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4072 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrection | Resurrection | Resurrection means bringing someone back to life after they have died.
Polytheistic religions
The idea of resurrection is found in writings of ancient polytheistic religions in the Middle East. Some Egyptian and Canaanite writings tell of gods being resurrected, such as Osiris and Baal.
In Greek mythology, many men and women were given eternal life by being resurrected from the dead. In their stories, some who came back to life as gods were Alcmene, Castor, Heracles, and Melicertes. But the Greek philosophers at that time did not believe in a physical rebirth.
Abrahamic religions
Christianity
Christians believe that Jesus Christ was resurrected. They also believe in resurrection for all people after they die. This is based on the Gospels and on Saint Paul's writings in the New Testament. The resurrection of Jesus is the Christian belief that he returned to life by a miracle. He died by crucifixion on Friday and rose from his tomb to new life on Sunday morning. This belief is celebrated at Easter.
The resurrection of Jesus Christ is written about by the evangelists in the New Testament. They are the authors of the four Gospels in the New Testament. Christians believe the resurrection is a central part of the Christian faith. Jesus died on the cross to save mankind. When he was resurrected, Jesus defeated death. He is alive forever and sitting at God's right hand on a throne. This gives Christians the hope of a new life after death. This is because his resurrection mirrors the future for all Christians after they die.
With Jesus Christ and with humans, the Bible shows that the resurrected body is changed from the original. This is because the human body, while alive, is weak and frail. But, the resurrected person lives for ever.
All four Gospels tell about Jesus being raised from the dead. They also write about three times that Jesus brings a dead person back to life:
Daughter of Jairus. Jairus, a patron of a synagogue, asks Jesus to heal his daughter, but while Jesus is on the way, Jairus is told his daughter was dead. Jesus tells him she was only sleeping, and wakes her with the words Talitha kum.
The Young Man from Nain. A young man, the son of a widow, was on the way to be buried in Nain. Jesus sees the widow crying and so he tells her not to cry. Jesus tells the dead man inside to get up, and he does so.
The Raising of Lazarus. A close friend of Jesus who had been dead for four days is brought back to life. Jesus goes to his grave and commands him to get up.
Islam
In Islam, the Quran refers to a bodily resurrection of all those who have died.
This will be followed by a final time of trouble and eternal division of the righteous and wicked. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as The Great Massacre or ghaybah in Shī'a Islam. The righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Jannah (Paradise), while the unrighteous are punished in Hell.
Science
According to Alcor, resurrection of legally dead people will be possible in the far future. They are using cryonics to preserve some legally dead people until the invention of the resurrection.
References
Theology
Afterlife |
4073 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy | Monarchy | A monarchy is a kind of government where a monarch, a kind of hereditary ruler (someone who inherits their office), is the head of state. Monarchs usually rule until they die or pass down (when a monarch resigns it is called abdication). Most monarchies are hereditary, but some are elected. The most famous elected monarch is the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church. Some well known titles for monarchs are King, Queen, Emperor, Empress, Czar, Kaiser, Shah, Emir and Sultan.
History
Monarchy is one of the oldest kinds of government. Most historians agree that the first monarchies were tribes or small groups of people who decided to let a war-chief or other leader pass on their office to their children. This created a dynasty. Over time, the rules for deciding who got to become the next monarch became more complicated. Primogeniture is usual. The oldest son or, in some countries, daughter, becomes the next monarch when the old one dies.
Kings and other kinds of monarchs have ruled for many thousands of years; for example, many kings are mentioned in the Bible and in ancient historical records. Three of the oldest countries with monarchs that still hold office are the United Kingdom, which has had the same British Royal Family for nearly 1,000 years, Denmark where the royal line has remained unbroken for almost 1,200 years, and Japan, which has records showing a line of Emperors dating back even farther.
Many monarchs today perform mostly the ceremonial jobs of a head of state, while the head of government, who is usually elected, passes and enforces laws. It is also very important in other parts of the country.
Kinds of Monarchical Powers
Absolute monarchy
In an absolute monarchy the monarch is the only source of all laws. The monarch has total power to make any law just by deciding it. Any other institution in the country cannot make laws that affect the monarch, unless the monarch decides to allow it. Sometimes the monarch is also the head of the state religion and makes religious laws also. All land and property in the country can be taken or given away by the monarch at any time for any reason. The army and navy is under the personal control of the monarch and can be used for any purpose at any time. The monarch can also pick who gets to be the next monarch and can change the rules at any time. There is usually no elected government or Parliament, and if there is one, it has no real power. This kind of government is very rare today. The people do not have a lot of power in it.
Countries that are examples of an absolute monarchy are Vatican City, Brunei, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Swaziland.
Constitutional monarchy
A constitutional monarchy is a form of government that is usually a democracy and has a constitution, with the monarch as head of state. Either the monarch has to obey the laws like everyone else, or there are special laws that say what the monarch can and cannot do. The monarch usually can not decide their special laws on their own. There may be laws about whom the monarch's children can marry, for example, that are passed by the Parliament. For example, in the Netherlands, if a member of the royal family marries without the permission of Parliament, they cannot become king or queen themselves. The army and navy may swear an oath to the monarch, but the real control is given to the elected government. There are laws about property and the order of succession (who gets to be the next monarch) that can only be changed by the elected government. Usually the monarch must sign laws into effect, but is required to follow the will of the elected government.
A constitutional monarchy usually has separation of powers, and the monarch often has only ceremonial duties, such as representing the country while traveling or acting as a symbol for the whole country (not for a particular political party). Constitutional monarchs usually do not vote, even when it is legal for them to do so. Voting would mean that they picked a side in political arguments and then could not claim to represent everyone in the country. Some constitutional monarchies give the power to veto laws to the monarch, but in most countries where this is the case it is a power that is very rarely used. In countries where the monarch can dismiss or appoint governments, this is usually only done to make sure that the democratic process is respected, without taking sides in politics. Appointments to public office made by constitutional monarchs are generally approved by the democratically elected government beforehand.
Examples of Constitutional monarchies are the United Kingdom, most members of the Commonwealth of Nations, Australia, The Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Belgium, Japan and Spain. Thailand has a monarch who sometimes take part in politics to influence the government unlike in other constitutional monarchies, but he/she still is subject to law.
Succession
Today, there are three basic forms how to choose a new monarch, after the death of the old one; or because the old monarch left power:
There is an order of succession. Usually, someone from the same family will be the new monarch
A number of people elect the new monarch
The old monarch has appointed someone who will become the next monarch
Of these three, the order of succession is the most common case. Countries, where the monarchs are elected include Malaysia, Samoa, Cambodia, United Arab Emirates, Andorra, and Vatican City.
Related pages
Head of state
Hereditary monarchy
References
Other websites
Monarch -Citizendium |
4074 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Korea | North Korea | North Korea (officially called the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK)), is a country in the northern part of the Korean peninsula. North Korea is next to China, Russia, and South Korea. The capital city of North Korea is Pyŏngyang, which is also the largest city.
The country was founded in 1948 after it had been freed from Japanese occupation, and a socialist state backed by the Soviet Union was established. The Republic of Korea is the southern half of the Korean Peninsula, and was occupied by the United States, and the U.S. set up a democracy in the south. At first, there was a war between the North and South which is called the Korean War, but while the fighting stopped in 1953, the war never officially ended. North Korea had ties with China and Russia but never was formally allied with either and became more isolated over time. Soon afterwards, the North's main trading partners the Soviet Union, collapsed. This left North Korea stranded and isolated. Throughout the 1990s, North Korea suffered from famines and natural disasters. As South Korea got richer, North Korea got poorer and life became worse there. Afterwards, things stabilized but continued to lag behind the South. Worldwide economic sanctions and embargoes are thought to have significantly impacted the quality of life in North Korea.
North Korea is described as a totalitarian Stalinist dictatorship by western media, while North Korea describes itself as a democratic worker's state. The country's leader Kim Il-sung said that the government was following his own ideology of "Juche", which means "self-reliance". Later on, the country's leaders began to remove "communism" from North Korean laws and philosophy, although Juche can be described as a variant of communism. After Kim Il-sung died during the disasters of the 1990s, his son Kim Jong-il took his place and was promoted by the government as the leader who led North Korea out of the disasters. North Korea was the only communist country in history where leadership was directly given to the former leader's son after his death. This is called hereditary rule. Kim Jong-il enacted a new policy of "Songun", or "military-first", which turned the country into a military state. When he died in 2011, his youngest son Kim Jong-un took his place and continues to lead the country today.
History
Early History
Historians believe that the Korean people have lived in the area for thousands of years. Before 1910, Korea was one country. It had a king and people were mostly farmers. The country was peaceful and was not communist. In 1910, that changed. Japan and Russia went to war. Since Japan and Russia were both very close to Korea, Japan took Korea for themselves as part of Japan. Japan then had control.
Divided Korea
Between 1910 and the end of World War II in 1945, Korea was considered a part of Japan due to Japan's colonization of Korea. In 1945, the USSR declared war on Japan and the United States bombed it (Nagasaki and Hiroshima); severely weakening its empire and forcing Japan to surrender. Japan's weak status allowed the Soviets to enter Korea fairly, freely and occupy the northern half whilst the United States took the southern half. Each created governments supporting their own ideologies, Marxist–Leninist Single Party State (North) and Democratic Capitalist State (South).
The Korean War
In 1950, North Korea sent soldiers to South Korea. North Korea wanted to bring together North and South Korea to form a single Korean country, and Korean families that had been split by the division of North and South to be together again. The North Korean leaders wanted South Korea to be communist, like North Korea and the Soviet Union were.
The United Nations sent soldiers to Korea. These soldiers came from many countries. These countries did not like Communism (to learn more, see the article about the Cold War). If South Korea became Communist, then maybe other countries would too. General Douglas MacArthur led the soldiers.
North Korea had taken over much of South Korea by force. With the help of the other countries, South Korea took back their land, and even much of North Korea, up to the Yalu River, which forms the border between North Korea and China. China, which was also communist, helped the North Koreans to get the land back that the South Korean soldiers had taken.
After three years, in 1953, North Korea and South Korea both decided that no one would win the war and both countries signed an armistice, which is an agreement that made both countries stop fighting. North Korea and South Korea were divided by a demilitarized zone, or DMZ, which is a special place that surrounds the border between North and South Korea where both countries can not place lots of soldiers, so that fighting does not start again.
Modern Times
Even though the Korean Demilitarized Zone is meant to stop problems between the two countries, sometimes soldiers on both sides of the border fire their guns at each other. A special town in the zone, Panmunjom, is called the Joint Security Area, or JSA, and sometimes the leaders of both countries meet there to talk about possibly coming back together.
North Korea is one of the few countries in the world that has made nuclear missiles, which can kill many people if they are exploded. North Korea will not say how many nukes it has, but other countries think that the North Korean government probably has built ten missiles so far out of a deadly element called plutonium.
In October 2006, North Korea said that it tested one of its nuclear bombs. Although the North Korean government said that the test was not dangerous, many other countries and the United Nations were nonetheless enraged.
Three years later in 2009, North Korea did another test, which broke a United Nations law called Resolution 1718, which said North Korea could not keep building and testing nuclear bombs.
In 2010, a South Korean warship sank, killing over 40 soldiers. An international investigation concluded that North Korea had sunk a South Korean warship with a torpedo. North Korea strongly said that it did not have anything to do with the sinking. When the United States and South Korea planned to set up defenses in case North Korea tried to attack again, North Korea's National Defense Commission threatened on to start a war with its nuclear weapons.
In April 2012, North Korea launched a rocket called Bright Star 3. The reasons for the launch were science and the 100th anniversary of the birth of the country's founder, Kim Il-Sung.
The government said the rocket carried a weather satellite so the government could find out what the weather would be. However, other countries said that the weather satellite was a story made up by the government so the real purpose of the rocket would not the known—which most countries thought was to test a nuclear missile that could be launched at the United States or South Korea. South Korean leaders said it would shoot the rocket down when it came over South Korea.
Because of this rocket, other countries stopped helping North Korea, even though the government invited other countries to see the rocket launch to make it seem like the North Koreans had nothing to hide from other countries. The rocket was eventually launched, but it did not work and crashed just a minute and thirty seconds after it was launched. In December 2012, the government tried to launch the rocket again. It worked this time and went into orbit circling the Earth, though the United States said that it was very unstable and might fall back to Earth. Experts in Europe noticed the satellite's reflection was fluctuating (getting brighter then dimmer); indicating that the satellite is tumbling in its orbit.
In February 2013, North Korea tested a nuclear bomb for the 3rd time, causing much outrage from other countries. The government also released many videos that depicted possible missile targets in the United States. North Korea however does not posses missiles that could reach US mainland but some say Hawaii is a possibility. It is highly unlikely that North Korea would ever fire against the US, Japan or South Korea. Many missiles depicted in DPRK parades are fakes used to exaggerate North Korea's military strength. Most of its inventory dates from the Soviet years.
Politics and Government
People often think that North Korea is a communist country. It is actually a socialist-military dictatorship. In its most recent constitutional change, the word 'communism' was removed. Large pictures of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin were removed from Kim Il-Sung square in 2012. The government has a similar structure to the former Soviet Union (USSR), once a close ally, but it is very different from the USSR. Leaders of the USSR were elected by a group of government officials. In North Korea, the new leader is the current leader's male heir. For this reason, North Korea is often referred to as a hereditary dictatorship.
North Korea's official state ideology is Juche. That is a form of socialism developed by the country's founder, Kim Il-Sung. Juche means self-reliance. It teaches that to achieve true socialism and become self-sufficient, the state must become fully isolated from the rest of society.
The first head of state and Chairman of the Workers Party of North Korea was Kim Tu-bong.
In the late 1950s, the second head of state and party leader was Kim Il-Sung.
In July 1994, Kim died. His son, Kim Jŏng-Il, took over. He became the third supreme leader and party general secretary.
In December 2011, Kim died. His son, Kim Jŏng-Un became the head of the government.
Songun is a North Korean idea. It means "army first." The job of every North Korean person is to feed the Army. Kim Jŏng-Un is the "General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea". That is one of many jobs he has. He is like a king, and can do what he wants. The average North Korean citizen makes around $900 a year. Kim Jŏng-Un makes around $800,000 a year. He lives in a palace. He has lots of soldiers who go wherever he goes to protect him.
North Korea is technically a multi-party state since other parties do exist besides the Korean Workers' Party (KWP). However, the KWP also controls the other parties so it can stay in power. The constitution claims that North Korea's citizens have freedom of speech, religion and press. In real life, these citizens do not have these rights. People can be jailed if they criticise the party, government, or leaders. North Koreans are encouraged to report family members to the police if they think they are doing something illegal. In return they get more privileges. If someone is caught doing a crime, their whole family will be sent along with them to a labour camp. Most die there, but a few escape.
North Korean people have very little freedom of speech. They get their news from the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA). The KCNA makes sure all the country's television, radio, and newspaper news makes the government look good. This is called propaganda. The government blocks access to the Internet. Only a few trusted military officials and party members can access the world Internet. It has been reported that almost all North Koreans do not know that men have landed on the moon. The government runs an intranet service that is available on all North Korean computers. It is nothing like the real Internet but is filled with propaganda that makes the government, party, and leaders look good. The government also tries to keep ideas from other countries out of North Korea.
Capital punishment is a common type of punishment in North Korea. Stealing, murder, rape, drug smuggling, attempted murder, spying, slaughtering cattle for food, trying to challenge the laws of North Korea, traveling without permission, looking at media unapproved by North Korea (which includes South Korean dramas, pornography, and Western movies), possessing a USB drive, and practicing religions that are against worshipping Kim Jong-un and his family can all result in the death penalty.
In parts of the country, there is not enough food. Currently, other countries give food to some people in North Korea. This is called foreign aid. The aid sometimes stops coming if North Korea is thought to be testing nuclear bombs. Very recently, North Korea's food aid stopped after the government launched a satellite in April 2012. Other countries said North Korea had broken their side of an agreement. The North Korean government said that it was the United States that had broken the agreement.
It is hard for people from other countries to visit North Korea. Visitors must be guided by two army members called "minders". The minders try and make sure the people do not find out about anything that might make the government look bad.
Economy
North Korea is one of the poorest countries in the world. This is due to the government not wanting to allow North Koreans to earn their own money outside of their government-given jobs, to allow people to work the jobs they want, and to trade with other countries.
Although Pyongyang (which is the one of the few areas foreign travelers are allowed to visit) makes the country look like it is richer and more prosperous than it truly is, life looks extremely different throughout the rest of the country. Only the highest-ranking North Koreans are allowed to live in Pyongyang, and they must have permission from the government to do so. Unlike the rest of the country, people often own cars and bicycles, there is a subway system, and power exists throughout the city. Meanwhile, very few people in he countryside own a car, or even a bicycle, and animal-drawn carts are very common. Electricity in rural areas is rare, if it even exists at all. Proof of this is that when seen from space, there are almost no lights that can be seen outside of Pyongyang. Even in Pyongyang, power cuts are common.
As said earlier, starvation is very common way to die throughout the country. The soil in most of the country is not good enough to grow enough crops to feed people without any kind of fertilizer. As a result, people often steal human poop to fertilize the soil. People also go out into nature to look for anything to eat such as grass, bark, frogs, worms, etc.
Since the government does not provide the average North Korean person enough resources to survive, most North Koreans get what they need from the black market. Even though buying and selling on the black market is illegal, people are able to avoid punishment by bribing officials. They might give things such as money, gifts, or sexual favors. Most people buying and selling at the black market are women. This is because all adult men are required by law to go to work during workhours, even when their workplace cannot or will not pay them for their work.
Since electricity is rare throughout North Korea, tasks such as cooking and washing clothes take much longer and are more tiring. People often wash clothes in a river or creek and must start fires before they can cook.
Although healthcare is free in North Korea, most hospitals and doctor's offices do not have the medicines or supplies needed to correctly treat patients. As a result, many patients die or become crippled for the rest of their lives in the hospital. On one occasion, North Korea hired an eye surgeon from Nepal to because there was not a single eye surgeon in the country.
In order to raise money for the country, the government sometimes sends North Korean citizens to its allies, like China and Russia, to do work there. These jobs include food service in North Korean restaurants and logging. Even outside of North Korea, these North Koreans are often not allowed to interact with the local people outside of work, are forced to live in North Korean communities, and must obey North Korean laws.
Other ways North Korea makes money is through selling illegal drugs to other countries, making fake money of other countries, and stealing money online.
Culture and Religion
Historically, both South Korea and North Korea have the same set of values. In 1945, the peninsula was divided. Since then, the government of both North and South Korea were different. This has led to different developments in both North and South Korea.
Human Rights Watch says that free religious activities do not exist in North Korea. The culture in Korea has been influenced by that of China. Despite this, Korea has developed a cultural identity that is different from that of Mainland China.
Literature and arts in North Korea are state-controlled. Specialized committees of the KWP are responsible for this. Film is also a significant artistic medium in North Korea and Kim Jong Il's manifesto The Cinema and Directing (1987) is the basis for the nation's filmmakers.
Korean culture came under attack during the Japanese rule from 1910 to 1945. Japan enforced a cultural assimilation policy. During the Japanese rule, Koreans were forced to learn and speak Japanese, adopt the Japanese family name system and Shinto religion, and were forbidden to write or speak the Korean language in schools, businesses, or public places. In addition, the Japanese altered or destroyed various Korean monuments including Gyeongbok Palace and documents which portrayed the Japanese in a negative light were revised.
Both Koreas share a Buddhist and Confucian heritage and a recent history of Christian and Cheondoism ("religion of the Heavenly Way") movements. The North Korean constitution states that freedom of religion is permitted. According to the Western standards of religion, the majority of the North Korean population could be characterized as non-religious. However, the cultural influence of such traditional religions as Buddhism and Confucianism still have an effect on North Korean spiritual life.
It seems that Buddhists are accepted more than other religious groups. Christians are said to be severely persecuted by the authorities, often by throwing them in prison or executing them publicly. Buddhists are given limited funding by the government to promote the religion, because Buddhism played an integral role in traditional Korean culture. In May 2014, an American tourist was arrested at Pyongyang Sunan Airport after it was discovered he left a Bible in a nightclub on the DPRK's east coast. He was convicted of attempting to overthrow the government but was eventually released several months later. At the time of his imprisonment, there were two other American citizens held by North Korea awaiting transfer to political prison camps. Both have since been released.
Armed Forces
Even though the country only has fewer than 25 million people, the country still has the world's fourth largest standing military at 1.28 million soliders. This is because North Korea has a law that requires all men to join the military for ten years after they graduate high school.
The government says it keeps a large military to protect the country from its enemies, particularly the United States and Japan. However, it is more likely that it exists to keep the government in power.
Provinces
The land of North Korea is divided into nine areas called provinces and two cities.
The nine provinces are:
Pyongannam
Pyonganbuk
Chagang
Hwanghaenam
Hwanghaebuk
Kangwon
Hamgyongnam
Hamgyongbuk
Ryanggang
The main cities are:
Pyongyang, the capital city and also the largest city
Rason, a special city where other countries can make money, called a Special Economic Zone.
References
1945 establishments in Asia |
4075 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament | Parliament | A parliament is a type of legislature.
The most famous parliament is probably the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which is sometimes called the "Mother of all Parliaments". The word "parliament" comes from the French word parler, which means a talk.
The Althing, the national parliament of Iceland, was founded earlier (930 AD), so it is the oldest legislature in the world still existing. However, the Althing did not function as a legislature for four centuries, and its role as a primary legislature is modern.
Other parliaments
Other parliaments have copied the UK and work similarly. They have three levels - a lower house which makes the law, an upper house which reviews the law (Decides if they like it or not, and suggest changes to it), and a head of state who is mostly for show and who starts and ends each year of parliament. The Prime Minister is almost always the person whose party has the most seats, but if the lower house does not think he is doing a good job they can call a vote of no confidence and ask him to leave his job as Prime Minister or have an election.
The word "parliament"
Sometimes people use the word "parliament" to describe a legislature, even if it is not a real parliament. A "parliament" is a type of legislature which has a Prime Minister.
Similar to a congress
A parliament is a lot like a congress but a congress cannot ask the head of the government to leave his job. Also, a congress runs for a number of years according to the country's constitution, but a parliament can be stopped as long as enough members agree. Elections are held after this happens.
Countries that have Parliaments
Australia
Belgium
Canada
Ghana
Germany
Greece
Iceland
India
Israel
Italy
Malaysia
Moldova
Netherlands
New Zealand
Pakistan
Romania
Russia
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Bulgaria
Related pages
Constitution
Constitutional economics
Democracy
Legal rights
References |
4076 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing%20test | Turing test | The Turing test is a test to see if a computer can interact with a person. The human should not be able to realise it is interacting with a computer.
Alan Turing thought that if a human could not tell the difference between another human and the computer, then the computer had shown intelligent behaviour.
Test setup
A person has a telegraph, and is connected to two communication partners. One of the two correspondents is a machine. The person can ask anything with the telegraph. If the person cannot tell which of the two is the machine more than 50% of the time, then the machine is said to be intelligent.
Later on, people narrowed down the test. A human is unlikely to know everything. Therefore, both the human and the machine would be specialists in some field of knowledge. So would the person asking.
Media
The comic strip Dilbert makes several mentions to the PHB (Pointy Haired Boss) failing the Turing test.
References
Related pages
AlphaGo
Other websites
Artificial intelligence |
4077 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel | Fuel | A fuel is a substance that is changed in some way to produce heat, electricity, or other forms of energy. This is usually by being burnt, although there are exceptions, such as nuclear fuel. Fuel can be divided into two main types: fossil fuels and other fuels.
Fossil fuel
There are several kinds of fossil fuels:
coal
oil and products that are refined from oil (gasoline, diesel, kerosene)
natural gas
Some people do not want us to use fossil fuels because they may pollute the environment. Because all fossil fuels are made out of carbon, burning them makes carbon dioxide. Some people think that too much carbon dioxide in the air may cause a greenhouse effect. Fossil fuels are also non-renewable, or renew extremely slowly (thousands of years). This means that we will eventually run out of fossil fuels.
Other fuels
Other fuels are not made from fossils. Some of these, like nuclear and hydrogen, do not have carbon in them. Others, like wood or ethanol, do have carbon in them. Some examples of these fuels are:
Nuclear fuel (uranium, plutonium, thorium, etc.)
Hydrogen
Extracted from the wind
Biofuels from biomass
Firewood
Biodiesel (a diesel-type fuel made from plants)
Ethanol (made from grains or other plants)
These fuels are renewable. This means that we can make more of them if we run out. For instance, if we run out of ethanol, we can grow some more corn and make some more ethanol.
Other websites
Fuel |
4095 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20volcanoes | List of volcanoes | The list of volcanoes includes some which are active, dormant and extinct:
On Earth
Antarctica
Mount Erebus
Deception Island
Argentina
Mount Aconcagua
Australia
Heard Island and the McDonald Islands
Big Ben (Heard Island)
New South Wales
Mount Canobolas
Mount Warning
Queensland
Glasshouse Mountains
Mount Fox
South Australia
Mount Gambier
Mount Schank
Victoria
Lake Bullen Merri
Mount Buninyong
Mount Eccles, in Mount Eccles National Park
Mount Elephant
Mount Franklin, near Hepburn Springs
Mount Fraser, near Beveridge
Mount Kooroocheang
Mount Macedon
Mount Neurat
Mount Napier
Mount Rowan (Victoria)
Mount Warrenheip
Tower Hill, in Tower Hill State Game Reserve
Tasmania
The Nut (near the town of Stanley)
Bolivia
Acotango
Cerro Columa
Cerro Moiro
Cerro San Augustin
Cerro Santa Isabel
Cerro Yumia
Cerros de Tocorpuri
Escala
Guayaques
Irruputuncu
Licancabur
Macizo de Larancagua
Macizo de Pacuni
Nevado Anallajsi
Neuvo Mundo
Olca-Paruma
Ollague
Pampa Luxsar
Parinacota
Patilla Pata
Quetena
Sacabaya
Sairecabur
Tata Sabaya
Uturuncu
Cameroon
Mount Cameroon
Canada
Abitibi greenstone belt
Blake River Megacaldera Complex
Misema Caldera
New Senator Caldera
Noranda Caldera
Anahim Volcanic Belt
Nazko Cone
Chilcotin Plateau Basalts
Garibaldi Volcanic Belt
Mount Garibaldi
Mount Meager
Mount Price
Stikine Volcanic Belt
Mount Edziza
Eve Cone
Hoodoo Mountain
Lava Fork
Pyramid Dome
Tseax River Cone
Volcano Mountain
Williams Cone
Wells Gray-Clearwater Volcanic Field
Hyalo Ridge
Whitehorse Bluffs
Pyramid Mountain
Wrangell Volcanic Belt
Cape Verde
Brava
Fogo
Sao Vicente
Colombia
Azufral
Cerro Bravo
Cerro Negro de Mayasquer
Cumbal
Dona Juana
Galeras
Nevado del Huila
Nevado del Tolima
Nevado del Ruiz
Machin
Petacas
Purace
Santa Isabel
Sotara
Comoros
Le Kartala (2316 m - active)
Costa Rica
Arenal (1657 m - active)
Barva
Cerro Tilaran
Irazu (3432 m - active)
Miravalles
Orosi
Platanar
Poás (2708 m - active)
Rincon de la Vieja (1916 m - complex)
Tenorio
Turrialba (active)
Democratic Republic of the Congo
May-Ya-Moto
Nyamuragira
Mount Nyiragongo
Tshibinda
Bisoke
Dominica
Morne aux Diables
Morne Diablotins
Morne Plat Pays
Morne Trois Pitons
Morne Watts
Ecuador
Antisana
Atacazo
Cayambe
Chacana
Chichoca
Cotopaxi
Guagua Pichincha
Illiniza
Mojanda
Pan de Azucar
Pululagua
Quilotoa
Reventador
Sangay
Soche
Sumaco
Tulabug
Tungurahua
Galapagos Islands
Alcedo
Cerro Azul
Darwin
Ecuador
Fernandina
Floreana
Genovesa
Marchena
Pinta
San Cristobal
Santa Cruz
Santiago
Sierra Negra
Wolf
El Salvador
Cerro Cinotepeque
Cerro Singuil
Chinameca
Coatepeque Caldera
Conchaguita
El Tigre
Guazapa
Ilopango
Izalco
Laguna Aramuaca
San Diego
San Miguel
San Salvador
San Vicente
Santa Ana
Taburete
Tecapa
Usulutan
Ethiopia
Erta Ale, one of the most active in Africa
Mount Alayta (last eruption 1915)
France
Mainland France
Puy de Dôme (dormant)
Guadeloupe
La Grande Soufrière (dormant)
Martinique
Mt. Pelée (dormant)
Réunion
Piton de la Fournaise (active)
Piton des Neiges (extinct)
Germany
Eifel Mountains
Rhön Mountains
Vogelsberg Mountains
Greece
Kos
Methana
Milos
Nisyros
Santorini caldera
Yali
Honduras
Isla el Tigre
Isla Zacate Grande
Utila Island
Iceland
Askja
Eldfell
Esjufjoll
Eyjafjallajökull
Grimsnes
Grimsvotn
Heimaey
Hekla
Hengill
Hofsjokull
Kollóttadyngja
Kerlingarfjoll
Katla
Krafla
Krisuvik
Langjokull
Ljosufjoll
Lysuholl
Oraefajokull
Prestahnukur
Skjaldbreiður
Snaefellsjokull
Surtsey
India
Barren (active)
Narkundam
Indonesia
Krakatoa, Rakata
Mount Tambora, Sumbawa
Volcanoes of Bali island
Mount Agung
Mount Batur
Bratan
Volcanoes of Flores island
Ebulobo
Egon
Ilimuda
Inielika
Inierie
Iya
Kelimutu
Leroboleng
Lewotobi
Ndete Napu
Poco Leok
Ranakah
Riang Kotang
Sukaria Caldera
Wai Sano
Volcanoes of Java island (38)
Baluran
Cereme
Galoen-gong
Gede
Guntur
Lawu
Karang
Kelut
Kendang
Ijen
Lamongan
Lurus
Malabar
Merbabu
Mount Merapia
Papandayang
Patuha
Perbakti
Raung
Salak
Semeru
Slamet
Sumbing
Sundoro
Talagabodas
Tampomas
Tangkuban Prahu
Telomoyo
Wayang-Windu
Wilis
Lomblen
Ililabalekan
Iliwerung
Lewotolo
Lombok
Rinjani
Volcanoes of New Guinea
Volcanoes of Sulawesi
Ambang
Colo
Klabat
Mahawu
Sempu
Soputan
Tongkoko
Volcanoes of Sumatra
Belirang-Beriti
Besar
Bukit Daun
Bukit Lumut Balai
Dempo
Geureudong
Gunung Kerinci
Gunung Tujuh
Helatoba-Tarutung
Hulubelu
Hutapanjang
Imun
Kaba
Kembar
Kerinci
Kunyit
Lubukraya
Marapi
Patah
Pendan
Peuet Sague
Pulau Weh
Rajabasu
Ranau
Sarik-Gajah
Sekincau Belirang
Seluwah Agam
Sibayak
Sibualbuali
Sinabung
Sorikmarapi
Sumbing
Suoh
Talakmau
Talang
Tandikat
Toba
Italy
Campi Flegrei (dormant)
Mount Vesuvius (dormant)
Mount Etna (active)
Stromboli (active)
Vulsini (dormant)
Japan
Hokkaido
Akan
Daisetsu
E San
Komaga Take
Kutcharo
Kuttara
Mashu
Nigorigawa
Nipesotsu Upepesanke
Niseko
Oshima Oshima
Rausu
Rishiri
Shikotsu
Shiretoko Iwo Zan
Shiribetsu
Tokachi
Usu
Yotei
Honshū
Adatara
Akagi
Asama
Azuma-Kofuji
Bandai
Daisen
Kusatsu-Shirane
Mount Chokai
Mount Fuji
Mount Funagata
Mount Haruna
Mount Hiuchigatake
Mount Myoko
Mount Nekomadake
Mount Norikura
Mount Tateshina
Mount Yake
Mount Yoko
Nantai
Naruko
Nasu-dake
Niigata-Yakeyama
Nikko-Shirane
Ontake-san
Zao
Kyushu
Aso
Kaimon-dake
Sakurajima
Shinmoe-dake
Kenya
Mount Kenya
Mexico
Colima
Paricutín
Popocatepetl
Montserrat
Soufriere Hills
Netherlands Antilles
Saba
New Zealand
Rangitoto Island and various cones in Auckland
In the Taupo Volcanic Zone
Cones
Mount Ruapehu
Mount Tongariro
Mount Ngaruruhoe
Tauhara
Waiotapu
Mount Tarawera (part of the Okataina caldera)
Kawerau
White Island
Caldera
Lake Taupo
Okataina
Lake Rotorua
Mount Taranaki (formerly Mount Egmont)
Lyttelton and Akaroa on Banks Peninsula
Norway
Bouvetoya
Jan Mayen
Panama
Baru
El Valle
La Yeguada
Peru
Coropuna
El Misti
Huaynaputina
Nevado Chachani
Nevados Casiri
Nevados Firura
Quimsachata
Sabancaya
Ticsani
Tutupaca
Ubinas
Yucamane
Philippines
Luzon
Ambalatungan Group
Amorong
Arayat
Banahaw
Bulusan
Cagua
Isarog
Iriga
Jalajala
Labo
Laguna Volcanic Field
Malinao
Malinding
Makiling
Mariveles
Masaraga
Mayon
Natib
Patoc
Pinatubo
Pocdol Mountains
Santo Tomas
Taal
Visayas
Biliran
Canlaon
Panay
Mindanao
Apo
Balatocan
Calayo
Hibok-hibok
Kalatungan
Latukan
Leonard Range
Makaturung
Malindang
Matumtum
Paco
Parker
Ragang
Portugal
Azores
Agua de Pau
Corvo
Fayal
Flores
Furnas
Graciosa
Pico
San Jorge
Sete Cidades
Terceira
Madeira Islands
Madeira
Russia
Kamchatka
Bezymianny
Klyuchevskaya Sopka
Kurile Islands
Atsonopuri
Baransky
Berutarube
Bogotayr Ridge
Chirip
Chirpoi
Demon
Golets-Tronyi Group
Golovnin
Grozny Group
Ivao Group
Kolokol Group
Lvinaya Past
Medvezhia
Mendeleev
Milne
Rudakov
Smirnov
Tiatia
Tri Sestry
Rwanda
Mount Karisimbi
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Mount Misery
Nevis Peak
The Quill
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Soufriere volcano (1,234 m, active)
Solomon Islands
Bagana
Balbi
Billy Mitchell
Kavachi
Loloru
Nonda
Savo
Simbo
Takuan Group
Tore
South Sandwich Islands
Bristol Island
Candlemas Island
Hodson
Leskov Island
Montagu Island
Zavodovski
Spain
Mainland Spain
Campo de Calatrava (dormant)
Croscat (dormant)
Montsacopa (dormant)
Olot (dormant)
Santa Margarida Volcano (dormant)
Canary Islands
Fuerteventura (dormant)
Gran Canaria (dormant)
Hierro (dormant)
La Palma (active)
Lanzarote (dormant)
Tenerife (dormant)
Tanzania
Kieyo
Mount Kilimanjaro
Meru
Ngozi
Ol Doinyo Lengai
Rungwe
Tristan da Cunha
Queen Mary's Peak
Turkey
Mount Ararat (dormant)
Uganda
Bufumbira
Bunyaruguru Field
Fort Portal Field
Katunga
Katwe-Kikorongo Field
Kyatwa Volcanic Field
Muhavura
USA
Alaska
Mount Adagdak
Mount Akutan
Mount Amak
Mount Amukta
Mount Aniakchak
Mount Atka
Mount Augustine
Black Peak
Mount Bobrof
Bogoslof
Mount Buldir
Buzzard Creek
Mount Carlisle
Mount Chagulak
Mount Chiginagak
Mount Churchill
Mount Cleveland
Mount Dana
Mount Davidof
Mount Denison
Devils Desk
Mount Douglas
Duncan Canal
Mount Dutton
Mount Edgecumbe
Emmons Lake
Mount Fisher
Mount Frosty
Fourpeaked
Mount Gareloi
Great Sitkin
Mount Gordon
Mount Griggs
Mount Hayes
Mount Herbert
Mount Iliamna
Imuruk Lake
Ingakslugwat Hills
Mount Isanotski
Mount Kagamil
Mount Kaguyak
Mount Kanaga
Mount Kasatochi
Mount Katmai
Mount Kialagvik
Mount Kiska
Mount Koniuji
Mount Kukak
Mount Kupreanof
Kookooligit Mountains
Little Sitkin
Mount Mageik
Mount Makushin
Mount Martin
Mount Moffett
Novarupta
Nunivak Island
Mount Okmok
Mount Redoubt
Mount Roundtop
Saint Michael
Saint Paul Island
Mount Pavlof
Pavlof Sister
Mount Recheschnoi
Mount Sanford
Mount Seguam
Mount Segula
Mount Semisopochnoi
Mount Sergief
Mount Shishaldin
Mount Steller
Snowy Mountain
Mount Spurr
Mount Stepovak
Mount Takawangha
Mount Tanaga
Mount Trident
Ugashik-Peulik
Ukinrek Maars
Mount Uliaga
Mount Veniaminof
Mount Vsevidof
Mount Westdahl
Mount Wrangell
Mount Yantarni
Mount Yunaska
Arizona
Sunset Crater
Uinkaret Field
California
Amboy
Big Cave
Black Butte
Brushy Butte
Clear Lake
Coso Volcanic Field
Eagle Lake Field
Golden Trout Creek
Inyo Craters
Lassen Peak
Lavic Lake
Long Valley Caldera
Mammoth Mountain
Medicine Lake
Mono Craters
Red Cones
Mount Shasta
Tumble Buttes
Twin Buttes
Ubehebe Craters
Colorado
Dotsero
Hawaii
Haleakala or East Maui Volcano
Hualalai
Kahoolawe
Kilauea
Koolau
Loihi
Mauna Kea
Mauna Loa
Idaho
Craters of the Moon
Hell's Half Acre
Shoshone Lava Field
Wapi Lava Field
Nevada
Steamboat Springs
New Mexico
Capulin
Carrizozo
Valles Caldera
Zuni Bandera
Oregon
Mount Bachelor
Mount Bailey
Mount Belknap
Blue Lake Crater
Broken Top
Cinnamon Butte
Mount Mazama (Crater Lake)
Davis Lake
Devil's Garden
Diamond Craters
Four Craters Lava Field
Mount Hood
Jackie's Butte
Mount Jefferson
Jordan Craters
Mount McLoughlin
Newberry Caldera
Saddle Butte
Sand Mountain Field
Mount Thielsen
Three Sisters
Three-Fingered Jack
Squaw Ridge Lava Field
Mount Washington
Saipan
Mount Tapochau
Utah
Bald Knoll
Black Rock Desert
Markagunt Plateau
Santa Clara
Washington
Mount Adams
Mount Baker
Glacier Peak
Indian Heaven
Mount Rainier
Mount St. Helens
West Crater
Wyoming
Devil's Tower
Vanuatu
Mount Yasur
Elsewhere in the solar system
Mars
Olympus Mons
Arsia Mons
Pavonis Mons
Ascraeus Mons
Other planets and moons
Many on Io, a moon of the planet Jupiter, that are believed to eject sulfur or possibly sulfur dioxide.
Many on Triton, a moon of the planet Neptune, that are believed to eject liquid nitrogen, dust, or methane compounds.
In fictional literature
Mount Doom, or Orodruin, a fictional volcano in Mordor, from J. R. R. Tolkien's universe of Middle-earth.
Related pages
Pacific Ring of Fire
Seamount
Guyot
References |
4096 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia | Estonia | Estonia (), officially the Republic of Estonia () is a small country in the Baltic Region of Northern Europe. The capital city is Tallinn. Estonia's neighbors are Sweden, Finland, Russia and Latvia. Its population is 1,332,893.
The territory of Estonia has the mainland and 2,222 islands in the Baltic Sea.
History
People have lived in Estonia since at least 9,000 BC. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the Pärnu River.
Estonia became independent from Russia in 1920 after a brief War of Independence at the end of World War I. During World War II (1939–1945), Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union and Germany. It then became the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic and lost its independence.
Estonia had its independence restored in 1991. It became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 29 March 2004. It joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.
In January 2021, Estonia became the only country in the world led by women by having a female president (Kersti Kaljulaid) and female prime minister (Kaja Kallas). A few months later, Alar Karis replaced Kaljulaid as president.
Geography
Estonia is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland with Finland on the other side, to the west by the Baltic Sea with Sweden on the other side, to the south by Latvia (343 km), and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia (338.6 km).
Average elevation reaches only . The country's highest point is the Suur Munamägi in the southeast at .
Estonia has many forests, almost 50% of the land is covered with forests. The most common tree species are pine, spruce and birch. Estonia has over 1,400 lakes and over 2,000 islands. The longest rivers are Võhandu (), Pärnu (), and Põltsamaa ().
Biodiversity
Mammals in Estonia include the grey wolf, lynx, brown bear, red fox, badger, wild boar, moose, red deer, roe deer, beaver, otter, grey seal, and ringed seal. The critically endangered European mink has been successfully reintroduced to the island of Hiiumaa. The rare Siberian flying squirrel is present in east Estonia.
Over 300 bird species have been found in Estonia. These include the white-tailed eagle, lesser spotted eagle, golden eagle, western capercaillie, black and white stork, many species of owls, waders, geese and many others. The Barn swallow is the national bird of Estonia.
Protected areas cover 18% of Estonian land and 26% of its sea territory. There are 5 national parks, 159 nature reserves, and many other protection areas.
Government
The Riigikogu is the name of the parliament in Estonia.
Administrative regions
Since administrative reform in 2017, there are in total 79 local governments. This includes 15 towns and 64 rural municipalities. All municipalities have equal legal status and form part of a county, which is a state administrative unit.
The counties are:
Harju County
Hiiu County
Ida-Viru County
Jõgeva County
Järva County
Lääne County
Lääne-Viru County
Põlva County
Pärnu County
Rapla County
Saare County
Tartu County
Valga County
Viljandi County
Võru County
Culture
According to speedtest.net, Estonia has one of the fastest Internet download speeds in the world with an average download speed of 27.12 Mbit/s.
Estonia won the Eurovision Song Contest in 2001 with the song "Everybody" performed by Tanel Padar and Dave Benton. In 2002, Estonia hosted the event.
The Estonian National Day is the Independence Day celebrated on 24 February. This is the day the Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued. , there are 12 public holidays and 12 national holidays celebrated each year.
International rankings
The following are links to international rankings of Estonia.
Related pages
Estonia at the Olympics
Estonia national football team
List of rivers of Estonia
References
Other websites
Official State Website
European Union member states
1991 establishments in Europe |
4097 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic%20of%20Cyprus | Republic of Cyprus | Cyprus, officially the Republic of Cyprus is a island country in the Mediterranean Sea and member state of the European Union. Cyprus is in Asia, but it is often associated with Europe because of the culture and history of the people. It is also closer to Africa than to Europe. The capital is Nicosia. Most of the population speaks Greek and Turkish.
Cyprus is a popular tourist destination in Europe. In 2019, 4 million tourists visited the country. It is estimated, that Cyprus earned 2.7 million euros in that year. Tourism is very important to the country, as tourism made up 23% of its economy in 2020.
History
Cyprus became independent from the British Empire in 1960 following the London and Zürich Agreements of 19 February 1959. Makarios III became its first president. The Turk Cypriots was suppressed.
In July 1974, Turkey invaded and Greek Cypriots where forced to move to the south, while Turk Cypriots was foreced to move to the north. Since then the northern part of the island has been under Turkish occupation. In 1983 the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and became de facto independent it was only recognised by Turkey. When entering by from Tymbou Airport, a short stop has to be made in mainland Turkey due to the embargo.
The present situation with the island split came about because Cyprus, historically Greek, was conquered and became part of the Ottoman Empire from 15701914. The British administered it from 1878 until 1960. Likewise, Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire for several centuries. Negotiations for a unified island have been held several times without success.
In 2004, Cyprus joined the European Union. On 1 January 2008 Cyprus adopted the Euro, the single European currency. Although the official currency of Northern Cyprus is the Turkish Lira, many shops accept Euros and British pounds.
Ancient history
Mycenaeans of Ancient Greece were the first inhabitants of the island. Greek settlement began unsystematically about 1400 BC.
Geography
Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after the Italian islands of Sicily and Sardinia.
There are two mountain ranges, the Troodos Mountains and the smaller Kyrenia Range. The Pedieos River is the longest on the island. The highest point on Cyprus is Mount Olympus at .
The Republic of Cyprus is only on the southern two-thirds of the island (59.74%). The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is the northern third (34.85%) and rest are Akrotiri and Dhekelia owned by the British.
Politics
The Republic of Cyprus is a constitutional presidential republic. Each president is elected for a five-year term. The president has a lot of power. Cyprus is the only member of the European Union that is governed by a presidential system of government. It is one of few countries (along with San Marino) to have had a democratically-elected communist government, in office from 2008 until 2013. Since 2013 governing party has been the Democratic Rally.
The European Union issued a warning in February 2019 that Cyprus, an EU member, was selling EU passports to Russian oligarchs. This would allow allow organised crime syndicates to get into the EU. In 2020 leaked documents revealed a range of former and current officials from Afghanistan, China, Dubai, Lebanon, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Ukraine and Vietnam who bought a Cypriot citizenship before a change of the law in July 2019. Cyprus and Turkey have been engaged in a dispute over the extent of their exclusive economic zones. It was apparently caused by the potential for oil and gas exploration in the area.
Districts
The Republic of Cyprus is divided into six districts: Nicosia, Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol and Paphos. These are not the same as those of Northern Cyprus.
Cities
Related pages
Cyprus at the Olympics
Cyprus national football team
List of rivers of Cyprus
References
Other websites
Cyprus Videos
Cyprus Pictures
Cyprus Map
CyprusLinks.com
Cyprus Tourist Guide
Cyprus |
4098 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia | Latvia | Latvia is a country in Northern Europe. The capital is Riga. It is one of the Baltic States, together with Estonia in the north and Lithuania in the south. Latvia's neighbours to the east are the countries Russia and Belarus. Latvia is split into four parts called Kurzeme, Vidzeme, Zemgale, and Latgale.
People from Latvia are called Latvians. They speak the Latvian language, which is a little like the Lithuanian language, though not close enough to be understood.
History
Latvia was settled by the Baltic tribes thousands of years ago. They mainly fished, hunted, and traded.
German traders and crusaders came to Latvia at the end of the 12th century. Latvians lost control of their homeland. Over the next 800 years, Germans, Danes, Swedes, Poles, and Russians all invaded Latvia. Latvia finally became independent in 1918.
During the all time before the World War I the aristocracy were mainly German.
During the Great Northern war (1700-1721) modern-day Latvia became the part of the Russian empire. There were organized Courland and Livonia governorates.
In 1940 Latvia became Soviet republic and joined to the Soviet Union.
It was under Nazi occupation during the World War II in 1941-1944.
After the war a lot of factories were opened. Latvia became one of the successful Soviet republics.
In 1991 the Soviet Union was destroyed and new Latvian republic was declared.
Politics
In Copenhagen on 13 December 2002, Latvia and nine other countries were invited to join the European Union. On 20 September 2003, Latvians held an election to vote on joining. Two thirds of Latvians voted to join, and on 1 May 2004 Latvia became a member of the EU.
Latvia has been a NATO member since 29 March, 2004.
International rankings
Related pages
Latvia at the Olympics
Latvia national football team
List of rivers of Latvia
References
Other websites
Latvian Government official site
European Union member states
1991 establishments in Europe |
4099 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania | Lithuania | Lithuania is a country in Europe. It borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the southeast, Poland to the south and Russia to the southwest. It is one of the Baltic states. The country's area is 65,300 km² and there are about 2.8 million people who live in Lithuania. The national language is the Lithuanian language, which is spoken by around 3 million people. Vilnius is the capital and largest city. Lithuania is a member of the European Union, NATO, and several other organizations.
The colors of the Lithuanian flag are yellow (at the top), for the sun, green (in the middle), for the fields, and red (at the bottom), for the blood of Lithuanians fighting for its independence.
History
Lithuania began to turn into a country in the 7th–9th centuries from Baltic nations group. The Balts, the ancestors of Lithuanians and Latvians, came to the area between Nemunas, Daugava rivers and the Baltic Sea, from a supposed original homeland of the Proto-Indo-European languages. Many scientists think they came there sometime in the 3rd millennium BC.
The traditional date of the beginning of the country is 1236 when the Lithuanians won the Battle of Šiauliai (Battle of Sun).
Lithuania (at that time - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania) made a Treaty with Poland in 1569. The country was taken over by the Russian Empire in 1795, ending the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It got back its independence on February 16, 1918.
In 1940 the country became a Soviet republic and joined to the Soviet Union.
On June 22, 1941, after German invasion, the republic was occupied. It continued until 1944.
Lithuania re-declared its independence on March 11, 1990. Currently, Lithuania is an independent, semi-presidential, democratic republic.
Politics
Lithuania has been a member of NATO and the European Union since 2004.
Lithuania is a semi presidential republic, that restored its independence and democracy in 1990. Since then, very important reforms were made and Lithuania is now declared as a democratic state that grants the human rights.
The Constitution that was adopted in 1992 declares that the leader of the country is the President, who must be elected to take office. The elections are held every 5 years. If the President breaks their oath, they can be forced to resign by the Parliament. The President also represents Lithuania abroad and is the commander-in-chief.
The legislative power of Lithuania is called the Seimas, or Parliament. There are 141 members of Seimas who are elected for 4-year-terms. Seimas passes the laws that must be executed by the government, that is formed in Seimas, and it must be accepted by the President. The Prime Minister is set and fired by the President.
The justice is under the power of the courts. The supreme court in Lithuania is the Constitutional Court.
Administrative subdivisions
Lithuania is divided into 10 counties, 60 municipalities and 500 elderates. The counties are:
Alytus County
Kaunas County
Klaipėda County
Marijampolė County
Panevėžys County
Šiauliai County
Tauragė County
Telšiai County
Utena County
Vilnius County
The county governor rules the county. He or she must be appointed by the central government. Municipalities are governed by the Municipal Councils that are elected for 4 year terms. The head of a municipality is the mayor. The elderates are governed by the elders. The elders are appointed by the municipal councils.
Geography
Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe. Its neighbours are Poland in the southwest, Russia (Kaliningrad) in west, Latvia in north and Belarus in the east. Lithuania borders the Baltic Sea and 99 kilometres of its coast belong to Lithuania. The highest hill is Aukštojas (294 metres high), the largest lake is Drūkšiai Lake. 31% of the land is suitable for farms.
Lithuania is divided into 5 cultural regions according to their past and traditions:
Aukštaitija
Dzūkija
Mažoji Lietuva (Lithuania Minor)
Suvalkija
Žemaitija (Samogitia)
Climate
Economy
Lithuania has a fast growing economy. It grew up to 7% in the first quarter of 2008.
GDP per capita, based on purchasing power parity is estimated to be $19,730 in 2008. The nominal GDP per capita is estimated to be $14,213 at the same year. According to these numbers, Lithuanian per capita GDP reaches only 61% of EU average. However, it is impressive that only in 8 years, since 2000 it grew up from 30% of EU average.
Emigration still creates a problem. According to the official data, emigration in 2006 was 30% lower than the previous year, with 3,483 people leaving in four months.
Demographics
About 80% of people in Lithuania are Lithuanians. There are large national minorities:
The Poles, (6.3%), mainly live in Vilnius County, which was taken over by Poland in 1920.
The Russians, (5.1%), mainly live in Vilnius County and Utena County, as workers at the Ignalina nuclear plant.
The Belorussians, (1.1%), most of them live in Vilnius County.
Lithuanian is spoken by 82% of the people and it is the only official language. Polish is used mostly in Vilnius County where Polish politicians are elected to represent the Polish minority. The documents and street names must be in Lithuanian.
The biggest cities are Vilnius, 542,287 people, Kaunas, 358,107 people, and Klaipėda, 185,899 people.
Largest cities
Education
The nursery schools and the kindergartens are the first-level education forms. However, they are not compulsory. The children start attending the primary school at age 7, where educational programs last for 4 years; then they must start attending secondary school (5th to 10th grades). After finishing 8th or 10th grade, the student can continue learning at the high school or choose courses at the vocational college. The students who finish the high school can join colleges and universities. Higher education is free for the students whose annual median of grades is 8 or higher. The others have to pay 500 Litas per semester at least.
The higher education schools are universities and colleges. The main universities are:
Vilnius University (the oldest university in northeastern Europe, founded in 1579);
University of Vytautas the Great, in Kaunas;
The University of Technology of Gediminas, in Vilnius;
The Klaipėda University.
Media
Radio and Television
Lithuanians can choose from many television and radio stations. The first radio station was started in 1926 in Kaunas. The first television station started in 1957. The main radio stations are:
Public broadcaster: LRT Radijas (talk station), LRT Klasika (classical music), LRT Opus (alternative music)
M-1 (TOP 40)
Lietus (Lithuanian pop)
Radiocentras (TOP 40)
Power Hit Radio (dance)
ZIP FM (TOP 40)
M-1 Plius (adult contemporary)
Žinių Radijas (talk station)
The most popular TV stations are:
Public broadcaster: LRT Televizija (main programme), LRT Plius (culture, sports, movies)
TV3 (national)
LNK (national)
BTV (national)
Lrytas TV (national)
TV1 (women-oriented)
TV8 (women-oriented)
TV6 (men-oriented)
Info TV (news)
Printed Media and Internet
The oldest legal newspaper in Lithuania is the Polish Kurier Wilenski. It was first published in the 18th century and is now only popular with the Polish community. The biggest selling newspapers are:
Lietuvos Rytas (national)
Verslo žinios (business)
Kauno diena (regional)
Vakaro žinios (tabloid)
Vakarų ekspresas (regional)
Internet news portals are very popular in Lithuania. They have the latest information and also let people make comments. The most popular Internet sites with news and information are:
Delfi.lt
15min.lt
lrytas.lt
tv3.lt
lrt.lt
Related pages
Lithuania at the Olympics
Lithuania national football team
List of rivers of Lithuania
Notes and references
Other websites
The official Tourism site in Lithuanian and English
The site of the President's administration
The site of Lithuanian Parliament
The site of Government of Lithuania
The Official site of Department of Statistics
The official site of Vilnius Municipality
The official site of Kaunas Municipality
The official site of klaipėda Municipality
European Union member states |
4100 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta | Malta | Malta is a country in the European Union and considered part of Southern Europe. It is an island near the center of the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The capital of Malta is Valletta. Around 500,000 people live in Malta and it is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Malta is 316 sq km, which makes it one of the smallest countries. Its many cities and towns grew close to each other over time.
Language
Maltese is the national language of Malta and is influenced by Greek due to Magna Grecia settlements in Sicily. Maltese and English are the official languages in line with the constitution of the country. A majority of the people of Malta can speak three languages; Maltese, English and Italian.
Money
Malta had its own currency, called the Maltese Lira until 2008. The Maltese Lira was better known as the Maltese Pound because of the strong links to the United Kingdom. One Maltese Lira consisted of 100 cents. In 2008 Malta joined the Euro countries in adopting the Euro as the National Currency.
History
People have lived in Malta since at least 5200 BC. The island has some key archaeological sites dating from early times.
Malta became well known as the base of the Knights Hospitaller. They moved to Malta after being forced to leave Palestine and then Rhodes, in Greece. In 1565 they survived a great attack by the Ottoman Empire. The history of the knights at Malta continued the strong Roman Catholic beliefs in the country that were started by the Norman and Spanish rulers.
In 1798, Napoleon took control of Malta. The French rule was not popular and in 1800 Maltese rebels invited the British Royal Navy to come to the island. This led to 200 years as a British colony and independent Commonwealth member.
During World War II, Malta was attacked this time by the Axis forces. The entire island was symbolically given the George Cross for heroism.
Malta became independent in 1964 and a republic in 1974. In 2004 Malta joined the European Union and in 2008 Malta joined the Euro.
Notes
Other websites
Maltese Relocation and Travel Guide
Malta travel guide and information
Malta Wiki - Malta Popular Encyclopedia
Malta holidays and hotels
Malta travel guide
Malta
Malta Travel Guide
Italian-speaking countries
European Union member states
Phoenician colonies
1974 establishments in Europe |
4101 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Soviet%20Union-related%20topics | List of Soviet Union-related topics |
Lists of people
List of Premiers of the Soviet Union
List of Russians
A
AK-47
B
Baltic states
Bolshevik
C
Central Asia
Cold War
Constructivism
Communism
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Comrade
Collective farming
Collectivisation in the USSR
E
Eastern Front (World War II)
G
Glasnost
Great Soviet Encyclopedia
H
Hero of the Soviet Union
History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union
History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)
Holodomor
K
Kolkhoz
M
Marxism–Leninism
Moscow Metro
O
October Revolution
P
Palace of Soviets
R
Red Army
Republics of the Soviet Union
Russian Civil War
S
Socialism
Soviet
Soviet (council)
Soviet people
Soviet Union
Soviet Union national bandy team
Soviet Union national football team
Soviet Union national ice hockey team
Sputnik programme
State Anthem of the Soviet Union
V
Volga Germans
W
Warsaw Pact Organization
White movement
World War I
World War II
Geography-related lists |
4104 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoving%20distance | Comoving distance | In normal cosmology, 'comoving' distance or 'proper distance' is one of several distances measured by cosmologists to define distances between objects.
Method
To talk about the shape of the Universe, scientists want to forget that the Universe is expanding. So they separate the shape from time and pretend that the Universe is not expanding. They remember that, really, the Universe is expanding, but they write this in a variable called the scale factor. Then, the distances they talk about, while putting the scale factor to the side, are called comoving distances. When they think about the Universe using comoving distance, they think of the Universe as not expanding. This way, some calculations are easier.
Purpose
When the part of the Universe which we can see today started, it was very small. Everything in this part of the Universe was much closer together than today. It was also very hot and photons (particles of light) were moving in different directions. Light moves very fast, but the light speed is limited and the Universe was expanding very fast.
Comparison
Think of two ants on the surface of an expanding balloon. One ant starts moving towards another, but the balloon itself is also expanding. After a long time the balloon starts expanding more slowly. Eventually one ant reaches another. That's like photons in our universe. Some of the light from the stars you see at night traveled for billions of years to reach your eye. Surprisingly, it started very close to where you were (or the atoms of which your body consists), but just could not keep up with the universe expansion. Of course, if something else started out very close to where you were, but was not traveling toward you, it would be very far away from you now because of the expansion.
Cosmology |
4105 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaanxi | Shaanxi | Shaanxi (Chinese:陕西, also sometimes called Shenshi) is a province in east China. The word "Shaan" (viz Shanzhou) is a place in Henan Province. "Xi" means "west". So "Shaanxi" means "the place to the west of Shaan".
Although in pinyin, "Shaanxi" is spelled exactly the same as "Shanxi", the only difference in how the two words are pronounced is that the first syllable in "Shanxi" is said using the first tone in Mandarin, while the first syllable in "Shaanxi" is said with the third tone. Since tone markers are not usually used to show how to pronounce the two different names, the first word in "Shaanxi" is spelled using the Gwoyeu Romatzyh method instead, which indicates tones by adding extra letters to a syllable.
The river Wei He runs across it. It has a large population of more than 30 million people. The capital of Shaanxi is Xi'an. It abbreviates as Shan (陕) or Qin (秦), also known as SanQin (三秦, meaning Three Qins).
History
January 23, 1556 – A massive earthquake, measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale, strikes Shaanxi, killing over 850,000 people. This is the most devastating earthquake in recorded history.
Political divisions
Shaanxi Province is divided into ten municipalities:
Xi'an Municipality(西安市)
Ankang Municipality(安康市)
Baoji Municipality(宝鸡市)
Hanzhong Municipality(汉中市)
Shangluo Municipality(商洛市)
Tongchuan Municipality(铜川市)
Weinan Municipality(渭南市)
Xianyang Municipality(咸阳市)
Yan'an Municipality(延安市)
Yulin Municipality(榆林市)
Provinces of China |
4106 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon | Lisbon | Lisbon is the capital city of Portugal. It is the largest city of Portugal. The city has a population of about half million people. In Lisbon's urban area live around 2.8 million people, being the 10th-most populous urban area in the European Union.
Lisbon is placed on the right bank (western) of the Tagus River, near the outfall. It has a pleasant climate and has about 220 days of sunshine each year. There are many beautiful beaches close to the city. There are also many seafood restaurants, historical sites and monuments. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world.
References
Other websites
Official page of the city
Lisbon Photos a collection of Photos, showing Lisbon as it is to visitors.
Lisbon Tourist Guide and Information
Phoenician colonies
719 establishments
Establishments in Portugal |
4107 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfing | Surfing | Surfing is a water sport done in the ocean or sea. The surfer uses their surfboard to catch a wave and ride in towards the shore.
Surfing was invented by the Polynesians at least 4000 years ago. It has become a popular sport among both men and women of all ages. With lifestyles and regimens freer than those of most sports, surfers comprise a unique culture. Though surfing is practiced in many other Pacific nations, its center remains Hawaii, where many rounds of the international surfing championships (the ASP) are held annually. Surfing is popular in Australia, the US, and Northern Europe.
Related pages
Skimboarding
Windsurfing |
4108 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon | Lyon | Lyon (Arpitan: Liyon) is a city in the southeast of France. It is the third-largest city in the country (behind Paris and Marseille), with about 513,000 people living there in 2015. It is the second largest metropolis, or metro area, in France (behind only that of Paris), with about 2.3 million people in 2014.
In ancient history, the name of Lyon was Lugdunum. Someone who lives in Lyon is called a Lyonnais (male) or a Lyonnaise (female) in French.
Lyon has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Koeppen climate classification). It is between the Rhône and the Saône. It is about west of the Italian border.
The central part of Lyon, located on the peninsula between the Rhône and the Saône, was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
Famous people from Lyon
The Lumière Brothers who created cinema
Paul Bocuse, a world renowned chef
Sports
Famous sports clubs from Lyon are:
Olympique Lyonnais: The local football team that plays in Ligue 1
ASVEL: The local basketball team
LOU: (Lyon Olympique Universitaire) The local rugby team
Education
École Centrale de Lyon
École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies
École pour l'informatique et les techniques avancées
École spéciale de mécanique et électricité
EMLYON Business School
E-Artsup
Institut Polytechnique des Sciences Avancées
Institut supérieur européen de gestion group
Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action
Sup'Biotech
Web@cademie
References
Departmental capitals in France
Regional capitals in France
World Heritage Sites in France |
4109 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20W.%20Bush | George W. Bush | George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician and businessman. He was the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He is the son of former U.S. President George H. W. Bush and former U.S. First Lady Barbara Bush. Before becoming president, he was the Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000. He is a Republican.
He flew warplanes in the Texas and Alabama Air National Guard. After graduating from Yale College in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, he worked in the oil industry. In 1977, he married Laura Welch and ran for the U.S. House of Representatives, but lost. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team.
In 1994, he was elected Governor of Texas, defeating the incumbent governor, Democrat Ann Richards. As governor, Bush successfully backed legislation for tort reform, gave more money for education, set higher standards for schools, and changed the criminal justice system. Bush also helped make Texas the leading producer of wind powered electricity in the U.S.
In 2000, Bush was elected President of the United States when he defeated Democratic incumbent Vice President Al Gore in a very close election. He became the fourth person to be elected president without winning the popular vote. He is the second son of a former United States president to himself become president, the first being John Quincy Adams, the son of John Adams.
Bush was inaugurated in January 2001. As president, his early focus was on domestic issues. He cut taxes, passed an education reform bill, made changes to Medicare, and changed abortion laws. On September 11, 2001, the United States was attacked by terrorists. As a result of these attacks, Bush created the Department of Homeland Security and started a "War on Terror" that began with a war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also signed into law the Patriot Act in order to spy on people believed to be terrorists. In 2003, he ordered an invasion of Iraq, which started the Iraq War. The reason why he did this was because his administration claimed that Iraq had a weapons of mass destruction (WMD) program, and that the Iraqi government was a threat to the U.S. However, no WMDs or a program for WMDs were ever found.
He was re-elected to a second term in 2004. In his second term, Bush reached multiple free trade agreements and was able to put John Roberts and Samuel Alito to the Supreme Court. He wanted to make major changes to Social Security and immigration laws, but these changes did not pass in Congress. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq continued, and in 2007 he sent more troops to Iraq. Bush received criticism from both sides politically for his handling of Hurricane Katrina and for the midterm dismissal of U.S. attorneys. In December 2007, the U.S. entered the Great Recession. This made the Bush administration create programs protect the country's financial system, such as the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP).
Bush left office in January 2009 and was succeeded by Democrat Barack Obama. He has a ranch in Crawford, Texas, which is near Waco. In 2010, he published a memoir called Decision Points. His presidential library opened in 2013. He is not ranked very high in presidential opinion polls, but he has started to become more popular again after his presidency ended.
Bush was one of the most polarised U.S. presidents in history; he received the highest recorded approval ratings right after the 9/11 attacks, but one of the lowest such ratings during the 2008 financial crisis.
Early life
Bush was born at Yale-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut. Bush grew up in Midland, Texas. He went to a high school called Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, and graduated in 1964. He went to school at Yale University from 1964 until he graduated in 1968, with a bachelor's degree in history. He joined the Texas Air National Guard in 1968 (part of the United States National Guard) during the Vietnam War and became a fighter pilot but did not fight in the war. He left the Texas Air National Guard in 1973. In 1975 Bush earned an MBA from Harvard University.
On November 5, 1977, Bush married Laura Welch. In 1978, Bush tried to get elected to Congress in West Texas, but lost. After that, he ran some oil companies and was one of the owners of the Texas Rangers baseball team. He thought about trying to become the commissioner of Major League Baseball, but went into politics instead. Bush is a Methodist. In 1994, he was elected to be Governor of Texas, defeating incumbent Democratic Governor Ann Richards.
Governor of Texas, 1995–2000
Bush announced he was running for governor in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election. His campaign focused on four themes: changing welfare, changing torts, crime reduction, and making education better.
He easily won the Republican primary. His opponent was popular Democratic incumbent Governor Ann Richards. During the campaign, he said that if he was elected, he would sign a bill that would allow Texans to get permits to carry concealed weapons (this means a person can carry a weapon on them, as long as it cannot be seen). Bush won the general election with 53.5 percent against Richards' 45.9 percent.
Bush used a budget surplus (when the government makes more money than it spends) to pass a $2 billion dollar tax-cut, which was Texas's largest. He used government money to fund organizations that teach people of the dangers of alcohol and drug use and abuse, and helping to reduce domestic violence.
In 1998, Bush won re-election with a record 69 percent of the vote. He became the first governor in Texas history to be elected to two consecutive four-year terms. In his second term, Bush promoted faith-based organizations and had high approval ratings. He proclaimed June 10, 2000, to be Jesus Day in Texas, a day on which he asked all Texans to "answer the call to serve those in need". In 1999, Bush signed a law that said electric retailers needed to buy a certain amount of energy from renewable sources. This helped Texas become the leading producer of wind powered electricity in the U.S.
Critics said that during his time as governor, Texas ranked near the bottom in environmental evaluations. Supporters pointed to his efforts to raise the pay of teachers and improve educational test scores.
During Bush's first term, he was seen as a future presidential candidate. After he was reelected in 1998, this belief grew. In 1999, he decided to seek the 2000 Republican presidential nomination.
2000 presidential election
Bush ran against then-Vice President Al Gore in the 2000 United States presidential election. More than 100 million people voted on November 7, 2000. But the election was very close. When they began counting the votes, it became clear that whoever got the most votes in the state of Florida would win the election. But there were many issues with the ballots in Florida. Gore sued to get Florida to count the votes again. For more than a month no one knew who won the election. The Supreme Court made a decision to stop recounting votes. Gore decided to accept his loss on December 13 and Bush was declared the winner.
Presidency (2001–2009)
First term, 2001–05
While he was President, George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act into law. It was an education reform bill.
Bush was the first President of the United States to deliver a speech in both Spanish and in English.
He added Part D to Medicare, which gives older people free medicine if they can not afford it.
He also signed very large tax cuts (many of them were for the middle and lower class) during his presidency.
Bush did not approve of abortion. In 2004, he signed the Unborn Victims Of Violence Act which made it so that if a pregnant woman is murdered, her murderer can also be charged with killing the fetus that the woman was carrying.
His first foreign policy test came when an American spy plane crashed in China. Bush peacefully negotiated the release of the plane crew.
Eight months after Bush became president, the September 11 attacks occurred. Because of this, President Bush declared a War on Terrorism.
Bush tried to do many things to stop another terrorist attack from happening. He ordered an invasion of Afghanistan in 2002. He did this because the leaders of Afghanistan were helping Osama bin Laden, who was responsible for attacking America on September 11, 2001. Almost ten years later, on May 2, 2011 bin Laden was killed on orders of President Barack Obama. The war in Afghanistan (2001–present) has not ended yet. Bush asked Congress to do more to stop terrorism. As a result, Congress passed a law that created the Department Of Homeland Security, a government department which tries to prevent terrorist attacks from happening. It also responds to emergencies such as floods or diseases.
He signed the Patriot Act (which allowed the government to listen to people's phone calls so it can track down terrorists which try to communicate with each other).
After Saddam refused to cooperate with the United Nations weapons inspectors and the United States Congress authorized Bush to invade Iraq if its government did not cooperate with the weapons inspectors, Bush decided on the Gulf War in 2003 with several allies. Saddam Hussein was removed from power, and Iraq turned into a democracy. Over 100,000 people were killed in this war.
2004 presidential election
In the 2004 presidential election, Bush won again with a majority of votes. His opponent was Massachusetts Senator John Kerry, a Democrat.
Second term, 2005–09
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina (the most destructive hurricane in American history) happened. It caused over 1800 deaths and caused billions of dollars of destruction. George W. Bush signed several acts into law which would help Hurricane Katrina victims.
In the Iraq War, no weapons of mass destruction were found, and the Bush Administration was criticized for being wrong about Iraq having weapons of mass destruction. Bush added more American troops to Iraq (which was called "the surge") to speed up the war. The surge was successful, and in result, Iraq had less violence.
Although the economy was doing very well during much of his presidency, in early 2008, the economy was slowing down. Bush signed a bill into law which would gave $600 to every American citizen, hoping that people would go out and spend the money so that it would prevent a recession (a bad economy) from happening.
Later in 2008, stock market crashed and the country fell into its worst recession since the Great Depression. Bush helped create a 700 billion dollar bailout, which would give money to corporations (large businesses) to prevent them from being bankrupt and to try to prevent the recession from getting worse.
Bush publicly supported Republican candidate John McCain during the 2008 presidential election, but Barack Obama won the election.
During the last few days he was President, Bush gave his farewell address. He was succeeded by Barack Obama on January 20, 2009.
Post-presidency (2009–present)
After his presidency, Bush stayed away from the spotlight and did not want much attention. He said that he was not going to criticize President Obama. He began to build his presidential library in 2010. It was open to the public in 2013.
After over a year and a half of saying little in public, in November of 2010, Bush appeared on several television interviews and released a book called Decision Points. The book focuses on fourteen big decisions he made in congress, including quitting drinking, running for president, Hurricane Katrina, invading Iraq, and his response to the financial meltdown in 2008.
On May 2, 2011, President Obama called Bush, who was at a restaurant with his wife, to inform him that Osama bin Laden had been killed. The Bushes joined the Obamas in New York City to mark the tenth anniversary of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. At the Ground Zero memorial, Bush read a letter that President Abraham Lincoln wrote to a widow who lost five sons during the Civil War.
On August 6, 2013, Bush was successfully treated for a coronary artery blockage with a stent. The blockage had been found during an annual medical examination.
References
Other websites
Official Biography at the White House
1946 births
Living people
2000 United States presidential candidates
2004 United States presidential candidates
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
American aviators
American conservatives
American Methodists
Bush family
Businesspeople from New Haven, Connecticut
Businesspeople from Texas
Children of Presidents of the United States
George H. W. Bush
Governors of Texas
People from Midland, Texas
Politicians from New Haven, Connecticut
Ranchers
Recipients of the Order pro merito Melitensi
Time People of the Year
US Republican Party politicians
Writers from New Haven, Connecticut
Writers from Texas
Yale University alumni |
4110 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic%20compound | Organic compound | Organic compounds are carbon-based compounds. Organic compounds contain carbon bonds in which at least one carbon atom is covalently linked to an atom of another type (usually hydrogen, oxygen or nitrogen). Most polymers are organic compounds.
History
The name "organic" is a historical name from the 19th century.
People believed that only living things could make organic compounds and "dead" things (such as minerals) could make inorganic compounds. However, Friedrich Wöhler proved this wrong by synthesizing urea, a well-known organic compound.
Kinds of organic compounds
There are natural organic compounds, and synthetic ones. Their structure may be described by using names, and making diagrams.
One way of showing the molecule is by drawing its structural formula. Because molecules can have complicated structures, people have made ways to show them in simple language. One way is to use line diagrams. Each atom is shown by a letter, and connected by a line to each atom with which it is has a covalent bond. One line means a single bond, two lines means a double bond and so on.
Because there is in an infinite number of possible organic compounds, language is needed to give a unique name to each one. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, or IUPAC, made a system for doing this. Although an IUPAC name makes every single possible molecule unique, the names are often long and complicated, so in everyday life, trivial names--unofficial but widely understood names--are used, such as the trivial names Paracetamol, Tylenol, and Acetaminophen, which are used for a compound whose IUPAC name is N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acetamide. Some of these trivial names are trademarks.
Natural Compounds
Natural compounds are compounds made by living beings. These could also be made in a lab, but many of these compounds are taken from nature because it is easier and less expensive to do it that way. For example, every year people grow and eat huge amounts of natural sugar and starch. Other common natural compounds are: amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, many antibiotics like Penicillin and Amoxicillin.
Synthetic compounds
Synthetic compounds are those made by people. Sometimes, this is done by taking something natural and changing the molecule in a small way, such as making glycerin from vegetable oils. Other compounds are synthesized in long, complicated reactions with many steps. Plastics are sometimes mostly natural, and other kinds are manufactured.
Structure
Since a compound is often first discovered in nature instead of being made on purpose in a lab, people may know the compound exists, and even know what it does sometimes, but not know exactly what atoms it is made of and how it is arranged. There are several ways of taking an unknown compound and finding out this structure:
Mass spectrometry
X-ray diffraction
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy
Related pages
Acetone
Inorganic compound
Organic chemistry
Biochemistry
Other websites
Organic chemistry online |
4111 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal | Coal | Coal is a hard rock which can be burned as a solid fossil fuel. It is mostly carbon but also contains hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen. It is a sedimentary rock formed from peat, by the pressure of rocks laid down later on top.
Peat, and therefore coal, is formed from the remains of plants which lived millions of years ago in tropical wetlands (coal swamps), such as those of the late Carboniferous period (the Pennsylvanian). Charcoal is made by wood heated in an airless space.
Coal can be burned for energy or heat. About two-thirds of the coal mined today is burned in power stations to make electricity. Like oil, when coal is burned its carbon joins with oxygen in the air and makes a lot of carbon dioxide, which causes climate change. Many people die early because of illnesses from air pollution from coal. Most countries are turning to other sources of energy, such as solar power and wind power. But new coal power plants are still being built in some parts of the world, such as China.
Coal can be roasted (heated very hot in a place where there is no oxygen) to produce coke. Coke can be used in smelting to reduce metals from their ores.
History
Coal was the most important fuel of the Industrial Revolution. Coal was an important part of rail freight in the UK in the 20th century, forming the greater part of several companies' freight volume. Early in the 21st century most coal fired power stations in the United Kingdom and several other countries were closed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Types of coal
Under suitable conditions, plant material is transformed step by step into
Peat is not yet coal.
Lignite (brown coal) is the dirtiest coal, is about 60%-70% carbon, and is used as fuel for electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has long been used as an ornamental stone.
Sub-bituminous coal is used as fuel for steam-electric power generation. Also, it is a source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry.
Bituminous coal is a dense rock, black but sometimes dark brown. It is a relatively soft coal that breaks and burns readily and quickly. It used as fuel in power stations, and for heat and power applications in manufacturing, for blacksmithing; and to make coke to make steel.
Anthracite is a harder, glossy, black coal. It is longer burning, and used mainly for residential and commercial space heating.
Graphite is difficult to burn and is not so commonly used as fuel. It is still used in pencils, mixed with clay. When powdered, it can be used as a lubricant.
Diamond is commonly believed to be the end result of this process, but this is not true. Diamond is carbon but is not formed from coal.
Coal contains impurities. The particular impurities determine the use. Coking coal has little ash or sulfur or phosphorus. Those would spoil the iron made by the blast furnace.
Environmental problems
Coal, when burnt, gives off almost a third more carbon dioxide per unit of energy than oil, and 80% more than natural gas. Almost half of the carbon dioxide from people is because of burning coal so it is the biggest single cause of global warming. Coal contributes to acid rain and smog, especially when burned without scrubbers. Burning coal releases toxic chemicals, including soot, mercury, and carbon monoxide, which contribute to diseases such as cancer and asthma in both humans and wild animals. Coal mining, especially mountaintop removal mining, can damage large areas of land and destroy natural habitats. Higher grades of coal burn more cleanly than lower grades, although they still pollute more than other fuels. In addition to air pollution, burning coal produces toxic coal ash, which can cause water pollution if it is accidentally released into the environment. There are several underground mine fires burning throughout the world. These underground fires release toxic smoke into the air, and can also cause the ground above to collapse. The city of Centralia, Pennsylvania was evacuated and is now abandoned due to an underground coal mine fire.
Deaths and illness from pollution
Because of coal every year more than one hundred thousand people die early and millions of people get ill. Coal miners often get pneumoconiosis (black lung disease) from exposure to coal dust.
Protests against coal
Opposition to coal pollution was one of the main reasons the modern environmental movement started in the 19th century.
Peak coal
Peak coal means the year in which most coal is mined or burned. Many countries have already passed their peak coal years, for example Germany in 1985 and the United States in 2008. Now those countries are mining and burning less coal. But China still mines a lot of coal. The peak coal year for the world may have passed.
Energy
Compared to other non-renewable sources of energy, coal is inefficient and produces high amounts of greenhouse gases. Coal is commonly found and cheap.
Coal provides about a quarter of the world's heating.
Electricity
Coal-fired power stations produce 37% of the world's electricity.
Industry
Almost 70% of world steel production depends on burning coal.
Countries
The world's top coal producer is China, which produces about four billion tonnes each year. India, the United States, Australia, Indonesia and Russia also produce coal, less than a billion tonnes a year each. The largest exporter by far is Australia and the largest importers are China, India and Japan.
Related pages
Coal mining
Coal forests
References
Other websites
Electricity Map countries where more coal is burned are usually darker brown on map
National Coal Mining Museum for England
Basic English 850 words
Fossil fuels
Sedimentary rocks
Environmental issues
Hydrocarbons |
4113 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum | Petroleum | Petroleum, (from Greek πέτρα - rock and έλαιο - oil) also called crude oil, is a thick and black liquid. It is a natural material mainly made of hydrocarbons. Most petroleum is found by drilling down through rocks on land or off-shore on the continental shelf. Major producers are in the Middle East, the Americas, and Russia. It is the most important world fuel source. It supplies 38% of the world's energy and is also used to make petrochemicals.
Crude oil is a mixture of many different chemicals (mostly hydrocarbons), most of which burn well. It is separated into simpler, more useful mixtures by fractional distillation in oil refineries to give separate chemicals such as gasoline (or petrol) for cars, kerosene for airplanes and bitumen for roads. The bitumen gives crude oil its dark black color; most of the other chemicals in crude are slightly yellow or colorless.
Petroleum can be easily transported by pipeline and oil tanker. Refined petroleum is used as fuels; mainly gasoline (petrol) for cars, diesel fuel for diesel engines used in trucks, trains and ships, kerosene fuel for jets and as lubricants.
Petrochemicals:
alcohols
antiseptics
artificial rubber
detergents
drugs
explosives
food additives
insecticides
perfumes
plastics
textile fiber
Problems
Petroleum resource is limited and non-renewable. Some believe it will run out within 70 years after a peak oil early in the 21st century.
Burning petroleum or other fossil fuel adds the carbon in the oil to the oxygen in the air to create carbon dioxide, which is an air pollutant. The carbon can be removed from the carbon dioxide by plants.
There is a lot of crude oil left underground. Oil companies quote "reserves" which some people confuse with the actual amount of oil underground, but are more to do with the cost of extracting it by oil wells. Most of the crude left underground is in the Middle East which is not a politically stable part of the world. Some governments with lots of oil reserves work together through OPEC to keep production low and prices high. Politicians in countries that burn much oil complain about high oil prices, because voters complain. However many environmentalists worry about damage being done by using oil as a fuel source (especially global warming) and are therefore happy when prices are kept high so that people use less oil.
Related pages
Asphalt
Coal
Natural gas
Other websites
US Energy Information Administration - Part of the informative website of the US Government's Energy Information Administration.
Environmental effects of oil extraction
BP Statistical Review of World Energy
PetroTalk Portal for petro related Articles, Discussion, Links and more
Oil, petroleum: Development, production, consumption and reserves
World oil consumption World oil consumption
Crude: 2007 Australian Broadcasting Corporation documentary [3 x 30 minutes] about the formation of oil, and humanity's use of it
Petroleum crude oil Citizendium
Data
Department of Energy EIA - World supply and consumption
Department of Energy EIA - Crude Oil and Total Petroleum Imports to USA
US petroleum prices - from US Department of Energy EIA
European Brent prices since 1987
Hydrocarbons
Fossil fuels |
4114 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20gas | Natural gas | Natural gas is a mixture of gases. It consists mainly of hydrocarbons. The main component is methane. Natural gas is often found in the ground, either alone or together with petroleum. Landfills and natural processes produce a little methane. Usually it is transported to users in a pipeline.
Most natural gas is burnt as a fuel to produce energy. It burns with a clean blue flame, causing little pollution.
Natural gas is burned to produce electricity, to cook and to heat buildings. It is also used as fuel for natural gas vehicles for transport. When natural gas is burned in a power station it boils water into steam that spins a steam turbine that turns a generator to make electricity. Some power stations use natural gas in a gas turbine.
Natural gas is also converted into many different industrial chemicals. It is the most common feedstock for making pure hydrogen. Hydrogen is used as fuel in fuel cells, and to make ammonia. Ammonia is used as a fuel, as a fertilizer for crops, and for making many other things. Natural gas is also converted into monomers to make many plastic products.
Related pages
Fossil fuel
Coal
non-renewable resource
Other websites
History of using natural gas from the U.S. Department of Energy
References
Fossil fuels
Hydrocarbons |
4115 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy | Energy | Energy can mean various things:
In physics, energy is a property of matter and space. It can be transferred between objects. It can be converted in its form. It cannot be created or destroyed.
In economics it may mean the ‘energy industry’, as in fuel or electric power distribution.
Energy can be used to heat, move or illuminate.
In everyday use, the word is used to describe someone acting or speaking in a lively and vigorous way.
Scientific energy
In physics, energy is the capacity to do work.
Basic forms of energy include:
Kinetic energy - energy of an object in motion, which acts as the capacity to undergo change in position over time.
Potential energy - stored energy, which acts as the potential to do work.
Heat - thermal energy which is used to vibrate atoms and molecules.
Electrical energy which is energy that relates to electrical interactions.
Conservation of energy
Energy is a property that is not created or destroyed, although energy can change in detectable form. This is a rule that is commonly understood as the "conservation law of energy". In respects to this rule, the total amount of energy that exists in an isolated system will always be the same, no matter what changes have been made to it.
In the early 20th century, scientist found that matter itself can be created from energy (energy and matter are interchangeable, in spite of everyday experiences). This is just another change of form. After these discoveries, the conservation law of energy was extended to become the conservation law of matter and energy: matter and energy can neither be created from nothing nor destroyed to the point of complete erasure from reality. Albert Einstein was the first to mathematically show this. (E = mc2)
Matter can be created from energy or converted into energy through processes such as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.
Types of energy
1.kinetic energy
2.potential energy
3.chemical energy
4.thermal/sonic energy
For example:
human throws the stone using energy stored in muscles = chemical energy
stone moves upwards = kinetic energy
stone at the highest point = potential energy
stone falls to ground = kinetic energy
stone hits ground = thermal energy/sonic energy
Types of energy
Scientists have identified many types of energy, and found that they can be changed from one kind into another. For example:
Chemical energy
Sound energy
Renewable energy
Solar energy
Nuclear energy
Elastic energy
Gravitational potential energy
Kinetic energy
Dark energy
Hamiltonian mechanics
Internal energy
Measuring energy
Energy can be measured. The amount of energy a thing has can be given a number.
As in other kinds of measurements, there are measurement units. The units of measurement for measuring energy are used to make the numbers meaningful.
The SI unit for both energy and work is the joule (J). It is named after James Prescott Joule. 1 joule is equal to 1 newton-metre. In terms of SI base units, 1 J is equal to 1 kg m2 s−2. It is most often used in science, though particle physics often uses the electronvolt.
The measurement for electricity most often uses the kilowatt-hour (kW·h). One kW·h is equivalent to 3,600,000 J (3600 kJ or 3.6 MJ).
Related pages
Heat
References |
4316 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewel | Jewel | Jewels (or gems or gemstones) are rare minerals. They usually come in colours and sizes. They begin in a rough rock form, but can be cut and polished to turn into a jewellery.
However, some other non-mineral rocks (such as lapis lazuli) or organic materials can also be also used for jewelry and are called gemstones. These include amber or jet. Pearls and coral are sometimes also called gemstones.
Most gemstones are hard. Soft minerals are used in jewelry too, because of their luster that gives them value.
Being rare or in short supply also makes a gemstone valuable.
History
The Ancient Greeks began to decide which gems are precious and semi-precious. This continued in other cultures.
In modern times, the precious stones are diamond, ruby, sapphire and emerald, with all other gemstones being semi-precious.
Types
Amethyst
Aquamarine
Diamond
Emerald
Jade
Peridot
Ruby
Sapphire
Topaz
Turquoise
Opal
Spinel
References
Other websites
"Book of Royal Gemstones" is a book from 1554 that talks about gemstones.
"The Blossoms of Thoughts Regarding the Precious Stones" is an old book from the 1600s that is considered one of the most important books about precious stones. It is written in the Arabic language.
Basic English 850 words |
4317 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenon | Xenon | Xenon is a non-metal chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Xe and atomic number 54. It is one of the few elements that are a gas at the standard temperature and pressure.
History
Sir William Ramsay and M. W. Travers discovered this element in 1898. The element's name came from the Greek word xenos, which means 'stranger'.
Chemistry
Xenon belongs to the group of the noble gases. Noble gases are very unreactive. However, in 1962, chemists have found that xenon can react with fluorine under special conditions, such as high pressure and high temperature. It is not known why xenon behaves differently under these circumstances. There are also some compounds with oxygen. The gas is not very reactive, because if fulfills the octet rule. This means that a lot of energy is needed to remove an electron from xenon. This activation energy for xenon is 1172 kJ/mol. To remove a second electron from xenon, an energy of 2046.4 kJ/mol is needed.
Known oxidation states of xenon are 0, +1, +2, +4, +6 and +8. However, the most stable form is pure xenon, or the xenon's oxidation state of 0. Xenon has 8 stable isotopes and more than 30 unstable isotopes.
Uses
Xenon gas is used in electron tubes, bactericidal lamps, trobe lamps, and lamps used to excite ruby lasers.
It has the atomic mass of 131.294 and is the 5th inert gas in the inner gas group.
Xenon is also a trace gas in the atmosphere, occurring at 87 ±1 nL/L (parts per billion) or approximately 1 in 11.5 million. It is also emitted from some mineral springs.
Related pages
Periodic table
List of common elements
Noble gases |
4318 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuala%20Lumpur | Kuala Lumpur | {{Infobox settlement
| name = Kuala Lumpur
| settlement_type = Federal territory and capital city
| official_name = Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur{{nobold|Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur}}
| translit_lang1 = Other
| translit_lang1_type1 = Jawi
| translit_lang1_info1 =
| translit_lang1_type2 = Chinese
| translit_lang1_info2 =
| translit_lang1_type3 = Tamil
| translit_lang1_info3 =
| image_skyline =
| image_caption =
| image_flag = Flag of Kuala Lumpur Malaysia.svg
| image_shield =
| nickname = KL, The Garden City of Lights, City of Contrasts and Diversity
| motto = Bersedia Menyumbang Bandaraya Cemerlang| anthem = Maju dan Sejahtera
| image_map =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = Malaysia#Southeast Asia#Asia
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = Malaysia
| subdivision_type1 = Administrative areas
| subdivision_name1 =
| established_title = Establishment
| established_date = 1857
| established_title2 = City status
| established_date2 = 1 February 1972
| established_title3 = Transferred to federal jurisdiction
| established_date3 = 1 February 1974
| government_type = Federal administrationwith local government
| governing_body = Kuala Lumpur City Hall
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Mahadi bin Che Ngah
| total_type = Federal territory
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 243
| area_metro_km2 = 2,243.27
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 66
| population_total = 1,782,500
| population_as_of = 2019 est.
| population_rank = 1st
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = 7,802
| population_urban =
| population_metro = 7,564,000
| population_density_metro_km2 = 2,708
| population_blank1_title = Demonym
| population_blank1 = KL-ite / Kuala Lumpurian
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 50000 to 60000
| imagesize = 275px
| timezone = MST
| utc_offset = +8
| blank_name = Mean solar time
| blank_info = UTC+06:46:46
| blank1_name = Area code(s)
| blank1_info = 03
| blank2_name = Vehicle registration
| blank2_info = V and W (except taxis) HW (for taxis only)
| blank3_name = ISO 3166-2
| blank3_info = MY-14
| demographics_type2 = City Index
| demographics2_title1 = HDI
| demographics2_info1 = 0.867 (very high) (1st)
| demographics2_title2 = GDP
| demographics2_info2 = RM 244,210 million ($59,831 million) (2nd)
| demographics2_title3 = Per capita
| demographics2_info3 = RM 129,472 ($31,720) (1st)
| blank5_name = Official language(s)
| blank5_info = Malay
English
| website =
| image_seal = Seal of Kuala Lumpur.svg
| image_blank_emblem =
| blank_emblem_size = 280px
| blank_emblem_type = Logo
}}
Kuala Lumpur () is the capital city it is the largest city of Malaysia and a Federal Territory. After Putrajaya was constructed in the late 1990s, the administrative capital has been moved there. Kuala Lumpur has one of the tallest buildings in the world, the Petronas Twin Towers.
Climate
Kuala Lumpur has a tropical rainforest climate (Af'' in the Koeppen climate classification).
The annual range of temperature in Kuala Lumpur is small, only 1°C. There is no distinct seasonal difference in temperature in the city. Kuala Lumpur is hot throughout the year. The annual mean temperature are 26.5 °C (79.7 °F).
The annual rainfall in Kuala Lumpur is high (2393mm). The rainfall distribution is even in the city, with heavy rainfall all the year. In April and November, the monthly rainfall is slightly higher.
Mayors of Kuala Lumpur
Since Kuala Lumpur became a Federal Territory of Malaysia on February 1, 1972, the city has been led by seven mayors. They are:
Tan Sri Dato' Lokman Yusof (1972)
Tan Sri Yaakob Latiff (1973 - 1983)
Tan Sri Dato' Elyas Omar (1983 - 1992)
Dato' Dr. Mazlan Ahmad (1992 - 1995)
Tan Sri Dato’ Kamaruzzaman Shariff (1995 - 2001)
Datuk Mohmad Shaid Mohd Taufek (2001 - 2004)
Datuk Ruslin Hasan (since 2004)
References
Other websites
Kuala Lumpur city location map
Kuala Lumpur City Hall
Maps of Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur Travel Guide - Comprehensive Travel Guide to Kuala Lumpur | City Guide, hotels, attractions and vacations.
Kuala Lumpur
Capital cities in Malaysia
1857 establishments
Geography of Malaysia
National capitals |
4322 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed%20of%20light | Speed of light | The speed of light, in any medium,which is usually denoted by , is a physical constant important in many areas of physics.It is denoted by 'c^0' especially in vacuum medium, although the symbol 'c' can be used to refer to that in any medium. It is exactly by definition. A photon (particle of light) travels at this speed in a vacuum.
According to special relativity, is the maximum speed at which all energy, matter, and physical information in the universe can travel. It is the speed of all massless particles such as photons, and associated fields—including electromagnetic radiation such as light—in a vacuum.
It is predicted by the current theory to be the speed of gravity (that is, gravitational waves). Such particles and waves travel at regardless of the motion of the source or the inertial frame of reference of the observer. In the theory of relativity, interrelates space and time, and appears in the famous equation of mass–energy equivalence .
The special theory of relativity is based on the prediction, so far upheld by observations, that the measured speed of light in a vacuum is the same whether or not the source of the light and the person doing the measuring are moving relative to each other. This is sometimes expressed as "the speed of light is independent of the reference frame."
Example explaining how speed does not depend on reference frame
This behavior is different from our common ideas about motion as shown by this example:
George is standing on the ground next to some train tracks (railroad). There is a train rushing by at . George throws a baseball at in the direction the train is moving. Tom, a passenger on the train, has a device (like a radar gun) to measure throwing speeds. Because he is on the train, Tom is already moving at in the direction of the throw, so Tom measures the speed of the ball as only .
In other words, the speed of the baseball, as measured by Tom on the train, depends on the speed of the train.
In the example above, the train was moving at 1/3 the speed of the ball, and the speed of the ball as measured on the train was 2/3 of the throwing speed as measured on the ground.
Now, repeat the experiment with light instead of a baseball; that is, George has a flashlight instead of throwing a baseball. George and Tom both have devices that are the same to measure the speed of light (instead of the radar gun in the baseball example).
George is standing on the ground next to some train tracks. There is a train rushing by at 1/3 the speed of light. George flashes a light beam in the direction the train is moving. George measures the speed of light as . Tom, a passenger on the train, measures the speed of the light beam. What speed does Tom measure?
Intuitively, one may think that the speed of the light from the flashlight as measured on the train should be 2/3 the speed measured on the ground, just like the speed of the baseball was 2/3. But in fact, the speed measured on the train is the full value, , not .
It sounds impossible, but that is what one measures.
A consequence of this fact that the speed of light is the same for all observers, is that nothing can go faster than the speed of light. Another consequence is that for objects that have mass, no matter how much energy is used to increase the speed of an object, it will get closer and closer, but it will never reach the speed of light. These ideas were discovered in the early 1900s by Albert Einstein, whose work completely changed our understanding of light.
Relation to fundamental electric and magnetic properties of space
Maxwell's equations predicted the speed of light and confirmed Michael Faraday's idea that light was an electromagnetic wave (a way that energy moves). From these equations, we find that the speed of light is related to the inverse of the square root of the permittivity of free space, ε0, and the permeability of free space, μ0:
The index of refraction of a clear material is the ratio between the speed of light in a vacuum and the speed of light in that material.
Measurement
Rømer
Ole Christensen Rømer used an astronomical measurement to make the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light. When measured from Earth, the periods of moons orbiting a distant planet are shorter when the Earth is approaching the planet than when the Earth is receding from it. The distance travelled by light from the planet (or its moon) to Earth is shorter when the Earth is at the point in its orbit that is closest to its planet than when the Earth is at the farthest point in its orbit, the difference in distance being the diameter of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The observed change in the moon's orbital period is actually the difference in the time it takes light to traverse the shorter or longer distance. Rømer observed this effect for Jupiter's innermost moon Io, and he deduced that light takes 22 minutes to cross the diameter of the Earth's orbit.
Bradley
Another method is to use the aberration of light, discovered and explained by James Bradley in the 18th century. This effect results from the vector addition of the velocity of light arriving from a distant source (such as a star) and the velocity of its observer (see diagram on the right). A moving observer thus sees the light coming from a slightly different direction and consequently sees the source at a position shifted from its original position. Since the direction of the Earth's velocity changes continuously as the Earth orbits the Sun, this effect causes the apparent position of stars to move around. From the angular difference in the position of stars, it is possible to express the speed of light in terms of the Earth's velocity around the Sun. This, with the known length of a year, can be easily converted to the time needed to travel from the Sun to the Earth. In 1729, Bradley used this method to derive that light travelled 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is 10,066 times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.
Modern
Nowadays, the "light time for unit distance"—the inverse of c (1/c), expressed in seconds per astronomical unit—is measured by comparing the time for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System. The position of spacecraft is calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets. By combining many such measurements, a best fit value for the light time per unit distance is obtained. , the best estimate, as approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), is:
light time for unit distance:
c =
c =
The relative uncertainty in these measurements is 0.02 parts per billion (2), as equivalent to the uncertainty in Earth-based measurements of length by interferometry. Since the metre is defined to be the length travelled by light in a certain time interval, the measurement of the light time for unit distance can also be interpreted as measuring the length of an AU in metres. The metre is considered to be a unit of proper length, whereas the AU is often used as a unit of observed length in a given frame of reference.
Practical effects
The finite speed of light is a major constraint on long-distance space travel. Supposing a journey to the other side of the Milky Way, the total time for a message and its reply would be about 200,000 years. Even more seriously, no spacecraft could travel faster than light, so all galactic-scale transport would be effectively one-way, and would take much longer than than any modern civilisation has existed.
The speed of light can also be of concern over very short distances. In supercomputers, the speed of light imposes a limit on how quickly data can be sent between processors. If a processor operates at 1 gigahertz, a signal can only travel a maximum of about in a single cycle. Processors must therefore be placed close to each other to minimize communication latencies; this can cause difficulty with cooling. If clock frequencies continue to increase, the speed of light will eventually become a limiting factor for the internal design of single chips.
Related pages
Michelson–Morley experiment
References
Light
Astrophysics
Relativity |
4326 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial | Denial | Denial is a word used in psychology on defense mechanism. It means that someone denies that something has happened or is happening although he really knows it is true. Usually this happens because admitting it would cause a lot of pain.
Denial is usually the first state of coping with loss. For example, if someone close to a person dies, the survivor's first feeling might be denial, or refusal to accept the fact that the person is really dead.
Denial, is also when you think that a team (like in football) will win a football match before its even started and refuse to accept the fact thet they could lose
Denial, is also when you refuse to accept the fact that someone else did something (like change something) when you 'think you know' it was a different person
Psychology |
4329 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo | Tokyo | Tokyo () is the capital and largest city of Japan located on the island of Honshu. Tokyo is the center of the Japanese government. The Imperial Palace is in Tokyo. Tokyo is the center of business, trade, and industry of Japan. The city is the center of the largest metropolitan area in the world. It faces Tokyo Bay.
It became the capital city of Japan in the middle of 19th century, when its name changed from "Edo" to "Tokyo". Before then, Kyoto was the capital of Japan. The Emperor of Japan, or Tenno, lived in Kyoto. Edo was the place where the Tokugawa Shoguns lived. The city grew up under the control of the shoguns. Before then it was a small town on the sea. Edo means "the mouth of a river" in Japanese.
Tokyo was destroyed by fires started by the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923. It was also badly damaged by bombs during World War II. After Japan lost the war, the city was rebuilt.
History
1457-1869
Tokyo began as a small fishing village named Edo. Edo was in the old Musashi Province.
The Edo clan built walls to protect the town in the late 12th century. In 1457, Ōta Dōkan built Edo Castle. In 1590, Tokugawa Ieyasu made Edo his base. He became shogun in 1603, and the town became the center of his military government. This marked the beginning of the Edo period. During this time, Edo grew into one of the largest cities in the world. More than one million people lived there by the 18th century.
Edo was not the capital of Japan. The emperor lived in the capital, Kyoto. However, since the shogun was more powerful than the emperor throughout Japanese history, Edo had more power. After about 263 years, the Meiji Restoration removed the shogun from power. In 1869, the 17-year-old Emperor Meiji moved to Edo. The old Edo Castle became the Kokyo, the Imperial Palace.
1869-1943
The Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo were established. This was the capital city until 1943.
1943-present
In 1943, Tokyo City and the "associated municipalities of what was formerly (1869-1943)" combined into one.
Central Tokyo is built around major railway stations. Suburban railways were built relatively cheaply at street level. There are some expressways.
Tokyo suffered two major catastrophes in the 20th century. The 1923 Great Kantō earthquake left 140,000 dead or missing. World War II was the other disaster for the city. The Bombing of Tokyo from 1944 through 1945 killed between 75,000 and 200,000 people and destroyed half the city. This was almost as much damage as the atomic bombs of Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined.
Tokyo was completely rebuilt after the war. The 1964 Summer Olympics were a major world event. New high-rise developments such as Sunshine 60 started in the 1970s.
Climate
Tokyo has a four-season humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa) with hot rainy summers and cool dry winters.
Population
As of October 2007 about 8.7 million were living in Tokyo's 23 special wards. The number of people in Tokyo increases to over 15 million during the day. About 2.5 million workers and students enter the city everyday. The three central wards of Chiyoda, Chūō, and Minato increase the most. As of 2005, the regular population in those three areas was only 326,000 at night, but there are 2.4 million in those areas during the day.
Tokyo has many international residents. As of 2005, the most common groups in Tokyo are Chinese (123,661), Koreans (106,697), and Filipinos (31,077). Americans (18,848), British (7,696), Brazilian (5,300) and French (3,000) are less common.
Special wards
The 23 special wards of Tokyo are the same area that had been called Tokyo City. On July 1, 1943, Tokyo City was merged with to become a special government area. This made the wards different from other wards in Japan. Other city wards are part of a larger city government, but these are not.
Each ward is a municipality with its own mayor and assembly like the other cities of Japan. The special wards often use the word city in their official English name, e.g. Chiyoda City.
The wards have a unique administrative relationship with the prefectural government. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government manages some public works such as water, sewer, and fire-fighting. To pay for these things, the prefecture collects the municipal taxes usually collected by a city.
The special wards of Tokyo are:
Three wards of Tokyo make up the central part of the city. They are Chiyoda, Chūō and Minato.
Landmarks
Tokyo has many sight-seeing spots, but very few of them are old. There are very few buildings in Tokyo that are more than 50 years old. Popular places for visitors range from Tokyo Tower in the center of the city to Mount Takao out in the western countryside. Tokyo Skytree is a new tower and is the tallest in Japan. Traditional religious sights such as Meiji Shrine and Sensō-ji attract many tourists. The Imperial Palace can be seen in the middle of the city, but is not open to the public.
Transportation
Tokyo is the cultural, business, and political center of the country. It is also the center of many transport systems. There are many air, rail, sea, and road links in and out of the city. Local subway and bus systems serve every part of the city.
Two commercial airports serve Tokyo. Haneda Airport is in the city limits next to Tokyo Bay. This airport is mostly for domestic travel. Most international flights to and from Tokyo go through Narita Airport in Chiba Prefecture.
Several Shinkansen super-express railway lines begin at Tokyo Station, including the Tōkaidō Shinkansen going west and Tōhoku Shinkansen going northeast. Tokyo Metro is the city's major subway system.
Tokyo has a busy international and domestic port, but more traffic goes through the nearby port of Yokohama. There are domestic ferries to the islands of Tokyo, but also to other parts of the country such as Hokkaido.
Many highways meet in Tokyo, including: the Chūō, Kan-Etsu, Tōhoku, and Tōmei Expressways. All highway distances in Japan start from zero at a marker in Nihonbashi, Tokyo.
Related pages
F.C. Tokyo
Tokyo Metropolis
Tokyo Verdy
2020 Summer Olympics
Universities in Tokyo
National Universities
Hitotsubashi University
Tokyo Medical and Dental University
University of Tokyo
Private Universities
Keio University
Nihon University
Tokyo Woman's Christian University
Waseda University
Waseda Jitsugyo (Private school attached to Waseda Univ.)
References
Other websites
Tokyo Convention and Visitors Bureau
Tokyo Shitamachi Bus
Olympic cities |
4331 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi | Laozi | Laozi (Lao Tsu, Lao-Tze) was a Chinese philosopher best known for Taoism, the Tao Te Ching, and for becoming a deity of Taoism and Chinese folk religions. A legendary figure of Chinese culture, Laozi may have lived during the Warring States period. Laozi's work influenced anti-authoritarian and Legalist philosophers.
What was his real name?
Laozi's personal name is supposedly Li Er (李尔). His courtesy name is Boyang (伯阳). A popular posthumous name is Li Dan Lǐ Dān). During the Tang dynasty, he was called the "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" Tàishàng Xuānyuán Huángdì).
Many people of the Li family say they descended from Laozi. For example, the emperors of the Tang dynasty claimed this. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西李氏). Although these are questionable, they show Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.
Who was he?
Was he even real?
Some philosophers don't think he was real. Some think the Daodejing was "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands".
The first mention to Laozi is in the "Records of the Grand Historian" by Sima Qian. In one account, he was an official who lived around the time of Confucius. His name was "Er Li" or "Dan Li", and he wrote some a book with two parts before leaving west. In another, he has the name "Lao Laizi", and the book has 15 parts. In a third, he appears as a royal astrologer named "Lao Dan" living at the time of Duke Xian during the Qin Dynasty. The oldest Daodejing writing comes from around 375 BCE.
According to traditional accounts, Laozi worked as the Keeper of the Archives (librarian) during the Zhou. He was able to study the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics. Laozi never opened a school but still had many students. There is a story of his meeting with Confucius (most famously in the Zhuangzi ).
Birth
He may have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu.
Taoist myths state that Laozi was born when his mother looked at a falling star. He remained in her womb for 62 years while his mother was leaning against a plum tree. The Chinese name Li 李 is the Chinese character for "plum". Laozi was said to have been born as a grown man with a full grey beard and long ears, symbols of wisdom and long life. Other myths state that he was reborn 13 times after his first life during the days of Fuxi. In his last birth as Laozi, he lived 999 years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Tao.
His son Zong
In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son named Zong. They are separated when Zong is a child. Zong became a famous soldier and defeated many enemies. Laozi was teaching the Dao, and Zong learns Laozi is his father. Laozi says it is better to treat a beaten enemy with respect and that disrespect to the dead would cause his enemies to seek revenge. So Zong orders his soldiers to bury the enemy dead and hold funeral mournings. Lasting peace is then made.
Buddha and the origin of Daoism
Sima Qian says Laozi was tired of the moral decay in Chengzhou. The kingdom was declining. He traveled west and lived on the frontier until 80. He was recognized by the guard Yinxi at a western gate. Yinxi asked Laozi to write his wisdom. This became the Daodejing. But the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, Yinxi liked the work so much that he became a student and left with Laozi, never to be seen again. In others, the "Old Master" traveled all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. Others say Laozi was the Buddha himself.
A seventh-century work, the Sandong Zhunang ("Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), said Laozi pretended to be a farmer when reaching the western gate, but was recognized by Yinxi, who asked to be taught by the great master. Yinxi wanted to find the Tao and said his long study of astrology allowed him to recognize Laozi. Yinxi was accepted by Laozi as a student. This shows the testing a seeker must undergo before being accepted as a student of a master.
Yinxi then trains. After completing the training, the two go to the western lands of the barbarians. They reached the highest religious rank in medieval Taoism called "Preceptor of the Three Caverns". Laozi is the perfect Taoist master and Yinxi is the ideal Taoist student. Laozi is the livingTao personified, teaching others for salvation.
The story of Laozi became religious since the Han dynasty. As Taoism became more popular, Laozi was worshipped as a god. The Way of the Celestial Masters became the first Taoist sect. Later Taoists view Laozi as the Dao in human form. Religious Taoism says that Laozi did not disappear after writing the Daodejing but spent his whole life traveling and revealing the Dao to others.
Daoism
Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism. Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the main deity. Intellectual Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, 老君, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the main gods.
Daodejing
Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing, but this is disputed. It is one of the most significant books in Chinese cosmogony. Like other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas using paradox, analogy, ancient sayings, repetition, rhyme, and rhythm. In fact, the whole book can be read as an analogy: the ruler is the self, and the others and empire are the body, senses, and desires.
The Daodejing says the Dao is the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, very powerful but also very humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will. Many act "unnaturally", breaking the natural balance of the Dao. The Daodejing intends to lead students to "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao. Taoism views them language as biased and artificial and shows this through paradoxes.
Another example: technology may give a false sense of progress. Laozi says not to reject technology, but instead seek the calm state of wu wei (無爲), without desires. Laozi says rulers should keep their people ignorant or simple-minded. This may be political advice, but it could also be religious. The text uses terms like "valley spirit" (gushen) and "soul" (po).
Wu wei literally "non-action" or "not acting", is an important concept. The concept is multifaceted, and this is shown by how it can mean many different things and be translated in multiple ways; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" (as in movies or drama), "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment".
It is used to explain ziran (自然), or harmony with the Tao. It says all ambition originates from the same source. Laozi used the term to mean simplicity and humility as key virtues, in contrast to selfishness. Politically, it means avoiding war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang (坐忘, "sitting in oblivion", emptying the mind of thought) found in the Zhuangzi.
Influence: anarchy, libertarianism, and limited government
Laozi and Zhuangzi influenced many people throughout Chinese history. Zhuangzi was Laozi's most famous follower. Zhuangzi had a great deal of influence on Chinese scholars, bureaucrats, and culture. Politicians have used Laozi's philosophies to deny serving their ruler. They valued humility in leadership and limited government. This was either out of morality or for their own political means. Some anti-authoritarian movements used Laozi teachings to represent the power of the weak.
Laozi supported limited government. Left-libertarians have been influenced by Laozi. In his 1937 book Nationalism and Culture, the anarcho-syndicalist writer Rudolf Rocker praised Laozi's "gentle wisdom" and understanding that sometimes political power opposed culture and the community. In his 1910 article for the Encyclopædia Britannica, Peter Kropotkin said Laozi was one of the earliest supporters for anarchism. Many anarchists like Ursula K. Le Guin have used Laozi to justify their beliefs. Le Guin writes that Laozi "does not see political power as magic. He sees rightful power as earned and wrongful power as usurped... He sees sacrifice of self or others as a corruption of power, and power as available to anyone who follows the Way. No wonder anarchists and Taoists make good friends."
Economist Murray Rothbard suggested that Laozi was the first libertarian, comparing Laozi's ideas to Friedrich Hayek's theory of spontaneous order. James A. Dorn agreed, arguing that Laozi like many liberals "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony." David Boaz quotes the Daodejing in his 1997 book The Libertarian Reader. Philosopher Roderick Long argues that libertarianism in Taoism actually borrowed from earlier Confucian writers.
References
Further reading
Article by Bing YeYoung "The Shamanic Origins of Laozi and Confucius"
Inspiring thoughts of Lao Tzu
True Tao Home Page: articles, stories focused on practical applications of Tao teachings.
A reconstructed portrait of Laozi, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
Lao Tzu Page that provides teachings on Laozi, his life and philosophical concepts.
A collection of resources on Laozi by Patrick Jennings: Critical Thinkers: Lao Tse & Daoism.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
老子 Lǎozĭ 道德經 Dàodéjīng - 拼音 Pīnyīn + 王弼 WángBì + 馬王堆 Mǎwángduī + 郭店 Guōdiàn
Eastern philosophers
Spiritual teachers
Taoism |
4332 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20physicists | List of physicists | This is a list of physicists.
Chile
Nicanor Parra
France
René Descartes
German
Albert Einstein
Werner Heisenberg
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
Georg Ohm
Great Britain
Ernest Rutherford
England
Michael Faraday
Thomas Young
Stephen Hawking
Robert Hooke
James Prescott Joule
Isaac Newton
North Ireland
John Stewart Bell
Scotland
James Clerk Maxwell
Holland
René Descartes
Italy
Galileo Galilei
Alessandro Volta
New Zealand
Ernest Rutherford
Serbia
Nikola Tesla
United States
Gerard K. O'Neill
Nikola Tesla
Related pages
Physicist
Physics
Lists of scientists |
4360 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass | Brass | Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Some types of brass are called bronzes.
Brass has a golden appearance. It is harder than pure metals and resists corrosion. It costs more than zinc.
There are some common brasses:
Alpha brasses - with less than 40% zinc
Beta brasses -
White brasses - with more than 45% zinc
Things brass are used to make include:
Brass instruments
Ornaments
Electrical fittings
Buttons
Screws
Taps
Hinges
Door knobs
Properties
Brass is more malleable than bronze or zinc. The melting point of brass can be 900 to 940 °C or 1,650 to 1,720 °F, depending on what it is made of. The density of brass is 8.4 to 8.73 g/cm3 (0.303 to 0.315 lb/cu in).
Today, almost 90% of all brass alloys are recycled. Brass is not ferromagnetic. Brass scrap is collected and transported to the foundry. In the foundry, it is melted and recast into billets. The billets are heated and stretched into the form and size that is wanted.
Brass will corrode when it is exposed to moisture, chlorides, acetates, ammonia, and some acids.
Brass alloys
There are many brass alloys. They include:
Abyssinian gold
Admiralty brass
Aich's alloy
Aluminum brass
Arsenical brass
Cartridge brass
Common brass
DZR brass
Delta metal
Free machining brass
Gilding metal
High brass
Leaded brass
Lead-free brass
Low brass
Manganese brass
Muntz metal
Naval brass
Nickel brass
Nordic gold
Orichalcum
Prince's metal
Red brass
Tombac
Silicon tombac
Tonval brass
Yellow brass
References
Alloys
Basic English 850 words |
4361 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body | Body | A body is the physical material of a person or organism. It is only used for organisms which are in one part or whole. There are organisms which change from single cells to whole organisms: for example, slime moulds. For them the term 'body' would mean the multicellular stage. Other uses:
Plant body
Cell body: here it may be used for cells like neurons which have long axons (nerve fibres). The cell body is the part with the nucleus in it.
The body of a dead person is also called a corpse or cadaver. The dead bodies of vertebrate animals and insects are sometimes called carcasses.
The human body has a head, neck, torso, two arms, two legs and the genitals of the groin, which differ between males and females.
The study of the body is anatomy.
The study of the workings of the body is physiology.
Here are the names of the body parts of a woman and a man.
The word body is sometimes used in other ways. For example, a lake is a body of water. The laws on a topic are a "body of law".
Related pages
Human body
Body parts
Basic English 850 words |
4362 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy | Alloy | An alloy is a uniform mixture. It is made up of two or more chemical elements, of which at least one is a metal. An alloy has properties different from the metals it is made of.
Most alloys are made by melting the metals, mixing them while they are liquid to form a solution, then leaving them to cool and turn solid again.
Theory
Combining a pure metal with one or more other metals or non-metals often makes it better. For example, steel is an alloy made from iron but it is stronger than iron. Physical properties like density, reactivity and electrical and thermal (heat) conductivity may not be much different than the elements (substances) which make the alloy. But, properties like strength can be very much different.
The first alloy to be discovered was Bronze. Bronze is made from copper and tin. Bronze was discovered a very long time ago in the prehistoric period. Then, bronze was being used for making tools and weapons. This period was known as Bronze Age. But, later better alloys were discovered which replaced bronze for making tools and weapons. Now, bronze is used for making ornaments, statues, and bells. Brass is another alloy made from copper and zinc.
Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes to liquid. Most alloys do not have a single melting point. They have a melting range in which the alloy is a mixture of solid and liquid stages. The temperature at which melting just starts is called solidus and the temperature at which the melting is just finished is called liquidus.
Terms related to alloys
The term alloy means a mixture of atoms in which the main substance or the primary constituent is a metal. This primary metal is called the base or matrix.
If an alloy has only two types of atoms, like copper-nickel alloy, then such an alloy is called binary alloy. If an alloy has three types of atoms, like iron, nickel and chromium, then it is called a ternary alloy. An alloy with four types of atoms is called a quaternary alloy and an alloy with five types of atoms is called a quinary alloy.
Different varieties or forms of alloys can be made from the same constituent materials (substances from which the alloy is formed). These different forms or varieties can be formed by using different amounts of the constituents.
Some common alloys
There are some common alloys:
Brass is made of 35% zinc and 65% copper and is used for musical instruments, jewellery, faucets and decorative hardware.
Stainless steel is mostly iron, plus more than 11% chromium, and various amounts of nickel and carbon and is used for tableware, cookware and surgical tools.
Steel is made of 99% iron and 1% carbon and is used for tools, car bodies, machinery, girders and rails.
Bronze is made of mostly copper and some tin and is used for boat hardware, screws and grill work.
Alnico is a mix of aluminium, nickel and cobalt, and it is used to make permanent magnets.
Metallurgy |
4363 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material | Material | Material is what everything that you can touch is made of. Even material that is too small to touch, is called material. We use materials to make things. We can also call material "physical substances."
Raw material is materials such as ores which we can clean and mix with other materials to make another material like steel, for example. Cotton is a raw material used to make textiles, which are materials to make clothes.
Some important materials
Metals
Steel
Aluminum
Copper
Gold
Polymers
Rubber
Plastic
Ceramics
Glass
Cement
Stone
Textiles
Cotton fabric
Wool fabric
organic materials
Leather
Bone
Paper
Lumber/wood
Glue
Composites
Fiberglass
Concrete |
4365 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain | Brain | The brain is the part of the body which lets animals make sense of things. It gets input from sense organs, and changes behavior in response to this information. In humans, the brain also controls our use of language, and is capable of abstract thought. The brain is the main control centre of the whole body. The brain is made up of special cells called nerves, which are connected with each other and with other nerves in our body. In all animals the delicate brain is protected in some way. In ourselves, and all vertebrates, it is protected by the bones of the skull.
Function
The brain does the thinking, learning, and feeling for the body. For humans, it is the source of consciousness. The brain also controls basic autonomic body actions, like breathing, digestion, heartbeat, that happen automatically. These activities, and much else, are governed by unconscious functions of the brain and nervous system. All the information about the world gathered by our senses is sent through nerves into the brain, allowing us to see, hear, smell, taste and feel things. The brain processes this information, and we experience it as pictures, sounds, and so on. The brain also uses nerves to tell the body what to do, for example by telling muscles to move or our heart to beat faster.
This is generally true but some activity is caused by the spinal cord directly, for example, reflex actions do not involve the brain. In lower animals, a good deal is done without their brain being involved.
All vertebrates have brains and, over time, their brains have evolved to become more complex. Some simple animals, however, like sponges, do not have anything like a brain. Segmented invertebrates have ganglions in each segment, and a ring of nervous tissue around the alimentary canal at the front. This acts to bring sense data from the front into play with the movement of the body.
Parts
In mammals, the brain is made of three main parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brainstem. The surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, which all vertebrates have. Mammals also have an extra layer, the neocortex. This is the key to the behaviour which is typical of mammals, especially humans.
Cerebral cortex
The cortex has sensory, motor, and association areas. The sensory areas are the areas that receive and process information from the senses. The motor areas control voluntary movements, especially fine movements performed by the hand. The right half of the motor area controls the left side of the body, and vice versa. Association areas produce a meaningful experience of the world, and supports abstract thinking and language. This enables us to interact effectively. Most connections are from one area of the cortex to another, rather than to subcortical areas; The figure may be as high as 99%.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum coordinates muscles so they work together. It is also the centre of maintaining position and balance, a vital part of movement helping with simple motor skills.
Brain stem
The brain stem is at the back of the brain (actually underneath it in humans). It joins the rest of the brain with the spinal cord. It has lots of different parts that control different jobs in the body: for instance, the brain stem controls breathing, heartbeat, sneezing, eye blinking, and swallowing. Body temperature and hunger are also controlled by parts of the brain stem.
Size
The volume of the human brain (relative to the size of the whole body) is very large, compared to that of most other animals. The human brain also has a very large surface (called cortex) for its size, which is possible because it is very wrinkled. If the human cortex were flattened, it would be close to a square meter in area. Some other animals also have very wrinkled brains, such as dolphins and elephants. Here is a rule of thumb: the larger an animal is, the larger its brain will be.p15 Even allowing for that, the human brain, and in particular the neocortex, is very large. We know it increased in size four-fold over the last several million years of evolution.p79 There are ideas about why this happened, but no-one is quite sure. Most theories suggest complex social activity and the evolution of language would make a larger brain advantageous.p80 As an additional note, Einstein's brain weighed only 1,230 grams, which is less than the average adult male brain (about 1,400 grams). The detailed organisation of a brain obviously matters, but in ways which are not understood at present.
Number of cells
A human brain accounts for about 2% of the body's weight, but it uses about 20% of its energy. It has about 50–100 billion nerve cells (also called neurons), and roughly the same number of support cells, called glia. The job of neurons is to receive and send information to and from the rest of the body, while glia provide nutrients and guide blood flow to the neurons, allowing them to do their job. Each nerve cell has contact with as many as 10,000 other nerve cells through connections called synapses.
Related pages
Spinal cord
Vertebrate brain
Human Connectome Project
References
Other websites
Sylvius: 400+ structure neuroanatomical visual glossary; used by over half of U.S. medical schools
High-resolution cytoarchitectural primate brain atlases
Kolata, Gene 2013. The New York Times. In a first, experiment links brains of two rats February 28, 2013
Pais-Vieira, Miguel et al 2013. Nature Scientific Reports 3, #1319. A brain-to-brain interface for real-time sharing of sensorimotor information doi:10.1038/srep01319
Basic English 850 words |
4367 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron | Neuron | A neuron (or neurone) is a nerve cell that carries electrical impulses. Neurons are the basic units of our nervous system.
Neurons have a cell body (soma or cyton), dendrites and an axon. Dendrites and axons are nerve fibers. There are about 86 billion neurons in the human brain. Almost all brain cells are neurons. The human brain has about 16 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex. The neurons are supported by glial cells and astrocytes.
Neurons are connected to one another, but they do not actually touch each other. Instead they have tiny gaps called synapses. These gaps are chemical synapses or electrical synapses which pass the signal from one neuron to the next.
Neuron ( link )
Types of neurons
By connection
There are three classes of neurons: motor neurons, sensory neurons and interneurons.
Sensory neurons carry information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system.
Motor neurons transport signals from the central nervous system to the effector cells.
Interneurons connect neurons within the central nervous system.
By function
Sensory neurons carry signals from sense organs to the spinal cord and brain.
Relay neurons carry messages between sensory or motor neurons and the central nervous system
Motor neurons carry signals from the CNS to muscles, motor neurons are connected to the relay neurons. The signal passes between the neurons via synapses. Synapses are microscopic voids between cells where chemicals are released from the axon terminal of one cell to specialized chemical receptors on the dendrite of the receiving cell.
Cell division
Mature neurons never divide: that is the general rule. They do not undergo cell division. In most cases, neurons are generated by special types of stem cells. A type of glial cell, called astrocytes, have also been seen to turn into neurons. In humans, neurogenesis (the origin of new nerve cells) largely ceases during adulthood but in two brain areas, the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb, there is strong evidence for substantial numbers of new neurons.
The largest part of the human brain by far is the neocortex. It has at least ~1010 (10 trillion) neurons which stay with us from birth to death.
References
Related pages
Brain cell
Other websites
Fibrinogen found to inhibit EGFR in neuronal cells Blood clotting protein may inhibit spinal cord regeneration
Cell Centered Database UC San Diego images of neurons.
High resolution neuroanatomical images of primate and non-primate brains .
Anatomy of the nervous system
Cells |
4368 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20East | Middle East | The Middle East is a large area of land in the eastern hemisphere. The lands of the Arabian Peninsula and some of the lands of the eastern Mediterranean are part of the Middle East. The Middle East's population is mostly Muslim. The name of the Middle East comes from its position to the east of Europe and to the west of the Far East.
It is normal for the modern countries of Arabia (Saudi Arabia, Oman, Yemen, Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates) to be counted with the modern countries of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine (the State of Palestine and Israel) as part of the Middle East.
The name "Middle East" does not always have the same meaning, and the size of the area is not always the same. When the name Middle East started to be common, it was the name for the lands in between the Near East and the Far East. The Indian subcontinent was part of the Middle East at that time. Now, parts of south-west Asia and northern Africa can count as the Middle East. The land between Egypt and Iran is a common definition. Many countries in the Middle East today are also part of the Near East. Sometimes, people name countries that are far away from these countries as countries in the Middle East. These countries can be in North Africa (like Morocco) and the Indian subcontinent (like Pakistan). This area also has the name Greater Middle East.
Many ancient civilizations began in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. These were Sumer, Babylonia and Assyria in the area called Mesopotamia. The Abrahamic religions that believe in one God also started in the Middle East. (Judaism and Christianity began in ancient Palestine and Islam began in Arabia.) Today, the Middle East is the homeland of Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Jews, among many other ethnic groups. Islam is the most common religion in the Middle East. Islam came to most of the Middle East's lands in the 7th century AD, during the first Muslim conquests of the Sasanian Empire and of the Roman Empire's lands.
Today, the Middle East is very important because much of the petroleum that other countries use comes from here. There are also many arguments and wars, such as the conflict between Sunni and Shia, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and the Syrian civil war.
Related pages
Western Asia
Central Asia
East Asia
South Asia
Southeast Asia
References |
4370 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw | Warsaw | Warsaw (In Polish: Warszawa) is the capital of Poland in Masovian Voivodeship. It is also the biggest city in that country. There are about 2,000,000 people living there (1,726,581 as of 31 March 2014). People from Warsaw are called "Varsovians".
There are other names for Warsaw. For example, (Latin, Spanish) and Varsóvia (Portuguese), (French), (Italian), (German, Dutch), /Varshe (Yiddish), (Lithuanian), (Hungarian) and Varšava (Czech)
Geography
Warsaw is near the middle of Poland on both sides of the Vistula river, and about 350 km (225 miles) from the Baltic Sea. It is about 100 m (325 ft) above sea level. Warsaw has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Koeppen climate classification).
Warsaw is home to four universities and 62 colleges, and many theatres and art galleries.
History
People began living here in the 13th century. By the 15th century, Warsaw had grown enough to be called a city. It became the capital of Poland in 1596.
The city was destroyed several times in its history, but every time it was rebuilt. The most important of these times was during the Second World War. Poland had been occupied by Germany between 1939 and 1944. On 1 August 1944, the people of Warsaw started fighting to free their city.
Tourist attractions
There are lot of attractions in the capital of Poland. The most famous monument of Warsaw is Palace of Culture and Science. There is a palace in Wilanów. The king of Poland John III Sobieski lived there. Many people like going to the Museum of Warsaw Uprising. The uprising started in 1944 during World War II
Partner cities
-Athens, Greece
-Chicago, USA
- Rio de Janerio, Brazil
- The Hague, The Netherlands
Pictures of Warsaw
References
Other websites
Official web page of Warsaw
Official tourist web page of Warsaw
Interactive city map
Modern architecture in Warsaw
Historic images of Warsaw |
4371 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic%20numeral%20system | Hindu–Arabic numeral system | The Hindu–Arabic numeral system, sometimes known as Hindu–Arabic numbers, is the system of numbers used by almost all the world today. It is a positional notation system. This system has ten basic symbols, they are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. It represent numbers in the decimal number system. The Hindu–Arabic numeral system was first developed by the Hindus. Later, It was introduced to the western world by the Arabs. The Hindu–Arabic numeral system is one of the few numeral systems that use a place value system. This system is now commonly used all over the world.
They originated in India in the 6th or 7th century and were introduced to Europe through the writings of Middle Eastern mathematicians, especially al-Khwarizmi and al-Kindi, about the 12th century. They are very different from previous methods of counting, such as the abacus, and paved the way for the development of algebra. In the past many other systems were used. Fibonacci popularized the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the Western World.
References
Mathematics
Numerals |
4372 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point%20%28geometry%29 | Point (geometry) | A point is a precise position in space. Imagine touching a piece of paper with a sharp pencil or pen, without making any sideways movement. We know where the point is, but it has no size to speak of.
In geometry, a point has no size, but has a position. This means it has no volume, area or length. We usually represent a point by a small cross 'X' or by a small dot (a small, round shape). Points are always labelled by capital letters (A, B, C...X, Y, Z). It is one of the most fundamental but undefined terms in geometry.
In general, two points can be:
Coincident (they are one and the same)
Not coincident (they are not one and the same)
and are always:
Coplanar (on the same plane)
Colinear (on the same line)
Concyclic (on the same circle)
Three points can be:
Colinear
Coincident
Not coincident
Not colinear
and are always:
Coplanar
Concyclic
Four points can be:
Coplanar
Colinear
Coincident
Not coincident
Not colinear
Not coplanar
Related pages
Line
Plane
References
Geometry |
4373 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line | Line | A line is the path of one point moving. A line has length but no width. A line is a type of geometric figure.
A line is made up of an endless number of points.
Straight and curved lines
A line can be straight or curved. In geometry, the word line means a straight line. A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. A straight line is the line traced by a point moving in a direction that does not change.
A curved line is sometimes called a curve. The edge of a circle is not straight and is an example of a curve.
Line segments
A line segment is part of a line. Here is an example of a straight line segment:
Naming lines
Lines can get their names from any two points on the line. For example, if a line contains two distinct points, named and , then the line can be called either , or .
Sometimes, lines are also named with just one symbol. In which case, a letter such as might be used.
Two lines
Two lines can be:
Parallel: Two lines are parallel if they are on the same plane and they never touch.
Concurrent: Two lines are concurrent if they touch on one point.
Coincident: Two lines are coincident if they are made of the same points.
Perpendicular: Two lines are perpendicular if they make four right angles where they touch.
Skew: In Euclidean space, two lines are skew if they are not parallel but they never touch.
Related pages
Linear function
Point (geometry)
Plane (mathematics)
References
Basic English 850 words
Geometry |
4374 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane%20%28mathematics%29 | Plane (mathematics) | A plane is a perfectly flat surface extending in all directions. It can be thought of as the ceiling of a room, only extended into all directions infinitely. A plane has two dimensions: length and width. All planes are flat surfaces. If a surface is not flat, it is called a curved surface.
The tool plane can be used to create a flat, level surface like the mathematical plane—hence the name.
In geometry, a plane is made up of an infinite number of lines (or points). It has no depth. It is absolutely flat and infinitely large.
A plane figure is part of a plane. It is named by the capital letters (such as A, B, C, ...X, Y, Z) that are put at its corners. Sometimes, a single capital pi is also used to refer to a plane. A plane can also be named after three points that are not all on the same line.
In general, two planes can be:
Parallel (they never meet)
Concurrent (they meet forming a line)
Coincident (they are one and the same)
Plane in mathematics
In mathematics, a plane is a fundamental two-dimensional object. Intuitively, it looks like a flat infinite sheet of paper. There are several definitions of the plane. They are equivalent in the sense of Euclidean geometry, but they can be extended in different ways to define objects in other areas of mathematics. The only two-dimensional figure in our three-dimensional world is a shadow.
In some areas of mathematics, such as plane geometry or 2D computer graphics, the whole space in which the work is carried out is a single plane. In such situations, the definite article is used: the plane. Many fundamental tasks in geometry, trigonometry and graphing are performed in the two dimensional space, or in other words, in the plane.
Euclidean geometry
A plane is a surface such that, given any three distinct points on the surface, the surface also contains all of the straight lines that pass through any two of them.
One can introduce a Cartesian coordinate system on a given plane in order to label every point on it with a unique ordered pair, which is composed of two numbers and is the coordinate of the point.
Within any Euclidean space, a plane is uniquely determined by any of the following combinations:
Three points which are not lying on the same line
A line and a point not on the line
Two different lines which intersect
Two different lines which are parallel
A vector normal to the plane and a distance from the origin
Related pages
Point (geometry)
Line
References
Other websites
Mathworld: Plane
Easing the Difficulty of Arithmetic and Planar Geometry (work in Arabic, description in English)
Shapes
Geometry |
4375 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle | Angle | When two straight lines come together, they make an angle. The two lines are called the sides of the angle, and they meet at a point. A flat surface (called a plane) also forms an angle when it meets another.
To represent an angle, Greek letters such as (alpha), (beta), (gamma) and (theta) are sometimes used. An angle indicates the space between its sides, or the amount of rotation needed to make one side coincide the other.
To measure the size of an angle, we use units called degrees. A degree is a standard unit and we use the symbol ° after a number to show that it is a number of degrees. We can use a decimal number or a fraction for part of a degree, but a degree can also be divided into 60 minutes (1° = 60'), and a minute can be divided into 60 seconds (1' = 60"). So 22.5°, 22° and 22° 30' are all the same angle.
In mathematics, angles can also be (and often are) measured in radians instead of degrees, by using the conversion factor (for example, ). Yet another unit of angle is gradian, with .
Angles are studied in geometry, where an angle where edges meet is often called a vertex. For example, the three sides of a triangle are its edges and two of the edges meet at each vertex. Similarly, two of the six sides (or faces) of a cube meet at each of its twelve edges, and three edges meet at each of its eight corners (or vertices, which is the plural version of vertex).
Types of angles
In a zero angle the lines lie one upon the other thus creating a 0° angle aka the zero angle.
An angle greater than 0° but less than 90° is called an acute angle.
An angle of 90° is called a right angle.
An angle greater than 90° but less than 180° is called an obtuse angle.
An angle that measures 180° is called a straight angle.
An angle greater than 180° and less than 360° is called a reflex angle.
An angle that has a made or full circle/ completed 360° is called a full or complete angle.
Supplementary angles are two angles with the sum equal to 180°, and complementary angles are two angles with the sum equal to one right angle (90°). On the other hand, two angles that sum to one full circle (360°) are sometimes called explementary angles, or conjugate angles.
People usually use a protractor to measure and draw angles. Sometimes, people use a 360° protractor to measure angles.
Related pages
Sun angle
References
Basic English 850 words |
4376 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20astronomers | List of astronomers | Famous astronomers include:
List
A
Marc Aaronson (USA, 1950 – 1987)
George Ogden Abell (USA, 1927 – 1983)
Charles Greeley Abbot (USA, 1872 – 1973)
John Couch Adams (Britain, 1819 – 1892)
Walter Sydney Adams (USA, 1876 – 1956)
Paul Oswald Ahnert (Germany, 1897 – 1989)
Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs (Germany, 1912 – 1954)
George Biddell Airy, (England, 1801 – 1892)
Robert Aitken, (USA, 1864 – 1951)
Al-Batani (Iraq, 850 – 929)
Albategnius (see Al-Batani)
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Al'bitskij (Russia)
George Alcock (Britain, 1913 – 2000)
Hannes Alfvén (Sweden, 1908 – 1995)
Al-Khwarizmi, (Kheva, Abbasid caliphate, 780 – 850)
Lawrence Aller
'Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi, (Persia, 903 – 986)
Viktor Ambartsumian, (Armenia, 1912 – 1996)
Andronicus of Cyrrhus
Anders Ångström (Sweden, 1814 – 1874)
Eugene M. Antoniadi (Greece, France, 1870 – 1944)
Petrus Apianus (Germany, 1495 – 1557)
Francois Arago (France, 1786 – 1853)
Sylvain Arend (Belgium, 1902 – 1992)
Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelander (Germany, 1799 – 1875)
Aristarchus (Samos, circa 310 BC – circa 230 BC)
Svante Arrhenius (Sweden, 1859 – 1927)
Arzachel (Al-Zarqali) (Muslim Spain, 1028 – 1087)
Joseph Ashbrook (USA, April 4 1918 – August 4 1980)
Arthur Auwers (Germany, 1838 – 1915)
B
Walter Baade (Germany, 1893 – 1960)
Harold D. Babcock (USA, 1882 – 1968)
Horace W. Babcock (USA, 1912 – 2003)
Oskar Backlund (Sweden, 1846 – 1916)
John Bahcall (USA, 1934 – )
Benjamin Baillaud (France, 1848 – 1934)
Jean Sylvain Bailly (France, 1736 – 1793)
Francis Baily (Britain, 1774 – 1844)
John Bainbridge (Britain, 1582 – 1643)
Sallie L. Baliunas (USA)
Benjamin Banneker (USA, 1731 – 1806)
Edward Emerson Barnard (USA, 1857 – 1923)
Johann Bayer (Germany, 1572 – 1625)
Antonin Becvar (Slovakia, 1901 – 1965)
Wilhelm Beer (Germany, 1797 – 1850)
S. I. Beljavskij (see S. I. Beljawsky)
S. I. Beljawsky (Russia, 1883 – 1953)
Jocelyn Bell (Ireland, 1943 – )
Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (Germany, 1784 – 1846)
Wilhelm von Biela (Austria, 1782 – 1856)
Ludwig Biermann (Germany, 1907 – 1986)
Guillaume Bigourdan (France, 1851 – 1932)
Adriaan Blaauw (Netherlands, 1914 – )
Nathaniel Bliss (Britain, 1700 – 1764)
Johann Elert Bode (Germany, 1747 – 1826)
Alfred Bohrmann (Germany, 1904 – 2000)
Bart Bok (Netherlands, 1906 – 1983)
Charles Thomas Bolton (USA, 1943 – )
John Gatenby Bolton (England, Australia, 1922 – 1993)
William Cranch Bond (USA, 1789 – 1859)
Alphonse Borrelly (France, 1842 – 1926)
Ruđer Josip Bošković (Dalmatia, 1711 – 1787)
Alexis Bouvard (France, 1767 – 1843)
Edward (Ted) L. G. Bowell (USA)
Ira S. Bowen
Louis Boyer (France)
Ronald N. Bracewell (Australia, USA, 1921 – )
James Bradley (England, 1693 – 1762)
Tycho Brahe (Denmark, 1546 – 1601)
William Robert Brooks (USA, 1844 – 1922)
Theodor Brorsen (Denmark, 1819 – 1895)
Dirk Brouwer
Ernest William Brown (England, 1866 – 1938)
Michael (Mike) E. Brown (USA)
Ismael Bullialdus (France, 1605 – 1694)
Margaret Burbidge (Britain, 1919 – )
Robert Burnham, Jr. (USA, 1931 – 1993)
S. W. Burnham (1838 – 1921)
Schelte J. Bus (USA)
C
William Wallace Campbell (USA, 1862 – 1938)
Annie Jump Cannon (USA, 1863 – 1941)
Luigi Carnera (Italy, 1875 – 1962)
Richard Christopher Carrington (Britain, 1826 – 1875)
César-François Cassini de Thury (France, 1714 – 1784)
Dominique, comte de Cassini (France, 1748 – 1845)
Giovanni Domenico Cassini a.k.a. Jean-Dominique Cassini (France, 1625 – 1712)
Jacques Cassini (France, 1677 – 1756)
Bonaventura Cavalieri (Italy, 1598 – 1647)
Anders Celsius, (1701 – 1744)
Vincenzo Cerulli, (Italy, 1859 – 1927)
Jean Chacornac (France, 1823 – 1873)
James Challis (Britain, 1803 – 1882)
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (India, USA, 1910 – 1995)
Carl Charlier (Sweden, 1862 – 1934)
Auguste Charlois (France, 1864 – 1910)
L. I. Chernykh (Russia?, Ukraine)
N. S. Chernykh (Russia, Ukraine, 1931 – )
James Christy (USA, 1938 – )
Edwin Foster Coddington (USA, 1870 – 1950)
Jérôme Eugène Coggia (France, 1849 – 1919)
Josep Comas Solá (Spain)
Andrew Ainslie Common (Britain, 1841 – 1903)
Nicolaus Copernicus (Royal Prussia, 1473 – 1543)
P. Cottenot (France)
Heather Couper (Britain)
Philip Herbert Cowell (Britain, 1870 – 1949)
Thomas George Cowling (England, 1906 – 1990)
Andrew Claude de la Cherois Crommelin (Britain, 1865 – 1939)
Heber D. Curtis (USA, 1872 – 1942)
D
Andre Louis Danjon (France, 1890 – 1967)
Heinrich d'Arrest (Germany, 1822 – 1875)
George Howard Darwin (Britain, 1845 – 1912)
William Rutter Dawes (Britain, 1799 – 1868)
Leo de Ball (Germany, Austria, 1853 – 1916)
Henri Debehogne (Belgium)
Annibale de Gasparis (Italy, 1819 – 1892)
Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre (France, 1749 – 1822)
Charles-Eugène Delaunay (France, 1816 – 1872)
Eugène Joseph Delporte (Belgium, 1882 – 1955)
William Frederick Denning (Britain, 1848 – 1931)
Willem de Sitter (Netherlands, 1872 – 1934)
Henri-Alexandre Deslandres (France, 1853 – 1948)
Gérard de Vaucouleurs (France, USA, 1918 – 1995)
Robert Dicke (USA, 1916 – 1997)
Thomas Digges (England, 1546 – 1595)
Herbert Dingle (USA, 1890 – 1978)
John Dobson (1915 – 2014)
Franjo Dominko, (Slovenia, 1903 – 1987)
Giovanni Battista Donati, (Italy, 1826 – 1873)
Frank Drake (USA, 1930 – )
Henry Draper (USA, 1837 – 1882)
John Dreyer (Ireland, 1852 – 1926)
Jean C. B. Dufay (France, 1896 – 1967)
Raymond Smith Dugan (USA, 1878 – 1940)
Frank Watson Dyson (Britain, 1868 – 1939)
E
Arthur Eddington (England, 1882 – 1944)
Olin J. Eggen
Eise Eisinga (Netherlands, 1744 – 1828)
Eric Elst (Belgium)
Johann Franz Encke (Germany, 1791 – 1865)
Eratosthenes (Alexandria, 276 BC – 194 BC)
Emil Ernst (Ph.D. Germany)
Ernest Esclangon, (France, 1876 – 1954)
Larry W. Esposito (USA)
Eudoxus (Cnidus, circa 408 BC – circa 347 BC)
F
David Fabricius (Netherlands, 1564 – 1617)
Johannes Fabricius (Netherlands, 1587 – 1615)
Hervé Faye (1814 – 1902)
Charles Fehrenbach (France, 1914 – )
James Ferguson (USA, 1797 – 1867)
Erwin Findlay-Freundlich (1885 – 1964)
Camille Flammarion (France, 1842 – 1925)
Gabrielle Renaudot Flammarion (France, 1867 – 1962)
John Flamsteed, (England, 1646 – 1719)
Honoré Flaugergues (France, 1755 – 1835)
Williamina Fleming (USA, 1857 – 1911)
Wilhelm Julius Förster (Germany, 1832 – 1921)
Alfred Fowler (Britain, 1868 – 1940)
William Alfred Fowler (USA, 1911 – 1995)
Herbert Friedman
Edwin Brant Frost (USA, 1866 – 1935)
G
Galileo Galilei (Italy, 1564 – 1642)
Julio Garavito Armero
Johann Gottfried Galle (Germany, 1812 – 1910)
George Gamow (Russia, USA, 1904 – 1968)
Carl Friedrich Gauss (Germany, 1777 – 1855)
Tom Gehrels (Netherlands, USA)
Andrea Ghez (USA)
Riccardo Giacconi (Italy, 1931 – )
Michel Giacobini (France, 1873 – 1938)
Henry L. Giclas (USA)
David Gill (Britain, 1843 – 1914)
Thomas Gold (USA, 1920 – )
Leo Goldberg
Peter Goldreich
Hermann Mayer Salomon Goldschmidt (Germany, 1802 – 1866)
Paul Goldsmith (USA, 1948 – )
François Gonnessiat (France, 1856 – 1934)
John Goodricke (Britain, 1764 – 1786)
Paul Götz (Ph.D. Germany)
Benjamin A. Gould (USA)
Andrew Graham (Ireland, 1815 – 1907)
Jesse Greenstein (USA, 1909 – 2002)
Alan Harvey Guth (USA, 1947 – )
H
George Ellery Hale (USA, 1868 – 1938)
Asaph Hall (USA, 1829 – 1907)
Edmond Halley (England, 1656 – 1742)
Peter Andreas Hansen (December 8, 1795 – March 28 1874)
Karl Ludwig Harding (Germany, 1765 – 1834)
Thomas Hariot (Britain, 1560 – 1621)
Guillermo Haro (Mexico, 1913 – 1988)
Robert G. Harrington (USA)
Robert Sutton Harrington (USA, 1942 – 1993)
William Hartmann (USA, 1939 – )
Stephen Hawking (Britain, 1942 – )
Will Hay (Britain, 1888 – 1949)
Otto Heckmann
Joseph Helffrich (Ph.D. Germany)
Eleanor Helin (USA)
Maximilian Hell (Austria-Hungary, 1720 – 1792)
Karl Ludwig Hencke (Germany, 1793 – 1866)
Thomas Henderson (Scotland, 1798 – 1844)
Paul Henry (France, 1848 – 1905)
Prosper Henry (France, 1849 – 1903)
George Herbig (USA, 1920 – )
Caroline Herschel (Britain, 1750 – 1848)
John Herschel (Britain, 1792 – 1871)
William Herschel (Britain, 1738 – 1822)
Ejnar Hertzsprung (Denmark, 1873 – 1967)
Johannes Hevelius (Poland, 1611 – 1687)
Antony Hewish (Britain, 1924 – )
George William Hill (USA, 1838 – 1914)
John Russell Hind (Britain, 1823 – 1895)
Hipparchus (Nicaea, circa 190 BC – 120 BC)
Cuno Hoffmeister (Germany, 1892 – 1968)
Dorrit Hoffleit (USA, 1907 – )
Minoru Honda (Japan, 1917 –1990)
Jeremiah Horrocks (Britain, c. 1619 – 1641)
Fred Hoyle (Britain, 1915 – 2001)
Edwin Powell Hubble (USA, 1889 – 1953)
William Huggins (Britain, 1824 – 1910)
Russell Alan Hulse (USA, 1950 – )
Christiaan Huygens (Netherlands, 1629 – 1695)
I
I Sin (China, 683 – 727)
Icko Iben, Jr.
Kaoru Ikeya (Japan)
Robert Innes (Scotland, South Africa, 1861 – 1933)
J
Cyril V. Jackson (South Africa)
Kees de Jager (Netherlands, 1921 – 2021)
Karl Guthe Jansky (USA, 1905 – 1950)
Pierre Jules César Janssen (France, 1824 – 1907)
Benjamin Jekhowsky (Russia, France, Algeria, 1881 – ?)
David Jewitt
Alfred H. Joy
K
Franz Kaiser (Germany, 1891 – 1962)
Jacobus Kapteyn (Netherlands, 1851 – 1922)
L. G. Karachkina (Ukraine)
James E. Keeler (USA, 1857 – 1900)
Johannes Kepler (Germany, 1571 – 1630)
Omar Khayyám (Persia, 1048 – 1131)
Kidinnu (Babylon, circa 400 BC – 310 BC)
Daniel Kirkwood (1814 – 1895)
Ernst Friedrich Wilhelm Klinkerfues (Germany, 1827 – 1884)
Viktor Knorre (Russia, 1840 – 1919)
Takao Kobayashi (Japan)
Lubos Kohoutek (1935 – )
Zdenek Kopal (Czech Republic, Britain, USA, 1914 – 1993)
August Kopff (Germany, 1882 – 1960)
Charles Kowal (USA, 1940 – )
Robert Kraft
Lubor Kresak (Slovakia, 1927 – 1994)
Gerard Kuiper (Netherlands, USA, 1905 – 1973)
L
Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (France, 1713 – 1762)
Claes-Ingvar Lagerkvist (Sweden)
Joseph-Louis Lagrange (France, 1736 – 1813)
Jérôme Lalande (France, 1732 – 1807)
Johann Heinrich Lambert (France, Germany, 1728 – 1777)
Samuel Pierpont Langley (USA, 1834 – 1906)
Pierre-Simon Laplace (France, 1749 – 1827)
William Lassell (Britain, 1799 – 1880)
A. Laurent (France)
Henrietta Swan Leavitt (USA, 1868 – 1921)
Typhoon Lee (USA and Taiwan)
Guillaume Le Gentil (France, 1725 – 1792)
Georges Lemaître (Belgium, 1894 – 1966)
Pierre Lemonnier (France, 1715 – 1799)
Armin Leuschner (Germany, 1868 – 1953)
Urbain J. J. Le Verrier (France, 1811 – 1877)
David Levy (USA)
Bertil Lindblad (Sweden, 1895 – 1965)
Joseph Johann Littrow (Austria, 1781 – 1840)
Karl L. Littrow (Austria, 1811 – 1877)
Joseph Lockyer (Britain, 1836 – 1920)
Maurice Loewy (Austria/France, 1833 – 1907)
Christian Sørensen Longomontanus (Denmark, 1562 – 1647)
Lord Rosse (Ireland, 1800 – 1867)
Percival Lowell (USA, 1855 – 1916)
John William Lubbock (Britain, 1803 – 1865)
Robert Luther (Germany, 1822 – 1900)
Jane Luu (USA)
Willem Luyten (1899 – 1994)
Donald Lynden-Bell
Bernard Lyot (France, 1897 – 1952)
M
Adriaan van Maanen (USA, 1884 – 1946)
George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield (Britain, c. 1697 – 1764)
Simon Marius (Germany, 1573 – 1624)
Brian Marsden (USA)
Albert Marth (Germany, 1828 – 1897)
Nevil Maskelyne (Britain, 1732 – 1811)
Charles Mason (Britain, USA, 1730 – 1787)
Janet Akyüz Mattei (Turkey/USA, 1943 – 2004)
Edward Walter Maunder (Britain, 1851 – 1928)
Pierre Louis Maupertuis (France, 1698 – 1759)
Alain Maury (France)
Tobias Mayer (Germany, 1723 – 1762)
Christopher McKee (USA, 1942 – )
Robert S. McMillan (USA)
William H. McCrea (Britain, 1904 – 1999)
Pierre Méchain (France, 1744 – 1804)
Karen Jean Meech (USA)
Aden Meinel (USA)
Philibert Jacques Melotte (Britain, 1880 – 1961)
Paul Merrill (USA, 1887 – 1961)
Charles Messier (France, 1730 – 1817)
Joel Hastings Metcalf (USA, 1866 – 1925)
John Michell (Britain, 1724 – 1793)
Elia Millosevich (Italy, 1848 – 1919)
E. Arthur Milne
Rudolph Minkowski (Germany, 1895 – 1976)
Marcel Minnaert
Maria Mitchell (USA, 1818 – 1889)
August Ferdinand Möbius (Germany, 1790 – 1868)
Samuel Molyneux (Britain)
Geminiano Montanari (Italy, 1633 – 1687)
Patrick Moore (Britain, 1923 – )
William W. Morgan
Amédée Mouchez (France, 1821 – 1892)
Antonín Mrkos (Czech Republic, 1918 – 1996)
Jean Mueller (USA)
Johannes Müller (Germany, 1436 – 1476)
Nils Mustelin
N
Nabu-rimanni (Babylonia, circa 560 BC – 480 BC)
Syuichi Nakano (Japan)
Grigoriy Nikolaevich Neujmin (Russia, 1886 – 1946)
Gerry Neugebauer
Otto Neugebauer (Germany, USA, 1899 – 1990)
Simon Newcomb (USA, 1835 – 1909)
Isaac Newton (Britain, 1643 – 1727)
Seth Barnes Nicholson (USA, 1891 – 1963)
Peter Nilson (Sweden, 1937 – 1998)
O
Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers (Germany, 1758 – 1840)
Jan Hendrik Oort (Netherlands, 1900 – 1992)
Ernst Öpik (Estonia, Ireland, 1893 – 1985)
Donald Edward Osterbrock, USA, 1924 –
Liisi Oterma, Finland, 1915 – 2001)
P
Bohdan Paczynski, (Poland 1940 – )
Ľudmila Pajdušáková (Slovakia, 1916 – 1979)
Johann Palisa, (Austria, 1848 – 1925)
Johann Palitzsch (1723 – 1788)
Anton Pannekoek (Netherlands, 1873 – 1960)
George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield (Britain, c. 1697 – 1764)
Eugene N. Parker
William Parsons, Lord Rosse (Ireland, 1800 – 1867)
André Patry (France, – c. 1960)
Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (USA, 1900 – 1979)
James Peebles
Leslie Peltier (USA, 1900 – 1980)
Roger Penrose (Britain, 1931 – )
Arno Penzias (Germany, 1933 – )
Luboš Perek (Czech Republic, 1919 – 2020)
Charles Dillon Perrine (USA, Argentina, 1867 – 1951)
Henri Joseph Anastase Perrotin (France, 1845 – 1904)
Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters (Germany, USA, 1813 – 1890)
George Henry Peters (USA, 1863 – 1947)
Giuseppe Piazzi (Italy, 1746 – 1826)
Edward Charles Pickering (USA, 1846 – 1919)
William Henry Pickering (USA, 1858 – 1938)
Phil Plait (USA)
John Stanley Plaskett (Canada, 1865 – 1941)
Norman Robert Pogson, (Britain, 1829 – 1891)
Christian Pollas, (France)
John Pond (England, 1767 – 1836)
Jean-Louis Pons (France, 1761 – 1831)
Charles Pritchard (Britain, 1808 – 1893)
Richard Proctor (England, 1837 – 1888)
Ptolemy of Alexandria (Roman Egypt, circa 85 – 165)
Pierre Puiseux (France, 1855 – 1928)
Georg Purbach (Germany, 1423 – 1461)
Q
Adolphe Quetelet (Belgium, 1796 – 1874)
R
David Rabinowitz (USA)
Pavla Ranzinger (Slovenia)
Grote Reber (USA, 1911 – 2002)
Martin Rees (England, 1942 – )
Regiomontanus (Johannes Müller) (Germany, 1436 – 1476)
Erasmus Reinhold (Prussia, Germany, 1511 – 1553)
Karl Reinmuth (Germany, 1892 – 1979)
Giovanni Battista Riccioli (Italy, 1598 – 1671)
Jean Richer (France, 1630 – 1696)
Fernand Rigaux (Belgium)
Elizabeth Roemer (USA, 1929 – )
Ole Christensen Rømer (Denmark, 1644 – 1710)
Otto A. Rosenberger (Germany, 1800 – 1890)
Lord Rosse (Ireland, 1800 – 1867)
Bruno Rossi (Italy, 1905 – 1993)
Vera Rubin (USA, 1928 – )
Henry Norris Russell (USA, 1877 – 1957)
S
Edward Sabine (Britain, 1788 – 1883)
Carl Sagan (USA, 1934 – 1996)
Edwin Salpeter (Austria, Australia, USA, 1924 – )
Allan Sandage (1926 – )
Wallace Sargent
Alexandre Schaumasse (France, 1882 – 1958)
Giovanni Schiaparelli (Italy, 1835 – 1910)
Frank Schlesinger (USA, 1871 – 1943)
Bernhard Schmidt (Estonia, Sweden, Germany, 1879 – 1935)
Maarten Schmidt (1929 – )
Johann Hieronymus Schröter (Germany, 1745 – 1816)
Lipót Schulhof (Hungary, 1847 – 1921)
Heinrich Christian Schumacher (Germany, 1780 – 1850)
Hans-Emil Schuster (Germany, 1934 – )
Heinrich Schwabe (Germany, 1789 – 1875)
Karl Schwarzschild (Germany, 1873 – 1916)
Martin Schwarzschild (Germany, USA, 1912 – 1997)
Arnold Schwassmann (Germany, 1870 – 1964)
Ruby Payne Scott (Australia, 1912 – 1981)
James Scotti (USA, 1960 – )
Frederick Seares (USA, 1873 – 1964)
George Mary Searle (USA, 1839 – 1918)
Tsutomu Seki (Japan, 1930 – )
Carl Keenan Seyfert (USA, 1911 – 1960)
G. A. Shajn (Russia, 1892 – 1956)
P. F. Shajn (Russia, 1894 – 1956)
Harlow Shapley (USA, 1885 – 1972)
Richard Sheepshanks (Britain, 1794 – 1855)
Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky (Russia, 1916 – 1985)
Carolyn Shoemaker (USA, 1929 – )
Eugene Shoemaker (USA, 1928 – 1997)
Charlotte Moore Sitterly (USA, 1898 – 1990)
Brian A. Skiff (USA)
John Francis Skjellerup (Australia, South Africa, 1875 – 1952)
Charles D. Slaughter (USA)
Vesto Slipher (USA, 1875 – 1969)
Tamara Mikhaylovna Smirnova (Russia, 1918 – )
William Henry Smyth (Britain, 1788 – 1865)
Mary Fairfax Somerville (Britain, 1780 – 1872)
James South (Britain, 1785 – 1867)
Harold Spencer Jones
Lyman Spitzer (USA, 1914 – 1997)
Gustav Spörer (Germany, 1822 – 1895)
Anton Staus (Germany, 1872 – 1955)
Joel Stebbins, (USA, 1878 – 1966)
Édouard Stephan, (France, 1837 – 1923)
David J. Stevenson, (New Zealand, 1948 – )
Edward James Stone, (1831 – 1897)
Bengt Strömgren, (Denmark, 1908 – 1987)
Friedrich Georg Wilhelm (von) Struve (Germany, Russia, 1793 – 1864)
Hermann Struve (Russia, Germany, 1854 – 1920)
Ludwig Struve (Russia, 1858 – 1920)
Otto Struve (Russia, USA, 1897 – 1963)
Otto Wilhelm (von) Struve (Russia, 1819 – 1905)
Rashid Sunyaev
Lewis Swift (USA, 1820 – 1913)
Frédéric Sy (France)
T
Joseph Taylor (USA, 1941 – )
Ernst Tempel, (Germany, 1821 – 1889)
Thabit ibn Qurra (Iraq, 826 – 901)
Thorvald Thiele (Denmark, 1838 – 1910)
Norman G. Thomas (USA)
John M. Thome (1843 – 1908)
Kip Thorne (USA, 1940 – )
Friedrich Tietjen (Germany, 1834 – 1895)
Beatrice Tinsley (USA, 1941 – 1981)
Félix Tisserand (France, 1845 – 1896)
Johann Daniel Titius (Germany, 1729 – 1796)
Clyde Tombaugh (USA, 1906 – 1997)
Richard Tousey
Virginia Trimble (USA)
Chad Trujillo (USA)
Robert Trumpler (USA, 1886 – 1956)
R. Brent Tully (USA)
Herbert Hall Turner (England, 1861 – 1930)
Horace Parnell Tuttle (USA, 1839 – 1923)
Tycho Brahe (Denmark, 1546 – 1601)
U
Ulugh Beg (Timurid Iran, 1394 – 1449)
Albrecht Unsöld
V
Yrjö Väisälä (Finland, 1891 – 1971)
Benjamin Valz (France, 1787 – 1867)
James Van Allen (USA, 1914 – )
George Van Biesbroeck (Belgium, USA, 1880 – 1974)
Hendrik van de Hulst
Peter van de Kamp (USA, 1901 – 1995)
Sidney van den Bergh
Hendrik Van Gent (Netherlands, South Africa, (1900 – March 29, 1947)
Cornelis Johannes van Houten (Netherlands, 1920 – August 24 2002)
Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld (Netherlands)
Zdeňka Vávrová (Czech Republic or Slovakia)
Julie Vinter Hansen (Denmark), 1890 – 1960)
Hermann Carl Vogel (Germany, 1841 – 1907)
Joseph von Fraunhofer (Germany, 1787 – 1826)
Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve (Germany, Russia, 1793 – 1864)
Otto Wilhelm von Struve (Russia, 1819 – 1905)
Karl von Weizsäcker (Germany, 1912 – )
Alexander Vyssotsky
Emma Vyssotsky (USA)
W
Arno Arthur Wachmann (Germany, 1902 – 1990)
George Wallerstein
Qingde Wang (USA, China)
James Craig Watson (USA, 1838 – 1880)
Thomas William Webb (Britain, 1807 – 1885)
Godefroy Wendelin (Belgium, 1580 – 1667)
Richard M. West (Denmark, 1942 – )
J. G. Westphal (Germany)
Johann Heinrich Westphal (Germany, Italy, 1794 – 1831)
George Wetherill
John Wheeler (USA, 1911 – )
Fred Whipple (USA, 1906 – )
Albert Whitford (USA, 1905 – 2002)
Paul Wild (Switzerland)
Olin C. Wilson (USA, 1909 – 1994)
Robert Wilson (USA, 1936 – )
John Winthrop (Massachusetts Bay Colony, 1714 – 1779)
Friedrich August Theodor Winnecke (Germany, 1835 – 1897)
Carl Wirtanen (USA, 1910 – 1990)
Jack Wisdom (USA)
Gustav Witt (Germany, 1866 – 1946)
Maximilian Wolf (Germany, 1863 – 1932)
Aleksander Wolszczan (Poland, 1946 – )
Richard van der Riet Woolley (Britain, 1906 – 1986)
Thomas Wright (Britain, 1711 – 1786)
Y
Charles Augustus Young (USA, 1834 – 1908)
Z
Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich (USSR, 1914 – 1987)
Zhang Daqing (China, 1969 – )
Zhang Heng (78 – 139)
Zhang Yuzhe (China, 1902 – 1986)
L. V. Zhuravleva (Russia, Ukraine)
Zu Chongzhi, (425 – 500)
Fritz Zwicky (Switzerland, USA, 1898 – 1974)
Other scientists whose work had an impact on astronomy and astrophysics:
Hans Bethe (physicist) (1906 – )
Niels Bohr (physicist) (1885 – 1962)
Freeman Dyson (physicist) (1923 – )
Albert Einstein (physicist) (1879 – 1955)
Instrument makers, illustrators, etc.:
John Bird
Chesley Bonestell
Thomas Cooke
Alvan Clark
John Dollond
Henry Fitz (1808-1863)
James Gregory
Jesse Ramsden (1735-1800)
George Willis Ritchey
James Short
William Simms
Edward Troughton (1756-1835)
Related pages
List of astrophysicists
References
The Great Astronomers
Astronomical Society of the Pacific: Women in Astronomy
Lists of scientists
Astronomy lists |
4377 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20astrophysicists | List of astrophysicists | An astrophysicist is a person whose profession is astrophysics.
Canada
Hubert Reeves, is known for explaining science to the general public (or popularizing science).
Great Britain
England
Stephen Hawking, is known for Hawking radiation, Penrose–Hawking theorems, Bekenstein–Hawking formula, Hawking energy, Gibbons–Hawking ansatz, Gibbons–Hawking effect, Gibbons–Hawking space, Gibbons–Hawking–York boundary term, Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet
United States
Frank Drake, is known for developing the Drake equation, and as the creator of the Arecibo Message, a digital encoding of an astronomical and biological description of the Earth and its lifeforms, for transmission into the cosmos.
Freeman John Dyson, is known for Dyson sphere, Dyson operator, Dyson series, Schwinger–Dyson equation, Circular ensemble, Random matrix theory, Advocacy against nuclear weapons, Dyson conjecture, Dyson's eternal intelligence, Dyson number, Dyson tree, Dyson's transform
Neil deGrasse Tyson, is known for being on a 2001 government commission on the future of the U.S. aerospace industry, and on the 2004 Moon, Mars and Beyond commission; got the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal; host of television show NOVA ScienceNow on PBS
Related pages
List of astronomers
Lists of scientists |
4378 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20walls | List of walls | This is a list of famous walls.
Lists |
4379 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20vegetables | List of vegetables | Some vegetables which are botanically fruits (such as tomatoes) are considered to be vegetables in the culinary (eating) sense. This is why they appear in this article. For sources, see individual pages.
artichoke
aubergine (eggplant)biologically a fruit but taxed as a vegetable
asparagus
legumes
alfalfa sprouts
azuki beans (or adzuki)
bean sprouts
black beans
black-eyed peas
borlotti bean
broad beans
chickpeas, garbanzos, or ceci beans
green beans
kidney beans
lentils
lima beans or butter bean
mung beans
navy beans
peanuts
pinto beans
runner beans
split peas
soy beans
peas
mange tout or snap peas
broccoflower (a hybrid)
broccoli (calabrese)
brussels sprouts
cabbage
kohlrabi
Savoy cabbage
red cabbage
cauliflower
celery
endive
fiddleheads
frisee
fennel
greens
bok choy
chard (beet greens)
collard greens
kale
mustard greens
herbs
anise
basil
caraway
coriander
chamomile
daikon
dill
fennel
lavender
cymbopogon (also known as lemongrass)
marjoram
oregano
parsley
rosemary
thyme
lettuce
arugula
mushrooms (actually a fungus, not a plant)
nettles
New Zealand spinach
okra
onions
chives
garlic
leek
onion
shallot
scallion (spring onion UK, green onion US)
peppers (biologically berry, but taxed as vegetables)
bell pepper
chili pepper
jalapeño
habanero
paprika
tabasco pepper
cayenne pepper
radicchio
rhubarb
root vegetables
beetroot (UK) beet (US)
mangel-wurzel: a variety of beet used mostly as cattlefeed
carrot
celeriac
corms
eddoe
konjac
taro
water chestnut
ginger
parsnip
rutabaga
radish
wasabi
horseradish
daikon or white radish
tubers
jicama
jerusalem artichoke
potato
sweet potato
yam
turnip
salsify (Oyster Plant)
skirret
sweetcorn
topinambur
squashes (biologically fruits, but taxed as vegetables)
acorn squash
bitter melon
butternut squash
banana squash
courgette (UK), Zucchini (US)
cucumber (biologically fruits, but taxed as vegetables)
delicata
gem squash
hubbard squash
marrow (UK) Squash (US)
spaghetti squash
zucchini
spinach
tat soi
tomato (biologically a fruit, but taxed as a vegetable.)
watercress
References
Other websites
Lists of vegetables
Vegetables Name List
Food-related lists |
4382 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20terrorist%20incidents | List of terrorist incidents | The following is a list by date of acts and failed attempts that can be considered terrorism.
Note: there is no single official definition of terrorism in common use. Events listed here are commonly called terrorism, or meet some of the commonly used parts of the definition.
17th century
1605: Failed Gunpowder Plot to blow up English Parliament while King James I of England was there.
19th century
1856, 1858, 1859: Attacks by John Brown in his fight against slavery, which now would mainly not be considered terrorism.
1865 – 1882: Jesse James and his gang attack "Northern" railroads and banks in a personal continuation of the American Civil War
1881: Tzar Alexander II of Russia is assassinated (killed) by a "People's Will" (Narodnaya volya) terrorist.
1881 – 1884: Waves of pogroms against the Jews sweep southern Russia. The word pogrom—meaning "destructive, often murderous riot"—becomes known internationally.
1886: Bomb at Haymarket Square, Chicago during a labor rally kills 12.
1910s–1960s
1910: A bomb at the Los Angeles Times newspaper building in Los Angeles, California killed 21 workers.
1911: Siege of Sidney Street, East London.
1914: Assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, technically starts World War I.
1920: Jerusalem pogrom of April 1920 incited by Haj Amin Al-Husseini (later the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem).
1920: Wall Street Bombing - A bomb exploded on Wall Street in New York City, killing 40 people and wounding 300 others.
1929: The ancient Jewish community of Hebron is destroyed in the Hebron massacre. [1]
1946: Bombing of King David Hotel, the British Army HQ, by the right-wing Zionist terrorist group Irgun.
1963: 16th Street Baptist Church bombing. A member of the Ku Klux Klan bombed a Church in Birmingham, Alabama, killing four girls.
1966: Ulster Volunteer Force declares war on the then-quiet IRA; June 26 engage in 3 sectarian murders
1967: Sirhan Sirhan, a Palestinian, assassinates Robert F. Kennendy in Los Angeles, California
1969, 12 December: Piazza Fontana bombing - A bomb in a bank killed 17 people in Milan, Italy.
1970s
1970: October Crisis (Quebec): FLQ murder of Pierre Laporte, kidnapping of James Cross
1970: Nahariya/Avivim school bus attack by Palestinian PLO terrorists.
1971, 4 December: McGurk's Bar bombing: UVF bomb in Belfast's North Queen Street kills 15 people.
1972: Lod Airport massacre by the Japanese Red Army terrorists.
1972: Munich massacre by Black September.
1972: Bloody Friday nine are killed and many injured as Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) set off 22 bombs.
1973, 20 December: ETA Basque terrorist group kills Spanish Prime Minister Admiral Carrero Blanco by bombing his car in Madrid, one more person dead.
1974: Guildford pub bombings by the IRA leaves 5 dead and 44 injured.
1974: Birmingham pub bombings by the IRA kill 21; 182 people are injured.
1974: Kiryat Shmona massacre at an apartment building by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Palestinian terrorists
1974: Maalot massacre at the Maalot High School in Northern Israel by Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Palestinian terrorists
1974: Dublin and Monaghan bombings by the UVF, who detonate 3 car bombs in Dublin and one in Monaghan; 33 dead - the deadliest toll of any one day in the Troubles.
1974: TWA Flight 841
1974, 13 September: ETA Basque terrorist group bombs the "Rolando" cafeteria in Madrid, kills 12.
1975: Tel Aviv Savoy Hotel guest attacked by Palestinian PLO terrorists
1975, 31 July: Three members of Ireland's popular Miami Showband killed in UVF gun attack.
1976: Hijacking of Air France Flight 139 (Tel-Aviv-Paris) and the following Operation Entebbe
1976: Orlando Letelier assassinated in Washington by Chilean government
1976: 73 died when a Cubana aircraft was bombed while flying from Barbados to Havana.
1977, 7 April: Federal Prosecutor Siegfried Buback and his driver were shot by two Red Army Faction members.
1977, 30 July: Jürgen Ponto, then head of the Dresdner Bank, was shot and killed by the Red Army Faction in a kidnapping failed.
1977, 5 September: Hanns Martin Schleyer was kidnapped by the Red Army Faction. He was murdered by the Red Army Faction on October 19 1977.
1977, 13 October: Lufthansa flight LH 181 was kidnapped by a group of four Arabs around the leader "Captain Martyr Mahmud".
1978 – 1995: The Unabomber kills three and injures 29 in a string of anti-technology bombings
1978: A bomb is detonated outside the CHOGM meeting in Sydney Australia, killing 2 people. 3 Ananda Marga members are later arrested and jailed for the attack. They were then proven innocent of any crime by the supreme court.
1978: Palestinian Fatah terrorists on the Tel Aviv - Haifa highway kill 34 Israelis.
1979, 27 August: Lord Mountbatten and three others are killed by IRA bomb on board his boat off Mullaghmore. The same day two IRA bombs kill 18 British Soldiers near Warrenpoint.
1979, 29 July: ETA Basque terrorist group bombs two railway stations in Madrid, kills 7.
1980s
1980: Oscar Romero assassinated by death squads in El Salvador
1980: Four United States nuns killed by death squads in El Salvador
1980: December U.S. trained Salvadoran Army unit executes 800 civilians at the village of El Mozote
1980: Bologna massacre: neo-fascist bomb kills 85 people in Bologna railway station
1980: Iranian Embassy siege: Iraqi agents took over the Iranian Embassy in London, gaining hostages. After a number of days, one hostage was killed by the Iraqis, and the Special Air Service assaulted the building to rescue the remaining hostages. One hostage died during the assault.
1982: Two bombs in Hyde Park and Regent's Park, London by the IRA kill 11 people. Seven horses are also killed.
1983: United States Embassy Bombing in Beirut, Lebanon kills 63.
1983, 20 May: Church Street bombing in Pretoria, South Africa by Umkhonto we Sizwe, killing 19 people.
1983: 1983 Beirut barracks bombing in Beirut kills 241 U.S. Marines.
1983: Harrods bomb by the IRA. Six are killed (including three police officers) and 90 wounded during Christmas shopping at the West London department store.
1983: Gulf Air Flight 771
1984: IRA bomb in the Grand Hotel Brighton 5 are killed in an attempt to kill members of the British cabinet.
1985: TWA Flight 847 hijacking
1985: Achille Lauro cruise ship hijacking by Palestinian Liberation Front
1985: IRA mortar attack kills nine soldiers in Newry
1985: Air India flight 182 is blown up by a bomb put on board the flight from Canada by Sikh nationalists. All 329 passengers are killed. The single most deadly terrorist attack prior to September 11, 2001.
1985: EgyptAir Flight 648 hijacked by Abu Nidal group, flown to Malta, where Egyptian commandos storm plane; 60 are killed by gunfire and explosions.
1985: Rome and Vienna Airport attacks
1985: Investigators associated with the WHO reported that U.S.-funded Contras repeatedly destroyed health-care facilities and murdered health-care workers in Nicaraqua.
1986: New Year's Eve fire at the Dupont Plaza Hotel in San Juan, Puerto Rico, claimed 97 lives, mainly in the casino area. Fire set by 3 hotel workers, trying to make tourists stay away from Puerto Rico as a protest to their working wages.
1986: TWA Flight 840 bombed on approach to Athens airport; 4 Americans, including an infant, are killed.
1986, 15 July: ETA Basque terrorist group bombs a Guardia Civil police truck, kills 12.
1986: Berlin discotheque bombing On April 6, the La Belle discotheque, a known hangout for U.S. soldiers, was bombed, killing 3 and injuring 230 people, for which Libya is held responsible.
1986: Pan Am Flight 73 is hijacked; 22 people die when plane is stormed in Karachi, Pakistan.
1987, 8 November: Enniskillen bombing. Remembrance Day parade in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh is bombed by the IRA and 11 are killed and 63 injured
1987, 19 June: Hipercor bombing: ETA Basque terrorist group bomb in Hipercor mall's parking in Barcelona, kills 21; 45 injured.
1987: KAL Flight 858 bombed by North Korea.
1987, 11 December: ETA Basque separatist terrorist group bomb a Guardia Civil police bedrooms in Zaragoza, kills 11, 40 injured.
1988, 21 December: Pan Am Flight 103. A bomb onboard exploded, causing the plane to crash, killing all 259 people on the plane and 11 on the ground in Lockerbie, Scotland.
1989: Deal barracks bombing: eleven Royal Marines bandsmen are killed and 22 injured when their barracks in Deal, Kent are bombed by the IRA.
1989: UTA Flight UT-772
1989: Avianca Flight 203 bombed over Colombia
1990s
1990: A series of car bombings directed by the IRA in Northern Ireland leave 7 people dead and 37 wounded.
1991: Two IRA members are killed by their own bomb in St Albans.
1991, 29 May: ETA Basque terrorist group bombs the Guardia Civil police barracks in Vic (Barcelona), kill 10.
1992: Israeli Embassy bombing in Buenos Aires, Argentina; 29 die.
1992: Eight Protestant builders killed by an IRA bomb on their way to work at an Army base near Omagh.
1993: World Trade Center bombing
1993: Failed New York City landmark bomb plot
1993, 21 June: ETA Basque terrorist group bombs a militar truck in Madrid, kills 7, 36 injured.
1993: Mumbai car bombings in India
1993: IRA bomb in Warrington kills two children.
1993: IRA detonate a huge truck bomb in the City of London at Bishopsgate, killing two and causing approximately £350m of damage.
1993, 23 October: A bomb at a fish shop on the Protestant Shankill Road, Belfast kills 10 people, including two children.
1993, 30 October: Seven people killed in a Loyalist UFF gun attack in a bar in Greysteel, Co Derry.
1994: Bombing of Jewish Center in Buenos Aires, Argentina kills 86 and wounds 300.
1994: Baruch Goldstein kills 29 Arabs in machine gun attack on mosque in Hebron.
1994: Air France Flight 8969 is hijacked by GIA members who planned to crash the plane on Paris but did not succeed.
1994: A small bomb explodes on board Philippine Airlines flight 434, killing a Japanese businessman. Authorities found out that Ramzi Yousef planted the bomb to test it for his planned terrorist attack.
1994, 18 June: Six Catholic men shot dead by Loyalists in a pub in Loughinisland, Co Derry.
1995: Operation Bojinka is discovered on a laptop computer in a Manila, Philippines apartment by authorities after an apartment fire occurred in the apartment.
1995: Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway
1995, 19 April: ETA Basque terrorist group tries to kill Jose Maria Aznar (then leader of the Popular Party, later Spanish Prime Minister) bombing his car, kills 1 woman.
1995: Oklahoma City bombing
1995 islamist terror bombings in France by a GIA unit (Khaled Kelkal being one of the operational leaders)
1995: Bombing of military compound in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
1995:, 11 December: ETA Basque terrorist group bombs a militar truck in Madrid, kills 6 civilian public servants.
1996: Central Bank Bombing in Sri Lanka kills 90 and wounds 1,400.
1996: A series of four suicide bombings in Israel leave 67 dead and 161 wounded within 10 days.
1996: Centennial Olympic Park bombing, killing one and wounding 111.
1996: 1996 Docklands bombing - IRA break their ceasefire and kill two in a bomb at the Canary Wharf towers in London.
1996: 1996 Manchester bombing
1996: Khobar Towers bombing
1997: Islamic terrorists attack tourists in Luxor, Egypt, killing 71 people, most of them European and Japanese vacationers.
1997: A terrorist opened fire on tourists at an observation deck atop the Empire State Building in New York City, killing a Danish national and wounding visitors from the United States, Argentina, Switzerland and France before turning the gun on himself. A handwritten note carried by the gunman claimed this was a punishment attack against the "enemies of Palestine".
1997, 22 December: 46 killed while praying in Acteal, Chiapas, Mexico. A paramilitary group associated with ex-president Salinas is held responsible.
1998: U.S. embassy bombings
1998: Omagh bombing by the so-called "Real IRA" kills 29.
1999: Gunmen opened fire on Shi'a Muslims worshipping in an Islamabad mosque killing 16 people injuring 25.
1999: David Copeland's nail bomb attacks against ethnic minorities and gays in London.
1999: Ahmed Ressam is arrested on the United States-Canada border in Port Angeles, Washington; he confessed to planning to bomb the Los Angeles International Airport as part of the 2000 celebration terrorist attacks plot
1999: Jordanian authorities foil a plot to bomb United States and Israeli tourists in Jordan and pick up 28 suspects as part of the 2000 celebration terrorist attacks plot
1999: Indian Airlines Flight 814, which just took off from Kathmandu, Nepal for Indira Gandhi International Airport in Delhi, India is hijacked, one passenger is killed and some hostages are released. After negotiations between the Taliban and the Indian government, the last of the remaining hostages on board Flight 814 are released
1999: Russian Apartment bombings lead Russia into Second Chechen War.
Fatal Terrorist Attacks in Israel Since the DOP (Sept 1993)
2000s
2000: The last part of the 2000 celebration terrorist attacks plot fails, as the boat meant to bomb USS The Sullivans sinks
2000: Beginning of a campaign of attacks on civilians in Israel - see Terrorism against Israel in 2000.
2000: USS Cole bombing
2000: German police foil Strasbourg cathedral bombing plot
2001: September 11, 2001 attacks ("9/11") kill nearly 3,000 in New York City, New York, and hundreds in Arlington, Virginia and Pennsylvania.
2001: 2001 bomb plot in Europe foiled
2001: Anthrax attacks on the offices the United States Congress and New York State Government offices, and on employees of television networks and tabloid.
2001, 13 December: 2001 Indian Parliament attack.
2001: Palestinian attacks against Israeli civilians continue - see Terrorism against Israel in 2001.
2001: Richard Reid, attempting to destroy American Airlines Flight 63, is subdued by passengers and flight attendants before he could detonate his shoe bomb
2002: Singapore embassies terrorist attack plot foiled
2002: Ghriba synagogue bombing in Tunisia
2002: 2002 Karachi bus bombing
2002: June 14 attack outside U.S. Consulate in Karachi
2002: Limburg tanker bombing in Yemen
2002: Kidnapping and murder of journalist Daniel Pearl
2002: Bali car bombing of holidaymakers
2002: Zamboanga bombings in the Philippines
2002: Moscow theatre siege
2002: Most deadly year of Palestinian terror campaign against Israel, including the Passover Massacre in which 30 people are killed - see Terrorism against Israel in 2002.
2002: 2002 Mombasa attacks
2002: Beltway sniper attacks
2003: Palestinian terror attacks against Israel continue, including the Maxim restaurant massacre. See Terrorism against Israel in 2003.
2003: Chechen militants carry out several deadly suicide bombings across Russia and nearby provinces, killing more than 250 people.
2003: Riyadh Compound bombings—bombings of United States expat housing compounds in Saudi Arabia kill 26 and injure 160. Al-Qaeda blamed.
2003: 2003 Casablanca bombings in Casablanca, Morocco leaves 45 dead. The attack involved 12 bombers and 5 targets. The targets were "Western and Jewish". Attack attributed to a Moroccan al-Qaeda-linked group.
2003: Canal Hotel bombing in Baghdad, Iraq kills 22 people including the top UN representative, Sergio Vieira de Mello.
2003: In response to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, terrorists in that country stage dozens of suicide bombings targeting Iraqi and Coalition targets.
2003: 2003 Istanbul bombings: Within five days in November, al-Qaeda truck bombs go off at two synagogues, the British Consulate, and the HSBC Bank in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 57 people.
2003, 15 October: A bomb is detonated by Palestinians against a United States diplomatic convoy in the Gaza Strip.
2004: Violence in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict 2004
2004: 109 Kurds are killed in 2 suicide bombings in Arbil, Iraq.
2004: February 2004 Moscow Metro bombing: Bomb on Moscow Metro kills 41.
2004: Suicide bombings at Shia holy sites in Iraq kill 181 and wound more than 500.
2004: Attack on procession of Shia Muslims in Pakistan kills 43 and wounds 160.
2004: March 9, 2004 attack of Istanbul restaurant
2004: Bombing of Spanish commuter trains kills 191 people and injures more than 1,400.
2004: 21 April 2004 Basra bombings
2004, 21 April: bombing of a security building in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia kills 5.
2004: Islamic militants seize hostages at a compound housing foreign oil workers; at least 25 are killed.
2005: 7 July 2005 London bombings ("7/7") killed 52 victims and 4 suicide bombers in London.
2006, 11 July: 2006 Mumbai train bombings
2007, 18 October: 2007 Karsaz bombing
2008, 26 July: Ahmedabad bombings
2008, 20 September: Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing
2008, 26 November – 29 November: Mumbai attacks on Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, the Oberoi Trident,the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower, Leopold Cafe, Cama Hospital
2008, 24-27 December: 2008 Christmas massacres
2009, 14-17 December: Makombo massacre
2010s
2011, 22 July: 2011 Norway attacks
2013, 10 January: January 2013 Pakistan bombings
2013, 11 May: 2013 Reyhanli car bombings
2014, 22 October: 2014 shootings at Parliament Hill, Ottawa
2015, 7 January: Charlie Hebdo shooting
2015, 20 July: 2015 Suruc bombing
2015, 17 August: 2015 Bangkok bombing
2015, 10 October: 2015 Ankara bombings
2015, 18 November: November 2015 Paris attacks
2016, 17 February: February 206 Ankara bombing
2016, 22 March: 2016 Brussels bombings
2016, 28 June: Atatürk Airport attack
2016, 14 July: 2016 Nice attack
2016, 10 December: December 2016 Istanbul bombings
2016, 19 December: 2016 Berlin attack
2017, 1 January: Istanbul nightclub shooting
2017, 17 August: 2017 Barcelona attack
2017, 14 October: 14 October 2017 Mogadishu bombings
2018, 13 July: 2018 Mastung and Bannu bombings
2019, 27 January: 2019 Jolo Cathedral bombings
2019, 21 April: 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings
2019, 4 August: 2019 Cairo bombing
2020s
See also: aircraft hijacking, Palestinian terrorism, American terrorism, Israeli terrorism, IRA, suicide bombing, List of massacres, assassinations, Dupont Plaza Hotel, GIA
History-related lists |
4384 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20telescope%20types | List of telescope types | Astronomical telescopes are divided into subgroups. All telescopes work by collecting electromagnetic radiation and focussing it into an image which may be seen or photographed. The purpose is to see things which are far away in the universe.
The traditional types all work to collect visible light from the sky. Recent types may work outside the visible spectrum. They all have their different advantages and disadvantages and they are used in different areas of astronomy.
Optical
Refractors
Dioptrics.
Telescopes which create their image with an objective that is a convex lens (refractors) are said to be "dioptric" telescopes.
Achromatic: uses convex and concave lenses together, to correct for chromatic aberration.
Apochromatic: a more complex arrangement, for even less chromatic aberration.
Non-achromatic
Binoculars
Reflectors
Catoptrics.
Optical systems using mirrors: uses reflected light to form the image.
Newtonian
Gregorian
Cassegrain
Herschelian telescope
Combined Lens-Mirror Systems
Catadioptric telescopes use corrector lenses to fix problems in a reflector.
Schmidt telescope
Maksutov telescope
Outside the optical spectrum
Čerenkov radiation telescope used to detect gamma rays
Infrared telescope
Radio telescope
Submillimeter telescope
Ultraviolet light telescope (for Ultraviolet astronomy)
X-ray telescope (for X-ray astronomy)
Wolter telescope
!
Astronomy lists |
4385 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20shipwrecks | List of shipwrecks | This list of shipwrecks is of those sunken ships whose remains have been found.
Aarhus Historic Shipwreck
Admiral Graf Spee
VOC ship Amsterdam
SS Andrea Doria, 1956
USS Arizona, Pearl Harbor
VOC ship Batavia
Bendigo, North Carolina, United States
Bismarck battleship
Breadalbane, 1853
Carnatic shipwreck, Red Sea
USS California (later San Diego), Long Island
USS Eagle, Lake Champlain, New York
Elingamite, New Zealand, 1902
SS Edmund Fitzgerald, Lake Superior, 1975
Cape Gelidonya
Giglio Island, Etruscan wreck
HMS Hampshire
HMS Hood
HMS Hussar
Iria
I-18tou midget submarine
I-52
Russian submarine Kursk
Lady Elgin, Chicago, Illinois
HMT Lancastria
RMS Lusitania
Mahdia
Mary Celestia
Mary Rose
Medusa, French passenger ship of west Africa in 1816.
HMS Montague, Lundy Island, England
USS Monitor
CSS Muscogee', Georgia, United States
Nola
SS Richard Montgomery
wreck of Rochelongue, France
Scharnhorst, Norway
Nuestra Senora de Atocha - Spanish galleon which sank in 1622 and was found on July 20, 1985 40 miles off the coast of Key West, Florida by treasure hunters who soon began to raise $400 million in coins and silver.
H.M.T. Rohna American troop carrier in WWII
USS Scorpion
Seattle, Norway
Snow Squall
USS Thresher
USS Ticonderoga, Lake Champlain, New York
RMS Titanic
Uluburun
Struma, Black Sea
HMS Wasa, Stockholm, Sweden
Vicar of Bray
SS Yongala, Townsville, Australia
VOC Zuytdorp, Australia, 1712
RMS Empress of Ireland, Saint Lawrence River
The White Ship, 1120
Further reading
A. J. Parker, Ancient shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman provinces (Oxford 1992).
Transport lists
Ships |
4387 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20religions | List of religions | This is a list of religions and spiritual traditions. Some entries are written more than once.
Abrahamic religions
A group of monotheistic traditions often grouped together because all refer to a patriarch named Abraham.
Baha'i Faith
Christianity
Catholicism
Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association (CPCA)
Independent Catholic Churches
Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church
Philippine Independent Church (In communion with the Anglican Church and the Union of Utrecht)
Polish National Catholic Church
Union of Utrecht (In communion with the Anglican Church)
Old Catholicism
Liberal Catholic Church
Roman Catholicism
Sui iuris (including Byzantine Rite churches)
Traditionalist Catholicism
Eastern Catholic Churches
Syriac Catholic Church
Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy
Greek Orthodox Church
Russian Orthodox Church
Oriental Orthodoxy
Coptic Orthodox Church
Ethiopian Orthodox Church
Syriac Christianity
Assyrian Church of the East
Indian Orthodox Church
Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church
Syriac Orthodox Church
Mar Thoma Church
Protestantism
Anglicanism (via media between the Roman Catholic Church and Protestantism)
Anglican Communion
Church of England
Church of Ireland
Church of Wales
Episcopal Church (United States)
Scottish Episcopal Church
Pre-Lutheran Protestants
Hussites
Lollards
Waldensians
Anabaptists
Amish
Brethren in Christ
Church of the Brethren
Hutterites
Mennonites
Old German Baptist Brethren
Baptists
Brethren
Catholic Apostolic Church
Charismatic movement
Christadelphians
Christian Israelite Church
Christian New Religious Movements
Unification Church (Moonies)
Christian Science
Children of God
Peoples Temple
Esoteric Christianity
Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster
Lutheranism
Methodism
Messianic Judaism
Most Holy Church of God in Christ Jesus
New Thought
Pentecostalism
Oneness Pentecostalism
Pietism
Holiness movement
Reformed churches
Puritans
Presbyterianism
Congregational church
Religious Society of Friends
Spiritism
Espiritismo
Swedenborgianism
Christian Spiritualism
United and uniting churches
Unitarianism
Universalism
Restorationism
Adventism
Millerites
Sabbatarianism
Seventh-day Adventists
Christadelphians
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Church of Christ (Temple Lot)
Community of Christ
Rigdonites
The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)
Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)
Iglesia ni Cristo
New Apostolic Church
Jehovah's Witnesses
Restoration Movement
Gnosticism
Christian Gnosticism
Ebionites
Cerdonians
Marcionism (not entirely Gnostic)
Colorbasians
Simonians
Early Gnosticism
Borborites
Cainites
Carpocratians
Ophites
Hermeticism
Medieval Gnosticism
Cathars
Bogomils
Paulicianism
Tondrakians
Persian Gnosticism
Mandaeanism
Manichaeism
Bagnolians
Syrian-Egyptic Gnosticism
Sethians
Basilidians
Thomasines
Valentinians
Bardesanites
Islam
Kalam Schools
Ash'ari
Kalam
Maturidi
Murji'ah
Mu'tazili
Kharijite
Ibadi
Azraqi
Harūriyya
Sufri
Shi'ism
Ismailis
Nizari / Aga Khani
Mustaali / Bohra
Jafari
Twelvers
Alawites
Alevi / Bektashi
Zaiddiyah
Sufism
Bektashi
Chishti
Mevlevi
Naqshbandi
Tariqah
Quadiriyyah
Suhrawardiyya
Tijani
Universal Sufism
Dances of Universal Peace
Sunnism
Hanafi
Berailvi
Deobandi
Hanbali
Wahhabi
Maliki
Shafi'i
Restorationism
Ghair muqallidism
Salafism
Muwahhidism
Quranism
Groups sometimes considered non-Islamic
These religious traditions are not recognized as parts of Islam by mainstream Islamic fiqh, but consider themselves to be Muslim.
Ahl-e Haqq (Yarsan)
Ahl-e Qur'an
Ahmadiyya
Druze
Nation of Islam
Nazati Muslim
Moorish Science Temple of America
United Submitters International
Zikri
Judaism
Rabbinic Judaism
Conservative Judaism
Masorti
Conservadox Judaism
Union for Traditional Judaism
Orthodox Judaism
Haredi Judaism
Hasidic Judaism
Modern Orthodox Judaism
Reform Judaism
Progressive Judaism
Liberal Judaism
Non-Rabbinic Judaism
Alternative Judaism
Humanistic Judaism (not always identified as a religion)
Jewish Renewal
Karaite Judaism
Reconstructionist Judaism
Historical groups
Essenes
Pharisees (ancestor of Rabbinic Judaism)
Sadducees
Zealots
Sicarii
Other sects
Samaritanism
Ebionites
Elkasites
Nazarenes
Sabbateans
Frankists
Melchizedek
New Age
Others
Alevism
Manichaism
Druze
Shabakism
Bábism
Azali
Mandaeism
Rastafari movement
Sabians
African diasporic religions
These religions are those of African cultures who have settled outside of Africa (diaspora). They are also sometimes called Creole religions. They include a number of related religions that developed in the Americas among African slaves and their descendants in various countries of the Caribbean Islands and Latin America, as well as parts of the southern United States. The traditions come from African traditional religions, especially of West and Central Africa.
Batuque
Candomblé
Dahomey mythology
Haitian mythology
Kumina
Macumba
Mami Wata
Obeah
Oyotunji
Quimbanda
Rastafari
Santería (Lukumi)
Umbanda
Vodou
Winti
Eastern religion
Dharmic religions
Religions that have idea of Dharma.
Buddhism
Nikaya schools (which have historically been called Hinayana in the West)
Theravada
Sri Lankan Amarapura Nikaya
Sri Lankan Siam Nikaya
Sri Lankan Ramañña Nikaya
Bangladeshi Sangharaj Nikaya
Bangladeshi Mahasthabir Nikaya
Thai Maha Nikaya
Dhammakaya Movement
Thai Thammayut Nikaya
Thai Forest Tradition
Mahayana
Humanistic Buddhism
Madhyamika
Nichiren Buddhism
Soka Gakkai
Pure Land
Tathagatagarbha
Tiantai
Tendai
Zen
Caodong
Fuke Zen
Kwan Um School of Zen
Sanbo Kyodan
Sōtō
Ōbaku (school of Buddhism)
Rinzai
Vajrayana
Shingon Buddhiyupa
Dagpo Kagyu
Karma Kagyu
Barom Kagyu
Tsalpa Kagyu
Phagdru Kagyu
Drikung Kagyu
Drukpa Kagyu
Shangpa Kagyu
Nyingmapa
Sakyapa
Jonangpa
Navayana
Shambhala
New Buddhist movements
Aum Shinrikyo (now known as Aleph)
Diamond Way
Friends of the Western Buddhist Order
New Kadampa Tradition
Share International
True Buddha School
Vipassana movement
Hinduism
Agama Hindu Dharma
Hindu revivalism
Lingayatism
Reform movements
Arya Samaj
Brahmo Samaj
Shaivism
Shaktism
Tantrism
Smartism
Vaishnavism
Gaudiya Vaishnavism
ISKCON (Hare Krishna)
Major schools and movements of Hindu philosophy
Nyaya
Purva mimamsa
Samkhya
Vaisheshika
Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa)
Advaita Vedanta
Integral Yoga
Vishishtadvaita
Dvaita Vedanta
Yoga
Ashtanga Yoga
Bhakti Yoga
Hatha yoga
Siddha Yoga
Tantric Yoga
Jainism
Sikhism
Main article: Sikhism
Akhand Kirtani Jatha (AKJ)
Amritdhari Sikh
Brahm Bunga Trust (Dodra)
Bhaniara Bhavsagar
Bhindrawale Jatha
Damdami Taksal (DDT)
Dera Sacha Sauda
Haripagni
Kahna Dhesian
Mahant Sikh
Minas (Mirharvan)
Namdhari Sikh (Kuka)
Nanakpanthi
Neeldhari Panth
Nihang (Akali)
Nirankari Sikh
Nirmala Panth
Nirvair Khalsa Daal
Non-Denominational Kesdhari
Prof. Darshan Singh Khalsa (SGGS Academy)
Radhaswami Sikh
Ramraiyya (Ram Rai)
Ravidassia Dharam
Sanatan Sikh Sabha
Sant Mat Movement
Sant Nirankari Mission
Sehejdhari Daal
Sikh Dharma International (SDI)
Sindhi Sikhi
Tapoban Tat-Gurmat
Udasi Sikh
Others
Ayyavazhi
East Asian religions
Cao Dai
Chondogyo
Chinese folk religion
Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
New Confucianism
Falun Gong
I-Kuan Tao
Jeung San Do
Legalism
Mohism
Oomoto
Sanamahism (Meitei religion)
Shinto
Taoism
Tenrikyo
Fictional religions
The Singularity Church of the Machine God (Deus Ex: Mankind Divided)
Tribunal Temple (The Elder Scrolls)
Nine Divines (The Elder Scrolls)
Imperial religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Nordic religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Altmeri religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Bosmeri religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Falmeri religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Dunmeri religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Yokudan religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Bretony religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Khajiiti religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Kothri religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Orcish religion (The Elder Scrolls)
Daedroth worship (The Elder Scrolls)
Cthulhu Mythos (H.P. Lovecraft)
Jedi (Star Wars)
Sith (Star Wars)
Je'daii (Star Wars)
Prophets of the Dark Side (Star Wars)
Cult of the Screaming Blade (Star Wars)
Krayt Cult (Star Wars)
Mandalorian religion (Star Wars)
Voss mysticism (Star Wars)
Mind walkers (Star Wars)
Faith of the Seven (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Old Gods of the Forest (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Faith of R'hllor (A Song of Ice and Fire)
White Walkers / The Great Other (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Valyrian religion (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Ghiscari religion (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Ironborn Religion (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Qohorik religion (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Dothraki religion (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Lhazarene religion (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Warlocks of Qarth (A Song of Ice and Fire)
The Lion of Night and the Maiden-Made-of-Light (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Faceless Men (A Song of Ice and Fire)
Church of the Fonz (Family Guy)
Klingon religion (Star Trek)
Robotology (Futurama)
Virtology (Godspell)
Jashinism (Naruto)
The Church of Hanzo (Overwatch)
Imperial Cult (Warhammer 40k)
Cult Mechanicus (Warhammer 40k)
Divine Bomb worship (Beneath the Planet of the Apes)
Pagan gods (The Wicker Man)
The Two Great Ones (Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure)
Lords of Kobol (Battlestar Galactica)
Cylonian religion (Battlestar Galactica)
He Who Walks Behind the Rows (Children of the Corn)
Eywa (Avatar)
Followers of Mademoiselle (Martyrs)
Muad'Dib (Dune)
Children of Atom (Fallout)
Indigenous traditional faiths
Traditionally, these faiths have all been classified as pagan religions, but modern scholars prefer the terms "indigenous", "primal", "folk", or "ethnic".
African
West Africa
Akan mythology
Ashanti mythology (Ghana)
Dahomey mythology (Fon)
Efik mythology (Nigeria, Cameroon)
Igbo mythology (Nigeria, Cameroon)
Isoko mythology (Nigeria)
Yoruba mythology (Nigeria, Benin)
Central Africa
Bushongo mythology (Congo)
Lugbara mythology (Congo)
Mbuti mythology (Congo)
East Africa
Akamba mythology (East Kenya)
Dinka mythology (Sudan)
Lotuko mythology (Sudan)
Masai mythology (Kenya, Tanzania)
Southern Africa
Khoikhoi mythology
Lozi mythology (Zambia)
Tumbuka mythology (Malawi)
Zulu mythology (South Africa)
American
Traditional religions of the Native American peoples.
Abenaki mythology
Anishinaabe mythology
Aztec mythology
Blackfoot mythology
Cherokee mythology
Chickasaw mythology
Choctaw mythology
Creek mythology
Crow mythology
Eskimo religion
Ghost Dance
Guarani mythology
Haida mythology
Ho-Chunk mythology
Hopi mythology
Huron mythology
Inca mythology
Inuit mythology
Iroquois mythology
Kwakiutl mythology
Lakota mythology
Lenape mythology
Longhouse religion
Maya mythology
Midewiwin
Native American Church
Navajo mythology
Nootka mythology
Olmec mythology
Pawnee mythology
Salish mythology
Seneca mythology
Selk'nam religion
Tsimshian mythology
Urarina
Ute mythology
Zuni mythology
Eurasian
Oriental
Chinese mythology
Japanese mythology
Koshinto
Meitei mythology (Manipuri mythology)
Siberian
Siberian Shamanism
Tengriism
Chukchi mythology
Aleut mythology
Evenk mythology
Yukaghir mythology
Uralic
Estonian mythology
Finnish mythology and Finnish paganism
Hungarian folk religion
Sami religion (including the Noaidi)
Tadibya
Oceania
Australian Aboriginal mythology
Dreaming
Austronesian beliefs
Balinese mythology
Javanese beliefs
Melanesian mythology
Micronesian mythology
Modekngei
Nauruan indigenous religion
Philippine mythology
Anito
Gabâ
Kulam
Polynesian mythology
Hawaiian religion
Maori mythology
Maori religion
Rapa Nui mythology
Moai
Tangata manu
Tuvaluan mythology
Cargo cults
John Frum
Johnson cult
Prince Philip Movement
Vailala Madness
Iranian religions
Manichaeism
Mazdakism
Yazdânism
Alevi
Yarsani
Yazidi
Zoroastrianism
Zurvanism
Historical polytheism
Ancient Near Eastern
Ancient Egyptian religion
Ancient Semitic religions
Mesopotamian mythology
Arabian mythology
Babylonian and Assyrian religion
Babylonian mythology
Chaldean mythology
Canaanite mythology
Canaanite religion
Hittite mythology
Persian mythology
Sumerian mythology
Indo-European
Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
Zoroastrianism
Historical Vedic religion
Baltic polytheism
Basque mythology
Celtic polytheism
Brythonic mythology
Gaelic mythology
Germanic polytheism
Anglo-Saxon religion
Norse religion
Continental Germanic religion
Greek polytheism
Hungarian polytheism
Finnish polytheism
Roman polytheism
Slavic polytheism
Hellenistic
Mystery religions
Eleusinian Mysteries
Mithraism
Orphism
Pythagoreanism
Early Christianity
Gallo-Roman religion
Magic
Hoodoo (Rootwork)
New Orleans Voodoo
Kulam
Magick
Chaos magic
Enochian magic
Demonolatry
Goetia
Pow-wow
Seid (shamanic magic)
Vaastu Shastra
Witchcraft
Mystic and esoteric versions of the major religions
Christian mysticism
Esoteric Christianity
Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism)
Martinism
Sufism (Islamic mysticism)
Hindu mysticism
Surat Shabd Yoga
Tantra
Ananda Marga Tantra-Yoga
Neopaganism
Kemetism (Egyptian neopaganism)
Rodnovery (Slavic neopaganism)
Dievturiba (Latvian neopaganism)
Germanic neopaganism
Asatru
Odinism
Hellenic Polytheism (Greco-Roman neopaganism)
Druidry
New Age religions and UFO religions
Anthroposophy
Eckankar
Meher Baba
Happy Science
Heaven's Gate
Raelism
Scientology
Occult religions
Freemasonry
Rosicrucianism
Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis
Ancient Order of the Rosicrucians
Rosicrucian Fellowship
Hermeticism
Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
Thelema
Left-hand path occult religions
Satanism
Symbolic Satanism
LaVey Satanism (Church of Satan)
Theistic Satanism
Joy of Satan
Order of Nine Angles
Atheistic Satanism
The Satanic Temple
Luciferianism
Setianism (Temple of Set)
Vampirism (Temple of the Vampire)
Parody religions
Flying Spaghetti Monster or Pastafarianism
Discordianism
Church of the SubGenius
Dogeism
Doitsuism
The church of Volgograd
Aghori
Jedism
Shrekism
Silinism (Aerican Empire)
The Church of Molossia
The Church of Jah
Willyism
Related pages
Mythology
Civil religion
Shamanism
Totemism
Atheism
Deism
Panentheism
Pantheism
Other websites
Statistics on religious belief or adherence
Religion-related lists |
4388 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20national%20parks%20in%20Africa | List of national parks in Africa |
Algeria
El Kala National Park
Tasssili N'Ajjer National Park
Angola
Ambriz Game Reserve
Bicuari National Park
Cameia National Park
Cangandala National Park
Iona National Park
Kisama National Park
Luenge National Park
Luiana National Park
Longa-Mavinga National Park
Mucusso National Park
Mupa National Park
Namibe Game Reserve
Quiama National Park
Benin
Pendjari National Park
W National Park
Botswana
Central Kalahari Game Reserve
Chobe National Park
Gemsbok National Park
Khutse Game Reserve
Mabuasehube Game Reserve
Makgadikgadi Pans Game Reserve
Mashatu Game Reserve
Moremi Game Reserve
Nxai Pan National Park
Burkina Faso
Arli National Park
Po National Park
W National Park
Cameroon
Benoue National Park
Korup National Park
Central African Republic
St. Floris National Park
Banigui-Bangoran National Park
Chad
Manda National Park
Zakouma National Park
Congo (Brazzaville)
Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park
Parc National De Odzala
Congo (Zaire)
Epulu Reservation
Garamba National Park
Kahuzi-Biega National Park
Kundelungu National Park
Maiko National Park
L'Upemba National Park
Salonga National Park
Virunga National Park
Kahuzi-Biega National Park
Egypt
Abu Galum Wildlife Reserve
Ahrash Protected Area
Ashtum El Gamil Nature Reserve
Elba National Park
El Hassana Dome
Lake Burullus
Lake Qarun Wetland
Nabq Marine Reserve
Nile Islands
Omayed Protected Area
Petrified Forest Protected Area
Ras Mohamed Marine Reserve
Saluga & Ghazal Wildlife Reserves
Sannur Cave
St. Catherine National Park
Taba Wildlife Reserve
Wadi Alaqi Nature Reserve
Wadi Digla Wildlife Reserve
Wadi El Rayan Nature Reserve
Wadi El Assuti Nature Reserve
Zaranik Protected Area
Equatorial Guinea
Monte Alen Park
Ethiopia
Abijatta-Shalla Lakes National Parks
Awash National Park
Bale Mountains National Park
Mago National Park
Omo National Park
Nechi Sar National Park
Semien Mountains National Park
Gambia
Abuko National Park
Bijilo National Park
Kiang West National Park
Gabon
Okanda National Park
Petit Loango National Park
Wonga-Wongu National Park
Ghana
Owabi Wildlife Sanctuary
Mole National Park
Kujani Game Reserve
Shai Hills Game Reserve
Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)
Marahoué National Park
Comoé National Park
Taï National Park
Mt. Péko National Park
Azagny National Park
Banco National Park
Mt. Nimba National Park
Aboukuamekro Reserve
Iles Ethoiles National Park
Mt. Sangbé National Park
Kenya
Aberdare National Park
Amboseli National Park
Lake Nakuru National Park
Malindi-Watamu Marine Reserve
Marsabit National Park
Masai Mara Game Reserve
Meru National Park
Mt Kenya National Park
Nairobi National Park
Samburu Nature Reserve
Shaba National Reserve
Sibiloi National Park
Tsavo National Park
Madagascar
Isalo
Marojejy National Park
Malawi
Cape Maclear National Park
Kasungu National Park
Lengwe National Park
Liwonde National Park
Majete Game Reserve
Mwabve Game Reserve
Nkhotakota Game Reserve
Nyika Plateau National Park
Vwaza Marsh Game Reserve
Mali
Bouche du Baoule
Mauritania
Banc d'Arguin
Morocco
Massa National Park
Mozambique
Gile National Park
Zinave National Park
Namibia
Etosha National Park
Khaudom Game Reserve
Mahango Game Reserve
Namib-Naukluft National Park
Skeleton Coast Park
Waterberg National Park
West Caprivi Game Reserve
Rwanda
Parc National des Volcans
Senegal
Djoudj National Park
Basse Casamance National Park
Langue de Barbarie National Park
Niokolo-Koba National Park
Sine Saloum National Park
Sierra Leone
Outamba-Kilimi National Park
Tiwai Island Wildlife Sanctuary
Somali Republic (Somalia)
Kismayu National Park
Hargeysa National Park
South Africa
Addo Elephant National Park
Agulhas National Park
Augrabies Falls National Park
Bontebok National Park
Golden Gate Highlands National Park
Kainji Gemsbok National Park
Karoo National Park
Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park
Knysna National Lake Area
Kruger National Park
Madikwe Game Reserve
Marakele National Park
Mountain Zebra National Park
Namaqua National Park
Richtersveld National Park
Table Mountain National Park
Tankwa Karoo National Park
Tsitsikamma National Park
Vaalbos National Park
Vhembe-Dongola National Park
West Coast National Park
Wilderness National Park
Sudan
Boma National Park
Dinder National Park
Swaziland
Malolotja National Park
Mlawula National Park
Mantenga National Park
Hawane National Park
Tanzania
Arusha National Park
Gombe Stream National Park
Katavi National Park
Lake Manyara National Park
Mahale Mountains National Park
Mkomazi National Park
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
Ruaha National Park
Selous Game Reserve
Serengeti National Park
Tarangire National Park
Udzungwa Mountain National Park
Togo
Fazao National Park
Kéran National Park
Fosse aux Lions
Uganda
Ajai Game Reserve
Bokora Corridor Game Reserve
Bugundu Game Reserve
Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
Kabalega Falls National Park
Karuma Game Reserve
Katonga Game Reserve
Kibale Forest Primate Reserve
Kidepo Valley National Park
Kigezi Game Reserve
Lake Mburo National Park
Mgahinga Gorilla National Park
Mount Elgon National Park
Murchison Falls National Park
Queen Elizabeth National Park
Rwenzori Mountains National Park
Semuliki National Park
Toro Game Reserve
Zambia
Kafue National Park
Kasanka National Park
Lochinvar National Park
Luangwa National Park
Nsumbu National Park
Victoria Falls National Park
Zambezi National Park
Zimbabwe
Cecil Kop National Park
Chimanimani National Park
Chizarira National Park
Hwange National Park
Gonareshou National Park
Mana Pools National Park
Matobo National Park
Matusadona National Park
Matopos National Park
Tshabalala National Park
parks
Africa |
4391 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20languages | List of languages | This is a partial list of natural languages, arranged alphabetically.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Related pages
Language (for information about language in general)
Constructed language
List of fictional languages
List of programming languages
Sign language
Languages on the Internet |
4394 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20endangered%20languages | List of endangered languages | A list of endangered languages (with fewer than 1000 speakers or with very fast decline).
In order to judge if a language is actually endangered, the number of speakers is less important than the distribution among age cohorts. There may be 200,000 mother tongue speakers of the Breton language over 50 years of age, but fewer than 2,000 under 25 years of age - thus it is likely Breton will die out in the next half century. On the other hand, while there are 30,000 Ladin language speakers left, almost all children still learn it as their mother tongue - thus Ladin is not endangered in the 21st century.
This page should include a link to the language's page, geographical localization and an approximate number of speakers
Americas
Michif, spoken by fewer than 1,000 people in western Canada
indigenous languages of Canada:
Abenaki, 10 speakers
Beaver, 300 speakers
Cayuga, 360 speakers
Delaware (Munsee), fewer than 10 speakers
Han, few speakers
Hare, 600 speakers
Onandaga, fewer than 100 speakers
Oneida, 200 speakers
Potawatomi, 100 speakers
Sarcee, 10 speakers
Seneca, 25 speakers
indigenous languages of the USA:
Hawaiian language, Hawaii
Asia
Ainu, Northern Japan, 15 speakers
Aramaic, Lebanon, Kurdistan
Chukchi, Siberia, circa 10,400 speakers (2001)
Udmurt, various parts of Russia
Northern indigenous peoples of Russia
Beechistani ,Somewhere in Northern India(Beechistaan), 6 speakers
Sanskrit, Nepal-India, Less than 500 speakers, According to Indian history, Sanskrit is the mother of all Indo-European languages.
Athpahariya language, Athpahariya
Bahing language, Bahing
Barām language, Barām
Chepang language
Kumāle language, Kumāle
Kusunda language, Kusunda
Surel language, Surel
Australia
all aboriginal languages
Europe
European Union
Alsatian (France) very fast decline
Aragonese (Spain) very fast decline
Aromanian (Greece) very fast decline
Basque (Spain and France) very fast decline
Breton (France) very fast decline
Catalan (France) very fast decline
Corsican (France) very fast decline
Catalan (Italy) very fast decline
South Italian Greek (Italy) very fast decline
Italkian (Judeo-Italian) (Italy) probably extinct
Molise Slavic (Italy) very fast decline
Occitan (France) very fast decline
Sami languages, (Scandinavia), some having fewer than 100 speakers
Scottish Gaelic (United Kingdom) very fast decline
Lower Sorbian, (Germany) very fast decline
West Flemish (France) very fast decline
Yevanic (Judeo-Greek) (Greece) probably extinct
Outside of the European Union
Belarusian, very low usage in Belarus
Istro-Romanian, Istria Croatia, 500 speakers
Krimchak (Judeo-Crimean Tatar)
Livonian, Estonia, 35 speakers
Mordvin (Russia), steady decline
Erzya language
Moksha language
Votian, Russia, 50 speakers
Related pages
endangered language
list of extinct languages
Language families and languages
Language policy
References
Other websites
UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages
Language-related lists
Africa |
4395 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20emotions | List of emotions | This is a list of emotions (feelings) felt by humans.
Robert Plutchik's theory
Robert Plutchik's theory defines that the eight basic emotions are:
Fear → feeling of being afraid, frightened, scared.
Anger → feeling angry. A stronger word for anger is rage.
Sadness → feeling sad. Other words are sorrow, grief (a stronger feeling, for example when someone has died).
Joy → the inward feeling of happiness that exists no matter the circumstance, whether good or bad.
Disgust → feeling something is wrong or nasty. Strong disapproval.
Surprise → being unprepared for something.
Trust → a positive emotion; admiration is stronger; acceptance is weaker.
Anticipation → in the sense of looking forward positively to something which is going to happen. Expectation is more neutral.
Book Two of Aristotle's "Rhetoric"
This theory says that the emotions are:
Anger, opposite calmness (not feeling excited)
Friendship, is where people have a bond of joy and will come together and have fun
Fear, opposite courage (having courage in the face of fear)
Shame, opposite confidence (shame: how one feels about one's past bad actions or thoughts; shamelessness: one does not feel shame, but others think one should)
Kindness (benevolence), opposite cruelty (kindness: when people are good to other people)
Pity (when people feel sorry for other people)
Indignation (feeling angry because something is not fair, such as undeserved bad fortune)
Envy, jealousy (pain when people have something that one wishes for oneself)
Love, a strong emotion of attachment one feels for someone else. Ranges to family, pets, friends, significant others or fictional characters
Darwin's ideas
Charles Darwin's The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals was a landmark work which is still used as a source. The following list is taken from the chapter-headings in the book.
Suffering and weeping
Low spirits, anxiety, grief, dejection, despair
Joy, high spirits, love, tender feelings, devotion
Reflection, meditation, ill-temper, sulkiness, determination
Hatred and anger
Disdain, contempt, disgust, guilt, pride, helplessness, patience, affirmation and negation
Surprise, astonishment, fear, horror
Self-attention, shame, shyness, modesty, blushing
The book is famous as being the first scientific book which used photographs as a major part of the evidence. Emotions, Darwin decided, were behavioural traits which evolved. He pointed out how the human face is adapted to show many of these emotions: it has muscles for facial movements which are not possible in other mammals. On the other hand, other mammals do have ways of showing many of these emotions.
Ekman has taken this idea a step further by studying the way people try to hide their emotions. He filmed the tell-tale glimpses of brief moments when true emotion is shown on a person's face.
University of California, Berkeley
An academic study using self-reporting of subjects distinguished 27 discrete emotions named as in the following list:
Admiration
Adoration
Aesthetic Appreciation
Amusement
Anger
Anxiety
Awe
Awkwardness
Boredom
Calmness
Confusion
Craving
Disgust
Empathetic pain
Entrancement
Excitement
Fear
Horror
Interest
Joy
Nostalgia
Relief
Romance
Sadness
Satisfaction
Sexual desire
Surprise
References
Other websites
CountryLiving
Aristotle's List of Emotions
Book Two of Aristotle's Rhetoric
List of basic emotions including all major theorists
Non-verbal communication
Lists |
4396 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes | List of earthquakes | The following is a list of major earthquakes:
The Richter scale was adopted in 1935, and was used in the above table also about earlier earthquakes at a merely indicative title. Earthquakes' effects were once measured after the Mercalli scale, which regards the practical damages that a seismic event causes to infrastructures and houses, and a sort of comparison between the two scale is now in use, especially for ancient events.
Other websites
USGS list of current earthquakes
Earthquakes Canada
Recent New Zealand earthquakes
Science-related lists |
4397 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20disasters | List of disasters | This is a list of disasters, both natural and man-made.
Classical-Era disasters
Mount Vesuvius volcanic eruption, Italy
Alexandria earthquake which destroyed the Pharos of Alexandria
Rhodes earthquake destroyed the Colossus of Rhodes
The city of Rome suffered from a major fire during the time of emperor Nero
Biblical disasters
Sodom and Gomorrah which were destroyed in an undetermined Biblical disaster.
Modern-Era disasters
Mobile magazine explosion (May 25, 1865)
Krakatoa, Indonesia, volcanic eruption, (August 26, 1883)
Great Galveston Hurricane and Flood, Galveston, Texas (September 8, 1900)
1906 San Francisco earthquake, San Francisco, California (April 18, 1906)
Halifax explosion, Halifax, Nova Scotia (December 6, 1917)
The Boston Molasses Disaster, Boston, Massachusetts (January 15 1919)
Tri-State Tornado, Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana (March 18, 1925)
The Bombay Explosion, Victoria Dock Bombay, India (April 14 1944)
The Port Chicago Explosion (July 17 1944)
Hartford Circus Fire, Hartford, Connecticut (July 6, 1944)
Texas City Explosion, Texas City, Texas, (April 16, 1947)
Great Smog of 1952, London, England
24 hours of Le Mans disaster, France, (June 11, 1955)
The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak, Midwest, United States (April 11, 1965)
BLEVE explosion at a refinery in Feyzin, France (January 4, 1966)
Aberfan disaster, Merthyr Tydfil, Wales (October 21, 1966)
Ibrox disaster, Glasgow, Scotland (January 2, 1971)
Summerland disaster, Isle of Man (August 2, 1973)
The Super Outbreak, tornadoes in 13 U.S. states (April 3, 1974)
The Flixborough disaster, North Lincolnshire (June 1 1974)
Hyatt Hotel disaster, Kansas City, Missouri (July 17 1981)
Heysel Stadium disaster, Brussels, Belgium (May 29, 1985)
Piper Alpha Disaster, North Sea, Scotland, (July 6 1988)
Hillsborough disaster, Sheffield, England (April 15, 1989)
Bijlmerramp disaster, Bijlmerramp, Netherlands (October 4 1992)
Chicago Heat Wave of 1995, Chicago, Illinois
May 3rd tornados, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Enschede fireworks disaster, Enschede, Netherlands (May 13, 2000)
Kaprun disaster, Kaprun, Austria (November 11, 2000)
European Heat Wave of 2003, Europe
Bam Earthquake, Iran (December 26, 2003)
Hurricane Katrina, United States (August 23, 2005)
Hurricane Rita, United States (September 24, 2005)
Dam disasters
Great Sheffield flood, Sheffield, England (March 11, 1864)
Johnstown Flood, Johnstown, Pennsylvania, (May 31, 1889)
St. Francis Dam Disaster, Los Angeles, California, (March 12, 1928)
Teton Dam collapse, 1976
Environmental disasters
Love Canal, Niagara Falls, New York (1970s)
Seveso disaster, Italy, 1976
Bhopal Disaster, Bhopal, India (December 3, 1984)
Exxon Valdez oil spill, Prince William Sound (March 24, 1989, 1989)
Prestige oil spill, off the Spanish coast, (April 15, 2002)
Nuclear disasters
Up to this day, most nuclear incidents did not cause many deaths, except for the Chernobyl disaster and Windscale fire. Some of the incidents in the early nuclear age were not well documented or were kept secret. Here is a list of the known nuclear incidents.
December 12,1952 Chalk River Toronto Canada
November 1955 Idaho Falls, Idaho
September, 1957 Kyshtym disaster, Soviet Union
October 1957 Windscale fire, Sellafield, England
January 1961 Idaho Falls, Idaho
October 5, 1966 Idaho Falls, Idaho
December 7, 1975 Lubmin, East Germany
March 28, 1979 Three Mile Island accident, Pennsylvania
April 26, 1986 Chernobyl accident, Ukraine. This is the biggest known nuclear accident to date.
March 24, 1992 St. Petersburgh, Russia
November 1995 Japan (see Nuclear accidents in Japan)
September 20, 1999 Tokaimura nuclear accident, Tokaimura, Japan
March 11, 2011 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan
War disasters
An attack with much collateral damage may be considered a disaster, such as the attack on KdF Ship Wilhelm Gustloff, 1945, the worst or perhaps second worst maritime incident in history, in terms of loss of life in a single vessel (see also note at the end of the article RMS Titanic).
The Blitz, (German massive bombing), caused the deaths of an estimated 42,000 civilians in major British cities.
Dresden fire-bomb attacks, between 35,000 and 135,000 civilians killed in few days, by United Kingdom and United States massive bombing in Dresden, Germany (between February 13 and February 15, 1945).
Tokyo fire-bomb attacks by United States, is estimated to have killed 83,000 civilians.
Nagasaki and Hiroshima nuclear bombing by United States in Japan
Vietnam agent orange herbicide sprayed on few millions Vietnam civilians and US troops, by United States during the Vietnam War between 1961 and 1970.
Air disasters
This is a list of disasters involving objects in flight or near-flight. See also: List of space disasters, List of accidents and incidents on commercial airliners, Incidents in Aviation
Hydravion disaster Rio de Janeiro 3 December 1928
Airship R101 disaster (October 5 1930)
Hindenburg disaster (May 6 1937)
Munich air disaster (February 6 1958)
Staines air disaster (British European Airways Flight 548) (July 18 1972)
Ermenonville air disaster (Turkish Airlines Flight 981) north of Paris (March 3 1974)
Tenerife disaster collision between KLM and PanAm Boeing 747's (March 27, 1977)
Mount Erebus disaster in Antarctica (Air New Zealand Flight 901) (November 28 1979)
Space Shuttle Challenger explosion (January 28 1986)
Ramstein airshow disaster (August 28, 1988)
Lockerbie disaster (Pan Am Flight 103) (December 21 1988)
Kegworth air disaster (January 8 1989)
China Airlines Flight 611 (May 25, 2002)
Ukraine airshow disaster (July 27, 2002)
Space Shuttle Columbia disaster (February 1, 2003)
Shootdown of Boeing 747 Korean Air Flight 7 (September 1 1983)
Japan Airlines Flight 123 (August 12, 1985)
Singapore Airlines Flight 006 (October 31, 2000)
Air France Flight 447 (June 1, 2009)
Railroad disasters
Armagh rail disaster (June 12, 1889)
Tangiwai railway disaster (December 24, 1953)
Granville railway disaster (January 18, 1977)
Eschede train disaster (June 3, 1998)
Ladbroke Grove rail disaster (October 5, 1999)
Neyshabur disaster (February 18, 2004)
Madrid train terror attacks (March 11, 2004)
Ryongchon disaster (April 22, 2004)
Ship and ferry disasters
RMS Titanic sinking (April 15, 1912)
KdF Ship Wilhelm Gustloff (January 30, 1945)
Cap Arcona sinking (May 3, 1945)
SS Andrea Doria sinking July 26, 1956
Herald of Free Enterprise (March 6, 1987)
M/S Estonia sinking (September 28,1994)
Fire disasters
Great Fire of London, London, England (September 2-September 5 1666)
Great Chicago Fire, Chicago, Illinois (October 8, 1871)
Peshtigo Fire, Peshtigo, Wisconsin (October 8, 1871)
Other websites
Almanac of disasters
History-related lists |
4398 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20diseases | List of diseases | This is a list of common, well-known or infamous diseases. This is neither complete nor authoritative. This is not intended to be a list of rare diseases, nor is it a list of mental disorders.
This list includes both common names and technical names for diseases. This is deliberate; where multiple names are in common use for the same disease, all of those names should link to the main article for the disease
A
Abscess
Acute Radiation Sickness
Alzheimer's disease
Anthrax
Appendicitis
Allergy
Arthritis
Aseptic meningitis
Asthma
Astigmatism
Atherosclerosis
B
Bacterial meningitis
Beriberi
Black Death
Black Fungus
Botulism
Breast cancer
Bronchitis
Brucellosis
Bubonic plague
Bunion
Boil
C
Campylobacter infection
Cancer
Candidiasis
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Coeliac disease
Cerebral palsy
Chagas disease
Chickenpox
Chlamydia
Chlamydia trachomatis
Cholera
Chordoma
Chorea
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Circadian rhythm sleep disorder
Colitis
Common cold
Condyloma
Congestive heart disease
Coronary heart disease
COVID-19
Cowpox
Crohn's Disease
Coronavirus
D
Dengue Fever
Diabetes mellitus
Diphtheria
Dehydration
Dysentery
E
Ear infection
Ebola
Encephalitis
Emphysema
Epilepsy
Erectile dysfunction
F
Fibromyalgia
Foodborne illness
G
Gangrene
Gastroenteritis
Genital herpes
GERD
Goitre
Gonorrhea
H
Heart disease
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis C
Hepatitis D
Hepatitis E
Histiocytosis (childhood cancer)
HIV
Human papillomavirus
Huntington's disease
Hypermetropia
Hyperopia
Hyperthyroidism
Hypothyroid
Hypotonia
I
Impetigo
Infertility
Influenza
Interstitial cystitis
Iritis
Iron-deficiency anemia
Irritable bowel syndrome
Ignious Syndrome
Intestine ache
Intestine Gas
Intestine disease
Upset Intestine
J
Jaundice
K
Keloids
Kuru
Kwashiorkor
Kidney stone disease
L
Laryngitis
Lead poisoning
Legionellosis
Leishmaniasis
Leprosy
Leptospirosis
Listeriosis
Leukemia
Lice
Loiasis
Lung cancer
Lupus erythematosus
Lyme disease
Lymphogranuloma venereum
Lymphoma
Limbtoosa
M
Mad cow disease
Malaria
Marburg fever
Measles
Melanoma
Metastatic cancer
Meniere's disease
Meningitis
Migraine
Mononucleosis
Multiple myeloma
Multiple sclerosis
Mumps
Muscular dystrophy
Myasthenia gravis
Myelitis
Myoclonus
Myopia
Myxedema
Morquio Syndrome
Mattticular syndrome
Mononucleosis
N
Neoplasm
Non-gonococcal urethritis
Necrotizing Fasciitis
Night blindness
O
Obesity
Osteoarthritis
Osteoporosis
Otitis
P
Palindromic rheumatism
Paratyphoid fever
Parkinson's disease
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Peritonitis
Periodontal disease
Pertussis
Phenylketonuria
Plague
Poliomyelitis
Porphyria
Progeria
Prostatitis
Psittacosis
Psoriasis
Pubic lice
Pulmonary embolism
Pilia
pneumonia
Q
Q fever
Ques fever
R
Rabies
Repetitive strain injury
Rheumatic fever
Rheumatic heart
Rheumatism
Rheumatoid arthritis
Rickets
Rift Valley fever
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Rubella
S
Salmonellosis
Scabies
Scarlet fever
Sciatica
Scleroderma
Scrapie
Scurvy
Sepsis
Septicemia
SARS
Shigellosis
Shin splints
Shingles
Sickle-cell anemia
Siderosis
SIDS
Silicosis
Smallpox
Stevens–Johnson syndrome
Stomach flu
Stomach ulcers
Strabismus
Strep throat
Streptococcal infection
Synovitis
Syphilis
Swine influenza
Stomach Gas
Stomach Ache
stomach Disease
Kids Stomach Ache
Upset Stomach
T
Taeniasis
Tay-Sachs disease
Tennis elbow
Teratoma
Tetanus
Thalassaemia
Thrush
Thymoma
Tinnitus
Tonsillitis
Tooth decay
Toxic shock syndrome
Trichinosis
Trichomoniasis
Trisomy
Tuberculosis
Tularemia
Tungiasis
Typhoid fever
Typhus
Tumor
U
Ulcerative colitis
Ulcers
Uremia
Urticaria
Uveitis
UTI'S
V
Varicella
Varicose veins
Vasovagal syncope
Vitiligo
Von Hippel-Lindau disease
Viral fever
Viral meningitis
W
Warkany syndrome
Warts
Watkins
Y
Yellow fever
Yersiniosis
Disease-related lists |
4399 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mental%20disorders | List of mental disorders | The following is a list of mental disorders. |
4402 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20communist%20parties | List of communist parties | There are a number of communist parties around the world.
In world history, the Russian and Chinese communists are very important.
In Western Europe, the French, Spanish and Italian communist parties are the biggest. They have taken part in either local, regional or central government in those countries.
Some communist parties have different names, such as Socialist Party, Socialist Workers Party, or Workers Party. But most socialist parties are social democratic and not communist.
List
Other Communist parties in today's world
Algeria - Algerian Party for Democracy and Socialism
Argentina - Communist Party of Argentina
Australia - Communist Party of Australia
Austria - Communist Party of Austria
Bangladesh - Communist Party of Bangladesh
Belarus - Communist Party of Belarus
Belgium - Communist Party of Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina - Workers’ Communist Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Brazil - Brazilian Communist Party, Communist Party of Brazil
Canada - Communist Party of Canada, Marxist-Leninist Party of Canada
Chile - Communist Party of Chile
Colombia - Communist Party of Colombia
Cyprus - Progressive Party of the Working People of Cyprus
Czech Republic - Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia
Denmark - Communist Party (Denmark), Communist Party Of Denmark, Workers' Communist Party (Denmark)
Egypt - Egyptian Communist Party
Finland - Communist Party of Finland
France - French Communist Party
Germany - Communist Party Of Germany
Greece - Communist Party of Greece (KKE)
Honduras - Communist Party of Honduras
Hungary - Hungarian Worker's party
India - Communist Party of India, Communist Party of India (Marxist)
Iraq - Iraqi Communist Party
Israel - Israeli Communist Party
Italy - Italian Communist Party, Communist Refoundation Party
Ireland - Communist Party of Ireland, Workers Party of Ireland
Japan - Japanese Communist Party
Kazakhstan - Communist Party of Kazakhstan, People's Party of Kazakhstan
Mexico - Popular Socialist Party Of Mexico
Moldova - Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova
Netherlands - New Communist Party of the Netherlands
New Zealand - Socialist Party of Aotearoa
Norway - Communist Party of Norway
Pakistan - Communist Party of Pakistan
Palestinian Authority - Palestine People's Party
Peru - Peruvian Communist Party, Shining Path
Poland - Communist Party of Poland
Portugal - Portuguese Communist Party, Portuguese Workers' Communist Party
Philippines-Communist Party of the Philippines
Russia - Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Communist Workers Party of Russia, All-Union Party «Union of Communists»
Serbia and Montenegro - New Communist Party of Yugoslavia
Slovakia - Communist Party of Slovakia
South Africa - South African Communist Party
Spain - Communist Party of Spain
Sudan - Sudanese Communist Party
Sweden - Communist Party (Sweden), Communist Party Of Sweden
Switzerland - Swiss Party of Labor
Syria - Syrian Communist Party, Syrian Communist Party (Unified)
Tajikistan - Communist Party of Tajikistan
Turkey - Workers' Party of Turkey , Labour Party (Turkey)
Ukraine - Communist Party of Ukraine,Union of Communists of Ukraine
United Kingdom - Communist Party of Britain, Communist Party of Britain (Marxist-Leninist), Communist Party of Great Britain (Marxist-Leninist), New Communist Party of Britain, Revolutionary Communist Group
United States - Communist Party USA, Revolutionary Communist Party
Venezuela - Communist Party of Venezuela, Marxist–Leninist Communist Party of Venezuela
Old Communist parties which do not exist today
Nepal - Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)
Cambodia - Communist Party of Cambodia (Khmer Rouge)
Czechoslovakia - Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
Germany - Communist Party of Germany
Germany (East) - Socialist Unity Party of Germany
Hungary - Hungarian Communist Party, Hungarian Workers Party
Indonesia - Indonesian Communist Party (PKI)
Mexico - Mexican Communist Party (PCM)
Netherlands - Communist Party of the Netherlands became part of GroenLinks in 1989
New Zealand - Communist Party of New Zealand
Poland - Polish United Workers Party
Poland - Communist Party of Poland massacred by Stalin in 1938, see Polish minority in Soviet Union
Romania - Romanian Workers' Party
Soviet Union - Communist Party of the Soviet Union
United Kingdom - Communist Party of Great Britain
Yugoslavia - Communist Party of Yugoslavia
Switzerland - Communist Party of Switzerland
Turkey - Turkish Workers Party (TIP)
Related pages
Communism
List of members of the Comintern
List of left communist internationals
List of political parties
References |
4404 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20color%20topics | List of color topics | This is a list of color topics.
Lists |
4406 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20buildings | List of buildings |
Famous or notable buildings with articles about them in Wikipedia include:
Index: A-B - C-D - E-I - J-O -
P-R - S - T-V - W - Y - Z
1 Canada Square, London, United Kingdom
1 Churchill Place, London, UK
2 Fevrier Sofitel Hotel, Lomé, Togo
225 South Sixth, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
30th Street Station, Philadelphia, PA, United States
40 Wall Street, New York City, United States
55 Broadway, London, UK
191 Peachtree Tower, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
30 St Mary Axe, London, United Kingdom
25 Bank Street, London, United Kingdom
40 Bank Street, London, United Kingdom
8 Canada Square, London, United Kingdom
25 Canada Square, London, United Kingdom
A-B
Aberdeen railway station, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem, Israel
Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House, New York City, New York, United States
Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany
Angkor Wat, Siem Reap, Cambodia
Arc De Triomphe, Paris, France
Auditorium Building, Chicago, Illinois, United States
Autostadt, Wolfsburg, Germany
Avala TV Tower, Belgrade, Serbia
Azrieli Center Circular Tower, Tel-Aviv, Israel
Azrieli Center Triangular Tower, Tel-Aviv, Israel
Bajrakli Mosque, Belgrade, Serbia
Balmoral Castle, Aberdeenshire, United Kingdom
Balmoral Hotel, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Bank of America Plaza, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
Bank of England, London, United Kingdom
Bauhaus, Dessau, Germany
Bayreuth Festspielhaus, Bayreuth, Germany
Beaulieu Palace, Hampshire, United Kingdom
Beetham Tower, Manchester, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom
Belfast City Hall, Belfast, County Antrim, United Kingdom
BMW Headquarters, Munich, Bavaria, Germany
Brandenburg Gate, Berlin, Germany
Bridge of Sighs, Venice, Veneto, Italy
Brihadeshwara Temple, Thanjavur, India
BT Tower, London, United Kingdom
Bucharest Mall, Bucharest, Romania
Buckingham Palace, London, United Kingdom
Bulguksa, North Gyeongsang, South Korea
Burghley House, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom
C-D
Caguas Tower, Caguas, Puerto Rico
Caledonian Hotel, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Canada House, London, UK
Canterbury Cathedral, Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom
Cardiff City Hall, Cardiff, United Kingdom
Casa Milà, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Cathedral of Christ the King, Mullingar, Republic of Ireland
Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, Kaliningrad, Russia
Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, Moscow, Russia
Cathedral of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, Israel
Catherine Palace, Tsarskoe Selo, Russia
Central Hotel, Glasgow, United Kingdom
Central Plaza, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
Centre Point, London, United Kingdom
Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France
Château Frontenac, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
Chateau Laurier, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Ca D'oro, Venice, Italy
Chiswick House, London, UK
The Chrysler Building, New York, New York, United States
Citadel of Bam, Bam, Iran
City Gate, Ramat-Gan, Israel
Coit Tower, San Francisco, California, USA
Cologne Cathedral, Cologne, Germany
Colón Theater, Buenos Aires, Argentina
The Colosseum, Rome, Italy
Commerzbank Tower, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Concertgebouw, Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Crystal Palace, London, United Kingdom
CN Tower, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Cumberland Terrace, London, United Kingdom
Curzon Street railway station, Birmingham, West Midlands, United Kingdom
Custom House, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
Dagenham wind turbines, Dagenham and Havering, London, United Kingdom
DG Bank building, Berlin, Germany
Doge's Palace, Venice, Italy
Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, Israel
Donglin Temple, Jiangxi, People's Republic of China
Drottningholm Palace Theatre, Stockholm, Sweden
Drum Tower, Xian, People's Republic of China
Dubai Land, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Dunfermline Abbey, Dunfermline, Fife, UK
Durham Cathedral, Durham, County Durham, United Kingdom
E-I
Edinburgh Castle, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Edinburgh City Chambers, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Eiffel Tower, Paris, France
Emirates Tower One, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
The Empire State Building, New York City, United States
El Escorial, Spain
Eton College Chapel, Eton, Berkshire, United Kingdom
Euston station, London, United Kingdom
Euston Tower, London, United Kingdom
Faisal Mosque, Islamabad, Pakistan
Falkland Palace, Falkland, Fife, United Kingdom
Federal Hall, New York City, USA
Flatiron Building, New York City, USA
Forbidden City, Beijing, People's Republic of China
Forth Rail Bridge, Firth of Forth, United Kingdom
Forth Road Bridge, Firth of Forth, United Kingdom
Frauenkirche, Dresden, Germany
Freedom Tower, Miami, Florida, United States
Freedom Tower, New York City, United States
Glasgow Central station, Glasgow, UK
Glasgow Science Centre, Glasgow, United Kingdom
Glasgow Tower, Glasgow, United Kingdom
Globe Theatre, London, United Kingdom
Goldman Sachs Tower, Jersey City, New Jersey, United States
Grand Central Terminal, New York City, New York, USA
Great Pyramid, Giza, Egypt
Great Wall of China, People's Republic of China
Greyfriars Kirk, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Bilbao, Spain
Habitat '67, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey
Haeinsa, South Gyeongsang, South Korea
John Hancock building, Chicago, Illinois, United States
Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, United Kingdom
Heathrow Airport, Hillingdon, London, United Kingdom
Hephaesteum, Athens, Greece
Himeji castle, Hyogo prefecture, Japan, Japan
Hiroshima Peace Memorial, Hiroshima, Japan
Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Holywood Sign, Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, USA
Home Insurance Building, Chicago, Illinois, United States
Hopewell Centre, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
Humber Bridge, Humber Estuary, United Kingdom
Hungarian Parliament Building, Budapest, Hungary
J-O
Jefferson Arch, St. Louis, Missouri, United States
Jefferson Memorial, Washington, D.C., USA
J.P. Morgan Chase Tower, Houston, Texas, United States
The Kaaba, Mecca, Saudi Arabia
Karlskirche, Vienna, Austria
Kennedy Space Center, Florida, United States
Kew Palace, Kew, London, United Kingdom
Kingdom Centre, Glenrothes, Fife, United Kingdom
Kingsgate Centre, Dunfermline, Fife, United Kingdom
Kirkcaldy Museum and Art Gallery, Kirkcaldy, Fife, United Kingdom
King's College Chapel, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom
King's Cross Station, London, United Kingdom
Krak des Chevaliers, Homs, Syria
Leaning Tower of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Leinster House, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
Lighthouse of Alexandria, Alexandria, Egypt
Lincoln Cathedral, Lincoln, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom
Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C., USA
Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgow, West Lothian, United Kingdom
Lloyds Building, London, United Kingdom
London Bridge, London, United Kingdom
London Eye, London, United Kingdom
London Stock Exchange, London, United Kingdom
Longbridge Plant, Longbridge, Birmingham, West Midlands, United Kingdom
Louvre, Paris, France
Lund Cathedral, Lund, Sweden
Madeleine, Église de la, Paris
Mall of America, Bloomington, Minnesota, United States
Marie-Reine-du-Monde Cathedral, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
Marineview Plaza, Hoboken, New Jersey, United States
Marlborough House, London, United Kingdom
Matthias Church, Budapest, Hungary
McEwan Hall, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Melk Abbey, Melk, Austria
Milan Central Station, Milan, Italy
Milano, Duomo di, Milan, Italy
Millennium Dome, London, United Kingdom
El Morro Castle, San Juan, Puerto Rico
Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Nelson's Column, London, United Kingdom
Newport Tower, Jersey City, New Jersey, United States
New College, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Northcliffe House, London, United Kingdom
Notre-Dame de la Paix Basilica, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire
Notre-Dame de Montréal Basilica, Montréal, Quebec
Notre-Dame de Paris, Paris, France
Neuschwanstein, Bavaria, Germany
New York Stock Exchange, New York City, USA
New York Times Building, New York City, USA
Olympian Zeus Temple, Athens, Greece
One Atlantic Center, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
Orsanmichele, Florence, Italy
Old College, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Our Dynamic Earth, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
P-R
Paddington Station, London, United Kingdom
Palace of the Parliament, Bucharest, Romania
Pan Am Building, New York City, New York, United States
Pan-Pacific Auditorium, Los Angeles, California, United States
The Pantheon, Rome
The Panthéon, Paris, Ile de France, France
Paris Opera (Palais Garnier), Paris
Parthenon, Athens, Greece
The Pentagon, Arlington, Virginia, United States
Pennsylvania Station, New York City, USA
Petronas Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Pierhead Building, Cardiff, United Kingdom
Pirreli Tower, Milan, Italy
Plaza las Americas, San Juan, Puerto Rico
Masjid al Haram, Mecca, Saudi Arabia
Masjid al Nabawi, Medina, Saudi Arabia
Merchandise Mart, Chicago, Illinois, United States
Millbank Tower, London, United Kingdom
Port of Southampton, Southampton, Hampshire, United Kingdom
Prado Museum, Madrid, Spain
Price Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, United States
Promenade II, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
Ramesseum, Thebes, Egypt
Reichstag Building, Berlin, Germany
Reliant Astrodome, Houston, Texas, United States
Renaissance Center, Detroit, Michigan, USA
Rheims Cathedral, Rheims, Champagne-Ardenne, France
Rialto Bridge, Venice, Italy
Richmond Palace, Richmond, London, United Kingdom
Roberto Clemente Coliseum, Puerto Rico
Robie House, Chicago, Illinois, USA
Royal Crescent and Royal Circus, Bath, Somerset, UK
Royal Museum, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Royal Opera House, London, United Kingdom
Ryugyong Hotel, Pyongyang, North Korea
S
Sagrada Família, Barcelona, Spain
Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, France
Saint-Joseph du Mont-Royal, Montréal, Canada
Salisbury Cathedral, Salisbury, Wiltshire, UK
Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy
Scottish Parliament Building, Edinburgh, UK
Seattle Central Library, Seattle, Washington, United States
Senate House, University of London, London, United Kingdom
Severn Bridge, Bristol Channel, UK
Shalom Meir tower, Tel-Aviv, Israel
Sheraton City Tower, Ramat-Gan, Israel
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York City, USA
Somerset House, London, United Kingdom
South Station, Boston, MA, USA
Spinnaker Tower, Portsmouth, Hampshire, United Kingdom
St Andrew's Cathedral, St Andrew's, Fife, United Kingdom
St George's Chapel at Winsdor Castle, Windsor, Berkshire, United Kingdom
St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
St. Mark's Basilica, Venice, Italy
St. Mark's Campanile, Venice, Italy
St Martin-in-the-Fields, London, United Kingdom
St Mary-le-Bow, London, UK
St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, United Kingdom
St Paul's Cathedral, London, United Kingdom
St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, Vatican City
Statue of Liberty, USA
La Scala Theater, Milan, Italy
Schönbrunn Palace, Austria
Sears Tower, Chicago, Illinois, United States
Sena Bhavan, Mumbai, India
SkyDome, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Singer Building, New York City, USA
Smith Tower, Seattle, Washington, United States
Songgwangsa, South Jeolla, South Korea
Southdale, Edina, Minnesota, United States
Space Needle, Seattle, Washington, United States
Stephansdom, Vienna, Austria
Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey
Summer Palace, Beijing, People's Republic of China
SunTrust Plaza, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
Sydney Opera House, Sydney, Australia
T-V
Taipei 101, Taipei, Republic of China
Taj Mahal, Agra, India
Tate Britain, London, United Kingdom
Tate Liverpool, Liverpool, Merseyside, United Kingdom
Tate Modern, London, United Kingdom
Tate St Ives, St Ives, Cornwall, United Kingdom
T&C Tower, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Teatro Yaguez, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
Tel-Aviv central bus station, Tel-Aviv, Israel
The Temple of Heaven, Beijing, People's Republic of China
Temple Meads Station, Bristol, United Kingdom
Tokyo Tower, Tokyo, Japan
Tomb of Humayun, Delhi, India
Tomb of Jahangir, Lahore, Pakistan
Toronto Dominion Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Torre de Belém, Belém, Lisboa, Portugal
Tower 42, London, United Kingdom
Tower Bridge, London, United Kingdom
Tower of London, London, United Kingdom
Transamerica Pyramid, San Francisco, California, United States
Tribune Tower, Chicago, Illinois, United States
Troja Palace, Prague, Czech Republic
Turning Torso, Malmo, Sweden
United Nations Headquarters, New York City, New York, United States
United States Capitol, Washington, D.C., USA
U.S. Bank Tower, Los Angeles, California, United States
Versailles, Palace of, Versailles, France
Verre, Maison de, Paris
Vauxhall Cross, London, United Kingdom
Victor Emmanuel Monument, Rome, Italy
Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France
W
Wainwright Building, St. Louis, MO, U.S.
Washington Monument, Washington, D.C., USA
Waterloo Station, London, United Kingdom
Waverley Station, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Wells Cathedral, Wells, Somerset, UK
West Edmonton Mall, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Westin Peachtree Plaza, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
Westminster Abbey, London, United Kingdom
Westminster, Palace of, London, United Kingdom
The White House, Washington, D.C., United States
The Winchester Mystery House, San Jose, California, United States
Winter Palace, St. Petersburg, Russia
Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom
Woolworth Building, New York City, New York, United States
World Financial Center, New York City, New York, United States
World Trade Center, New York City, New York, United States
Wrigley Building, Chicago, Illinois, United States
Y
York Minster, York, North Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Z
Zwinger, Dresden, Germany
Related pages
Aqueduct
Architecture
City gate
Defensive wall
World Heritage Sites
List of bridges
List of tallest structures in the world
List of walls |
4407 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20bridges | List of bridges | List of bridges is a work in progress.
Afghanistan
Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge
Tajik-Afghan Friendship Bridge
Argentina
Armenia
Haghtanak bridge
Austria
Australia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
King Fahd Causeway
Qatar–Bahrain Friendship Bridge
Bangladesh
Bermuda
Somerset Bridge, Bermuda
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Latin bridge in Sarajevo
Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge
Stari Most
Brazil
Bulgaria
Cambodia
Monivong Bridge
Canada
Chile
Colombia
César Gaviria Trujillo Viaduct
Puente de Boyacá
Costa Rica
Puente de la Amistad Costa Rica-Taiwan
Croatia
Czech Republic
Denmark
Dominican Republic
Egypt
Boulak Bridge
El Ferdan Railway Bridge
Suez Canal Bridge
Estonia
Faroe Islands
Brúgvin um Streymin, bridge connecting the islands of Streymoy and Eysturoy
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Lake Polyfytos Bridge
Rio-Antirio bridge, longest cable-stayed bridge in the world
Tatarna Bridge
Hungary
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Al-Aaimmah bridge
Al-Sarafiya bridge
Ireland
Israel
Ad Halom
Allenby Bridge
Chords Bridge
Italy
Japan
Korea, North
Bridge of No Return
Sino-Korea Friendship Bridge (Sinŭiju)
Korea, South
Laos
Second Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge
Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Adolphe Bridge
Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge
Passerelle
Malaysia
Mexico
Coatzacoalcos bridge
Tampico bridge
Mezcala bridge
Montenegro
Millennium Bridge in Podgorica.
Đurđevica Tara Bridge, Tara river in Montenegro
Netherlands
New Zealand
Panama
Bridge of the Americas, Panama City.
Centennial Bridge, Panama City.
Corredor Sur, Panama City
Philippines
Portugal
Romania
Trajan's bridge, Drobeta-Turnu Severin, ancient Roman bridge over the river Danube,(destroyed)
King Carol I Bridge, a railway bridge over Danube, in Cernavodă
Podul Grant, Bucharest
Russia
Moscow
St Petersburg
Others
Serbia
Slovakia
South Africa
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Chapel Bridge, Lucerne
Teufelsbrücke, Schöllenen Gorge, Uri
Tajikistan
Tajik-Afghan Friendship Bridge
Thailand
Turkey
United Kingdom
United States
Uzbekistan
Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge
Amu Daria River Bridge
Venezuela
Angostura Bridge
General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge
Orinoquia Bridge
Zimbabwe and Zambia
Victoria Falls Bridge - connecting Zimbabwe to Zambia, built in 1905 as part of the projected Cape-Cairo railway. |
4408 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20bones%20of%20the%20human%20skeleton | List of bones of the human skeleton | A typical adult human skeleton consists of the following 206 bones. Some people have slightly more or fewer. Some bones are called "proximal" meaning nearer the torso, some as "intermediate" and some as "distal" meaning farther.
In the skull (22):
Cranial bones:
frontal bones
Parietal bone (2)
temporal bones (2)
occipital bone
sphenoid bone
ethmoid bone
Facial bones:
mandible
maxilla (2)
palatine bone (2)
zygomatic bone (2)
nasal bone (2)
lacrimal bone (2)
vomer bone
inferior nasal conchae (2)
In the middle ears (6):
malleus (2)
incus (2)
stapes (2)
In the throat (1):
hyoid bone
In the shoulder girdle (4):
scapula or shoulder blade (2)
clavicle or collarbone (2)
In the thorax (25):
sternum
ribs (2 x 12)
In the vertebral column (24):
cervical vertebrae (7) incl. atlas & axis
thoracic vertebrae (12)
lumbar vertebrae (5)
In the arms (6):
humerus (2)
radius (2)
ulna (2)
In the hands (54):
Wrist (carpal) bones:
scaphoid bone (2)
lunate bone (2)
triquetral bone (2)
pisiform bone (2)
trapezium (2)
trapezoid bone (2)
capitate bone (2)
hamate bone (2)
Palm or metacarpal bones:
metacarpal bones (5 × 2)
Finger bones or phalanges:
proximal phalanges (5 × 2)
intermediate phalanges (4 × 2)
distal phalanges (5 × 2)
In the pelvis (4):
coccyx
sacrum
ossa coxae (hip bones or innominate bones) (2)
In the legs (8):
femur (2)
patella (2)
tibia (2)
fibula (2)
In the feet (52):
Ankle (tarsal) bones:
calcaneus (heel bone) (2)
talus (2)
navicular bone (2)
medial cuneiform bone (2)
intermediate cuneiform bone (2)
lateral cuneiform bone (2)
cuboid bone (2)
Instep bones:
metatarsal bone (5 × 2)
Toe bones:
proximal phalanges (5 × 2)
intermediate phalanges (4 × 2)
distal phalanges (5 × 2)
The infant skeleton has the following bones in addition to those above:
sacral vertebrae (4 or 5), which fuse in adults to form the sacrum
coccygeal vertebrae (3 to 5), which fuse in adults to form the coccyx
ilium, ischium and pubis, which fuse in adults to form the pelvic girdle
Science-related lists |
4410 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20astronomical%20objects | Lists of astronomical objects | This is a partial list of the various lists of astronomical objects which either exist, or should exist, in Wikipedia.
List of stars
List of nearest stars
List of brightest stars
List of planets
List of planetary moons
List of exoplanets
Minor planets:
List of asteroids
List of comets
List of trans-Neptunian objects
List of stars with confirmed extrasolar planets
List of variable stars
List of semiregular variable stars
List of pulsars
List of quasars
List of blazars
List of gamma-ray bursters
List of black holes
List of galaxies
List of nearest galaxies
List of satellites of the Milky Way
List of traditional star names
List of globular clusters |
4411 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20stars | List of stars | The following is a small list of stars. On this list, stars should be placed by their English wiki title, unless a common name is clearly more used.
40 Eridani
51 Pegasi
61 Cygni
70 Virginis
A
Achernar
Acrux
Albireo
Aldebaran
Algol
Alioth
Alniyat
Alpha Arietis (Hamal)
Alpha Centauri (Rigil Kentaurus)
Alpha Herculis ( Ras Algethi)
Altair
Aludra
Antares
Arcturus
Arrakis
Avior
B
Barnard's star
Becrux (Mimosa)
Beta Arietis (Sharatan)
Beta Aurigae (Menkalinan)
Beta Centauri (Hadar)
Beta Columbae
Beta Tauri (Elnath)
Betelgeuse
C
Canopus
Capella
Castor
Cygnus X-1
Deneb
D
Delta Cephei
E
Epsilon Eridani
Epsilon Indi
Eta Carinae
F
Fomalhaut
G
GJ 1061
GRB 970228
H
HE0107-5240
K
Kapteyn's Star
Kruger 60 A
Kruger 60 B
L
Lacaille 9352
Lalande 21185
M
Meissa
Miaplacidus
Mintaka
Mira
Mirach
Mizar
N
Nemesis (hypothetical)
P
Pistol Star
Polaris
Pollux
Procyon
Proxima Centauri
R
Regulus
Rigel
Ross 128
Ross 154
Ross 248
RR Lyrae
S
Saiph
Sirius
Spica
Sun (Sol)
Stephenson 2-18
T
Tau Ceti
Thuban
U
Upsilon Andromedae
V
V886 Centauri (BPM 37093)
Vega
VY Canis Majoris
W
Wolf 359
Related pages
List of nearest stars
Star formation
Star
Stellar evolution
Stellar classification |
4412 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20nearest%20stars | List of nearest stars | This list of the nearest stars to Earth is by distance in light years (ly). These distances are taken from parallax data determined by the Research Consortium on Nearby Stars (or Recons).
The sources for this information were the Yale Parallax Catalog [Y], Hipparcos [H], Soderhjelm 1999 [S], Tinney 1996 [T]. Stars move, and so distances are as at present only.
Some 52 star systems beyond our own, the Solar System, lie within of the Sun. These systems contain 63 stars. 50 of these are red dwarfs, by far the most common type of star in the Milky Way. Much more massive stars, such as our own, make up the remaining 13. In addition to these "true" stars, scientists have identified 11 brown dwarfs (objects not quite massive enough to fuse hydrogen), and four white dwarfs. White dwarfs are extremely dense collapsed cores that remain after stars such as our Sun have exhausted all fusible hydrogen in their core and have slowly shed their outer layers. Despite the relative proximity of these 78 objects to Earth, only nine are bright enough in visible light to be visible to the naked eye from Earth, 6.5 apparent magnitude. All of these objects are currently moving in the Local Bubble, a region within the Orion–Cygnus Arm of the Milky Way.
List
Sun – about 8.2 light minutes from Earth
Alpha Centauri star system – 4.24 to 4.36 ly
Proxima Centauri – 4.24 ly [YH]
Alpha Centauri A – 4.36 ly [YS]
Alpha Centauri B – 4.36 ly [YS]
Barnard's Star – 5.96 ly [YH]
WISE 1049-5319 – 6.5 ly, aka Luhman 16, a binary of two brown dwarf stars
Wolf 359 – 7.78 ly [Y]
Lalande 21185 – 8.3 ly [YH]
Sirius star system
Sirius A – 8.58 ly [YH]
Sirius B – 8.58 ly [YH]
Luyten 726-8 – 8.73 ly
UV Ceti – 8.73 ly [Y]
Gl 65 B – 8.73 ly [Y]
Ross 154 – 9.68 ly [YH]
Ross 248 – 10.32 ly [Y]
WISE 1506+7027 – 16.85 ly
Epsilon Eridani – 10.52 ly [YH]
Lacaille 9352 – 10.74 ly [YH]
Ross 128 – 10.92 ly [YH]
EZ Aquarii star system
EZ Aquarii – 11.26 ly [Y]
Gl 866 B – 11.26 ly [Y]
Gl 866 C – 11.26 ly [Y]
Procyon star system
Procyon A – 11.4 ly [YH]
Procyon B – 11.4 ly [YH]
61 Cygni star system
61 Cygni A – 11.4 ly [YH]
61 Cygni B – 11.4 ly [YH]
Struve 2398 (Gliese 725) star system
Struve 2398 A – 11.52 ly [YH]
Struve 2398 B – 11.52 ly [YH]
Groombridge 34 (Gliese 15) star system
Groombridge 34 A – 11.62 ly [YH]
Groombridge 34 B – 11.62 ly [YH]
Epsilon Indi – 11.82 ly [YH]
DX Cancri – 11.82 ly [Y]
Tau Ceti – 11.88 ly [YH]
GJ 1061 – 11.92 ly [RECONS]
YZ Ceti – 12.13 ly [YH]
Luyten's Star – 12.36 ly [YH]
Teegarden%27s_Star – 12 ly (discovered 2003)
Kapteyn's Star – 12.77 ly [YH]
AX Microscopium – 12.86 ly [YH]
Kruger 60 star system
Kruger 60 A – 13.14 ly [YS]
Kruger 60 B – 13.14 ly [YS]
Ross 614 star system
Ross 614 – 13.34 ly [YS]
Gl 234 B – 13.34 ly [YS]
Gl 628 – 13.81 ly [YH]
Gl 35 – 14.06 ly [YH]
Gl 1 – 14.22 ly [YH]
Wolf 424 star system
Wolf 424 – 14.30 ly [Y]
Gl 473 B – 14.30 ly [Y]
Related pages
Astronomy
Star
List of stars
References
Lists of stars |
4413 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20planets | List of planets | This is a list of two types of planets: standard planets and dwarf planets, in the Solar System.
Planets in the Solar System
Terrestrial planets
Mercury – The planet with the second highest temperature in the Solar System and the closest planet to the Sun.
Venus – The warmest planet. Sometimes called "Earth's twin" because Venus and Earth are very similar.
Earth – The only planet that is known to have life. It has one natural satellite, the Moon.
Mars – Sometimes called the "red planet" and "the brother of Earth".
Phaeton or Astra – a planet that some think broke apart to form the asteroid belt, though most astronomers think it never formed.
Gas giants
Jupiter – The largest planet in the Solar System.
Saturn – Sixth planet from the Sun. It has giant rings around it.
Uranus - Seventh planet from the Sun. It has 11 rings around it.
Neptune – The farthest planet that we know from the Sun.
Other
Pluto – the smallest planet, Pluto is now considered a "Dwarf planet" by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) since August 24, 2006.
Theia – Hypothetical planet which some think crashed into Earth, and created the Moon.
Planet Nine – a hypothetical planet beyond Neptune. It has not been found, but some astronomers think its gravity pulls on the orbits of many dwarf planets. It is thought to be a gas giant.
Dwarf planets
Ceres is the largest asteroid (not mentioning plutinos) in the Solar System's main asteroid belt.
Haumea is shaped like an egg.
Makemake crosses paths with Eris.
Eris follows the most elliptical path of any planet.
Exoplanets
Definition of a planet
Technically, there was never a scientific definition of the term planet before 2006. When the Greeks observed the sky thousands of years ago, they discovered objects that acted differently than stars. These points of light seemed to wander around the sky throughout the year. The term "planet" is derived from the Greek word "planetes" - meaning wanderer.
In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) convened a Planet Definition Committee, deliberated, and ultimately reached consensus on a new definition of planet which leaves us with the eight planets we today consider to comprise the Solar System (thus the exit of Pluto). That new definition: " A “planet” is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit [meaning: 'there are no other bodies in its path that it must sweep up as it goes around the Sun'.]"
Astronomy lists |
4414 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20galaxies | List of galaxies | List of galaxies and galaxy clusters. Because there are so many galaxies in the universe, this list has been divided into several categories.
The first catalog that catalogues galaxies is the Catalogue of Galaxies and of Clusters of Galaxies.
List of nearby galaxies
This is list of nearby galaxies to the Milky Way Galaxy, our galaxy. The first four listed below are part of the Local Group of galaxies, a galaxy group containing at least 50 galaxies, including the Milky Way and Andromeda.
List of farthest galaxies
This is list of farthest galaxy from Milky Way. Remember, the farther away from a galaxy, the greater the redshift of galaxy. Redshift is when object appear in a red color because the distance is farther away.
Note that the idea that the radius of the observable universe must amount to only 13.8 billion light-years (like the age of universe) is incorrect. Light travel distance (LTD) is time required for light to reach the observer.
(≈) means "almost equal to."
And other galaxies :
Abell 1835 IR1916
Andromeda I
Andromeda II
Andromeda III
Andromeda XIX
Baby boom galaxy
Black Eye galaxy (M64)
Bode's galaxy (M81)
Canis Major dwarf galaxy
Cartwheel galaxy
Centaurus A galaxy (NGC 5128)
Circinus galaxy
Cigar galaxy (M82)
Hoag's object (a ring galaxy)
IC 10
IC 1101 (Largest known galaxy with about 100 trillion stars)
IC 1613
Large Magellanic Cloud
Leo I
Leo II
LGS 3
Messier 49 (NGC 4472)
Messier 83 (Southern Pinwheel galaxy)
Messier 84 (NGC 4374)
Messier 87 (NGC 4486)
Messier 100 (NGC 4321)
NGC 185
NGC 147
NGC 205 (M110)
NGS 221 (M32)
NGC 4526
NGC 6822 (Barnard's Galaxy)
Pinwheel galaxy (M101)
Small Magellanic Cloud
Sombrero galaxy (M104) Named “Sombrero” because it looks like a sombrero.
Spindle galaxy (M102)
Starfish galaxy- This is actually 2 Galaxies near the end of a merger.
Sunflower galaxy (M63)
Triangulum galaxy (M33)
Whirlpool galaxy (M51) (Grand Design spiral galaxy)
Wolf-Lundmark-Melotte (WLM)
NGC 6872 (Condor Galaxy)
Malin 1 (The largest known spiral or barred spiral galaxy)
Segue 2 (One of the smallest known galaxies with only 1,000 stars.)
UGC 12158 (A Milky Way twin)
Fireworks Galaxy (NGC 6946)
NGC 6744 (Somewhat like the Milky Way)
NGC 1365 (The Great barred spiral galaxy)
NGC 1232 (A large intermediate spiral galaxy (A galaxy that is a bit of a normal spiral galaxy, but is also a bit of a barred spiral galaxy)
NGC 1316 (Fornax A)
Rubin’s Galaxy (UGC 2885)
NGC 4889 (Coma B)
NGC 4874 (Coma A)
NGC 4921 (An “anemic” spiral)
Messier 74 (Phantom Galaxy)
NGC 3310
NGC 1566 (The Spanish Dancer)
NGC 7603
NGC 7603 b
NGC 2403 (Galaxy a bit like the Triangulum Galaxy)
NGC 6786 (Galaxy interacting with LEDA 62867)
NGC 4911 (Spiral galaxy near the central region of the Coma Cluster.)
NGC 6744 A (Satellite of NGC 6744 (See Above)
NGC 1232 A (Satellite of NGC 1232 (See Above)
NGC 1672 (Galaxy with a large bar, around 20 Kiloparsecs across.)
Comet Galaxy ( Named after its unusual appearance due to it interacting with its home cluster.)
Abell 2261-BCG (A large Galaxy)
NGC 3982 (Classic Spiral galaxy)
NGC 1073 (Somewhat like the Milky Way in type)
NGC 3314 a (Overlaps NGC 3314 b (See below)
NGC 3314 b (Overlapped by NGC 3314 a (See above)
Messier 85 HCC1 [Densest Galaxy Known as of 2015 , near Messier 85.)
Messier 59 (Elliptical Galaxy in the Virgo Cluster)
Messier 99 (Coma Pinwheel Galaxy)
Messier 88
Messier 106 (A seyfert galaxy)
NGC 5195 (Galaxy interacting with the Whirlpool Galaxy ( See above )
Messier 109
NGC 4490 (Interacting with NGC 4485 (See Below)
NGC 4485 (Interacting with NGC 4495 (See Below)
IC 4970-(Galaxy interacting with NGC 6872, stretching its arms.(See above)
Related pages
List of nearest galaxies
Most distant things
Local Group
IC 1101: the largest known galaxy, with about 100 trillion stars.
Galaxy
References
Astronomy lists |
4415 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20nearest%20galaxies | List of nearest galaxies | This list of the nearest galaxies to Earth is ordered by increasing distance. Many of the distances are only estimates, and some may be incorrect by 50% or more. The distance ranking in this list should be seen only as a guess. Distances are given in light years (ly).
The nearest galaxies (ranked)
Milky Way – home galaxy of Earth
Canis Major dwarf 25,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Segue 1 – 75,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sag DEG – 81,000 ly (satellite or part of Milky Way)
Large Magellanic Cloud – 160,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Small Magellanic Cloud – 190,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Ursa Minor dwarf – 205,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Draco dwarf – 248,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sculptor dwarf – 254,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sextans dwarf – 257,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Carina dwarf – 283,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Fornax dwarf – 427,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Leo II – 701,000 ly
Leo I – 890,000 ly
Phoenix dwarf – 1,271,000 ly
Barnard's galaxy (NGC 6822) – 1,760,000 ly
NGC185 – 2,021,000 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
NGC147 – 2,152,000 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda galaxy (M31) – 2,363,000 ly
Messier 32 (NGS 221) – 2,650,000 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
M110 (NGC 205) – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda I – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda II – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda III – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
LGS 3 – 2,477,500 ly (satellite of Triangulum)
IC 1613 – 2,494,000 ly
Triangulum galaxy (M33) – 2,592,000 ly
Aquarius dwarf – 2,608,000 ly
Tucana dwarf – 2,836,000 ly
Wolf-Lundmark-Melotte (WLM) – 3,064,500 ly
Related pages
Galaxy
List of galaxies
Local Group
Most distant things
IC 1101: the largest known galaxy, with about 100 trillion stars.
References
Astronomy lists |
4416 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20satellites%20of%20the%20Milky%20Way | List of satellites of the Milky Way | List of satellites of Milky Way:
Canis Major dwarf galaxy - 25,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sagittarius dwarf - 81,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Large Magellanic Cloud - 160,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Small Magellanic Cloud - 190,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Ursa Minor dwarf - 205,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Draco dwarf - 248,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sculptor dwarf - 254,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sextans dwarf - 257,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Carina dwarf - 283,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Fornax dwarf - 427,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Note: ly means light years
Related pages
List of galaxies
List of nearest galaxies
Local galaxies
Astronomy lists
Milky Way |
4417 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20comets | List of comets | This is a list of some comets in the solar system.
Periodic comets visit us again and again. Non-periodic comets visit us only once. On this list there is a "P" in front of the periodic comets. In front of non-periodic comets there is a "C". There is sometimes a number in front of the "P": it shows the number of times people saw the periodic comet visiting us.
Comets we usually know by a name
Caesar's Comet
Comet Borrelly (19P/Borrelly)
Comet Encke (2P/Encke)
Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1)
Halley's Comet (1P/Halley)
Comet Humason (C/1961 R1)
Comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2)
Comet Ikrya–Seki (C/1965 S1)
Comet Kohoutek (C/1973 E1)
Comet Mrkos (C/1957 P1)
Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (D/1993 F2)
Comet Skjellerup–Maristany (C/1927 X1)
Comet West (C/1975 V1)
Great Comet of 1807 (C/1807 R1)
Great Comet of 1811 (C/1811 F1)
Great March Comet of 1843 (C/1843 D1)
Great January Comet (C/1910 A1)
Comet Swift–Tuttle (109P/Swift–Tuttle)
Periodic comets
Periodic comets have a special place in astronomy, because their orbits are often the same. We know when they will visit us, and we can plan to watch them, and send space probes to look at them.
On August 24, 1994, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) standardized the way they name this type of comet. This system tells us which comet is which. The IAU chose the letter P for periodic comets and D for periodic comets that were lost or which broke into pieces.
Other letters are C for non-periodic comets, and X for comets where we do not know their orbits. It uses A for objects people say are asteroids. Each name starts with a number, so two comets have the same name.
sources
Bright Comet Chronicles
Astronomy lists |
4418 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20stars%20with%20confirmed%20extrasolar%20planets | List of stars with confirmed extrasolar planets | The following is a list of main sequence stars with confirmed extrasolar planets. Note that the masses of the planets are lower bounds only. If a planet is detected by the spectral line displacement method referred to above, no information is gained about the inclination of the planet's plane of orbit around its star, and a value for this is needed to calculate the mass. It has become customary to arbitrarily assume that the plane is exactly lined up with the line of sight from Earth (this produces the lowest possible mass consistent with the spectral line measurements).
HD 83443 - .35 MJ and .16 MJ
HD 16141 - .215 MJ.
HD 168746 - .24 MJ
HD 46375 - .249 MJ
HD 108147 - .34 MJ
HD 75289 - .42 MJ
51 Pegasi - .47 MJ (0.25-AU)
BD -10 3166 - .48 MJ
HD 6434 - .48 MJ
HD 187123 - .52 MJ
HD 209458 - .69 MJ
Upsilon Andromedae - .71 MJ (0.06AU), 2.11 MJ (0.83AU), and 4.61 MJ (2.5AU)
HD 192263 - .76 MJ
Epsilon Eridani - .86 MJ
HD 38529 - .81 MJ
HD 179949 - .84 MJ
55 Cancri - .84 MJ (0.25-AU) and >5? MJ
HD 82943 - .88 MJ and 1.63 MJ
HD 121504 - .89 MJ
HD 37124 - 1.04 MJ
HD 130322 - 1.08 MJ
Rho Coronae Borealis - 1.1 MJ (0.5-AU)
HD 52265 - 1.05 MJ
HD 177830 - 1.28 MJ
HD 217107 - 1.282 MJ
HD 210277 - 1.24 MJ
HD 27442 - 1.43 MJ
16 Cygni B - 1.5 MJ (1.5+AU)
HD 74156 - 1.56 MJand >7.5 MJ
HD 134987 - 1.58 MJ
HD 160691 - 1.97 MJ
HD 19994 - 2.0 MJ
GJ 876 - 1.98 MJ and .56 MJ
HD 92788 - 3.8 MJ
HD 8574 - 2.23 MJ
HR 810 - 2.24 MJ
47 Ursae Majoris - 2.54 MJ (2+AU) and .76 MJ
HD 12661 - 2.83 MJ
HD 169830 - 2.94 MJ
14 Herculis - 3.3 MJ
GJ 3021 - 3.37 MJ
HD 80606 - 3.90 MJ
HD 195019 - 3.43 MJ
HD 213240 - 3.7 MJ
GJ 86 - 4 MJ
Tau Boötis - 3.87 MJ (0.25-AU)
HD 50554 - 4.9 MJ
HD 190228 - 4.99 MJ
HD 168443 - 7.2 and 17.1 MJ
HD 222582 - 5.4 MJ
HD 28185 - 5.6 MJ
HD 178911 B - 6.47 MJ
HD 10697 - 6.59 MJ
70 Virginis - 6.6 MJ (0.5AU)
HD 106252 - 6.81 MJ
HD 89744 - 7.2 MJ
HD 141937 - 9.7 MJ
HD 114762 - 11 MJ (0.5-AU)
confirmed extrasolar planets
Planets |
4421 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20water%20sports | List of water sports | Many sports are played in water.
The following is a list of water sports, divided by category. This list is not complete. Some of the sports include only one part related to swimming, as for example Triathlon.
In the water (13)
Swimming
Triathlon - Usually a combination of swimming, cycling and running
Modern pentathlon includes épée fencing, pistol shooting, swimming, a show jumping course on horseback, and a cross-country run.
Rescue swimming - Swimming with the goal to rescue other swimmers or the practice thereof.
Surf lifesaving - A competitive sport which evolved from the training activities of lifeguards at Australian surf beaches.
Water polo - A team ball sport played in water.
Synchronized swimming - A hybrid of swimming, gymnastics, and ballett.
Fin swimming - Swimming with fins
Water aerobics - Aerobics in the water
Water gymnastics - Gymnastics in the water
Snorkeling - The practice of swimming at the surface (typically of the sea) with a mask and a short tube called a snorkel.
Diving off springboards or off platforms
A water slide - A slide with water flowing down it
Underwater water (6)
Diving
Scuba diving - Swimming under water using a (self contained) breathing apparatus
Free-diving - The aim to maximize the depth dived using no breathing apparatus
Apnea - The practice of not breathing for extended times.
Underwater rugby - Rugby played under water with a ball that has been rendered neutrally buoyant. Surfacing to breathe is only allowed without the ball.
Underwater hockey - Hockey played under water with short wooden curved sticks and a heavy puck. Players wear diving masks, snorkels, and fins, and must surface to breathe while team mates continue the game on the pool bottom.
Near the water (20)
Boating - The use of boats
Bodyboarding - Similar to surfing, but the board is smaller and the person lies down on the board
Canoeing
Canoe Polo - Polo using a canoe
Dragon Boat Racing - A team paddling sport on water
Fishing - The recreation and sport of catching fish
Hydroplane racing
Jet sprint boat racing
Kayaking
Kite surfing - on flat water using a kite for propulsion
Motor boating
Offshore powerboat racing
Parasailing - A person is towed behind a vehicle (usually a boat) while attached to a parachute
Rowing - Propels a boat by means of oars
Sailing - Using the wind for propulsion
Surfing - The sport or pastime of riding a wave towards the shore while standing or lying on a surfboard.
Wakeboarding - Similar to water skiing, but using only one board attached to the feet
Wake skating - Similar to wakeboarding, but the board is NOT attached to the feet
Water skiing - Using skis to slide over the water while being pulled by a boat or other device
Wind surfing - On flat water using wind for propulsion in combination with sails
Overall, there are a total of 39 water sports.
Sports lists |
4422 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20waterways | List of waterways | The list of waterways is a link page for any river, canal, estuary, or firth.
Albania
Australia
Swan River
Port Jackson
Botany Bay
Belgium
Ghent-Terneuzen Canal
Brazil
Amazon River
Tocantins River
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosna
Buna
Drina
Neretva
Una
Vrbas
Canada
Lachine Canal
Rideau Canal
Saint Lawrence Seaway, (Canada and USA)
Trent-Severn Waterway
Welland Canal
China
Amur
Chang Jiang (Yangtze)
Grand Canal of China
Huang He (Yellow River)
Lingqu Canal
Mekong
Songhua River
Tumen River
Yalu River
Egypt
Nile River
Suez Canal
France
Aa River
Aude River
Canal du Midi
Cher River
Dordogne River
Gironde River
Loire River
Meuse River
Moselle River
Rhone River
Saône River
Seine
Têt River
Var River
Germany
Elbe River
Main River
Mittellandkanal
Neisse River
Rhine River
Rhine-Main-Danube Canal (Rhein-Main-Donau-Kanal)
Oder River
Weser River
Greece
Corinthian Canal connected the Gulf of Corinth with the Aegean Sea,
India
Agra canal
Brahmaputra
Ghaggar River
Ganges River
Godavari River
Hakra River (dried-out)
Indus River
Krishna River
Saraswati River
Vedic Saraswati River
Italy
Po River
Isonzo (Soca)
Tevere (Tiber)
Ticino River
Netherlands
Afgedamde Maas
Amsterdam-Rhine Canal
Beneden Merwede
Bergse Maas
Boven Merwede
Canal through Walcheren
Canal through Zuid-Beveland
Ghent-Terneuzen Canal
Gooimeer
Haringvliet
Hollands Diep
IJssel
Linge
Meuse river
Nieuwe Maas
Nieuwe Merwede
Nieuwe Waterweg
North Sea Canal
Oude Maas
Rhine
Scheldt
Scheldt-Rhine Canal
Volkerak
Waal
New Zealand
List of rivers of New Zealand
North Korea
Taedong River
Panama
Panama Canal
Poland
Bydgoszcz Canal
Notec
Nysa
Oder (Odra)
Vistula
Warta River
Republic of Ireland
Grand Canal
Royal Canal
River Shannon
Romania
Danube-Black Sea Canal
Russia
Amur
Lena
Irtysh
Ob
Volga
Yenisei
Slovenia
Bednja
Drave (Drava)
Dravinja
Hudinja
Krka
Ljubljanica
Ložnica
Mirna
Mislinja
Mur (Mura)
Savinja (old English name Sann)
Soča
Sava
Voglajna
South Korea
Geum River
Han River
Nakdong River
Sweden
Göta Kanal
United Kingdom
Rivers of the United Kingdom
Waterways in the United Kingdom
United States
Rivers in the United States
Canals in the United States
Geography-related lists |
4423 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20wave%20topics | List of wave topics | This is a list of wave topics, by Wikipedia page.
0-9
21 cm line
A
Abbe prism
Airy disc
Alfvén wave
amphidromic point
amplitude
amplitude modulation
analog sound vs. digital sound
atmospheric diffraction
atmospheric wave
atmospheric waveguide
audience wave
B
Babinet's principle
bandwidth limited pulse
beat
Berry phase
Bloch wave
blueshift
Brillouin scattering
C
carrier wave
chirp (frequency)
circular polarization
closed waveguide
coherence (physics)
coherence length
collimated light
Compton effect
continuous wave
cutoff wavelength
D
decollimation
delta waves
dielectric waveguide
diffraction
dispersion (optics)
dispersion relation
dominant wavelength
Doppler effect
Doppler radar
E
E-skip
echo (phenomenon)
electromagnetic wave
electromagnetic wave cut-off
Elliott wave
elliptical polarization
evanescent wave
F
F wave
frequency
frequency modulation
fundamental frequency
G
Gaussian beam
geometric optics
gravity wave
groundwave
group delay
group velocity
H
harmonic
holography
Huygens' principle
I
in phase
interferometry
inverse scattering
K
knife-edge effect
L
linear elasticity
linear polarization
longitudinal wave
longwave
M
Mach wave
Mach-Zender interferometer
mediumwave
megatsunami
microwave
microwave auditory effect
microwave oven
microwave plasma
microwaving
Mie scattering
Millimeter Cloud Radar
monochromator
multipath propagation
O
optical waveguide
out of phase
overtone
P
phase (waves)
phase difference
phase inversion
phase modulation
phase velocity
plane wave
polarization
pressure wave
pulse-density modulation
Q
quadrature
quadrature amplitude modulation
quantum optics
quantum tunneling
R
radar
radar astronomy
Radar gun
radio propagation
radio waves
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh-Jeans law
redshift
reflection coefficient
relativistic Doppler effect
ring modulation
ring wave guide
ripple tank
Rossby wave
S
sample (signal)
sawtooth wave
Seiche
seismic wave
seismograph
seismology
Sellmeier equation
shock wave
shortwave
sine wave
single-sideband modulation
skywave
soliton
sonar
square wave
standing wave
standing wave ratio
surface-wave-sustained mode
surfing
Synthetic aperture radar
T
tidal power
transverse mode
transverse wave
triangle wave
trigonometric function
tsunami
U
ultraviolet catastrophe
Underwater wave
V
vestigial-sideband modulation
voltage standing wave ratio
W
wave drag
wave equation
wave front
wave model
wave period
waveform
waveform monitor
waveguide
wavenumber
wavenumber-frequency diagram
waverider
wave velocity
wave-particle duality
wavefunction
wavefunction collapse
wavelength
wavelength-division multiplexing
Wien's law
X
X-band radar
Z
zero-dispersion slope
zero-dispersion wavelength
Science-related lists |
4424 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20waterfalls | List of waterfalls | This is a list of waterfalls.
Africa
Boyoma Falls (Stanley Falls) - Democratic Republic of the Congo
Mutarazi Falls
Sipi Falls - Uganda
Tugela Falls
Victoria Falls - widest in the world
North America
Canada
Bow Glacier Falls - Banff National Park
Della Falls - highest in Canada
Emperor Falls - Mount Robson Provincial Park
Hunlen Falls
Montmorency Falls, Quebec - 83 m (272 ft)
Takakkaw Falls - Yoho National Park
Twin Falls - Yoho National Park
Canadian Falls, Ontario - part of Niagara Falls, with a 53 m (173 ft) drop
Mexico
Basaseachic Falls
United States
(in order of vertical drop)
Yosemite Falls, California - highest waterfall in North America with a 436 m (1430 ft) drop followed by a 206 m (675 ft) cascade and another 98 m (320 ft) sheer drop
Sulphide Creek Falls, Washington, cascades 2182 ft (665 m)
Ribbon Falls, California - 491 m (1612 ft) drop when flowing
Silver Strand Falls, California - 357 m (1170 ft) drop when flowing
Feather Falls, California - 195 m (640 ft) high when flowing
Bridalveil Falls, California - 189 m (620 ft) sheer drop when flowing
Multnomah Falls, Oregon - 189 m (620 ft) drop in two steps of 165 m and 21 m (542 ft then 69 ft), flowing year-round
Taughannock Falls, New York - 66 m (215 ft) single, vertical drop, flowing year-round
American Falls, New York - part of Niagara Falls with a drop of 52 m (170 ft), flowing year-round
Burney Falls, California - spring fed, 39 m (129 ft) drop, 4 m³/s (150 ft³/s) constant flow rate.
Great Falls of the Passaic River, New Jersey - 23 m (77 ft) drop.
Cumberland Falls, Kentucky - 21 m (69 ft) drop, home to moonbows when the moon is full, flowing year-round
Indian Chimney Falls, New York - 18 m (60 ft) drop, at Indian Chimney Farm
Tahquamenon Falls, Michigan - 15 m (50 ft) drop, 61 m (200 ft) wide
Saint Anthony Falls, Minnesota - highest waterfall on the Mississippi River until replaced by dams in the 19th century'''
South America
Argentina/Brazil
Iguaçu Falls
Brazil
Tabuleiro Falls
Brazil/Paraguay
Guaira Falls
Guyana
Kaieteur Falls
King Edward VIII Falls
Venezuela
Angel - highest waterfall in the world, at 979 m (3,212 ft)
Cuquenan Falls
Asia
India
jog Falls
Japan
Nachi Falls - highest in Japan, over 122 m (400 ft) high
Kegon Falls - third highest in Japan, 97 m (318 ft) high
Laos
Khone Falls
Sri Lanka
Bambarakande Falls - highest in Sri Lanka 263 m high
Diyaluma Falls - most famous in Sri Lanka 220 m high
Dunhida Falls
Lakshapana Falls
Bopath Ella
Europe
France
Gavarnie Falls
Finland
Hepoköngäs
Kiutaköngäs
Korkeakoski
Greenland
Qorlortorsuaq
Iceland
Aldeyjarfoss
Barnafoss
Dettifoss - most powerful in Europe
Fjallfoss
Gjáin
Glymur
Goðafoss
Gullfoss - largest in Europe
Hafragilsfoss
Háifoss
Hengifoss
Hraunfossar
Selfoss
Seljalandsfoss
Skógafoss
Svartifoss
Norway
Espelandsfossen
Kjell Falls
Lower Mar Valley Falls
Monge Falls
Tyssestrengene Falls
Upper Mar Valley Falls
Utigord Falls
Vettis Falls
Slovenia
Klonte Falls
Lehnjak Falls
Rinka Falls
Waterfalls of Triglav national park
Mostnice Falls
Peričnik Falls
Savica Falls
Switzerland
Engstligen Falls - Adelboden
Giessbach Falls - Brienz
Reichenbach Falls - Meiringen
Rhine Falls
Staubbach Falls - Lauterbrunnen
Trümmelbach Falls - Lauterbrunnen
United Kingdom
England
Gaping Gill - "highest" waterfall in England, with water falling 110m from the surface into an underground cavern
High Force - highest above-ground waterfall in England
Low Force - downstream from High Force
Scotland
Eas Coul Aulin - 200 m (658 ft), highest waterfall in Britain
Gray Mares Tail
Wales
Hendryd Waterfall
Pistyll Rhaeadr - highest waterfall in Wales
Oceania
Australia
Jim Jim Falls
Montezuma Falls
Tin Mine Falls
Twin Falls
Wallaman Falls
Wollomombi Falls
Gunlom Falls
Hawaiian Islands
Akaka Falls
Kahiwa Falls - 530 m (1,750 ft)
Kahuna Falls
Olo'upena Falls - 900 m (2953 ft) total drop. Moloka'i North shore.
Papalaua Falls
Rainbow Falls
Wailua Falls
Waipoo Falls
New Zealand
Sutherland Falls - highest waterfall in New Zealand
Browne Falls - might also be the highest
Tahiti
Fachoda Falls
Geography-related lists |
4427 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tunnels | List of tunnels | The list of tunnels is a link page for any road tunnel, railway tunnel, or waterway tunnel anywhere in the world.
Australia
Sydney Harbour Tunnel
Austria
Tauern Tunnel
Canada
Detroit-Windsor Tunnel
France
Channel Tunnel
Mont Blanc Tunnel
Iceland
Hvalfjörður Tunnel
Vestfirðir Tunnel
Múlagöng Tunnel
Italy
Fornaci Tunnel
Mont Blanc Tunnel
Japan
Seikan Tunnel
Netherlands
List of tunnels in the Netherlands
New Zealand
Tunnels in New Zealand
Spain
Alfonso XIII Tunnel
United Kingdom
Channel Tunnel
Tunnels in the United Kingdom
United States
Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, Alaska
Allegheny Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
Big Walker Mountain Tunnel, Virginia
Blue Mountain Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
Brooklyn Battery Tunnel, New York
Caldecott Tunnel, Orinda, California to Oakland, California
Callahan Tunnel, Boston
Cascade Tunnel, Washington
Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel
Cumberland Gap Tunnel, Kentucky to Tennessee
Detroit-Windsor Tunnel, United States and Canada
Downtown Tunnel, Portsmouth, Virginia to Norfolk, Virginia
East River Mountain Tunnel, West Virginia to Virginia
Eisenhower Memorial Tunnel, Colorado
Flathead Tunnel, Montana
Fort McHenry Tunnel, Baltimore, Maryland
Fort Pitt Tunnel, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel, Hampton, Virginia to Norfolk, Virginia
Harbor Tunnel, Baltimore, Maryland
Holland Tunnel, New York
Kittatinny Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
Liberty Tubes, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Lincoln Tunnel, New York
Midtown Tunnel, Portsmouth, Virginia to Norfolk, Virginia
Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel, Newport News, Virginia to Suffolk, Virginia
Posey Tube, Alameda, California
Queens Midtown Tunnel, New York
Squirrel Hill Tunnel, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Sumner Tunnel, Boston
Ted Williams Tunnel, Boston
Transbay Tube, San Francisco Bay
Tuscarora Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
Webster Tube, Alameda, California
Transport lists |
4428 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tallest%20structures%20in%20the%20world | List of tallest structures in the world | This is a list of tallest structures in the world, past and present of any type. Most of the structures are television broadcasting masts. There are also the taller tower-type structures (like the CN Tower) and the taller high rise buildings (like the Sears Tower).
The list also includes some other structures like oil platforms, electrical towers, bridge towers, etc. List is organized by absolute height since it includes many different classes of structures.
This list includes quite a few masts. A mast is a man-made support structure, commonly used on sailing ships as support for sails, or on land as radio masts and towers used to support telecommunication equipment such as radio antennas ("aerials" in the UK).
Terminology
There is often ambiguity between the terms tower and mast. A tower is a self-supporting or cantilevered structure, while a mast is held up by stays or guys. Both towers and masts have limited floor space and are non-building structures, as opposed to regular buildings which have greater floor space for occupancy. The terminology is further confused through misuse. Skyscrapers are often referred to as towers and some towers use the term mast. Ironically, skyscraper has some etymology from references to high sailboat masts.
List by height
Notes
A minimum height limit of 350 m (1,148 ft) or 300 m (984 ft) for notable structures is used for practical purposes to keep the list to a reasonable length.
Likely structures still missing from this list include masts used for the Russian navigation system RSDN-20.
Structures no longer standing are in italics.
For all structures the pinnacle height is given. So the height of skyscrapers may differ from the values at List of skyscrapers.
Most of the taller masts are in the United States, where a prevalence of masts of around 2,000 feet (610 m) in height is the result of special rules in that country limiting structures and objects taller than 2,063 feet (629 m).
Structures under construction are included in main list if its current height is over 350 m (1,148 ft).
Top 30 of all time
Other structures (past or present) taller than 550 m (1,804 ft)
Other structures (past or present) between 500 and 550 m (1,640 and 1,804 ft)
Other structures (past or present) between 450 and 500 m (1,476 and 1,640 ft)
Other structures (past or present) between 400 and 450 m (1,312 and 1,476 ft)
Other structures (past or present) between 350 and 400 m (1,148 and 1,312 ft)
Notable structures between 300 and 350 m (984 and 1,148 ft)
For practical purposes to keep the list to a reasonable length this part of list contains only notable structures.
Structures taller than 350 m (1,148 ft) under construction
This is an incomplete list of structures taller tha|N|1,148 feet (350 m) under construction. Please correct (by adding further one or by putting completed structures in the upper table, if current height is over 1,148 feet (350 m)).
Proposed radio masts taller than 600 metres
List by continent
Current
The following table is a list of the current tallest structures by each continent thus sea oil platforms are not included (listed by geographic size):
All time
The following table is a list of the all time tallest structures by each continent thus sea oil platforms are not included (listed by geographic size):
Related pages
Radio masts and towers
List of famous transmission sites
List of European medium wave transmitters
List of world's tallest bridges
List of world's tallest dams
References
Other websites
SkyscraperCity
World Federation of Great Towers
Skyscrapers diagrams and forum
Skyscrapers database
Search for Radio Masts and Towers in the U.S.
Lists of buildings |
4429 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20symbols | List of symbols | This is a list of graphical signs, icons, and symbols.
Religious and mystical symbols
Political symbols
Fasces
Hammer and sickle
Swastika (as used by Nazis and neo-Nazis)
Peace symbol
List of political party symbols in India
Scientific and engineering symbols
Astronomical symbols
Chemical symbols
Electronic symbols
Hazard warning symbols
Mathematical symbols
Other symbols
Jolly Roger
Skull and crossbones
"No" symbol
Chess symbols in Unicode
Other websites
Lists |
4430 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20supermarkets | List of supermarkets | This is a list of supermarkets around the world.
Australia
Coles
Bi-Lo
Woolworths
IGA Australia
Aldi Australia
Franklins
Foodworks
SPAR
5 Star
Supabarn
Austria
Hofer - Austrian name for Aldi
Zielpunkt
Billa
Penny
Spar
ADEG
Nah und Frisch
Lidl
Belgium
Albert Heijn
Aldi
Carrefour
Colruyt
Delhaize
GB
Lidl
Makro
Brazil
Bom Preco
Lojas Americanas
Pao de Acucar
Supermercados Bahama
Canada
Atlantic Superstore
Costco
Dominion (Newfoundland)
Extra Foods
Groupe GP Quebec only
Farm Boy (Ontario)
Food Basics (Ontario)
Foodland
Fortinos (Ontario)
FreshCo
Freshmart
IGA (Independent Grocers Association)
Loblaws / Loblaw GreatFood / Loblaws CityMarket
Longo's (Ontario)
Maxi / Maxi & Cie (Quebec)
Metro / Metro Plus
No Frills
Provigo (Quebec)
Safeway
Save-On Foods
Sobeys
Super Valu
T & T Supermarket
The Real Canadian Superstore
Thrifty Foods
Valu-mart (Ontario)
Walmart
Your Independent Grocer / Independent City Market
Zehrs (Ontario)
China
Wal-Mart
Madraswala Supermarket
Croatia
Konzum
Lidl
Mercator
METRO
SPAR
Billa
Velpro
Diskont Feniks
Getro
Czech Republic
Tesco, England
Albert (Ahold, The Netherlands)
Hypernova (Ahold, The Netherlands)
Billa (Rewe, Germany)
Delvita (Delhaize, Belgium)
Denmark
Coop
Netto
El Salvador
Despensa de Don Juan
Super Selectos
Finland
Citymarket
Lidl
Prisma
Seston Etujätti
France
Auchan
Carrefour
Casino
Champion
Coop
((Cora))
Ed or Mr Ed
Franprix
G20
Ifaprix
Inno
Intermarche
Leader Price
Lidl
Marks & Spencer - not any longer
Migros France
Monoprix
Parunis
Proxi
Super U
Uniprix
Germany
Aldi
Edeka
Extra
HL-Markt
Kaiser's
Kaufland
Krone
Lidl
Marktkauf
Minimal
Netto
Norma
Penny
Plus
Reichelt
Real
REWE
Safeway
Spar (Eurospar, Interspar)
Sky
Tengelmann
Tip
Wal-Mart
Greece
see also, List of Greek supermarkets
Alpha-Beta Vassilopoulos
Carrefour - international chain
Champion Mariopoulos
Lidl - international chain
Metro Cash and Carry - international chain
Trofo (Tropho)
Veropoulos, a division of Eurospar, also known as HellaSpar
Hong Kong
Carrefour - not any longer
CitySuper
great
Marks & Spencer
Park'n Shop
Wellcome
Hungary
Metro Aruhaz
Tesco
CBA
Italy
Coop
Conad
Esselunga
Standa
Unisuper
PAM (Piu A Meno)
Japan
Spar
Korea
Wal-Mart
Mauritius
Spar
Mexico
Supermercados Gigante
HEB
Supermercados Internacional
Wal-Mart
Netherlands
Albert Heijn (part of Ahold)
Aldi
Bas van der Heijden
Basismarkt
Boni
C1000
Coop
Deen
Dekamarkt
Digros
Dirk van den Broek
Edah, Konmar, Super de Boer (all parts of Laurus/Casino)
Jan Linders
Jumbo
Golff
Hoogvliet
Lidl
Nettorama
Plus
Poiesz
Spar
Vomar
A&P (past, now?)
Jac Hermans (past, now?)
New Zealand
Big Fresh - owned by Progressive Enterprises
Countdown - owned by Progressive Enterprises
Foodtown - owned by Progressive Enterprises
New World - owned by Foodstuffs
Pak'n Save - owned by Foodstuffs
Price Chopper - owned by Progressive Enterprises
Woolworths - owned by Progressive Enterprises
Norway
Coop
Rimi
Rema 1000
Prix
Kiwi (supermarket)
Mega (supermarket)
Maxi (Hypermarket)
Smart Club (Hypermarket)
Poland
Makro (Metro AG)
Selgros (Fegro/Selgros)
Real (supermarket chain) (Metro AG)
Tesco
Auchan
Leclerc
Hypernova (supermarket chain) (part of Ahold)
Geant
Carrefour
Castorama (Kingfisher)
Nomi (Kingfisher)
Media Markt (Metro AG)
Ikea
Komfort
Office Depot
Adler
PSB
Intermarche
Albert (supermarket chain) (Ahold)
Minimal (supermarket chain)
Biedronka (Jeronimo Martins)
Netto
Plus (supermarket chain)
Avans
Portugal
Pao de Açúcar
Feira Nova
Pingo Doce
Puerto Rico
See United States
Republic of Ireland
Dunnes Stores
Tesco Ireland - formerly Quinnsworth
SuperValu
Centra
Aldi
Tesco
Romania
Angst
Metro Cash and Carry - international chain
Billa - international chain
XXL
Selgros
Carrefour - international chain
Gima
La Fourmi
Mega Image
Profi
Vox Maris
Pic
MARA SUPERMARKET Focsani / Vrancea
Singapore
Carrefour -recently closed down (2012)
Cold Storage
Isetan - Japanese chain
Giant Hypermarket
Jason's Supermarket
NTUC Fairprice
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Lists of companies |
4442 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid | Acid | The article about certain properties of databases is at ACID
Sometimes acid is another name for the drug LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide)
An acid is a substance that can donate a hydrogen ion (H+) (generally speaking, this will be a proton) to another substance. Acids have a pH less than 7.0.
A chemical can donate a proton if the hydrogen atom is attached to an electronegative atom like oxygen, nitrogen, or chlorine. Some acids are strong and others are weak. The weak acids hold on to some of their protons, while the strong acids let go of all of them. All acids will release hydrogen ions into solutions. The amount of ions that get released per molecule will determine if the acid is weak or strong. Weak acids are acids that partially release the hydrogen atoms that are attached. These acids, then, may lower pH by dissociation of hydrogen ions, but not completely. Weak acids generally have a pH value of 4-6 while strong acids have a pH value of 1 to 3.
A base is an acid's "chemical opposite." A base is a substance that will accept the acid's hydrogen atom. Bases are molecules that can split apart in water and release hydroxide ions.
How acids work
Acids and bases typically exist together in equilibrium. This means that within a sample of an acid, some molecules will give up their protons and others will accept them. Even water is a mixture of an acidic ion, H3O+ (called a hydronium ion) and a basic ion, OH- (called a hydroxide ion). A hydronium ion will give up its proton to a hydroxide ion, forming two molecules of H2O, which is neutral. This reaction happens continuously in a sample of water, but overall the sample is neutral because there are equal amounts of hydronium and hydroxide in the sample. For most reactions, however, the acids and bases are not present in equal amounts, and this imbalance is what allows a chemical reaction to occur.
Every acid has a conjugate base formed by removing the acid's proton. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), for example, is an acid and its conjugate base is a chlorine anion, or Cl-. An acid and its conjugate base are opposite in strength. Since HCl is a strong acid, Cl- is a weak base.
Properties
Acids can have different strengths, some are more reactive than others. More reactive acids are often more dangerous.
Acids can have a lot of different properties depending on their molecular structure. Most acids have the following properties:
taste sour when they are eaten
can sting the skin when they are touched
can corrode (or eat away at) metals and skin
can be used as a reactant during electrolysis due to the presence of mobile ions
turn blue litmus paper red
turn red or orange on universal indicator
conduct electricity
Acids can burn the skin, the severity of the burn depending on the type and concentration of the acid. These chemical burns require immediate medical attention.
Because acids donate hydrogen ions, all acids must have hydrogen in them.
Importance
Acids are important. Nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA contain the genetic code. These molecules determine many characteristics of an organism, they are passed from the parents to offspring. DNA contains the plans how to build proteins which are made of amino acids.
Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long chains of hydrocarbons and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid chains with polar, hydrophilic phosphate "head" groups.
In humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach. It can help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides. It can also convert the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid, and octopi produce a black acid called magneta.
Most acids can be found in nature. Some of these include the following:
Vinegar is probably one of the best known; it contains acetic acid, which gives it its well known flavor.
Nitric acid, NHO3 is known since about the 13th century.
Citric acids, C6H8O7 can be found in many kinds of fruit. They were probably discovered by Geber in the 8th century.
Lactic acid, C3H6O3 was found by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1780. It can be found in sour milk products, such as Yogurt.
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 was probably discovered by Geber. Today it can be found in batteries.
References
Related pages
Alkali
Folic acid
Basic English 850 words |
4443 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20dwarf | White dwarf | A white dwarf is a compact star. Their matter is squashed together. Gravitation has pulled the atoms close together, and taken off their electrons. The mass of a white dwarf is similar to the mass of the Sun, but its volume is similar to that of the Earth.
White dwarfs are the final evolutionary state of all stars whose mass is not high enough to become a neutron star. Over 97% of the stars in the Milky Way will become white dwarf stars.§1 After the hydrogen–fusing lifetime of a main-sequence star ends, it will expand to a red giant which fuses helium to carbon and oxygen in its core. If a red giant does not have enough mass to fuse carbon, around 1 billion K, inactive carbon and oxygen will build up at its center. After shedding its outer layers to form a planetary nebula, it will leave behind the core, which is the white dwarf.
The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions, so the star has no source of energy. It is not supported by the heat of fusion against gravitational collapse.
A star like our Sun will become a white dwarf when it has run out of fuel. Near the end of its life, it will go through a red giant stage, and then lose most of its gas, until what is left contracts and becomes a young white dwarf.
History
White dwarfs were discovered in the 18th century. The first white dwarf star, called 40 Eridani B, was discovered on 31 January 1783 by William Herschel.p73 It is part of a three star system called 40 Eridani.
The second white dwarf was discovered in 1862, but was at first thought to be a red dwarf. It was a small star near the star Sirius. This companion star, called Sirius B, had a surface temperature of about 25,000 kelvin, so it was thought of as a hot star. However, Sirius B was about 10,000 times fainter than the primary, Sirius A. Scientists have discovered that the mass of Sirius B is almost the same as that of the Sun. This means that once, Sirius B was a star similar to our own Sun.
In 1917, Adriaan van Maanen discovered a white dwarf which is called Van Maanen 2. It was the third white dwarf to be discovered. It is the closest white dwarf to Earth, except for Sirius B.
Radiation and temperature
A white dwarf has low luminosity (total amount of light given off) but a very hot core. The core might be 107 K, while the surface is only 104 K.
A white dwarf is very hot when it is formed, but since it has no source of energy, it will gradually radiate away its energy and cool. This means that its radiation, which gives it a blue or white colour at the start, lessens over time. Over a very long time, a white dwarf will cool to temperatures at which it will no longer emit light. Unless the white dwarf gets matter from a companion star or some other source, its radiation comes from its stored heat. This is not replaced.
White dwarfs cool slowly for two reasons. They have an extremely small surface area to radiate this heat from, so they cool gradually, remaining hot for a long time. Also, they are very opaque. The degenerate matter that makes up the bulk of a white dwarf stops light and other electromagnetic radiation, so radiation does not carry away much energy.
Eventually, all white dwarfs will cool down into black dwarfs, so called because they lack the energy to create light. No black dwarfs exist yet because it takes longer than the current age of the universe for a white dwarf to cool down. A black dwarf is what will be left of the star after all of its energy (heat and light) is used up.
Re-ignition
White dwarfs may re-ignite and explode as supernovas if they get more material. There is a maximum mass for a white dwarf to remain stable. This is known as the Chandrasekhar limit.
A dwarf might pull in material from a companion star, for example, bringing it over the Chandrasekhar limit. The extra mass would start a carbon-fusion reaction. Astronomers think this re-igniting might be the cause of Type Ia supernovas.
References
Types of stars |
4444 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach | Beach | A beach is a landform along the coast of an ocean, sea, lake, or river. It usually consists of loose particles, such as sand, gravel, shingle, or pebbles. The particles of a beach are sometimes biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or bits of coral and sometimes bits of igneous rock, but the most common mineral in beaches is quartz.
Beaches are natural landing and launching places for boats, and landing craft are specially made for beaches.
People often use beaches for recreation. They swim, bask in the sun, or just relax. The most popular beaches have fine white or light-colored sand and warm water to swim in. Beaches are also used for diving or for seeing marine life.
Among the world's most popular and well-known beaches are Aruba (Dutch Caribbean), Long Beach (Canada), Copacabana Beach (Brazil), Hot Water Beach (New Zealand), Megan Bay (St. Thomas), Kailua Beach (Hawaii), Zandvoort Beach (Netherlands), Jeffreys Bay (South Africa), Bondi Beach (Australia) and Lake Como beaches (Italy).
Taking holidays on the beach is something of a British cultural export. Early railways in the 19th century took people to places they had never seen before. This tourism was made possible by the industrial revolution. Whole seaside resort towns grew to support visitors, where before there were just villages. Vacations at the sea became common all over the world.
Beaches are never static. They are always being built up or eroded, more quickly than other landforms. Over time the boundary between the land and the sea changes. New Romney, a small town in Kent, is one of the Cinque Ports, a mile from the sea. In Henry VIII's time it was a port on the south coast of England. The growth of Dungeness has cut it off from the sea. Dungeness is a huge shingle beach.
References |
4447 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental%20illness | Mental illness | A mental illness is an illness of the mind. People with a mental illness may behave in strange ways or have strange thoughts in their view or the view of others. Mental illnesses can affect the day to day functioning of a person.
Mental illnesses develop during the life of a person. This may be linked to genes and experience. What is considered as a mental illness has changed over time. What is considered to be a mental illness may not be one in a different culture. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) by the American Psychiatric Association is used around the world.
People with a mental illness sometimes have problems dealing with other people, or struggle with daily functioning. Treatment and certain medications can help people with daily functioning.
In some cases, mental illnesses change the way the brain works. Many conditions which affect the brain are not mental illnesses, as they do not change the way in which people think: Neither epilepsy nor Parkinson's disease is a mental illness, yet both affect the brain.
Common mental problems
According to the New Freedom Commission on Mental Health in the United States, the most common type of disability in the United States is major mental illnesses (which include major depression, bipolar disorder, personality disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder).
Thirty-three percent of North American adults will have a mental illness in a given year, according to the National Alliance on Mental Illness. But in more than half of these cases, the mental illness is not bad enough to disrupt daily life activities.
Partly inherited
There is a genetic basis which makes some people more likely to develop mental illness. A study published in The Lancet, a medical journal, found the same set of genetic markers in people with five different disorders: schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism, major depression, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Treatment of mental illnesses
Mental illnesses can be treated by:
medication
Therapy
Psychoeducation
Lifestyle changes
Some more controversial treatments include
electroconvulsive therapy
Lobotomy
Many counties have laws that permit to treat people against their will.
Violence
Even though the media show this differently, studies have shown that people with a severe mental illness are not necessarily violent. Statistically, violence is often caused by factors such as drug abuse, or those related to the personal, social and economic situation.
Findings show that people with a mental illness that live in the community will be victims of violence more often that they will be those starting or spreading it. A study that looked at people diagnosed with "severe mental illness" living in a US inner-city area found that a quarter of them had been victims of at least one violent crime over the course of a year; this proportion was eleven times higher than the average. For people which have been diagnosed with a mental illness it is more difficult to get a trial started, because fewer people believe them, and many people have a prejudice against people with a mental illness.
There are a few specific diagnoses which are defined by conduct problems and violence. These include conditions such as childhood conduct disorder, adult antisocial personality disorder or psychopathy. There are conflicting findings about how much specific symptoms are linked to an increase in violent behaviour. These symptoms include psychosis (hallucinations or delusions) that can occur in disorders such as schizophrenia, delusional disorder or mood disorder. The factors that lead to violent behaviour are more often demographic or economic in nature, such as being young, male, of lower socioeconomic status or of abusing drugs, including alcoholism, to which some people are particularly vulnerable.
Ableism
Some studies show that disabled people are sometimes treated badly. For example, people with mental illness may deal with ableism. An example of ableism is insults, for example calling a mentally ill person a retard.
High-profile cases have led to fears that serious crimes, such as homicide, have increased because people with certain mental illnesses are not treated in specialized institutions, but the evidence does not support this conclusion. Violence that does occur in relation to mental disorder (against the mentally ill or by the mentally ill) typically occurs in the context of complex social interactions, often in a family setting rather than between strangers. It is also an issue in health care settings and the wider community.
Related pages
Mental state examination
Neurodiversity
Lunatic
Common abbreviations for mental illnesses
References
Other websites
National Alliance for the Mentally Ill
Diseases |
4448 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression%20%28mental%20illness%29 | Depression (mental illness) | Depression (also called major depressive disorder, unipolar depression or clinical depression) is a mental illness. Many people think that depression just means a person is very sad. However, depression can cause many symptoms in the body as well as mood problems.
Diagnosis
The ICD-10 is used around the world to diagnose people with illnesses like depression. According to the ICD-10, for a person to be diagnosed with depression, their symptoms have to last for at least two weeks. The symptoms must happen every day, or almost every day. These symptoms also have to cause problems in a person's life (like their work life, family life, social life, or other important parts of their life).
Usually, for depression to be diagnosed, a person must have five or more of these symptoms:
Depressed mood for most of the day (feelings of sadness, emptiness, and/or hopelessness)
Teenagers may be irritable (they may get angry easily) instead of seeming depressed
Feeling much less interested than usual in all, or almost all, activities; or not getting any pleasure from activities
Significant weight loss (when not dieting) or weight gain (generally a change of 5% or more in body weight)
Sleeping more than usual, or having trouble sleeping
Moving around more than usual (psychomotor agitation) or moving more slowly than usual (psychomotor retardation)
Feeling tired or not having energy, nearly every day
Feeling worthless or guilty
Not being able to think, concentrate, or make decisions normally
Thinking a lot about death (not just being afraid to die)
Most people who have not had depression do not completely understand its effects. Instead, they see it as simply being sad. Since it is not understood, many people criticize people with depression for not helping themselves.
Some people with depression die by suicide. Depression is one of the mental illnesses that can cause a person to have suicidal thoughts.
Prevalence
It is impossible to get an exact number of how many people have depression. There are many reasons for this. For example:
People may not admit to having depression, because of the stigma about depression
Some people may not be correctly diagnosed with depression
Different doctors and mental health workers may diagnose depression differently
The number of people diagnosed with depression is different in different cultures, and among men and women
In different cultures
Major depression is one of the most common mental illnesses in the United States. In 2014, 15.7 million adults in the United States had at least one episode of major depression. This is about 6.7% of all adults in the United States.
Around the world, depression causes more disability than any other mental health or behavioral illness, according to the World Health Organization.
However, the prevalence of depression is different in different cultures and countries.
Prince (1968) found virtually no depression in most Asian and African countries. However, psychologists such as Zhang and Kleinman have found disorders with similar symptoms, but different names. For example, in the 1980s, Zhang found that in China, there was little mention of depression. However, instead, a disorder called Neurasthenia was far more common. When interviewing Neurasthenia patients, Zhang found that their symptoms matched the symptoms of depression by over 80%. While the term "depression" was practically unheard of in China, Neurasthenia could well have been a similar disorder – or the same thing.
It is also important to take in different cultures ways of classifying depression. For example, in China, many people believe doctors solve physical symptoms, not mental problems. This may have made it more likely for "depression" to be diagnosed as a medical condition like "Neurasthenia."
In men and women
Typically, in most Western cultures, women are diagnosed with depression twice as often as men. However, men are often more likely than women to die by suicide.
In children
Depression in children can be harder to see. Children who are depressed may have a loss of appetite, meaning that they do not want to eat. They may also be clearly having more trouble in everyday life than before. For example, they may have sleep problems like nightmares; new problems with behaviour or grades at school; or be more irritable than usual.
Types of depression
Major depressive disorder is also referred to as major, biochemical, clinical, endogenous, or biological depression. It may also be called unipolar affective disorder.
There are many subtypes of depression:
Melancholia, or melancholic depression, is very severe (bad). It can cause many physical changes, like sleep and appetite changes. It can also cause a person to change their behavior - for example, by not wanting to be around other people.
Psychotic depression is much like melancholia, but with hallucinations or delusions.
Atypical depression causes anxiety and panic attacks.
Chronic dysthymic disorder is a long-term, mild depression that lasts for at least two years. It often begins in adolescence and lasts for many years.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is when the depression seems to be related to the winter season. It usually starts in the autumn and goes away in the spring every year. It is common in Alaska, Canada, and Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland), but not in Iceland.
Causes of depression
As of 2016, scientists believe there is no one cause of depression. There is a lot of argument over whether depression is caused by biological, cognitive, or sociocultural factors:
Biological explanations of depression focus on changes in brain chemicals (neurotransmitters).
Cognitive explanations of depression focus on how the way we think (cognition) affects our mood. These explanations say that if a person thinks negatively, this thinking can make them feel negatively about themselves and the world around them.
Sociocultural explanations of depression blame stressful things like divorce, losing a job, bullying, and poverty for causing depression.
The United States National Institutes of Health say that depression comes from the brain. However, scientists are still trying to find out exactly why it happens.
Possible causes
There are many theories about what causes depression. These theories include:
Heredity (someone's genes): Depression often runs in families. However, people can get depression even if they are not related to anyone else who has it.
Physiology: The amounts of some chemicals in the brain. Serotonin is the main chemical in the brain that has to do with happiness. Many antidepressant medications work by balancing the amount of serotonin in the brain.
Psychological factors: Low self-esteem and harmful thinking
Early experiences: Events such as the death of a parent or guardian, abandonment or rejection, neglect, chronic illness, and severe physical, psychological, or sexual abuse.
Life experiences: Losing a job, homelessness, problems with money, death of a loved one, relationship problems, separation from a partner, being a victim of crime, or other life problems can cause depression.
Medical conditions: Some illnesses, such as hypothyroidism, hepatitis, mononucleosis, or head injuries, may contribute to depression.
Alcohol and other drugs: Alcohol can make people depressed. If a person abuses alcohol, benzodiazepine-based tranquillizers, sleeping medications, or narcotics, it can affect how long their depression lasts and how bad it is. Some medicines like birth control pills and steroids may also contribute to depression.
Pesticides: Several scientific studies have found statistical links between depression and some pesticides.
Some depressed people also have other mental disorders, such as personality disorders and anxiety disorders.
Treatment
Depression is usually treated with a combination of medication and other therapy. Good exercise helps deal with depression, since exercise releases chemicals that put a person in a better mood. Having a supportive group of friends and doing outside activities can also help prevent or ease depression.
Medication
There are many medications that can help with depression. Many of these are called antidepressants. Examples of medications used to treat depression include:
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). These are now the most commonly used type of antidepressant medicine. These drugs work by allowing the brain to have more serotonin. They have fewer side effects than older antidepressants. Examples include fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), and sertraline (Zoloft).
Tricyclic antidepressants. These are an older type of antidepressant. They are not used often today because they have many bad side effects and do not work as well as SSRIs. An example is nortriptyline (Allegron).
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). They may be used if other antidepressant medications do not work well. This kind of medicine cannot be taken with many different foods and other medications.
Sometimes, antidepressant medicine works better when it is used together with another drug that is not an antidepressant. These "augmentor" drugs include:
Tranquillizers and sedatives. These can help people sleep better and feel less anxious.
Antipsychotics. These can help keep stop mood swings. They can also make hallucinations better, or make them go away completely.
Lithium. This is a mood stabilizer often used for bipolar disorder, but it can also help people with depression.
If people with depression do not take their medicine the right way, the depression can get worse. A doctor must help when they want to change to another medication, or to take a different amount of a medication than before.
Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is often a helpful treatment for depression. In psychotherapy, a therapist helps a person to understand and solve problems which cause depression. The therapist also helps the person learn skills for dealing with their depression.
Psychotherapy can help a person make changes in the way they think, in order to help with life problems and understand what makes depression worse. The most effective psychotherapy for depression is Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). This teaches a person to think in a more rational, positive, realistic manner.
Surgeries and procedures
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), also called electroshock therapy or shock therapy, is used to treat a small percentage of severely depressed people. ECT uses a small amount of electricity to cause an epileptic seizure while the patient is under anesthesia. This may cause some memory loss (amnesia) or other side effects.
In the past, doctors used different ways of treating depression. These are rarely used any more. They include:
Insulin shock treatment. The doctor would lower a patient's blood sugar so much that the patient would have a seizure.
Lobotomy. This is a form of surgery. The surgeon would use an ice pick or a surgical knife to cut nerves in the frontal lobe of the brain.
Pet therapy
Pet therapy and animal companionship can help people suffering from depression or anxiety.
Related pages
Dysthymia, a long-lasting mild depression
Mania
Bipolar disorder, a mood disorder which involves both mania and depression
Cyclothymia, a mild form of bipolar disorder
Melancholia
Further reading
Study showing genetic links between depression and four other major psychiatric disorders: autism ADHD, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia
5 Disorders Share Genetic Risk Factors, Study Finds (The New York Times, February 28, 2013)
Psychiatric Disorders Linked Genetically (The Wall Street Journal, February 27, 2013)
References
Books
Books by psychologists/psychiatrists:
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., Emery, G. (1987). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford.
Klein, D. F., & Wender, P. H. (1993). Understanding depression: A complete guide to its diagnosis and treatment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Weissman, M. M., Markowitz, J. C., & Klerman, G. L. (2000). Comprehensive guide to interpersonal psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.
Books by persons suffering or having suffered from depression:
Smith, Jeffery (2001). Where the roots reach for water: A personal and natural history of melancholia. New York: North Point Press.
Solomon, Andrew (2001). The noonday demon: An atlas of depression. New York: Sribner.
Styron, William (1992). Darkness visible: A memoir of madness. New York: Vintage Books/Random House.
Wolpert, Lewis (2001). Malignant sadness: The anatomy of depression. London: Faber and Faber.
Self-help (bibliotherapeutic) books:
Lewinsohn, P. M., Munoz, R. F, Youngren, M. A., Zeiss, A. M. (1992). Control your depression. New York: Fireside/Simon&Schuster.
Other websites
Clinical-Depression
Internet Mental Health: Major Depressive Disorder
Depression Alliance website (UK charity) [useful information]
Depression Fact Sheets [Facts about the causes, symptoms, and treatment of depressive disorders.]
Detailed information [concerning Emil Kraepelin, who identified Manic Depression]
Depression – A Silent Killer! [Major Causes, Types of Depression, Treatment for Depression]
Mood disorders |
4449 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an | Qur'an | The Qur'an () is the holy book of Islam. The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be "The Word of Allah (God)". This book is different from other religious texts in that it is believed to be the literal words of God, through the prophet Muhammad. Some Muslims call it the Final Testament.
It has been written and read only in Arabic for more than 1,400 years. But, because many Muslims around the world do not understand Arabic, the meaning of the Qur'an is also given in other languages, so that readers can understand better what the Arabic words in the Qur'an mean. These books are like dictionaries to the Qur'an - they are not read as part of the religion of Islam, to replace the Arabic Qur'an. Muslims believe that these translations are not the true Qur'an; only the Arabic copy is the true Qur'an. The Quran is used with the hadith to interpret sharia law.
History
Muslims believe the Qur'an was first revealed to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel in a cave on the mountain of Hira in Mecca, and then over a period of twenty-three years until his death.
The Qur'an was not written all together in book-form while Muhammad was alive; it was kept by oral communication and brief written records. The prophet did not know how to read nor write, but according to Muslims, the prophet's cousin Ali ibn abi Talib, among others, used to write the texts on something when Muhammad was alive. After prophet Muhammad died, Omar ibn Khattab, one of the khulafa u rashidan, compiled the quran into a single book.
The elements, suras, verses, revelations
There are 30 parts in the Qur'an, which make 114 "suras" (chapters). Each sura has a different number of verses.
According to the Muslim teachings, 87 of these suras revealed in Mecca, 27 of these suras revealed in Medina. The suras which took place in Medina are Al-Baqara, Al Imran, Al-Anfal, Al-Ahzab, Al-Ma'ida, An-Nisa, Al-Mumtahina, Az-Zalzala, Al-Hadid, Muhammad, Ar-Ra'd, Ar-Rahman, At-Talaq, Al-Bayyina, Al-Hashr, An-Nasr, An-Nur, Al-Hajj, Al-Munafiqun, Al-Mujadila, Al-Hujraat, At-Tahrim, At-Taghabun, Al-Jumua, As-Saff, Al-Fath, At-Tawba, Al-Insan.
Verses
The verses of the Quran speak about many different topics. For example, the verses of chapter 80 (Abasa) speak about the evils of ableism, also called able-bodyism or ablecentrism. Or verse 2:15 speaks about the evils of being two-faced.
The first and last verse
The first verse revealed is:
(5) اقرَأ بِاسمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذي خَلَقَ (1) خَلَقَ الإِنسانَ مِن عَلَقٍ (2) اقرَأ وَرَبُّكَ الأَكرَمُ (3) الَّذي عَلَّمَ بِالقَلَمِ (4) عَلَّمَ الإِنسانَ ما لَم يَعلَم
Read (commencing) with the Name of Allah, Who has created (everything). He created man from a hanging mass (clinging) like a leech (in the mother’s womb). Read and your Lord is Most Generous, Who taught man (reading and writing) by the pen, Who (besides that) taught man (all that) which he did not know.96:1
The last verse revealed is:
Who believe! fulfil (all) obligations. Lawful unto you (for food) are all four-footed animals. Dead meat, blood, pig, any food which has been blessed by a (false) god other than Allah; an animal whose death resulted from strangulation, bludgeoning, arrows, falling, or bloodloss; an animal which was partly consumed by a wild animal or an animal which is sacrificed on a stone altar are forbidden. However, if faced with starvation, exceptions are allowed.
Earliest surviving fragments
Probably the world's oldest fragments of the Koran have been found in the library of the University of Birmingham, in England.
Radiocarbon dating showed with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645 AD. So the manuscript is at least 1,370 years old. It is the earliest, or among the earliest, in existence.
The fragments are written in ink on sheep or goat skin. They are mounted on a modern paper to help preserve them. They are going on display at the Barber Institute in Birmingham in October 2015.
Related pages
Quranism
References
Other websites
Quran Archive - Texts and Studies on the Quran
Al-Quran project with more than 145 translations in 35 different languages
Quran Word by Word // QuranAcademy.org
Quran in audio wav format and books in English
Islam
Arabic words and phrases
Religious terminology |
4450 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Blair | Tony Blair | Sir Anthony Charles Lynton "Tony" Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007. He was Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007 and Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007. On the day he stood down as Prime Minister and MP, he was made official Envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East on behalf of the United Nations, the European Union, the United States and Russia.
Blair was elected Leader of the Labour Party in the 1994 leadership election following the sudden death of his predecessor, John Smith. Under Blair's leadership the party abandoned many policies it had held for decades. Labour won a landslide victory in the 1997 general election, which ended 18 years of Conservative rule with the heaviest Conservative defeat since 1832.
He was the Labour Party's longest-serving Prime Minister and the only leader to have taken the party to three uninterrupted general election victories.
Gordon Brown, Chancellor of the Exchequer during all Blair's ten years in office, succeeded him as party leader and Prime Minister in 2007.
Early life
Blair was born at Queen Mary Maternity Home in Edinburgh on 6 May 1953. He was the second son of Leo and Hazel Blair. Blair joined the Labour Party in 1975.
Career
Blair was a lawyer before becoming a politician. He married Cherie Booth, also a lawyer, who graduated from the London School of Economics with a first-class honours degree. Blair himself left Oxford University with a second-class degree. They have four children: Euan, Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo. There was a controversy over Blair sending Euan to a grant-maintained school. As a result of this, Alastair Campbell discovered Blair "standing stark naked reading the Daily Mail."
As Prime Minister
As Leader of the Labour Party, he won the 1997, 2001 and 2005 UK general elections. Blair is the first and only Labour Party leader to have won three general elections in a row.
He attributes his success in politics to a pair of "lucky brogues", which he wore for every single Prime Minister's Questions of his leadership. He claimed that "cheap shoes are a false economy".
After-PM
On the day of his resignation, Blair was made an official envoy in the Middle East. In 2004, he started the Commission for Africa. He continued work as a commissioner after his service as Prime Minister ended.
In December 2021, Queen Elizabeth II honored Blair with the Order of the Garter.
References
Other websites
1953 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Oxford
British Roman Catholics
British autobiographers
Former Labour Party (UK) MPs
Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Leaders of the Labour Party (UK)
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
Politicians from Edinburgh
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010 |
4452 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident | Accident | An accident is when something goes wrong when it is not meant to. Physical accidents are things like collisions, injuries, and falling. Non-physical accidents are things like accidentally telling someone a secret, forgetting something important, or deleting an important computer file.
Road accidents kill thousands of people each month in the United States, and thousands each week in the world. They injure more thousands each week. The majority involve a car but there are also many bus, truck and bicycle accidents. Aircraft crashes, ship sinkings and other transport accidents also attract much attention.
Injuries from accidents, however, are more numerous at home than elsewhere. They attract less attention because only a few people are hurt at a time.
Often, accidents are investigated so that we can learn how to avoid them in the future. Sometimes by studying an accident we can discover new things, for example penicillin.
Most of the deaths resulting from injuries are caused by fire accidents. Thus, accidental fires are one of the leading causes of unintentional deaths. The main cause of death in fire incidents is burning, but inhalation of smoke and toxic gas causes death as well. Often the cause of the fire is very simple and unexpected, such as forgetting a candle near something flammable, defect in the hardware, or old electrical wires. So most of the large fires are caused by simple reasons.
Work accidents
Industrial accidents such as mine cave-ins and the West Gate Bridge collapse also kill and maim many workers. The Bhopal disaster killed thousands, mostly not workers.
An accident at work is defined as an external, sudden and violent event. Work accidents happen while an someone is working. It may cause the injury or death of the worker or someone else. For an accident to be a work accident, there must be a direct or indirect relationship of cause and effect between the accident and the work.
Many construction workers are injured. There are multiple reasons for that, but the main reason is working on the edge of high buildings without using a safety belt. Thus, you have to follow the safety rules when you are working on these places.
Chemical accidents can happen in a laboratory. Especially, some students make chemical mistakes that injure them seriously.
References
Health |
4453 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acne | Acne | Acne is an infection of the skin, caused by changes in the sebaceous glands. The most common form of acne is called acne vulgaris, which means "common acne". The redness comes from the inflammation of the skin in response to the infection.
Oils from the glands combine with dead skin cells to block hair follicles. Under the blocked pore, oil builds up. Skin bacteria can then grow very quickly. This infection makes the skin become swollen and red, which becomes visible.
The face, chest, back, and upper arms are most common places for acne to happen.
Acne is common during puberty, when a person is turning from a child into an adult, because of high levels of hormones. Acne becomes less common as people reach adulthood.
There are lots of acne treatment methods available, including natural treatments.
Effects of acne
People of all ages can get acne, although it occurs more commonly in adolescents. Acne can affect people physically, psychologically, and socially.
Physical effects
Acne causes scarring, and acne pustules can be very painful and sensitive.
Psychological effects
People suffering from a bad case of acne, especially adolescents, can develop low self-esteem which can lead to depression.
Social effects
Low self-esteem issues can make a person suffering from acne withdraw from many social events. It makes developing new personal relationships (especially love relationships) more difficult. Low self-esteem can also cause problems with career advancement as the person may find it difficult to present a positive attitude. This may sometimes even lead to suicidal thoughts. Some of the treatments for acne have also shown a link with more suicide attempts.
Causes of acne
Exactly why some people get acne and some do not is not completely known. These can cause acne, or make it worse:
Hormonal fluctuation
Hyperactive sebaceous glands
Stress
Many dead skin cells staying on the skin
Bacteria in the pores
Diet
Aspirin reduces inflammation which in result, reduces facial redness due to acne.
Treatments
Many things are sold to treat acne, the most popular being benzoyl peroxide. Many of these things have not been scientifically proven to help acne. However, a mix of commercial and homemade treatments can help with acne for various reasons.
Killing the bacteria that grow in the blocked follicles. This can be done by ingesting antibiotic medication, or by putting antibiotics on the skin. Antibiotics act quickly and are a powerful way of temporarily getting rid of acne. When the body develops a resistance to the antibiotics, the bacteria returns stronger than before.
Removing oil on the skin can be done by taking drugs that contain Vitamin A. Accutane is the name of the most famous treatment using massive quantities of Vitamin A.
Removing dead skin cells can be done by treatment with salicylic acid. This encourages the skin to peel away the top layer of cells.
Diet: studies have shown that acne is quite rare in areas with different diets, and particular food items have been shown to exacerbate acne.
Popping a pimple should not be done by anyone but a qualified dermatologist. Pimple popping irritates skin, can make the bacteria spread, and can cause scars. If you must pop a pimple yourself, it is advised to apply warm water to the area before popping it and to wash your hand thoroughly before beginning so as to avoid spreading bacteria via the hands. Applying hot water will open up the pores and reduce the damage because it will require less force to pop it.
Epidemiology
There are 650 million people in the world with acne, which is around 9.4% of the global population. More females are getting acne than males (9.8% versus 9.0%). Acne affects 40 to 50 million people in the United States (16%) and approximately 3 to 5 million in Australia (23%). Acne affects people of all ethnic groups.
Acne scars
Bad acne often leads to bad scars where the skin has the shape of a volcano. It is difficult and expensive to treat acne scars.
These are some ways acne scars can be treated:
Dermabrasion. The top layer of the skin is taken away to make the scar look less deep. It makes the scar less visible, but does not remove it completely. Many treatments may be needed.
Laser resurfacing. A laser is used to burn off the top layer of the skin.
Deep penetrating light therapy. A non-laser, non-ultraviolet light therapy that can be used to improve mild to moderate acne. A blue light causes the breakdown of certain chemicals within the acne bacteria, destroying the cell walls.
Punch excision. The scar is raised with a punch tool and the edges are smoothed together.
Chemical peels. Different types of acid are put on the skin so that a smoother layer can form.
Subcision. A hole is made between the scar and the skin under the scar. Blood can pool under the scar, and raise it to the surface of the skin.
Common Myths About Acne
Myth: Only teenagers get acne.
Although acne appears most often in teenagers, it also appears first in people in their 20s and 30s. People of all ages get acne.
Myth: Popping pimples makes them go away sooner.
Quite the contrary: squeezing pimples and blackheads can lead to additional inflammation, infection, and scarring.
Wash your face frequently
This may be the most common myth, which is not true. Washing your face twice a day can be effective and beneficial, but too much can dry out your skin, which can lead to other skin problems.
Myth: Eating chocolate and greasy foods causes acne.
There is no proven link between chocolate, pizza, potato chips, french fries, cheeseburgers, etc., and acne outbreaks. Recent research has indicated a link between acne and non-organic dairy products.
Other websites
Questions and Answers About Acne, from the U.S. National Institutes of Health
References
Diseases caused by bacteria
Skin |
4455 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur | Dinosaur | Dinosaurs (meaning "big lizard ") are a varied group of Archosaur reptiles. They were the dominant land animals of the Mesozoic era. Over 500 different genera of dinosaurs are known. Fossils of dinosaurs have been found on every continent, and there are still frequent new discoveries.
Dinosaurs appeared in the Upper Triassic, about 230 million years ago. The earliest date of a dinosaur fossil is that of Eoraptor and Herrerasaurus from the Argentine, and Saturnalia from Brazil, 237 to 228 mya. By the early Jurassic they were the top land vertebrates, and dominated most environments on land. They continued until the sudden K/T extinction event 66 million years ago.
From the fossil record, we know that birds are living feathered dinosaurs. They evolved from the earliest theropods during the Jurassic. They were the only line of dinosaurs to survive to the present day.
Dinosaurs had adaptations which helped make them successful. The first known dinosaurs were small predators that walked on two legs. All their descendants had an upright posture, with the legs underneath the body. This transformed their whole life-style. There were other features. Most of the smaller dinosaurs had feathers, and were probably warm-blooded. This would make them active, with a higher metabolism than modern reptiles. Social interaction, with living in herds and co-operation seems very likely for some types.
The first fossils were recognised as dinosaurs in the early 19th century. Some of their bones were found much earlier, but were not understood. William Buckland, Gideon Mantell and Richard Owen saw these bones were a special group of animals. Dinosaurs are now major attractions at museums around the world. They have become part of popular culture. There have been many best-selling books and movies. New discoveries are reported in the media.
Types of dinosaurs
Dinosaurs are united by at least 21 traits in their skulls and skeletons. These common characters (called 'synapomorphies') are the reason palaeontologists are sure dinosaurs had a common origin.
However, when definite dinosaur fossils appear (early in the Upper Triassic), the group had already split into two great orders, the Saurischia, and the Ornithischia. The Saurischia keep the ancestral hip arrangement inherited from their Archosaur ancestors, and the Ornithischia have a modified hip structure.
A. Eoraptor, an early saurischian, B Lesothosaurus, a primitive ornithischian, C A saurischian pelvis (Staurikosaurus) D Lesothosaurus pelvis
Dinosaur classification
The following is a simplified list of dinosaur groups based on their evolution. Groups with a dagger (†) next to them don't have any living members.
Dinosauria
Saurischia ("lizard-hipped"; includes Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha)
Theropoda (all bipedal; most were carnivorous)
†Herrerasauria (early bipedal carnivores)
†Coelophysoidea (small, early theropods; includes Coelophysis and its close relatives)
†Dilophosauridae (early crested and carnivorous theropods)
†Ceratosauria (generally elaborately horned, the dominant southern carnivores of the Cretaceous)
Tetanurae (meaning "stiff tails"; includes most theropods)
†Megalosauroidea (early group of large carnivores including the semiaquatic spinosaurids)
†Carnosauria (Allosaurus and close relatives, like Carcharodontosaurus)
Coelurosauria (feathered theropods, with a range of body sizes and niches)
†Compsognathidae (common early coelurosaurs with smaller legs)
†Tyrannosauridae (Tyrannosaurus and its close relatives; had smaller legs)
†Ornithomimosauria (meaning "ostrich-mimics"; mostly toothless; carnivores to possible herbivores)
†Alvarezsauroidea (small insectivores with short arms that each had one large claw)
Maniraptora (meaning "hand snatchers"; had long, slender arms and fingers)
†Therizinosauria (bipedal herbivores with large hand claws and small heads)
†Oviraptorosauria (mostly toothless; their diet and lifestyle are uncertain)
†Archaeopterygidae (small, winged theropods or primitive birds)
†Deinonychosauria (small to medium-sized, bird-like, with a distinctive toe claw.)
Avialae (modern birds and their extinct relatives)
†Scansoriopterygidae (small primitive avialans with long third fingers)
†Omnivoropterygidae (large, early short-tailed avialans)
†Confuciusornithidae (small toothless avialans)
†Enantiornithes (primitive flying avialans that lived in trees)
Euornithes (advanced flying birds)
†Yanornithiformes (toothed Cretaceous Chinese birds)
†Hesperornithes (specialized aquatic diving birds)
Aves (modern, beaked birds and their extinct relatives)
†Sauropodomorpha (herbivores with small heads, long necks, long tails)
†Guaibasauridae (small, primitive, omnivorous sauropodomorphs)
†Plateosauridae (primitive, bipedal "prosauropods")
†Riojasauridae (small, primitive sauropodomorphs)
†Massospondylidae (small, primitive sauropodomorphs)
†Sauropoda (very large and heavy, usually over long; quadrupedal)
†Vulcanodontidae (primitive sauropods with pillar-like arms and legs)
†Eusauropoda ("true sauropods")
†Cetiosauridae ("whale reptiles")
†Turiasauria (European group of Jurassic and Cretaceous sauropods)
†Neosauropoda ("new sauropods")
†Diplodocoidea (skulls and tails elongated; teeth typically narrow and pencil-like)
†Macronaria (boxy skulls; spoon- or pencil-shaped teeth)
†Brachiosauridae (long-necked, long-armed macronarians)
†Titanosauria (diverse; stocky, with wide hips; most common in the late Cretaceous of southern continents)
†Ornithischia ("bird-hipped"; diverse bipedal and quadrupedal herbivores)
†Heterodontosauridae (small basal ornithopod herbivores/omnivores with prominent canine-like teeth)
†Thyreophora (armored dinosaurs; mostly quadrupeds)
†Ankylosauria (scutes as primary armor; some had club-like tails)
†Stegosauria (spikes and plates as primary armor)
†Neornithischia ("new ornithischians")
†Ornithopoda (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using flexible skulls and many teeth)
†Marginocephalia (Had dome-like growths on their skulls made of bone)
†Pachycephalosauria (bipedal with domed or knobby growth on skulls)
†Ceratopsia (quadrupeds with frills; many also had horns)
Dinosaur origins and evolution
Archosaurs
The Archosaurs evolved into two main clades: those related to crocodiles, and those related to dinosaurs.
Archosauria
Pseudosuchia: clade of the crocodiles and their relatives.
Avemetatarsalia: clade of the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, birds and relatives.
Aphanosauria
Ornithodira: clade of the pterosaurs and dinosaurs.
Pterosaurs
Dinosaurs
Earliest dinosaurs
The first known dinosaurs were bipedal predators that were one to two metres long.
The earliest confirmed dinosaur fossils include the saurischian ('lizard-hipped') dinosaurs Herrerasaurus 230–220 mya, Staurikosaurus possibly 230–225 mya, Eoraptor 231.4 mya, and Alwalkeria 230–220 mya. Saturnalia, 232–225 mya, may be a basal saurischian or a prosauropod. The others are basal saurischians.
Among the earliest ornithischian ('bird-hipped') dinosaurs is Pisanosaurus 230–220 mya. Although Lesothosaurus comes from 199–189 mya, skeletal features suggest that it branched from the main Ornithischia line at least as early as Pisanosaurus.
Early saurischians were similar to early ornithischians, but different from modern crocodiles. Saurischians differ from ornithischians by keeping the ancestral configuration of bones in the pelvis (shown in a diagram above). Another difference is in the skull: the upper skull of the Ornithischia is more solid, and the joint connecting the lower jaw is more flexible. These features are adaptations to herbivory; in other words, it helped them grind vegetable food.
Adaptive radiation
Dinosaurs were a varied group of animals. Adaptive radiation let them live in many ecological niches. Paleontologists have identified over 500 different genera and 1,000 species of non-avian dinosaurs. Their descendants, the birds, number 9,000 living species, and are the most diverse group of land vertebrates.
The largest dinosaurs were herbivores (plant-eaters), such as Apatosaurus and Brachiosaurus. They were the largest animals to ever walk on dry land. Other plant-eaters such as Iguanodon had special weapons, to help them fight off the meat-eaters. For example, Triceratops had three horns on its head shield, Ankylosaurus was covered in boney plates, and Stegosaurus had spikes on its tail.
The carnivores were bipedal (walked on their back legs), though not as we do. Their body was more towards the horizontal, balanced at the back by their tail. Some were very large, like Tyrannosaurus, Allosaurus and Spinosaurus, but some were small, like Compsognathus. It was the smaller sized meat-eaters that may have evolved into birds. The first fossil bird, Archaeopteryx, had a skeleton which looked much like that of a dinosaur.
Life style
Locomotion
Dinosaurs were primitively bipedal: their probable ancestors were small bipedal Archosaurs. The date of the early dinosaur genus Eoraptor at 231.4 million years ago is important. Eoraptor probably resembles the common ancestor of all dinosaurs; its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators. The discovery of primitive, pre-dinosaur, types in Middle Triassic strata supports this view. Analysis of their fossils suggests that the animals were indeed small, bipedal predators.
Those dinosaurs which returned to four-legged stance kept all four legs under their body. This is much more efficient than the sprawling legs of a lizard.
The big sauropods could never have reached so large a size without their pillar-like legs. A review surveys what we know about the mechanics of dinosaur movement.
Warm blooded
A major change in outlook came in the 1960s, when it was realised that small theropods were probably warm-blooded. The question of whether all theropods or even all dinosaurs were warm blooded is still undecided.
It is now certain (from fossils discovered in China: see Jehol biota) that small theropods had feathers. This fits well with the idea that they were warm-blooded, and that the origin of birds can be traced to a line of small theropods.
Activity
Warm blooded animals have a high metabolic rate (use up food faster). They can be more active, and for longer, than animals who depend on the environment for heating. Therefore, the idea of warm-blooded dinosaurs insulated by feathers led to the idea that they were more active, intelligent and faster runners than previously thought.
Main-stream palaeontologists have followed this view for small theropods, but not for larger herbivores. Since we know that the size of a Stegosaur'''s brain was about the size of a walnut, there is good reason to think its intelligence was limited.
Limitations
Despite their great success over a long period, there were life-styles which the dinosaurs never evolved. None ever evolved to live entirely in water, as many mammals do, though Spinosaurus was semi-aquatic. They never dominated the small terrestrial niche. All through the Mesozoic most small vertebrates were mammals and lizards.
Extinction
The extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were caused by one or more catastrophic events, such as massive asteroid or meteorite impacts (like the Chicxulub impact), or increased volcanic activity.
Several impact craters and massive volcanic activity, such as that in the Deccan Traps in India, have been dated to the approximate time of the extinction event. These geological events may have reduced sunlight and hindered photosynthesis, leading to a massive disruption in Earth's ecology.
Did any terrestrial dinosaurs survive the great extinction event? Several fossils have been found in the Hell Creek Formation about 40,000 years later than the K/T extinction event. Many scientists dismiss the "Paleocene dinosaurs" as re-worked, that is, washed out of their original places and then re-buried in much later sediments. An associated skeleton (e.g. more than one bone from the same individual) found above the K/T boundary would be convincing, but no such finds have been reported.
Dinosaurs in fiction
"...Dragons of the prime,that tare each other in their slime". Tennyson, In Memoriam,1849.
Books about dinosaurs have been popular, especially with children, but adults have also enjoyed these kinds of books. In Edwardian times, Arthur Conan Doyle wrote a novel about a plateau filled with dinosaurs which he called The Lost World.Jurassic Park in 1990 started a new phase in dinosaur popular culture when it was followed by the movie of the same name in 1993.
Related pages
List of dinosaurs
Dinosaur brains and intelligence
For "dinobirds", see Origin of birds
K/T extinction event
References
Books
Bakker, Robert T. 1986. The Dinosaur Heresies: new theories unlocking the mystery of the dinosaurs and their extinction. New York: Morrow.
Farlow J.O. and Brett-Surman M.K. (eds) 1997. The Complete Dinosaur. Indiana University Press.
Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. 2007. Dinosaurs: the most complete, up-to-date encyclopedia for dinosaur lovers of all ages. New York: Random House.
Paul, Gregory S. 2000. The Scientific American book of dinosaurs. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Weishampel, David B; Dodson, Peter and Osmólska, Halszka (eds) 2004. The Dinosauria''. 2nd ed, Berkeley: University of California Press. |
4456 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone%20Age | Stone Age | The Stone Age was a prehistoric time when people made tools from stone. It began when people created the first stone tools about 3.3 million years ago. About 99% of human history happened during the Stone Age. It lasted for about 3.4 million years, and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC.
Stone Age people also made tools out of wood and bone. However, these materials do not last as long as stone. For this reason, most of the Stone Age tools archaeologists have found are made of stone.
Archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three sections: Paleolithic ("old stone"), Mesolithic ("middle stone"), and Neolithic ("new stone"). During the Neolithic period, people invented farming and pottery, and started to care for animals like cows and pigs.
Sometime between 3000 BC and 2000 BC, people discovered the art of smelting (making metals). This probably happened in the Middle East. People used copper first, then learned how to make bronze. When people started using these metals instead of stone, the Stone Age ended and the Bronze Age began.
Some groups of people in Papua New Guinea continued to use Stone Age technology into the 20th century. They used stone-tipped weapons to kill animals for food and clothing. They made shelters using animal skin.
References |
4457 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf%20Hitler | Adolf Hitler | Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of Nazi Germany. He became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, after a democratic election in 1932. He became Führer (leader) of Nazi Germany in 1934.
Hitler led the NSDAP, or the Nazi Party from 1921. When in power, the Nazis created a dictatorship called the Third Reich. In 1933, they blocked out all other political parties. This gave Hitler absolute power.
Hitler ordered the invasion of Poland in 1939, and this started World War II. Because of Hitler, at least 50 million people died. During World War II, Hitler was the Commander-in-Chief of the German Armed Forces and made all the important decisions. This was part of the so-called Führerprinzip. He shot himself on 30 April 1945, as the Soviet Army got to Berlin, because he did not want to be captured alive by the Soviet Union.
Hitler and the Nazi regime were responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 28.7 million soldiers and people died as a result of military action in Europe.
Nazi forces committed many war crimes during the war. They were doing what Hitler told them to do. They killed their enemies or put them in concentration camps and death camps. Hitler and his men persecuted and killed Jews and other ethnic, religious, and political minorities. In what is called the Holocaust, the Nazis killed six million Jews, Roma people, homosexuals, Slavs, and many other groups of people.
Family background
Hitler's family was born in Waldviertel, in Lower Austria. At the time, the name Hitler changed in this region several times between Hüttler, Hiedler, Hittler and Hitler. The name was commonly in the German-speaking area of Europe in the 19th century. The literature says that this name is descended from the Czech name Hidlar or Hidlarcek.
Childhood and early adulthood
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889, as the fourth child of six in Braunau am Inn. This is a small town near Linz in the province of Upper Austria. It is close to the German border, in what was then Austria-Hungary. His parents were Klara Pölzl and Alois Hitler. Because of his father's job, Hitler moved from Braunau to Passau, later to Lambach and finally to Leonding. He attended several Volksschule's.
Hitler's mother, Klara Pölzl, was his father's third wife and also his cousin. Hitler's father died in 1903.
Hitler failed high school exams in Linz twice. In 1905, he left school. He became interested in the anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish), Pan-German teachings of Professor Leopold Poetsch. In September 1907, he went to Vienna and took an entrance examination. On 1 and 2 October, he failed the second examination. Hitler went back to Linz at the end of October. In December 1907, Hitler's mother died and, because of that, he was depressed. Hitler's mother was Catholic, but Hitler hated Christianity. He also hated Jews.
In 1909, Hitler again went to Vienna to study art. He tried to become a student at the Academy of Arts, but failed the first entrance examination. Hitler said he first became an anti-Semite in Vienna. This city had a large Jewish community.
In 1913, Hitler was 24 years old. At that time, all young Austrian men had to join the army. Hitler did not like the Austrian army, so he left Austria for Germany. He lived in the German city of Munich.
World War I
On 16 August 1914, Hitler joined the Bavarian army. He fought for Germany in World War I. Hitler served in Belgium and France in the 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment. He spent nearly the whole time on the Western Front. He was a runner, one of the most dangerous jobs on the Front. That means he ran from one position to another one to carry messages. On 1 November 1914, Hitler became a Gefreiter (which was like being a private first class in the United States Army, or a lance corporal in the British Army). The government awarded him the Iron Cross Second Class on 2 December 1914.
On 5 October 1916, Hitler was hurt by a bullet shell. Between 9 October and 1 December, he was in the military hospital Belitz. In March 1917, he went back to the front. There, he fought in a battle and was awarded with the Militärverdienstkreuz Third Class with swords.
In March 1918, Hitler participated in the Spring Offensive. On 4 August 1918, Hitler was awarded the Iron Cross First Class by the Jewish Hugo Gutmann. After Germany surrendered, Hitler was shocked, because the German army still held enemy area in November 1918.
Entry into politics
After World War I, Hitler stayed in the army and returned to Munich. There he attended the funeral march of the Bavarian prime minister Kurt Eisner, who had been killed. In 1919, he participated in a training programme for propaganda speakers from 5 to 12 June and 26 June to 5 July.
Later that year, Hitler joined a small political party called the German Workers Party. He became member number 555. He soon won the support of the party's members. Two years later, he became the party's leader. He renamed the party the National Socialist German Workers Party. It became known as the Nazi Party.
During the Weimar Republic
In 1923, Hitler got together several hundred other members of the Nazi Party and tried to take over the Weimar Republic government (1918–34) in the Beer Hall Putsch. The coup failed. The government killed 13 of his men (the 13 dead men were later declared saints in Nazi ideology). They also put Hitler in the Landsberg Prison. They said that he would stay in prison for five years, but they let him leave after nine months.
Mein Kampf
While Hitler was in prison, he wrote a book with the help of his close friend Rudolf Hess. At first, Hitler wanted to call the book Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice. In the end, he called the book "Mein Kampf" ("My Struggle").
Mein Kampf brought together some of Hitler's different ideas and explains where they came from:
His idea that the "Aryan race" was better than everybody else: This came from Arthur de Gobineau's book called The Inequality of the Human Races.
His plans for an Empire in the East: These plans came from the way Germany had captured farming land in the First World War.
His idea that democracy (rule by governments vote in elections) should be replaced by dictatorship (rule by one man)
The idea that Judaism and communism were connected: He got this idea from the Nazi writer Alfred Rosenberg.
His anger against the Jews. He suggests that they should be killed, though he is not clear about how this should be done.
Hitler may also have been influenced by Martin Luther's On the Jews and their Lies. In Mein Kampf, Hitler says Martin Luther was "a great warrior, a true statesman and a great reformer."
Start of the dictatorship
In January 1933, Hitler was elected into the German government and became a dictator in the next months. He ended freedom of speech, and put his enemies in prisons and concentration camps or killed them. He did not allow any other political party except the Nazi party by the summer of 1933. Hitler and his propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, spread extreme nationalism within Germany. All media had to praise the Nazis. Also, more people were born because Hitler wanted more people of the "master race" (those he called "Aryans"). After the death of Paul von Hindenburg in 1934, Hitler declared the office of President vacant and made himself Führer (both Head of State and Head of Government) and became a full dictator with no checks and balances. He made Germany a totalitarian Nazi state.
World War II and the Holocaust
Despite Poland being carved out of former German territory, Hitler is credited with starting World War II by ordering the German Army to invade Poland. His army took over Poland and most of Europe, including France and a large part of the Soviet Union.
During the war, Hitler ordered the Nazis to kill many people, including women and children. The Nazis killed around six million Jews in the Holocaust. Other people that the Nazis killed were Roma (Gypsies), homosexuals, Slavs such as Russians and Poles, and his political opponents.
Finally, some of the other countries in the world worked together to defeat Germany. Hitler lost all of the lands that he had taken. Millions of Germans were killed in the war. At the end of World War II, Hitler gave all people in the Führerbunker permission to leave it. Many people did and moved to the region of Berchtesgaden. They used planes and truck convoys.
Hitler, the Göbbels family, Martin Bormann, Eva Braun and some other staff remained in the bunker. Hitler married to Eva Braun on 29 April 1945.
Death
Forty hours after Hitler and Eva Braun got married in Berlin Germany, both of them committed suicide by poisoning themselves with cyanide, then Hitler shot himself in the head with his gun. Before this, Hitler ordered that their bodies be burned. This prevented him from being captured alive by soldiers of the Red Army, who were closing in on him.
Hitler in history
Ian Kershaw, a historian who wrote a biography (life story) of Hitler, describes him as a modern symbol of evil. "Never in history has such [ruin] ... been associated with the name of one man." However, Kershaw and some other historians believe that it is more important to look at the wider problems in Germany at the time, rather than at Hitler himself, when they explain why the war and the Holocaust happened.
Related pages
Nazism
Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei
Fascism
Racism
World War II
Mein Kampf
References
More reading
Other websites
Mondo Politico Library's presentation of Adolf Hitler's book, Mein Kampf (full text, formatted for easy on-screen reading)
1889 births
1945 deaths
Anti-Communists
Austrian painters
Austrian politicians
Chancellors of Nazi Germany
Former dictators
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German military personnel of World War I
German military personnel of World War II
German painters
Hitler family
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Members of the Reichstag (Nazi Germany)
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Ministers-President of Prussia
Murderers
Nazis who committed suicide
People from Upper Austria
People with borderline personality disorder
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Suicides by firearm in Germany
Time People of the Year |
4460 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil | Virgil | Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was a poet in the Latin language. His poems are about gods and their mythology. Virgil's most famous epic poem is called the Aeneid.
Life
Tradition is that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Scholars looking at the way he used words think that he may have Etruscan, Umbrian or even a Celtic background. Study of his name has led to beliefs that his family may have been earlier Roman settlers. These modern beliefs are not supported by evidence from his own writings or from writers of his biographies. Some scholars have noted that his nickname, MARO, is an anagram of the two main themes in the Aeneid: AMOR (love) and ROMA (Rome).
References
70 BC births
19 BC deaths
Ancient Roman writers |
4461 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol | Alcohol | This article is only about the chemistry of the alcohols.
The alcohol used in drinks is ethanol; more information can be found at alcoholic drink and alcoholism.
In chemistry, alcohol is a general term which refers to many organic compounds used in industry and science as reagents, solvents, and fuels. Alcohols are carbohydrates which are made of an alkyl group with one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups bound to its carbon atoms. Alcohol is colorless, and also transparent.
Names for alcohol
There are two ways of naming alcohols: Common names, and IUPAC names.
Common names often are made by taking the name of the alkyl group, and adding the word "alcohol". For example, "methyl alcohol" or "ethyl alcohol".
IUPAC names are made by taking the name of the alkane chain, removing the last "e", and adding "ol". Examples of this are "methanol" and "ethanol".
Properties
The hydroxyl (OH) group makes alcohols polar. Alcohols are very weakly acidic. Most alcohols are highly flammable.
Common alcohols
The simplest two alcohols are methanol (or methyl alcohol) and ethanol (or ethyl alcohol), which have the following structures:
IUPAC nomenclature is used when describing more complex alcohols.
In common usage, "alcohol" often means ethanol or "grain alcohol". (See also: alcoholic proof).
Other commonly used alcohols include:
Isopropyl alcohol (sec-propyl alcohol, propan-2-ol, 2-propanol) H3C-CH(OH)-CH3, or "rubbing alcohol"
ethylene glycol (ethane-1,2-diol) HO-CH2-CH2-OH, which is the main substance in antifreeze
glycerin (or glycerol, propane-1,2,3-triol) HO-CH2-CH(OH)-CH2-OH bound in natural fats and oils, which are triglycerides (triacylglycerols)
phenol, an alcohol where the hydroxyl group is bound to a benzene ring.
Carbohydrates
Functional groups |
4462 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang%20Amadeus%20Mozart | Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart | Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (January 27, 1756 – December 5, 1791; pronounced MOHT-sart) was an Austrian composer (music writer), instrumentalist, and music teacher. His full baptised name was Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophillus Mozart. He was born in Salzburg, Austria, the youngest child of Leopold and Anna Maria Mozart. From a very early age, the young Mozart showed great musical talent. He toured Europe with his parents and older sister "Nannerl" for several years performing for royalty and the aristocratic elite.
As a young man, Mozart tried but failed to establish himself as a composer in Paris. He returned to Salzburg where he was briefly employed in the court of the Archbishop of Salzburg. He was restless, aware of his genius, and thought Salzburg too small for his talent. He relocated to Vienna where he met with some success. He married Constance Weber and fathered two sons. He died in Vienna after a brief but unknown illness.
Mozart wrote more than 600 musical works, all of the very highest quality. His works include the operas The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, Così fan tutte and The Magic Flute; the symphonies in E-flat major, G minor, and C major ("Jupiter"); concertos for piano, violin, and various wind instruments; and numerous chamber pieces, works for the church, minuets and other dances, songs, and the Requiem. Along with Bach and Beethoven, Mozart is regarded as one of the greatest composers who has ever lived.
Life
Family and early years
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ("Wolfi" or Wolferl") was born in Salzburg, Austria, to Leopold and Anna Maria Mozart. Leopold was a violinist in the orchestra of the archbishop of Salzburg and the author of a best-selling introduction to playing the violin.
Young Mozart showed evidence of great musical talent at a very early age. He was playing the harpsichord and the violin at the age of five, and writing little pieces of music.
Mozart's sister Marianna ("Nannerl") was a talented youngster. The two children received their musical and academic education from their father. The family toured Europe for a few years, performing for royals and aristocrats.
Mozart performed in Munich, Prague, Paris, The Hague and London. In London, he performed for King George III. He met the composer Johann Christian Bach, one of the sons of Johann Sebastian Bach. He sat on the knee of Johann Christian Bach (1735–1782) and improvised a fugue. And here, at the age of eight, he heard his first two symphonies performed.
Eventually, the Mozarts made their way back to Salzburg. But in 1768, they were off again to Vienna, where the now twelve-year-old Wolfgang staged a production of his first opera, Bastien und Bastienne. And he was infected with smallpox at that time. He recovered but his face was pock-marked for life. He went to Italy where he heard music by many famous Italian composers, including Gregorio Allegri who had written a piece called Miserere. This piece had been written for the Pope for the choir of the Vatican to sing. No one was allowed to see the written music so that no other choir would be able to sing it. Mozart heard the piece once and then wrote it all down from memory. He met the Pope and was given a knighthood (Order of the Golden Spur).
In 1777, he went on a journey with his mother. In Mannheim, he fell in love with Aloysia Weber. She was 16 years old and studying singing. Mozart wanted to take her to Italy to make her famous, but his father put a stop to these plans. By 1778, Mozart and his mother were in Paris. His mother died there.
Mozart wrote some small operas when he was young, but his first really important opera was Idomeneo. It was first performed in Munich in 1780. The next year he went to Vienna. By this time he was working, like his father, for the Archbishop of Salzburg. When he went back to Salzburg he argued with the Archbishop who actually kicked him out. Mozart went off to Vienna where he would spend the rest of his life.
In 1782 he married Constanze Weber, one of the three younger sisters of Aloysia (who by now was married to someone else). They were to have seven children, but five of them died in childhood. Mozart’s father did not approve of the marriage. Constanze was a loving wife, but, like Mozart, she was not good at looking after money, so they were often very poor.
In that same year, 1782, Mozart wrote another very successful opera: Die Entführung aus dem Serail ("The Abduction from the Seraglio"). One famous story tells that, after the emperor had heard the opera, he told Mozart that there were “too many notes”. Mozart answered: “Just as many as are necessary, Your Majesty.”
Mozart started a series of concerts in which he played his own piano concertos, conducting from the keyboard. He met the composer Joseph Haydn and the two men became great friends, often playing together in a string quartet. Haydn said to Leopold Mozart one day: "Before God and as an honest man I tell you that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by name. He has taste, and what is more, the most profound knowledge of composition." Mozart was in the same Masonic Lodge as Haydn, and he dedicated some of his string quartets to him.
The audiences in Vienna did not give Mozart much support after a few years, so he often went to Prague where the audiences loved him. His opera The Marriage of Figaro was very popular, and in 1787 he gave the first performance there of his opera Don Giovanni.
Illness and death
There are several stories about Mozart’s last illness and death, and it is not easy to be sure what happened. He was working on an opera The Magic Flute which is one of his best works and a very popular opera today. It is written in German, not Italian, like most of his other operas. In some ways it is like an English pantomime. At the same time that he was working on this he was asked by a stranger to compose a requiem. He was told to write this in secret. Then he was asked to write an Italian opera La Clemenza di Tito, which was performed in Prague during September 1791. At the end of September The Magic Flute was given its first performance. Mozart then worked very hard at the Requiem. He must have realized that he was already very ill, and that in a way the requiem (a mass for the dead) was for himself. He died in Vienna before he could finish it. Constanze asked another composer, a man called Franz Xaver Süssmayr, to finish the work. Mozart was buried in the St. Marx Cemetery.
Mozart’s music
Mozart's music, like that of Haydn, is the very best of what is known as the Classical style. At the time he started to compose, the Baroque period was just coming to an end. Tastes were changing in music. Form, balance and elegance were thought of as more important than counterpoint. Mozart was the first great composer to write music for the piano, an instrument which had only just become popular. He wrote almost every kind of music: symphonies, operas, solo concertos, chamber music, especially string quartets and string quintets, and the piano sonata. He also wrote a lot of religious music, including masses, as well as popular music like dances, divertimenti and serenades.
When Mozart was young a symphony was usually a short, simple piece for entertainment. Mozart made the symphony into a carefully worked-out piece lasting up to half an hour. His last three symphonies are especially fine masterpieces. His concertos, especially his piano concertos, are far more advanced than anything that had been written before. Although Mozart behaved in truly childish ways at times, he was good at understanding human character. This is clear in his operas, where he introduced many subtle effects to describe the characters in the story.
Mozart's operas are among his greatest works. He understood people's characters very well and was able to write music which tells us everything about the personalities in the operas. The three operas in which he set words by Lorenzo Da Ponte: Don Giovanni, Le Nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro) and Cosi fan tutte each include some very clever ensembles in which several characters are singing at once, each one showing his or her view of the situation.
As well as many great masterpieces, Mozart wrote many pieces in a more popular style, including some tunes that everybody knows today. His serenade Eine kleine Nachtmusik K525 is known everywhere, as is the Turkish Rondo from his Piano Sonata in A K331, the opening of the Symphony No. 40 in G minor K550, and the birdcatcher’s song from The Magic Flute K620.
Regarding the instruments that Mozart was using for composing and performing, there was a number of them. In his early years he got to know pianos made by Franz Jakob Späth from Regensburg. Later in Augsburg Mozart got impressed by pianos from Stein. After moving to Vienna the composer purchased an instrument by Walter.
Catalogue of works
Some time after Mozart’s death a man called Köchel studied all Mozart’s music, tried to put them in chronological order, and gave them a number. The number helps us to know exactly which work is meant, for example Symphony in G minor K183 is not the same piece as Symphony in G minor K550 (K stands for Köchel. Sometimes it is written "KV550" standing for "Köchel Verzeichnis" i.e. "Köchel Catalogue"). The highest Köchel number is 626, his requiem mass.
Related pages
Amadeus (film)
References
Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie; 1980;
Listening To Western Music, written by Craig Wright; ISBN 978-0-495-11627-1
Other websites
The Mozart Project
Mozart livecams Live pictures of Mozart Birth house, Mozart Monument, Mozart lives on View and so on.
1756 births
1791 deaths
Austrian composers
Child prodigies
Classical era composers
People from Salzburg
Smallpox survivors
Austrian Roman Catholics |
4463 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Sebastian%20Bach | Johann Sebastian Bach | Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March 1685 in Eisenach – 28 July 1750 in Leipzig; pronounced BAHK) was a German composer and organist. He lived in the last part of the Baroque period. He is most famous for his work Toccata and Fugue in D Minor, St. Matthew Passion, St. John Passion, Mass in B minor, and the Brandenburg Concertos. He spent several years working at courts of noblemen. Here he wrote most of his chamber music and orchestral music. Most of his life, however, he worked in a church where he was expected to write church music. Bach wrote almost every kind of music except opera. During the last part of his life most composers were writing in a new style called the Classical style, but Bach always wrote in the Baroque style. That made some people at the time think he was old-fashioned, but today we know that his work is the very best of Baroque music. Along with Mozart and Beethoven, Bach is regarded as one of the greatest composers who has ever lived.
Early life
Bach came from a highly musical family. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was a trumpeter at the court of Saxe-Eisenach. Many of his relatives were professional musicians of some sort: violinists and town musicians, organists, Cantors (Directors of Music in a church), court musicians and Kapellmeisters (Directors of Music at a royal court). Most of them played several instruments. Of his twenty children, several became quite famous composers, especially Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714–1788), Johann Christian Bach (1735–1782), Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach and Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1710–1784).
When he was fifteen, he went to the small town of Lüneburg. At first he sang treble in the choir and was said to have a very fine treble voice, but his voice very soon got lower, so he made himself useful playing instruments. He learned by listening to famous organists like Reincken (1623–1722) and Dietrich Buxtehude (1637–1707). Bach got his first job in 1703 in Arnstadt. It was a well-paid job for a young boy who was 18 years old. There was a new organ in the church, and Bach already knew a lot about organ building as well as being a brilliant organist. They asked him to examine the new organ, and then they offered him a job. Bach spent four years as organist there. He composed some organ works. Unfortunately, the congregation were not musical enough to like it. They did not understand the ornamental notes he added to the hymn tunes. Bach got rather fed up with the priests who were always complaining about it, so he resigned and took another job in Mühlhausen, not far away. After a year there, he gave up that job and went to a big town called Weimar.
Weimar years (1708–1717)
Johann Sebastian was made organist to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar. At the Duke’s court there was a chapel with an organ. Bach composed many of his great organ works at this time. He became very famous as an organist and was invited to play in other big churches and to give advice on organ building. He was extremely good at improvisation. On one occasion he was in Dresden at the same time as a French organist named Louis Marchant. There was going to be a competition between the two men to see who was better at improvisation. Bach was practicing the day before and Marchant heard him. He realized that Bach would win, so he left.
In 1714 the Duke made Bach Konzertmeister (Concertmaster, a job that paid more money.) He had to write cantatas for church services. In 1717 he was offered a job in the town of Cöthen, where he would earn an even better salary. The Duke was angry and did not want him to go but Bach insisted, so the Duke put Bach in prison for a month. In the end he had to let the musician go.
Cöthen (1717–1723)
At Cöthen, Bach worked for Prince Leopold. The Prince was very musical and a wonderful man to work for. Bach was Kapellmeister (Director of Music) and was treated well. The organ was not very good, and it was not used much, so Bach did not write any organ music during this period. The Duke had an orchestra, and Bach was in charge. Nearly all Bach’s orchestral works were written in Cöthen: the Brandenburg Concertos, the violin concertos, the orchestral suites, the solo music for violin and for cello, and a lot of keyboard music for harpsichord or clavichord.
During 1719, the great composer George Frideric Handel, who had moved to England, came to Germany to visit his mother. Bach wanted to meet Handel, who was only 30 km away, but these two famous musicians never met. Handel wanted to spend his limited time in Germany with his mother who was old and frail, knowing that it would be the last time he would see her.
Bach’s first wife, Maria Barbara Bach, died in 1720. The couple had seven children. Soon afterwards, he married Anna Magdalena with whom he had another thirteen children. However, several of his children died young.
Leipzig (1723–1750)
In 1723 Bach moved to Leipzig to take the job of Cantor at the St Thomas Church, a very large church in the town. As Cantor he was in charge of all the music, both at St Thomas and at another church nearby. He also had to compose music for the town. It was an excellent job, and more secure than being at a court. The schools were good for his sons. Bach stayed in Leipzig until his death. He loved his job most of the time and worked very hard. He composed many cantatas for the church services. These services were very long, lasting about three hours. Many of the cantatas he wrote last about 30 minutes, and that was just one part of a service! He had assistants to play the organ. Bach himself directed the choir and the orchestra. There were probably 16 singers in the choir and 18 players in the orchestra. He wrote the St Matthew Passion and the St John Passion. Both these works, which are very long, tell the story of Jesus dying on the cross. They are among the most famous pieces of music ever written. He also wrote cantatas for special occasions such as weddings or funerals.
Life was not always easy, and sometimes there were arguments with the people who ruled the church. The sub-deacon wanted to choose some of the hymns, but this was the Cantor’s job. Bach was a sensible man, and he managed to get his way without making enemies. On another occasion he argued with the headmaster of the school (Bach had to do some teaching at the church school) about who was allowed to choose the choir section leaders. This actually went to court, and Bach won the case.
Bach often made journeys to other towns. In 1747 he visited the court of Prussian King Frederick the Great near Berlin. The king, a music lover, gave Bach a theme to improvise from on the harpsichord. Bach sat down and improvised a fugue using this theme. Later Bach wrote a very long composition for flute, violin and harpsichord with cello accompaniment, in many movements, all based on this theme. At the end, the theme is heard in 5 of the 6 voices. Bach called it The Musical Offering and he sent it to the king.
Bach wrote many fugues, eventually he decided to write a collection called The Art of Fugue. His plan was to publish it, but he died before he could finish it (his son later published it in his honor, as Bach's last published piece). In the last year or two of his life, he became blind in spite of two eye operations.
In the 19th century more people became interested in Bach, and many of his works were published after he had been dead more than a hundred years.
References
Other websites
The JS Bach Home Page-Part of joint Bach website project
J.S. Bach Archive and Bibliography-Part of joint Bach website project
The DigitalBach Project at the Oregon Bach Festival
1685 births
1750 deaths
Johann Sebastian
Baroque composers
German composers
German Lutherans
German organists
People from Saxony-Anhalt |
4464 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Earth | Atmosphere of Earth | The most important thing to remember about the Earth and other planets is that they do not come from the Sun. They or their materials were picked up by the Sun's gravitation as it moved through space. The Sun is just composed of hydrogen, with a little bit of helium. Nothing else. The material which makes up planets and their satellites is almost entirely heavier elements whose origin was in earlier supernovae explosions. The planets do give off small quantities of hydrogen and helium: this comes from the decay of larger radioactive molecules whose origin is also ancient supernovae.
A complicating factor is the Moon, which was formed by an impact of a large body with the early Earth. This means the origin of life on the Earth would have taken place after the Moon was formed.
The atmosphere is the layer of gases around the Earth. It is held in place by Earth's gravity. It is today made up mainly of nitrogen (78.1%). It also has plentiful oxygen (20.9%) and small amounts of argon (0.9%), carbon dioxide (~ 0.035%), water vapor, and other gases. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing (taking) ultraviolet rays from the sun. It makes our days cooler and our nights warmer.
Solid particulates, including ash, dust, volcanic ash, etc. are small parts of atmosphere. They are important in making clouds and fog.
The atmosphere does not end at a specific place. The higher above the Earth, the thinner the atmosphere. There is no clear border between the atmosphere and outer space, though the Kármán line is sometimes treated as a border. Even higher, for some purposes the edge of the magnetosphere is treated as a border. 75% of the atmosphere is within of the Earth's surface.
History of Earth's atmosphere
Originally, the Earth's atmosphere had almost no free oxygen.
The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, mainly hydrogen. There might also have been simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn): water vapor, methane and ammonia.
The atmosphere gradually changed to mostly carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The lighter gases, like hydrogen and helium, cannot be held by the Earth's gravity, and would escape. For a long time (say two billion years or more), the atmosphere was dominated by carbon dioxide.
In the Great Oxygenation Event the atmosphere changed to the kind we have now, with oxygen replacing the carbon dioxide. Our atmosphere is still mostly nitrogen, but most living organisms interact more with oxygen than with nitrogen. Oxygenation began with cyanobacteria making free oxygen by photosynthesis. Most organisms today need oxygen for their respiration: only a few anaerobic organisms can grow without oxygen.
Temperature and the atmospheric layers
Some parts of the atmosphere are hot or cold, depending on height. Starting from the surface and climbing straight up, the air gets colder in the troposphere, but then it becomes hotter, higher in the stratosphere. These changes of temperature are divided into layers. These are like layers of an onion. The difference between the layers is the way the temperature changes.
These are the layers of the atmosphere, starting from the ground:
Troposphere - Starts at the ground. Ends somewhere between . The higher, the colder. Weather in this layer affects our daily life.
Stratosphere - Starts at . Ends at . The higher, the hotter. The heat comes from the Ozone layer at the top of the stratosphere. There is little water vapor and other substances in this layer. Airplanes fly in this layer because it is usually stable and air resistance is small.
Mesosphere - Starts at . Ends at . The higher, the colder. Winds in this layer are strong, so the temperature is not stable.
Thermosphere - Starts at . Ends at or higher. The higher, the hotter. This layer is very important in radio communication because it helps to reflect some radio waves.
Exosphere - Above the thermosphere. This is the top layer, and merges into interplanetary space.
Where one layer changes to the next have been named "-pauses." So the tropopause is where the troposphere ends ( high). The stratopause is at the end of the stratosphere. The mesopause is at the end of the mesosphere.
These are called boundaries.
The average temperature of the atmosphere at the surface of Earth is .
Pressure
The atmosphere has pressure. This is because even though air is a gas, it has weight. The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is about .
Density and mass
The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kilograms per cubic meter. This density becomes less at higher altitudes at the same rate that pressure becomes less. The total mass of the atmosphere is about 5.1 × 1018 kg, which is only a very small part of the Earth's total mass.
Related pages
Air
Life timeline
References
Other websites
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