PDF file
Science-related lists |
4806 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20oil%20fields | List of oil fields | This list of oil fields includes major fields of the past and present.
(Amounts in parentheses are estimated reserves, in barrels.)
China
Daqing Field, Heilongjiang (40 billion)
Brazil
Campos Basin
Iran
Aghajari Field (14 billion)
Ahwaz Field (17 billion)
Gachsaran Field (15 billion)
Marun Field (16 billion)
Iraq
Kirkuk Field (16 billion)
Rumaila Field (20 billion)
Kazakhstan
Tengiz Field (15-26 billion)
Kashagan Field, Caspian (~50 billion)
Kuwait
Burgan Field (66-72 billion)
Mexico
Cantarell Field
Chicontepec Field
Nigeria
Niger Delta Field (34 billion)
Russia
Samotlor Field (20 billion)
Romashkino Field (16-17 billion)
Saudi Arabia
Abqaiq Field (12 billion)
Berri Field (12 billion)
Faroozan-Marjan Field (10 billion)
Ghawar Field (75-83 billion)
Manifa Field (11 billion)
Safaniya-Khafji Field, Neutral Zone (30 billion)
United Arab Emirates
Zakum Field, Abu Dhabi (12 billion)
United States
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska (10 billion)
Wilmington Oil Field, California (0.3 billion)
Venezuela
Bolivar Coastal Field
Geography-related lists
Fuel |
4807 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism | Anarchism | Anarchism is a philosophical movement and political movement, that is against all enforced kinds of hierarchy. For example, anarchism says that the government is harmful and not needed. It also says that people's actions should never be forced by other people. Anarchism is called a libertarian form of socialism.
Anarchism is a group of ideas centered on the belief that government is both harmful and not needed. The word "anarchism" is from the Greek Ξ±Ξ½Ξ±ΟΟΞ―Ξ±, which means "without rulers", not "without rule"; it is also sometimes translated as "without government".
In the common language, the word anarchy is often used to describe chaos or anomie. However, anarchists usually do not want this. Rather, they define "anarchy" as a way of relations between people. They believe that, once put into place, these relations work on their own. Anarchists are usually opposed by the systems they wish to remove.
Principles
Individual freedom, voluntary association, and being against the state are important beliefs of anarchism. There are also big differences between anarchist philosophies on things like whether violence can be used to bring about anarchy; the best type of economy; the relationship between technology and hierarchy; the idea of equality; and the usefulness of some organization. The word "authority" is not clear, but anarchists are not against some types of authority (e.g. the authority of someone skilled in self-defence over someone that wants to learn self-defence), they are only against control by force.
References |
4809 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20countries%20by%20area | List of countries by area | This is a list of countries by total area. The total area is the sum of all land and Inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers). Data is taken from the United Nations Statistics Division.
References
Area |
4810 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20countries%20by%20continents | List of countries by continents | This article consists of a list of countries by continent, along with their capitals.
There are multiple continent classification systems in use. The first continent system is the seven continent system consisting of Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania/Australia, North America, South America and Antarctica.
The six continent system is essentially the same as the seven continent system, the only difference being two continents are merged. There are two versions of the six continent system, one merging Europe and Asia to create Eurasia, and the other merging North and South America to create The Americas
The five continent system is applying Eurasia and The Americas together, all other continents remain the same.
Finally the four continent system is the same as the prior, however Africa joins Eurasia to become Afro-Eurasia, leaving only Oceania and Antarctica as separate continents.
The only variable in these systems is Antarctica. As Antarctica has no permanent population it isn't uncommon for it to be removed from these classification systems.
The most common system used varies from country to country.
There is no universally accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are. The minimum answer is the 193 United Nations member states. However, there are many more constituent, de facto and self-proclaimed independent states that are typically added to that list. Additionally certain highly autonomous first level administrative divisions fall under the definition of the word country.
The list below follows the seven continent system and predominantly includes only U.N member states unless otherwise stated.
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area and 20% of its land area, accounting for about a fifth of the world's land. With 1.3 billion people as of 2018, it accounts for about 16% of the world's human population. It is surrounded by large areas of water. There are 54 fully recognized and independent countries in Africa, and 14.7% (1.216 billion) of the world's population lives there. It is thought to be the continent where the first humans evolved.
Algeria - Algiers
Angola - Luanda
Benin - Porto Novo, Cotonou
Botswana - Gaborone
Burkina Faso - Ouagadougou
Burundi - Gitega
Cameroon (also spelled Cameroun) - YaoundΓ©
Cape Verde - Praia
Central African Republic - Bangui
Chad (Tchad) - N'Djamena
Comoros - Moroni
Republic of the Congo - Brazzaville
Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire) - Kinshasa
CΓ΄te d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) - Yamoussoukro
Djibouti - Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea - Malabo
Egypt (Misr) - Cairo
Eritrea - Asmara
Ethiopia (Abyssinia) - Addis Ababa
Gabon - Libreville
The Gambia - Banjul
Ghana - Accra
Guinea - Conakry
Guinea-Bissau - Bissau
Kenya - Nairobi
Lesotho - Maseru
Liberia - Monrovia
Libya - Tripoli
Madagascar - Antananarivo
Malawi - Lilongwe
Mali - Bamako
Mauritania - Nouakchott
Mauritius - Port Louis
Morocco (Al Maghrib) - Rabat
Mozambique - Maputo
Namibia - Windhoek
Niger - Niamey
Nigeria - Abuja
RΓ©union (territory of France)
Rwanda - Kigali
SΓ£o TomΓ© and PrΓncipe - SΓ£o TomΓ©
Senegal - Dakar
Seychelles - Victoria
Sierra Leone - Freetown
Somalia - Mogadishu
South Africa - Pretoria
South Sudan - Juba
Sudan - Khartoum
Swaziland (Eswatini) - Mbabane
Tanzania - Dodoma
Togo - Lome
Tunisia - Tunis
Uganda - Kampala
Western Sahara - El AaiΓΊn (disputed)
Zambia - Lusaka
Zimbabwe - Harare
Western Sahara (Listed in Sl No.53 above /*Africa*/) is not a UN Member as on 18/07/2021
Antarctica
Antarctica is Earth's southernmost continent. It contains the geographic South Pole and is in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle. It is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,000,000 square kilometres (5,400,000 square miles), it is the fifth-largest continent. For comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia.
About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice. However, there is a large part where the ice does not cover land: the ice shelves. There are important geographical features covered by the ice. The huge Lake Vostok has been covered by ice for at least 15 million years. There is a massive rift valley and a huge mountain range, both of which are covered at present.
Asia
Asia is the largest and most populous continent and is a continent in the seven continent system. Asia consists of forty-nine countries as per the United Nations along with many other highly autonomous regions and disputed areas that are often generalised as countries of their own.
Afghanistan - Kabul
Armenia - Yerevan
Azerbaijan - Baku
Bahrain - Manama
Bangladesh (বাΰ¦ΰ¦²ΰ¦Ύΰ¦¦ΰ§ΰ¦Ά) - Dhaka (ΰ¦’ΰ¦Ύΰ¦ΰ¦Ύ)
Bhutan - Thimphu
Brunei - Bandar Seri Begawan
Cambodia (Kampuchea) - Phnom Penh
China - Beijing
East Timor (Timor Leste) - Dili
Georgia - Tbilisi
India - New Delhi
Indonesia - Jakarta
Iran - Tehran
Iraq - Baghdad
Israel - Jerusalem
Japan - Tokyo
Jordan (Al Urdun) - Amman
Kazakhstan - Nur-Sultan
Kuwait - Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan - Bishkek
Laos - Vientiane
Lebanon (Lubnan) - Beirut
Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur
Maldives - MalΓ©
Mongolia - Ulaanbaatar
Myanmar (Burma) - Naypyidaw
Nepal - Kathmandu
North Korea - Pyongyang
Oman - Muscat
Pakistan - Islamabad
Palestine - Ramallah
Philippines - Manila
Qatar - Doha
Russia - Moscow (Russia is a part of Asia geographically, but, politically, it is a part of Europe)
Saudi Arabia - Riyadh
Singapore - Singapore
South Korea - Seoul
Sri Lanka - Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte (administrative), Colombo (commercial)
Syria - Damascus
Tajikistan - Dushanbe
Thailand (Muang Thai) - Bangkok
Turkey (TΓΌrkiye) - Ankara
Turkmenistan - AΕgabat
Taiwan - Taipei
United Arab Emirates - Abu Dhabi
Uzbekistan - Tashkent
Vietnam - Hanoi
Yemen - Sana'a
Europe
Europe is the second smallest continent, but the third most populous. It is a continent in one of the seven continent systems and the seven continent system. In other systems it is part of Asia, Eurasia or Eurafrasia. Below is the list of fully sovereign or de facto countries that are indisputably either entirely or partially situated within Europe. The 49 countries are:
Albania (ShqipΓ«ria) - Tirana
Andorra - Andorra la Vella
Austria (Γsterreich) - Vienna
Belarus (ΠΠ΅Π»Π°ΡΡΡΡ) - Minsk
Belgium (Dutch: BelgiΓ«, French: Belgique, German: Belgien) - Brussels
Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosna i Hercegovina) - Sarajevo
Bulgaria (ΠΡΠ»Π³Π°ΡΠΈΡ) - Sofia
Croatia (Hrvatska) - Zagreb
Cyprus (ΞΟΟΟΞΏΟ) - Nicosia
Czech Republic (Δesko) - Prague
Denmark (Danmark) - Copenhagen
Estonia (Eesti) - Tallinn
Finland (Suomi) - Helsinki
France - Paris
Georgia - Tbilisi
Germany (Deutschland) - Berlin
Greece (Ξλλάδα) - Athens
Hungary (MagyarorszΓ‘g) - Budapest
Iceland** (Island) - Reykjavik
Republic of Ireland (Γire) - Dublin
Italy (Italia) - Rome
Kosovo** - Pristina (Serbia continues to maintain its sovereignty claim over Kosovo. Not a UN member till date(18/07/2021))
Latvia (Latvija) - Riga
Liechtenstein - Vaduz
Lithuania (Lietuva) - Vilnius
Luxembourg - Luxembourg City
North Macedonia (ΠΠ°ΠΊΠ΅Π΄ΠΎΠ½ΠΈΡΠ°) - Skopje
Malta - Valletta
Moldova - Chisinau
Monaco - Monte Carlo Quarter
Montenegro (Crna Gora, Π¦ΡΠ½Π° ΠΠΎΡΠ°) - Podgorica
Netherlands (Nederland) - Amsterdam (Capital), The Hague (Government)
Norway (Norge) - Oslo
Poland (Polska) - Warsaw
Portugal - Lisbon
Romania - Bucharest
Russia** Moscow (Europe up to the Ural Mountains; Asia: the rest to Vladivostok)
San Marino - San Marino
Serbia (Π‘ΡΠ±ΠΈΡΠ°) - Belgrade
Slovakia (Slovensko) - Bratislava
Slovenia (Slovenija) - Ljubljana
Spain (EspaΓ±a) - Madrid
Sweden (Sverige) - Stockholm
Switzerland (German: Schweiz, French: Suisse, Italian: Svizzera, Romansh: Svizra) - Bern
Turkey (TΓΌrkiye) - Ankara
Ukraine (Π£ΠΊΡΠ°ΡΠ½Π°) - Kyiv
United Kingdom - London
Vatican City** (Italian: CittΓ del Vaticano, Latin: Civitas Vaticana) - Vatican City
There is no official boundary between Europe and Asia, as a result the continental status of some countries is often disputed. However Russia is considered to be European by the United Nations. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Cypres (Serial No.9 above) and Turkey (Serial no 45 above and listed in Serial no 43 in */Asia/*) are considered to be a part of Asia by the United Nations.
Kosovo is a highly recognised disputed territory with de facto independence.
Iceland sits on the European - North American tectonic plates. The Western half sits in North America, while the Eastern half sits on the European tectonic plate.
Vatican City State is a U.N observer state and not a U.N member.
North and Central America
North America is the third largest continent and the fourth most populous. It is a continent in the 7 continents system, consisting of 23 countries and 22 dependent territories which are:
Canada - Ottawa
Mexico - Mexico City
United States of America - Washington, District of Columbia
Navassa Island - Washington, D.C. (territory of U.S.)
Puerto Rico - San Juan (territory of U.S.)
US Virgin Islands - Charlotte Amalie (territory of U.S.)
Dominican Republic - Santo Domingo
Cuba - Havana
Haiti - Port-au-Prince
Belize - Belmopan
Costa Rica - San JosΓ©
El Salvador - San Salvador
Guatemala - Guatemala City
Honduras - Tegucigalpa
Guadeloupe (territory of France)
Martinique (territory of France)
Nicaragua - Managua
Panama - Panama City
Trinidad and Tobago - Port of Spain
Jamaica - Kingston
And many more countries and territories
South America
South America is the fourth largest continent and fifth most populous. It is a continent in the seven continent system. In other systems it is part of The Americas. The 12 countries and 3 dependent territories belonging to it are as follows:
Brazil (Brasil) - BrasΓlia
Argentina - Buenos Aires
Bolivia - SucrΓ©
Chile - Santiago
Colombia - BogotΓ‘
Ecuador - Quito
Falkland Islands - Stanley (territory of U.K.)
French Guiana - Cayenne (territory of France)
Guyana - Georgetown
Paraguay - AsunciΓ³n
Peru - Lima
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands - (territory of U.K.)
Suriname - Paramaribo
Uruguay - Montevideo
Venezuela - Caracas
Oceania
Several terms are in use to describe the region of Australia and the nations of the Pacific Ocean. The term Oceania is usually preferred, and this is the term in use by the United Nations. The term Pacific Islands generally excludes the islands of New Zealand, and the continent of Australia. The indigenous MΔori of New Zealand are Polynesian people.
Historically, the region was called Australasia. This term is based more on natural history (geology, and geography) rather than on politics. This term means Australia, New Zealand and the whole of New Guinea, plus those islands which are geologically connected.
The countries (14 total) are listed below according to their UN classification:
Australia - Canberra
Fiji - Suva
New Zealand - Wellington
Federated States of Micronesia - Palikir
Kiribati - South Tarawa
Marshall Islands - Majuro
Nauru - no capital; biggest city is Yaren
Palau - Ngerulmud
Papua New Guinea - Port Moresby
Samoa - Apia
Solomon Islands - Honiara
Tonga - Nuku'alofa
Tuvalu - Funafuti
Vanuatu - Port Vila
Australasia is not a politically designated region. It is a natural region of islands designated by its geology, geography, botany, and zoology. It is also an ecozone.
Australia
Flores
Lombok
Melanesia
New Caledonia
New Guinea
Sulawesi
Sumbawa
Timor
References
Other websites
http://www.world-gazetteer.com/home.htm
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/
http://ontheworldmap.com
Continents
Lists by continent |
4812 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20countries%20and%20dependencies%20by%20population | List of countries and dependencies by population | This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population. The number shows how many people live in each country. Countries with the most people are at the top of the list. Countries with the fewest people are at the bottom.
Also see: List of countries, List of countries by area, List of countries by population density.
Sovereign states and dependencies by population
Note: All dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of sovereign states are shown in italics and not assigned a numbered rank.
References
e
CIA, 9 August, 2005.
Notes
Population |
4813 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20oil-producing%20nations | List of oil-producing nations | This is a partial list of states that extract crude oil from oil wells.
Africa
Nigeria
Sudan
Equatorial Guinea
Asia
China
Russia
Indonesia
Malaysia
Europe
Bulgaria
North Sea oil:
United Kingdom
Norway
Denmark
Ireland
North America
United States of America
Texas
Alaska
California
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Kansas
New York
Michigan
Pennsylvania (the birthplace of the U.S. oil industry)
Illinois
Canada
Alberta
Saskatchewan
Ontario (the birthplace of the Canadian oil industry)
Newfoundland
Mexico
Persian Gulf
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Syria
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
South America
Argentina
Barbados
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Ecuador
Guatemala
Peru
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela
Other websites
Table of oil producers
http://www.ott.doe.gov/facts/archives/fotw125.shtml
http://www.ott.doe.gov/facts/archives/fotw117.shtml
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/reserves.html
Lists of countries |
4817 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forests%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom | Forests in the United Kingdom | This is a list of forests in the United Kingdom.
England
Cumbria
Whinfell Forest - Center Parcs
Derbyshire
Darwin Forest
Hampshire
New Forest
Norfolk
Thetford Forest
Nottinghamshire
Sherwood Forest
Staffordshire
Cannock Chase
Sussex
Ashdown Forest
Warwickshire
Forest of Arden
Worcestershire
Wyre Forest (part in Shropshire)
West Midlands
Black Country Urban Forest
To be classified
Bracknell Forest
Epping Forest
Forest of Avon
Forest of Mercia
Kielder Forest
Mersey Forest
National Forest
Royal Forest of Dean
Scotland
Dumfries and Galloway
Forest of Ae
Fife
Tentsmuir Forest
To be classified
Arecleoch Forest
Argyll Forest Park
Carrick Forest
Carsphairn Forest
Changue Forest
Corriedoo Forest
Craik Forest
Dalbeattie Forest
Dundeugh Forest
Fleet Forest
Laurieston Forest
Mabie Forest
Penninghame Forest
Rowardennan Forest
Queen Elizabeth Forest Park
Strathyre Forest
Tairlaw Forest
Wauchope Forest
Wales
Clocaenog Forest
Northern Ireland
Ballypatrick Forest Drive
Castlewellan Forest Park
Drum Manor Forest Park
Ely Lodge Forest
Florence Court Forest Park
Glenariff Forest Park
Gortin Glen Forest Park
Gosford Forest Park
Lough Navar Forest Drive
Tollymore Forest Park |
4818 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20prime%20numbers | List of prime numbers | This page contains a list of the first 120 prime numbers. It also contains lists of the first few prime numbers of different kinds.
First 120 prime numbers
List of twin primes
(3, 5), (5, 7), (11, 13), (17, 19), (29, 31), (41, 43), (59, 61) (71, 73), (101, 103), (107, 109), (137, 139), (149, 151), (179, 181), (191, 193), (197, 199), (227, 229), (239, 241), (269, 271), (281,283)
List of Mersenne primes
3, 7, 31, 127, 8191, 131071, 524287, 2147483647, 2305843009213693951
List of Fermat primes
As of 2003, these are the only known Fermat primes.
3, 5, 17, 257, 65537
List of Sophie Germain primes
2, 3, 5, 11, 23, 29, 41, 53, 83, 89, 113, 131, 173, 179, 191, 233, 239, 251, 281, 293, 359, 419, 431, 443, 491, 509, 593, 641, 653, 659, 683, 719, 743, 761, 809, 911, 953
List of Wilson primes
As of 2003, these are the only known Wilson primes.
5, 13, 563
List of Wolstenholme primes
As of 2003, these are the only known Wolstenholme primes.
16843, 2124679
List of factorial primes
2, 3, 5, 7, 23, 719, 5039, 39916801, 479001599, 87178291199
List of primorial primes
5, 7, 29, 31, 211, 2309, 2311, 30029
List of palindromic primes (Up to 100,000)
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 101, 131, 151, 181, 191, 313, 353, 373, 383, 727, 757, 787, 797, 919, 929, 10301, 10501, 10601, 11311, 11411, 12421, 12721, 12821, 13331, 13831, 13931, 14341, 14741, 15451, 15551, 16061, 16361, 16561, 16661, 17471, 17971, 18181, 18481, 19391, 19891, 19991, 30103, 30203, 30403, 30703, 30803, 31013, 31513, 32323, 32423, 33533, 34543, 34843, 35053, 35153, 35353, 35753, 36263, 36563, 37273, 37573, 38083, 38183, 38783, 39293, 70207, 70507, 70607, 71317, 71917, 72227, 72727, 73037, 73237, 73637, 74047, 74747, 75557, 76367, 76667, 77377, 77477, 77977, 78487, 78787, 78887, 79397, 79697, 79997, 90709, 91019, 93139, 93239, 93739, 94049, 94349, 94649, 94849, 94949, 95959, 96269, 96469, 96769, 97379, 97579, 97879, 98389, 98689.
List of cuban primes
Cuban primes of the form (x3 - y3) / (x - y), x is y + 1:
7, 19, 37, 61, 127, 271, 331, 397, 547, 631, 919, 1657, 1801, 1951, 2269, 2437, 2791, 3169, 3571, 4219, 4447, 5167, 5419, 6211, 7057, 7351, 8269, 9241, 10267, 11719, 12097, 13267, 13669, 16651, 19441, 19927, 22447, 23497, 24571, 25117, 26227
Cuban primes of the form (x3 - y3) / (x - y), x is y + 2:
13, 109, 193, 433, 769, 1201, 1453, 2029, 3469, 3889, 4801, 10093, 12289, 13873, 18253, 20173, 21169, 22189, 28813, 37633, 43201, 47629, 60493, 63949, 65713, 69313, 71538
List of median primes
5, 13, 41, 61, 113, 181
List of lucky primes
3, 7, 13, 31, 37, 43, 67, 73, 79, 127, 151, 163, 193, 211, 223, 241, 283, 307, 331, 349, 367, 409, 421, 433, 463, 487, 541, 577, 601, 613, 619, 631, 643, 673, 727, 739, 769, 787, 823, 883, 937, 991, 997, 1009, 1021, 1039, 1087, 1093, 1117, 1123, 1201, 1231, 1249, 1291, 1303, 1459, 1471, 1543, 1567, 1579, 1597, 1663, 1693, 1723, 1777, 1801, 1831, 1879, 1933, 1987, 2053, 2083, 2113, 2221, 2239, 2251, 2281, 2311, 2467, 2473, 2557, 2593, 2647, 2671, 2689, 2797, 2851, 2887, 2953, 2971, 3037, 3049, 3109, 3121, 3163, 3187, 3229, 3259, 3301, 3307, 3313, 86743
Related pages
List of numbers
Other websites
Lists of Primes at the Prime Pages
Interface to a list of the first 98 million primes (primes less than 2,000,000,000)
List of primes up to 1,299,827
Mathematics lists |
4819 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20publishers | List of publishers | This is a list of publishers in English.
A
Anvil Press Poetry
Arcade Publishing
Ardis Books Homepage
Athlone Books
Atlas Press
B
Basic Books
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
Bison Books
Black Sparrow Books
Bloodaxe Books
Bloomsbury.com - Home page
Borzoi Reader Classics
C
Calder Publications
Cambridge University Press
Carcanet
Carroll and Graf
Catbird Press
Central European University Press
City Lights Publishers
Columbia University Press
CompanionGuides.com
Continuum - Athlone
Copper Canyon Press
Counterpoint Press
Creation Books
D
Da Capo Press
Dalkey Archive Press
Dedalus Books
Detritus.com
Dover Publications
Duckworth Online
E
Ediciones Altovolta
Exact Change
F
Farrar
G
Glas New Russian Writing
Godine Publishing
Grove Press / Atlantic Monthly Press
H
Hackett
HarperCollins Publishers
Harvard University Press
Harvill Press at Random House
Hesperus press
I
iBooks, Inc.
Indiana University Press
Inpress Books UK
Intellect
Interlink Publishing Online
Ivan R. Dee
J
Johns Hopkins University Press
K
Kessinger Publishing
Kodansha
M
Malton House Press
Marion Boyars Online
Methuen
MIT Press
Modern Library
N
New Directions Publishing
Northwestern University Press
NYRB Classics
O
Oomf, Inc.
Open Court
Open Court Book
Overlook Press
Oxford University Press - UK
Oxford University Press - US
P
Pan Macmillan
Pantheon Books at Random House
Pathfinder Books
Paulist Press
Penguin Classics
Penguin Group (USA)
Penguin UK
Peter Owen Publishers
Phaidon Press
Phoenix Press history reprints
Picador UK
Picador USA
Pimlico Books at Random House
Princeton University Press
Prometheus Books
R
Random House UK
randomhouse.com (US)
Routledge
S
Schocken Books
Scholastic Inc.
Shambhala Publications
Shanti Sadan Publications
Smith and Kraus Publishers
Stanford University Press
Station Hill Press
Steerforth Press
Stone Bridge Press
Sun & Moon
SUNY Press
T
TASCHEN Books
Thames & Hudson (UK)
Thames & Hudson (USA)
The New Press
Tuttle Publishing
Twisted Spoon Press
U
University of California Press Books
University of Chicago Press
University of Minnesota Press
University of Nebraska Press
University of Toronto Medieval Texts
V
Vedanta Press and Catalog
Verso Books
Vintage (US)
Vintage Books at Random House (UK)
W
W.W. Norton & Company
Welcome to Random House
Wisdom Publications
Wordsworth Editions Website
Y
Yale University Press
Z
Zephyr Press
Lists of companies
Publishing |
4821 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9CCLinux | ΞCLinux | Β΅CLinux is an operating system for small computers inside integrated circuits (chips). The system is based on the Linux operating system in many ways. Apart from the rather big size of Linux, Β΅CLinux is much smaller and not as packed with features as Linux. It finds uses in many places, mostly dealing with sensor and data-gathering of different sorts.
Thanks to its compact nature, it can easily be transferred over slow connections. Yet it is a stable and robust system distributed as an open source program.
Β΅CLinux |
4822 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIX | UNIX | UNIX is a computer operating system. It was first developed in 1969 at Bell Labs. Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and others created it. They used assembly language to write it. In 1972, the Unix code was rewritten with the new C programming language. The Unix operating system is a multiuser and multiprocessing system. This means it can run several application programs at the same time, for more than one user at the same time. It also is able to operate well in a network of computers. Computer security is also important in Unix, because many people can have access to it, both by using a computer directly or over a network.
Many ideas in Unix were new. Other operating systems copied them. Today, there are many operating systems that have some of the ideas of Unix in them. For this reason, some people talk about a "Unix philosophy" of doing things. Linux is one of these systems with many of the Unix ideas in it. Linux does not use code from UNIX. Linux only shares some of the ideas and the names of commands. So, Linux is not a UNIX operating system. Instead it is called "Unix-like".
There can be many different users in a Unix and Unix-like operating system. Most of them have a personal area where they can put things. This is called a user account.
One way of using a Unix system is with the command line interface. Users run commands and programs by typing text characters. This takes time to learn, but it is a very powerful and flexible way of working. It is still used by most Unix administrators. These commands are run in a shell, which can change slightly between one system and another.
A graphical user interface (GUI) is the other method. The X Window System is a very common GUI for Unix systems. The X Window System is only a shell of a graphical interface. It has many protocols. The X Window System itself does not let the user to move and resize windows. Users need a window manager or desktop manager to do that.
Some of the popular desktop and window managers are:
Gnome
KDE
Windowmaker
Xfce
Like most other graphical user interfaces, they use windows, dialog boxes, support the use of a computer mouse, and are designed to be easy to use.
There are many thousands of programs available for the X Window System. Programs like word processors and spreadsheets are available including free and open-source software.
Two types of Unix
Today, there are two kinds of operating systems that are like UNIX.
The first group is all those that share some kernel code with the original from Bell Labs at AT&T. This includes the commercial UNIX types: Solaris or AIX.
The second group includes free operating systems that usually have BSD in their name, like FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD. These are based on free BSD. Mac OS X is also based on BSD.
There are also free systems based on the Linux kernel. These do not share any code with the original UNIX. BSD systems share very little code with the original Unix because much of the code has been rewritten over many years. Many people use the terms Unix and Unix-like systems to be clear.
Most applications can run on any modern Unix or Unix-like system. KDE and GNOME were developed for Linux and later changed to run on commercial types of Unix.
Other websites
Manual Pages for FreeBSD - pages saying exactly what each command does
References
Operating systems |
4826 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature | Signature | A signature is a special way that people write their name to let others know that they understand or approve of something that was written. A signature is often used to sign a contract, a cheque, or a petition.
There are many ways to write a signature, and signatures may look different depending on your location. In the United States, many people have a signature which is made from writing their name in their own handwriting, often in cursive. Some signatures may be written in a different style than normal writing, which may make it difficult to read. Some people practice autographs, or fancy signatures that are hard to copy.
Hundreds of years ago some people used sealing wax to make a copy of their signet rings next to or instead of a signature. This was called their "seal. This is where the term "seal of approval" comes from. Some formal documents still use an official wax seal, such as a coat of arms.
Types of signatures
Wet signature:- A wet signature, ink signature, or wet ink signature is the physical marking a person makes to sign their name on a physical document, usually with a pen.
Wet signatures are the most common kind of signatures and have been used for centuries as a unique marking to indicate agreement and prevent fraud. Physical signatures have been used since 3500 B.C. in the form of seals, but it was in the 1600s when signatures written on paper became widely used and legally valid.
Although wet signatures can be forged by skilled people, they were the norm until the beginning of the 21st century, when online signatures started to become legally binding.
Electronic signature or E-signature:- Software programmes allow an electronic representation of a signature to be used thatβs been created by the software.
Digital signature:- A digital signature is a signature created by the authoriser such as copying, pasting and embedding a copy of their signature or a signature created using a stylus pen.
References
Writing
Authentication methods |
4828 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoa | Cocoa | Cocoa is the seed of the cacao tree. The seed contains a lot of fat and is used to produce cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is then used to produce chocolate. The cocoa which is used to make chocolate is a fine powder.
History
Chocolate and cocoa are made from the beans of the cacao tree. The tree might have first come from the foothills of the Andes Mountains near the Amazon River and the Orinoco River in South America. The tree was brought to Central America by the ancient Mayas, and was grown in Mexico by the Toltecs and later by the Aztecs.
Cocoa was an important product in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. People who told the story of the conquest of Mexico by HernΓ‘n CortΓ©s said that when Moctezuma II, emperor of the Aztecs, ate dinner he took no other drink than chocolate, served in a golden goblet and eaten with a golden spoon. Flavored with vanilla and spices, his chocolate was whipped into a froth that dissolved in the mouth. No less than 50 pitchers of the drink were prepared for the emperor each day, and 2000 more for nobles of his court.
Chocolate was brought to Europe by the Spaniards and became a popular drink by 1700. They also brought the cacao tree to the West Indies and the Philippines. It was used in alchemical processes, where it was known as Black Bean.
The cacao plant was first given its name by Swedish natural scientist Carl von LinnΓ© (1707-1778), who called it "theobroma cacao" or "food of the gods".
Harvesting
A pod has a rough leathery rind about 3Β cm (1ΒΌ inch) thick. It is filled with slimy pinkish pulp, sweet but inedible, enclosing from 30 to 50 large almond-like seeds or "beans" that are fairly soft and pinkish or purplish in color. As soon as they ripen, the pods are removed with a curved knife on a long pole, opened with a machete, and left to dry until taken to fermentation.
Then the beans are removed and piled in heaps, bins, or on grates where, during several days of "sweating", the thick pulp ferments until it thins and trickles off. The quality of the beans, which originally have a strong bitter taste, depends upon this sweating. If it is overdone they may be ruined; if underdone they have a flavor like raw potatoes and are susceptible to mildew.
Then the beans are spread out, constantly raked over, and dried. On large plantations this is done on huge trays, either outdoors by sunshine or in sheds by artificial heat. However, thousands of tons from smaller producers are dried on small trays or on cowhides. Finally, the beans are trodden and shuffled about (often using bare human feet) and sometimes, during this process red clay mixed with water is sprinkled over the beans to obtain a finer color, polish, and protection against molds during shipment to factories in the United States, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, and other countries. About 3,000,000 tonnes of cocoa are grown each year. The Netherlands is the leading cocoa processing country, followed by the U.S.
Use of cocoa
Uses of cocoa are numerous. It may be used in cakes, creams, drinks, toppings and cookies.
Besides its use as a food, by use of the scientific process it has been determined that cocoa is beneficial for health. Cocoa has nearly twice the anti-cancer antioxidants of red wine, and up to three times those found in green tea.
Problems with growth and sale
Many cocoa farmers get a low price for their products. This has led to cocoa and chocolate being available as fair trade items in some countries, but this fair trade remains a minority percentage of total trade.
Slavery has commonly been used in its production: see Cocoa Protocol for an effort to end this.
Pollination is exclusively by midges, which may be affected by pesticides
References
Other websites
International Cocoa Organization
The Food of the Gods - the nature, growth, cultivation, manufacture and history of Cocoa, by Brandon Head, from Project Gutenberg
http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/cocoa - cocoa recipes
Food ingredients |
4831 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory%20Coast | Ivory Coast | Ivory Coast or CΓ΄te d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of CΓ΄te d'Ivoire, is a country in West Africa.
The capital of CΓ΄te d'Ivoire is Yamoussoukro but its biggest city is Abidjan. Other cities can be found at List of cities in CΓ΄te d'Ivoire.
Geography
It borders the Gulf of Guinea to the south and five other African nations. Liberia is to the southwest, Guinea to the northwest, Mali to the north-northwest, Burkina Faso to the north-northeast, and Ghana to the east.
Regions
CΓ΄te d'Ivoire is divided into nineteen regions. The regions are further divided into 81 departments.
Related pages
CΓ΄te d'Ivoire at the Olympics
CΓ΄te d'Ivoire national football team
List of rivers of CΓ΄te d'Ivoire
References
Notes
French-speaking countries
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
1960 establishments in Africa |
4834 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke%20McCormick | Luke McCormick | Luke McCormick (b. 15 August 1983) is an English football player. He was born August 15, 1983 in Coventry, England. He is a goalkeeper. He plays for the English football team Swindon Town.
In the 2003/04 season, McCormick played when Romain Larrieu could not. Larrieu injured his knee. McCormick played instead. Plymouth Argyle beat Stockport County on 24 January 2004. The score was 2-0. In this match McCormick set a new club record of seven clean sheets in a row. A clean sheet is a game where the other side gets no goals.
McCormick was voted the most promising player of the 2003/04 season by Plymouth Argyle fans.
On 7 June 2008. McCormick was arrested on suspicion for killing two people by dangerous driving. Subsequently, he was released by Plymouth Arygle and was jailed for seven years on 6 October 2008 but could be out in three and a half years.
Club career statistics
|-
|2000-01||rowspan="5"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="2"|Third Division||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||1||0
|-
|2001-02||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|-
|2002-03||rowspan="2"|Second Division||3||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||3||0
|-
|2003-04||40||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||41||0
|-
|2004-05||League Championship||23||0||colspan="2"|-||1||0||24||0
|-
|2004-05||Boston United||League Two||2||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|2005-06||rowspan="3"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="3"|League Championship||1||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0||3||0
|-
|2006-07||40||0||5||0||1||0||46||0
|-
|2007-08||30||0||2||0||3||0||35||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
|}
References
British criminals
English association football goalkeepers
People from Coventry
1983 births
Living people |
4841 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/God%20paradox | God paradox | The God paradox is an idea in philosophy. This idea is explained here:
If God is able to do anything, may this mean He is able to make a mountain heavier than He is able to lift?
This is a paradox because:
If God is able to make a mountain heavier than He is able to lift, then there may be something He is not able to do: He is not able to lift that mountain. Yes and no
If God is not able to make such a mountain, then there is something He is not able to do: He is not able to make that mountain.
If either outcome were considered true, then it is argued that God Almighty is actually not almighty.
Answers to the God Paradox
The God paradox is a good example of a philosophical problem. This section has some answers to this paradox.
One answer is that God could make it so he can't lift the mountain by his own choice. In other words, God can lift the unliftable mountain because he is all powerful, but he chooses not to be able to, and so he chooses to cut his own power, because he is able. God can also choose to not be able to create such a mountain. God is all powerful, so he can choose not to have the power to make an unliftable mountain. Simply said, God can cut his own power, but in so doing, he can still regain that power. It is a limbo, a state between not powerful and powerful, something that is not definable by our knowledge of what is possible or impossible. Because God is almighty, he surpasses our definitions of what he can and cannot do. God
God cannot
This answer says God is able to do only things less than God. If you say there exists a mountain that is "heavier than anybody is able to lift," then what you say is funny: it means nothing, because God is able to lift any mountain. This is because saying a mountain is "too heavy to lift" means this mountain cannot be lifted by anybody. This does not mean that God is too weak to lift very heavy mountains. God cannot lift an "unliftable" mountain because that would not make sense. He also cannot create an "unliftable" mountain because that also would not make sense, if God can lift everything. God could still lift any mountain that is not defined as "cannot be lifted." For example, God can make a mountain as heavy as he wants, but he cannot make a round square.
Logic
In logic, problems can often be solved by breaking them into smaller pieces. One solves each of the small problems.
Let us see how one can use this for the God Paradox. The paradox is:
If God can do anything, can He make a mountain which is too heavy for Him to lift?
If one changes this question to a sentence, it becomes:
God can do anything, which means that He can make a mountain which is too heavy for Him to lift.
We can make this even simpler. First we must see that because God can do anything:
He can make an unliftable mountain,
He can lift anything.
Now we can write the sentence as these facts:
God can do anything.
God can make an unliftable mountain (because of fact 1).
God can lift anything (because of fact 1).
God cannot lift the mountain.
Facts 1, 2 and 3 must always be true. Now we must see if fact 4 is true or false:
If 4 is true, then 3 must be false (fact 1 must also be false).
The conclusion is that the statement "God can do anything" needs to be qualified. By this logic God cannot do both of two things that are mutually contradictory. C. S. Lewis says that logical contradictions are not a "thing". Rather they are nonsense. The question (and therefore the perceived paradox) is meaningless. Nonsense does not suddenly acquire sense and meaning with the addition of the two words, "God can" before it.
God can
Some people think, "Yes, God is able to do things that make Him not able." They think God is able to do things that are funny to think, "Because", they say, "there is nothing God is not able to do." (See Gospel of Matthew 19:26) However other Bible verses mention things that God cannot do. Hebrews 6:16 says that God cannot lie. Malachi 3:6 says that God cannot change. James 1:3 says that God cannot be tempted by sin.
Some have suggested that God can do things that defy conventional logic. If He lives in other dimensions a different logic may apply. Some say that God cannot make a square circle. This is true in a two dimensional world. However, a cylinder can be a square viewed from the side and a circle viewed from the top. Likewise, a triangle can have three angles that add to more that 180 degrees. This is possible only on a three dimensional surface like a sphere. It can't be done on a two dimensional plane. (Plane geometry). Addition of an additional dimension changes the logic.
God is infinite
God is beyond limitation. His strength is infinite. If He chooses to create a mountain that is too heavy for Him to lift he would simultaneously become strong enough to lift it (which actually means he's not omnipotent, because if he can gradually become stronger, then he can't be all powerful). To ask if the creation of such a mountain is possible is to attempt putting a limitation on the limitless.
Job
At the end of the Book of Job, God 'answered Job out of the whirlwind' and asks him:
'Who is this that darkens council by words without knowledge?..where were you when I laid the foundations of the Earth?' (Job chapter 38, 1-4)
In other words, God's powers are beyond human understanding, as human reason itself is part of God's creation in the Book of Genesis.
Notes
Further reading
These references may not be simple to understand.
Hoffman, Joshua, Rosenkrantz, Gary. "Omnipotence" The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2002 Edition). Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Available online. Accessed 19 April 2006.
Mackie, J.L. "Evil and Omnipotence." Mind LXIV, No, 254 (1955).
Wierenga, Edward. "Omnipotence" The Nature of God: An Inquiry into Divine Attributes. Cornell University Press, 1989. Available online. Accessed 19 April 2006.
Philosophy |
4843 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism | Libertarianism | Libertarianism is a view in politics and philosophy that focuses on liberty. Libertarianism says that it is usually better to give people more free choice. It also says that the government should have less control over people. There are different kinds of libertarianism in both left-wing and right-wing politics.
Libertarianism grew out of liberalism as a movement in the 1800s. Many of the beliefs of libertarianism are similar to the beliefs in classical liberalism. It also has roots in anarchism and the Austrian School of economics.
Individual rights
Libertarians believe that no person can justly own or control the body of another person, what they call βself-ownershipβ or βindividual sovereignty.β In simple words, every person has a right to control her or his own body.
In the 19th century, United States libertarians like William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and Lysander Spooner were all abolitionists. Abolitionists were people who wanted to end slavery right away.
Garrison based his opposition to slavery on the idea of self-ownership. Since you have a natural right to control your own body, no one else has any right to steal that control from you. Garrison and Douglass both called slave masters βman stealers.β
Stopping violence
If you have a right to control your own body, then no one has a right to start violence (or force) against you.
Some libertarians believe that all violence is unjust. These libertarians are often called "anarcho-pacifists". Robert LeFevre was a libertarian who rejected all violence. However, most libertarians believe that there are some ways violence can be justified.
One thing that justifies violence is self defense. If someone is violent towards you, you have a right to defend yourself with equal force.
The libertarian Murray N. Rothbard said that it would be wrong to kill someone for stealing a pack of gum. If you steal gum, this is an act of violence against the property owner. The owner has a right to use defensive violence to get the gum back, but killing the thief goes too far. That is too much force because it is not equal to the force used by the thief. Punishment must be equal to the crime. A student and colleague of his, Walter Block, said that a punishment should not be equal to the crime, but rather enough to make up for the damage the crime caused plus how much it cost to catch the criminal.
Some libertarians believe that it is your moral duty to defend yourself and your property if you can. This belief is usually held by Objectivists. These people believe that pacifism is immoral. Most libertarians disagree with this view.
All libertarians believe that it is wrong to start violence against any person or against what he or she owns. They call this the "non-aggression principle."
Property
Ownership is the right to control something. Property is the thing that you control.
Libertarians believe that property rights come from self-ownership. This means that because you have a right to control your own body, you also have a right to control what you make with it.
The English philosopher John Locke said that a person comes to own something by using it. So, if you turn an area that no-one else owns into a farm and use it, that area becomes your property. This is called the "homestead principle."
Libertarians also say that you can become a legitimate owner by receiving something as a gift or by trading it with someone for something they own. You do not become a legitimate owner by stealing. You also do not become a legitimate owner by simply saying you own something. If you have not "homesteaded" the thing or received it through trade or gift, you do not own it.
Government
Libertarians are opposed to states (or governments) creating any "laws" that tell people what they can and cannot do with their own bodies. The only legitimate laws are laws that say a person may not start violence against other people or their legitimate property. All "laws" stopping people from doing nonviolent things should be repealed, according to libertarians. (These "laws" are usually called "victimless crimes" because there is no victim if there is no harm.)
In most countries, the state (or government) takes tax money from the people. All libertarians support cutting taxes back, and some libertarians believe the state should not take tax money at all. Libertarians think people can take care of the poor without the government. They believe that people should pay for the things that they want to use, but not have to pay for other things that they do not want. Tax evasion (refusal to pay taxes to the state) is a victimless crime. Libertarians would prefer to see taxation replaced with lotteries, user fees, and endowments.
Libertarians think everyone should be allowed to decide what is good or bad for her/his own body. Libertarians think if people want to drive cars without wearing seat belts, it is their own choice. They should not be forcibly stopped from doing that, not even by the state. If a person wants to donate all of her/his money to a charity, or waste it all gambling, that is also something she/he should decide for herself/himself. No one should be forcibly stopped from doing that, not even by the state. Libertarians even say that if adults want to use harmful drugs, they should be allowed to do that, even if it spoils their lives. It is the drug user's own choice because it is the drug user's own body. As long as the drug user does not start using violence against other people or their legitimate property, no one should use violence against the drug user or the drug user's legitimate property, not even the government.
Many libertarians also believe that families and friends should look after people so that they will not use drugs, drive without seat belts, or do other things that are dangerous for them. But no one can force others to do things that they do not want to do, or to stop them from doing nonviolent things that they want to do.
Types of Libertarians
There are two broad basic types of libertarians.
Minarchism
Minarchists are libertarians who believe that society should have a state with very limited power. They believe that free markets are the most moral and efficient way of providing goods and services. They typically believe that the only things the state should provide are police and judges to make sure that people obey the laws, and a military to make sure that no one attacks the country. Some minarchists believe in having a small amount of taxation and limited provision of public goods such as international diplomacy and public parks.
Two famous minarchist libertarians are Robert Nozick and Ayn Rand. Nozick believed that the only legitimate thing a state can do is have a police force. He called his legitimate state a "night-watchman state." Ayn Rand believed that the state should have a police force and a court system.
Anarchism
Libertarian anarchists usually call themselves anarcho-capitalists, free-market anarchists, individualist anarchists, or just anarchists.
Libertarian anarchists do not believe the state is needed. They believe that people can organise their own lives and businesses. They want to replace the state with voluntary organisations, including charities, private companies, voluntary unions, and mutual aid societies. They also want to end all forced taxation.
They say that state police can be replaced with "DROs" (Dispute Resolution Organisations) or "private protection agencies." They also say that state judges can be replaced with "private arbitration."
A famous libertarian anarchist thinker was Murray N. Rothbard. Others include Lysander Spooner, Benjamin R. Tucker, and Linda & Morris Tannehill.
Other types
Most libertarians fall under one of the two types of libertarians listed above. But there are other types, too.
Libertarian constitutionalists are libertarians who believe that the only legitimate things a state can do are those things that have been approved in a constitution. Libertarian constitutionalists include Ron Paul.
Agorists are revolutionary libertarian anarchists who believe that we should fight the state through what they call "counter-economics." Agorists include Samuel Edward Konkin, III and Brad Spangler.
Objectivists are libertarians who believe in atheism. They believe that humans are able to know things, as opposed to skepticism, which is the idea that people cannot know things with certainty. They believe reason is the only path to truth, and that a system of free capitalism is the only ethical system of government. Objectivists include Ayn Rand. (There are also some "anarcho-Objectivists," such as Linda & Morris Tannehill and Roy A. Childs, Jr..)
Left-libertarians are libertarian anarchists who believe that a free market capitalistic system will not lead to more equality. They are often very open to ideas such as "worker self-management" and feminism. These beliefs often work well with anrarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism. Left-libertarians include Benjamin R. Tucker and Roderick T. Long.
Anarcho-pacifists are libertarians who believe that no force is ever legitimate, not even in self-defence. Although Robert LeFevre did not call himself an "anarcho-pacifist" (or even an "anarchist"), he was one.
Autarchism is a form of libertarian anarchism which supports individual freedom, self-reliance, and individualism. To put it simply, autarchists believe in the philosophy: "Control yourself". Robert LeFevre is a self-described autarchist.
Geolibertarians believe that the only legitimate tax is a tax on land. This is often called the "single tax" or "land value tax".
Voluntaryism is another term for libertarian anarchism. Voluntaryists believe that only voluntary actions are legitimate. This means that all government force is illegitimate. The first libertarian to call himself a voluntaryist was Auberon Herbert.
Civil libertarians are people who believe in the preservation of civil liberties, such as free speech. But not all civil libertarians believe you should be allowed to do what you want with the money you earn. All libertarians are civil libertarians, but not all civil libertarians are libertarians.
References |
4853 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auction | Auction | An auction is a method of goods or services can be sold and bought. In an auction, the price of an item is not fixed in advance. People wanting to buy the item say how much they are willing to pay for it. This is called bid. In each round, the bids are evaluated: If certain criteria are met, the auction is stopped and one bidder will buy the item at the specified price. Alternatively there will be another round. If certain conditions are met, the auction will stop, and the item will not be sold. There are different kinds of auctions, with different rules.
Auctions usually happen with a given timeframe, when the time expires, the bid that best matches will win, or the item will not be sold.
There are companies that specialize in doing auctions. These companies will charge fees for doing the auction; they may also get a commission that depends on the price the item is sold at.
Auctions can be done online, or they can be done offline. Sometimes, bids are placed by telephone, or over the internet.
Most common kinds of auction
The most common kinds of auction are:
English auction: the highest bidder wins. The auction starts at the lowest price the seller is willing to sell at, and goes up with the price as long as someone is willing to pay a higher price.
Dutch auction goes the other way round: The auction starts with the highest price, and goes down until a price is found, at which someone is willing to buy. The auction is stopped, when a predefined lowest price is reached, below which the auction cannot take place.
Sealed first-bid auction: All the bids are submitted at the same time, in a sealed envelope, the bidder with the highest bid wins
Vicrey auction (or sealed-bid second-price auction) : Works the same as the Sealed first-bid auction, but the bidder only plays the second-highest price. This kind of auction is very important in economic theory, and to model certain economic contexts
The mechanisms why auctions work
Auctions work because of information asymmetry: The seller wants to sell at the highest possible price, and the buyers want to pay as little as possible.But the seller does not know the prices the buyers are willing to pay: Setting a price that is too hight means that there will be no sale, setting a price that is too low means that there will be less profit. Each buyer knows how much he is willing to pay, but does not know the price the other buyers are willing to pay. So buyers influence each other. The theory that models these phenomena is called auction theory. It is based on game theory and microeconomics.
Commerce |
4860 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Kong | Hong Kong | Hong Kong (; , , literally "Fragrant Port"), officially The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of The People's Republic of China, is one of two Special Administrative Regions (SARs) of the People's Republic of China (the other is Macau). It is one of the richest and most highly developed parts of China. Hong Kong grew quickly in the decades after World War II. It is now a famous world class financial center. Hong Kong was one of the last territories of the British Empire before China obtained it and granted it special status in 1997.
The population of Hong Kong is more than seven million. The economy has rapidly grown from a trading port to a very rich city. Hong Kong also has the world's largest number of skyscrapers.
Hong Kong is divided into 3 main parts:
Hong Kong Island
Kowloon
New Territories (including 235 outlying islands)
Hong Kong was a British colony from 1842 to 1997 because China lost the Second Opium War. After the handover, Hong Kong became under Chinese control but with a lot of autonomy.
Hong Kong has its own constitution that is different from that of the People's Republic of China (PRC).
Climate
Hong Kong is in a tropical area, and has monsoon winds. It is cool and wet in winter (Jan-Mar), hot and rainy from spring through summer (Apr-Sep), and warm, sunny and dry in the autumn (Oct-Dec). The rainy season is from May until September. In summer and early autumn, there is a frequent threat of typhoons.
As Hong Kong is located nearly at the centre of the Eurasian Plate, there are sometimes tsunamis and earthquakes.
Population and language
The population of Hong Kong reached 7 million (7,496,98) in 2020. Most of the people in Hong Kong are Chinese. Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. It has an overall density of 6,300 people per square kilometre.
Hong Kong has one of the worldβs lowest birth ratesβ1.11 per woman at an age of being capable to give birth as of 2012. This is far below the rate needed to replace each person, 2.1.
People from Hong Kong mainly speak Cantonese. Students are required to learn English at school. Ever since Hong Kong became a part of China, the number of people who speak Mandarin has increased because Mandarin is the official language of the PRC.
Public holidays
In Hong Kong, 17 days of the year are public holidays:
1 January - New Year's Day, the beginning of the year
the Chinese New Year - 15 days of celebrations, of which 3 are public holidays
Ching Ming Festival, also known as "Tomb Sweeping Day"
Easter (3 public holidays)
1 May - Labour Day
The Buddha's birthday
Dragon Boat Festival
1 July (HKSAR Day)
the day after Mid-Autumn Festival
1 Oct - Chinese National Day
Chung Yeung Festival - a day when people honor their ancestors, similar to "Tomb Sweeping Day"
25 December - Christmas
26 December - Boxing Day
31 December - New Year's Eve, or the last day of the year
Currency
There are coins from 10 cents to 10 Hong Kong Dollars and bank-notes (paper money bills) from $10 to $1000. One American dollar is equal to about $7.79 in Hong Kong Dollars, at the official bank exchange rate.
Public transport
Mass Transit Railway (MTR) which was established in 1979, owns seven lines (10 lines after KCR merger),
Kwun Tong Line (running between Whampoa/Ho Man Tin and Tiu Keng Leng)
Tsuen Wan Line (running between Tsuen Wan and Central)
Island Line (running between Kennedy Town and Chai Wan)
South Island Line (running between Admiralty and South Horizons)
Tseung Kwan O Line (running between Po Lam/LOHAS Park and North Point)
Tung Chung Line (running between Tung Chung/Tsing Yi and Hong Kong)
Airport Express (running between AsiaWorld-Expo and Hong Kong)
Disneyland Resort Line (running between Sunny Bay and Disneyland Resort)
East Rail Line (running between Hung Hom and Lo Wu/Lok Ma Chau)
Tuen Ma Line (running between Wu Kai Sha and Tuen Mun)
Bus: there are four major bus companies in Hong Kong, such as KMB which mainly services Kowloon, the rest are New Lantau Bus, who mainly services Lantau Island, Citybus, which mainly serves airport routes and New World First Bus, which mainly services Hong Kong Island.
Public Light Bus: in the 1960s, it was an illegal transportation, but later on, the government noticed that if there were only buses in Hong Kong, then some villages in N.T. will not have a public transport. Therefore, the Legislative Council made it legal and under government control.
Tram (running between Kennedy Town, Happy Valley, and Shau Kei Wan)
Peak Tram (running between Garden Road and Victoria Peak)
Taxi [Red (Kowloon and Hong Kong Island), Green (New Territories), and Blue (Lantau Island)]
Ferry (Lots of different companies, including the Star Ferry, First Ferry and Fortune Ferry companies)
Hong Kong International Airport is the main airport of the territory. It is the busiest airport in the world in cargo traffic terms.
Education
Hong Kong's education system is mostly based on the English system. Children are required to be in school from age 6 until completing secondary school (high school) at age 18.
Universities
Hong Kong has 11 Universities:
University of Hong Kong
Chinese University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
City University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong Baptist University
Education University of Hong Kong
Open University of Hong Kong
Lingnan University
Hong Kong Shue Yan University
Hang Seng University of Hong Kong
Housing in Hong Kong
According to the International Housing Affordability survey, Hong Kong has the most unaffordable housing market in the world.It has been ranked as most unaffordable since 2010.
Timeline of Hong Kong
Here is a brief history of Hong Kong:
Around 4000 BC
Sea levels rose above 100Β meters
Around 3500 BC
Ceramic forms decorated with a wide range of patterns
Around 2000 BC
Bronze weapons, knives, arrowheads & tools.
Metal worked locally
Around 500 BC
Ancient Chinese writing developed
221 BC
People from Mainland China came to Hong Kong
220 BC
Coins from the Chinese Han period were used in Hong Kong
1555
A Portuguese named Jorge Γlvares was the first European to reach Hong Kong
1799
China banned the drug trade in Hong Kong
1800
Opium became a huge business
1839
Lin Zexu was appointed Special Commissioner
The First Opium war began
1841
Hong Kong was given to the British and became a dependent territory of United Kingdom
Lord Palmerston wrote that Hong Kong was a barren island with only a few houses on it
January 26, 1841
The British flag was raised at Possession Point, on Hong Kong Island
August 1841
Sir Henry Pottinger became Hong Kong's first governor
The Treaty of Nanjing was signed, ending the First Opium War
1860
China was defeated in the Second Opium War. Boundary Street and Stonecutter's Island were leased to Britain
1888
The Peak Tram started operating on Hong Kong Island
1898
Lantau Island and the New Territories were leased to the British for 99 years
1900s
Hong Kong became a refuge for exiles from China
1920s-1930s
Western dress began to come in fashion for the locals
1933-1934
Father Daniel Finn began excavations on Lamma Island
1941
Refugees fleeing the Chinese Communist Party came to Hong Kong
December 8, 1941
The Empire of Japan invaded Hong Kong
December 25, 1941
The British authorities surrendered Hong Kong to the Japanese Army
August 1945
Britain reclaimed its territory after Japan's surrender
1949
Double-decker buses were introduced to Hong Kong
1950
Hong Kong became a free port
1953
The Shek Kip Mei Estate was built, establishing the program of public housing
1955
A Han period tomb was discovered near Lei Cheng Uk
1983
The Hong Kong dollar was tied to the US dollar
1984
China and Britain signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration
1990
The Hong Kong Basic Law was confirmed
1997
Asia's financial crisis
Archaeologists discovered 20 graves on the island of Ma Wa
Tung Chee Wa elected as the first Chief Executive of Hong Kong. Voting was conducted by 400 committees of an electoral college whose members are appointed by the Chinese Government.
July 1, 1997
Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region of China for 50 years
1998
Hong Kong International Airport opened, replacing Kai Tak Airport in Kowloon
June 2002
Tung Chee Hwa was elected as Chief Executive for a second term.
2003
Citizens wanted a more democratic and republican system
The SARS epidemic began
March 10, 2005
Tung Chee Hwa retired as chief executive because of health problems.
June 16, 2005
Donald Tsang Yam-kuen was elected unopposed as Chief Executive.
March 2012
Leung Chun Ying was elected as Chief Executive.
2014
People occupied the Central region to demand universal suffrage for the next chief executive election, to take place in 2017.
2015
The government voted against the universal suffrage demanded by the people.
2016
There were more protests in Mong Kok because the government voted against suffrage. Police had to use pepper spray and Tear gas on the people to get them to leave.
2019
Protestors in Hong Kong demonstrated against a new extradition law proposed by the government of mainland China.It was the largest protest in Hong Kong's history. According to Wikinews this law would allow Mainland China to extradite people living or visiting Hong Kong who may be fugitives. The people did not want this because the reputation of China had been damaged by allegations of torture, forced confessions and arbitrary detentions before, and it would just bring Hong Kong closer under China's control, even though Hong Kong have their own judicial system.
2020
The Hong Kong National Security Law is created. This law will give Beijing, more power to make the laws for Hong Kong. Beijing, also put a security office in Hong Kong. The law was created at 11 P.M. on 30 June 2020, Hong Kong Time.
Media
Hong Kong has a few media companies, notably Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB), HK Television Entertainment (HKTVE), and Fantastic Television. Access to television is not affected by Chinese regulations, such as the Great Firewall, which filters and blocks certain programs.
Places in Hong Kong
Hong Kong Disneyland
Victoria Peak
Victoria Park
Ocean Park
Man Mo Temple
Repulse Bay
Lo House Museum
Hong Kong Park
Yuen Po Street Bird Garden
Hong Kong Museum of History
Hong Kong Space Museum
Hong Kong Museum of Science & Technology
Wong Tai Sin Temple
Lantau Link Visitors' Viewing Centre
Fung Ying Sin Koon
Kowloon Walled City
Kowloon Mosque and Islamic Centre
Kowloon
Sham Tung Uk
Po Lin Monastery and the Big Buddha on Lantau Island (currently the largest bronze Buddha in world)
Cheung Chau (Long Island)
Chek Lap Kok
Hong Kong Island
References
Other websites |
4862 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blitzkrieg | Blitzkrieg | Blitzkrieg is a German word which means lightning war, referring to the high velocity of a lightning bolt.
In a blitzkrieg the attacking motorized infantry armies move quickly, and are helped by tanks and aircraft. Slower moving enemy units are overrun or surrounded. They are often captured with little fighting. Often the slower units become disorganized and are not yet ready to fight when they are captured. The strategy of blitzkrieg Β was developed in the 1930s. The Wehrmacht seldom called it by that name.
This method worked well, early in World War II during the invasions of Poland and France. It was mostly successful in Operation Barbarossa. Later in the war, the Allies learned to defeat German blitzkrieg attacks by defence in depth and by attacking the flanks of the attackers with reserve forces.
The Blitz refers to the German bombing of Britain, particularly London, during World War II, which destroyed over a million homes and killed over 40,000 people. The bombing was supposed to quickly destroy industry and morale (happiness). The Blitz was in response to the bombing of German cities by the British Royal Air Force (RAF). The Blitz began in September 1940 and continued until May 1941.
References
Military of Germany
World War II |
4863 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank | Tank | A tank is an armoured combat vehicle, typically armed with a large cannon mounted on a turret and a few machine guns.
A tank is covered in thick armour to protect it from enemy weapons. Tanks have tracks that wrap around its wheels to spread out its weight and let it cross rough ground. Most tanks have a powerful gun and one or more machine guns.
A tank's crew is normally 3-5. A driver, commander and gunner are always present. There may also be a loader, who handles the ammunition for the main gun (so the gunner doesn't have to take eyes off the target). Some WWII tanks also had a separate soldier responsible for the radio.
Using
The first tanks were made by the British Royal Navy and French car manufacturers during World War I as a way of attacking enemy trenches. They were called tanks to trick the Germans into thinking they were water carriers for the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. Their use in a surprise attack in the Battle of the Somme caused fear among the German soldiers but their small numbers and poor reliability prevented them from making much difference.
Tanks became a main weapon during World War II, where battles between great numbers of tanks were fought, especially between the Germans and the Soviet Union. The Battle of Kursk was the biggest. Well-known World War II tanks were the German Panzer IV, Panther and Tiger I, Soviet T-34 (produced in the largest numbers of any tank of the war and second most ever), British Matilda, Churchill and Cromwell, and American M4 Sherman (second most produced tank of the war) and Stuart tanks. There had also been plans for much larger and more heavily armoured tanks such as the Maus but these were determined to be of little use due to their huge weight, which would have made moving them very difficult, and the huge size, which would have made them easy targets for heavy artillery.
Old tanks are often modified for other uses like carrying soldiers or equipment. Combat engineers use special tank-based vehicles, for example minesweeper tanks or bridge-layer tanks.
The tank is a major part of all large armies today. Tanks have replaced the cavalry everywhere and do the things that soldiers on horseback did in the past. Most modern tanks are of the heavy or Main Battle Tank type, able to fight other tanks. Compared to older types MBTs are very heavy (Russian MBTS being about 40 tons and Western around 60 tons) with a 120Β mm (Western) and 125Β mm (Russian) calibre cannon and 2-3 machine guns. Marines and other specialized forces also use some light tanks.
Related pages
Anti-tank gun
Other websites
Tanks
Army |
4864 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh | Edinburgh | Edinburgh (Scottish Gaelic: DΓΉn Γideann) is the capital city and second largest city in Scotland. Edinburgh lies on the east coast, where the River Forth flows into the sea.
The central part is Edinburgh Castle, at the top of a steep hill. The castle has a military display every year, called a tattoo, where soldiers show their skills at marching and competitions, and there are brass bands and bands of bagpipes.
Edinburgh has a very large festival every year, where thousands of performers come to put on shows. The Edinburgh International Festival takes place in August and September. At the same time there is the Edinburgh Fringe. The shows are of all kinds, and range from large ones with famous people, to very small ones by new or unknown actors.
The city is served by Edinburgh Airport, and Haymarket and Waverley railway stations.
Old and New towns
The Old Town of Edinburgh is the oldest part of the city, and with the 18th-century New Town, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It has preserved its mediaeval plan and many Reformation-era buildings.
Sport
The city's main football teams are Heart of Midlothian F.C. and Hibernian F.C. Murrayfield stadium in the city is the home of the Scottish national rugby team and Edinburgh Rugby. The nearby Murrayfield Ice Rink is home to the city's ice hockey team, the Edinburgh Capitals. See also Leith Athletic F.C.
Twin Towns
Edinburgh is twinned with: Florence
Dunedin
Nice
KrakΓ³w
San Diego
Aalborg
Kyiv
Kyoto
Xi'an
Vancouver
St. Petersburg
Munich
Buildings
Edinburgh has lots of important buildings. The Balmoral Hotel was opened in 1902 and designed by W. Hamilton Beattie. Saint Giles' Cathedral was built in Mediaeval times. There was a big fire there in 1385. The Royal Museum was designed by architect Francis Fowke and built between 1861 and 1888. Its sister museum, the Museum of Scotland, was designed by Benson and Forsyth in 1998. Holyrood Palace was once the home of the Scottish kings, and is open to the public.
Famous people from Edinburgh
Sir Walter Scott who wrote many historical stories.
Alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone, was born in Edinburgh.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle who wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories.
Robert Louis Stevenson who wrote Kidnapped, Treasure Island, Doctor Jekyll and Mr Hyde and many other stories.
Muriel Spark who wrote The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie and many other stories.
Sean Connery who acted as James Bond in films.
References
2. Map of Edinburgh
Port cities and towns of the North Sea
Port cities and towns of Scotland |
4866 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head%20of%20state | Head of state | The head of state is the figurehead of a state, who represents the unity of the state. However, the head of state may not have very much real power.
In a modern republic, the head of state is a president, usually elected by the people or by a parliament. In a monarchy, the head of state is the king or queen. Some countries have different systems - for example Recep Tayyip ErdoΔan of Turkey is both the Head of State and Head of Government which is known as an executive system.
In a modern monarchy, the head of state usually has little real power. Instead, the most powerful person is the head of government. This is usually the leader of the political party that wins the most seats in an election. In these cases, the king is considered to be the leader of the country, but must always take the decisions that the head of government advises them to make. The king or queen carries out national ceremonies. The United Kingdom works like this, with the Prime Minister heading the government.
A president may be the most powerful person in the country. This is true in the United States. However, sometimes there is a head of government, as well as a president. The president then acts very much like a king or queen, leaving the real decisions to the head of government. The Republic of Ireland works like this.
In older times, and in some modern countries, the head of state has absolute power, this called an absolute monarchy which the Pope in the Vatican has. |
4868 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir%20Lenin | Vladimir Lenin | Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known as (22 April 1870 β 21 January 1924) was a Russian lawyer, revolutionary, the leader of the Bolshevik party and of the October Revolution. He was the first leader of the USSR and the government that took over Russia in 1917. Lenin's ideas became known as Leninism.
Early life
Vladimir Ulyanov was born on 22 April 1870 in the town of Simbirsk in the Russian Empire. His mother was a schoolteacher and his father was an education official (technically, his father's job made him and his family noblemen).
Lenin began studying politics in high school. Lenin was good in school and learned the Latin and Greek languages. In 1887, he was thrown out of Kazan State University because he protested against the Tsar who was the king of the Russian Empire. He continued to read books and study ideas by himself, and in 1891 he got a license to become a lawyer.
In the same year that Lenin was expelled from University, his brother Alexander was hanged for his part in a bomb plot to kill Tsar Alexander III, and their sister Anna was sent to Tatarstan. This made Lenin furious, and he promised to get revenge for his brother's death.
Before the revolution
While he studied law in St. Petersburg he learned about the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were both philosophers from Germany. Karl Marx's thoughts were called Marxism. To talk or write about Marxism positively was illegal in Russia, and Lenin was arrested for that and sent to prison in Siberia. This punishment was harsh because Siberia is very cold and isolated, and almost impossible to escape.
In July 1898, still in Siberia, Lenin married Nadezhda Krupskaya. In 1899 he wrote a book he called The Development of Capitalism in Russia. In 1900, Lenin was set free from prison and allowed to go back home. He then traveled around Europe. He began to publish a Marxist newspaper called Iskra, the Russian word for "spark" or "lightning". He also became an important member of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, or RSDLP. In 1901 he began calling himself "Lenin".
In 1903, Lenin had a major argument with another leader of the party, Julius Martov, which divided the party in two. Lenin wanted to establish socialism right away, rather than establishing capitalism first and then making the transition to socialism. Martov disagreed, he wanted to cling to the Classical Marxist idea that in order to achieve socialism, you must go through capitalism first. People who agreed with Martov were called Mensheviks (meaning "the minority"). The people who agreed with Lenin were called Bolsheviks ("the majority").
In 1907 he traveled around Europe again, and visited many socialist meetings and events. During World War I he lived in big European cities like London, Paris and Geneva. At the beginning of the war, a big left-wing meeting called the Second International included the Bolsheviks. The meeting shut down when a lot of the groups argued whether or not to support the war. Lenin and the Bolsheviks were one of only a few groups who were against the war because of their Marxist ideas.
1917
After Tsar Nicholas II gave up his throne during the February Revolution, Lenin went back to Russia where he was still a very important Bolshevik leader. He wrote that he wanted a revolution by ordinary workers to overthrow the government that had replaced Nicholas II.
In 1917, The Kadets, a right-wing party, and elements of the Okhrana (secret police) started rumors that Lenin had got money from the Germans, because they had sent him through Germany in a special train to reach Russia. That may have made him look bad because a lot of Russians had died fighting Germany in the war. After the July Days, a popular uprising in Petrograd which was crushed by the Russian Provisional Government, he left Russia and went to Finland, where he could hide and carry on with his work on Communism.
In November 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, headed the Petrograd Soviet and other Soviets all over Russia in a revolution against Kerensky's government, which was known as the October Revolution. They won, and announced that Russia was a socialist country. In November, Lenin was chosen as its leader.
In power
Because Lenin wanted an end to World War I in Russia, he signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in February 1918. While the treaty ended the attack by Germany, Russia lost a large amount of land that it used for farming.
The treaty also made Germany's other enemies angry, and together with Russian people who supported the Tsar or Kerensky's government, they attacked Russia. Lenin made rules that as much food as possible was to be given to Bolshevik soldiers in Russia's new Red Army. This meant that they won the war, but ordinary people were starving, and many died of hunger or disease.
After the war, Lenin brought in the New Economic Policy to try and make things better for the country and move from capitalism towards socialism. Some private enterprise was still allowed, but not much. Businessmen, known as nepmen, could only own small industries, not factories. Factories and large industry became public property to be owned by the workers.
Final years
A woman named Fanny Kaplan shot Lenin whilst he was making an official visit. She missed his head and instead the bullet was lodged into his neck. Fearing that he would be killed by political dissenters, he refused to have the bullet removed until a guaranteed Communist doctor could be found. As a result of his direct refusal to be treated, the bullet was never removed, and is often cited as the reason he started having strokes in May and December 1922 (both of which he recovered from). In March 1923 a stroke paralyzed him and left him unable to speak, and he died on January 24, 1924 of a stroke. Just before he died, Lenin had wanted to get rid of Stalin because he thought he was dangerous to the country and the government.
Legacy
The city of St. Petersburg had been renamed Petrograd by the Tsar in 1914, but was renamed Leningrad in memory of Lenin in 1924. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, Leningrad was again named St. Petersburg.
Before Lenin died, he said he wished to be buried beside his mother. When he died, Stalin let the people in Russia look at his body. Because people kept coming they decided not to bury him, and preserved his body instead. A building was built in Red Square, Moscow over the body so that people could see it. It is called the Lenin Mausoleum. Many Russians and tourists still go there to see his body today.
After Lenin died, Stalin used him to justify his own rule, by making it look like he was Lenin's chosen successor.
References
Russian atheists
Russian communists
Deaths from stroke
Disease-related deaths in the Soviet Union
Marxism
Russian lawyers
1870 births
1924 deaths
Russian philosophers
Heads of government of the Soviet Union
Former dictators
Saint Petersburg State University alumni |
4874 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease | Disease | A disease or medical condition is an unhealthy state where something bad happens to the body or mind. Diseases can cause pain, parts of the body to stop working the right way, or death. The word disease is sometimes used to include:
parts of the body being hurt,
not having the usual abilities,
medical problems or syndromes,
infections by microorganisms,
feeling unhealthy, such as having pain or feeling hot (called 'symptoms'),
unusual shapes of body parts.
Causes
A disease can be caused by many things. Sometimes germs enter our body through food, water or air. A person can be infected by infectious agents like bacteria, viruses or fungus. Disease can also be caused by eating bad or old foods. There are small germs in old foods that can cause diseases. Sometimes the germs produce chemicals or toxins which causes the disease.
One of the most common causes of disease is poor sanitation and lack of clean water. Some deadly diseases like malaria in tropical parts of the world are spread by a mosquito. Animals that spread disease are called vectors. There are many vectors, including snails, ticks, and fleas.
Some people are born with 'genetic diseases'. These are diseases because of an error or mutation in a person's DNA. An example of a mutation is cancer. Living or working in an unhealthy environment can also be a cause for diseases. Diseases are more common in older people.
Treatments
Some diseases can be helped with medicine. Infections can often be cured by antibiotics, though resistance to antibiotics is a problem. Some disease may be helped by surgery. Not every disease can be helped with medicine or surgery, though. Some diseases must be treated during the whole life; they are chronic (long-lasting) diseases. An example of a chronic disease is diabetes mellitus. Diabetes can be treated (made better) but it can not yet be cured (made to totally go away). People who usually treat diseases are called doctors or physicians.
Prevention
Some diseases that are common or very bad are tested for even in people who do not show any symptoms. If these diseases are found early they can be treated before they cause problems. An example would be checking a woman for cervical cancer with a test called a pap smear. If cervical cancer is found early it can be cured. If it is found later it usually causes death.
Another example is immunization. The basic idea is to make the body ready for a disease. The body has its own defense against disease called the immune system. One special characteristic of the immune system is its ability to remember some diseases. If a person is sick and recovers, the immune system will produce a substance called antibodies which fight the disease if it comes back to the person.
The antibody is specific to a particular disease or antigen. An example of this is measles which is a virus. A person usually a child who had never been sick with measles is given a milder form of the virus, this causes the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus. If this person is exposed to the same virus in the future, the person's immune system will remember and will fight the virus.
For general prevention to be useful:
The disease must be found and stopped in early stage.
The disease should be common or be easy to recognize.
The test for the disease should be easy, work all the time, and not hurt people.
The society is well-trained and can recognize most common symptoms on some diseases.
The treatment for the disease should be safe and be easy for people to get.
Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study of the cause of disease. Some diseases are more popular for people with common characteristics, like similar origins, sociological background, food or nationality. Without good epidemiological research some diseases can be hard to track and to name. Some diseases can be taken for something else. This is why epidemiology takes a huge part in understanding how to protect ourselves against viruses, toxins and bacteria.
Related pages
Health
Healthy lifestyle
Viruses
References
Basic English 850 words |
4887 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon | Carbon | Carbon is a very important chemical element, with a chemical symbol of C. All known life on Earth needs it. Carbon has atomic mass 12 and atomic number 6. It is a nonmetal, meaning that it is not a metal.
When iron is alloyed with carbon, hard steel is formed. Carbon in the form of coal is an important fuel.
Chemistry of carbon
A whole type of chemistry, called organic chemistry, is about carbon and its compounds. Carbon makes many types of compounds. Hydrocarbons are molecules with carbon and hydrogen. Methane, Propane, and many other fuels are hydrocarbons. Many of the substances that people use daily are organic compounds.
Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and some other elements like sulfur and phosphorus together form most life on earth (see List of biologically important elements). Carbon forms a very large number of organic compounds because it can form strong bonds with itself and with other elements. Because of the amounts of carbon living things have, all organic things are considered "carbon-based".
Each carbon atom usually forms four chemical bonds, which are strong connections to other atoms to form molecules. The kind of bond that carbon makes is called a covalent bond. These bonds allow carbon to form many kinds of small and large molecules. A molecule of methane is the smallest; it has four hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon. The bonds can be double bonds, meaning that two bonds form between carbon and another atom to make a stronger connection. For example, carbon dioxide has two oxygen atoms, and each one is double bonded to carbon. Carbon can even form three bonds with another atom, called a triple bond. For example, in the gas acetylene carbon forms a triple bond with another carbon atom.
By bonding to other carbon atoms, carbon can form long chain-shaped molecules, called polymers, such as plastics and proteins. Atoms of other elements can be part of the long polymer chains, often nitrogen or oxygen.
Pure carbon forms diamond by bonding to four other carbon atoms in a three dimensional crystal. It forms graphite by bonding to three other carbon atoms to form thin flat layers.
Etymology
The name of carbon comes from Latin carbo, meaning charcoal. In many foreign languages the words for carbon, coal and charcoal are synonyms.
Types of carbon
Carbon in nature is found in three forms called allotropes: diamond, graphite, and fullerenes. Graphite, with clay, is in pencils. It is very soft. The carbon atoms in it make rings, which are on top of each other and slide very easily. Diamonds are the hardest natural mineral. Fullerenes are a "soccer ball" shape of carbon. They are mostly of interest to science. A special, man-made, tube-shaped allotrope of carbon is the carbon nanotube. Carbon nanotubes are very hard, so they might be used in armor. Nanotubes might be useful in nanotechnology.
There are 10 million known carbon compounds.
Radiocarbon dating
A radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14, can be used to figure out how old some objects are or when something died. As long as something is on the surface of the earth and taking in carbon, the amount of carbon-14 stays the same. When an object stops taking in carbon, the carbon-14 amount goes down. Because the half-life (how long it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to go away) of carbon-14 is 5730 years, scientists can see how old the object is by how much carbon-14 is left.
Where carbon is
Carbon is in many places in the universe. It was first made in old stars. Carbon is the fourth most common element in the sun. The atmospheres of Venus and Mars are mostly carbon dioxide.
Carbon is important to the human body and other living things, and it is the second most common element in the human body, at 23% of all body weight. It is also a key part of many biological molecules (molecules used in life).
Most of the carbon on Earth is coal. Graphite is in many (typically desert) areas, including Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and Russia. Diamonds are rare and are found largely in Africa. Carbon is also in some meteorites.
Related pages
List of common elements
Carbon cycle
References
Other websites
Carbon at Webelements
Carbon |
4889 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaza%20language | Zaza language | Zaza language, also called Zazaki, Kirmanjki and Dimli, is an Indo-European language spoken in eastern Anatolia above the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. It belongs to the northwest-Iranian group of Iranian language. The Zaza language is related to SangsarΔ«, MΔzandarΔnΔ«, TΔtΔ« (HerzendΔ«), SemnΔnΔ«, TΔleshΔ«, Kurdish, Persian and BalΕchi. The number of Zaza speakers is not known exactly.
Other websites
Zaza-Gorani | Ethnologue Ethnologue on Zazaki (language)
(Weblinks of Zaza people)
Zazaki.de zazaki dimili zaza Academic Research Center of Zazaki
Only Zazaki news
Zazaki Institute
References
Iranian languages |
4891 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical%20reaction | Chemical reaction | A chemical reaction happens when one or more chemicals are changed into one or more other chemicals. Examples:
iron and oxygen combining to make rust
vinegar and baking soda combining to make sodium acetate, carbon dioxide and water
things burning or exploding
many reactions that happen inside living things, such as photosynthesis
electrochemical reactions when discharging or recharging batteries
Some reactions are fast, and others are slow. Some happen at different speeds, depending on temperature or other things. For example, wood does not react with air when it is cold, but if it is made hot enough, it will start to burn. Some reactions give out energy. These are exothermic reactions. In other reactions, energy is taken in. These are endothermic reactions.
Nuclear reactions are not chemical reactions. Chemical reactions involve only the electrons of atoms; nuclear reactions involve the protons and neutrons in the atomic nuclei.
Four basic types
Synthesis
In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance.
"Two or more reactants giving one product" is another way to identify a synthesis reaction. One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron(II) sulfide:
Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance, such as water.
Decomposition
A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction, and can be written as:
One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas:
Another example of a decomposition reaction is calcium carbonate breaking down into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide under high temperatures:
CaCO3 β> CaO + CO2
Single replacement
In a single replacement reaction, a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound; in other words, one element trades places with another element in a compound These reactions come in the general form of:
One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas:
Double replacement
In a double replacement reaction, the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely different compounds. These reactions are in the general form:
For example, when barium chloride (BaCl2) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) react, the SO42β anion switches places with the 2Clβ anion, giving the compounds BaSO4 and MgCl2.
Another example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead(II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead(II) iodide and potassium nitrate:
Equations
A chemical reaction is being displayed by an equation:
Here, A and B react to C and D in a chemical reaction.
This is an example of a combustion reaction.
carbon + oxygen β carbon dioxide
Related pages
Catalysis
Organic reaction
Redox
Other websites
Rates of reaction
Online chemical equation balancer Balances equation of any chemical reaction (full or half-cell) in one click.
References
Chemistry |
4892 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectangle | Rectangle | In geometry, a rectangle is a shape with four sides and four corners. The corners are all right angles. It follows that the pairs of sides opposite each other must be parallel and of the same length.
People make many rectangular things, including most tables, boxes, books, and papers. The word comes from Latin words meaning "right" and angle".
A rectangle whose four sides have the same length is called a square.
Formulas
If a rectangle has length and width w, then:
It has area .
it has perimeter .
Each diagonal has length .
it has an aspect ratio of : w.
When , the rectangle is a square.
When is equal to the golden ratio, the rectangle is called a golden rectangle.
Related pages
Matrix (mathematics)
Quadrilateral
Rhombus
References
Polygons |
4893 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trafalgar%20Square | Trafalgar Square | Trafalgar Square is in the heart of London. It is a large pedestrian square, bounded on three sides by roads. It serves as a refuge, and a major traffic intersection. Important roads go from the square: Whitehall goes to Parliament, the Mall goes to Buckingham Palace, and the Strand goes to the City of London. The square is also close to Covent Garden and Charing Cross station.
More than 15 million people go to visit there every year. It contains a large statue of Admiral Lord Nelson. The square celebrates the Battle of Trafalgar, fought in 1805. It contains Nelson's Column, a statue of Nelson mounted on a tall column, with four statues of lions around it. The column is 56 meters tall while the statue is 5 meters tall. The National Art Gallery is one of several important buildings facing the Square.
Use of the Square
The square is visited by many tourists. Mainly, it is used for pleasure and relaxation, but sometimes there are meetings and demonstrations in Trafalgar Square.
When the square was first built, demonstrations were banned. The ban lasted until the 1880s, when the new Labour movement start to hold demonstrations. One group that did this was the Social Democratic Federation. On "Black Monday", 6 February 1886, there was a major demonstration about unemployment which led to a riot in Pall Mall. There were demonstrations in the 1980s against South African apartheid. In 1990 there were riots against the Poll tax. In the 2000s there have been demonstrations against the Iraq war.
In recent years the square has become a gathering place for celebrations. When England won the Rugby World Cup in 2003 thousands of fans gathered in the square. This public festivities again happened when London won its bid to hold the 2012 Summer Olympic Games.
The square was also the scene of a large gathering after the terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005.
References
Roads in London
National squares |
4898 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official%20language | Official language | An official language is a language that has special status in a country or other organization. Usually, the government does its business in the official language. They are sometimes named in a country's constitution.
Some countries, like Switzerland and Luxembourg, have more than one official language. Other countries, such as the United States and Australia, may not have a de jure official language set by law, but they may have one or more national languages that is considered de facto official because it is used by the government and people in the country.
An official language does not have to be a written language. It can be a pidgin language (like in Papua New Guinea), or a sign language (like in New Zealand).
Related pages
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
National language
Lingua franca
Languages
Vocabulary |
4899 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cake | Cake | A cake is a type of (usually) sweet dessert which is baked. Originally, it was a bread-like food, but no longer. Cakes are often made to celebrate special occasions like birthdays or weddings. There are many kinds of cakes. It can be baked in an oven. Some savory cakes are made on a griddle or a frying pan.
Construction
Cakes are baked from a batter. Batter is made by mixing wet ingredients (like milk and eggs) with dry ingredients (like sugar and flour). The batter is baked in an oven. This way of baking is known as the muffin method, because muffins are made this way.
Vegan versions of the same cake abstain from using animal products such as dairy or eggs and instead substitute them with plant derived products such as nut milk and alginate-lecithin gel.
Just like bread, cakes rise in the oven because they contain many small air bubbles. As cakes rise, the air bubbles expand. This is why the cake batter expands in the pan (often to twice its original size). There are two ways of forming the air bubbles, which create different types of cakes. Almost every kind of cake belongs to one of these families.
Creamed Fat
These cakes are made with butter or another fat, like vegetable shortening. The common way is to mix the fat and sugar, then add eggs, and then add flour. The fat should be soft. It should not be hard or liquid. Mixing sugar with fat creates many very small air bubbles. Most birthday cakes are made this way. Cupcakes are also made this way.
Egg foam
These cakes are not made with solid butter or vegetable shortening. Some of these cakes are made with melted butter or vegetable oil. The common way is to mix the eggs and sugar, and then add flour. These cakes are often much taller, lighter and often spongier than creamed fat cakes. Angelfood cake and chiffon cakes are egg foam cakes. Most grocery stores with bakeries sell angelfood cakes. Angelfood cakes are made by beating egg whites with sugar. This traps a lot of tiny air bubbles. The eggs and sugar are mixed with other ingredients. Then, the cake is baked.
Decorations
A cake can be decorated with icing (also called "frosting"), chocolate, fruit, and much more. A layer cake is made by stacking cakes with icing or filling between the layers. Birthday cakes are sometimes decorated with candles. Cakes can be served with berries or other kinds of fruit.
A large, rich cake is often called by the French word for "cake": "gΓ’teau" (plural: "gΓ’teaux", both singular and plural pronounced "GA-toe"). It may have a lot of cream. Some cakes can have edible paper on the top.
Gallery
References
Basic English 850 words |
4900 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/House | House | A house is a building that is made for people to live in. It is a "permanent" building that is meant to stay standing. It is not easily packed up and carried away like a tent, or moved like a caravan. If people live in the same house for more than a short stay, then they call it their "home". Being without a home is called homelessness.
Houses come in many different shapes and sizes. They may be as small as just one room, or they may have hundreds of rooms. They also are made many different shapes, and may have just one level or several different levels. A house is sometimes joined to other houses at the sides to make a "terrace" or "row house" (a connected row of houses).
A big building with many levels and apartments is called "a block of flats" (British) or an apartment building. One of the differences between a house and an apartment is that a house has a front door to the outside world, whereas the main door of an apartment usually opens onto a passage or landing that can be used by other people in the building.
Houses have a roof to keep off the rain and sun, and walls to keep out the wind and cold. They have window openings to let in light, and a floor. Houses of different countries look different to each other, because of different materials, climate, and styles.
Types
A house is a building for people to live in. It is usually built for a family (parents and their children).
Most modern houses have special areas or rooms for people to do the things that they need to live comfortably. A modern house has a place to cook food, a place to eat, places to sleep and a place to wash. These things are usually done in separate rooms, which are called the kitchen, the sitting room, the bedrooms, the bathroom, the toilet (or lavatory). Many houses have a separate dining room for eating meals and a separate laundry. In some houses the toilet is in the bathroom, and in other houses it is separate. Many houses may also have a "study" or computer room and a "family room" where the children can play games and watch television.
Detached house
In some countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand many families live in a "detached house" which is separate from other buildings and surrounded by its own yard, but is close enough to town to have shops, good transport and entertainment nearby. In many other countries, including most of Europe, owning a house like this is something that only the richer families can afford, and is just a dream for most people.
Houses in very poor places
In many very poor countries, a lot of people live crowded in houses with only one room. They often have to share a toilet with many other families, and have to do the cooking outside. The house might be made of materials that can be found nearby like mud bricks and grass or from second-hand materials like corrugated iron and cardboard boxes. In many cities there are thousands of small houses crowded together with narrow alleys between them.
Cottage
A small house is often called a cottage. Apart from it, its also called small space. In England, where this word comes from, it is used to mean a house that has one main storey, with a second, lower storey of bedrooms which fit under the roof upstairs. Cottages are usually found in villages or in the countryside. They are nearly always built from material that can be found nearby. In many places the word cottage is used to mean a small old-fashioned house. In the United States the word cottage is often used to mean a small holiday home.
Semi-detached or duplex
A semi-detached house is a building that has two houses side by side and covered over by just one big roof. Each house has a pathway to one side, leading from the front to the backyard. Semi-detached houses are very common in some cities, and can be single storey or several storeys high.
Terraced houses
A row or terraced house (see the picture in the introduction) is a house that is part of a row of houses joined at the side walls. Many cities and towns have thousands of row houses because they are a good way to build lots of houses close together. Many row houses have two rooms downstairs and two rooms upstairs, with a kitchen or wash area at the back. Houses like this were built for poor factory workers and coal miners in many cities and towns. "Terrace houses" are a type of row house where each house has a similar front to its neighbours.
Row houses are not always small. Some cities have large beautiful row houses, such as the Royal Crescent, which was built 200 years ago at Bath in England and is a famous example of Georgian architecture.
Bungalow
In some places, the word "bungalow" is used for any house that is all on one level. The word came from India and for a long time was used for a house that is built all on one level and has a verandah where people can sit or work outdoors, but under a shady roof. A bungalow often has a hall down the middle of the house to let the breeze blow through. Bungalows are often seen in countries with hot summers, in India, South East Asia, South Africa, parts of the United States, South America, Australia and New Zealand. In regions with flooding, a bungalow is often built up on wooden "stilts" or a high basement. In the 1800s, bungalows were nearly always built of wood, but from the 1920s it became fashionable to build them of brick as well.
Farmhouse
A farmhouse may look like a cottage, a bungalow or a mansion, but in many countries a farmhouse can look quite different to a house in a town, because, as well as having a place for people to live, it also has a place for animals. Three typical types of farmhouses are found. Many farm houses are long and have two doors. One door leads to the rooms used by the family. The other door opens into a stable for the cows, sheep and chickens. The stable part often has a loft where hay can be kept to feed the animals in the winter. Another type of farmhouse has two storeys with a big stable and storeroom underneath, with the rooms for the family on the upper floor. Another type of farmhouse has buildings such as the family house, the barn and the stable all joined together around a central courtyard. Old farmhouses of these three types can be found in many parts of Europe and Great Britain.
Mansion
A mansion is a big grand house, usually with two stories and sometimes more. A mansion often has beautiful architecture, and shows that the person for whom it was designed and built was rich. Mansions often have beautiful gardens. Sometimes a mansion does not belong to a private family, but to a town council, to a big business company, to a church or college and is a place for a person with an important job to live and to entertain guests. A mansion often has rooms which are not found in ordinary houses, such as a drawing room, a ballroom, a library and a music room. Mansions often need servants to help keep them in order and there are often special rooms where the servants do particular jobs such as cleaning the silver tableware. Well-known mansions are the White House in Washington, D.C. where the President of the United States lives and Mansion House in London where the Lord Mayor of London lives.
Palace
A palace is a house that is very grand for people like Kings and Queens,or other rich people. Many palaces are homes of royal or aristocratic people. Some old palaces been changed by people who lived there over many hundreds of years.
One of the best-known palaces in the world is Buckingham Palace, a royal palace in London. The largest palace in the world is the Louvre which was built in Paris for the Kings of France. It now holds a famous art gallery.
What are houses built from?
Houses are usually built from types of material that can easily be made or bought near the place where the house is built. Because of this, old houses in different towns and different villages look quite different to each other, even in the same country. In modern times building materials can be transported easily and this means that a builder has much more choice about the types of material to use for a house.
Mud and clay
In many parts of the world, mud or clay are the main building materials. Clay is a type of soil that sticks together more strongly than most other types of soil. There are three main ways of building walls with mud and clay.
One way to make a house of clay is simply to pile up the mud or wet clay with the hands, and flatten it into a wall shape. Often animal hair, straw and dung is mixed with the mud so that the fibres (stringy bits) help hold it together. Some wooden beams and thin wooden slats are used to hold the roof, which is also made of mud or clay. The roof is flat and strong enough to walk on, but must slope a bit, in case of rain. The walls are often protected from rain with plaster and paint. In many countries the walls are usuallly white, but in other places all the houses are painted different bright clolours. These types of houses are only found in very dry countries. Houses built in this way give good protection against the very hot sun and hot dry winds of the dessert. In the cold nights they stay quite warm.
A second way to make the walls of a house out of mud of clay is "wattle and daub". "Wattle" is weaving from sticks. First, long sticks are stuck into the ground and then very thin sticks are woven through them, like making a basket. The thin wattle wall is then "daubed" or stuck all over on the inside and the outside with damp clay, mud or plaster, usually with some chopped straw or animal hair to help it stick together. "Wattle and daub" are often found in quite damp places where bendy willow trees or acacias (also called "wattle trees") grow. The walls need good protection from the rain, so houses like this often have roofs that have big "eaves"; the roof sticks out all around the house so that the water does not run down the walls. "Wattle and daub" houses often have big roofs made of straw, reeds, banana leaves, palm leaves, wooden shingles or big sheets of bark.
Another way to make a house of mud or clay is to shape the wet soil into bricks before building the walls. The bricks can be shaped by hand, but more often they are shaped in boxes or "moulds" so that all the bricks are just the same size and shape. They are left in the hot sun until they have dried hard. Then walls can be made which are the same thickness all the way up. Clay bricks that are dried in the sun were used in Egypt and Mesopotamia for thousands of years.
Fired bricks
It was discovered that if clay was used, rather than mud, very strong bricks could be made by "firing" (or baking) them in a "kiln" (a special oven). "Fired" bricks were like pottery; they did not wash away easily in rain and would sometimes last for thousands of years. The bricks were joined to each other with a type of cement called "mortar". Some houses built by the Ancient Romans are still standing 2000 years later.
Bricks became one of the most common building materials. In most cities, nearly all the houses are built of bricks because they are long lasting, they do not need repairing very often. Brick houses are generally made strong by having all the main walls two bricks thick. Two walls are built side by side which are "bonded" (or joined to each other) by having some bricks set so they make a bridge between the two layers. The pattern of the bonded bricks can be seen from the outside. The two main patterns are called "Flemish Bond" and "British Bond".
Because brick walls are heavy, a brick house needs to have a very firm base or "foundation" to sit on. This often means digging deep into the ground to lay a foundation before a brick house can be built.
Houses with brick walls often have tiled roofs, because the tiles can often be made at the brick factory.
Modern bricks and tiles come in a big range of colours, because different materials can be transported from different areas. People who are employing a builder to build a home are nowadays often shown pictures of all the colours of bricks and tiles that are available. This means that although in old towns, every house is made of the same type of bricks, in a modern suburb every house may look quite different. The bricks range from white through shades of red, yellow and brown and are sometimes very patterned, while the roof tiles include blue, green and yellow as well as the traditional red, orange and brown.
In some countries, the clay for bricks does not set very hard, and washes away more easily. If the bricks are not very hard, then it is usual to cover them with plaster or cement, which can then be painted. In other places, brick walls are not very fashionable so the walls are plastered and made more elegant with decoration. Plastering or cementing over brickwork is called "render" or "stucco". In many countries such as Austria, Italy and Spain, the brick houses are usually covered with stucco and are often painted cream, yellow, orange, pink, red or "orchre" (which is a mustard colour).
Timber
Houses made of timber are found wherever there are, or there has once been big forests. Timber houses are also often found in seaside towns where the sea air makes brick and stone houses feel cold and damp.
One of the oldest ways to make a timber house is to cut tree-trunks into logs. The logs are then split in half so that there is a flat side for the inside of the wall and a round side for the outside. The logs then have big "notches' or holes cut into the ends, so that when they are piled up, the logs lock together at the corners of the building without any nails. These log cabins can be seen in Canada, in Switzerland, in Scandinavia, in Eastern Europe and in Japan.
Many houses are made with a wooden "frame" or skeleton. On the outside of the frame, to keep out the weather, rows of flat boards are nailed, which overlap each other so that the rain cannot come in. Walls like this are called "clapboard" or "weatherboard". Clapboard houses are generally painted to preserve the timber. In England and some parts of the United States, they are nearly always painted white. In Australia where "weatherboard" houses are very common, they are usually painted in bright colours. In England and Australia, clapboard houses are usually quite small, but in the United States there are very many grand mansions that are built in this way.
Some houses with a wooden frame have a brick wall on the outside and a wall of plastered board on the inside. This is called "brick veneer".
Half-timbered houses
A well-known type of old-fashioned house is the "half-timbered" house. These are seen in the British Isles, France, and across northern Europe and the Alps. These houses date mainly from about 1200 to about 1800.
Half-timbered houses are houses that have a wooden frame built up of lots of thick timber pieces that are generally quite short. The timbers are arranged in a pattern with lots of diagonal pieces to act as braces. The strong wooden frame is then filled in with all sorts of other material. In some houses the "infil" is mainly of brick. In other houses, "wattle and daub" is used between the timber. Other houses have infill of "rubble" (rough stones) in clay or mud. The "infil is generally plastered over and painted white (or in some places a colour) while the timbers are often stained black. If they are not stained, they turn pale silvery grey. Hundreds of these houses exist, including some that are quite grand. In the 1800s and early 1900s, there was a fashion to copy "half-timbering" on modern brick houses.
Stone houses
In places where there is lots of stone, many houses are built of it. In many parts of the world, little cottages are built of stone. Many mansions and palaces are also built of stone.
Some of the oldest houses in the world are made of stone. They are circular houses with walls of flat stone slabs laid carefully on each other. The walls sloped gently inwards to meet in a stone roof. Other prehistoric stone houses had roofs of thatch.
In parts of the world where there is stone that can be broken into flat slabs, then walls can be built up without any "mortar" to join the stones together. But the wind blows through the gaps, so the walls need timber or render on the inside, to keep out the weather. Stone houses of this type often have roofs made of flat stones as well. Stone roofs are very heavy and are laid on very thick beams.
Many stone cottages are built of flint or "rubble" or "cobble". These are broken stones that are brought from nearby hills, or stones picked up from the farmer's fields, or gathered from a river bed. The walls are built up with stones and mortar. In some places where flint is used, the hard stones are split or "knapped" so that when they are placed on the outside of the wall, they show a shiny flat surface which is more attractive than the dull lumpy outside of a flintstone.
Some types of stone, particularly limestone and sandstone, can easily be cut into big blocks that can be built up like bricks. It can also be "dressed" or smoothed on its surfaces. In villages that are near a limestone or sandstone quarry where the stone is cut, many of the cottages are built of neatly cut stones. But in towns that are far away from the quarries, it is only the mansions and palaces that are built of stone, because it is very heavy and expensive to carry across the country.
The good thing about the types of stone that are used for grand houses is that they can easily be carved into decoration. Grand houses often have decorative carvings around the doors and windows. The building stones may also have special textures at the basement or the corners of the building.
Grand stone houses often have roofs of thin stone called slate. They also have roofs of expensive materials like copper and lead.
Making modern houses
Modern houses are often made of "pre-fabricated" parts that are partly built in a factory, and are easy to put together at the site of the building.
Many different types of materials for making houses have been developed in the 20th century.
Many houses are now made with steel frames put together with rivets and bolts.
Walls and roofs can be made of boards that combine fibre with cement. These boards are thin, light in weight to transport, easy to put on the frame, and much cheaper than bricks or timber. A similar material can be made into roof tiles.
Metal roofing can be rolled into thin sheets, and made in many different colours, with matching gutters and downpipes.
Notes and references
Nicholas Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture, Pelican, ISBN
Trewin Copplestone, Ed., World Architecture, Paul Hamlyn, ISBN
John Summerson, Architecture in Britain, Pelican,
Trevor Yorke, Tracing the History of Villages, Countryside Books,
Richard Reid, The Book of Buildings, the Architecture of Europe and North America, Peerage Books,
R. Apperly, R. Irving and P.Reynolds, A Pictorial Guide to Identifying Australian Architecture, Angus and Robertson's,
W.R. Dalziel, All-Colour Guide to Architecture, Grosset and Dunlap,
Basic English 850 words |
4904 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabyte | Gigabyte | A gigabyte (GB), sometimes abbreviated as a gig, is a unit of measurement in computers and similar electronic devices. At first it meant exactly 1 billion bytes, usually referring to the number of bytes in a computer hard drive. Its meaning gradually changed over time, so that today it is often used to mean 1,073,741,824 (230) bytes, especially when referring to the random access memory (RAM) of a modern computer. Now international standards bodies say a gigabyte should only be used to mean exactly 1 billion bytes, and that gibibyte is a better name for 1,073,741,824 bytes. In everyday use, people use gigabyte to mean 1,073,741,824 bytes when talking about computer memory and 1,000,000,000 bytes when talking about computer disk space.
One thousand gigabytes make one terabyte.
Uses
This measurement is often used when measuring the capacity of computer memory, hard drives, or other storage devices.
Computing measurement |
4911 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor | Sailor | A sailor (or seaman) is a person who works at sea on a boat or ship. The sailor works under a captain. The term is only used when the person is working professionally (earning money or make a living).
Sailor is also the lowest rank in a navy.
Occupations
Water transport
Sailing
Navy |
4912 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer | Farmer | A farmer is a person who grows crops and raises animals to be used as food. This has been a common job for people since the beginning of civilization.
What farmers do
The word farmer usually refers to a person who has a field, orchard, vineyard, or garden where food is grown. This food is eaten or sold after it is harvested. Farmers may also grow raw materials for industrial purposes. Some examples of raw materials that are used in this way are:
cereals for alcoholic beverages
hides (animal skin) for leather
maize/corn for plastics or fuel
wool or cotton for yarns and making cloth
Some farmers also raise animals to be used for meat, milk, eggs or other things.
Related pages
Agriculture
Agricultural occupations |
4913 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation | Constellation | A constellation is a group of stars which make up imaginary outline or pattern in the night sky (the celestial sphere). Usually they are said to represent an animal, mythological person or creature in a shape. When seen, the group of stars seem to make a pattern.
The word constellation comes from Latin: con-, meaning together and stella- meaning stars. Some examples of constellations are Ursa major, Orion, Leo, Draco, Cancer etc.
People used constellations to tell the difference in the colors. Constellations were also used to group stars. Different places in the world may have different constellations, but today astronomy has a fixed set of 88 constellations. This set is based on the Greek set and later some southern constellations were added, for example Antlia - the air pump. Most constellations have names that come from Greek mythology, like Orion or Andromeda.
There are 12 constellations in the Zodiac. The Sun travels through the Zodiac once each year. There is also a thirteenth constellation Ophiuchus - the carrier of a serpent, which the Sun goes through. However, most people do not think that it is in the Zodiac.
History
No one knows who first saw the constellations. Ancient civilizations, like the Mayans, drew their own star maps of the skies with their constellations, very few of which we use today.
Ptolemy's 48 constellations are still recognized by the IAU today, and the rest of the constellations were added later |
4914 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood | Flood | A flood is an overflow of water. This is most commonly due to an overflowing river, a dam break, snowmelt, or heavy rainfall. Less commonly happening are tsunamis, storm surge.
The most deadly flooding was in 1931 in China and killed between 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 people. The Kerala flood in India was another flood that has destroyed people's houses.
During a flood, people try to move themselves and their most precious belongings to higher ground quickly. The process of leaving homes in search of a safe place is called a flood evacuation.
Pollution of drinking water
During a flood there is plenty of water logging and overflow of water, it is mostly polluted and not safe to drink. If people drink this dirty water, they may suffer from diseases such as typhoid and cholera, hepatitis and other such diseases. People can get ready to survive a flood by filling many containers with fresh and clean drinking water and storing other emergency supplies; like: medicine and food. During flood people try to go to higher sides because the flood water wouldn't reach high areas. Also drains overflow and mix with clean water and people who drink it might fall ill.
Causes of floods
Flooding is usually caused when a volume of water within a water body, such as a lake, overflows outside it.Sometimes if a dam breaks, it suddenly releases a large amount of water. The result is that some of the water travels to land, and 'floods' the area.Many rivers are in a channel, between river banks. They flood when the strength of the river causes it to flow beyond the banks. This is more common at bends or meanders. Flood damage can be prevented by moving away from places that flood. However, people have long liked to have their homes and businesses alongside water because water is good for agriculture and transport and in other ways. Floods are also caused due to improper management of drains. Rainfall is the most common cause. Snow melt is also a cause of flooding. Tsunamis and Storm Surge are less common ways that floods happen. Coastal Flooding is another common cause of flooding, and this is caused by low pressure systems or storms.You can control floods by improving the drainage and grading of your home. Installing a flood detection system in your home also helps to prevent flooding.
References
Related pages
Flood control |
4923 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell | Hell | In many mythologies and religions, Hell or the Underworld is a place where souls of wicked people go after their life on Earth. It is a real (but perhaps not physical) place which is controlled by either God, or some lesser supernatural being such as Satan. It is the opposite of Heaven, and is a place apart from God, where there is no love or kindness. The word "hell" is used in the English version of the Old Testament to translate the Hebrew word for "the grave", , and in the New Testament the Greek , Hades, and , Hebrew Gehenna. Each of those words have a somewhat different meaning from the popular English meaning of hell. In English, hell can also simply mean something very bad, as in "War is Hell".
Jewish beliefs about Hell
Many believe that Jews do not believe in Hell, but Jews really do believe. But it does not consist of eternal torture. Rather, there are lower levels of Heaven that a person can descend to considering the number of mitzvot (commandments) that they have obeyed. Gemorah writings tell the Jews of devil beliefs, but these are stories and are taken lightly. Jews also believe that Satan did exist, but he was an angel that quarreled with God, such as the story of Job.
In Hebrew the word for "the grave", Sheol, is used for the place where people go when they die. It can also mean a place of torment in the after-life, rather than a physical grave In which the body lies.
Etimology/Gehennem
Hebrew, ΧΧ ΧΧ Χ (ge hinnom, "Hinnom Valley") Greek, Ξ³ΞΡννα (geenna); Latin, gehenna
'Ge Hinnom' : Hinnom valley
It is thought that the word was derived from the Hebrew composition of "Ge ben hinnom" (the valley of the son of Hinnom) by the fall of the "ben" over time.
'Ge' : Valley
'ben' : Son
'Hinnom' : Hinnom
Gehinnom is the name of the valley in the southwest of Jerusalem, where the Canaanites sacrificed their children to Baal, who was given the title Moloch or malik in Arabic. It was used as a garbage dump, where fires always burned and so became a symbol for hell.
Christian beliefs about Hell
In Christianity, Hell is the place the souls of people go who did not believe in God and receive the forgiveness which Jesus offers. In Hell, souls suffer and wait for the Last Judgement, a time when all people, living and dead, will be judged by God. The concept of Hell in Christianity comes from the Bible and the "casting out" of Lucifer. Jesus referred to hell as "prepared for the Devil and his angels". In being cast out, he was removed from the Godβs presence. Therefore, if taken in its most literal sense, Hell is eternal separation from God. Stated another way, to the Christian mind being separated from God is to be in Hell. Some Christians believe that Hell has real fire and flames, but others do not. Jesus spoke of Hell in several places as a punishment for evil.
Many Christian groups believe once a soul goes to Hell, it stays forever. However, some Christian groups think Hell is a temporary place that souls may leave at some point. Others believe in a permanent Hell but a temporary Purgatory. Still others believe those who do not go to Heaven stop existing instead of going to Hell. These Christians are called annihilationists.
Other religions' beliefs about Hell
The Ancient Greeks believed that souls would go to different places within the underworld. One of those places, called Tartaros, was like Hell. The god Hades was the ruler of the underworld.
In Buddhism, there are three types of hells, called Naraka. Unlike in Judaism and Christianity, souls are born into these places based on their karma. They spend a certain amount of time there and are then reborn somewhere else.
In Islam, Hell is called Jahannam, and it is a place of punishment. However, some Muslims believe almost everyone will eventually be forgiven and taken to the Islamic Heaven (Jannah). The only people who will not be forgiven are those who choose to believe in many gods, or no god at all.
In Shintoism, Hell (Yomi) is similar to the Greek Hades, in that all souls go there, no matter their actions in life, to have a miserable existence forever.
References
Related pages
Heaven
Greek underworld
Hel (realm)
Yomi
Afterlife
Religion |
4931 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/October%2021 | October 21 |
Events
Up to 1900
686 β Conon becomes Pope.
1096 - People's Crusade: The Turkish army heavily defeats the People's Army of the West.
1097 - First Crusade: The Siege of Antioch begins.
1209 - Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor is crowned by Pope Innocent III.
1392 - Emperor Kameyama of Japan abdicates the throne in favour of his arch-rival Emperor Go-Komatsu.
1512 - Martin Luther joins the theological faculty at the University of Wittenberg.
1520 - Ferdinand Magellan enters what is now known as the Magellan Strait.
1600 β Tokugawa Ieyasu defeats the leaders of rival Japanese clans in the Battle of Sekigahara, which marks the beginning of the Tokugawa shogunate, who in effect rule Japan until the mid-Nineteenth century.
1638 - In England, the church at Widecombe-on-the-Moor is struck by lightning during an afternoon service, leading to new scientific research on lightning strikes.
1797 β In Boston Harbor, the 44-gun United States Navy frigate USS Constitution is launched.
1805 β Napoleonic Wars: Battle of Trafalgar β a British fleet led by Admiral Lord Nelson defeats a combined French and Spanish fleet off the coast of Spain under Admiral Villeneuve. It signalled the virtual end of French maritime power and left Britain navally unchallenged until the twentieth century.
1805 β Napoleonic Wars: Austrian General Mack surrendurs his army to the Grand Armee of Napoleon at Ulm, reaping Napoleon over 30,000 prisoners and inflicting 10,000 casualties on the losers. Ulm was considered to be one of Napoleon's finest hours.
1816 - The Penang Free School is founded in George Town, Malaysia. It is the oldest English language school in Southeast Asia.
1824 β Joseph Aspdin patents Portland cement.
1854 β Florence Nightingale and a staff of 38 nurses were sent to the Crimean War.
1861 β American Civil War: Battle of Ball's Bluff β Union forces under Colonel Edward Baker are defeated by Confederate troops in the second major battle of the war. Baker, a close friend of Abraham Lincoln, is killed in the fighting.
1867 β Manifest Destiny: Medicine Lodge Treaty β Near Medicine Lodge Creek, Kansas a landmark treaty is signed by southern Great Plains Indian leaders. The treaty requires Native American Plains tribes to relocate a reservation in western Oklahoma.
1879 β Using a filament of carbonized thread, Thomas Edison tests the first practical electric light bulb (it lasted 13 1/2Β hours before burning out).
1885 - In an assassination attempt, Danish Prime Minister Jacob Estrup is shot.
1888 - The Swiss Social Democratic Party is founded.
1895 β The Republic of Taiwan collapses as Japanese forces invade.
1901 2000
1902 β In the United States, a five-month strike by United Mine Workers ends.
1907 - A magnitude 8.1 earthquake hits Central Asia, killing 12,000.
1910 - HMS Niobe arrives at Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia to become the first ship of the Royal Canadian Navy.
1921 β US President Warren G. Harding delivers the first speech by a sitting President against lynching in the deep south.
1930 - A mining disaster at Alsdorf, near Aachen, Germany, kills 271 people.
1934 β Mao Tse-tung and his followers begin the Long March.
1941 β World War II: Germans rampage in Yugoslavia, killing thousands of civilians.
1943 - The Provisional Government of Free India is declared by Subhas Chandra Bose.
1944 β The first kamikaze attack: HMAS Australia was hit by a Japanese plane carrying a 200Β kg (441Β pound) bomb off Leyte Island, as the Battle of Leyte Gulf began.
1944 - World War II: Aachen becomes the first major German city to fall to the Allies.
1945 β Women's suffrage: Women are allowed to vote in France for the first time.
1945 β Argentine military officer and politician Juan PerΓ³n married actress Evita.
1947 β 21 die as a fire destroys an asylum in Hoff, Germany.
1948 - A Lockheed Constellation airplane crashes at Prestwick, Scotland, killing 39 people.
1957 β The movie Jailhouse Rock, starring Elvis Presley, opens.
1959 β In New York City, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum opens to the public. It was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright.
1959 β US President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs an executive order transferring Wernher von Braun and other German scientists from the United States Army to NASA.
1962 - Norwegian postal ship Sanct Svithun sinks, killing 41.
1965 - Comet Ikeya-Seki approaches Perihelion, passing 200,000 kilometers (279,617 miles) within Earth.
1966 β Aberfan disaster: A coal tip falls on the village of Aberfan in Wales, killing 144 people, mostly schoolchildren
1967 β Vietnam War: More than 100,000 war protesters gather in Washington, DC. A peaceful rally at the Lincoln Memorial is followed by a march to The Pentagon and clashes with soldiers and United States Marshals protecting the facility (event lasts until October 23; 683 people will be arrested). Similar demonstrations occurred simultaneously in Japan and Western Europe.
1969 - Willy Brandt is elected Chancellor of West Germany.
1971 - 22 people are killed in a gas explosion at a shopping centre in Clarkston, East Renfrewshire, near Glasgow, Scotland.
1973 β John Paul Getty III's ear is cut off by his kidnappers and sent to a newspaper in Rome; it does not arrive until November 8.
1977 - The European Patent Institute is founded.
1980 β 1980 World Series: In 6 games, the Philadelphia Phillies win their first World Series.
1981 - Andreas Papandreou becomes Prime Minister of Greece.
1986 β In Lebanon, pro-Iranian kidnappers claim to have abducted American writer Edward Tracy (he will be released in August 1991).
1986 - African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights enters into force.
1987 β Former Miss America Bess Myerson is arrested on charges of bribery, conspiracy, and mail fraud, all involving an alimony-fixing scandal. She is later found not guilty.
1994 β North Korea nuclear weapons program: North Korea and the United States sign an agreement that requires North Korea to stop its nuclear weapons program and agree to inspections.
1994 - In Seoul, South Korea, 32 people are killed when the Seongsu Bridge collapses.
1997 β Hotel owners from the Detroit area meet to discuss Jack Kevorkian's practice of leaving corpses in hotel rooms.
1997 β The government of Singapore announces in a widely publicized "toilet alert" that the drive for toilet cleanliness is a great success; five toilets were selected by citizens as toilet role models.
From 2001
2004 β The Boston Red Sox win the American League pennant, defeating the New York Yankees 10-3 in Game 7 of the American League Championship Series, capping off a remarkable comeback from three games to none down to win.
2005 - Hurricane Wilma strikes the Yucatan, Mexico.
2007 - Kimi Raikkonen wins the Formula One World Championship.
2007 - Donald Tusk is elected Prime Minister of Poland.
2015 - This is the exact date that the main characters travel to in Back to the Future Part II.
2016 - A train crash in EsΓ©ka, Cameroon, kills at least 55 people.
2017 - The government of Spain begins moves to take direct control of the region of Catalonia after the region's disputed referendum on its independence on October 1.
2019 - The 2019 Canadian federal election is held, with Justin Trudeau's Liberal Party of Canada retaining power, but with a reduced number of seats and in second place in the popular vote behind Andrew Scheer's Conservative Party of Canada.
Births
Up to 1900
1328 - Hongwu Emperor of China (d. 1398)
1449 β George, Duke of Clarence (d. 1478)
1527 - Louis I, Cardinal of Guise (d. 1578)
1581 β Domenico Zampieri, Italian painter (d. 1641)
1650 - Jean Bart, French naval commander (d. 1702)
1660 β Georg Ernst Stahl, German scientist (d. 1734)
1671 β King Frederick IV of Demmark (d. 1730)
1672 - Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Italian writer (d. 1750)
1675 β Emperor Higashiyama of Japan (d. 1710)
1687 β Nicolaus I Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (d. 1759)
1728 - JosΓ© MoΓ±ino, 1st Count of Floridablanca, Spanish politician (d. 1808)
1762 - Herman Willem Daendels, Dutch statesman (d. 1818)
1772 β Samuel Taylor Coleridge, British poet (d. 1834)
1775 - Giuseppe Baini, Italian composer (d. 1844)
1790 - Alphonse de Lamartine, French writer (d. 1869)
1811 - Filippo Colini, Italian opera singer (d. 1863)
1823 - Emilio Arrieta, Spanish composer (d. 1894)
1833 β Alfred Nobel, Swedish inventor (d. 1896)
1837 - James A. Beaver, 20th Governor of Pennsylvania (d. 1914)
1839 - Georg von Siemens, German banker and politician (d. 1901)
1845 β Will Carleton, American poet (d. 1912)
1846 - Edmondo De Amicis, Italian novelist, journalist, poet and short-story writer (d. 1908)
1847 β Giuseppe Giacosa, Italian writer (d. 1906)
1874 - Henri Guisan, Swiss general (d. 1960)
1884 - Claire Waldoff, German singer and entertainer (d. 1957)
1886 β Eugene Burton Ely, American aviator (d. 1911)
1886 - Karl Polanyi, Austro-Hungarian economist (d. 1964)
1887 - James L. McConaughy, American politician, Governor of Connecticut (d. 1948)
1887 - Krishna Singh, Indian politician, 1st Chief Minister of Bihar (d. 1961)
1892 β Otto Nerz, German footballer and coach (d. 1949)
1894 - Edogawa Rampo, Japanese writer and critic (d. 1965)
1895 - Edna Purviance, American actress (d. 1958)
1895 - Paavo Johansson, Finnish javelin thrower (d. 1983)
1896 - Evgeny Schwarz, Russian movie writer (d. 1958)
1901 1950
1901 - Margarete Buber-Neumann, German politician (d. 1989)
1907 - Nikos Engonopoulos, Greek painter and poet (d. 1985)
1911 β Mary Blair, American artist and illustrator (d. 1978)
1912 β Georg Solti, Hungarian conductor (d. 1997)
1914 β Kazimierz Swiatek, Roman Catholic cardinal of Belarus (d. 2011)
1914 β Martin Gardner, American writer (d. 2010)
1917 β Dizzy Gillespie, American musician (d. 1993)
1918 - Hulett C. Smith, Governor of West Virginia (d. 2012)
1921 β Malcolm Arnold, British composer (d. 2006)
1921 - Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld, Dutch astronomer (d. 2015)
1921 - Sena Jurinac, Bosnian operatic soprano (d. 2011)
1922 β Liliane Bettencourt, French L'Oreal heiress (d. 2017)
1924 - Joyce Randolph, American actress
1924 - Julie Wilson, American actress (d. 2015)
1925 β Celia Cruz, Cuban Salsa singer (d. 2003)
1925 - Virginia Zeani, Romanian soprano
1926 β Leonard Rossiter, English comedian and actor (d. 1984)
1926 - William Love Waller, Governor of Mississippi (d. 2011)
1927 β Fritz Wintersteller, Austrian mountaineer (d. 2018)
1927 - Howard Zieff, American director (d. 2009)
1928 - Vern Mikkelsen, American basketball player (d. 2013)
1928 - Whitey Ford, American baseball player
1929 - Pierre Bellemare, French writer, radio and television host (d. 2018)
1930 - Pascale Roberts, French actress (d. 2019)
1930 - Ivan Silayev, Soviet Prime Minister
1931 β Shammi Kapoor, Indian actor (d. 2011)
1932 - Alex Ifeanyichukwu Ekwueme, Vice president of Nigeria (d. 2017)
1932 - PΓ‘l Csernai, Hungarian footballer (d. 2013)
1933 - Georgia Brown, American actress (d. 1992)
1933 - Joan Hinde, English trumpeter and entertainer (d. 2015)
1937 - Hans-Ulrich Schmincke, German volcanologist
1937 - Said Afandi al-Chirkawi, Russian spiritual leader (d. 2012)
1937 - Valentina Pyatchenko, Russian singer (Buranovskiye Babushki)
1940 β Geoffrey Boycott, English cricketer
1940 β Manfred Mann, South African-English musician
1940 - Marita Petersen, Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 2001)
1941 β Steve Cropper, American musician and songwriter
1942 β Christopher A. Sims, American economist
1942 - Paul Churchland, Canadian philosopher
1942 - Judith Sheindlin, American judge (Judge Judy)
1942 - Lou Lamoriello, American ice hockey player, coach and manager
1943 β Tariq Ali, Pakistani writer and historian
1944 - Jean-Pierre Sauvage, French chemist, 2016 joint Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate
1944 - Mandy Rice-Davies, British media personality (d. 2014)
1945 - Nikita Mikhalkov, Soviet-Russian movie director
1946 - Jane Heal, British philosopher
1946 β Lux Interior, American singer (d. 2009)
1948 - Tom Everett, American actor
1949 β Benjamin Netanyahu, Prime Minister of Israel
1949 - LeTanya Richardson, American actress
1949 - Mike Keenan, Canadian ice hockey coach
1950 - Ronald McNair, American astronaut (d. 1986)
1951 1975
1952 - Trevor Chappell, Australian cricketer
1952 β Brent Mydland, American keyboardist (d. 1990)
1952 - Patti Davis, American actress and novelist, daughter of Ronald Reagan
1953 β Peter Mandelson, English politician
1953 - Eric Faulkner, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist
1954 - Brian Tobin, Canadian politician
1955 - Catherine Hardwicke, American movie director, producer, designer and screenwriter
1956 β Carrie Fisher, American actress and writer (d. 2016)
1957 - Steve Lukather, American guitarist and singer (Toto)
1957 β Wolfgang Ketterle, German physicist, Nobel Prize winner
1958 - Andre Geim, Russian-born physicist, Nobel Prize winner
1959 β Ken Watanabe, Japanese actor
1960 - Scott Stearney, American Vice Admiral (d. 2018)
1962 - David Campese, Australian rugby player
1964 β Jon Carin, American musician
1965 β Ion Andoni Goikoetxea, Basque-Spanish footballer
1967 β Paul Ince, English footballer
1969 β Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, crown prince of Bahrain
1969 - Chris Law, Scottish politician
1971 β Jade Jagger, socialite and jewellery designer
1971 - Paul Telfer, Scottish footballer
1971 - Thomas Ulsrud, Norwegian curler
1972 - Felicity Anderson, Australian actress
1974 - Costel Busuioc, Romanian tenor
From 1976
1976 - Andrew Scott, Irish actor
1979 - Fernanda Rodrigues, Brazilian actress and television presenter
1979 - Karl Harris, British motorcycle racer (d. 2014)
1980 β Kim Kardashian, American socialite, model and reality television personality
1981 β Nemanja Vidic, Serbian footballer
1981 - Martin Castrogiovanni, Argentine-born Italian rugby player
1983 β Hrvoje Custic, Croatian footballer (d. 2008)
1983 - Amber Rose, American model
1983 - Charlotte Sullivan, Canadian actress
1984 β Kieran Richardson, English footballer
1986 β Natalee Holloway, American teenager (missing since 2005)
1986 - Tamerlan Tsarnaev, Chechen-American terrorist (d. 2013)
1988 - James White, American basketball player
1989 - Sam Vokes, Welsh footballer
1990 - Maxime Vachier-Lagrave, French chess player
1990 β Ricky Rubio, Spanish basketball player
1992 β Bernard Tomic, Australian tennis player
1993 - Kane Brown, American singer
1995 - Cameron Burgess, Scottish-Australian footballer
1995 - Shannon Magrane, American singer
Deaths
Up to 1900
310 β Pope Eusebius
1125 - Cosmas of Prague, Bohemian writer
1204 - Robert de Beaufort, 4th Earl of Leicester
1221 - Alix, Duchess of Brittany (b. 1201)
1266 β Birger Jarl, Swedish statesman (b. 1210)
1422 β King Charles VI of France (b. 1368)
1500 - Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado of Japan (b. 1442)
1558 β Julius Caesar Scaliger, humanist scholar (b. 1484)
1600 - Toda Katsushige, Japanese warlord (b. 1557)
1623 - William Wade, English statesman and diplomat (b. 1546)
1687 β Sir Edmund Waller, English poet (b. 1606)
1708 - Guru Gobind Singh, 10th Sikh Guru (b. 1666)
1765 β Giovani Paolo Panini, Italian painter and architect (b. 1691)
1775 β Peyton Randolph, American politician, President of the Continental Congress (b. 1721)
1805 - Killed in the Battle of Trafalgar:
Horatio Nelson, British admiral (b. 1758)
George Duff, Royal Navy captain (b. 1764)
John Cooke, Royal Navy captain (b. 1763)
1818 β Michael Howe, bushranger in Tasmania, Australia
1821 - Dorothea Ackermann, German actress (b. 1752)
1872 - Jacques Babinet, French physicist (b. 1794)
1873 β Johann Sebastian Welhaven, Norwegian poet (b. 1807)
1896 β James Henry Greathead, British engineer (b. 1844)
1901 2000
1903 - Jinmaku Kyugoro, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1829)
1904 - Isabelle Eberhardt, Swiss explorer and writer (b. 1877)
1907 - Jules Chevalier, French priest (b. 1824)
1916 - Count Karl von StΓΌrgkh, Austrian politician (b. 1859)
1929 - Vasil Radoslavov, Bulgarian politician (b. 1854)
1931 β Arthur Schnitzler, Austrian writer (b. 1862)
1931 - Barbecue Bob, American blues musician (b. 1902)
1940 - William G. Conley, Governor of West Virginia (b. 1866)
1944 β Alois Kayser, German missionary, working in Nauru
1944 - Hilma af Klint, Swedish artist and mystic (b. 1862)
1952 - Hans Merensky, South African geologist and philanthropist (b. 1871)
1967 - Ejnar Hertzsprung, Danish astronomer (b. 1873)
1969 β Waclaw Sierpinski, Polish mathematician (b. 1882)
1969 β Jack Kerouac, American beat novelist (b. 1922)
1975 β Charles Reidpath, American athlete (b. 1887)
1978 β Anastas Mikoyan, Soviet politician (b. 1895)
1980 β Hans Asperger, Austrian psychologist who discovered Asperger's Syndrome (b. 1906).
1980 - Vulko Cherenkov, Bulgarian politician (b. 1900)
1984 β FranΓ§ois Truffaut, French movie director (b. 1932)
1985 - Dan White, American politician (b. 1946)
1986 β Lionel Murphy, Australian Labor Party politician and High Court judge (b. 1922)
1990 - Walther Sommerlath, German businessman, father of Queen Silvia of Sweden (b. 1901)
1993 β Melchior Ndadaye, President of Burundi (b. 1953)
1995 β Shannon Hoon, lead singer of pop band Blind Melon (b. 1967)
1995 - Maxene Andrews, American singer (b. 1916)
1995 β JesΓΊs Blasco, Spanish comic book writer (b. 1919)
1996 - Georgios Zoitakis, Greek army general and regent (b. 1910)
1998 - Francis W. Sargent, Governor of Massachusetts (b. 1915)
1999 β Lars Bo, Danish artist and writer (b. 1924)
From 2001
2003 β Fred Berry, American actor (b. 1951)
2003 β Luis A. FerrΓ©, former governor of Puerto Rico (b. 1904)
2003 β Louise Day Hicks, US politician (b. 1916)
2003 β Elliott Smith, American musician (b. 1969)
2006 β Sandy West, American musician (b. 1959)
2010 β Loki Schmidt, German environmentalist and wife of Helmut Schmidt (b. 1919)
2011 - Edmundo Ros, Trinidadian musician (b. 1910)
2012 - George McGovern, American politician (b. 1922)
2012 - Yash Chopra, Indian movie director, screenwriter and producer (b. 1932)
2014 - Gough Whitlam, 21st Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1916)
2014 - Benjamin C. Bradlee, American journalist (b. 1921)
2014 - Mohammad-Reza Mahdavi Kani, Iranian politician and cleric (b. 1931)
2014 - Seth Gaaikema, Dutch comedian and writer (b. 1939)
2014 - Lilli Carati, Italian actress (b. 1956)
2015 - Marty Ingels, American actor (b. 1936)
2016 - Manfred Krug, German actor (b. 1937)
2017 - Martin Eric Ain, American-Swiss musician (b. 1967)
2017 - Emilio D'Amore, Italian politician (b. 1915)
2017 - Rosemary Leach, English actress (b. 1935)
2017 - Lech Ordon, Polish actor (b. 1928)
2017 - Denise P. Barlow, British geneticist (b. 1950)
2017 - Judith McGrath, Australian actress (b. 1947)
2017 - Gilbert Stork, American organic chemist (b. 1921)
2018 - Earl Bakken, American inventor and museum founder (b. 1924)
2018 - Ilie Balaci, Romanian footballer and manager (b. 1956)
2018 - Harry L. Ettlinger, American engineer (b. 1926)
2018 - Robert Faurisson, British-French journalist, academic and Holocaust denier (b. 1929)
2018 - Joachim Ronneberg, Norwegian military officer and broadcaster (b. 1919)
2018 - Jun-ichi Nishizawa, Japanese electrical engineer (b. 1926)
2018 - Charles Wang, Chinese-born American software engineer, philanthropist and sports team owner (b. 1944)
2019 - Gilberto Aceves Navarro, Mexican painter and sculptor (b. 1931)
2019 - Bengt Feldreich, Swedish television journalist (b. 1925)
2019 - Taras Kutovy, Ukrainian politician (b. 1976)
2019 - Lho Shin-yong, Prime Minister of South Korea (b. 1930)
2019 - Aila Meriluoto, Finnish poet (b. 1924)
Observances
International Day of the Nacho (Mexico and the United States)
National Nurses' Day (Thailand)
Overseas Chinese Day (Republic of China)
Apple Day (UK)
Days of the year |
4932 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/112%20%28emergency%20telephone%20number%29 | 112 (emergency telephone number) | The telephone number 1-1-2 (or 112) is the standard European Union (EU) emergency telephone number, it works in every country of the EU, for land lines and mobile phones. It is also used in some other countries as an emergency telephone number for both mobile and fixed-line telephones.
112 is also the international emergency telephone number for all GSM mobile phone networks. It does not necessarily work on other mobile phone technologies outside the EU.
Countries that use 112
Countries which use the 112 number for emergencies include:
Africa
(alongside 122 for Police, 123 for Ambulance and 180 for Fire)
(Police only; alongside 114 for Ambulance and 115 for Fire)
(Police and fire brigade; 912 for Ambulance)
(alongside 17 for Police, 18 for Fire, and 15 for Ambulance)
(alongside 10111 for Police)
Asia
(fire dep. 101, police dep. 102, ambulance 103)
(alongside 102 for Police, 103 for Ambulance , alongside 112 , 911 forwards to 112 on GSM carriers only)
(A recorded guidance about the correct SOS numbers in China: Police 110, Ambulance 120, Fire 119. NO SERVICE will be redirected.)
(Automatically connects to the 999 emergency call centre from any local mobile phone network that has coverage in the location)
(alongside 100 for Police, 101 for Fire, 108 for Ambulance and 102 for Emergency Disaster Management Now in India 112 is emergency for all including for Ambulance and Fire )
(alongside 110 for Police, 118 for Ambulance and 113 for Fire)
(alongside 110 for Police, 115 for Ambulance, 112 for Hilal Ahmar Ambulance and 125 for Fire; 911 is redirected to 112 on mobile phones)
(Redirects to 100 β Police β and will serve the planned unified center. alongside 100 for Police, 101 for Ambulance and 102 for Fire).
(alongside 911)
(alongside 101 for Fire, 102 for Police and 103 for Ambulance)
(alongside 112)
(alongside 101 for Fire, 102 for Police and 103 for Ambulance)
(Police only; alongside 160 for Police, 140 for Ambulance and 125 for Fire)
(alongside 999)
(Redirects to 999 on mobile phones)
(alongside 102 for Police, 103 for Ambulance and 105 for Fire)
(Police only; alongside 100 for Police, 101 for Fire and 102 for Ambulance)
(fire dep. 102, police dep. 100, ambulance 101)
(alongside 911)
(Police only; alongside 119 for Ambulance and Fire)
(Police only; alongside 119 for Police and 110 for Ambulance and Fire)
(Police only; alongside 110 for Ambulance and 113 for Fire)
(After call is connected, press 0 redirects 110 (police), press 9 redirects 119 (fire/rescue/ambulance) )
(alongside 999 for Police, 998 for Ambulance and 997 for Fire)
(alongside 9999 for Royal Police (All emergencies))
Europe
(alongside 129 and 126 for Police, 127 for Ambulance, 128 for Fire and 125 for Maritime Rescue)
(Ambulance and Fire, alongside 118 for same services and 110 for Police)
(Police only; alongside 122 for Fire, 133 for Police,144 for Rescue/Ambulance, 140 for Mountain Resuce and 141 - Doctors; 059 133 is the non-emergency number for any local police department)
(Fire only; alongside 101 for Fire, 102 for Police, and 103 for Ambulance)
(only in French, Dutch and English (in some cases in German) ) (Ambulance and Fire; alongside 100 for same services and 101 for Police)
(alongside 122 for Police, 123 for Fire and 124 for Ambulance)
(only in Bulgarian, English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Greek, Romanian, Turkish, or Russian)(alongside 150 for Ambulance, 160 for Fire and 166 for Police automatically redirected to 112)
(alongside 192 for Police, 193 for Fire, 194 for Ambulance and 195 for Maritime search and rescue)
(alongside 199)
(only in Czech, English, German, Polish, Russian and French(not by themselves, but by aid of translation software)) (alongside 155 for Ambulance, 158 for Police and 150 for Fire)
(in Danish, English, Swedish and Norwegian (in some cases in German)) (including in Kalaallisut/Greenlandic, Danish and English, in Faroese, Danish and English). Alongside 114 for non-emergency police.
(including )
(alongside 15 for Ambulance, 17 for Police and 18 for Fire)
(alongside 110 for Police)
(alongside 190 for Fire and Ambulance and 199 for Police)
(alongside 100 for the police, 108 for port police, 166 for Ambulance and 199 for the fire service)
(alongside 104 for Ambulance, 105 for Fire and 107 for Police is redirected to 112 on mobile phones)
(alongside 999)
(most of Italy has 112 for Carabinieri, 113 for National Police, 115 for Fire, 118 for Ambulance, 1530 coast guard, 1515 State Forestry Corps, 117 Finance Guard and 1544 penitentiary police; a few provinces use 112 for all emergencies)
(alongside 192 for Police, 193 for Fire and 194 for Ambulance)
(alongside 110 for Police, 113 for Ambulance and 114 for Emergency gas service)
(Police only; alongside 117 for Police, 144 for Ambulance and 118 for Fire)
(alongside 011 for Fire, 022 for Police and 033 for Ambulance)
(alongside 113 for Police)
(sole emergency number since 1 July 2018, replacing 901 for Fire, 902 for Police and 903 for Ambulance)
(alongside 15 for Ambulance, 17 for Police and 18 for Fire)
(alongside 122 for Police, 123 for Fire and 124 for Ambulance)
(0900-8844 is the non-emergency number for any local police department)(In the Caribbean Netherlands 112 redirects to 911, whereas in the European Netherlands 911 redirects to 112)
(alongside 192 for Police, 193 for Fire, 194 for Ambulance)
(112 for Police only, 110 for Fire and 113 for Ambulance. Calls to any of the emergency numbers will be redirected to appropriate service when needed. 02800 is the non-emergency number for any local police department)
(its used alongside 999 for Ambulance, 998 for Fire, and 997 for Police; both options are available; 112 is used for all emergencies)
(117 for reporting forest fires)
(alongside 101 for Fire, 102 for Police, 103 for Ambulance and 104 for Emergency gas service)
(alongside 192 for Police, 193 for Fire, and 194 for Ambulance)
(alongside 155 for Ambulance, 158 for Police, 150 for Fire and 18300 for Mountain Rescue Service)
(alongside 113 for Police)
(alongside 091/062/092 for Police, 061 for Ambulance and 080 and 085 (in some provincial consortium) for Fire)
(alongside 114 14 Police number for non-urgent matters)
(alongside 117 for Police, 144 for Ambulance and 118 for Fire)
(alongside 101 for Fire, 102 for Police, 103 for Ambulance and 104 for Emergency gas service; in some cities 112 and 911 are additionally for all emergencies)
(alongside 999)
(alongside 113 for National Police, 115 for Fire and 118 for Ambulance)
North America
(redirects to 911 on certain phone operating systems only)
(alongside 911)
(alongside 911)
(alongside 911; 104 for Police and 103 for Fire)
(alongside 911, 112 forwards to 911 on GSM carriers only, including AT&T and T-Mobile.)
(alongside 911)
Oceania
(redirects to 000 from mobile phones)
(redirects to 111)
South America
(alongside 911)
(alongside 911; redirects to 190 β Military Police β alongside 193 for Fire, 190 for Military Police, and 192 for Ambulance)
(alongside 911; redirects to 133 - police)
(Police only; alongside 123 for all emergencies, 125 for Ambulance and 119 for Fire)
(alongside 911)
References
Related pages
9-1-1
000 Emergency
Other websites
EU document on European adoption of 112 emergency number in PDF format
European Union
Emergency phone numbers |
4933 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government-in-exile | Government-in-exile | A government-in-exile is a group of people who claim they are the real government of a country, but who live in another country. These were common during World War II. The Germans took over several countries, and the leaders of those countries went to England for refuge.
Today, there are some governments-in-exile. They include:
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) in the Tindouf region in Algeria
the government of the Belarus National Republic exiled since 1920 and currently led by Ivonka Survilla in Canada
the government of the Dalai Lama in India, claiming to be the real leaders of Tibet, which was taken over by the Chinese
the former provinsional Bangladeshi government was exiled, claiming to be the real leaders of East Bengal province, which was taken over by the Pakistani military.
Few countries recognize (accept) these groups.
Related pages
Exile
References |
4939 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge | Stonehenge | Stonehenge is a prehistoric World Heritage Site of megaliths eight miles (13 kilometers) north of Salisbury in Wiltshire, England. It was built between 3100 BC and 1550 BC, and was in use until the Bronze Age. The monument is made of a henge, with standing stones in circles. It is probably the most important prehistoric monument in the whole of Britain, and has attracted visitors from very early times.
Building Stonehenge
Stonehenge was built in three stages. Most of the construction took place between 2640 and 2480 BC.
The first stage started around 3100 BC. During this stage, people dug a circular ditch and a ring of 56 pits, known as Aubrey Holes.
The second stage started around 2100 BC. During this stage, the Stonehenge builders brought huge pillars of rocks from Southwestern Wales and erected them into concentric circles around the centre of the site. This double circle was never completed, and it was dismantled during the third period of construction.
The final stage probably ended before 1500 BC. During this period, the monument was remodeled. Its builders erected a circle of 30 upright stones, weighing up to 50 tons each, capped by ring of stone lintels. These enclosed a horseshoe-shaped formation of five pairs of upright stones, each pair capped with a stone lintel.
Using DNA analysis, scientists have discovered that the Stonehenge builders originated from modern-day Turkey.
History
Bluestones
The first stone circle was a set of 'bluestones'. These stones are made of dolerite, an igneous rock.
The Stonehenge builders dug holes that held up to 80 standing stones (shown blue on the plan). Only 43 of these can be traced today.
There are several theories about how these bluestones arrived at Stonehenge. The long-distance human transport theory says the Stonehenge builders brought the bluestones from the Preseli Hills in modern-day Pembrokeshire, Wales - 160 miles (260 km) away from Stonehenge. In 2011, a megalithic bluestone quarry was discovered at Craig Rhos-y-felin, near Crymych in Pembrokeshire. This supported the long-distance human transport theory.
Another theory is that the Irish Sea Glacier brought the stones close to Stonehenge. However, there is no evidence of glacial deposition within southern central England. For that reason, this theory has less support than the long-distance human transport theory.
Sarsen stones
Later, around 2400 BC, the Stonehenge builders brought thirty huge grey sarsen stones (sandstone blocks) to the site. They 'dressed' (worked on) the stones and gave them mortice and tenon joints. They erected these stones in a circle 33 metres (108 ft) in diameter, with a ring of 30 lintel stones resting on top. They fitted the lintels together using another woodworking method: the tongue and groove joint. They arranged the remaining bluestones in an inner circle. Each standing stone was about 4.1 metres (13 ft) high by 2.1 metres (6 ft 11 in) wide, and weighed about 25 tons.
The stones may have come from a quarry about 25 miles (40 km) north of Stonehenge on the Marlborough Downs. It is also possible that they were collected from a "litter" of sarsens on the chalk downs, which are closer. The modern Stonehenge consists entirely of original stones (some of which have been replaced in upright position).
Neighbouring sites
There are also several passage tombs and many tumuli nearby.
Stonehenge, however, does have a number of satellite structures which are part of the 'ritual landscape':
Bluehenge/Bluestonehenge: a new discovery, one mile to the southeast.
Durrington Walls: a Neolithic settlement two miles northeast of Stonehenge.
Normanton Down Barrows: a Neolithic and Bronze Age barrow cemetery.
Stonehenge Avenue: leads two miles from Stonehenge to Bluehenge on the River Avon.
Stonehenge Cursus: the largest monument in the area, not easily visible on the ground.
Woodhenge: found in 1925 by an aerial survey. It had a henge and a wooden circle.
Function
No one knows who built Stonehenge or why they built it. During the summer solstice, the sunrise lines up with some of the stones in a particular way. This suggests that the arrangement of stones may work as a calendar. In Egypt and South America, similar ancient buildings can be found. They also show the time of the solstice.
Some scientists believe that early people were able to foretell eclipses of the sun and the moon based on their positions in relation to the stone monument. The site may have served as an observatory where early rituals or religious ceremonies took place on specific days on the year.
Stonehenge itself is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage. The surrounding land is owned by the National Trust.
The World Heritage Site includes Avebury and Stonhenge together, though they are quite distinct.
Related pages
List of World Heritage Sites of the United Kingdom
Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites
References
Further reading
Malone, Caroline. 2005. Neolithic Britain and Ireland. Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
Prehistoric buildings and structures
Buildings and structures in England
Religious buildings
Wiltshire
Archaeological sites in Wiltshire
World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom
Stone circles
Henges
Neolithic |
4940 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granite | Granite | Granite is a kind of igneous rock, found on Earth but nowhere else in the Solar System. It is formed from hot, molten magma. Its colour can be dark or light grey, brown, or even pink, according to the proportions of its minerals.
The magma is forced between other layers of rock by the pressure under the Earth's surface. The magma cools and turns slowly into solid stone. Granite has many different types of minerals in it. These include quartz, feldspar, hornblende, and sometimes mica. As the magma cools, these minerals form crystals. The crystals can be seen easily if the granite is cut and polished.
Granite is a common stone on Earth, and makes up a big part of the crust (the Earth's outer layer). It is usually found in the continental plates of the Earth's crust. Although it forms under the surface of the Earth, there are many places where it has been forced upwards by tectonic movement. When plates in the Earth's crust move together, they get bent and pushed upwards. When this happens, granite mountains can be formed.
Chemical composition
A worldwide average of the chemical composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses:
Uses
Granite is dense, and can be cut, carved and shaped. It is resistant to water and pollution, and has a range of different colours.
Kitchen benches are often made of polished granite. Granite is found in many countries of the world. Some countries have beautifully patterned granite which is quarried (cut in open mines) and sold for building material.
Gallery
References
Igneous rocks |
4941 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970 | 1970 | 1970 (MCMLXX) was .
Events
January 12 β The Nigerian Civil War ends.
February 1 β The Benavidez rail disaster near Buenos Aires, Argentina kills 236.
February 14 β The Who record the iconic live rock album Live at Leeds.
March 1 β Rhodesia declares itself a republic.
April 29 β The United States invades Cambodia.
May 4 β Kent State Shootings: Four students at Kent State University in Ohio are killed by National Guardsmen while protesting against the United States invading Cambodia.
May 31 β A major earthquake hits southern Peru, killing tens of thousands of people.
June 24 β The United States Senate repeals the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution of 1964.
June 28 β U.S. ground troops withdraw from Cambodia.
July 1 β The disputed Territories of Pakistan-administered Kashmir split to form Azad Kashmir and Gilgit Baltistan both of which are autonomous special areas of Pakistan.
September 11 β The Ford Pinto introduced.
September 21 β Monday Night Football debuts on ABC.
October 18 β Anwar el-Sadat officially becomes president of Egypt.
October 30 β Monsoon halts Vietnam War.
November 3 β Salvador Allende becomes president of Chile.
December 1 β Luis EcheverrΓa becomes president of Mexico.
The first IMAX theatre opens in Japan
Births
January 29 β Heather Graham, American actress
January 31 β Minnie Driver, British actress
February 28 β Daniel Handler, American writer (Lemony Snickets: A Series of Unfortunate Events)
March 5 β John Frusciante, American musician (Red Hot Chili Peppers)
March 18 β Queen Latifah, American singer, actress and model
March 27 β Mariah Carey, American singer
May 18 β Tina Fey, American screenwriter and actress
May 27 β Joseph Fiennes, English actor June 1 Alex Lalas Popular football player Alison Hinds Queen of Soca popular female soca artiste Of Barbados
July 8 β Beck, American singer
July 23 β Charisma Carpenter, American actress
August 2 β Kevin Smith, American movie director
August 8 β Pascal Duquenne, Belgian actor
August 12 β Kristopher Schau, Norwegian singer
August 13 β Alan Shearer, English football player
August 20 β John Carmack, American video game creator
September 9 β Macy Gray, American singer and actress
October 2 β Kelly Ripa, American actress and talk show host
October 8 β Matt Damon, American actor
October 9 β Steve Jablonsky, American movie and television composer
October 15 β Pernilla Wiberg, Swedish skier
October 28 β Greg Eagles, African-American actor
October 29 β Phillip Cocu, Dutch footballer
October 29 β Edwin van der Sar, Dutch footballer
December 12 β Jennifer Connelly, American actress
December 18 β Rob Van Dam, American professional wrestler
December 24 β Sascha Fischer, German rugby player
December 29 β Glen Phillips, American singer and guitarist
Deaths
January 5 β Max Born, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1882)
February 2 β Bertrand Russell, Welsh philosopher and mathematician (b. 1872)
February 27- Marie Dionne, one of the Dionne Quintuplets (b. 1934)
March 30 β Heinrich BrΓΌning, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1885)
April 28 β Ed Begley, American actor (b. 1901)
May 12 β Nelly Sachs, German writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1891)
June 21 β Sukarno, first President of Indonesia (b. 1901)
July 24 - Beatrice Roberts, American actress (b. 1901)
July 27 β AntΓ³nio de Oliveira Salazar, 12th President of Portugal (b. 1889)
August 10 β Alexander Gode, German-American linguist (b. 1906)
September 3 β Vince Lombardi, American football coach (b. 1913)
September 5 β Jochen Rindt, German racecar driver (b. 1942)
September 18 β Jimi Hendrix, American guitarist (b. 1942)
September 25 β Erich Maria Remarque, German writer (b. 1898)
September 28 β Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt (b. 1918)
September 29 - Edward Everett Horton, American actor (b. 1886)
October 4 β Janis Joplin, American rock singer (Mercedes Benz) (b. 1943)
November 4 β Friedrich Kellner, German writer (b. 1885)
November 9 β Charles de Gaulle, President of France (b. 1890)
December 30 β Sonny Liston, American boxer (b. 1932)
Nobel Prizes
Nobel Prize in Physics won by Hannes AlfvΓ©n, Swedish electrical engineer, plasma physicist, and Louis NΓ©el, a French physicist
Nobel Prize in Chemistry won by Luis Federico Leloir, Argentine physician and biochemist
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine shared by Sir Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler, and Julius Axelrod for their work on neurotransmitters
Nobel Prize in Literature won by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian writer
Nobel Peace Prize won by Norman Borlaug, American biologist and humanitarian
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences β Paul Samuelson
Movies released
Airport, starring Burt Lancaster and Dean Martin
The Aristocats, an animated movie by Walt Disney Productions
Love Story, winner of Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture β Drama
MASH, winner of Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture β Musical or comedy
Patton, winner of 7 Academy Awards
Tora! Tora! Tora! about the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941
Woodstock
Hit songs
"(They Long to Be) Close to You" β Carpenters
"Maybe I'm Amazed" β Paul McCartney
"After Midnight" β Eric Clapton
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough" β Diana Ross
"American Woman" β The Guess Who
"Amos Moses" β Jerry Reed
"Border Song (Holy Moses)" β Aretha Franklin
"Bridge Over Troubled Water" β Simon and Garfunkel
"Call Me" β Aretha Franklin
"Can't Stop Loving You" β Tom Jones
"Cecilia" β Simon and Garfunkel
"Celebrate" β Three Dog Night
"Close To You " β Carpenters
"Come And Get It" β Badfinger
"Come Together /Something " β The Beatles
"Cupid " β Johnny Nash
"Does Anybody Really Know What Time it is" β Chicago
"Down on the Corner" β Creedence Clearwater Revival
"El Condor Pasa" β Simon and Garfunkel
"Eli's Coming" β Three Dog Night
"Everybody's Out of Town" β B.J. Thomas
"Fire and Rain" β James Taylor
"For You Blue" β The Beatles
"Hand Me Down World" β The Guess Who
"Heaven Help Us All" β Stevie Wonder
"If You Could Read My Mind" β Gordon Lightfoot
"I'll Never Fall in Love Again" β Dionne Warwick
"Immigrant Song" β Led Zeppelin
"Indiana Wants Me β R. Dean Taylor
"Instant Karma (We All Shine On)" β John Lennon
"Isn't It a Pity" β George Harrison
"It Don't Matter to Me" β Bread
"It's a New Day (Parts 1 & 2)" β James Brown
"It's Only Make Believe" β Glen Campbell
"I've Lost You" β Elvis Presley
"Jam Up and Jelly Tight" β Tommy Roe
"Joanne" β Michael Nesmith & The First National Band
"Kentucky Rain" β Elvis Presley
"Leaving on a Jet Plane" β Peter, Paul and Mary
"Let It Be" β The Beatles
"Let Me Go to Him" β Dionne Warwick
"Lola " β The Kinks
"Lonely Days " β The Bee Gees
"Long and Winding Road" β The Beatles
"Looking Out My Back Door " β Creedence Clearwater Revival
"Love the One You're With" β Stephen Stills
"Mama Told Me (Not to Come)" β Three Dog Night
"Mississippi Queen" β Mountain
"My Sweet Lord" β George Harrison
"No Matter What" β Badfinger
"No Time " β The Guess Who
"Oh Happy Day" β Glen Campbell
"Only Love Can Break Your Heart" β Neil Young
"Out In the Country" β Three Dog Night
"Psychedelic Shack" β The Temptations
"Raindrops Keep Fallin' On My Head" β B.J. Thomas
"Reach Out and Touch (Somebody's Hand)" β Diana Ross
"Remember Me" β Diana Ross
"Ride Captain Ride" β Blues Image
"See Me, Feel Me " β The Who
"Share the Land" β The Guess Who
"Signed, Sealed, Delivered, I'm Yours" β Stevie Wonder
"Snowbird" β Anne Murray
"Son of a Preacher Man" β Aretha Franklin
"Stoney End" β Barbra Streisand
"Summertime Blues" β The Who
"The Long and Winding Road" β The Beatles
"The Wonder of You" β Elvis Presley
"Travelin' Band" β Creedence Clearwater Revival
"We've Only Just Begun " β Carpenters
"What Is Truth?" β Johnny Cash
"Whole Lotta Love " β Led Zeppelin
"Who'll Stop The Rain" β Creedence Clearwater Revival
"Your Song" β Elton John
New books
Deliverance by James Dickey
Fantastic Mr Fox by Roald Dahl
Fire from Heaven by Mary Renault
Of a Fire on the Moon by Norman Mailer
The Guardians by John Christopher (Sam Youd)
Jonathan Livingston Seagull by Richard Bach
The Paper Chase by John Jay Osborn, Jr. |
4943 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syracuse%2C%20New%20York | Syracuse, New York | Syracuse is a city in the U.S. state of New York with a population of 147,306 in 2000, and a metropolitan area population of 732,117. It is often called the "Salt City" because salt used to be the main industry. Today, Syracuse is mostly known as a university city, but many companies have offices there, also.
County seats in New York |
4944 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syracuse | Syracuse | Syracuse might mean:
Syracuse, Sicily, a city in Italy on the island of Sicily
Syracuse, New York, an American city in the state of New York
Syracuse Crunch, an ice hockey team from the city in New York
Syracuse University, a university in the city in New York |
Subsets and Splits