Datasets:

Kkordik

/

TriviaQA_SQuAD

like 0

St Blazey ( ) is a small town in Cornwall , England , United Kingdom . St Blaise is the civil parish in which St Blazey is situated ; the name St Blaise is also used by the town council . The village of Biscovey and the settlements of St Blazey Gate , Bodelva and West Par lie within the parish boundaries . An electoral ward also exists in the name of St Blaise . The population at the 2011 census was 4,674 . Once an important engineering centre for the local mine and railway industries , the parish is now dominated by the Eden Project . St Blazey is situated 3 mi east of St Austell , 1 mi west of Tywardreath and 1 mi north of Par . The town takes its name from the Armenian Saint Blaise and holds a procession and service on his feast day , 3 February . History An Iron Age hillfort Prideaux Castle lies a mile to the north west of the town in the parish of Luxulyan . The Biscovey Stone is the shaft of an ancient Celtic cross . It was inscribed , but the text is no longer readable . There are several theories about the stone ; one says it dates from around 600 AD to show the Saxon advance into the county , another puts the date at around 900 AD . The head is thought to have been removed during the Reformation . The stone served as a gate post near the St Blazey turnpike gate . In 1896 it was moved to St Mary 's Church , Biscovey . The church was built between 1440 and 1445 and is dedicated to Saint Blaise . It replaces an earlier church mentioned in 1294 . The parish was administered by Tywardreath Priory until the Reformation . It was split from St Austell parish in 1834 . The site was originally known by the Cornish names Landrait or Landreath , meaning Church on the Sand . Until the 16th century the valley below St Blazey was an estuary of the River Par and the St Blazey was the lowest crossing point on the river . Tin mining up river caused the estuary to silt up and it had become marsh land by the early 19th century . The Par Canal was built by Joseph Treffry between 1829 and 1835 ; it forms part of the boundary with the parish of Tywardreath and Par . The town was once dominated by the local mining industries and their associated transport infrastructure . Historically copper and tin were mined in and around the parish , whilst more recently china clay has been the principal commodity mined . `` The Par & St Blazey Consols '' or `` South Prideaux Wood '' was a small tin mine just north of the town and Par Consols Mine lies to the south west . The more extensive Fowey Consols mine lies to the east near Tywardreath . The port of Par Harbour , which lies within the parish , was developed to ease the transport of these minerals , and initially connected to the mines by the Par Canal . Whilst the port of Par is within the parish , the village of Par is actually just across the River Par , and hence lies in the civil parish of Tywardreath . The Par Canal was soon replaced by the Cornwall Minerals Railway , which had a depot and station in the town , and still exists as part of the Atlantic Coast Line . Whilst St Blazey depot is still in use , St Blazey station closed to passengers in 1925 , and the town is now served by Par station on the Cornish Main Line in Par village . Tourism The Eden Project is located within the civil parish , and about a mile and half ( 2 km ) from the centre of the town . The large number of visitors this attracts has led to the development of tourism in the town . Other attractions , such as the Treffry Viaduct and the Luxulyan Valley , are also close by , although actually within the adjoining parish of Luxulyan . Education Primary education is provided by [ http : //www.biscovey-inf.cornwall.sch.uk/ Biscovey Nursery and Infant Community School ] and [ http : //www.biscovey-jnr.cornwall.sch.uk/ Biscovey Junior School ] . Sport The town 's football team , St Blazey A.F.C. , was the first club of England International goalkeeper Nigel Martyn . The town is also home to St Blazey Cricket Club which has three teams . The cricket club is based at the top of Middleway Road . Notable people Notable people from the town include Edward Long , the historian , who was born at Roselyon , in 1734 , and educated at Liskeard . It is claimed by some as the birthplace of Ralph Allen , notable architect of Bath , although his christening took place at St Columb Major . John Rogers , who supported the introduction of the man engine to Cornish mines , was curate here for a time . Charles Jeffries , a Commissioner in The Salvation Army , was posted to the town in 1883 .

qw_13806--St_Blazey.txt

What complex of artificial biological environments near St Blazey and St Austell in Cornwall was opened to the public in 2001?

Buenos Aires ( or , ) is the capital and largest city of Argentina . The city is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata , on the continent 's southeastern coast . The meaning of Buenos Aires is clean air or good air . The Greater Buenos Aires conurbation , which also includes several Buenos Aires Province districts , constitutes the third-largest conurbation in Latin America , with a population of around seventeen million . The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Province 's capital ; rather , it is an autonomous district . In 1880 , after decades of political infighting , Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province . The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores ; both are now neighborhoods of the city . The 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy , hence its formal name : Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires ( Autonomous City of Buenos Aires ) . Its citizens first elected a chief of government ( i.e . mayor ) in 1996 ; before , the mayor was directly appointed by the President of the Republic . Buenos Aires is , along with Mexico City and São Paulo , one of the three Latin American cities considered an 'alpha city ' by the study GaWC5 . Buenos Aires ' quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 , with its per capita income among the three highest in the region . It is the most visited city in South America ( ahead of Rio de Janeiro ) and the second most visited city of Latin America ( behind Mexico City ) . Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination , and is known for its European-style architecture and rich cultural life . Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup . Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit . Buenos Aires defines itself as a multicultural city , being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups . Also , several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish , contributing to its culture and the dialect spoken in the city and in some other parts of the country . This is because in the last 150 years the city , and the country in general , has been a major recipient of millions of immigrants from all over the world , making it a melting pot where several ethnic groups live together and being considered as one of the most diverse cities in Latin America . Etymology It is recorded under the archives of Aragonese that Catalan missionaries and Jesuits arriving in Cagliari ( Sardinia ) under the Spanish Crown , after its capture from the Pisans in 1324 established their headquarters on top of a hill that overlooked the city . The hill was known to them as Buen Ayre ( or `` Bonaria '' in Sardinian language ) , as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city ( the castle area ) , which is adjacent to swampland . During the siege of Cagliari , the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill . In 1335 , King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians , who built an abbey that stands to this day . In the years after that , a story circulated , claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea . The statue was placed in the abbey . Spanish sailors , especially Andalusians , venerated this image and frequently invoked the `` Fair Winds '' to aid them in their navigation and prevent shipwrecks . A sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville . In the first foundation of Buenos Aires , Spanish sailors arrived thankfully in the River de la Plata by the blessings of the `` Santa Maria de los Buenos Aires '' , the `` Holy Virgin Mary of the Good Winds '' who was said to have given them the good winds to reach the coast of what is today the modern city of Buenos Aires . Pedro de Mendoza called the city `` Holy Mary of the Fair Winds '' , a name suggested by the chaplain of Mendoza 's expedition - a devotee of the Virgin of Buen Ayre - after the Sardinian `` Madonna de Bonaria '' ( that is still to this day the patroness of Sardinia ) . Mendoza ’ s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people , and was abandoned in 1541 . For many years , the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo , who is said to have exclaimed : How fair are the winds of this land ! , as he arrived . But Eduardo Madero , in 1882 after conducting extensive research in Spanish archives , ultimately concluded that the name was indeed closely linked with the devotion of the sailors to Our Lady of Buen Ayre . A second ( and permanent ) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay , who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción ( now the capital of Paraguay ) . Garay preserved the name originally chosen by Mendoza , calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire ( `` City of the Most Holy Trinity and Port of Saint Mary of the Fair Winds '' ) . The short form `` Buenos Aires '' became the common usage during the 17th century . The usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs.As . It is common as well to refer to it as `` B.A . '' or `` BA '' ) . While `` BA '' is used commonly and more by expats that reside in the city , The locals use more often the abbreviation `` Baires '' , in one word . History Colonial times Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís , navigating in the name of Spain , was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 . His expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay . The city of Buenos Aires was first established as Ciudad de Nuestra Señora Santa María del Buen Ayre ( literally `` City of Our Lady Saint Mary of the Fair Winds '' ) after Our Lady of Bonaria ( Patroness Saint of Sardinia ) on 2 February 1536 by a Spanish expedition led by Pedro de Mendoza . The settlement founded by Mendoza was located in what is today the San Telmo district of Buenos Aires , south of the city center . More attacks by the indigenous people forced the settlers away , and in 1542 the site was abandoned . A second ( and permanent ) settlement was established in 11 June 1580 by Juan de Garay , who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción ( now the capital of Paraguay ) . He dubbed the settlement `` Santísima Trinidad '' and its port became `` Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires . '' From its earliest days , Buenos Aires depended primarily on trade . During most of the 17th and 18th centuries , Spanish ships were menaced by pirates , so they developed a complex system where ships with military protection were dispatched to Central America , cross the land , from there to Lima , Peru and from it to the inner cities of the viceroyalty . Because of this , products took a very long time to arrive in Buenos Aires , and the taxes generated by the transport made them prohibitive . This scheme frustrated the traders of Buenos Aires , and a thriving contraband industry developed . This also instilled a deep resentment in porteños towards the Spanish authorities . Sensing these feelings , Charles III of Spain progressively eased the trade restrictions and finally declared Buenos Aires an open port in the late 18th century . The capture of Porto Bello by British forces also fueled the need to foster commerce via the Atlantic route , to the detriment of Lima-based trade . One of his rulings was to split a region from the Viceroyalty of Perú and create instead the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata , with Buenos Aires as the capital . However , Charles 's placating actions did not have the desired effect , and the porteños , some of them versed in the ideology of the French Revolution , became even more convinced of the need for independence from Spain . War of independence During the British invasions of the Río de la Plata , British forces attacked Buenos Aires twice . In 1806 the British successfully invaded Buenos Aires , but an army from Montevideo led by Santiago de Liniers defeated them . In the brief period of British rule , the viceroy Rafael Sobremonte managed to escape to Córdoba and designated this city as capital . Buenos Aires became the capital again after its liberation , but Sobremonte could not resume his duties as viceroy . Santiago de Liniers , chosen as new viceroy , prepared the city against a possible new British attack and repelled the attempted invasion of 1807 . The militarization generated in society changed the balance of power favorably for the criollos ( in contrast to peninsulars ) , as well as the development of the Peninsular War in Spain . An attempt by the peninsular merchant Martín de Álzaga to remove Liniers and replace him with a Junta was defeated by the criollo armies . However , by 1810 it would be those same armies who would support a new revolutionary attempt , successfully removing the new viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros . This is known as the May Revolution , which is now celebrated as a national holiday . This event started the Argentine War of Independence , and many armies left Buenos Aires to fight the diverse strongholds of royalist resistance , with varying levels of success . The government was held first by two Juntas of many members , then by two triumvirates , and finally by a unipersonal office , the Supreme Director . Formal independence from Spain was declared in 1816 , at the Congress of Tucumán . Buenos Aires managed to endure the whole Spanish American wars of independence without falling again under royalist rule . Historically , Buenos Aires has been Argentina 's main venue for liberal , free-trade and foreign ideas , while many of the provinces , especially to the north-west , advocated a more nationalistic and Catholic approach to political and social issues . Much of the internal tension in Argentina 's history , starting with the centralist-federalist conflicts of the 19th century , can be traced back to these contrasting views . In the months immediately following 25 May Revolution , Buenos Aires sent a number of military envoys to the provinces with the intention of obtaining their approval . Many of these missions ended in violent clashes , and the enterprise fuelled tensions between the capital and the provinces . In the 19th century the city was blockaded twice by naval forces : by the French from 1838 to 1840 , and later by an Anglo-French expedition from 1845 to 1848 . Both blockades failed to force the city into submission , and the foreign powers eventually desisted from their demands . Modern history During most of the 19th century , the political status of the city remained a sensitive subject . It was already capital of Buenos Aires Province , and between 1853 and 1860 it was the capital of the seceded State of Buenos Aires . The issue was fought out more than once on the battlefield , until the matter was finally settled in 1880 when the city was federalized and became the seat of government , with its mayor appointed by the president . The Casa Rosada became the seat of the president . Health conditions in poor areas were negative , with high rates of tuberculosis . Public-health physicians and politicians typically blamed both the poor themselves and their ramshackle tenement houses ( conventillos ) for the spread of the dreaded disease . People ignored public-health campaigns to limit the spread of contagious diseases , such as the prohibition of spitting on the streets , the strict guidelines to care for infants and young children , and quarantines that separated families from ill loved ones . In addition to the wealth generated by the Buenos Aires Customs and the fertile pampas , railroad development in the second half of the 19th century increased the economic power of Buenos Aires as raw materials flowed into its factories . A leading destination for immigrants from Europe , particularly Italy and Spain , from 1880 to 1930 Buenos Aires became a multicultural city that ranked itself with the major European capitals . The Colón Theater became one of the world 's top opera venues , and the city became the regional capital of radio , television , cinema , and theatre . The city 's main avenues were built during those years , and the dawn of the 20th century saw the construction of South America 's then-tallest buildings and the first underground system . A second construction boom from 1945 to 1980 reshaped downtown and much of the city . Buenos Aires also attracted migrants from Argentina 's provinces and neighboring countries . Shanty towns ( villas miseria ) started growing around the city 's industrial areas during the 1930s , leading to pervasive social problems and social contrasts with the largely upwardly mobile Buenos Aires population . These laborers became the political base of Peronism , which emerged in Buenos Aires during the pivotal demonstration of 17 October 1945 , at the Plaza de Mayo . Industrial workers of the Greater Buenos Aires industrial belt have been Peronism 's main support base ever since , and Plaza de Mayo became the site for demonstrations and many of the country 's political events ; on 16 June 1955 , however , a splinter faction of the Navy bombed the Plaza de Mayo area , killing 364 civilians ( see Bombing of Plaza de Mayo ) . This was the only time the city was attacked from the air , and the event was followed by a military uprising which deposed President Perón , three months later ( see Revolución Libertadora ) . In the 1970s the city suffered from the fighting between left-wing revolutionary movements ( Montoneros , E.R.P . and F.A.R . ) and the right-wing paramilitary group Triple A , supported by Isabel Perón , who became president of Argentina in 1974 after Juan Perón 's death . The March 1976 coup , led by General Jorge Videla , only escalated this conflict ; the `` Dirty War '' resulted in 30,000 desaparecidos ( people kidnapped and killed by the military during the years of the junta ) . The silent marches of their mothers ( Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo ) are a well-known image of Argentines suffering during those times . The dictatorship 's appointed mayor , Osvaldo Cacciatore , also drew up plans for a network of freeways intended to relieve the city 's acute traffic gridlock . The plan , however , called for a seemingly indiscriminate razing of residential areas and , though only three of the eight planned were put up at the time , they were mostly obtrusive raised freeways that continue to blight a number of formerly comfortable neighborhoods to this day . The city was visited by Pope John Paul II twice : in 1982 , and a second visit in 1987 , which gathered some of the largest crowds in the city 's history . The return of democracy in 1983 coincided with a cultural revival , and the 1990s saw an economic revival , particularly in the construction and financial sectors . On 17 March 1992 a bomb exploded in the Israeli Embassy , killing 29 and injuring 242 . Another explosion , on 18 July 1994 destroyed a building housing several Jewish organizations , killing 85 and injuring many more , these incidents marked the beginning of Middle Eastern terrorism to South America . Following a 1993 agreement , the Argentine Constitution was amended to give Buenos Aires autonomy and rescinding , among other things , the president 's right to appoint the city 's mayor ( as had been the case since 1880 ) . On 30 June 1996 , voters in Buenos Aires chose their first elected mayor ( Chief of Government ) . On 30 December 2004 a fire at the República Cromagnon nightclub killed almost 200 people , one of the greatest non-natural tragedies in Argentine history . On 22 February 2012 , a train crashed at Once Station . Fifty-one people were killed and more than 700 were injured ; the dead and seriously injured were in the first two carriages , which was packed with people who had moved to the front of the train to be near the station exit on arrival . Government and politics Government structure The Executive is held by the Chief of Government ( ) , elected for a four-year term together with a Deputy Chief of Government , who presides over the 60-member Buenos Aires City Legislature . Each member of the Legislature is elected for a four-year term ; half of the legislature is renewed every two years . Elections use the D'Hondt method of proportional representation . The Judicial branch is composed of the Supreme Court of Justice ( Tribunal Superior de Justicia ) , the Magistrate 's Council ( Consejo de la Magistratura ) , the Public Ministry , and other City Courts . The Article 61 of the 1996 Constitution of the City of Buenos Aires states that `` Suffrage is free , equal , secret , universal , compulsory and non-accumulative . Resident aliens enjoy this same right , with its corresponding obligations , on equal terms with Argentine citizens registered in the district , under the terms established by law . '' Legally , the city has less autonomy than the Provinces . In June 1996 , shortly before the City 's first Executive elections were held , the Argentine National Congress issued the National Law 24.588 ( known as Ley Cafiero , after the Senator who advanced the projemacct ) by which the authority over the 25,000-strong Argentine Federal Police and the responsibility over the federal institutions residing at the City ( e.g. , National Supreme Court of Justice buildings ) would not be transferred from the National Government to the Autonomous City Government until a new consensus could be reached at the National Congress . Furthermore , it declared that the Port of Buenos Aires , along with some other places , would remain under constituted federal authorities . , the deployment of the Metropolitan Police of Buenos Aires is ongoing . Beginning in 2007 , the city has embarked on a new decentralization scheme , creating new Communes ( comunas ) which are to be managed by elected committees of seven members each . Recent political history In 1996 , following the 1994 reform of the Argentine Constitution , the city held its first mayoral elections under the new statutes , with the mayor 's title formally changed to `` Head of Government '' . The winner was Fernando de la Rúa , who would later become President of Argentina from 1999 to 2001 . De la Rúa 's successor , Aníbal Ibarra , won two popular elections , but was impeached ( and ultimately deposed on 6 March 2006 ) as a result of the fire at the República Cromagnon nightclub . Jorge Telerman , who had been the acting mayor , was invested with the office . In the 2007 elections , Mauricio Macri of the Republican Proposal ( PRO ) party won the second-round of voting over Daniel Filmus of the Frente para la Victoria ( FPV ) party , taking office on 9 December 2007 . In 2011 , the elections went to a second round with 60.96 % of the vote for PRO , compared to 39.04 % for FPV , thus re-electing Macri as mayor of the city with María Eugenia Vidal as deputy mayor . The 2015 elections were the first to use an electronic voting system in the city , similar to the one used in Salta Province . In these elections held on 5 July 2015 , Macri stepped down as mayor and pursue his presidential bid and Horacio Rodríguez Larreta took his place as the mayoral candidate for PRO . In the first round of voting , FPV 's Mariano Recalde obtained 21.78 % of the vote , while Martín Lousteau of the ECO party obtained 25.59 % and Larreta obtained 45.55 % , meaning that the elections went to a second round since PRO was unable to secure the majority required for victory . The second round was held on 19 July 2015 and Larreta obtained 51.6 % of the vote , followed closely by Lousteau with 48.4 % , thus PRO won the elections for a third term with Larreta as mayor and Diego Santilli as deputy . In these elections , PRO was stronger in the wealthier neighbourhoods of northern Buenos Aires , while ECO was stronger in the south of the city . National representation Buenos Aires is represented in the Argentine Senate by three senators ( , Federico Pinedo , Marta Varela and Pino Solanas ) . The people of Buenos Aires also elect 25 national deputies to the Argentine Chamber of Deputies . Demographics Census data In the census of 2010 there were 2,891,082 people residing in the city . The population of Greater Buenos Aires was 13,147,638 according to 2010 census data . The population density in Buenos Aires proper was 13,680 inhabitants per square kilometer ( 34,800 per mi2 ) , but only about 2,400 per km2 ( 6,100 per mi2 ) in the suburbs . The population of Buenos Aires proper has hovered around 3 million since 1947 , due to low birth rates and a slow migration to the suburbs . The surrounding districts have , however , expanded over fivefold ( to around 10 million ) since then . The 2001 census showed a relatively aged population : with 17 % under the age of fifteen and 22 % over sixty , the people of Buenos Aires have an age structure similar to those in most European cities . They are older than Argentines as a whole ( of whom 28 % were under 15 , and 14 % over 60 ) . Two-thirds of the city 's residents live in apartment buildings and 30 % in single-family homes ; 4 % live in sub-standard housing . Measured in terms of income , the city 's poverty rate was 8.4 % in 2007 and , including the metro area , 20.6 % . Other studies estimate that 4 million people in the metropolitan Buenos Aires area live in poverty . The city 's resident labor force of 1.2 million in 2001 was mostly employed in the services sector , particularly social services ( 25 % ) , commerce and tourism ( 20 % ) and business and financial services ( 17 % ) ; despite the city 's role as Argentina 's capital , public administration employed only 6 % . Manufacturing still employed 10 % . Districts The city is divided into barrios ( neighborhoods ) for administrative purposes , a division originally based on Catholic parroquias ( parishes ) . A common expression is that of the Cien barrios porteños ( `` One hundred porteño neighborhoods '' ) , referring to a composition made popular in the 1940s by tango singer Alberto Castillo ; however , Buenos Aires only consists of 48 official barrios . There are a several subdivisions of these districts , some with a long history and others that are the product of a real estate invention . A notable example is Palermo — the city 's largest district — which has been subdivided into various barrios , including Palermo Soho , Palermo Hollywood , Las Cañitas and Palermo Viejo , among others . A newer scheme has divided the city into 15 comunas ( communes ) . Population origin The majority of porteños have European origins , mostly from the Calabrian , Ligurian , Piedmont , Lombardy , Sicily and Campania regions of Italy and from the Andalusian , Galician , Asturian , and Basque regions of Spain . Unrestricted waves of European immigrants to Argentina starting in the mid-19th century significantly increased the country 's population , even causing the number of porteños to triple between 1887 and 1915 from 500,000 to 1.5 million . Other significant European origins include German , Scottish , Norwegian , Polish , French , Portuguese , Swedish , Greek , Czech , Croatian , Dutch , Russian , Serbian , English , Hungarian and Bulgarian . In the 1980s and 1990s , there was a small wave of immigration from Romania and Ukraine . There is a minority of criollo citizens , dating back to the Spanish colonial days . The Criollo and Spanish-aboriginal ( mestizo ) population in the city has increased mostly as a result of immigration from the inner provinces and from other countries such as neighboring Bolivia , Paraguay , Chile and Peru , since the second half of the 20th century . The Jewish community in Greater Buenos Aires numbers around 250,000 , and is the largest in Latin America . Most are of Northern , Western , Central , and Eastern European Ashkenazi origin , primarily Swedish , Dutch , Polish , German , and Russian Jews , with a significant Sephardic minority , mostly made up of Syrian Jews and Lebanese Jews . Important Lebanese , Georgians , Syrian and Armenian communities have had a significant presence in commerce and civic life since the beginning of the 20th century . Most East Asian immigration in Buenos Aires comes from China . Chinese immigration is the fourth largest in Argentina , with the vast majority of them living in Buenos Aires and its metropolitan area . In the 1980s , most of them were from Taiwan , but since the 1990s the majority of Chinese immigrants come from the continental province of Fujian . The mainland Chinese who came from Fujian mainly installed supermarkets throughout the city and the suburbs ; these supermarkets are so common that , in average , there is one every two and a half blocks and are simply referred to as el chino ( `` the Chinese '' ) . Japanese immigrants are mostly from the Okinawa Prefecture . They started the dry cleaning business in Argentina , an activity that is considered idiosyncratic to the Japanese immigrants in Buenos Aires . Korean Immigration occurred after the division of Korea ; they mainly settled in Flores and Once . In the , 2.1 % of the population or 61,876 persons declared to be Amerindian or first-generation descendants of Amerindians in Buenos Aires ( not including the 24 adjacent Partidos that make up Greater Buenos Aires ) . Amongst the 61,876 persons who are of indigenous origin , 15.9 % are Quechua people , 15.9 % are Guaraní , 15.5 % are Aymara and 11 % are Mapuche . Within the 24 adjacent Partidos , 186,640 persons or 1.9 % of the total population declared themselves to be Amerindian . Amongst the 186,640 persons who are of indigenous origin , 21.2 % are Guaraní , 19 % are Toba , 11.3 % are Mapuche , 10.5 % are Quechua and 7.6 % are Diaguita . In the city , 15,764 people identified themselves as Afro-Argentine in the 2010 Census . Religion Most inhabitants are Roman Catholic , though studies in recent decades found that fewer than 20 % are practicing . Buenos Aires is the seat of a Roman Catholic metropolitan archbishop ( the Catholic primate of Argentina ) , currently Archbishop Mario Poli . His predecessor , Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio , was elected to the Papacy as Pope Francis on 13 March 2013 . There are Protestant , Orthodox Christian , Muslim , Jewish , Jehovah 's Witnesses , Mormon , and Buddhist minorities . The

qb_76--Buenos_Aires.txt

Buenos Aires is the capital of which South American country?

Herbaceous plants ( in botanical use frequently simply herbs ) are plants that have no persistent woody stem above ground . Herbaceous plants may be annuals , biennials or perennials . Annual herbaceous plants die completely at the end of the growing season or when they have flowered and fruited , and they then grow again from seed . Herbaceous perennial and biennial plants may have stems that die at the end of the growing season , but parts of the plant survive under or close to the ground from season to season ( for biennials , until the next growing season , when they flower and die ) . New growth develops from living tissues remaining on or under the ground , including roots , a caudex ( a thickened portion of the stem at ground level ) or various types of underground stems , such as bulbs , corms , stolons , rhizomes and tubers . Examples of herbaceous biennials include carrot , parsnip and common ragwort ; herbaceous perennials include potato , peony , hosta , mint , most ferns and most grasses . By contrast , non-herbaceous perennial plants are woody plants which have stems above ground that remain alive during the dormant season and grow shoots the next year from the above-ground parts – these include trees , shrubs and vines . Some relatively fast-growing herbaceous plants ( especially annuals ) are pioneers , or early-successional species . Others form the main vegetation of many stable habitats , occurring for example in the ground layer of forests , or in naturally open habitats such as meadow , salt marsh or desert . Some herbaceous plants can grow rather large , such as the Musa genus , to which the banana belongs . The age of some herbaceous perennial plants can be determined by analyzing annual growth rings in the secondary root xylem , a method called herbchronology .

dpql_4753--Herbaceous_plant.txt

George W Bush was given which diminutive herbaceous nickname?

Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals , fungi and plants in their environment , leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study . It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it , with articles nowadays more often published in science magazines than in academic journals . Grouped among the natural sciences , natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms . That is a very broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines . So while natural history dates historically from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and the mediaeval Arabic world , through to European Renaissance naturalists working in near isolation , today 's field is more of a cross discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences . For example , geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists and scientific knowledge of many specialty sciences . A person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian . Definitions Pre-twentieth-century The English term `` natural history '' is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis . Its meaning has narrowed progressively with time , while the meaning of the related term `` nature '' has widened ( see also History below ) . In antiquity , it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature . For example , Pliny the Elder 's encyclopedia of this title , published circa 77 to 79 AD , covers astronomy , geography , man and his technology , medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants . Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two main divisions : the humanities ( primarily what is now known as classics ) and divinity , with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment . The study of nature revived in the Renaissance , and quickly became a third branch of academic knowledge , itself divided into descriptive natural history and natural philosophy , the analytical study of nature . In modern terms , natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry , while natural history included the biological and geological sciences . The two were strongly associated . During the heyday of the gentleman scientists , many people contributed to both fields , and early papers in both were commonly read at professional science society meetings such as the Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences – both founded during the seventeenth century . Natural history had been encouraged by practical motives , such as Linnaeus ' aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden . Similarly , the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits . The astronomer , William Herschel was also a natural historian . Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars . He spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars . In the beginning , he believed there to be an object known as a nebulae , but then later realized it was just another stage in star development . Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world and attempted to understand it . In the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw ( while his sister Caroline did all the documenting ) . Post-nineteenth-century Modern definitions of natural history come from a variety of fields and sources , and many of the modern definitions emphasize a particular aspect of the field , creating a plurality of definitions with a number of common themes among them . For example , while natural history is most often defined as a type of observation and a subject of study , it can also be defined as a body of knowledge , and as a craft or a practice , in which the emphasis is placed more on the observer than on the observed . Definitions from biologists often focus on the scientific study of individual organisms in their environment , as seen in this definition by Marston Bates : `` Natural history is the study of animals and Plants – of organisms . ... I like to think , then , of natural history as the study of life at the level of the individual – of what plants and animals do , how they react to each other and their environment , how they are organized into larger groupings like populations and communities '' and this more recent definition by D.S . Wilcove and T. Eisner : `` The close observation of organisms—their origins , their evolution , their behavior , and their relationships with other species '' . This focus on organisms in their environment is also echoed by H.W . Greene and J.B. Losos : `` Natural history focuses on where organisms are and what they do in their environment , including interactions with other organisms . It encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do '' . Some definitions go further , focusing on direct observation of organisms in their environment , both past and present , such as this one by G.A . Bartholomew : `` A student of natural history , or a naturalist , studies the world by observing plants and animals directly . Because organisms are functionally inseparable from the environment in which they live and because their structure and function can not be adequately interpreted without knowing some of their evolutionary history , the study of natural history embraces the study of fossils as well as physiographic and other aspects of the physical environment '' . A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a descriptive component , as seen in a recent definition by H.W . Greene : `` Descriptive ecology and ethology '' . Several authors have argued for a more expansive view of natural history , including S. Herman , who defines the field as `` the scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments . It is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to the ecosystem , and stresses identification , life history , distribution , abundance , and inter-relationships . It often and appropriately includes an esthetic component '' , and T. Fleischner , who defines the field even more broadly , as `` A practice of intentional , focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world , guided by honesty and accuracy '' . These definitions explicitly include the arts in the field of natural history , and are aligned with the broad definition outlined by B. Lopez , who defines the field as the `` Patient interrogation of a landscape '' while referring to the natural history knowledge of the Eskimo ( Inuit ) . A slightly different framework for natural history , covering a similar range of themes , is also implied in the scope of work encompassed by many leading natural history museums , which often include elements of anthropology , geology , paleontology and astronomy along with botany and zoology , or include both cultural and natural components of the world . The plurality of definitions for this field has been recognized as both a weakness and a strength , and a range of definitions have recently been offered by practitioners in a recent collection of views on natural history . History Ancient times Natural history begins with Aristotle and other ancient philosophers who analyzed the diversity of the natural world . Natural history was understood by Pliny the Elder to cover anything that could be found in the world , including living things , geology , astronomy , technology , art and man . De Materia Medica was written between 50 and 70 AD by Pedanius Dioscorides , a Roman physician of Greek origin . It was widely read for more than 1,500 years until supplanted in the Renaissance , making it one of the longest-lasting of all natural history books . From the ancient Greeks until the work of Carl Linnaeus and other 18th century naturalists , a major concept of natural history was the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being , an arrangement of minerals , vegetables , more primitive forms of animals , and more complex life forms on a linear scale of supposedly increasing perfection , culminating in our species . Medieval Natural history was basically static through the Middle Ages in Europe – although in the Arabic and Oriental world it proceeded at a much brisker pace . In the Renaissance , scholars ( herbalists and humanists , particularly ) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history , and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual monsters . The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into taxonomic groups , culminating in the system of the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus . From the thirteenth century , the work of Aristotle was adapted rather rigidly into Christian philosophy , particularly by Thomas Aquinas , forming the basis for natural theology . During the Renaissance , scholars ( herbalists and humanists , particularly ) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history , and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual monsters . Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three founding fathers of botany , along with Otto Brunfels and Hieronymus Bock . Other important contributors to the field were Valerius Cordus , Konrad Gesner ( Historiae animalium ) , Frederik Ruysch , or Gaspard Bauhin . The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into taxonomic groups , culminating in the system of the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus . Birth of scientific biology A significant contribution to English natural history was made by parson-naturalists such as Gilbert White , William Kirby , John George Wood , and John Ray , who wrote about plants , animals , and other aspects of nature . Many of these men wrote about nature to make the natural theology argument for the existence or goodness of God . In modern Europe , professional disciplines such as botany , geology , mycology , palaeontology , physiology and zoology were formed . Natural history , formerly the main subject taught by college science professors , was increasingly scorned by scientists of a more specialized manner and relegated to an `` amateur '' activity , rather than a part of science proper . In Victorian Scotland it was believed that the study of natural history contributed to good mental health . Particularly in Britain and the United States , this grew into specialist hobbies such as the study of birds , butterflies , seashells ( malacology/conchology ) , beetles and wildflowers ; meanwhile , scientists tried to define a unified discipline of biology ( though with only partial success , at least until the modern evolutionary synthesis ) . Still , the traditions of natural history continue to play a part in the study of biology , especially ecology ( the study of natural systems involving living organisms and the inorganic components of the Earth 's biosphere that support them ) , ethology ( the scientific study of animal behavior ) , and evolutionary biology ( the study of the relationships between life-forms over very long periods of time ) , and re-emerges today as integrative organismal biology . Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building the world 's large natural history collections , such as the Natural History Museum , London , and the National Museum of Natural History in Washington D.C . Three of the greatest English naturalists of the nineteenth century , Henry Walter Bates , Charles Darwin , and Alfred Russel Wallace—who all knew each other—each made natural history travels that took years , collected thousands of specimens , many of them new to science , and by their writings both advanced knowledge of `` remote '' parts of the world—the Amazon basin , the Galápagos Islands , and the Malay archipelago , among others—and in so doing helped to transform biology from a descriptive to a theory based science . The understanding of `` Nature '' as `` an organism and not as a mechanism '' can be traced to the writings of Alexander Humboldt ( Prussia , 1769–1859 ) . Humboldt 's copious writings and research were seminal influences for Charles Darwin , Simone Bolivar , Henry David Thoreau , Ernst Haeckel , and John Muir . Museums Natural history museums , which evolved from cabinets of curiosities , played an important role in the emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs . Particularly in the 19th century , scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own morphological research . Societies The term `` natural history '' alone , or sometimes together with archeology , forms the name of many national , regional and local natural history societies that maintain records for animals ( including birds ( ornithology ) , insects ( entomology ) and mammals ( mammalogy ) ) , fungi ( mycology ) , plants ( botany ) and other organisms . They may also have geological and microscopical sections . Examples of these societies in Britain include the Natural History Society of Northumbria founded in 1829 , London Natural History Society ( 1858 ) , Birmingham Natural History Society ( 1859 ) , British Entomological and Natural History Society founded in 1872 , Glasgow Natural History Society , Manchester Microscopical and Natural History Society established in 1880 , Whitby Naturalists ' Club founded in 1913 , Scarborough Field Naturalists ' Society and the Sorby Natural History Society , Sheffield , founded in 1918 . The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered . Many civil servants took an interest in their new surroundings , sending specimens back to museums in Britain . ( See also : Indian natural history ) Societies in other countries include the American Society of Naturalists and Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists .

qg_460--Natural_history.txt

What famed British naturalist, born on Feb 12, 1809, wrote a book famously subtitled "the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life"?

The following are the association football events of the year 2010 throughout the world . News In 2010 , the two top-level leagues in the United States both added at least one new team : * Major League Soccer , which also has one team in Canada and is recognized as the top level of the ( men 's ) sport in that country , added its 16th team , Philadelphia Union , located in the Philadelphia suburb of Chester , Pennsylvania . * Women 's Professional Soccer , which currently has teams only in the United States , added two teams to the six teams returning from its inaugural 2009 season : * * The Atlanta Beat , the new incarnation of a team from the defunct Women 's United Soccer Association , who play in the Atlanta suburb of Kennesaw , Georgia . * * Philadelphia Independence , sister team to Philadelphia Union . Due to construction delays at the new stadium it will eventually share with Union , Independence played their first season in another Philadelphia suburb , West Chester , Pennsylvania . However , during the 2010 WPS season , another charter team , Saint Louis Athletica , folded , bringing WPS back to the same number of teams it had in the 2009 season . The league also lost its season champions , FC Gold Pride , and the Chicago Red Stars , although it will add an expansion team in Western New York for 2011 . Following the 2010 MLS regular season , the Kansas City Wizards announced a name change to Sporting Kansas City . Events International champions Men * 11 June – 11 July : 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa . * * * * * * * * 4th : * 10 January – 31 January : 2010 African Cup of Nations in Angola . * * * * * * * * 4th : * 14 August – 22 August : 2010 IBSA World Blind Football Championship in the United Kingdom * * * * * * * * 4th : * December 1–29 : 2010 AFF Suzuki Cup : Winners : : Runners-up : : Third place : , Women * July 13 – August 1 : 2010 FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup in Germany . * * * * * * * * 4th : * 5 September - 25 September : 2010 FIFA U-17 Women 's World Cup in Trinidad and Tobago . * * * * * * * * 4th : * 24 February – 3 March : 2010 Algarve Cup in Portugal * * * * * * * * 4th : * 4–21 November 2010 : 2010 South American Women 's Football Championship in Ecuador * * * * * * * * 4th : * March 3 to 17 : 2010 South American U-20 Women Championship in Colombia * * * * * * * * 4th : Club football Women National champions AFC * Australia – Sydney FC * Bahrain – Al-Ahli ( Manama ) * Bangladesh – Dhaka Abahani * Bhutan – Yeedzin FC * Cambodia – Phnom Penh Crown * China PR – Shandong Luneng * Chinese Taipei – Kaohsiung County Taipower FC * Guam – Quality Distributors * Hong Kong – South China * India – Dempo SC * Indonesia – Arema Indonesia * Iran – Sepahan * Iraq – Dohuk FC * Japan – Nagoya Grampus * Jordan – Al-Faisaly Amman * Kuwait – Qadsia SC * Kyrgyzstan – Dordoi-Dynamo Naryn * Lebanon – Al Ahed * Macau – Windsor Arch Ka I * Malaysia – Selangor FA * Oman – Al-Suwaiq * Pakistan – KRL * Palestine – Jabal Mukabar * Qatar – Al-Gharafa Doha * Saudi Arabia – Al-Hilal Riyadh * Singapore – Etoile FC * South Korea – FC Seoul * Syria – Al-Jaish * Tajikistan – Esteghlal Dushanbe * Thailand – Muangthong United F.C . * Turkmenistan – FC Balkan * UAE – Al Wahda * Uzbekistan – Bunyodkor Tashkent * Vietnam – Hà Nội T & T F.C . CAF * Algeria – MC Alger * Angola – G.D. Interclube * Benin – ASPAC FC * Botswana – Township Rollers FC * Burkina Faso – ASFA Yennega * Burundi – Vital ' O F.C . * Cameroon – Cotonsport Garoua * Cape Verde – Boavista FC * Central African Republic – Olympic Real de Bangui * Chad – Tourbillon FC * Comoros – Elan Club * Congo – Saint Michel d'Ouenzé * DR Congo – AS Vita Club * Djibouti – AS Port * Egypt – Al-Ahly * Equatorial Guinea – Deportivo Mongomo * Eritrea – unknown * Ethiopia – Saint-George SA * Gabon – US Bitam * Gambia – Gambia Ports Authority F.C . * Ghana – Aduana Stars * Guinea – Fello Star * Guinea-Bissau – Sporting Clube de Bissau * Ivory Coast – ASEC Mimosas * Kenya – Ulinzi Stars * Lesotho – Matlama FC * Liberia – unknown * Libya – Al Ittihad * Madagascar – CNaPS Sport * Malawi – Silver Strikers F.C . * Mali – Stade Malien * Mauritania – CF Cansado * Mauritius – Pamplemousses SC * Morocco – Wydad Casablanca * Mozambique – Liga Muçulmana de Maputo * Namibia – African Stars F.C . * Niger – ASFAN * Nigeria – Enyimba * Réunion – US Stade Tamponnaise * Rwanda – APR FC * São Tomé and Príncipe – GD Sundy * Senegal – ASC Diaraf * Seychelles – St Michel United FC * Sierra Leone – East End Lions F.C . * Somalia – Gayher FC * South Africa – Supersport United FC * Sudan – Al-Hilal ( Omdurman ) * Swaziland – Young Buffaloes * Tanzanian – Simba SC * Togo – unknown * Tunisia – Espérance Sportive de Tunis * Ugandan – Bunamwaya SC * Zambia – ZESCO United F.C . * Zanzibar – Zanzibar Ocean View F.C . * Zimbabwe – Motor Action F.C . CONCACAF Note : `` ( A ) '' means Apertura champion ; ( B ) means Bicentenario champion ; `` ( C ) '' means Clausura champion . Note : `` ( P ) '' designates the league champion , by winning the playoffs ; `` ( R ) '' designates the regular season champion . * Saint Kitts : Newtown United * Saint Lucia : Roots Alley Ballers * Saint-Martin : Orleans Attackers * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines : Avenues United * Sint Maarten : D & P Connection * Turks and Caicos Islands : AFC Academy CONMEBOL * Argentina – Argentinos Juniors ( C ) ; Estudiantes ( A ) * Bolivia – Jorge Wilstermann ( A ) ; Oriente Petrolero ( C ) * Brazil – Fluminense * Chile – Universidad Católica * Colombia – Junior ( A ) ; Once Caldas ( C ) * Ecuador – LDU Quito * Paraguay – Guaraní ( A ) ; Libertad ( C ) * Peru – Universidad San Martín * Uruguay – Peñarol * Venezuela – Caracas Note : `` ( A ) '' means Apertura champion ; `` ( C ) '' mean Clausura champion . OFC * Fiji – ongoing * French Polynesia – AS Tefana * New Caledonia – ongoing * New Zealand – Waitakere United UEFA * Albania : Dinamo Tirana * Andorra : FC Santa Coloma * Armenia : Pyunik Yerevan * Austria : Red Bull Salzburg * Azerbaijan : Inter Baku * Belarus : FC BATE Borisov * Belgium : Anderlecht * Bosnia and Herzegovina : FK Željezničar Sarajevo * Bulgaria : Litex Lovech * Croatia : Dinamo Zagreb * Cyprus : Omonia * Czech Republic : Sparta Prague * Denmark : Copenhagen * England : Chelsea * Estonia : FC Flora Tallinn * Faroe Islands : HB Thorshavn * Finland : HJK Helsinki * France : Marseille * Georgia : Olimpi Rustavi * Germany : Bayern Munich * Greece : Panathinaikos * Hungary : Debreceni VSC * Iceland : Breiðablik UBK * Israel : Hapoel Tel Aviv * Republic of Ireland : Shamrock Rovers * Italy : Internazionale * Kazakhstan : Tobol Kostanay * Latvia : Skonto Riga * Lithuania : Ekranas Panevezys * Luxembourg : Jeunesse Esch * Macedonia : Renova * Malta : Birkirkara * Moldova : Sheriff Tiraspol * Montenegro : Rudar Pljevlja * Netherlands : Twente * Northern Ireland : Linfield * Norway : Rosenborg Trondheim * Poland : Lech Poznań * Portugal : Benfica * Romania : Cluj * Russia : FC Zenit Saint Petersburg * San Marino : Tre Fiori * Scotland : Rangers * Serbia : Partizan * Slovakia : MŠK Žilina * Slovenia : Koper * Spain : Barcelona * Sweden : Malmö FF * Switzerland : Basel * Turkey : Bursaspor * Ukraine : Shakhtar Donetsk * Wales : The New Saints Domestic cup winners AFC * Qatar : Emir of Qatar Cup : Al-Rayyan * Singapore : Singapore Cup : Bangkok Glass * Thailand : Thai FA Cup : Chonburi FC CAF Wits University - South African Cup CONCACAF * Canada : Canadian Championship : Toronto FC * Suriname : Beker van Suriname : Excelsior : President 's Cup : Inter Moengotapoe * United States : U.S. Open Cup : Seattle Sounders FC CONMEBOL OFC UEFA * England : FA Cup : Chelsea : League Cup : Manchester United : FA Trophy : Barrow * France : Coupe de France : Paris Saint-Germain : Coupe de la Ligue : Marseille * Germany : DFB-Pokal : Bayern Munich * Greece : Greek Cup : Panathinaikos * Italy : Coppa Italia : Internazionale * Netherlands : KNVB Cup : Ajax * Portugal : Taça de Portugal : Porto * Russia : Russian Cup : Zenit St. Petersburg * Scotland : Scottish Cup : Dundee United : Scottish League Cup : Rangers * Spain : Copa del Rey : Sevilla * Turkey : Turkish Cup : Trabzonspor Deaths January * 1 January – Sergio Messen , Chilean midfielder ( 60 ) * 1 January – Jean-Pierre Posca , French defender ( 57 ) * 7 January – Alex Parker , Scottish defender ( 74 ) * 15 January – Detlev Lauscher , German striker ( 57 ) * 18 January – Lino Grava , Italian defender ( 82 ) * 19 January – Nils Jensen , Danish goalkeeper ( 74 ) * 19 January – Panajot Pano , Albanian striker ( 70 ) * 21 January – Marino Bergamasco , Italian midfielder ( 84 ) * 26 January – Lars Larsson , Swedish defender ( 76 ) February * 3 February – Gil Merrick , English goalkeeper ( 88 ) * 5 February – Galimzyan Khusainov , Russian striker ( 72 ) * 8 February – Angelo Franzosi , Italian goalkeeper ( 88 ) * 9 February – Constant de Backer , Belgian midfielder ( 81 ) * 10 February – Orlando , Brazilian defender ( 74 ) * 11 February – Brian Godfrey , Welsh striker ( 69 ) * 11 February – Yury Sevidov , Russian striker ( 67 ) * 12 February – Werner Krämer , German striker ( 70 ) * 12 February – Petar Borota , Serbian goalkeeper ( 57 ) * 12 February – Luis Molowny , Spanish midfielder and manager ( 84 ) * 13 February – Marian Parse , Romanian striker ( 23 , cancer ) * 14 February – Zhang Yalin , Chinese midfielder ( 28 , lymphoma ) * February 15 – Juan Carlos González , Uruguayan defender , winner of the 1950 FIFA World Cup . ( 85 ) * 16 February – Wan Chi Keung , Hong Kong striker ( 53 ) * 23 February – Gerhard Neef , German goalkeeper ( 63 ) April * 26 April – Alberto Vitoria , Spanish midfielder ( 54 ) May * 7 May – Denovan Morales , Honduran midfielder ( 22 ) June * 12 June – Mao Mengsuo , Chinese midfielder ( 20 ) * 20 June – Lai Sun Cheung , Hong Kong defender ( 59 ) July * July 3 – Herbert Erhardt , West-German defender , winner of the 1954 FIFA World Cup , listed by the DFB in the top 20 best German defenders of all time . ( 79 ) August * August 22 – Juan Carlos González , Uruguayan defender , winner of the 1950 FIFA World Cup . ( 85 ) * August 30 - Francisco Varallo , Argentine striker and the last surviving player of the 1930 FIFA World Cup and the final ( 100 ) September * 2 September - Jackie Sinclair , Scottish midfielder ( 67 , cancer ) * 3 September - Jose Augusto Torres , Portuguese striker and manager ( 71 , heart failure ) * 10 September - Andrei Timoshenko , Russian striker ( 41 ) * 10 September - Fridrikh Maryutin , Soviet striker ( 85 ) * 11 September - Diego Rodríguez Cano , Uruguayan defender ( 22 , car accident ) * 12 September - Nduka Anyanwu , Nigerian defender ( 30 , collapsed on the pitch ) * 18 September - Bobby Smith , English striker ( 77 , after a short illness ) * 18 September - Øystein Gåre , Norwegian manager ( 56 , after a short illness ) * 22 September - Vyacheslav Tsaryov , Russian defender ( 39 , after a short illness ) * 23 September - Fernando Riera , Chilean striker and manager ( 90 ) * 28 September - Orvin Cabrera , Honduran striker ( 33 , liver cancer ) October * 1 October - Ian Buxton , English striker ( 72 ) * 1 October - Dezső Bundzsák , Hungarian midfielder and manager ( 82 ) * 9 October - Les Fell , English midfielder ( 89 ) * 12 October - José Casas 'Pepín ' , Spanish goalkeeper ( 78 ) * 13 October - Juan Carlos Arteche , Spanish midfielder ( 53 , cancer ) * 13 October - Eddie Baily , English striker ( 85 ) * 14 October - Malcolm Allison , English defender and manager ( 83 , after a long illness ) * 18 October - Mel Hopkins , Welsh defender ( 75 ) * 18 October - Hans Hägele , German striker and football agent ( 70 , suicide ) * 21 October - Mustapha Anane , Algerian striker ( 60 , after a long illness ) * 22 October - Franz Raschid , German midfielder ( 56 , pancreatic cancer ) * 24 October - Fritz Grösche , German midfielder and manager ( 69 , cancer ) * 26 October - Paul the Octopus , 2010 FIFA World Cup `` oracle '' ( 2 , natural causes ) * 29 October - Ronnie Clayton , English midfielder ( 76 ) * 30 October - John Benson , Scottish defender and manager ( 67 , after a short illness ) November * 3 November - Ron Cockerill , English defender ( 75 ) * 8 November - Fred Blankemeijer , Dutch defender ( 84 ) * 12 November - Jim Farry , Former Chief Executive of the Scottish FA ( 56 , heart attack ) * 16 November - Ilie Savu , Romanian goalkeeper and manager ( 90 ) * November 17 - Olavo Rodrigues Barbosa , Brazilian defender , runner-up at the 1950 FIFA World Cup . ( 87 ) * 18 November - Jim Cruickshank , Scottish goalkeeper ( 69 ) * 24 November - Valentin Ivakin , Soviet goalkeeper and manager ( 80 ) * 26 November - Mohammad Anwar Elahee , Mauritian defender and manager ( 81 ) * 28 November - Vladimir Maslachenko , Soviet European Nation 's Cup winning goalkeeper ( 74 ) December * 3 December - Jose Ramos Delgado , Argentine defender ( 75 , Alzheimer disease ) * 5 December - Shamil Burziyev , Russian defender ( 25 , car accident ) * 6 December - Imre Mathesz , Hungarian midfielder ( 73 ) * 6 December - Rene Hauss , French defender and manager ( 82 ) * 7 December - Federico Vairo , Argentine defender ( 80 , stomach cancer ) * 10 December - Marcel Domingo , French goalkeeper and manager ( 86 ) * 11 December - Peter Risi , Swiss striker ( 60 , after a long illness ) * 12 December - Emmanuel Ogoli , Nigerian defender ( 21 , collapsed on the pitch ) * 14 December - Dale Roberts , English goalkeeper ( 24 , suicide ) * 17 December - Ralph Coates , English midfielder ( 64 , stroke ) * 21 December - Oleksandr Kovalenko , Ukrainian midfielder and referee ( 34 , suicide ) * 21 December - Enzo Bearzot , Italian defender and World Cup winning manager ( 83 ) * 24 December - Frans de Munck , Dutch goalkeeper ( 88 ) * 26 December - Bill Jones , English defender ( 89 ) * 29 December - Ramón Montesinos , Spanish midfielder ( 67 ) * 29 December - Avi Cohen , Israeli defender ( 54 , motorcycle accident )

sfq_8219--2010_in_association_football.txt

In which country was the 2010 football African Nations Cup held?

A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land . More broadly , `` the sea '' is the interconnected system of Earth 's salty , oceanic waters—considered as one global ocean or as several principal oceanic divisions . The sea moderates Earth 's climate and has important roles in the water cycle , carbon cycle , and nitrogen cycle . Although the sea has been travelled and explored since prehistory , the modern scientific study of the sea—oceanography—dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s . The sea is conventionally divided into up to five large oceanic sections—including the IHO 's four named oceans ( the Atlantic , Pacific , Indian , and Arctic ) and the Southern Ocean ; smaller , second-order sections , such as the Mediterranean , are known as seas . Owing to the present state of continental drift , the Northern Hemisphere is now fairly equally divided between land and sea ( a ratio of about 2:3 ) but the South is overwhelmingly oceanic ( 1:4.7 ) .Reddy , M.P.M . ( 2001 ) [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 2NC3JmKI7mYC & lpg=PA112 Descriptive Physical Oceanography ] . p. 112 . A.A. Balkema , Leiden . ISBN 90-5410-706-5 . Salinity in the open ocean is generally in a narrow band around 3.5 % by mass , although this can vary in more landlocked waters , near the mouths of large rivers , or at great depths . About 85 % of the solids in the open sea are sodium chloride . Deep-sea currents are produced by differences in salinity and temperature . Surface currents are formed by the friction of waves produced by the wind and by tides , the changes in local sea level produced by the gravity of the Moon and Sun . The direction of all of these is governed by surface and submarine land masses and by the rotation of the Earth ( the Coriolis effect ) . Former changes in the sea levels have left continental shelves , shallow areas in the sea close to land . These nutrient-rich waters teem with life , which provide humans with substantial supplies of food—mainly fish , but also shellfish , mammals , and seaweed—which are both harvested in the wild and farmed . The most diverse areas surround great tropical coral reefs . Whaling in the deep sea was once common but whales ' dwindling numbers prompted international conservation efforts and finally a moratorium on most commercial hunting . Oceanography has established that not all life is restricted to the sunlit surface waters : even under enormous depths and pressures , nutrients streaming from hydrothermal vents support their own unique ecosystem . Life may have started there and aquatic microbial mats are generally credited with the oxygenation of Earth 's atmosphere ; both plants and animals first evolved in the sea . The sea is an essential aspect of human trade , travel , mineral extraction , and power generation . This has also made it essential to warfare and left major cities exposed to earthquakes and volcanoes from nearby faults ; powerful tsunami waves ; and hurricanes , typhoons , and cyclones produced in the tropics . This importance and duality has affected human culture , from early sea gods to the epic poetry of Homer to the changes induced by the Columbian Exchange , from Viking funerals to Basho 's haikus to hyperrealist marine art , and inspiring music ranging from the shanties in The Complaynt of Scotland to Rimsky-Korsakov 's `` The Sea and Sinbad 's Ship '' to A-mei 's `` Listen to the Sea '' . It is the scene of leisure activities including swimming , diving , surfing , and sailing . However , population growth , industrialization , and intensive farming have all contributed to present-day marine pollution . Atmospheric carbon dioxide is being absorbed in increasing amounts , lowering its pH in a process known as ocean acidification . The shared nature of the sea has made overfishing an increasing problem . Definition Both senses of sea date to Old English ; the larger sense has required a definite article since Early Middle English . As the term has been applied over time , there are no sharp distinctions between seas and oceans , although seas are smaller and are—with the notable exception of the Sargasso Sea created by the North Atlantic Gyre—usually bounded by land on a smaller scale than multiple continents . Seas are generally larger than lakes and contain salt water , but the Sea of Galilee is a freshwater lake . There is no accepted technical definition of `` sea '' among oceanographers . In international law , the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea states that all the ocean is `` the sea '' . Physical science Earth is the only known planet with seas of liquid water on its surface , although Mars possesses ice caps and similar planets in other solar systems may have oceans . It is still unclear where Earth 's water came from , but , seen from space , our planet appears as a `` blue marble '' of its various forms : oceans , ice caps , clouds . Earth 's of sea contain about 97.2 percent of its known water and cover more than 70 percent of its surface . Another 2.15 % of Earth 's water is frozen , found in the sea ice covering the Arctic Ocean , the ice cap covering Antarctica and its adjacent seas , and various glaciers and surface deposits around the world . The remainder ( about 0.65 % of the whole ) form underground reservoirs or various stages of the water cycle , containing the freshwater encountered and used by most terrestrial life : vapor in the air , the clouds it slowly forms , the rain falling from them , and the lakes and rivers spontaneously formed as its waters flow again and again to the sea.NOAA . `` [ http : //oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/learning/player/lesson07.html Lesson 7 : The Water Cycle ] '' in Ocean Explorer . The sea 's dominance of the planet is such that the British author Arthur C. Clarke once noted that `` Earth '' would have been better named `` Ocean '' . The scientific study of water and Earth 's water cycle is hydrology ; hydrodynamics studies the physics of water in motion . The more recent study of the sea in particular is oceanography . This began as the study of the shape of the ocean 's currents but has since expanded into a large and multidisciplinary field : Monkhouse , F.J. ( 1975 ) Principles of Physical Geography . pp . 327–328 . Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 978-0-340-04944-0. it examines the properties of seawater ; studies waves , tides , and currents ; charts coastlines and maps the seabeds ; and studies marine life . The subfield dealing with the sea 's motion , its forces , and the forces acting upon it is known as physical oceanography . Marine biology ( biological oceanography ) studies the plants , animals , and other organisms inhabiting marine ecosystems . Both are informed by chemical oceanography , which studies the behavior of elements and molecules within the oceans : particularly , at the moment , the ocean 's role in the carbon cycle and carbon dioxide 's role in the increasing acidification of seawater . Marine and maritime geography charts the shape and shaping of the sea , while marine geology ( geological oceanography ) has provided evidence of continental drift and the composition and structure of the Earth , clarified the process of sedimentation , and assisted the study of volcanism and earthquakes . Seawater Seawater is invariably salty and , although its degree of saltiness ( salinity ) can vary , about 90 % of the water in the ocean has 34– ( 1.2 oz . ) of dissolved solids per liter , producing a salinity between 3.4 and 3.5 % . To easily describe small differences , however , oceanographers usually express salinity as a millage ( ‰ ) or part per thousand ( ppt ) instead of using percents . The surface salinity of waters in the Northern Hemisphere are generally closer to the 34‰ mark , while those in the South are closer to 35‰ . The solutes in ocean water come both from inflowing river water and from the ocean floor . The relative composition of the solutes is stable throughout the world 's oceans : sodium ( Na ) and chloride ( Cl ) make up about 85 % . Other solutes include metal ions such as magnesium ( Mg ) and calcium ( Ca ) and negative ions such as sulfate ( SO₄ ) , carbonate ( CO₃ ) , and bromides . In the absence of other pollution , seawater would not be harmful to drink except that it is much too saline ; similarly , it can not be used for irrigating most plants without being desalinated . For scientific and technical purposes , a standardized form of artificial seawater is often used . Variations in salinity are caused by many factors : currents flowing between the seas ; incoming freshwater from rivers and glaciers ; precipitation ; the formation and melting of sea ice ; and evaporation , which is in turn affected by temperature , winds , and waves . For example , the upper level of the Baltic Sea has a very low salinity ( 10 to 15‰ ) because the low temperatures of the surrounding climate produce minimal evaporation ; it has many inflowing rivers ; and its small connection to the North Sea tends to create a cold , dense under-layer that hardly mixes with the surface waters . By contrast , the Red Sea lies between the Sahara and Arabian Deserts ; it has high evaporation but little precipitation ; it has few ( and mostly seasonal ) inflowing rivers ; and its connection to other seas—the Suez Canal in the north and the Bab-el-Mandeb in the south—are both very narrow . Its salinity averages 40‰ . The Mediterranean is a little lower , at 37‰ , while some landlocked lakes are much higher : The Dead Sea has 300 g of dissolved solids per liter ( 300‰ ) . Sea temperature chiefly depends on the amount of solar radiation it absorbs . In the tropics where sunlight falls more directly , the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over 30 °C ; near the poles , the temperature is in equilibrium with the sea ice at its freezing point . Its salinity makes this lower than freshwater 's , usually about . These temperature differences contribute to the continuous circulation of water through the sea . Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics ; as the water becomes denser , it sinks . The cold water in the deep sea moves back towards the equator before welling up again to the surface . Deep seawater has a temperature between in all parts of the globe . In freezing seas , ice crystals begin to form on the surface . These break into small pieces and coalesce into flat discs that form a thick suspension known as frazil . In calm conditions , frazil will freeze into a thin , flat sheet called nilas , which thickens as new ice forms in the sea beneath it . In turbulent waters , frazil instead join together into larger flat discs known as `` pancakes '' . These slide over and under one another to form floes . During these processes , salt water and air are trapped amid the ice . Nilas forms with a salinity around 12–15‰ and is grayish in color but grows fresher over time : after a year , it is bluish and closer to 4–6‰ saline . The amount of light that penetrates the sea depends on the angle of the sun , the local weather , and the sea 's turbidity . Of the light that reaches the surface of the sea , much of it is reflected at the surface and its red wavelengths are absorbed in the top few meters . Yellow and green reach greater depths , and the longer blue and violet wavelengths may penetrate as deep as 1000 m . The amount of oxygen present in seawater depends primarily upon its temperature and the photosynthetic organisms living in it , particularly algae , phytoplankton , and plants such as seagrass . During the day , their photosynthetic activity produces oxygen , which dissolves into the seawater and is used by marine animals . The water 's oxygen saturation is lower during the night and much lower in the deep sea . Below a depth of about 200 m , there is insufficient light for photosynthesisRussell , F.S . ( 1928 ) The Seas . pp . 225–227 . Frederick Warne . and consequently little dissolved oxygen . Below this , anaerobic bacteria break down falling organic material , producing hydrogen sulfide ( H₂S ) . It is projected that global warming will reduce oxygen both in surface and deep waters , due to oxygen 's decreased solubility as temperatures increase and increased oceanic stratification . Waves Ocean surface waves are oscillations caused by the friction from air moving across the surface of the water . This friction transfers energy and forms surface waves in the water perpendicular to the direction of the wind . The top of a wave is known as its crest and its foot as its trough ; the distance between two crests is the wavelength . These waves are mechanical : as they approach , the water molecules at a given point rise up and , as they pass , the water molecules go down , tracing a roughly circular path . The energy is passed across the surface and does not represent a horizontal motion of the water itself . The sea state of the ocean is determined by the size of these waves , which—on the open ocean—depends upon the wind speed and the fetch , the distance over which the wind blows upon the water . The smallest waves are called ripples . As strong and prolonged winds push against ripples ' raised crests , larger and more irregular waves form , which known as seas . These waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are traveling nearly matches the speed of the wind and , over time , they naturally separate into long , powerful waves with a common direction and wavelength . These swells are particularly common in the Roaring Forties of the Southern Hemisphere where the wind blows continuously . When the wind dies down , ripples easily disappear owing to water 's surface tension , but seas and swells are only slowly reduced by gravity and destructive interference from other waves . Constructive interference , however , can also cause individual rogue waves much higher than normal.Garrison , Tom ( 2012 ) . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idDVgKAAAAQBAJ & pg PA204 Essentials of Oceanography ] . 6th ed . pp . 204 ff . Brooks/Cole , Belmont . ISBN 0321814053 . Most waves are less than 3 m high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height ; offshore construction such as wind farms and oil platforms use these measurements in computing the hundred-year wave they are designed against . Rogue waves , however , have been documented at heights above 25 m . As waves approach land and move into shallow water , they change their behavior . If approaching at an angle , waves may bend or wrap rocks and headlands . When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillating molecules contact the seabed , friction begins to slow the wave down . This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves ' height . When the ratio of a wave 's height to its wavelength exceeds 1:7 , it `` breaks '' , toppling over in a mass of foaming water . This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the sea under the influence of gravity . Tsunami A tsunami is an unusual form of wave caused by a sudden and powerful event such as an underwater earthquake or landslide , a meteorite impact , a volcanic eruption , or a collapse of land into the sea . These events can temporarily lift or lower the surface of the sea in the affected area , usually by a few feet . The potential energy of the displaced seawater is turned into kinetic energy , creating a shallow wave radiating outwards at a velocity proportional to the square root of the depth of the water . Tsunamis , therefore , travel much faster in the open ocean than on a continental shelf . Despite traveling at speeds of over 600 mph , tsunamis in deep seas have wavelengths from 80 to and an amplitude of less than three feet . Standard surface waves in the same region may only have wavelengths of a few hundred feet and speeds up to 65 mph but , when compared to their possible amplitudes of up to 45 ft , tsunamis at this stage are often able to pass unnoticed . Tsunami warning systems rely on the fact that seismic waves caused by earthquakes travel around the world at around 14400 km per hour , allowing threatened regions to be alerted to the possibility of a tsunami . Measurements from a network of sea-level measuring stations make it possible to confirm or cancel a tsunami warning . A trigger event on the continental shelf may cause a local tsunami on the land side and a distant tsunami that travels out across the ocean . The energy of the wave is dissipated only gradually but is spread out over the wave front . As the wave radiates away from the source , the front gets longer and the average energy reduces , so distant shores will generally be hit by weaker waves . However , as the speed of the wave is controlled by the water depth , it does not travel at the same speed in all directions and this affects the direction of the wave front . This effect , known as refraction , can focus the strength of an advancing tsunami on some areas while weakening it in others , according to the undersea topography along its path . Just as with other waves , moving into shallow water causes the tsunami to slow but grow in height . Either the trough or the crest of the tsunami can arrive at the coast first . In the former case , the sea draws back and leaves subtidal areas unusually exposed . When the crest arrives , it does not usually break but rushes inland , flooding all in its path . Much of the disaster 's destruction can be produced by these flood waters , which drain back into the sea while pulling people and debris along . Several tsunamis can be caused by a single geological event . In such cases , it is common for the later waves to arrive between eight minutes and two hours after the first , which may not be the biggest or most destructive . Occasionally , in a shallow bay or estuary , a tsunami may transform into a bore . Tides Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by seas and oceans in response to the gravitational influences of the Moon and the Sun , and the effects of the Earth 's rotation . At any given place , the water rises over the course of the tidal cycle to a maximum height known as `` high tide '' before ebbing away again to a minimum `` low tide '' level . As the water recedes , it uncovers more and more of the foreshore or intertidal zone . The difference in height between the high tide and low tide is known as the tidal range or tidal amplitude . Tidal bores can occur at the mouths of rivers , where the force of the incoming tide pushes waves of seawater upstream against the current . At Hangzhou in China , the bore can reach 9 m high and travel up to 40 km per hour . Most places experience two high tides each day , occurring at intervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes , half the period that it takes for the Earth to make a complete revolution and return the Moon to its previous position relative to an observer . The Moon 's mass is some 27 million times smaller than the Sun , but it is 400 times closer to the Earth . Tidal force or tide-raising force decreases rapidly with distance , so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the Sun . A bulge is formed in the ocean at the place where the Earth is closest to the Moon , because it is also where the effect of the Moon 's gravity is stronger . On the opposite side of the Earth , the lunar force is at its weakest and this causes another bulge to form . These bulges rotate around the Earth as the moon does . The Sun 's effect is less powerful but , when the Sun , Moon and Earth are all aligned at the full and new moons , the combined effect results in the high `` spring tides '' . In contrast , when the Sun is at 90° from the Moon as viewed from Earth , the combined gravitational effect on tides is correspondingly reduced , causing the lower `` neap tides '' . Tidal flows of seawater are resisted by the water 's inertia and can be affected by land masses . In places like the Gulf of Mexico where land constrains the movement of the bulges , only one set of tides may occur each day . Inshore from an island , there may be a complex daily cycle with four high tides . The island straits at Chalkis on Euboea experience strong currents which abruptly switch direction , generally four times per day but up to 12 times per day when the moon and the sun are 90 degrees apart . See also the commentary about this explanation in Where there is a funnel-shaped bay or estuary , the tidal range can be magnified . The Bay of Fundy in Canada can experience spring tides of 15 m. Although tides are regular and predictable , the height of high tides can be lowered by offshore winds and raised by onshore winds . The high pressure at the center of an anticyclones pushes down on the water and is associated with abnormally low tides while low-pressure areas may cause extremely high tides . A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow area and this , coupled with a low pressure system , can raise the surface of the sea at high tide dramatically . In 1900 , Galveston , Texas , experienced a 15 ft surge during a hurricane that overwhelmed the city , killing over 3,500 people and destroying 3,636 homes . Currents Wind blowing over the surface of the sea causes friction at the interface between air and sea . Not only does this cause waves to form but it also makes the surface seawater move in the same direction as the wind . Although winds are variable , in any one place they predominantly blow from a single direction and thus a surface current can be formed . Westerly winds are most frequent in the mid-latitudes while easterlies dominate the tropics . When water moves in this way , other water flows in to fill the gap and a circular movement of surface currents known as a gyre is formed . There are five main gyres in the world 's oceans : two in the Pacific , two in the Atlantic , and one in the Indian Ocean . The North Atlantic gyre that produces the Sargasso Sea accumulates salinity levels as high as 38‰ . Other smaller gyres are found in lesser seas and a single gyre flows around Antarctica . These gyres have followed the same routes for millennia , guided by the topography of the land , the wind direction , and the Coriolis effect . The surface currents flow in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere . The water moving away from the equator is warm , while that flowing towards it has lost most of its heat . These currents tend to moderate the Earth 's climate , cooling the equatorial region , and warming regions at higher latitudes . Global climate and weather forecasts are powerfully affected by the world ocean , so global climate modelling makes use of ocean circulation models as well as models of other major components such as the atmosphere , land surfaces , aerosols , and sea ice . Ocean models make use of a branch of physics , geophysical fluid dynamics , that describes the large-scale flow of fluids such as seawater . Surface currents only affect the top few hundred meters ( yards ) of the sea , but there are also large-scale flows in the ocean depths caused by the movement of deep water masses . A main deep ocean current flows through all the world 's oceans and is known as the thermohaline circulation or global conveyor belt . This movement is slow and is driven by differences in density of the water caused by variations in salinity and temperature . At high latitudes , the water is chilled by the low atmospheric temperature and becomes saltier as sea ice crystallizes out . Both these factors make it denser and the water sinks . From the deep sea near Greenland , such water flows southwards between the continental landmasses on either side of the Atlantic . When it reaches the Antarctic , it is joined by further masses of cold , sinking water and flows eastwards . It then splits into two streams that move northwards into the Indian and Pacific Oceans . Here it is gradually warmed , becomes less dense , rises towards the surface , and loops back on itself . Some flows back into the Atlantic . It takes a thousand years for this circulation pattern to be completed . Besides gyres , there are temporary surface currents that occur under specific conditions . When waves meet a shore at an angle , a longshore current is created as water is pushed along parallel to the coastline . The water swirls up onto the beach at right angles to the approaching waves but drains away straight down the slope under the effect of gravity . The larger the breaking waves , the longer the beach , and the more oblique the wave 's approach , the stronger the longshore current is . These currents can shift great volumes of sand or pebbles , create spits , and make beaches disappear and water channels silt up . A rip current can occur when water piles up near the shore from advancing waves and is funnelled out to sea through a channel in the seabed . It may occur at a gap in a sandbar or near a man-made structure such as a groyne . These strong currents can have a velocity of 1 m/s , can form at different places at different stages of the tide , and can carry away unwary swimmers . Temporary upwelling currents occur when the wind pushes water away from the land and deeper water rises to replace it . This cold water is often rich in nutrients and creates blooms of phytoplankton and a great increase in the productivity of the sea . Basins Bathymetry is the mapping and study of the topography of the ocean floor . Methods used for measuring the depth of the sea include single or multibeam echosounders , laser airborne depth sounders and the calculation of depths from satellite remote sensing data . This information is used for determining the routes of undersea cables and pipelines , for choosing suitable locations for siting oil rigs and offshore wind turbines and for identifying possible new fisheries . The Earth is composed of a magnetic central core , a mostly liquid mantle , and a hard rigid outer shell ( or lithosphere ) , which is composed of the Earth 's rocky crust and the deeper and mostly solid outer layer of the mantle . The crust below land is known as continental while that under the abyssal sea is called oceanic . The latter is composed of relatively dense basalt and is some five to ten kilometers ( three to six miles ) thick . The relatively thin lithosphere floats on the weaker and hotter mantle below and is fractured into a number of

qw_9338--Sea.txt

In which sea is the The Grenadines island chain?

Megan `` Meg '' Griffin is a character from the animated television series Family Guy . The eldest child of the Griffin family , Meg is the family 's black sheep who receives the least of their attention and bears the brunt of their abuse . She was originally voiced by Lacey Chabert during the first season . As of season two , she is voiced by actress Mila Kunis . Personality Meg is a self-conscious teenage girl . Her insecurities cause her desperately to try to be part of the cool crowd , but this only results in her getting coldly rebuffed by Connie D'Amico , the popular , attractive , and egotistical head cheerleader of her school . However , another student named Neil Goldman is attracted to her . She is also usually at the bottom of the family 's pecking order and the butt of Peter 's jokes due to her perceived homeliness , tendency toward social awkwardness , and unpopularity . Everyone in her family makes fun of her : Peter and Chris resort to outrageous stunts and names ; Stewie and Brian employ subtle but effective jokes ; Lois constantly puts Meg down while boosting her own egotistical image . On one occasion , the whole family even goes as far as to read her diary and make fun of all her deepest secrets . However , on some occasions the family 's true love for her has been proven . She has been so self-conscious and insecure about herself that she has engaged in dangerous sexual behavior just for attention . She is also prone to violent releases of her repressed rage , as shown in `` Road to Rupert '' , when she assaults a man who insulted her after a fender-bender . Many of the show 's story lines focusing on Meg involve her trying to struggle to fit in better with other more popular teenagers , trying to find a boyfriend , and reaching breaking points with her family , as well as other bullies . Voice actors On the season 1 DVD commentary for the Drawn Together episode `` Hot Tub '' , Cree Summer claims she was offered the role to play Meg but was dismissed by the producers . Meg was voiced by an uncredited Lacey Chabert for the first season , and by Mila Kunis in subsequent seasons after Chabert became busy with school and appearing on Party of Five at the time , [ http : //info.sonicretro.org/Lacey_Chabert_interview_by_GameSpy_ % 28October_6 , _2006 % 29 Lacey Chabert interview by GameSpy ( October 6 , 2006 ) - Sonic Retro ] although some of her work became second season episodes due to production order . Mila Kunis won the role after auditions and a slight rewrite of the character , in part due to her performance on That '70s Show . MacFarlane called Kunis back after her first audition , instructing her to speak more slowly , and then told her to come back another time and enunciate more . Once she claimed that she had it under control , MacFarlane hired her . MacFarlane stated that Kunis `` had a very natural quality to Meg '' and she 's `` in a lot of ways [ ... ] almost more right for the character '' . Kunis 's voice is first heard as Meg in Episode 3 of season two `` Da Boom '' , and the voices switch back and forth in the broadcast order until settling on Kunis . Tara Strong provides Meg 's singing voice in `` Do n't Make Me Over '' . * Lacey Chabert ( 1999–2000 , 2011 ) [ http : //www.planet-familyguy.com/pfg/characters/3/MegGriffin/ Planet Family Guy - Character guide - Meg Griffin ] * Mila Kunis ( 1999–present ) [ http : //www.stewiesplayground.com/2008/05/30/mila-kunis-talks-about-working-on-family-guy/ Mila Kunis talks about working on Family Guy « : EveryJoe - Sports and Entertainment News ] * Tara Strong ( singing voice ) [ http : //www.movietome.com/people/18865/tara-strong/trivia.html Movie Reviews , Articles , Trailers , and more at Metacritic ] Appearance Meg typically wears glasses and a pink beanie even underneath other headgear . She also commonly wears a pink and white T-shirt , blue jeans , and tan ( later white ) shoes . She occasionally is seen wearing dresses or formal wear usually without her trademark cap . She is slightly shorter than her younger brother Chris . Meg is also self-conscious about her appearance ( `` I 'm so fat and gross . `` ) . Social life Meg is very unpopular in high school due to her plain appearance and personality and social distancing from the more wild and vibrant behavior done by others . Meg desperately tries to be part of the cool crowd , but is usually coldly rebuffed . She is also usually the butt of Peter 's jokes due to her perceived homeliness and tendency towards social awkwardness . Because of her eagerness for acceptance , she has been recruited unknowingly into a suicidal religious cult , and later recruited again unwittingly into her school 's Lesbian Alliance ( `` Brian Sings and Swings '' ) . However , Meg does have a moderate number of friends , the best of which being with a group of girls who are often seen with her during occasions such her slumber parties and gossiping about boys . In later episodes , these girls , known by the names Beth , Patty , Collette , Esther , and Ruth , are characterized as being highly unpopular and dateless , much like Meg , even saying that she was the only one of them who ever had a boyfriend ( actually a decaying corpse she was `` dating '' ) . Dating Meg is so unpopular at school that one student fires a nail gun into his own stomach twice ( in shop class ) in order to avoid a date with her , and then in a later episode shoots his own brother as an excuse not to go to a dance with her the following night . On another occasion , Meg and Lois are looking for new clothes for Meg , but with no luck ( a saleswoman ended up pouring gasoline on herself , lighting a match , catching fire , and then jumping out of a window after looking at Meg in a pair of jeans ) . However , she is sought by nerd Neil Goldman . In `` 8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter '' , Neil starts dating a girl named Cecilia , Meg becomes instantly jealous and pretends to date Jake Tucker to make him jealous . This leads to her signing a contract to become Neil 's girlfriend and ( not knowing at first ) his slave , but she gets him to tear up the contract after Lois seduces him . Perverted neighbor Glenn Quagmire has shown a repeated interest in her , mostly due to his very low standard , asking if she has reached the age of consent . Glenn Quagmire comes close to succeeding when Lois tells Peter to back off after he was ruining Meg and Quagmire 's 'dates ' . Then , they rescue Meg after Glenn takes her to his cabin , Peter and Lois arriving in time before anything happens . In several episodes she is shown dating , including stories with characters Mayor Adam West and nudist Jeff Campbell . She also loses her virginity unknowingly on live television to Saturday Night Live host Jimmy Fallon after having a drastic makeover ; but , before all that happens , she goes out with a rebel at her school named Craig Hoffman . In `` Jerome is the New Black '' , Jerome , an old flame of Lois 's and Peter 's new friend , admits to having sex with Meg , to which Peter replies indifferently . In the episode `` Brian Sings and Swings '' , a lesbian student named Sarah invites Meg to join in her Lesbian Alliance Club , with Meg not knowing at first what kind of club it was . Desperate to fit in , she pretends to be a lesbian and also pretends to be attracted to Sarah and even goes so far as to kiss her to prove it . At the end of the episode , Meg goes over Sarah 's house to admit she lied about being a lesbian ( Sarah thought that Meg came over to have sex and even undresses herself when Meg is telling her that she lied ) , much to Glenn 's ( who was hiding in Sarah 's closet ) disappointment . She also used to have a crush on anchorman Tom Tucker , but it ended after she discovered his vanity and selfishness . In other episodes , she is portrayed as chronically incapable of finding a boyfriend . For her Junior Prom she accepts a pity date from Brian , the family dog and only after threatening suicide . Earlier in season 2 , she dated Joe Swanson 's son Kevin Swanson , but in `` Stew-Roids '' it is mentioned that Kevin died in Iraq . In the episode , `` Prick Up Your Ears '' , she dates a boy named Doug , but he breaks up with her when he sees her naked right before almost having sex . In the episode `` Peter 's Daughter '' , Meg falls in love with a med-student named Michael Milano after coming out of a short coma ( caused by Peter when he asked her to `` rescue '' beer and make him a sandwich out of an already flooded kitchen ) and they start to date . After he breaks up with Meg ( because of Peter being overprotective of her after promising that if she came out of the coma , he would `` treat her like a princess '' ) , she announces that she is pregnant by Michael and the two get engaged . After finding out that she is not actually pregnant , Meg tells Michael the truth hoping that he will stay , however , Michael quickly leaves Meg at the altar . In the episode `` Dial Meg for Murder '' , she is dating a convict , while in the episode `` Go , Stewie , Go ! '' she dates an attractive young man named Anthony , who is absolutely normal ( much to the surprise and chagrin of many of the other characters ) . They were so shocked that they had to do tests just to see if he was completely normal which annoyed Meg . It is presumed that she broke up with him after he and Lois had an affair . Meg also shows extremely possessive behavior when she encounters someone she believes she has a romantic connection with such as kidnapping Brian and detaining Bonnie Swanson at the airport by planting a gun in her purse . Family life In the first three seasons of the show , Meg 's family often inadvertently humiliated her due to their bumbling or stupidity , though they cared for her and meant well . In the post-cancellation seasons , this began to change as the show started to flesh out the characters to the point where it seems that most of the population of Quahog , including her own family , despise her for no reason other than her simply being `` Meg '' . In an interview , Mila Kunis stated : `` Meg gets picked on a lot . But it 's funny . It 's like the middle child . She is constantly in the state of being an awkward 14-year-old , when you 're kind of going through puberty and what-not . She 's just in perpetual mode of humiliation , and it 's fun . '' Meg is also the most misunderstood , at least by Peter , Chris , and others who are shown avoiding her company , disparaging her in person , gathering in her bedroom to read her diary for laughs , etc . Peter reminds Lois , `` We agreed that if we could only save two , we 'd leave Meg ! '' even randomly shooting her when she simply said `` Hi Dad '' ( `` Peter 's Daughter '' ) but despite this he also was going to say `` I love you '' in `` Hell Comes to Quahog '' , and in `` Road to Rupert '' he stated they were 'secret best friends ' before throwing lemonade in her face , saying he would have to continue to treat her badly in public in order to maintain his reputation due to `` peer pressure '' , thus giving hope that they may be on good terms . Occasionally , when Meg asks a question to Peter or just speaks when he is in the room , Peter responds by saying `` Shut up , Meg , '' which is immediately followed by a line from another character . When the family tries an anger management technique of writing letters and not sending them , Meg finds Peter 's letter to her , which says , `` Dear Meg , for the first four years of your life , I thought you were a house cat . '' And in Peter 's short story of her birth , they had to go back to get her once they realized they grabbed the afterbirth . In the episode `` Stewie Kills Lois '' , Peter tells guests on a cruise ship about how he and Lois had gone to get an abortion but decided against it when they arrived at the clinic and found out the abortionist had one hand . He then says `` two and a half months later , our daughter Meg was born '' – indicating that they had tried to abort her when Lois was already over six months pregnant . Another hint to this is when Meg is in the car with Lois and at an attempt to make civilized conversation , says , `` Hey Meg , did you know that if you 're on birth control and you take an antibiotic it makes it not work ? 'Cause no one told me ! I just thought you should know '' and laughs awkwardly . On Meg 's 17th birthday , her mother and father both try to hide from Meg that they do not remember her age . Peter openly states that Meg sucks in the episode `` PTV '' , and Chris says the same thing about her in `` Long John Peter '' . In `` Not All Dogs Go to Heaven '' , Brian says to Meg 's face that she lives in a home `` where nobody respects or cares about [ her ] , not even enough to get [ her ] a damn mumps shot ! '' Chris , however , seems to have more of a typical brother-sister relationship with Meg . Although they fight and argue from time to time , he tends to go to her for advice . Chris even once threatened to quit his job if his boss did n't re-hire Meg ( at the insistence of Lois ) . Like Chris , Meg has an anthropomorphic monkey in her closet , and although she has proved it , her family coldly state that they were talking about Chris ' , not hers . Cleveland comments to Peter `` Meg is my least favorite of your children . '' Apparently , a double standard also exists against Meg , further underscoring the mistreatment she suffers from the people around her . In `` Big Man on Hippocampus '' , an episode wherein Peter loses his memory , as he reacquaints himself with the pleasures of sex , Lois tells him that it is inappropriate to have sex with his own children ; in response , Meg attempts an incest joke . Most of the family lambaste her for this and Chris kicks her out of the room . However , in the season finale `` Partial Terms of Endearment '' , Lois tells a joke that implies that it was Meg that gave birth to Stewie , and apart from a shocked reaction from the latter , Lois receives no such violent reaction . Additionally , in `` Model Misbehavior '' , when Lois starts a modeling career , Peter states that he will pleasure himself to Lois ' pictures , followed by Chris and Meg both exclaiming `` Me too ! '' to which Peter shouts `` Oh God , Meg , that 's sick ! That 's your mother ! `` , ignoring the fact that Chris said the same thing . Meg responded by saying `` I was only trying to fit in ! '' Brian 's attention softens the lack of respect from Peter and the neighbors ; he admits that he cares for Meg when she goes out with Mayor Adam West . Lois has also often shown sympathy for Meg , for example , taking her to Spring Break at the beach . Lois very often comforts Meg when she is down ; however , she gives up one attempt after 45 minutes and gives her a Sylvia Plath novel and a bottle of Ambien , and with a `` Whatever happens , happens , '' leaves Meg to her misery . The family 's treatment of Meg finally reaches her limit in `` Dial Meg for Murder '' when Meg emerges from a short stint in a Young Offenders Institution as a hardened criminal , abusing her family and beating up anyone who makes fun of her . It is only after a conversation with Brian that she changes her ways . However , it comes to a head once again in `` Seahorse Seashell Party '' , when Meg finally grows tired of her mistreatment and lashes out against Chris , Lois , and Peter , informing them of their own flaws . All of them become very offended , and everyone begins bickering with each other . Brian is proud that Meg stood up for herself , but she sadly tells him that even though she meant every word , seeing her family turn on each other like wild animals has made her think that it is ultimately her non-ideal role to serve as the Griffins ' lightning rod and `` absorb all the dysfunction '' . He commends her on her maturity , and even goes on to say that Meg is the `` strongest person '' in the family . She soon apologizes to the others and says that she is the one at fault ; Chris calls her a bitch , to which she proudly responds `` Yes , yes I am , '' and the family reconciles .

sfq_22341--Meg_Griffin.txt

What is the surname of the TV sibling characters Chris, Meg and Stewie (and pet Brian)?

An impresario ( from the Italian impresa , 'an enterprise or undertaking ' ) is a person who organizes and often finances concerts , plays or operas , performing a role similar to that of an artist manager or a film or television producer . The term originated in the social and economic world of Italian opera , in which from the mid-18th century to the 1830s , the impresario was the key figure in the organization of a lyric season . The owners of the theatre , usually noble amateurs , charged the impresario with hiring a composer ( until the 1850s operas were expected to be new ) and the orchestra , singers , costumes and sets , all while assuming considerable financial risk . In 1786 Mozart satirized the stress and emotional mayhem in a single-act farce Der Schauspieldirektor ( The Impresario ) . Antonio Vivaldi was unusual in acting as both impresario and composer ; in 1714 he managed seasons at Teatro San Angelo in Venice , where his opera Orlando finto pazzo was followed by numerous others . Alessandro Lanari ( 1787–1852 ) , who began as the owner of a shop that produced costumes , eliminated the middleman in a series of successful seasons he produced for the Teatro La Pergola , in Florence , which presented the premieres of the first version of Verdi 's Macbeth , two of Bellini 's operas and five of Donizetti 's , including Lucia di Lammermoor . Domenico Barbaia ( 1778–1841 ) began as a café waiter and made a fortune at La Scala , in Milan , where he was also in charge of the gambling operation and introduced roulette . Modern use The traditional term is still used in the entertainment industry to refer to a producer of concerts , tours and other events in music , opera , theatre and even rodeo . Important modern impresarios in the traditional sense include Thomas Beecham , Rudolf Bing , Sergei Diaghilev , Richard D'Oyly Carte , Fortune Gallo , Sol Hurok , Aaron Richmond , and jazz festival producer George Wein . Application of term The term is occasionally applied to others , such as independent art museum curators and conference organizers who have a leading role in orchestrating events . Figurative impresarios Jacques-Yves Cousteau said of himself that he was an impresario of scientists as an explorer and filmmaker who worked with scientists in underwater exploration . Nicholas Wade described James D. Watson and E. O. Wilson in The New York Times as impresarios of Charles Darwin 's works .

qf_2918--Impresario.txt

Which British impresario was noted for his productions of Gilbert and Sullivan operettas?

Michael `` Mike '' Hammer is a fictional hard boiled detective created by the American author Mickey Spillane in the 1947 book I , the Jury . Creation In 1946 , Spillane , an established comic-book writer , worked with illustrator Mike Roy to create the private-eye character Mike Danger for proposed comic-book or comic-strip publication . Unable to sell the project as a comic , he reworked the story as the novel I , the Jury , converting Mike Danger to Mike Hammer and supporting character Holly to Velda . [ http : //www.toonopedia.com/mdanger.htm Mike Danger ] at Don Markstein 's Toonopedia . [ http : //www.webcitation.org/6friLo7Jb Archived ] from the original on March 8 , 2016 . Spillane wrote the work in nine days by some accounts , 19 in others . Character While pulp detectives such as Sam Spade and Philip Marlowe are hard-boiled and cynical , Hammer is in many ways the archetypal `` hard man '' : brutally violent , and fueled by a genuine rage against violent crime that never afflicts Raymond Chandler 's or Dashiell Hammett 's heroes . In The Big Kill Hammer describes himself to a bargirl as a misanthrope . Hammer is also loosely based on the real-life hard-boiled Texas Ranger and gunfighter Frank Hamer , who was most famous for tracking down and killing Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker in 1934 . While other hardboiled heroes bend and manipulate the law , Hammer often views it as an impediment to justice , the one virtue he holds in absolute esteem . Hammer nevertheless has a strong respect for the majority of police , realizing they have a difficult job and their hands are frequently tied by the law when trying to stop criminals . Mike Hammer is a no-holds-barred private investigator who carries a .45 Colt M1911A1 in a shoulder harness under his left arm . His love for his secretary Velda is outweighed only by his willingness to kill a killer . Hammer 's best friend is Pat Chambers , Captain of Homicide NYPD . Hammer was a WWII army veteran who spent two years fighting jungle warfare in the Pacific theatre against Japan . Hammer is also patriotic and anti-communist . The novels are peppered with remarks by Hammer supporting American troops in Korea , and in Survival ... Zero Vietnam . In One Lonely Night , where Hammer attends a communist meeting in a park , his reaction to the speaker 's propaganda is a sarcastic `` Yeah . '' So far as violence is concerned , the Hammer novels leave little to the imagination . Written in the first person , Hammer describes his violent encounters with relish . In all but a few novels , Hammer 's victims are often left vomiting after a blow to the stomach or groin . Mickey Spillane has said of his character : See , heroes never die . John Wayne is n't dead , Elvis is n't dead . Otherwise you do n't have a hero . You ca n't kill a hero . That 's why I never let him get older . The Washington Times obituary of Spillane said of Hammer , `` In a manner similar to Clint Eastwood 's Dirty Harry , Hammer was a cynical loner contemptuous of the 'tedious process ' of the legal system , choosing instead to enforce the law on his own terms . `` [ http : //www.washtimes.com/national/20060717-105745-4982r.htm Washington Times - Mystery novelist Spillane dies ] Novels By Mickey Spillane * I , the Jury ( 1947 ) * My Gun is Quick ( 1950 ) * Vengeance Is Mine ! ( 1950 ) * One Lonely Night ( 1951 ) * The Big Kill ( 1951 ) * Kiss Me , Deadly ( 1952 ) * The Girl Hunters ( 1962 ) * The Snake ( 1964 ) * The Twisted Thing ( 1966 ) ( written in 1948 ) * The Body Lovers ( 1967 ) * Survival ... Zero ! ( 1970 ) * The Killing Man ( 1989 ) * Black Alley ( 1996 ) By Mickey Spillane with Max Allan Collins * The Goliath Bone ( 2008 ) * The Big Bang ( 2010 ) * Kiss Her Goodbye ( 2011 ) * Lady , Go Die ! ( 2012 ) * Complex 90 ( 2013 ) * King of the Weeds ( 2014 ) * Kill Me , Darling ( 2015 ) * Murder Never Knocks ( 2016 ) Short Stories By Mickey Spillane * The Night I Died ( published in the anthology Private Eyes first published in 1998 , although short story was written in 1953 ) * The Duke Alexander ( published in the book Byline : Mickey Spillane first published in 2004 , although it was originally written circa 1956 ) * The Killing Man ( short story later turned into a full length Mike Hammer novel published in Playboy magazine December 1989 , later republished in the book Byline : Mickey Spillane in 2004 ) * Black Alley ( short story later turned into a full length Mike Hammer novel published in Playboy magazine December 1996 , later republished in the book Byline : Mickey Spillane in 2004 ) By Mickey Spillane with Max Allan Collins * The Big Switch ( published in The Strand Magazine , 2008 , reprinted in paperback in The Mammoth Book of the World 's Best Crime Stories , 2009 ) * Skin ( e-book short story 2012 ) * So Long , Chief ( published in The Strand Magazine , Issue XXXIX , Feb. - May 2013 ) * It 's In The Book ( e-book short story 2014 ) * A Dangerous Cat ( published in The Strand Magazine , Issue XLVIII , Feb. - May 2016 ) * A Long Time Dead : A Mike Hammer Casebook ( A collection of short stories by Mickey Spillane and Max Allan Collins coming in 2016 - published by Mysteriouspress.com/Open Road ) In other media Several movies and radio and television series have been based on the books in the Hammer series . The actor most closely identified with the character in recent years has been Stacy Keach , who portrayed Hammer in a CBS television series , Mickey Spillane 's Mike Hammer , which ran from 1984–1987 and had a syndicated revival in 1997–1998 . ( An earlier syndicated version , originally aired in 1957–1958 , starred Darren McGavin as Hammer . ) Spillane himself played Hammer in a 1963 motion picture adaptation of The Girl Hunters . Spillane himself favoured ex-Marine and former Newburgh , New York police officer Jack Stang , on whom he based the character , to play him . Stang appeared with Spillane in the 1954 film Ring of Fear and in the film adaptation of I , the Jury . Movies * I , the Jury ( United Artists , 1953 ) , filmed in 3-D starring Biff Elliot as Mike Hammer . * Kiss Me Deadly ( United Artists , 1955 ) , Robert Aldrich was the director , Ralph Meeker was cast as Hammer , while Maxine Cooper portrayed Hammer 's sexy secretary/companion Velda . * My Gun Is Quick ( United Artists , 1957 ) , Robert Bray was cast as Hammer , with more of the violence originating from the villain than the detective . The film grossed $ 308,000 with a total of $ 602 overseas . * The Girl Hunters ( Colorama Features , 1963 ) , Mickey Spillane was given the rare opportunity to portray his own creation in this film . This is one of the few occasions in film history in which the creator of a literary character was later hired to portray that character in a film . Producer Robert Fellows and Spillane planned to follow the film with The Snake but it never materialised . * Margin For Murder ( TV movie , 1981 ) , Kevin Dobson plays Hammer in this made for TV movie . * I , the Jury ( 20th Century Fox , 1982 ) , Armand Assante plays Hammer in this version . * Murder Me , Murder You ( 1983 TV movie ) , Stacy Keach played Hammer in this TV pilot for the TV Series that ran in the 1980s . This update featured a traitor to the U.S. and a daughter Hammer does not know he has . * Mike Hammer : Murder Takes All ( 1989 TV movie ) , Keach reprises his role of Hammer co-starring Lynda Carter , Michelle Phillips and the pre-stardom Jim Carrey . He is asked by a Las Vegas entertainer named Johnny Roman ( Edward Winter ) to come to Vegas . Mike refuses , he is then knocked out and dropped literally into Las Vegas . * Come Die With Me ( Fox , 1994 ) , Rob Estes plays Hammer in this TV movie . Pamela Anderson plays his secretary Velda . * Mike Hammer : Song Bird ( 2003 ) ( V ) – a direct-to-video compilation of Mike Hammer , Private Eye 's 1998 episodes of `` Songbird : Part 1 '' and `` Songbird : Part 2 '' , where Stacy Keach played Mike Hammer and Shannon Whirry played his secretary Velda . Television There have been several television shows based on the exploits of Mike Hammer . * A 1954 television pilot was developed starring Brian Keith that was written and directed by Blake Edwards , it was not picked up . * Mickey Spillane 's Mike Hammer ( 1958–1960 ; starring Darren McGavin ) * Mickey Spillane 's Mike Hammer ( January 1984–January 1985 ; starring Stacy Keach ) * The New Mike Hammer ( September 1986–May 1987 ; starring Stacy Keach ) * Mike Hammer , Private Eye ( September 1997–June 1998 ; starring Stacy Keach ) Comics A short-lived comic strip starring Mike Hammer was distributed by Phoenix Features Syndicate from 1953 to 1954 . It was entitled From the Files of ... Mike Hammer and written by Spillane , Ed Robbins and Joe Gill , with art by Ed Robbins . Collections of the strip were published in the 1980s . Walt Kelly wrote two parodies of Mike Hammer first published in collections of original work of his Pogo comic strip . They were : `` The Bloody Drip - by Mucky Spleen '' ( Uncle Pogo So-so Stories , 1953 ) and `` Gore Blimey - The Bloody Drip Writhes Again `` ( Pogo Peek-A-Book , 1955 ) . In 2013 Hermes Press reprinted the complete `` Mike Hammer '' comic strip , with a special introduction by Max Collins . Audio Radio Series - A December 1952 to October 1954 Mutual Broadcasting System radio series titled That Hammer Guy starred Larry Haines then George Petrie and Ted DeCorsia as Mike Hammer and Jan Miner as Hammer 's secretary Velda and the voice of other female characters on the show . It was written by Ed Adamson and was directed by Richard Lewis . Audiobooks - An array of Spillane 's novels have been produced as audiobooks . Several of these are performed by Mickey Spillane 's Mike Hammer veteran Stacy Keach . Examples include Black Alley ( Penguin Audio , 1996 ) , The Big Kill ( Simon & Schuster , 2010 ) and The Killing Man ( Simon & Schuster , 2010 ) . Blackstone Audio Productions - In 2008 , Stacy Keach reprised the role of Mike Hammer in the first of a series of radio-style dramas entitled The New Adventures of Mickey Spillane 's Mike Hammer . Keach refers to the production style , that is somewhere between an audiobook and radio drama , as a `` radio novel . '' The Audie-nominated inaugural production features the episodes , Dangerous Days and Oil and Water . Both were written exclusively for audio by M.J. Elliott and produced with a full cast , music and sound effects in radio drama style by Carl Amari of Falcon Picture Group , who personally selected Elliott to script the Audie Award-nominated dramas . Volume 2 of the series was released in 2009 , featuring a 2.5 hour story entitled The Little Death . The story was written exclusively for audio by Max Allan Collins from a story by Mickey Spillane and Max Allan Collins . Volume 3 , Encore for Murder , was released in March 2011 . All three volumes have been released by Blackstone Audio and star Keach in the title role . Keach also arranges and performs the music featured in the productions and his wife , Malgosia Tomassi , portrays yoga instructor Maya Ricci . In popular culture * Novels featuring Hammer were referenced several times in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Both Odo and Miles O'Brien were fans . * The film The Hebrew Hammer makes a reference to Mike Hammer as well . * Four direct to video films known as the `` Maiku Hama '' films were released in Japan : * * Waga jinsei saiaku no toki - 1994 - http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0108509/ * * Harukana jidai no kaidan o - 1995 - http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0109991/ * * Wana - 1996 - http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0118116/ * * Shiritsu tantei Hama Maiku : Namae no nai mori - 2002 - http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0327828/ * The Japanese TV series Detective Mike stars a young detective called 'Hama Mike ' ( Japanese pronunciation of 'Mike Hammer ' ) . * The 1986 video game Killed Until Dead by Artech Digital Entertainment features spoofs of famous characters including a `` Mike Stammer '' . * John Zorn 's Spillane is a tribute to Mickey Spillane , which uses quotes of Mike Hammer voiced by John Lurie . * The popular Canadian band Moist wrote a song titled `` Mike Hammer '' on their 4th studio album Mercedes 5 and Dime . * A police detective sarcastically identifies himself as 'Mike Hammer ' in El secreto de sus ojos , the Academy Award-winning 2009 Argentine film .

qg_196--Mike_Hammer.txt

The 1947 novel "I, the Jury", by New York author Mickey Spillane, was the first to feature which famous detective?

Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia . Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north , the Atlantic Ocean to the west , and the Mediterranean Sea to the south . To the east and southeast , Europe is generally considered as separated from Asia by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains , the Ural River , the Caspian and Black Seas , and the waterways of the Turkish Straits . Yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary ; the primarily physiographic term `` continent '' as applied to Europe also incorporates cultural and political elements whose discontinuities are not always reflected by the continent 's current boundaries . Europe is the world 's second-smallest continent by surface area , covering about or 2 % of the Earth 's surface and about 6.8 % of its land area . Of Europe 's approximately 50 countries , Russia is the largest and most populous , spanning 39 % of the continent and comprising 15 % of its population , while Vatican City is the smallest both in terms of area and population . Europe is the third-most populous continent after Asia and Africa , with a population of 739–743 million or about 11 % of the world 's population . Europe has a climate heavily affected by warm Atlantic currents that temper winters and summers on much of the continent , even at latitudes along which the climate in Asia and North America is severe . Further from the Atlantic , seasonal differences are mildly greater than close to the coast . Europe , in particular ancient Greece , is the birthplace of Western civilization . The fall of the Western Roman Empire , during the migration period , marked the end of ancient history and the beginning of an era known as the `` Middle Ages '' . The Renaissance humanism , exploration , art , and science led the `` old continent '' , and eventually the rest of the world , to the modern era . From this period onwards , Europe played a predominant role in global affairs . Between the 16th and 20th centuries , European nations controlled at various times the Americas , most of Africa , Oceania , and the majority of Asia . The Industrial Revolution , which began in the United Kingdom at the end of the 18th century , gave rise to radical economic , cultural , and social change in Western Europe , and eventually the wider world . Both world wars were largely focused upon Europe , contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the United States and Soviet Union took prominence . During the Cold War , Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east , until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall . European integration led to the formation of the European Union , a political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation . The EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 . The currency of most countries of the European Union , the Euro , is the most commonly used among Europeans and the EU 's Schengen Area abolishes border and immigration controls among most of its member states . Definition Clickable map of Europe , showing one of the most commonly used continental boundaries Key : blue : states which straddle the border between Europe and Asia ; green : states not geographically in Europe , but closely associated with the continent The use of the term `` Europe '' has developed gradually throughout history . In antiquity , the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that the world had been divided by unknown persons into three parts , Europe , Asia , and Libya ( Africa ) , with the Nile and the River Phasis forming their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the River Don , rather than the Phasis , as the boundary between Europe and Asia . Europe 's eastern frontier was defined in the 1st century by geographer Strabo at the River Don . The Book of Jubilees described the continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons ; Europe was defined as stretching from the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar , separating it from North Africa , to the Don , separating it from Asia . A cultural definition of Europe as the lands of Latin Christendom coalesced in the 8th century , signifying the new cultural condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin culture , defined partly in contrast with Byzantium and Islam , and limited to northern Iberia , the British Isles , France , Christianised western Germany , the Alpine regions and northern and central Italy . The concept is one of the lasting legacies of the Carolingian Renaissance : `` Europa '' often figures in the letters of Charlemagne 's court scholar , Alcuin . This division—as much cultural as geographical—was used until the Late Middle Ages , when it was challenged by the Age of Discovery . The problem of redefining Europe was finally resolved in 1730 when , instead of waterways , the Swedish geographer and cartographer von Strahlenberg proposed the Ural Mountains as the most significant eastern boundary , a suggestion that found favour in Russia and throughout Europe . Europe is now generally defined by geographers as the western part of Eurasia , with its boundaries marked by large bodies of water to the north , west and south ; Europe 's limits to the far east are usually taken to be the Urals , the Ural River , and the Caspian Sea ; to the southeast , including the Caucasus Mountains , the Black Sea and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea . Islands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass , hence Iceland is generally considered to be part of Europe , while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to North America . Nevertheless , there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences . Cyprus is closest to Anatolia ( or Asia Minor ) , but is usually considered part of Europe both culturally and politically and currently is a member state of the EU . Malta was considered an island of North Africa for centuries . The geographic boundary drawn between Europe and Asia in 1730 follows no international boundaries . As a result , attempts to organise Europe along political or economic lines have resulted in uses of the name in a geopolitically limiting way to refer only to the 28 member states of the European Union . Conversely , Europe has also been used in a very expansive way by the Council of Europe which has 47 member countries , some of which territorially over-reach the Ural and Bosphorus lines to include all of Russia and Turkey . In addition , people in the British Isles may refer to `` continental '' or `` mainland '' Europe as Europe . Etymology In classical Greek mythology , Europa was a Phoenician princess whom Zeus abducted after assuming the form of a dazzling white bull . He took her to the island of Crete where she gave birth to Minos , Rhadamanthus , and Sarpedon . For Homer , Europe ( , Eurṓpē ; see also List of Greek place names ) was a mythological queen of Crete , not a geographical designation . The etymology of Europe is uncertain . One theory suggests that it is derived from the Greek εὐρύς ( eurus ) , meaning `` wide , broad '' and ὤψ/ὠπ-/ὀπτ- ( ōps/ōp-/opt- ) , meaning `` eye , face , countenance '' , hence Eurṓpē , `` wide-gazing '' , `` broad of aspect '' ( compare with glaukōpis ( γλαυκῶπις 'grey-eyed ' ) Athena or boōpis ( βοὠπις 'ox-eyed ' ) Hera ) . Broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion . Another theory suggests that it is based on a Semitic word such as the Akkadian erebu meaning `` to go down , set '' ( in reference to the sun ) , cognate to Phoenician 'ereb `` evening ; west '' and Arabic Maghreb , Hebrew ma'arav ( see also Erebus , PIE * h1regʷos , `` darkness '' ) . Martin Litchfield West states that `` phonologically , the match between Europa 's name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor '' . However , Michael A. Barry , professor in Princeton University 's Near Eastern Studies Department , finds the mention of the word Ereb on an Assyrian stele with the meaning of `` night '' , `` [ the country of ] sunset '' , in opposition to Asu `` [ the country of ] sunrise '' , i.e . Asia ( Anatolia coming equally from Ἀνατολή , `` ( sun ) rise '' , `` east '' ) . In the Homeric Hymns written in the seventh century BC , Eurôpè still represents , the western shore of the Aegean Sea . Whatever the origin of the name of the mythological figure , Εὐρώπη is first used as a geographical term in the 6th century BC , by Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus . Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River ( the modern Rioni ) in the Caucasus , a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BC . But the convention received by the Middle Ages and surviving into modern usage is that of the Roman era used by Roman era authors such as Posidonius , Strabo and Ptolemy , who took the Tanais ( the modern Don River ) as the boundary . The term `` Europe '' is first used for a cultural sphere in the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century . From that time , the term designated the sphere of influence of the Western Church , as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic world . The modern convention , enlarging the area of `` Europe '' somewhat to the east and the southeast , develops in the 19th century . Most major world languages use words derived from `` Europa '' to refer to the continent . Chinese , for example , uses the word Ōuzhōu ( 歐洲/欧洲 ) ; a similar Chinese-derived term is also sometimes used in Japanese such as in the Japanese name of the European Union , , despite the katakana being more commonly used . However , in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan ( land of the Franks ) is used casually in referring to much of Europe , besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa . History Prehistory Homo erectus georgicus , which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia , is the earliest hominid to have been discovered in Europe . Other hominid remains , dating back roughly 1 million years , have been discovered in Atapuerca , Spain . [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6256356.stm The million year old tooth from ] Atapuerca , Spain , found in June 2007 Neanderthal man ( named after the Neandertal valley in Germany ) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago and disappeared from the fossil record about 28,000 BC , with this extinction probably due to climate change , and their final refuge being present-day Portugal . The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans ( Cro-Magnons ) , who appeared in Europe around 43 to 40 thousand years ago . The European Neolithic period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock , increased numbers of settlements and the widespread use of pottery—began around 7000 BC in Greece and the Balkans , probably influenced by earlier farming practices in Anatolia and the Near East . It spread from the Balkans along the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine ( Linear Pottery culture ) and along the Mediterranean coast ( Cardial culture ) . Between 4500 and 3000 BC , these central European neolithic cultures developed further to the west and the north , transmitting newly acquired skills in producing copper artefacts . In Western Europe the Neolithic period was characterised not by large agricultural settlements but by field monuments , such as causewayed enclosures , burial mounds and megalithic tombs . The Corded Ware cultural horizon flourished at the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic . During this period giant megalithic monuments , such as the Megalithic Temples of Malta and Stonehenge , were constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe . The European Bronze Age began c. 3200 BC in Greece with the Minoan civilization on Crete , the first advanced civilization in Europe . The Minoans were followed by the Myceneans , who collapsed suddenly around 1200 BC , ushering the European Iron Age . Iron Age colonisation by the Greeks and Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities . Early Iron Age Italy and Greece from around the 8th century BC gradually gave rise to historical Classical antiquity , whose beginning is sometimes dated to 776 BC , the year the first Olympic Games . Classical antiquity Ancient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation . Western democratic and rationalist culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece . The Greeks city-state , the polis , was the fundamental political unit of classical Greece . In 508 BC , Cleisthenes instituted the world 's first democratic system of government in Athens . The Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists . Greece also generated many cultural contributions : in philosophy , humanism and rationalism under Aristotle , Socrates and Plato ; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides ; in dramatic and narrative verse , starting with the epic poems of Homer ; in drama with Sophocles and Euripides , in medicine with Hippocrates and Galen ; and in science with Pythagoras , Euclid and Archimedes . In the course of the 5th century BC , several of the Greek city states would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars , considered a pivotal moment in world history , as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens , the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilization . Greece was followed by Rome , which left its mark on law , politics , language , engineering , architecture , government and many more key aspects in western civilisation . Expanding from their base in Italy beginning in the 3rd century BC , the Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire Mediterranean basin and western Europe by the turn of the millennium . The Roman Republic ended in 27 BC , when Augustus proclaimed the Roman Empire . The two centuries that followed are known as the pax romana , a period of unprecedented peace , prosperity , and political stability in most of Europe . The empire continued to expand under emperors such as Hadrian , Antoninus Pius , and Marcus Aurelius , who all spent time on the Empire 's northern border fighting Germanic , Pictish and Scottish tribes . The Empire began to decline in the 3rd century , particularly in the west . Christianity was legalised by Constantine I in 313 AD after three centuries of imperial persecution . Constantine also permanently moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium , which was renamed Constantinople in his honour ( modern-day Istanbul ) in 330 AD . Christianity became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 AD , and in 391-392 AD , the emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan religions . This is sometimes considered to mark the end of antiquity ; alternatively antiquity is considered to end with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD ; the closure of the pagan Platonic Academy of Athens in 529 AD ; or the rise of Islam in the early 7th century AD . Early Middle Ages During the decline of the Roman Empire , Europe entered a long period of change arising from what historians call the `` Age of Migrations '' . There were numerous invasions and migrations amongst the Ostrogoths , Visigoths , Goths , Vandals , Huns , Franks , Angles , Saxons , Slavs , Avars , Bulgars and , later on , the Vikings , Pechenegs , Cumans and Magyars . Renaissance thinkers such as Petrarch would later refer to this as the `` Dark Ages '' . Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard and compile written knowledge accumulated previously ; apart from this very few written records survive and much literature , philosophy , mathematics , and other thinking from the classical period disappeared from Western Europe though they were preserved in the east , in the Byzantine Empire . While the Roman empire in the west continued to decline , Roman traditions and the Roman state remained strong in the predominantly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire , also known as the Byzantine Empire . During most of its existence , the Byzantine Empire was the most powerful economic , cultural , and military force in Europe . Emperor Justinian I presided over Constantinople 's first golden age : he established a legal code that forms the basis of many modern legal systems , funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia , and brought the Christian church under state control . From the 7th century onwards , as the Byzantines and neighbouring Sasanid Persians were severely weakened due the protracted , centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars , the Muslim Arabs began to make inroads into historically Roman territory , taking the Levant and North Africa and making inroads into Asia Minor . In the mid 7th century AD , following the Muslim conquest of Persia , Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region . Over the next centuries Muslim forces took Cyprus , Malta , Crete , Sicily and parts of southern Italy . Between 711 and 720 , most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under Muslim rule — save for small areas in the northwest ( Asturias ) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees . This territory , under the Arabic name Al-Andalus , became part of the expanding Umayyad Caliphate . The unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople ( 717 ) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige . The Umayyads were then defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732 , which ended their northward advance . During the Dark Ages , the Western Roman Empire fell under the control of various tribes . The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over Western and Eastern Europe respectively . Eventually the Frankish tribes were united under Clovis I. Charlemagne , a Frankish king of the Carolingian dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe , was anointed `` Holy Roman Emperor '' by the Pope in 800 . This led in 962 to the founding of the Holy Roman Empire , which eventually became centred in the German principalities of central Europe . East Central Europe saw the creation of the first Slavic states and the adoption of Christianity ( circa 1000 AD ) . The powerful West Slavic state of Great Moravia spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans , reaching its largest territorial extent under Svatopluk I and causing a series of armed conflicts with East Francia . Further south , the first South Slavic states emerged in the late 7th and 8th century and adopted Christianity : the First Bulgarian Empire , the Serbian Principality ( later Kingdom and Empire ) , and the Duchy of Croatia ( later Kingdom of Croatia ) . To the East , the Kievan Rus expanded from its capital in Kiev to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century . In 988 , Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity as the religion of state . Further East , Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in the 10th century , but was eventually absorbed into Russia several centuries later . High and Late Middle Ages The period between the year 1000 and 1300 is known as the High Middle Ages , during which the population of Europe experienced significant growth , culminating in the Renaissance of the 12th century . Economic growth , together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes , made possible the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas . The growing wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities gave the Maritime Republics a leading role in the European scene . The Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure : the nobility and the clergy . Feudalism developed in France in the Early Middle Ages and soon spread throughout Europe . A struggle for influence between the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of the Magna Carta and the establishment of a parliament . The primary source of culture in this period came from the Roman Catholic Church . Through monasteries and cathedral schools , the Church was responsible for education in much of Europe . The Papacy reached the height of its power during the High Middle Ages . An East-West Schism in 1054 split the former Roman Empire religiously , with the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman Empire . In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying Jerusalem and the Holy Land . In Europe itself , the Church organised the Inquisition against heretics . In Spain , the Reconquista concluded with the fall of Granada in 1492 , ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula . In the east a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from the Muslims and reconquered the Balkans . Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th to the 12th centuries , with a population of approximately 400,000 . The Empire was weakened following the defeat at Manzikert and was weakened considerably by the sack of Constantinople in 1204 , during the Fourth Crusade . Although it would recover Constantinople in 1261 , Byzantium fell in 1453 when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Empire . In the 11th and 12th centuries , constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes , such as the Pechenegs and the Cuman-Kipchaks , caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer , heavily forested regions of the north and temporarily halted the expansion of the Rus ' state to the south and east . Like many other parts of Eurasia , these territories were overrun by the Mongols . The invaders , who became known as Tatars , were mostly Turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty . They established the state of the Golden Horde with headquarters in Crimea , which later adopted Islam as a religion and ruled over modern-day southern and central Russia for more than three centuries . After the collapse of Mongol dominions , the first Romanian states ( principalities ) emerged in the 14th century : Moldova and Walachia . Previously , these territories were under the successive control of Pechenegs and Cumans . From the 12th to the 15th centuries , the Grand Duchy of Moscow grew from a small principality under Mongol rule to the largest state in Europe , overthrowing the Mongols in 1480 and eventually becoming the Tsardom of Russia . The state was consolidated under Ivan III the Great and Ivan the Terrible , steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries . The Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the late Middle Ages . The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss . The population of France was reduced by half . Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95 famines , and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same period . Europe was devastated in the mid-14th century by the Black Death , one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an estimated 25 million people in Europe alone—a third of the European population at the time . The plague had a devastating effect on Europe 's social structure ; it induced people to live for the moment as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron ( 1353 ) . It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased persecution of Jews , foreigners , beggars and lepers . The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 18th century . During this period , more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe . Early modern period The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in Florence and later spreading to the rest of Europe . The rise of a new humanism was accompanied by the recovery of forgotten classical Greek and Arabic knowledge from monastic libraries , often translated from Arabic into Latin . The Renaissance spread across Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries : it saw the flowering of art , philosophy , music , and the sciences , under the joint patronage of royalty , the nobility , the Roman Catholic Church , and an emerging merchant class . Patrons in Italy , including the Medici family of Florentine bankers and the Popes in Rome , funded prolific quattrocento and cinquecento artists such as Raphael , Michelangelo , and Leonardo da Vinci . Political intrigue within the Church in the mid-14th century caused the Western Schism . During this forty-year period , two popes—one in Avignon and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church . Although the schism was eventually healed in 1417 , the papacy 's spiritual authority had suffered greatly . The Church 's power was further weakened by the Protestant Reformation ( 1517–1648 ) , initially sparked by the works of German theologian Martin Luther , an attempt to start a reform within the Church . The Reformation also damaged the Holy Roman Emperor 's influence , as German princes became divided between Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths . This eventually led to the Thirty Years War ( 1618–1648 ) , which crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany , killing between 25 and 40 percent of its population . In the aftermath of the Peace of Westphalia , France rose to predominance within Europe . The 17th century in southern , central and eastern Europe was a period of general decline . Central and Eastern Europe experienced more than 150 famines in a 200-year period between 1501 and 1700 . From the 15th to 18th centuries , when the disintegrating khanates of the Golden Horde were conquered by Russia , Tatars from the Crimean Khanate frequently raided Eastern Slavic lands to capture slaves . Further east , the Nogai Horde and Kazakh Khanate frequently raided the Slavic-speaking areas of Russia , Ukraine and Poland for hundreds of years , until the Russian expansion and conquest of most of northern Eurasia ( i.e . Eastern Europe , Central Asia and Siberia ) . Meanwhile , in the south , the Ottomans had conquered the Balkans by the 15th century , laying siege to Vienna in 1529 . In the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 , the Holy League checked Ottoman power in the Mediterranean . The Ottomans again laid siege to Vienna in 1683 , but the Battle of Vienna permanently ended their advance into Europe , and marked the political hegemony of the Habsburg dynasty in central Europe . The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of an Age of Discovery , a period of exploration , invention , and scientific development . Among the great figures of the Western scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries were Copernicus , Kepler , Galileo , and Isaac Newton . According to Peter Barrett , `` It is widely accepted that 'modern science ' arose in the Europe of the 17th century ( towards the end of the Renaissance ) , introducing a new understanding of the natural world . '' In the 15th century , Portugal and Spain , two of the greatest naval powers of the time , took the lead in exploring the world . Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492 and Vasco da Gama opened the ocean route to the East in 1498 , and soon after the Spanish and Portuguese began establishing colonial empires in the Americas and Asia . France , the

bb_2266--Europe.txt

What is the darkly common name for the plague which killed 30-50% of Europe between 1347-52?

Shawn Corey Carter ( born December 4 , 1969 ) , known by his stage name Jay Z ( formerly Jay-Z ) , is an American rapper , entrepreneur and investor . He is one of the most financially successful hip hop artists in America . In 2014 , Forbes estimated Jay Z 's net worth at nearly $ 520 million . He is one of the world 's best-selling artists of all time , having sold more than 100 million records , while receiving 21 Grammy Awards for his musical work , and numerous additional nominations . Consistently ranked as one of the greatest rappers ever , he was ranked number one by MTV in their list of The Greatest MCs of All-Time in 2006 . Three of his albums , Reasonable Doubt ( 1996 ) , The Blueprint ( 2001 ) , and The Black Album ( 2003 ) , are considered landmarks in the genre with all of them featured in Rolling Stones list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . As an entrepreneur and investor , Jay Z co-owns the New York 40/40 Club sports bar , and is the co-creator of the clothing line Rocawear . He is the former president of Def Jam Recordings , co-founder of Roc-A-Fella Records , and the founder of Roc Nation . He also founded the sports agency Roc Nation Sports and is a certified NBA and MLB sports agent . As an artist , he holds the record for most number one albums by a solo artist on the Billboard 200 with 13 . Jay Z also has had four number ones on the Billboard Hot 100 , one as lead artist . On December 11 , 2009 , Jay Z was ranked as the tenth-most successful artist of the 2000s by Billboard as well as the fifth top solo male artist and fourth top rapper behind Eminem , Nelly , and 50 Cent . He was also ranked the 88th greatest artist of all time by Rolling Stone . Jay Z married American R & B singer Beyoncé in 2008 . They have a daughter named Blue Ivy Carter , born January 7 , 2012 . Early life Shawn Carter was born in Brooklyn , New York , and was raised in Marcy Houses , a housing project in Brooklyn 's Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood . He and his three siblings were raised by their mother , Gloria Carter , after their father , Adness Reeves abandoned the family . At 33-years-old Jay Z met with Adnes and forgave him . Shortly after , in 2003 , Reeves died of liver failure . He claims in his lyrics that in 1982 , at the age of 12 , he shot his older brother in the shoulder for stealing his jewelry . Carter attended Eli Whitney High School in Brooklyn , along with future rapper AZ , until it was closed down . After that he attended George Westinghouse Career and Technical Education High School in Downtown Brooklyn , with fellow future rappers The Notorious B.I.G . and Busta Rhymes , and Trenton Central High School in Trenton , New Jersey , but did not graduate . In his music he refers to having been involved in selling crack cocaine . He has also said he had been shot at three times during this time in his life . According to his mother , Carter used to wake up his siblings at night banging out drum patterns on the kitchen table . Eventually , she bought him a boom box for his birthday , sparking his interest in music . He began freestyling , writing lyrics , and followed the music of many artists popular at the time . In his neighborhood , Carter was known as `` Jazzy '' , a nickname that eventually developed into his showbiz/stage name , `` Jay-Z '' . The moniker is also an homage to his musical mentor , Jaz-O . On July 18 , 2013 , he announced he was leaving out the hyphen , and prefers to be known as `` Jay Z . '' Jay Z can be briefly heard on several of Jaz-O 's early recordings in the late 1980s and early 1990s , including `` The Originators '' and `` Hawaiian Sophie '' . Jay Z was also involved in several battles with rapper LL Cool J in the early '90s . He first became known to a wide audience by being featured on the posse cut `` Show and Prove '' on the 1994 Big Daddy Kane album Daddy 's Home . Jay Z has been referred to as Big Daddy Kane 's hype man during this period , although Kane explains that he did n't fill the traditional hype man role , instead `` basically ma [ king ] cameo appearances on stage . When I would leave the stage to go change outfits , I would bring out Jay Z and Positive K and let them freestyle until I came back to the stage '' . The young Jay Z made an appearance on a popular song by Big L , `` Da Graveyard '' , and on Mic Geronimo 's `` Time to Build '' , which also featured early appearances by DMX , and Ja Rule in 1995 . His first official rap single was called `` In My Lifetime '' , for which he released a music video . An unreleased music video was also produced for the B-side , `` I Ca n't Get with That . '' Music career 1995–97 : Reasonable Doubt and In My Lifetime , Vol . 1 With no major label to give him a record deal , Jay Z sold CDs out of his car and , with Damon Dash and Kareem Biggs , created Roc-A-Fella Records as their own independent label in 1995 . After striking a distribution deal with Priority , Jay Z released his 1996 debut album Reasonable Doubt with beats from acclaimed producers such as DJ Premier and Super DJ Clark Kent and an appearance by The Notorious B.I.G .. The album reached number 23 on the Billboard 200 , and was generally favored by critics . This album would later be included in Rolling Stones `` 500 Greatest Albums of All Time '' as No . 248 and eventually reach platinum status . After reaching a new distribution deal with Def Jam in 1997 , Jay Z released his follow-up In My Lifetime , Vol . 1 . Produced by Sean `` Puff Daddy '' Combs , it sold better than his previous effort . Jay Z later explained that the album was made during one of the worst periods of his life , when he was reeling from the death of his close friend The Notorious B.I.G . The album was a personal revelation for Jay Z as he told the stories of his difficult upbringing . The album 's glossy production stood as a contrast to his first release , and some dedicated fans felt he had `` sold out '' . However , the album did feature some beats from producers who had worked with him on Reasonable Doubt , namely DJ Premier and Ski . Like its predecessor , In My Lifetime , Vol . 1 earned Platinum status in the United States . 1998–2000 : Vol . 2 ... , Vol . 3 ... and The Dynasty In 1998 , Jay Z released Vol . 2 ... Hard Knock Life which spawned the biggest hit of his career at the time , `` Hard Knock Life ( Ghetto Anthem ) '' . He relied more on flow and wordplay , and he continued with his penchant for mining beats from the popular producers of the day such as Swizz Beatz , an upstart in-house producer for Ruff Ryders , and Timbaland . Other producers included DJ Premier , Erick Sermon , The 45 King , and Kid Capri . Charting hits from this album included `` Can I Get A ... '' , featuring Ja Rule and Amil , and `` Nigga What , Nigga Who '' , also featuring Amil . Vol . 2 would eventually become Jay Z 's most commercially successful album ; it was certified 5× Platinum in the United States and has to date sold over five million copies . The album went on to win a Grammy Award , although Jay Z boycotted the ceremony protesting DMX 's failure to garner a Grammy nomination . In 1999 , Jay Z dueted with Mariah Carey on `` Heartbreaker '' , a song from her seventh album , Rainbow . In that same year , Jay Z released Vol . 3 ... Life and Times of S. Carter . The album proved successful and sold over 3 million copies . Vol . 3s most successful single was `` Big Pimpin ' '' , featuring UGK . In 2000 , Jay Z released The Dynasty : Roc La Familia , which was originally intended to become a compilation album for Roc-A-Fella artists but somehow turned into a Jay Z album . The album helped to introduce newcomer producers The Neptunes , Just Blaze , Kanye West , and Bink , which have all gone on to achieve notable success . This is also the first album where Jay Z utilizes a more soulful sound than his previous albums . The Dynasty sold over two million units in the U.S. alone . 2001–02 : Feud with Nas , The Blueprint and The Blueprint2 In 2001 , Jay Z spoke out against Prodigy after he took an issue with a Jay Z line from `` Money , Cash , Hoes '' that he felt were subliminal shots at Mobb Deep and referenced Mobb Deep 's beef with Tupac Shakur , Snoop Dogg , and Death Row Records . He later performed the song `` Takeover '' , at Summer Jam 2001 , which initially attacked Prodigy and revealed photos of Prodigy dressed like Michael Jackson . A line at the end of `` Takeover '' referenced Nas , who criticized him on `` We Will Survive '' . Nas responded with a diss track called `` Ether '' and almost instantly , Jay Z added a verse to `` Takeover '' which dissed Nas and would start a feud between the two rappers . Mark Pitts is credited with squashing the beef between Jay Z and Nas . In an interview with MTV , Jay Z has quoted that it was Mark Pitts who had settled the feud between him and Nas . Pitts had approached Jay Z to settle the feud which was positively taken by him and according to him , Pitts had also approached Nas to settle down the feud . Jay Z later released his sixth studio album The Blueprint which was later considered by many to be one of hip hop 's `` classic '' albums , receiving the coveted 5 mic review from The Source magazine . Released during the wake of September 11 attacks , the album managed to debut at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling more than 427,000 units ; the album 's success was overshadowed by the tragic event . The Blueprint has been certified 2x Platinum in the United States . The Blueprint was applauded for its production and the balance of `` mainstream '' and `` hardcore '' rap , receiving recognition from both audiences . The Blueprint was written in only two days . Eminem was the only guest rapper on the album , producing and rapping on the song `` Renegade '' . Four of the thirteen tracks on the album were produced by Kanye West and represents one of West 's first major breaks in the industry . The Blueprint includes the popular songs `` Izzo ( H.O.V.A . ) '' , `` Girls , Girls , Girls '' , `` Jigga That Nigga '' and `` Song Cry '' . In October 2001 , Jay Z plead guilty to stabbing record producer Lance Rivera at the Kit Kat Klub in New York City . For the conviction , a second degree felony , Jay Z was sentenced to three years probation . Jay Z 's next solo album was 2002 's The Blueprint2 : The Gift & the Curse , a double-album . The album debuted on the Billboard 200 at number one , selling over 3 million units in the U.S. alone and surpassing The Blueprint . It was later reissued in a single-disc version , The Blueprint 2.1 , which retained half of the tracks from the original . The album spawned two massive hit singles , `` Excuse Me Miss '' and `` '03 Bonnie & Clyde '' , which featured Jay Z 's future wife Beyoncé . `` Guns & Roses '' , a track featuring rock musician Lenny Kravitz , and `` Hovi Baby '' were two successful radio singles as well . The album also contained the tracks `` A Dream '' , featuring Faith Evans and the late The Notorious B.I.G . ; and `` The Bounce '' , featuring Kanye West . The Blueprint 2.1 featured tracks that do not appear on The Blueprint2 : The Gift & the Curse , such as `` Stop '' , `` La La La ( Excuse Me Again ) '' , `` What They Gon na Do , Part II '' and `` Beware '' produced by and featuring Panjabi MC . 2003–05 : The Black Album , initial retirement and collaborative albums After returning from a trip in the south of France , Jay Z announced work on his eighth studio album The Black Album at the opening of the first the 40/40 Club . He worked with several producers including Just Blaze , The Neptunes , Kanye West , Timbaland , Eminem , DJ Quik , 9th Wonder , The Buchanans and Rick Rubin . Notable songs on the album included `` What More Can I Say '' , `` Dirt Off Your Shoulder '' , `` Change Clothes '' , and `` 99 Problems '' . The Black Album has sold 3 million copies in the US . Jay Z collaborated with R. Kelly and released a collaborative studio album , The Best of Both Worlds . On November 25 , 2003 , Jay Z held a concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City , which would later be the focus of his film Fade to Black . This concert was his `` retirement party '' . All proceeds went to charity . Other performers included collaborators like The Roots ( in the form of his backing band ) , Missy Elliott , Memphis Bleek , Beanie Siegel , Freeway , Mary J. Blige , Beyoncé , Twista , Ghostface Killah , Foxy Brown , Pharrell Williams and R. Kelly with special appearances by Voletta Wallace and Afeni Shakur , the mothers of The Notorious B.I.G . and Tupac Shakur respectively . While Jay Z had attested to a retirement from making new studio albums , various side projects and appearances soon followed . Included in these were a greatest hits record , as well as the release and tour of Unfinished Business , the second collaborative album between Jay Z and R. Kelly . In 2004 , Jay Z collaborated with rock group Linkin Park , in which they released their collaborative remix EP Collision Course , which featured mashups of both artists ' songs , as well as a concert DVD . The album 's only single , `` Numb/Encore '' , went on to win a Grammy for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration , and was performed with Linkin Park live at the Grammys , with a special appearance by Paul McCartney , who added verses from the song `` Yesterday '' . The EP sold over 1 million copies in the US . Jay Z was the executive producer of The Rising Tied , the debut album of Fort Minor , the hip hop side project of Linkin Park rapper Mike Shinoda . Later in 2004 , Jay Z was named president of Def Jam Records , which led to Jay Z , Dash and Biggs selling their remaining interests in Roc-A-Fella Records and Jay Z taking control of both of the companies . Reportedly this major industry move was prompted by disagreements between Jay Z and Dash as to what direction Roc-A-Fella could undertake . The publicized split between Jay Z , Dash , and Biggs led to the former partners sending jabs at each other in interviews . 2005–07 : `` I Declare War '' , Kingdom Come and American Gangster On October 27 , 2005 , Jay Z headlined New York 's Power 105.1 annual concert , Powerhouse . The concert was entitled the `` I Declare War '' concert leading to intense speculation in the weeks preceding the event on whom exactly Jay Z would declare war . As he had previously `` declared war '' on other artists taking lyrical shots at him at other events , many believed that the Powerhouse show would represent an all-out assault by Jay Z upon his rivals . The theme of the concert was Jay Z 's position as President and CEO of Def Jam , complete with an on-stage mock-up of the Oval Office . Many artists made appearances such as the old roster of Roc-A-Fella records artists , as well as Ne-Yo , Teairra Marí , T.I. , Young Jeezy , Akon , Kanye West , Paul Wall , The LOX , and Diddy . At the conclusion of the concert , Jay Z put many arguments to rest to the surprise of hip hop fans . The most significant development in this show was closure to the infamous hip hop rivalry between Jay Z and Nas . The two former rivals shook hands and shared the stage together to perform Jay Z 's `` Dead Presidents '' blended with Nas 's song `` The World is Yours '' . Jay Z returned with his comeback album on November 21 , 2006 , titled Kingdom Come . Jay Z 's comeback single , `` Show Me What You Got '' , was leaked on the Internet in early October 2006 , scheduled to be released later on that month , received heavy air-play after its leak , causing the FBI to step in and investigate . Jay Z worked with video director Hype Williams , and the single 's video was directed by F. Gary Gray . The album features production from Just Blaze , Pharrell , Kanye West , Dr. Dre and Coldplay 's Chris Martin ( single entitled `` Beach Chair '' ) . The first week saw 680,000 sales of the CD , which Entertainment Weekly said was `` the highest single-week total in Jay 's decade long career '' . This album has sold 2 million copies in the US . Jay Z released his tenth album entitled American Gangster on November 6 , 2007 . After viewing the Ridley Scott film of the same name , he was heavily inspired to create a new `` concept '' album that depicts his experiences as a street-hustler . The album is not the film 's official soundtrack , although it was distributed by Def Jam . Jay Z 's American Gangster depicts his life in correlation to the movie American Gangster . At the start of the album 's first single , `` Blue Magic '' , Jay Z offers a dealer 's manifesto while making references to political figures of the late 1980s with the lyric : `` Blame Reagan for making me to into a monster , blame Oliver North and Iran-Contra , I ran contraband that they sponsored , before this rhymin ' stuff we was in concert . '' Also notable about the `` Blue Magic '' music video was Jay Z flashing 500 euro notes , in what Harvard Business School professor Rawi Abdelal has called a `` turning point in American pop culture 's response to globalization . '' The album has sold 1 million copies in the US . On December 24 , 2007 , Jay Z stated that he would not remain at Def Jam as the company 's President , and vacated the position effective of January 1 , 2008 . 2008–11 : The Blueprint 3 and Watch the Throne It was announced on February 2 , 2008 , that Jay Z would headline the 2008 Glastonbury Festival , becoming the first major hip hop artist to headline the British festival . Tickets sold out before the opening of the festival . One of the more outspoken critics of his selection was Noel Gallagher of Oasis fame , who criticized the organizers of the festival for scheduling Jay Z as a headliner for the traditionally guitar-driven festival , stating `` I 'm sorry , but Jay-Z ? No chance . Glastonbury has a tradition of guitar music and even when they throw the odd curve ball in on a Sunday night you go 'Kylie Minogue ? ' I do n't know about it . But I 'm not having hip hop at Glastonbury . It 's wrong . '' Controversy ensued in the months leading up to the event with artists , promoters and fans weighing in both for and against . Jay Z responded to this saying , `` We do n't play guitars , Noel , but hip hop has put in its work like any other form of music . This headline show is just a natural progression . Rap music is still evolving . We have to respect each other 's genre of music and move forward . '' In response to Gallagher 's criticism , Jay Z opened his Glastonbury set with a tongue-in-cheek cover of Oasis 's iconic song `` Wonderwall '' . His Glastonbury performance was heralded as a successful response to pre-festival criticism . He also headlined many other summer festivals in 2008 , including Roskilde Festival in Denmark , Hove Festival in Norway and O2 Wireless Festival in London . During Kanye West 's August 6 , 2008 concert at Madison Square Garden , Jay Z came out to perform a new song and he and Kanye proclaimed that it was to be on The Blueprint 3 . On May 21 , 2009 , Jay Z announced he would be parting ways with Def Jam , and had struck a multimillion-dollar deal to sign with Live Nation , with whom he would start his Roc Nation imprint which would serve as a record label , talent/management agency , and music publishing company and also partnered up with production team Stargate to start a record label called StarRoc . Jay Z 's 11th studio album The Blueprint 3 was originally to be released on September 11 , 2009 , but was instead released in North America on September 8 , 2009 , due to increasing anticipation . Its international release followed on September 14 . It is his 11th album to reach No.1 on the Billboard 200 and has surpassed Elvis Presley 's previous record , making him the current solo artist record holder . On October 9 , 2009 , Jay Z kicked off his tour for The Blueprint 3 , during which he supported his new album in North America . In a Shave Magazine review of his performance at Rexall Place in Edmonton , Jake Tomlinson expressed that `` It was the type of smooth performance you would expect from the hip-hop superstar . '' The review gave this performance 4 stars . His North American tour continued until November 22 , 2009 . At his concert on November 8 , 2009 , at UCLA 's Pauley Pavilion , Rihanna joined him on stage and performed `` Hard '' for the very first time , then performed `` Run This Town '' with Jay Z . Among his success , Jay Z has ventured into producing Broadway shows . Along with Jada Pinkett Smith and Will Smith , Jay Z helped produced the play Fela ! , a musical celebrating the work of the late Nigerian star Fela Kuti . Jay Z said he was inspired by the power of Kuti 's work and his life story , which resulted in his interest to help produce the musical . Fela ! is a story about an African pioneer and political activist who made his first moves on the scene during the 1970s . On January 23 , 2010 , Jay Z released a track , `` Stranded ( Haiti Mon Amour ) '' , with Rihanna , and U2 's Bono and The Edge , as well as performing it at the Hope For Haiti Now telethon . In June 2010 , Eminem and Jay Z announced they would perform together in a pair of concerts in Detroit and New York . The event was dubbed The Home & Home Tour . The first two concerts rapidly sold out , prompting the scheduling of an additional show at each venue . Jay Z was the supporting act for U2 on the Australian and New Zealand leg of their U2 360° Tour , beginning in Auckland , New Zealand in November 2010 , followed by Melbourne , Sydney , Brisbane and Perth in December . He also appeared on stage during U2 performances of `` Sunday Bloody Sunday '' , and in Auckland also joined the band for a performance of `` Scarlet '' , singing some lines of his song , `` History '' . In August 2010 , it was revealed that Jay Z and Kanye West would be collaborating on a five-track EP entitled Watch the Throne . Although , it was later revealed by West that the project had become a full-length LP . Recording sessions for the album took place at various recording locations and began in November 2010 . The first single released for the project was `` H•A•M '' . The track was co-produced by Lex Luger and West himself . The track ended up being on the deluxe edition of the album . The follow-up to that was the second single `` Otis '' , which premiered on Funkmaster Flex 's Hot 97 radio show , and was later released to the iTunes Store eleven days later . The song 's existence , along with several other tracks from the album , was confirmed during a listening session hosted by Jay Z . The album was first released on the iTunes Store , five days prior to it being released in physical format , a strategy Jay Z later said was used to block an internet leak . It debuted at No . 1 on the iTunes Store in 23 countries . It also broke Coldplay 's record for most albums sold in one week on the online retailer , selling 290,000 copies on iTunes alone . It held that record , until Lil Wayne 's Tha Carter IV was released twenty-one days later , selling only 10,000 copies more . It debuted on the US Billboard 200 chart at No . 1 , selling 436,000 copies in its first week . The album received generally positive reviews . Jay Z and West later gave a surprise performance of `` Otis '' at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards . In April 2011 , Jay Z launched a blog-like , lifestyle website by the name of Life + Times . It covers everything from music , to fashion , to technology , to sports . The site is curated based on Jay Z 's interests , and he himself works with a small staff to produce every single piece of content . 2012–present : Magna Carta Holy Grail and other ventures Jay Z collaborated with M.I.A . on the single `` XXXO '' , which achieved a fair level of success and went on to become remixed by several producers worldwide . In May 2012 , Jay Z and Philadelphia Mayor Michael A. Nutter announced Jay Z as the curator and the headliner for the first annual `` Budweiser Made in America '' festival at Fairmount Park in Philadelphia on September 1 and 2 , 2012 . The performance will be produced by Live Nation and will assemble an eclectic lineup of `` rock , hip hop , R & B , Latin music and dance '' musicians . Jay Z and Rihanna were the two main headlining acts for BBC Radio 1 's 2012 Hackney Weekend music festival on June 23 to 24 . Jay Z opened his set with an appearance from Rihanna , they performed `` Run this Town '' . On September 6 , `` Clique '' was released , a single for the album `` Cruel Summer '' , by GOOD Music . Kanye West and Big Sean star alongside Jay Z in the track . Jay Z took the subway to his sold out show at The Barclays Center On October 6 , 2012 . On November 12 , 2012 , Coldplay announced that they will be playing

jp_2349--Jay_Z.txt

What is the name of Jay-Z and Beyonce's daughter?

The Walt Disney Company , commonly known as Disney , is an American diversified multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank , California . It is the world 's second largest media conglomerate in terms of revenue , after Comcast . Disney was founded on October 16 , 1923 , by Walt Disney and Roy O. Disney as the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio , and established itself as a leader in the American animation industry before diversifying into live-action film production , television , and theme parks . The company also operated under the names The Walt Disney Studio , then Walt Disney Productions . Taking on its current name in 1986 , it expanded its existing operations and also started divisions focused upon theater , radio , music , publishing , and online media . In addition , Disney has since created corporate divisions in order to market more mature content than is typically associated with its flagship family-oriented brands . The company is best known for the products of its film studio , Walt Disney Studios , which is today one of the largest and best-known studios in American cinema . Disney 's other three main divisions are Walt Disney Parks and Resorts , Disney Media Networks , and Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media . Disney also owns and operates the ABC broadcast television network ; cable television networks such as Disney Channel , ESPN , A+E Networks , and Freeform ; publishing , merchandising , music , and theatre divisions ; and owns and licenses 14 theme parks around the world . The company has been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since May 6 , 1991 . Mickey Mouse , an early and well-known cartoon creation of the company , is a primary symbol and mascot for Disney . Corporate history 1923–28 : The silent era In early 1923 , Kansas City , Missouri , animator Walt Disney created a short film entitled Alice 's Wonderland , which featured child actress Virginia Davis interacting with animated characters . After the bankruptcy in 1923 of his previous firm , Laugh-O-Gram Studios , Disney moved to Hollywood to join his brother , Roy O. Disney . Film distributor Margaret J. Winkler of M.J. Winkler Productions contacted Disney with plans to distribute a whole series of Alice Comedies purchased for $ 1,500 per reel with Disney as a production partner . Walt and Roy Disney formed Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio that same year . More animated films followed after Alice . In January 1926 , with the completion of the Disney studio on Hyperion Street , the Disney Brothers Studio 's name was changed to the Walt Disney Studio . After the demise of the Alice comedies , Disney developed an all-cartoon series starring his first original character , Oswald the Lucky Rabbit , which was distributed by Winkler Pictures through Universal Pictures . The distributor owned Oswald , so Disney only made a few hundred dollars . Disney completed 26 Oswald shorts before losing the contract in February 1928 , due to a legal loophole , when Winkler 's husband Charles Mintz took over their distribution company . After failing to take over the Disney Studio , Mintz hired away four of Disney 's primary animators ( the exception being Ub Iwerks ) to start his own animation studio , Snappy Comedies . 1928–34 : Mickey Mouse and Silly Symphonies In 1928 , to recover from the loss of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit , Disney came up with the idea of a mouse character named Mortimer while on a train headed to California , drawing up a few simple drawings . The mouse was later renamed Mickey Mouse ( Disney 's wife , Lillian , disliked the sound of 'Mortimer Mouse ' ) and starred in several Disney produced films . Ub Iwerks refined Disney 's initial design of Mickey Mouse . Disney 's first sound film Steamboat Willie , a cartoon starring Mickey , was released on November 18 , 1928 through Pat Powers ' distribution company . It was the first Mickey Mouse sound cartoon released , but the third to be created , behind Plane Crazy and The Gallopin ' Gaucho . Steamboat Willie was an immediate smash hit , and its initial success was attributed not just to Mickey 's appeal as a character , but to the fact that it was the first cartoon to feature synchronized sound . Disney used Pat Powers ' Cinephone system , created by Powers using Lee De Forest 's Phonofilm system . Steamboat Willie premiered at B. S. Moss 's Colony Theater in New York City , now The Broadway Theatre . Disney 's Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho were then retrofitted with synchronized sound tracks and re-released successfully in 1929 . Disney continued to produce cartoons with Mickey Mouse and other characters , and began the Silly Symphonies series with Columbia Pictures signing on as Symphonies distributor in August 1929 . In September 1929 , theater manager Harry Woodin requested permission to start a Mickey Mouse Club which Walt approved . In November , test comics strips were sent to King Features , who requested additional samples to show to the publisher , William Randolph Hearst . On December 16 , the Walt Disney Studios partnership was reorganized as a corporation with the name of Walt Disney Productions , Limited with a merchandising division , Walt Disney Enterprises , and two subsidiaries , Disney Film Recording Company , Limited and Liled Realty and Investment Company for real estate holdings . Walt and his wife held 60 % ( 6,000 shares ) and Roy owned 40 % of WD Productions . On December 30 , King Features signed its first newspaper , New York Mirror , to publish the Mickey Mouse comic strip with Walt 's permission . In 1932 , Disney signed an exclusive contract with Technicolor ( through the end of 1935 ) to produce cartoons in color , beginning with Flowers and Trees ( 1932 ) . Disney released cartoons through Powers ' Celebrity Pictures ( 1928–1930 ) , Columbia Pictures ( 1930–1932 ) , and United Artists ( 1932–1937 ) . The popularity of the Mickey Mouse series allowed Disney to plan for his first feature-length animation . The feature film , Walt Before Mickey based on the book by Diane Disney Miller featured these moments in the studio 's history . 1934–45 : Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and World War II Deciding to push the boundaries of animation even further , Disney began production of his first feature-length animated film in 1934 . Taking three years to complete , Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , premiered in December 1937 and became highest-grossing film of that time by 1939 . Snow White was released through RKO Radio Pictures , which had assumed distribution of Disney 's product in July 1937 , after United Artists attempted to attain future television rights to the Disney shorts . Using the profits from Snow White , Disney financed the construction of a new 51 acre studio complex in Burbank , California . The new Walt Disney Studios , in which the company is headquartered to this day , was completed and open for business by the end of 1939 . The following year on April 2 , Walt Disney Productions had its initial public offering . The studio continued releasing animated shorts and features , such as Pinocchio ( 1940 ) , Fantasia ( 1940 ) , Dumbo ( 1941 ) , and Bambi ( 1942 ) . After World War II began , box-office profits declined . When the United States entered the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor , many of Disney 's animators were drafted into the armed forces . The U.S. and Canadian governments commissioned the studio to produce training and propaganda films . By 1942 , 90 % of its 550 employees were working on war-related films . Films such as the feature Victory Through Air Power and the short Education for Death ( both 1943 ) were meant to increase public support for the war effort . Even the studio 's characters joined the effort , as Donald Duck appeared in a number of comical propaganda shorts , including the Academy Award-winning Der Fuehrer 's Face ( 1943 ) . 1946–54 : Post-War and Television With limited staff and little operating capital during and after the war , Disney 's feature films during much of the 1940s were `` package films , '' or collections of shorts , such as The Three Caballeros ( 1944 ) and Melody Time ( 1948 ) , which performed poorly at the box-office . At the same time , the studio began producing live-action films and documentaries . Song of the South ( 1946 ) and So Dear to My Heart ( 1948 ) featured animated segments , while the True-Life Adventures series , which included such films as Seal Island ( 1948 ) and The Vanishing Prairie ( 1954 ) , were also popular . Eight of the films in the series won Academy Awards . The release of Cinderella in 1950 proved that feature-length animation could still succeed in the marketplace . Other releases of the period included Alice in Wonderland ( 1951 ) and Peter Pan ( 1953 ) , both in production before the war began , and Disney 's first all-live action feature , Treasure Island ( 1950 ) . Other early all-live-action Disney films included The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men ( 1952 ) , The Sword and the Rose ( 1953 ) , and 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea ( 1954 ) . Disney ended its distribution contract with RKO in 1953 , forming its own distribution arm , Buena Vista Distribution . In December 1950 , Walt Disney Productions and The Coca-Cola Company teamed up for Disney 's first venture into television , the NBC television network special An Hour in Wonderland . In October 1954 , the ABC network launched Disney 's first regular television series , Disneyland , which would go on to become one of the longest-running primetime series in history . Disneyland allowed Disney a platform to introduce new projects and broadcast older ones , and ABC became Disney 's partner in the financing and development of Disney 's next venture , located in the middle of an orange grove near Anaheim , California . It was the first phase of a long corporate relationship which , although no one could have anticipated it at the time , would culminate four decades later in the Disney company 's acquisition of the ABC network , its owned and operated stations , and its numerous cable and publishing ventures . 1955–65 : Disneyland In 1954 , Walt Disney used his Disneyland series to unveil what would become Disneyland , an idea conceived out of a desire for a place where parents and children could both have fun at the same time . On July 18 , 1955 , Walt Disney opened Disneyland to the general public . On July 17 , 1955 , Disneyland was previewed with a live television broadcast hosted by Art Linkletter and Ronald Reagan . After a shaky start , Disneyland continued to grow and attract visitors from across the country and around the world . A major expansion in 1959 included the addition of America 's first monorail system . For the 1964 New York World 's Fair , Disney prepared four separate attractions for various sponsors , each of which would find its way to Disneyland in one form or another . During this time , Walt Disney was also secretly scouting out new sites for a second Disney theme park . In November 1965 , `` Disney World '' was announced , with plans for theme parks , hotels , and even a model city on thousands of acres of land purchased outside of Orlando , Florida . Disney continued to focus its talents on television throughout the 1950s . Its weekday afternoon children 's television program The Mickey Mouse Club , featuring its roster of young `` Mouseketeers '' , premiered in 1955 to great success , as did the Davy Crockett miniseries , starring Fess Parker and broadcast on the Disneyland anthology show . Two years later , the Zorro series would prove just as popular , running for two seasons on ABC . Despite such success , Walt Disney Productions invested little into television ventures in the 1960s , with the exception of the long-running anthology series , later known as The Wonderful World of Disney . Disney 's film studios stayed busy as well . Averaging five or six releases per year during this period . While the production of shorts slowed significantly during the 1950s and 1960s , the studio released a number of popular animated features , like Lady and the Tramp ( 1955 ) , Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) and One Hundred and One Dalmatians ( 1961 ) , which introduced a new xerography process to transfer the drawings to animation cels . Disney 's live-action releases were spread across a number of genres , including historical fiction ( Johnny Tremain , 1957 ) , adaptations of children 's books ( Pollyanna , 1960 ) and modern-day comedies ( The Shaggy Dog , 1959 ) . Disney 's most successful film of the 1960s was a live action/animated musical adaptation of Mary Poppins , which was one of the all-time highest-grossing movies and received five Academy Awards , including Best Actress for Julie Andrews and Best Song for Robert B. Sherman & Richard M. Sherman for `` Chim Chim Cher-ee '' . The theme park design and architectural group became so integral to the Disney studio 's operations that the studio bought it on February 5 , 1965 , along with the WED Enterprises name . 1966–71 : The deaths of Walt and Roy Disney and the opening of Walt Disney World On December 15 , 1966 , Walt Disney died of complications relating to lung cancer , and Roy Disney took over as chairman , CEO , and president of the company . One of his first acts was to rename Disney World as `` Walt Disney World '' in honor of his brother and his vision . In 1967 , the last two films Walt actively supervised were released , the animated feature The Jungle Book and the musical The Happiest Millionaire . The studio released a number of comedies in the late 1960s , including The Love Bug ( 1969 's highest-grossing film ) and The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes ( 1969 ) , which starred another young Disney discovery , Kurt Russell . The 1970s opened with the release of Disney 's first `` post-Walt '' animated feature , The Aristocats , followed by a return to fantasy musicals in 1971 's Bedknobs and Broomsticks . Blackbeard 's Ghost was another successful film during this period . On October 1 , 1971 , Walt Disney World opened to the public , with Roy Disney dedicating the facility in person later that month . On December 20 , 1971 , Roy Disney died of a stroke . He left the company under control of Donn Tatum , Card Walker , and Walt 's son-in-law Ron Miller , each trained by Walt and Roy . 1972–84 : Theatrical malaise and new leadership While Walt Disney Productions continued releasing family-friendly films throughout the 1970s , such as Escape to Witch Mountain ( 1975 ) and Freaky Friday ( 1976 ) , the films did not fare as well at the box office as earlier material . However , the animation studio saw success with Robin Hood ( 1973 ) , The Rescuers ( 1977 ) , and The Fox and the Hound ( 1981 ) . As head of the studio , Miller attempted to make films to drive the profitable teenage market who generally passed on seeing Disney films . Inspired by the popularity of Star Wars , Disney produced the science-fiction adventure The Black Hole in 1979 that cost $ 20 million to make , but was lost in Star Wars wake . The Black Hole was the first Disney film to carry a PG rating in the United States . Disney dabbled in the horror genre with The Watcher in the Woods , and financed the boldly innovative Tron ; both films were released to minimal success . Disney also hired outside producers for film projects , which had never been done before in the studio 's history . In 1979 , Disney entered a joint venture with Paramount Pictures on the production of the 1980 film adaptation of Popeye and Dragonslayer ( 1981 ) ; the first time Disney collaborated with another studio . Paramount distributed Disney films in Canada at the time , and it was hoped that Disney 's marketing prestige would help sell the two films . Finally , in 1982 , the Disney family sold the naming rights and rail-based attractions to the Disney film studio for 818,461 shares of Disney stock then worth $ 42.6 million none of which went to Retlaw . Also , Roy E. Disney objected to the overvalued purchase price of the naming right and voted against the purchase as a Disney board director . The 1983 release of Mickey 's Christmas Carol began a string of successful movies , starting with Never Cry Wolf and the Ray Bradbury adaptation Something Wicked This Way Comes . The Walt Disney Productions film division was incorporated on as Walt Disney Pictures . In 1984 , Disney CEO Ron Miller created Touchstone Films as a brand for Disney to release more major motion pictures . Touchstone 's first release was the comedy Splash ( 1984 ) , which was a box office success . With The Wonderful World of Disney remaining a prime-time staple , Disney returned to television in the 1970s with syndicated programing such as the anthology series The Mouse Factory and a brief revival of the Mickey Mouse Club . In 1980 , Disney launched Walt Disney Home Video to take advantage of the newly emerging videocassette market . On April 18 , 1983 , The Disney Channel debuted as a subscription-level channel on cable systems nationwide , featuring its large library of classic films and TV series , along with original programming and family-friendly third-party offerings . Walt Disney World received much of the company 's attention through the 1970s and into the 1980s . In 1978 , Disney executives announced plans for the second Walt Disney World theme park , EPCOT Center , which would open in October 1982 . Inspired by Walt Disney 's dream of a futuristic model city , EPCOT Center was built as a `` permanent World 's Fair '' , complete with exhibits sponsored by major American corporations , as well as pavilions based on the cultures of other nations . In Japan , the Oriental Land Company partnered with Walt Disney Productions to build the first Disney theme park outside of the United States , Tokyo Disneyland , which opened in April 1983 . Despite the success of the Disney Channel and its new theme park creations , Walt Disney Productions was financially vulnerable . Its film library was valuable , but offered few current successes , and its leadership team was unable to keep up with other studios , particularly the works of Don Bluth , who defected from Disney in 1979 . By the early 1980s , the parks were generating 70 % of Disney 's income . In 1984 , financier Saul Steinberg 's Reliance Group Holdings launched a hostile takeover bid for Walt Disney Productions , with the intent of selling off some of its operations . Disney bought out Reliance 's 11.1 % stake in the company . However , another shareholder filed suit claiming the deal devaluated Disney 's stock and for Disney management to retain their positions . The shareholder lawsuit was settled in 1989 for a total of $ 45 million from Disney and Reliance . 1984–2005 : The Eisner Era and the `` Save Disney '' Campaign With the Sid Bass family purchase of 18.7 percent of Disney , Bass and the board brought in Michael Eisner from Paramount as CEO and Frank Wells from Warner Bros. as president . Eisner emphasized Touchstone with Down and Out in Beverly Hills ( 1985 ) to start leading to increased output with Good Morning , Vietnam ( 1987 ) , Dead Poets Society ( 1989 ) , Pretty Woman ( 1990 ) and additional hits . Eisner used expanding cable and home video markets to sign deals using Disney shows and films with a long-term deal with Showtime Networks for Disney/Touchstone releases through 1996 and entering television with syndication and distribution for TV series as The Golden Girls and Home Improvement . Disney began limited releases of its previous films on video tapes in the late 1980s . Eisner 's Disney purchased KHJ , an independent Los Angeles TV station . Organized in 1985 , Silver Screen Partners II , LP financed films for Disney with $ 193 million . In January 1987 , Silver Screen III began financing movies for Disney with $ 300 million raised , the largest amount raised for a film financing limited partnership by E.F. Hutton . Silver Screen IV was also set up to finance Disney 's studios . Beginning with Who Framed Roger Rabbit in 1988 , Disney 's flagship animation studio enjoyed a series of commercial and critical successes with such films as The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) , Aladdin ( 1992 ) and The Lion King ( 1994 ) . In addition , the company successfully entered the field of television animation with a number of lavishly budgeted and acclaimed series such as Adventures of the Gummi Bears , Duck Tales , Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers , Darkwing Duck and Gargoyles . Disney moved to first place in box office receipts by 1988 and had increased revenues by 20 % every year . In 1989 , Disney signed an agreement-in-principle to acquire Jim Henson Productions from its founder , Muppet creator Jim Henson . The deal included Henson 's programming library and Muppet characters ( excluding the Muppets created for Sesame Street ) , as well as Jim Henson 's personal creative services . However , Henson died suddenly in May 1990 before the deal was completed , resulting in the two companies terminating merger negotiations the following December . Named the `` Disney Decade '' by the company , the executive talent attempted to move the company to new heights in the 1990s with huge changes and accomplishments . In September 1990 , Disney arranged for financing up to $ 200 million by a unit of Nomura Securities for Interscope films made for Disney . On October 23 , Disney formed Touchwood Pacific Partners I which would supplant the Silver Screen Partnership series as their movie studios ' primary source of funding . In 1991 , hotels , home video distribution , and Disney merchandising became 28 percent of total company revenues with international revenues contributed 22 percent of revenues . The company committed its studios in the first quarter of 1991 to produce 25 films in 1992 . However , 1991 saw net income drop by 23 percent and had no growth for the year , but saw the release of Beauty and the Beast , winner of two Academy Awards and top-grossing film in the genre . Disney next moved into publishing with Hyperion Books and adult music with Hollywood Records while Walt Disney Imagineering was laying off 400 employees . Disney also broadened its adult offerings in film when then Disney Studio Chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg acquired Miramax Films in 1993 . That same year Disney created the NHL team the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim , named after the 1992 hit film of the same name . Disney purchased a minority stake in the Anaheim Angels baseball team around the same time . Wells was killed in a helicopter crash in 1994 . Shortly thereafter , Katzenberg resigned and formed DreamWorks SKG because Eisner would not appoint Katzenberg to Wells ' now-available post ( Katzenberg had also sued over the terms of his contract ) . Instead , Eisner recruited his friend Michael Ovitz , one of the founders of the Creative Artists Agency , to be President , with minimal involvement from Disney 's board of directors ( which at the time included Oscar-winning actor Sidney Poitier , the CEO of Hilton Hotels Corporation Stephen Bollenbach , former U.S . Senator George Mitchell , Yale dean Robert A. M. Stern , and Eisner 's predecessors Raymond Watson and Card Walker ) . Ovitz lasted only 14 months and left Disney in December 1996 via a `` no fault termination '' with a severance package of $ 38 million in cash and 3 million stock options worth roughly $ 100 million at the time of Ovitz 's departure . The Ovitz episode engendered a long running derivative suit , which finally concluded in June 2006 , almost 10 years later . Chancellor William B. Chandler , III of the Delaware Court of Chancery , despite describing Eisner 's behavior as falling `` far short of what shareholders expect and demand from those entrusted with a fiduciary position ... '' found in favor of Eisner and the rest of the Disney board because they had not violated the letter of the law ( namely , the duty of care owed by a corporation 's officers and board to its shareholders ) . Eisner attempted in 1994 to purchase NBC from General Electric ( GE ) , but the deal failed due to GE wanting to keep 51 percent ownership of the network . Disney acquired many other media sources during the decade , including a merger with Capital Cities/ABC in 1995 which brought broadcast network ABC and its assets , including the A & E Television Networks and ESPN networks , into the Disney fold . Eisner felt that the purchase of ABC was an important investment to keep Disney surviving and allowing it to compete with international multimedia conglomerates . Disney lost a $ 10.4 million lawsuit in September 1997 to Marsu B.V. over Disney 's failure to produce as contracted 13 half-hour Marsupilami cartoon shows . Instead , Disney felt other internal `` hot properties '' deserved the company 's attention . Disney , which had taken control of the Anaheim Angels in 1996 , purchased a majority stake in the team in 1998 . That same year , Disney began a move into the internet field with the purchase of Starwave and 43 percent of Infoseek . In 1999 , Disney purchased the remaining shares of Infoseek and launch the Go Network portal in January . Disney also launched its cruise line with the christening of Disney Magic and a sister ship , Disney Wonder . The Katzenberg case dragged on as his contract included a portion of the film revenue from ancillary markets forever . Katzenberg had offered $ 100 to settle the case , but Eisner felt the original claim amount of about half a billion too much , but then the ancillary market clause was found . Disney lawyers tried to indicate a decline situation which reveal some of the problems in the company . ABC had declining rating and increasing costs while the film segment had two film failures . While neither party revealed the settlement amount , it is estimated at $ 200 million . Eisner 's controlling style inhibited efficiency and progress according to some critics , while other industry experts indicated that `` age compression '' theory led to a decline in the company 's target market due to youth copying teenage behavior earlier . The year 2000 brought an increase in revenue of 9 percent and net income of 39 percent with ABC and ESPN leading the way and Parks and Resorts marking its sixth consecutive year of growth . However , the September 11 attacks led to a decline in vacation travel and the early 2000s recession led to a decrease in ABC revenue . Plus , Eisner had the company make an expensive purchase of Fox Family Worldwide . 2001 was a year of cost cutting laying off 4,000 employees , Disney parks operations decreased , slashing annual live-action film investment , and minimizing Internet operations . While 2002 revenue had a small decrease from 2001 with the cost cutting , net income rose to $ 1.2 billion with two creative film releases . In 2003 , Disney became the first studio to record over $ 3 billion in worldwide box office receipts . Eisner did not want the board to renominate Roy E. Disney , the son of Disney co-founder Roy O. Disney

qz_690--The_Walt_Disney_Company.txt

Which type of animal was Robin Hood in the Disney cartoon film 'Robin Hood'?

A television licence or broadcast receiving licence is an official record of payment required in many countries for the reception of television broadcasts , or the possession of a television set where some broadcasts are funded in full or in part by the licence fee paid . The licence is sometimes also required to own a radio or receive radio broadcasts . A TV licence is therefore effectively a hypothecated tax for the purpose of funding public broadcasting , thus allowing public broadcasters to transmit television programmes without , or with only supplemental , funding from radio and television advertisements . However , in some cases the balance between public funding and advertisements is the opposite - the Polish TVP broadcaster receives more funds from advertisements than from its TV tax . Whilst TV licensing is rare in the Americas , half of the countries in Asia , a few countries in Africa , and two-thirds of the countries in Europe use television licences to fund public television . History The early days of broadcasting presented broadcasters with the problem of how to raise funding for their services . Some countries adopted the advertising model , but many others adopted a compulsory public subscription model , with the subscription coming in the form of a broadcast licence paid by households owning a radio set ( and later , a TV set ) . The UK was the first country to adopt the compulsory public subscription model with the licence fee money going to the BBC , which was formed on 1 January 1927 by Royal Charter to produce publicly funded programming yet remain independent from government , both managerially and financially . The licence was originally known as a wireless licence . With the arrival of television some countries created a separate additional television licence , while others simply increased the radio licence fee to cover the additional cost of TV broadcasting , changing the licence 's name from `` radio licence '' to `` TV licence '' or `` receiver licence '' . Today most countries fund public radio broadcasting from the same licence fee that is used for television , although a few still have separate radio licences , or apply a lower or no fee at all for consumers who only have a radio . Some countries also have different fees for users with colour or monochrome TV . Many give discounts , or charge no fee , for elderly and/or disabled consumers . Faced with the problem of licence fee evasion , some countries choose to fund public broadcasters directly from taxation or via other less avoidable methods such as a co-payment with electricity billing . National public broadcasters in some countries also carry supplemental advertising . The Council of Europe created the European Convention on Transfrontier Television in 1989 that regulates among other things advertising standards , time and the format of breaks , which also has an indirect effect on the usage of licensing . In 1993 , this treaty entered into force when it achieved 7 ratifications including 5 member states . It has since been acceded to by 34 countries , . Television licences around the world The Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago notes that two-thirds of the countries in Europe and half of the countries in Asia and Africa use television licences to fund public television . TV licensing is rare in the Americas , largely being confined to French overseas departments and British Overseas Territories . In some countries , radio channels and broadcasters ' web sites are also funded by a radio receiver licence , giving access to radio and web services free of commercial advertising . The actual cost and implementation of the television licence varies greatly from country to country . The rest of this section looks at the licence fee in a number of countries around the world . Europe Albania The Albanian licence fee is 800 lekë ( €5.81 ) per year . However , the licence fee makes up only a small part of public broadcaster RTSh 's funding . RTSh is mainly funded directly from the government through taxes ( 58 % ) , the remaining 42 % comes from commercials and the licence fee . Austria In accordance with the Austria RGG ( TV and Radio Licence Law ) all broadcasting reception equipment in use or operational at a given location must be registered . The location of the equipment is taken to be places of residence or any other premises with a uniform purpose of use . Responsible for licence administration in Austria is GIS - Gebühren Info Service GmbH , a 100 % subsidiary of the Austrian Broadcasting Company ( ORF ) , as well as an agency of the Ministry of Finance , charged with performing functions concerning national interests . Transaction volume in 2007 amounted to EUR 682 million , 66 % of which are allocated to the ORF for financing the organization and its programs , and 35 % are allocated to the federal government and the local governments ( taxes and funding of local cultural activities ) . GIS employs some 191 people and approximately 125 freelancers in field service . 3.4 million Austrian households are registered at GIS , percentage of licence dodgers in Austria amounts to 2.5 % . The main principle of GIS ' communication strategy is to inform instead of control . To achieve this goal GIS uses a four-channel communication strategy : * Above-the-line activities ( advertising campaigns in print media , radio and TV ) * Direct Mails * Distribution channels – outlets where people can acquire the necessary forms for registering ( post offices , banks , tobacconists , five GIS Service Centers throughout Austria ) * Field service – customer consultants visiting households not yet registered The annual television & radio licence varies in price depending on which state one lives in . Annual fees from April 2012 are : Belgium ( Walloon Region ) The licence fee in Belgium 's Walloon Region ( encompassing the French and German speaking communities ) is €100.00 for a TV and €0.00 for a radio in a vehicle ( Government of Wallonia decree of December 1 , 2008 , article 1 ) . Only one licence is needed for each household with a functional TV receiver regardless of the number , but each car with a radio must have a separate car radio licence . Household radios do not require a licence . The money raised by the fee is used to fund Belgium 's French and German public broadcasters ( RTBF and BRF respectively ) . The TV licence fee must be paid by people whose surname begins with a letter between A and J between April 1 and May 31 inclusive , and for those with surnames beginning K to Z , it must paid between October 1 and November 30 inclusive . People with certain disabilities are exempt from paying the television licence fee . Hotels and similar lodging establishments must pay an addtitional fee of € 50.00 for each addtional functional TV receiver and are required to pay between January 1 and March 1 inclusive . Bosnia and Herzegovina The licence fee in Bosnia and Herzegovina is around € 46 per year . The civil war and the associated collapse of infrastructure caused very high evasion rates . This has in part been resolved by collecting the licence fee as part of a household 's monthly telephone bill . The licence fee is divided between three broadcasters : * 50 % for BHRT - ( Radio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina ) as main state level radio and television broadcaster in Bosnia and Herzegovina ( also the only member of the EBU ) . * 25 % for RTVFBiH - ( Radio-Television of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina ) radio and television broadcaster that primarily serves the population in the Federation of BiH entity * 25 % for RTRS - ( Radio-Television of the Republika Srpska ) radio and television broadcaster which primarily serves the population of Republika Srpska entity . There is a public corporation in the establishment which should be consisted of all public broadcasters in BiH . Croatia The licence fee in Croatia is regulated with the Croatian Radiotelevision Act . , the last incarnation of the act dates from 2003 . The licence fee is charged to all owners of equipment capable of receiving TV and radio broadcasts . The total yearly amount of the fee is set each year as a percentage of the average net salary in the previous year , currently equal to 1.5 % . This works out at about €137 per year per household with at least one radio or TV receiver . The fee is the main source of revenue for the national broadcaster Hrvatska Radiotelevizija ( HRT ) , and a secondary source of income for other national and local broadcasters , which receive a minority share of this money . The Statute of the Croatian Radiotelevision further divides their majority share to 66 % for television and 34 % for the radio , and sets out further financial rules . According to law , advertisements and a number of other sources of income are allowed to HRT . However , the percentage of air time which may be devoted to advertising is limited by law to 9 % per hour , and is lower than the one that applies to commercial broadcasters . In addition , other rules govern advertising on HRT , including a limit on a single commercial during short breaks , no breaks during films , etc . Croatian television law was formed in compliance with the European Convention on Transfrontier Television that Croatia had joined between 1999 and 2002 . Czech Republic The licence fee in the Czech Republic is 135 Kč ( €4.992 [ using exchange rate 27 July 2015 ] ) per month as from 1 January 2008 . This increase is to compensate for the abolishment of paid advertisements except in narrowly defined circumstances during a transitional period . Each household pays for one TV licence regardless of how many televisions they own . Corporations and the self-employed must pay for a licence for each television . Denmark The media licence fee in Denmark , , is 2477 kr ( €332 ) . This fee applies to all TVs , computers with Internet access or with TV tuners , or other devices that can receive broadcast TV , which actually means that you have to pay the TV licence if you have a relatively new mobile phone . The black/white TV rate is no longer offered after 1 January 2007 . The majority of the licence fee is used to fund the national radio and TV broadcaster DR . However , a proportion is used to fund TV 2 's regional services . TV2 itself used to get means from the licence fee but is now funded exclusively through advertising revenue . Though economically independent from the licence fee TV2 still has obligations and requirements towards serving the public which are laid down in a so called `` public service contract '' between the government and all public service providers . TV2 commercials may only be broadcast between programmes , including films . TV2 receives indirect subsidies through favourable loans from the state of Denmark . TV2 also gets a smaller part of the licence for their 8 regional TV-stations which have half an hour of the daily prime time of the channel ( commercial free ) , and may request additional time on a special new regional TV-channel . ( This regional channel has several other non-commercial broadcasters apart from the TV2-regional programmes ) Finland In 2013 , Finland replaced the television licence with a direct unconditional income broadcasting tax ( , ) , which is 50-140 euros depending on income . The proceeds are used for funding the public broadcaster Yleisradio . France In 2010 , the television licence fee in France ( mainland and Corsica ) was €121 and in the overseas departments and collectivities it was €78 . The licence funds services provided by Radio France , France Télévisions and Radio France Internationale . Metropolitan France receives France 2 , France 3 , France 5 , Arte , France 4 and Gulli , while overseas departments receive Outre-Mer 1ère also and France Ô , in addition to the metropolitan channels , now available through the expansion of the TNT service . Public broadcasters in France supplement their licence fee income with revenue from advertising , but changes in the law in 2009 designed to stop public television chasing ratings , have stopped public broadcasters from airing advertising after 8pm . Between 1998 and 2004 the proportion of France Télévision 's income that came from advertising declined from around 40 % to 30 % . To keep the cost of collection low , the licence fee in France is collected as part of local taxes . Germany As of 1 January 2013 , the licence fee in Germany is now a blanket contribution of €17.98 per month ( €215.76 per annum ) for all households and is payable regardless of equipment or television/radio usage . Businesses and institutions must also contribute ( the amount is based on several factors including number of employees , vehicles and , for hotels , number of beds ) . The fee is billed by the month , but typically paid quarterly ( yearly advanced payments are possible ) . People on minimum wage ( Arbeitslosengeld II or certain similar types of income e.g . low unemployment benefits ) are exempt from the licence fee and those with certain disabilities can apply to pay a reduced contribution of €5.99 . Prior to 2013 , only households and businesses with at least one television were required to pay . Households with no televisions but with a radio or an internet-capable device were subject to a reduced radio-only fee . The licence fee is used to fund the public broadcasters ZDF and Deutschlandradio as well as the nine regional broadcasters of the ARD network , who altogether run 22 television channels ( 10 regional , 10 national , 2 international : Arte and 3sat ) and 61 radio stations ( 58 regional , 3 national ) . Two national television stations and 32 regional radio stations carry limited advertising . The 14 regional regulatory authorities for the private broadcasters are also funded by the licence fee ( and not by government grants ) , and in some states , non-profit community radios also get small amounts of the licence fee . In contrast to ARD , ZDF and Deutschlandradio , Germany 's international broadcaster Deutsche Welle is fully funded by the German federal government , though much of its new content is provided by the ARD . Germany currently has one of the largest total public broadcast budgets in the world . The per capita budget is close to the European average . Annual income from licence fees is approximately 7.6 billion euros , with an additional 500 million euros in revenue from commercials . The board of public broadcasters sued the German states for interference with their budgeting process , and on 11 September 2007 the Supreme Court decided in their favour . This effectively rendered the public broadcasters institution independent and self-governing . Public broadcasters have announced that they are determined to utilize all available ways to reach their `` customers '' and as such have started a very broad Internet presence with media portals , news and TV programs . National broadcasters have abandoned an earlier pledge to restrict their online activities . This resulted in newspapers taking court action against the ARD , claiming that the ARD 's Tagessschau smartphone app , that provides news stories at no cost to the app user , was unfairly subsidised by the licence fee , to the detriment of free market providers of news content apps . The case was dismissed with the court advising the two sides to agree a compromise . Greece The licence fee in Greece is indirect but obligatory and paid through electricity bills . The amount to be paid is €51.60 ( 2013 ) for every separate account of the electrical company ( including residence , offices , shops and other places provided with electricity ) . Its beneficiary is the state broadcaster Ellinikí Radiofonía Tileórasi ( ERT ) . Predicted 2006 annual revenue of ERT from the licence fee ( officially called `` retributive '' fee ) is €262.6M ( from €214.3M in 2005 ) . There has been some discussion about imposing a direct licence fee after complaints from people who do not own a television set and yet are still forced to fund ERT . An often quoted joke is that even the dead pay the licence fee ( since graveyards pay electricity bills ) . In June 2013 , ERT was closed down to save money for the Greek government . In the government decree , it was announced during that time , licence fees are to be temporary suspended . Ireland As of 2012 the cost of a television licence in Ireland is €160 . In 2006 , the charge was €158 , up from €155 in 2005 . However the licence is free to anyone over the age of 70 ( regardless of means or circumstances ) , to some over 66 , and to the blind ( although these licences are in fact paid for by the state ) . The Irish post office , An Post , is responsible for collection of the licence fee and commencement of prosecution proceedings in cases of non-payment . However , An Post has signalled its intention to withdraw from the licence fee collection business . The Irish TV licence makes up 50 % of the revenue of RTÉ , the national broadcaster . The rest comes from RTÉ broadcasting advertisements on its radio and TV stations . Furthermore , some RTÉ services , such as RTÉ 2fm , RTÉ Aertel , RTÉ.ie , and the transmission network operate on an entirely commercial basis . The licence fee does not entirely go to RTÉ . After collection costs , 5 % is used for the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland 's `` Sound and Vision Scheme '' , which provides a fund for programme production and restoration of archive material which is open to applications from any quarters . 5 % of what RTÉ then receive is granted to TG4 , as well as a requirement to provide them with programming . The remainder of TG4 's funding is direct state grants and commercial income . The licence applies to a particular premises , so a separate licence is required for holiday homes or motor vehicles which contain a television . The licence must be paid for premises that have any equipment that can potentially decode TV signals , even those that are not RTÉ 's . Italy In 2014 , the licence fee in Italy was €113.50 per household with a TV set , independent of use . There is also a special licence fee paid by owners of one or more TV or radio sets on public premises or anyhow outside the household context , independent of the use . In 2016 the government opted to lower the licence fee to 100 euros per household and work it into the electricity bill in an attempt to eliminate evasion . Many Italians are greatly annoyed by the bad quality of programming on RAI channels and therefore do not want to pay the fee . It is two-thirds of income for RAI ( coming down from about half of income about seven years ago ) , which also broadcasts advertising , in 2014 giving about one-quarter of income . Macedonia The licence fee in the Republic of Macedonia is around €26 per year . Until 2005 it was collected monthly as part of the electricity bill . The current Law on Broadcasting Activity , which was adopted in November 2005 , reads that the Public Broadcasting Service – Macedonian Radio and Television ( MRT ) shall collect the broadcast fee . The funds collected from the broadcasting fee are allocated in the following manner : * 72 % for MRT for covering costs for creating and broadcasting programmes ; * 4.5 % for MRT for technical and technological development ; * 16 % for MRD ( Makedonska Radiodifuzija – Public operator of the transmission networks of the Public Broadcasting Service ) for maintenance and use of the public broadcasting network ; * 3.5 % for MRD for public broadcasting network development and * 4 % for the Broadcasting Council for regulating and development of the broadcasting activity in the Republic of Macedonia . The MRT shall keep 0.5 % of the collected funds from the broadcasting fee as commission fee . However , MRT still has not found an effective mechanism for collection of the broadcast tax , so it has suffered a severe underfunding in the recent years . Recently , the Macedonian Government decided to update the Law on Broadcasting authorizing the Public Revenue Office to be in charge of collection of the broadcast fee . In addition to broadcast fee funding , Macedonian Radio-Television ( MRT ) also takes advertising and sponsorship . The broadcasting fee is paid by : every family household in the Republic of Macedonia , hotels and motels are charged one broadcasting fee for every five rooms , legal persons and office space owners are obliged to pay one broadcasting fee to every 20 employees or other persons that use the office space , owners of catering and other public facilities possessing a radio receiver or TV set must pay one broadcasting fee for each receiver/set . The Government of the Republic of Macedonia , upon a proposal of the Broadcasting Council , shall determine which broadcasting fee payers in populated areas that are not covered by the broadcasting signal shall be exempt from payment of the broadcasting fee . The households with a blind person whose vision is impaired over 90 % or families with a person whose hearing is impaired with an intensity of over 60 decibels , as determined in compliance with the regulations on disability insurance , are exempt from the duty to pay the broadcasting fee for the household where the family of the person lives . Montenegro In accordance with the Broadcasting Law ( December 2002 ) , every household and legal entity , situated in the Republic , where technical conditions for reception of at least one radio or television programme have been provided , is obliged to pay a monthly broadcasting subscription fee . The monthly fee is €3.50 . The Broadcasting Agency of Montenegro is in charge of collecting the fee ( currently through the telephone bills , but after the privatization of state owned Telekom , the new owners , T-com , announced that they will not administer the collection of fee from July 2007 ) . The funds from the subscription received by the Agency belong to : * the Republic 's public broadcasting services ( radio and television ) – 75 % * the Agency 's fund for the support of the local public broadcasting services ( radio and television ) – 10 % * the Agency 's fund for the support of the commercial broadcasting services ( radio and television ) – 10 % * the Agency – 5 % Norway The licence fee in Norway is 2680,56 kr ( €317.946 ) per annum . The fee is mandatory for any owner of a TV set , and is the primary source of income for Norsk Rikskringkasting ( NRK ) . The licence fee is charged on a per household basis . Therefore addresses with more than one television receiver generally only require a single licence . An exception is made if the household includes persons living at home who is no longer provided for by the parents , e.g . students living at home . If persons not in parental care own a separate television they must pay the normal fee . Poland The current ( 2012 ) annual licence fee in Poland for television set is 199.80 zł ( €48.389 at average NBP exchange rate from 2015-07-27 ) per annum . The licence may be paid monthly , bi-monthly , quarterly , half-yearly or annually , but the total cost when paying for less than a year in advance is higher ( up to 10 % ) . Those that have no TV but have a radio must pay the radio-only licence which costs 59.40 zł ( €14,386 ) per year . The licence is collected and maintained by the Polish post office , Poczta Polska . Around 60 % of the fee goes to Telewizja Polska with the rest going to Polskie Radio . In return public television is not permitted to interrupt its programmes with advertisements ( advertisements are only allowed between programmes ) . The TV licence is waived for those over 75 . Only one licence is required for a single household irrespective of number of sets , but in case of commercial premises one licence for each set must be paid ( this includes radios and TVs in company vehicles ) . However , public health institutions , all nurseries , educational institutions , hospices and retirement homes need to pay only single licence per building or building complex they occupy . There is a major problem with licence evasion in Poland . This is due to the collection based on the honesty-based opt-in system , rather than the British system of opt-out , i.e . a person liable to pay the licence has to register on their own , there being no effective means to compel people to register and to prosecute those that fail to do so . Also as the licensing inspectors , who are usually postmen , do not have the right of entry to inspect premises and must get the owner ’ s or main occupier ’ s permission to enter . Due to this , it is estimated that about 65 % of households evade the licence fee , compared to an average of 10 % in the European Union . Due to the difficulty in licence fee collection , the current PO-PSL government is reviewing the funding for public broadcasting , which could include abolishing the fee . Back in 2008 , current Polish prime minister Donald Tusk called television licence archaic and „ haracz ” ( forced tribute in Polish , required by bandits , mafia ) . 73 % of Poles are against it , according to 2012 research poll . Romania The licence fee in Romania for a household is 48 RON ( € 10.857 ) per year . Small businesses pay about €45 and large businesses about € 150 . The licence fee is collected as part of the electricity bill . The licence fee makes up part of Televiziunea Română 's funding , with the rest coming from advertising and government grants . However , some people accuse that it is paid twice ( both to the electricity bill and to the cable or satellite operator indirectly , although cable and satellite providers are claiming they are not ) . In Romania , you must prove that you do n't own a TV Receiver in order not to pay the Licence fee , but however if own a computer , you will pay , as you are able to watch TVR content online . Some people are criticizing this , because in the last years , TVR lost a lot of their supervisors , and also because with the analog switch-off on 17 June 2015 , it is still not widely available on digital terrestrial , and it is encrypted on satellite ( you must buy a decryption card and a satellite receiver with card reader ) . Also , TVR will shift to DVB-T2 , and with many sets sold only with DVB-T , TVR will become unavailable to some users without a digital terrestrial receiver . The fee can not be avoided however , as it continues to be part of the electricity bill . Serbia Licence fees in Serbia are bundled together with electricity bills and collected on a monthly basis . There have been increasing indications that the Government of Serbia is considering the temporary cessation of the licence fee until a more effective financing solution is

sfq_15448--Television_licence.txt

At what age does an individual first become entitled to a free TV licence?

Nuristan , also spelled Nurestan or Nooristan , ( Nuristani/Pashto : نورستان ) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan , located in the eastern part of the country . It is divided into seven districts and has a population of about 140,900 . Parun serves as the provincial capital . It was formerly known as Kafiristan ( , `` land of the infidels '' ) until the inhabitants were converted to Islam in 1895 , and thence the region has become known as Nuristan ( `` land of light '' ) . The primary occupations are agriculture , animal husbandry , and day labor . Located on the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush mountains in the northeastern part of the country , Nuristan spans the basins of the Alingar , Pech , Landai Sin , and Kunar rivers . Nuristan is bordered on the south by Laghman and Kunar provinces , on the north by Badakhshan province , on the west by Panjshir province , and on the east by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa , Pakistan . History Early history The surrounding area fell to Alexander the Great in 330 B.C . It later fell to Chandragupta Maurya . The Mauryas introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the region , and were attempting to expand their empire to Central Asia until they faced local Greco-Bactrian forces . Seleucus is said to have reached a peace treaty with Chandragupta by giving control of the territory south of the Hindu Kush to the Mauryas upon intermarriage and 500 elephants . Having consolidated power in the northwest , Chandragupta pushed east towards the Nanda Empire . Afghanistan 's significant ancient tangible and intangible Buddhist heritage is recorded through wide-ranging archeological finds , including religious and artistic remnants . Buddhist doctrines are reported to have reached as far as Balkh even during the life of the Buddha ( 563 BCE to 483 BCE ) , as recorded by Xuanzang . The region was historically known as Kafiristan ( meaning `` Land of the kafirs '' ) because of its inhabitants : the Nuristani , an ethnically distinctive people who practiced a form of ancient Hinduism . It was conquered by Emir Abdur Rahman Khan in the late 19th century and the Nuristani people began converting to Islam . British missionaries wrote : The region was renamed Nuristan , meaning Land of the enlightened , a reflection of the `` enlightening '' of the pagan Nuristani by the `` light-giving '' of Islam . Nuristan was once thought to have been a region through which Alexander the Great passed with a detachment of his army ; thus the folk legend that the Nuristani people are descendants of Alexander ( or `` his generals '' ) . Abdul Wakil Khan Nuristani is one of the most prominent figures in Nuristan 's history . He fought against the British-led Punjabi army and drove them out of the eastern provinces of Afghanistan . He is buried on the same plateau where King Amanullah Khan is buried . Recent history Since the creation of Pakistan in 1947 , Afghan politicians ( particularly Mohammed Daoud Khan ) have been focusing on re-annexing Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of what is now Pakistan . This has led to militancy on both sides of the Durand Line . In the meantime , Pakistani politicians have been focusing on connecting what is now Tajikistan with Pakistan . This requires weakening Afghan rule in Nuristan and Badakhshan provinces by secretly funding anti-Afghan rebel forces . Nuristan was the scene of some of the heaviest guerrilla fightings during the 1980s Soviet war in Afghanistan . The province was influenced by Mawlawi Afzal 's Islamic Revolutionary State of Afghanistan , which was supported by Pakistan nationalists and Saudi Arabia . It dissolved under the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan ( Taliban rule ) in the late 1990s . Nuristan is one of the poorest and most remote provinces of Afghanistan . Few NGO 's operate in Nuristan because of Taliban insurgency and lack of safe roads . The United States and the Afghan government are jointly working to solve these issues . Some road construction projects were launched linking Nangarej to Mandol and Chapa Dara to Titan Dara . The Afghan government also worked on a direct road route to Laghman province , in order to reduce dependence on the road through restive Kunar province to the rest of Afghanistan . Other road projects were started aimed at improving the primitive road from Kamdesh to Barg-i Matal , and from Nangalam in Kunar province to the provincial center at Parun . Since Nuristan is a highly ethnically homogeneous province , there are few incidents of inter-ethnic violence . However , there are instances of disputes among inhabitants , some of which continue for decades . Nuristan has suffered from its inaccessibility and lack of infrastructure . The government presence is under-developed , even compared to neighboring provinces . Nuristan 's formal educational sector is weak , with few professional teachers . Due to its proximity to Pakistan , many of the inhabitants are actively involved in trade and commerce across the border . A map from the Afghan Ministry of the Interior produced in 2009 showed the western region of Nuristan to be under `` enemy control '' . There have been numerous conflicts between anti-Afghanistan militants and U.S.-led Afghan security forces . In April 2008 members of the 3rd Special Forces Group led Afghan soldiers from the Commando Brigade into the Shok valley in an unsuccessful attempt to capture warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar . In July 2008 approximately 200 Taliban guerrillas attacked a NATO position just south of Nuristan , near the village of Wanat in the Waygal District , killing 9 U.S. soldiers . In the following year , in early October , more than 350 anti-Afghanistan militants backed by members of the Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin and other militia groups fought U.S.-led Afghan security forces in the Battle of Kamdesh at Camp Keating in Nuristan . The base was nearly overrun ; more than 100 Taliban fighters , eight U.S. soldiers , and seven members of the Afghan security forces were killed during the fighting . Four days after the battle , in early October 2009 , U.S. forces withdrew from their four main bases in Nuristan , as part of a plan by General Stanley McChrystal to pull troops out of small outposts and relocate them closer to major towns . The U.S. has pulled out from some areas in the past , but never from all four main bases . A month after the U.S. pullout the Taliban was governing openly in Nuristan . According to The Economist , Nuristan is `` a place so tough that NATO abandoned it in 2010 after failing to subdue it . '' Politics and governance The current governor of the province is Hafiz Abdul Qayyum . His predecessor was Jamaluddin Badar , who was sacked and convicted in Kabul for political corruption . The town of Parun serves as the capital of Nuristan province . All law enforcement activities throughout the province are controlled by the Afghan National Police ( ANP ) . The border with neighboring Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is monitored by the Afghan Border Police ( ABP ) . A provincial police chief is assigned to lead both the ANP and the ABP . The Police Chief represents the Ministry of the Interior in Kabul . The ANP and ABP are backed by the Afghan Armed Forces , including the NATO-led forces . Healthcare The percentage of households with clean drinking water increased from 2 % in 2005 to 12 % in 2011 . The percentage of births attended by a skilled birth attendant increased from 1 % in 2005 to 22 % in 2011 . Education In 2002 the first gender assessment of women 's conditions in Nuristan was completed . The overall literacy rate ( 6+ years of age ) fell from 17.7 % in 2005 to 17 % in 2011 . The overall net enrolment rate ( 6–13 years of age ) increased from 8.7 % in 2005 to 45 % in 2011 . Demographics As of 2013 , the total population of the province is about 140,900 . According to the Naval Postgraduate School , around 99.3 % are Nuristanis and 0.6 % Gujjars . Approximately 90 % of the population speak the following Nuristani languages : * Askunu language * Kamkata-viri language * Vasi-vari language * Tregami language * Kalasha-ala language The Pashayi languages is used by about 15 % of the population . The main Nuristani tribes in the province are : * Katta ( 38 % ) * Kalasha ( 30 % ) * Ashkori or Wamayee ( 12 % ) * Kam ( 10 % ) * Satra ( 5 % ) * Parsoon ( 4 % ) Pashto and Dari are used as second and third languages in the province . Districts In popular culture * Nuristan is the subject of the book A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush by the British travel writer Eric Newby . * Nuristan was the location of three of the missions in Hitman 2 : Silent Assassin . * Rudyard Kipling 's short story The Man Who Would Be King and the film inspired by it are set in pre-Islamic Nuristan . Notable people from the province * Ahmad Yusuf Nuristani * Abdul Qadir Nuristani * Mohammed Nadir Atash * Issa Nuristani * Jamaluddin Badr

bb_2748--Nuristan_Province.txt

The mountainous and partly lawless province of Nuristan lies in the north-east of which country?

Windsor Castle is a royal residence at Windsor in the English county of Berkshire . It is notable for its long association with the English and later British royal family and for its architecture . The original castle was built in the 11th century after the Norman invasion of England by William the Conqueror . Since the time of Henry I , it has been used by all monarchs , and is the longest-occupied palace in Europe . The castle 's lavish early 19th-century State Apartments were described by the art historian Hugh Roberts as `` a superb and unrivalled sequence of rooms widely regarded as the finest and most complete expression of later Georgian taste '' . Inside the castle walls is the 15th-century St George 's Chapel , considered by the historian John Martin Robinson to be `` one of the supreme achievements of English Perpendicular Gothic '' design . Originally designed to protect Norman dominance around the outskirts of London and oversee a strategically important part of the River Thames , Windsor Castle was built as a motte-and-bailey , with three wards surrounding a central mound . Gradually replaced with stone fortifications , the castle withstood a prolonged siege during the First Barons ' War at the start of the 13th century . Henry III built a luxurious royal palace within the castle during the middle of the century , and Edward III went further , rebuilding the palace to make an even grander set of buildings in what would become `` the most expensive secular building project of the entire Middle Ages in England '' . Edward 's core design lasted through the Tudor period , during which Henry VIII and Elizabeth I made increasing use of the castle as a royal court and centre for diplomatic entertainment . Windsor Castle survived the tumultuous period of the English Civil War , when it was used as a military headquarters for Parliamentary forces and a prison for Charles I . At the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , Charles II rebuilt much of Windsor Castle with the help of the architect Hugh May , creating a set of extravagant Baroque interiors that are still admired . After a period of neglect during the 18th century , George III and George IV renovated and rebuilt Charles II 's palace at colossal expense , producing the current design of the State Apartments , full of Rococo , Gothic and Baroque furnishings . Queen Victoria made a few minor changes to the castle , which became the centre for royal entertainment for much of her reign . Windsor Castle was used as a refuge for the royal family during the Luftwaffe bombing campaigns of the Second World War and survived a fire in 1992 . It is a popular tourist attraction , a venue for hosting state visits , and the preferred weekend home of Elizabeth II . Today , more than 500 people live and work in Windsor Castle – the largest inhabited castle in the world . Architecture Windsor Castle occupies , and combines the features of a fortification , a palace , and a small town . The present-day castle was created during a sequence of phased building projects , culminating in the reconstruction work after a fire in 1992 . It is in essence a Georgian and Victorian design based on a medieval structure , with Gothic features reinvented in a modern style . Since the 14th century , architecture at the castle has attempted to produce a contemporary reinterpretation of older fashions and traditions , repeatedly imitating outmoded or even antiquated styles . As a result , architect Sir William Whitfield has pointed to Windsor Castle 's architecture as having `` a certain fictive quality '' , the Picturesque and Gothic design generating `` a sense that a theatrical performance is being put on here '' , despite late 20th century efforts to expose more of the older structures to increase the sense of authenticity . Although there has been some criticism , the castle 's architecture and history lends it a `` place amongst the greatest European palaces '' . Middle Ward At the heart of Windsor Castle is the Middle Ward , a bailey formed around the motte or artificial hill in the centre of the ward . The motte is 50 ft high and is made from chalk originally excavated from the surrounding ditch . The keep , called the Round Tower , on the top of the motte is based on an original 12th-century building , extended upwards in the early 19th century under architect Jeffry Wyatville by 30 ft ( 9 m ) to produce a more imposing height and silhouette.Robinson , p. 142 . The interior of the Round Tower was further redesigned in 1991–3 to provide additional space for the Royal Archives , an additional room being built in the space left by Wyatville 's originally hollow extension . The Round Tower is in reality far from cylindrical , due to the shape and structure of the motte beneath it . The current height of the tower has been criticised as being disproportionate to its width ; archaeologist Tim Tatton-Brown , for example , has described it as a mutilation of the earlier medieval structure . The western entrance to the Middle Ward is now open , and a gateway leads north from the ward onto the North Terrace.Mackworth-Young , p. 1 . The eastern exit from the ward is guarded by the Norman Gatehouse . This gatehouse , which , despite its name , dates from the 14th century , is heavily vaulted and decorated with carvings , including surviving medieval lion masks , traditional symbols of majesty , to form an impressive entrance to the Upper Ward . Wyatville redesigned the exterior of the gatehouse , and the interior was later heavily converted in the 19th century for residential use . Upper Ward The Upper Ward of Windsor Castle comprises a number of major buildings enclosed by the upper bailey wall , forming a central quadrangle . The State Apartments run along the north of the ward , with a range of buildings along the east wall , and the private royal apartments and the King George IV Gate to the south , with the Edward III Tower in the south-west corner . The motte and the Round Tower form the west edge of the ward . A bronze statue of Charles II on horseback sits beneath the Round Tower.Robinson , p. 55 . Inspired by Hubert Le Sueur 's statue of Charles I in London , the statue was cast by Josias Ibach in 1679 , with the marble plinth featuring carvings by Grinling Gibbons . The Upper Ward adjoins the North Terrace , which overlooks the River Thames , and the East Terrace , which overlooks the gardens ; both of the current terraces were constructed by Hugh May in the 17th century . Traditionally the Upper Ward was judged to be `` to all intents and purposes a nineteenth-century creation ... the image of what the early nineteenth-century thought a castle should be '' , as a result of the extensive redesign of the castle by Wyatville under George IV . The walls of the Upper Ward are built of Bagshot Heath stone faced on the inside with regular bricks , the gothic details in yellow Bath stone.Robinson , p. 92 . The buildings in the Upper Ward are characterised by the use of small bits of flint in the mortar for galletting , originally started at the castle in the 17th century to give stonework from disparate periods a similar appearance . The skyline of the Upper Ward is designed to be dramatic when seen from a distance or silhouetted against the horizon , an image of tall towers and battlements influenced by the picturesque movement of the late 18th century . Archaeological and restoration work following the 1992 fire has shown the extent to which the current structure represents a survival of elements from the original 12th-century stone walls onwards , presented within the context of Wyatville 's final remodelling . State Apartments The State Apartments form the major part of the Upper Ward and lie along the north side of the quadrangle . The modern building follows the medieval foundations laid down by Edward III , with the ground floor comprising service chambers and cellars , and the much grander first floor forming the main part of the palace . On the first floor , the layout of the western end of the State Apartments is primarily the work of architect Hugh May , whereas the structure on the eastern side represents Jeffry Wyatville 's plans.The Queen 's Drawing Room , Queen 's Ballroom , Queen 's Audience Chamber , Queen 's Presence Chamber , Queen 's Guard Chamber , King 's Presence Chamber , King 's Audience Room , King 's Drawing Chamber and King 's Dining Chamber residing in May 's 17th-century structure ; Wyatville transformed the layout of the eastern end of the State Apartments , forming the Grand Reception Room , White Drawing Room , Green Drawing Room , Crimson Drawing Room , the Waterloo Chamber , State Dining Room and Octagonal Dining Room . The interior of the State Apartments was mostly designed by Wyatville in the early 19th century . Wyatville intended each room to illustrate a particular architectural style and to display the matching furnishings and fine arts of the period . With some alterations over the years , this concept continues to dominate the apartments . Different rooms follow the Classical , Gothic and Rococo styles , together with an element of Jacobethan in places . Many of the rooms on the eastern end of the castle had to be restored following the 1992 fire , using `` equivalent restoration '' methods – the rooms were restored so as to appear similar to their original appearance , but using modern materials and concealing modern structural improvements.Nicolson , p. 78 . These rooms were also partially redesigned at the same time to more closely match modern tastes . Art historian Hugh Roberts has praised the State Apartments as `` a superb and unrivalled sequence of rooms widely regarded as the finest and most complete expression of later Georgian taste . '' Others , such as architect Robin Nicolson and critic Hugh Pearman , have described them as `` bland '' and `` distinctly dull '' . Wyatville 's most famous work are those rooms designed in a Rococo style . These rooms take the fluid , playful aspects of this mid-18th-century artistic movement , including many original pieces of Louis XV decoration , but project them on a `` vastly inflated '' scale . Investigations after the 1992 fire have shown though that many Rococo features of the modern castle , originally thought to have been 18th-century fittings transferred from Carlton House or France , are in fact 19th-century imitations in plasterwork and wood , designed to blend with original elements . The Grand Reception Room is the most prominent of these Rococo designs , 100 ft ( 30 m ) long and 40 ft ( 12 m ) tall and occupying the site of Edward III 's great hall . This room , restored after the fire , includes a huge French Rococo ceiling , characterised by Ian Constantinides , the lead restorer , as possessing a `` coarseness of form and crudeness of hand ... completely overshadowed by the sheer spectacular effect when you are at a distance '' .Nicolson , p. 190 . The room is set off by a set of restored Gobelins French tapestries . Although decorated with less gold leaf than in the 1820s , the result remains `` one of the greatest set-pieces of Regency decoration '' . The White , Green and Crimson Drawing Rooms include a total of 62 trophies : carved , gilded wooden panels illustrating weapons and the spoils of war , many with Masonic meanings.Nicolson , pp . 197–8 . Restored or replaced after the fire , these trophies are famous for their `` vitality , precision and three-dimensional quality '' , and were originally brought from Carlton House in 1826 , some being originally imported from France and others carved by Edward Wyatt . The soft furnishings of these rooms , although luxurious , are more modest than the 1820s originals , both on the grounds of modern taste and cost . Wyatville 's design retains three rooms originally built by Hugh May in the 17th century in partnership with the painter Antonio Verrio and carver Grinling Gibbons . The Queen 's Presence Chamber , the Queen 's Audience Chamber and the King 's Dining Room are designed in a Baroque , Franco-Italian style , characterised by `` gilded interiors enriched with florid murals '' , first introduced to England between 1648–50 at Wilton House . Verrio 's paintings are `` drenched in medievalist allusion '' and classical images . These rooms were intended to show an innovative English `` baroque fusion '' of the hitherto separate arts of architecture , painting and carving . A handful of rooms in the modern State Apartments reflect either 18th-century or Victorian Gothic design . The State Dining Room , for example , whose current design originates from the 1850s but which was badly damaged during the 1992 fire , is restored to its appearance in the 1920s , before the removal of some of the gilded features on the pilasters . Anthony Salvin 's Grand Staircase is also of mid-Victorian design in the Gothic style , rising to a double-height hall lit by an older 18th-century Gothic vaulted lantern tower called the Grand Vestibule , designed by James Wyatt and executed by Francis Bernasconi . The staircase has been criticised by historian John Robinson as being a distinctly inferior design to the earlier staircases built on the same site by both Wyatt and May . Some parts of the State Apartments were completely destroyed in the 1992 fire and this area was rebuilt in a style called `` Downesian Gothic '' , named after the architect , Giles Downes . The rooms completely or largely destroyed in the fire were St George 's Hall , the Lantern Lobby , the Octagonal Dining Room , the Private Chapel , and the Great Kitchen . The style comprises `` the rather stripped , cool and systematic coherence of modernism sewn into a reinterpretation of the Gothic tradition '' . Downes argues that the style avoids `` florid decoration '' , emphasising an organic , flowing Gothic structure . Three new rooms were built or remodelled by Downes at Windsor . Downes ' new roof of St George 's Hall is the largest green-oak structure built since the Middle Ages , and is decorated with brightly coloured shields celebrating the heraldic element of the Order of the Garter ; the design attempts to create an illusion of additional height through the gothic woodwork along the ceiling . The Lantern Lobby features flowing oak columns forming a vaulted ceiling , imitating an arum lily . The new Private Chapel is relatively small , only able to fit thirty worshippers , but combines architectural elements of the St George 's Hall roof with the Lantern Lobby and the stepped arch structure of the Henry VIII chapel vaulting at Hampton Court . The result is an `` extraordinary , continuous and closely moulded net of tracery '' , complementing the new stained glass windows commemorating the fire , designed by Joseph Nuttgen . The Great Kitchen , with its newly exposed 14th-century roof lantern sitting alongside Wyatville 's fireplaces , chimneys and Gothic tables , is also a product of the reconstruction after the fire . The ground floor of the State Apartments retains various famous medieval features . The 14th-century Great Undercroft still survives , some 193 ft long by 31 ft wide , divided into 13 bays . At the time of the 1992 fire , the Undercroft had been divided into smaller rooms ; the area is now opened up to form a single space in an effort to echo the undercrofts at Fountains and Rievaulx Abbeys , although the floor remains artificially raised for convenience of use . The `` beautifully vaulted '' 14th-century Larderie passage runs alongside the Kitchen Courtyard and is decorated with carved royal roses , marking its construction by Edward III . `` Larderie '' means `` meat passage '' . Lower Ward The Lower Ward lies below and to the west of the Round Tower , reached through the Norman Gate . Originally largely of medieval design , most of the Lower Ward was renovated or reconstructed during the mid-Victorian period by Anthony Salvin and Edward Blore , to form a `` consistently Gothic composition '' . The Lower Ward holds St George 's Chapel and most of the buildings associated with the Order of the Garter . On the north side of the Lower Ward is St George 's Chapel . This huge building is the spiritual home of the Order of the Knights of the Garter and dates from the late 15th and early 16th century , designed in the Perpendicular Gothic style . The ornate wooden choir stalls are of 15th-century design , having been restored and extended by Henry Emlyn at the end of the 18th century , and are decorated with a unique set of brass plates showing the arms of the Knights of the Garter over the last six centuries . On the west side , the chapel has a grand Victorian door and staircase , used on ceremonial occasions.Mackworth-Young , p. 80 . The east stained glass window is Victorian , and the oriel window to the north side of it was built by Henry VIII for Catherine of Aragon . The vault in front of the altar houses the remains of Henry VIII , Jane Seymour and Charles I , with Edward IV buried nearby . The chapel is considered by historian John Robinson to be `` one of the supreme achievements of English Perpendicular Gothic '' design . At the east end of St George 's Chapel is the Lady Chapel , originally built by Henry III in the 13th century and converted into the Albert Memorial Chapel between 1863–73 by George Gilbert Scott . Built to commemorate the life of Prince Albert , the ornate chapel features lavish decoration and works in marble , glass mosaic and bronze by Henri de Triqueti , Susan Durant , Alfred Gilbert and Antonio Salviati . The east door of the chapel , covered in ornamental ironwork , is the original door from 1246 . At the west end of the Lower Ward is the Horseshoe Cloister , originally built in 1480 , near to the chapel to house its clergy . It houses the vicars-choral , or lay clerks of the chapel.Robinson , pp . 26 , 121 . This curved brick and timber building is said to have been designed to resemble the shape of a fetlock , one of the badges used by Edward IV . George Gilbert Scott heavily restored the building in 1871 and little of the original structure remains . Other ranges originally built by Edward III sit alongside the Horseshoe , featuring stone perpendicular tracery.Robinson , p. 26 . As of 2011 , they are used as offices , a library and as the houses for the Dean and Canons . Behind the Horseshoe Cloister is the Curfew Tower , one of the oldest surviving parts of the Lower Ward and dating from the 13th century . The interior of the tower contains a former dungeon , and the remnants of a sally port , a secret exit for the occupants in a time of siege . The upper storey contains the castle bells placed there in 1478 , and the castle clock of 1689 . The French-style conical roof is a 19th-century attempt by Anthony Salvin to remodel the tower in the fashion of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 's recreation of Carcassonne . On the opposite side of the chapel is a range of buildings including the lodgings of the Military Knights , and the residence of the Governor of the Military Knights . These buildings originate from the 16th century and are still used by the Knights , who represent the Order of the Garter each Sunday . On the south side of the Ward is King Henry VIII 's gateway , which bears the coat of arms of Catherine of Aragon and forms the secondary entrance to the castle . Park and landscape Windsor Castle 's position on top of steep ground has meant that the castle 's gardens are limited in scale . The castle gardens stretch east from the Upper Ward across a 20th-century terrace . Windsor Castle is surrounded by extensive parkland . The immediate area stretching to the east of the castle is a 19th-century creation known as the Home Park . The Home Park includes parkland and two working farms , along with many estate cottages mainly occupied by employees and the Frogmore estate . The Long Walk , a double lined avenue of trees , runs for south of the castle , and is 240 ft ( 75 m ) wide . The original 17th-century elms were replaced with alternating chestnut and plane trees . The impact of Dutch elm disease led to large-scale replanting after 1945 . The Home Park adjoins the northern edge of the more extensive Windsor Great Park , occupying some 2020 ha and including some of the oldest broadleaved woodlands in Europe . In the Home Park , to the north of the castle , stands a private school , St George 's , which provides choristers to the chapel . Eton College is located within about half a mile of the castle , across the River Thames . History 11th and 12th centuries Windsor Castle was originally built by William the Conqueror in the decade after the Norman conquest of 1066.Mackworth-Young , p. 6 . William established a defensive ring of motte and bailey castles around London ; each was a day 's march – about 20 mi – from the city and from the next castle , allowing for easy reinforcements in a crisis . Windsor Castle , one of this ring of fortifications , was strategically important because of its proximity to both the River Thames , a key medieval route into London , and Windsor Forest , a royal hunting preserve previously used by the Saxon kings . The nearby settlement of Clivore , or Clewer , was an old Saxon residence . The initial wooden castle consisted of a keep on the top of a man-made motte , or mound , protected by a small bailey wall , occupying a chalk inlier , or bluff , rising 100 ft ( 30 m ) above the river . A second wooden bailey was constructed to the east of the keep , forming the later Upper Ward.Emery , p. 193 . By the end of the century , another bailey had been constructed to the west , creating the basic shape of the modern castle . In design , Windsor most closely resembled Arundel Castle , another powerful early Norman fortification , but the double bailey design was also found at Rockingham and Alnwick Castle . Windsor was not initially used as a royal residence ; the early Norman kings preferred to use the former palace of Edward the Confessor in the village of Old Windsor . The first king to use Windsor Castle as a residence was Henry I , who celebrated Whitsuntide at the castle in 1110 during a period of heightened insecurity . Henry 's marriage to Adela , the daughter of Godfrey of Louvain , took place in the castle in 1121 . During this period the keep suffered a substantial collapse – archaeological evidence shows that the southern side of the motte subsided by over 6 ft ( 2 m ) . Timber piles were driven in to support the motte and the old wooden keep was replaced with a new stone shell keep , with a probable gateway to the north-east and a new stone well.Brindle and Kerr , p. 33 . A chemise , or low protective wall , was subsequently added to the keep . Henry II came to the throne in 1154 and built extensively at Windsor between 1165 and 1179 . Henry replaced the wooden palisade surrounding the upper ward with a stone wall interspersed with square towers and built the first King 's Gate . The first stone keep was suffering from subsidence , and cracks were beginning to appear in the stonework of the south side . Henry replaced the keep with another stone shell keep and chemise wall , but moved the walls in from the edge of the motte to relieve the pressure on the mound , and added massive foundations along the south side to provide additional support . Inside the castle Henry remodelled the royal accommodation . Bagshot Heath stone was used for most of the work , and stone from Bedfordshire for the internal buildings . 13th century King John undertook some building works at Windsor , but primarily to the accommodation rather than the defences.Tatton-Brown , p. 24 . The castle played a role during the revolt of the English barons : the castle was besieged in 1214 , and John used the castle as his base during the negotiations before the signing of the Magna Carta at nearby Runnymede in 1215 . In 1216 the castle was besieged again by baronial and French troops under the command of the Count of Nevers , but John 's constable , Engelard de Cigogné , successfully defended it . The damage done to the castle during the second siege was immediately repaired in 1216 and 1221 by Cigogne on behalf of John 's successor Henry III , who further strengthened the defences . The walls of the Lower Ward were rebuilt in stone , complete with a gatehouse in the location of the future Henry VIII Gate , between 1224 and 1230 . Three new towers , the Curfew , Garter and the Salisbury towers , were constructed . The Middle Ward was heavily reinforced with a southern stone wall , protected by the new Edward III and Henry III towers at each end . Windsor Castle was one of Henry 's three favourite residences and he invested heavily in the royal accommodation , spending more money at Windsor than in any other of his properties . Following his marriage to Eleanor of Provence , Henry built a luxurious palace in 1240–63 , based around a court along the north side of the Upper Ward . This was intended primarily for the queen and Henry 's children . In the Lower Ward , the king ordered the construction of a range of buildings for his own use along the south wall , including a 70 ft ( 21 m ) long chapel , later called the Lady Chapel.Tatton-Brown , p. 25 . This was the grandest of the numerous chapels built for his own use , and comparable to the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris in size and quality . Henry repaired the Great Hall that lay along the north side of the Lower Ward , and enlarged it with a new kitchen and built a covered walkway between the Hall and the kitchen . Henry 's work was characterised by the religious overtones of the rich decorations , which formed `` one of the high-water marks of English medieval art '' . The conversion cost more than £10,000 . The result was to create a division in the castle between a more private Upper Ward and a Lower Ward devoted to the public face of the monarchy . Little further building was carried out at the castle during the 13th century ; the Great Hall in the Lower Ward was destroyed by fire in 1296 , but it was not rebuilt.Steane , p. 110 . 14th century Edward III was born at Windsor Castle and used it extensively throughout his reign . In 1344 the king announced the foundation of the new Order of the Round Table at the castle.Brindle and Kerr , p. 39 . Edward began to construct a new building in the castle to host this order , but it was never finished . Chroniclers described it as a round building , 200 ft ( 61 m ) across , and it was probably in the centre of the Upper Ward . Shortly afterwards , Edward abandoned the new order for reasons that remain unclear , and instead established the Order of the Garter , again with Windsor Castle as its headquarters , complete with the attendant Poor Knights of Windsor . As part of this process Edward decided to rebuild Windsor Castle , in particular Henry III 's palace , in an attempt to construct a castle that would be symbolic of royal power and chivalry.Nicolson , pp . 118–9 . Edward was influenced both by the military successes of his grandfather ,

sfq_12060--Windsor_Castle.txt

Name the private gardens adjoining Windsor Castle which housed the Royal Mausoleum, the burial place of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert?

In the United States of America , Mexican Coke ( ) or , informally , `` MexiCoke '' , refers to Coca-Cola produced in and imported from Mexico . Although intended for consumption in Mexico , Mexican Coca-Cola has become very popular in the United States because of a flavor that Coca-Cola fans call `` a lot more natural tasting '' . While many believe the primary difference in flavor between Mexican Coca-Cola and the American Coca-Cola formula is that Mexican Coke is sweetened using cane sugar as opposed to high-fructose corn syrup , a scientific analysis of Mexican Coke found no sucrose ( standard sugar ) in its sample of Mexican Coke , but instead found fructose and glucose levels similar to other soft drinks sweetened with high-fructose corn syrup . Coca-Cola claims that Mexican Coke exported to the United States is made with cane sugar , while some Mexican bottlers may use high-fructose corn syrup for drinks intended for sale in Mexico . Therefore , while Coca-Cola labeled `` Mexican '' in the U.S. is made with cane sugar , not all Coca-Cola sold in Mexico is . History Coca-Cola opened its first bottling franchise in Mexico in the 1920s with Grupo Tampico , and then Grupo ARMA . Monterrey-based FEMSA is currently the largest Coca-Cola bottler in Mexico , along with most of Latin America . In 2013 , a Mexican Coca-Cola bottler announced it would stop using cane sugar in favor of glucose-fructose syrup . It later clarified this change would not affect those bottles especially exported to the United States as `` Coca-Cola Nostalgia '' products . Taste tests Results from taste tests have been mixed . In a taste test conducted by a local Westchester , New York magazine , tasters noted that the Mexican Coke had `` a more complex flavor with an ineffable spicy and herbal note '' , and that it contained something `` that darkly hinted at root beer or old-fashioned sarsaparilla candies '' . However , participants in a different double-blind taste test overwhelmingly preferred American Coca-Cola . Participants in taste tests conducted by Coca-Cola reported no perceptible differences in flavor between American Coke and the Mexican formulation . Bottle Mexican Coke is bottled in a thick 355 ml or 500 ml glass bottle , which some have described in contrast to the American Coke plastic bottles as being `` more elegant , with a pleasingly nostalgic shape '' . Instead of having a vinyl label wrapped around plastic , an enamel label is painted directly on the glass bottle . Most exporters of Mexican Coke affix a paper sticker containing the nutrition facts label , ingredients , and bottler and/or exporter 's contact information , to meet U.S. food labelling requirements . U.S. availability The World of Coca-Cola sells Mexican Coke in its gift store , and it is now widely available throughout the United States in stores and online . New Zealand A similar phenomenon exists in New Zealand , where Coca-Cola is available both bottled locally ( sweetened with sugar ) and imported from the United States ( with high-fructose corn syrup ) .

jp_4300--Mexican_Coke.txt

What does Mexican Coke have that American Coke doesn't?

World War I ( WWI or WW1 ) , also known as the First World War , or the Great War , was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918 . More than 70 million military personnel , including 60 million Europeans , were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history . Over 9 million combatants and 7 million civilians died as a result of the war ( including the victims of a number of genocides ) , a casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents ' technological and industrial sophistication , and the tactical stalemate caused by gruelling trench warfare . It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history , and paved the way for major political changes , including revolutions in many of the nations involved . The war drew in all the world 's economic great powers , assembled in two opposing alliances : the Allies ( based on the Triple Entente of the British Empire , France and the Russian Empire ) versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary . Although Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary , it did not join the Central Powers , as Austria-Hungary had taken the offensive , against the terms of the alliance . These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war : Italy , Japan and the United States joined the Allies , while the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers . The trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary , by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 . This set off a diplomatic crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia , and entangled international alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked . Within weeks , the major powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world . On 28 July , the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia . As Russia mobilised in support of Serbia , Germany invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France , leading the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany . After the German march on Paris was halted , what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition , with a trench line that changed little until 1917 . On the Eastern Front , the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians , but the Germans stopped its invasion of East Prussia . In November 1914 , the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers , opening fronts in the Caucasus , Mesopotamia and the Sinai . In 1915 , Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Power ; Romania joined the Allies in 1916 , as did the United States in 1917 . The Russian government collapsed in March 1917 , and a revolution in November brought the Russians to terms with the Central Powers via the Treaty of Brest Litovsk , which was a massive German victory . After a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918 , the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives . On 4 November 1918 , the Austro-Hungarian empire agreed to an armistice , and Germany , which had its own trouble with revolutionaries , agreed to an armistice on 11 November 1918 , ending the war in victory for the Allies . By the end of the war , the German Empire , Russian Empire , Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist . National borders were redrawn , with several independent nations restored or created , and Germany 's colonies were parceled out among the winners . During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , the Big Four ( Britain , France , the United States and Italy ) imposed their terms in a series of treaties . The League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict . This effort failed , and economic depression , renewed European nationalism , weakened member states , and the German feeling of humiliation contributed to the rise of Nazism . These conditions eventually contributed to World War II . Names From the time of its start until the approach of World War II , the First World War was called simply the World War or the Great War and thereafter the First World War or World War I . At the time , it was also sometimes called `` the war to end war '' or `` the war to end all wars '' due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation . In Canada , Maclean 's magazine in October 1914 wrote , `` Some wars name themselves . This is the Great War . '' During the interwar period ( 1918–1939 ) , the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries . The term `` First World War '' was first used in September 1914 by the German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel , who claimed that `` there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word , '' citing a wire service report in The Indianapolis Star on 20 September 1914 . After the onset of the Second World War in 1939 , the terms World War I or the First World War became standard , with British and Canadian historians favouring the First World War , and Americans World War I . Background Political and military alliances During the 19th century , the major European powers went to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe , resulting in the existence of a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent by 1900 . These began in 1815 , with the Holy Alliance between Prussia , Russia , and Austria . When Germany was united in 1871 , Prussia became part of the new German nation . Soon after , in October 1873 , German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors ( German : Dreikaiserbund ) between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary , Russia and Germany . This agreement failed because Austria-Hungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy , leaving Germany and Austria-Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879 , called the Dual Alliance . This was seen as a method of countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken . This alliance expanded , in 1882 , to include Italy in what became the Triple Alliance . Bismarck had especially worked to hold Russia at Germany 's side in an effort to avoid a two-front war with France and Russia . When Wilhelm II ascended to the throne as German Emperor ( Kaiser ) , Bismarck was compelled to retire and his system of alliances was gradually de-emphasised . For example , the Kaiser refused , in 1890 , to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia . Two years later , the Franco-Russian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance . In 1904 , Britain signed a series of agreements with France , the Entente Cordiale , and in 1907 , Britain and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention . While these agreements did not formally ally Britain with France or Russia , they made British entry into any future conflict involving France or Russia a possibility , and the system of interlocking bilateral agreements became known as the Triple Entente . Arms race German industrial and economic power had grown greatly after unification and the foundation of the Empire in 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War . From the mid-1890s on , the government of Wilhelm II used this base to devote significant economic resources for building up the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial German Navy ) , established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , in rivalry with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy . As a result , each nation strove to out-build the other in capital ships . With the launch of in 1906 , the British Empire expanded on its significant advantage over its German rival . The arms race between Britain and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe , with all the major powers devoting their industrial base to producing the equipment and weapons necessary for a pan-European conflict . Between 1908 and 1913 , the military spending of the European powers increased by 50 % . Conflicts in the Balkans Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908–1909 by officially annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878 . This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron , the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire . Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords , which were already fracturing in the Balkans which came to be known as the `` powder keg of Europe '' . In 1912 and 1913 , the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League and the fracturing Ottoman Empire . The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire , creating an independent Albanian state while enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria , Serbia , Montenegro , and Greece . When Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913 , it lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece and Southern Dobruja to Romania in the 33-day Second Balkan War , further destabilising the region . The Great Powers were able to keep these Balkan conflicts contained , but the next one would spread throughout Europe , and beyond . Prelude Sarajevo assassination On 28 June 1914 , Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the Bosnian capital , Sarajevo . A group of six assassins ( Cvjetko Popović , Gavrilo Princip , Muhamed Mehmedbašić , Nedeljko Čabrinović , Trifko Grabež , Vaso Čubrilović ) from the nationalist group Mlada Bosna , supplied by the Black Hand , had gathered on the street where the Archduke 's motorcade would pass , with the intention of assassinating the Archduke . Čabrinović threw a grenade at the car , but missed . Some nearby were injured by the blast , but Franz Ferdinand 's convoy carried on . The other assassins failed to act as the cars drove past them . About an hour later , when Franz Ferdinand was returning from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital with those wounded in the assassination attempt , the convoy took a wrong turn into a street where , by coincidence , Princip stood . With a pistol , Princip shot and killed Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie . The reaction among the people in Austria was mild , almost indifferent . As historian Zbyněk Zeman later wrote , `` the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever . On Sunday and Monday ( 28 and 29 June ) , the crowds in Vienna listened to music and drank wine , as if nothing had happened . '' The Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged the anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo , in which Croats and Bosniaks killed two ethnic Serbs and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings . Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organized outside Sarajevo , in large Austro-Hungarian cities in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia and Slovenia . Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs , 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison . A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs . July Crisis The assassination led to a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary , Germany , Russia , France , and Britain called the July Crisis . Believing correctly that Serbian officials ( especially the officers of the Black Hand ) were involved in the plot to murder the Archduke , and wanting to finally end Serbian interference in Bosnia , Austria-Hungary delivered to Serbia on 23 July the July Ultimatum , a series of ten demands that were made intentionally unacceptable , in an effort to provoke a war with Serbia . The next day , after the Council of Ministers of Russia was held under the chairmanship of the Tsar at Krasnoe Selo , Russia ordered general mobilization for Odessa , Kiev , Kazan and Moscow military districts and fleets of the Baltic and the Black Sea . They also asked for other regions to accelerate preparations for general mobilization . Serbia decreed general mobilization on the 25th and that night , declared that they accepted all the terms of the ultimatum , except article six , which demanded that Austrian delegates be allowed in Serbia for the purpose of participation in the investigation into the assassination . Following this , Austria broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia , and the next day ordered a partial mobilization . Finally , on 28 July 1914 , Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia . On 29 July , Russia , in support of its Serb protégé , unilaterally declared – outside of the conciliation procedure provided by the Franco-Russian military agreements – partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary . German Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg was then allowed until the 31st for an appropriate response . On the 30th , Russia ordered general mobilization against Germany . In response , the following day , Germany declared a `` state of danger of war . '' This also led to the general mobilization in Austria-Hungary on 4 August . Kaiser Wilhelm II asked his cousin , Tsar Nicolas II , to suspend the Russian general mobilization . When he refused , Germany issued an ultimatum demanding the arrest of its mobilization and commitment not to support Serbia . Another was sent to France , asking her not to support Russia if it were to come to the defence of Serbia . On 1 August , after the Russian response , Germany mobilized and declared war on Russia . The German government issued demands to France that it remain neutral as they had to decide which deployment plan to implement , it being difficult if not impossible to change the deployment whilst it was underway . The modified German Schlieffen Plan , Aufmarsch II West , would deploy 80 % of the army in the west , and Aufmarsch I Ost and Aufmarsch II Ost would deploy 60 % in the west and 40 % in the east as this was the maximum that the East Prussian railway infrastructure could carry . The French did not respond but sent a mixed message by ordering their troops to withdraw from the border to avoid any incidents , but at the same time ordered the mobilisation of her reserves . Germany responded by mobilising its own reserves and implementing Aufmarsch II West . Germany attacked Luxembourg on 2 August and on 3 August declared war on France . On 4 August , after Belgium refused to permit German troops to cross its borders into France , Germany declared war on Belgium as well . Britain declared war on Germany at 19:00 UTC on 4 August 1914 ( effective from 11 pm ) , following an `` unsatisfactory reply '' to the British ultimatum that Belgium must be kept neutral . Progress of the war Opening hostilities Confusion among the Central Powers The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication . Germany had promised to support Austria-Hungary 's invasion of Serbia , but interpretations of what this meant differed . Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914 , but those had never been tested in exercises . Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia . Germany , however , envisioned Austria-Hungary directing most of its troops against Russia , while Germany dealt with France . This confusion forced the Austro-Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts . Serbian campaign Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August . Over the next two weeks , Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses , which marked the first major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro-Hungarian hopes of a swift victory . As a result , Austria had to keep sizable forces on the Serbian front , weakening its efforts against Russia . Serbia 's defeat of the Austro-Hungarian invasion of 1914 counts among the major upset victories of the twentieth century . German forces in Belgium and France At the outbreak of World War I , 80 % of the German army was deployed as seven field armies in the west according to the plan Aufmarsch II West . However , they were then assigned to execute the retired deployment plan Aufmarsch I West , also known as the Schlieffen Plan . This would march German armies through northern Belgium and into France , in an attempt to encircle the French army and then breach the 'second defensive area ' of the fortresses of Verdun and Paris and the Marne river . Aufmarsch I West was one of four deployment plans available to the German General Staff in 1914 . Each plan favoured certain operations , but did not specify exactly how those operations were to be carried out , leaving the commanding officers to carry those out at their own initiative and with minimal oversight . Aufmarsch I West , designed for a one-front war with France , had been retired once it became clear it was irrelevant to the wars Germany could expect to face ; both Russia and Britain were expected to help France , and there was no possibility of Italian nor Austro-Hungarian troops being available for operations against France . But despite its unsuitability , and the availability of more sensible and decisive options , it retained a certain allure due to its offensive nature and the pessimism of pre-war thinking , which expected offensive operations to be short-lived , costly in casualties , and unlikely to be decisive . Accordingly , the Aufmarsch II West deployment was changed for the offensive of 1914 , despite its unrealistic goals and the insufficient forces Germany had available for decisive success . Moltke took Schlieffen 's plan and modified the deployment of forces on the western front by reducing the right wing , the one to advance through Belgium , from 85 % to 70 % . In the end , the Schlieffen plan was so radically modified by Moltke , that it could be more properly called the Moltke Plan . The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to bypass the French armies concentrated on the Franco-German border , defeat the French forces closer to Luxembourg and Belgium and move south to Paris . Initially the Germans were successful , particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers ( 14–24 August ) . By 12 September , the French , with assistance from the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) , halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne ( 5–12 September ) and pushed the German forces back some . The French offensive into southern Alsace , launched on 20 August with the Battle of Mulhouse , had limited success . In the east , Russia invaded with two armies . In response , Germany rapidly moved the 8th Field Army from its previous role as reserve for the invasion of France to East Prussia by rail across the German Empire . This army , led by general Paul von Hindenburg defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg ( 17 August – 2 September ) . While the Russian invasion failed , it caused the diversion of German troops to the east , allowing the tactical Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne . This meant Germany failed to achieve its objective of avoiding a long , two-front war . However , the German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and effectively halved France 's supply of coal . It had also killed or permanently crippled 230,000 more French and British troops than it itself had lost . Despite this , communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a more decisive outcome . Asia and the Pacific New Zealand occupied German Samoa ( later Western Samoa ) on 30 August 1914 . On 11 September , the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of Neu Pommern ( later New Britain ) , which formed part of German New Guinea . On 28 October , the German cruiser sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang . Japan seized Germany 's Micronesian colonies and , after the Siege of Tsingtao , the German coaling port of Qingdao on the Chinese Shandong peninsula . As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro-Hungarian cruiser from Tsingtao , Japan declared war not only on Germany , but also on Austria-Hungary ; the ship participated in the defense of Tsingtao where it was sunk in November 1914 . Within a few months , the Allied forces had seized all the German territories in the Pacific ; only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea remained . African campaigns Some of the first clashes of the war involved British , French , and German colonial forces in Africa . On 6–7 August , French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland and Kamerun . On 10 August , German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa ; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war . The German colonial forces in German East Africa , led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck , fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe . Indian support for the Allies Contrary to British fears of a revolt in India , the outbreak of the war saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards Britain . Indian political leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups were eager to support the British war effort , since they believed that strong support for the war effort would further the cause of Indian Home Rule . The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of the war ; about 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe , Africa , and the Middle East , while the central government and the princely states sent large supplies of food , money , and ammunition . In all , 140,000 men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East . Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World War I . The suffering engendered by the war , as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India after the end of hostilities , bred disillusionment and fuelled the campaign for full independence that would be led by Mohandas K. Gandhi and others . Western Front Trench warfare begins Military tactics developed before World War I failed to keep pace with advances in technology and had become obsolete . These advances had allowed the creation of strong defensive systems , which out-of-date military tactics could not break through for most of the war . Barbed wire was a significant hindrance to massed infantry advances , while artillery , vastly more lethal than in the 1870s , coupled with machine guns , made crossing open ground extremely difficult . Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties . In time , however , technology began to produce new offensive weapons , such as gas warfare and the tank . Just after the First Battle of the Marne ( 5–12 September 1914 ) , Entente and German forces repeatedly attempted manoeuvring to the north in an effort to outflank each other : this series of manoeuvres became known as the `` Race to the Sea '' . When these outflanking efforts failed , the opposing forces soon found themselves facing an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from Lorraine to Belgium 's coast . Britain and France sought to take the offensive , while Germany defended the occupied territories . Consequently , German trenches were much better constructed than those of their enemy ; Anglo-French trenches were only intended to be `` temporary '' before their forces broke through the German defences . Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances . On 22 April 1915 , at the Second Battle of Ypres , the Germans ( violating the Hague Convention ) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front . Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides , and though it never proved a decisive , battle-winning weapon , poison gas became one of the most-feared and best-remembered horrors of the war . Tanks were developed by Britain and France , and were first used in combat by the British during the Battle of Flers–Courcelette ( part of the Battle of the Somme ) on 15 September 1916 , with only partial success . However , their effectiveness would grow as the war progressed ; the Allies built tanks in large numbers , whilst the Germans employed only a few of their own design , supplemented by captured Allied tanks . Continuation of trench warfare Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years . Throughout 1915–17 , the British Empire and France suffered more casualties than Germany , because of both the strategic and tactical stances chosen by the sides . Strategically , while the Germans only mounted one major offensive , the Allies made several attempts to break through the German lines . In February 1916 the Germans attacked the French defensive positions at Verdun . Lasting until December 1916 , the battle saw initial German gains , before French counter-attacks returned matters to near their starting point . Casualties were greater for the French , but the Germans bled heavily as well , with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties suffered between the two combatants . Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice . The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive of July to November 1916 . The opening of this offensive ( 1 July 1916 ) saw the British Army endure the bloodiest day in its history , suffering 57,470 casualties , including 19,240 dead , on the first day alone . The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army some 420,000 casualties . The French suffered another estimated 200,000 casualties and the Germans an estimated 500,000 . Protracted action at Verdun throughout 1916 , combined with the bloodletting at the Somme , brought the exhausted French army to the brink of collapse . Futile attempts using frontal assault came at a high price for both the British and the French and led to the widespread French Army Mutinies , after the failure of the costly Nivelle Offensive of April–May 1917 . The concurrent British Battle of Arras was more limited in scope , and more successful , although ultimately of little strategic value . A smaller part of the Arras offensive , the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps , became highly significant to that country : the idea that Canada 's national identity was born out of the battle is an opinion widely held in military and general histories of Canada . The last large-scale offensive of this period was a British attack ( with French support ) at Passchendaele ( July–November 1917 ) . This offensive opened with great promise for the Allies , before bogging down in the October mud . Casualties , though disputed , were roughly equal , at some 200,000–400,000 per side . These years of trench warfare in the West saw no major exchanges of territory and , as a result , are often thought of as static and unchanging . However , throughout this period , British , French , and German tactics constantly evolved to meet new battlefield challenges . Naval war At the start of the war , the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe , some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down , though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping . For example , the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden , part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Qingdao , seized or

bb_4703--World_War_I.txt

Name the iconic and highest ranking military leader to be killed in the first world war?

Mumbai ( ; also known as Bombay , the official name until 1995 ) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra . It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world , with an estimated city population of 18.4 million . Along with the neighbouring regions of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region , it is one of the most populous urban regions in the world and the seсond most populous metropolitan area in India , with a population of 20.7 million . Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour . In 2009 , Mumbai was named an alpha world city . It is also the wealthiest city in India , and has the highest GDP of any city in South , West , or Central Asia . Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India . The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies . For centuries , the islands were under the control of successive indigenous empires before being ceded to the Portuguese and subsequently to the British East India Company when in 1661 King Charles II married the Portuguese Catherine of Braganza , and as part of her dowry Charles received the ports of Tangier and seven islands of Bombay . During the mid-18th century , Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project , which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea . Along with construction of major roads and railways , the reclamation project , completed in 1845 , transformed Bombay into a major seaport on the Arabian Sea . Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development . During the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement . Upon India 's independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State . In 1960 , following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement , a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital . Mumbai is the financial , commercial and entertainment capital of India . It is also one of the world 's top ten centres of commerce in terms of global financial flow , generating 6.16 % of India 's GDP and accounting for 25 % of industrial output , 70 % of maritime trade in India ( Mumbai Port Trust and JNPT ) , and 70 % of capital transactions to India 's economy . The city houses important financial institutions such as the Reserve Bank of India , the Bombay Stock Exchange , the National Stock Exchange of India , the SEBI and the corporate headquarters of numerous Indian companies and multinational corporations . It is also home to some of India 's premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC , NPCL , IREL , TIFR , AERB , AECI , and the Department of Atomic Energy . The city also houses India 's Hindi ( Bollywood ) and Marathi film and television industry . Mumbai 's business opportunities , as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living , attract migrants from all over India , making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures . Etymology The name Mumbai is derived from Mumbā or Mahā-Ambā—the name of the patron goddess ( Kuladevi ) Mumbadevi of the native Agri , Koli and Somvanshi Kshatriya communities— and ā ' ī meaning `` mother '' in the Marathi language , which is the mother tongue of the kolis and the official language of Maharashtra . The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja ; these are sometimes still used . Ali Muhammad Khan , in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi ( 1507 ) referred to the city as Manbai . In 1508 , Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim , in his Lendas da Índia ( `` Legends of India '' ) . This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim , meaning `` good little bay '' , and Bombaim is still commonly used in Portuguese . In 1516 , Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu : Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi . Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include : Mombayn ( 1525 ) , Bombay ( 1538 ) , Bombain ( 1552 ) , Bombaym ( 1552 ) , Monbaym ( 1554 ) , Mombaim ( 1563 ) , Mombaym ( 1644 ) , Bambaye ( 1666 ) , Bombaiim ( 1666 ) , Bombeye ( 1676 ) , Boon Bay ( 1690 ) , and Bon Bahia . After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century , the Portuguese name was anglicised as Bombay . By the late 20th century , the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi , Konkani , Gujarati , Kannada and Sindhi , and as Bambai in Hindi . The Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995 . This came at the insistence of the Marathi nationalist Shiv Sena party , which had just won the Maharashtra state elections , and mirrored similar name changes across the country and particularly in Maharashtra . According to Slate magazine , `` they argued that 'Bombay ' was a corrupted English version of 'Mumbai ' and an unwanted legacy of British colonial rule . '' Slate also said `` The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region . '' While the city is still referred to as Bombay by some of its residents and by Indians from other regions , mention of the city by a name other than Mumbai has been controversial , resulting in emotional outbursts sometimes of a violently political nature . A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language , in which the suffix kar means resident of . The term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai . History Early history Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands : Bombay Island , Parel , Mazagaon , Mahim , Colaba , Worli , and Old Woman 's Island ( also known as Little Colaba ) . It is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited . Pleistocene sediments found along the coastal areas around Kandivali in northern Mumbai suggest that the islands were inhabited since the Stone Age . Perhaps at the beginning of the Common era ( 2,000 years ago ) , or possibly earlier , they came to be occupied by the Koli fishing community . In the third century BCE , the islands formed part of the Maurya Empire , during its expansion in the south , ruled by the Buddhist emperor , Ashoka of Magadha . The Kanheri Caves in Borivali were excavated in the mid-third century BCE , and served as an important centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient Times . The city then was known as Heptanesia ( Ancient Greek : A Cluster of Seven Islands ) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE . The Mahakali Caves in Andheri were built between the 1st century BCE and the 6th century CE . Between the second century BCE and ninth century CE , the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties : Satavahanas , Western Kshatrapas , Abhiras , Vakatakas , Kalachuris , Konkan Mauryas , Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas , before being ruled by the Silhara dynasty from 810 to 1260 . Some of the oldest edifices in the city built during this period are , Jogeshwari Caves ( between 520 and 525 ) , Elephanta Caves ( between the sixth to seventh century ) , Walkeshwar Temple ( 10th century ) , and Banganga Tank ( 12th century ) . King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century and established his capital in Mahikawati ( present day Mahim ) . The Pathare Prabhus , among the earliest known settlers of the city , were brought to Mahikawati from Saurashtra in Gujarat around 1298 by Bhimdev . The Delhi Sultanate annexed the islands in 1347–48 and controlled it until 1407 . During this time , the islands were administered by the Muslim Governors of Gujarat , who were appointed by the Delhi Sultanate . The islands were later governed by the independent Gujarat Sultanate , which was established in 1407 . The Sultanate 's patronage led to the construction of many mosques , prominent being the Haji Ali Dargah in Worli , built in honour of the Muslim saint Haji Ali in 1431 . From 1429 to 1431 , the islands were a source of contention between the Gujarat Sultanate and the Bahamani Sultanate of Deccan . In 1493 , Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Bahamani Sultanate attempted to conquer the islands but was defeated . Portuguese and British rule The Mughal Empire , founded in 1526 , was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during the mid-16th century . Growing apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun , Sultan Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate was obliged to sign the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese Empire on 23 December 1534 . According to the treaty , the seven islands of Bombay , the nearby strategic town of Bassein and its dependencies were offered to the Portuguese . The territories were later surrendered on 25 October 1535 . The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their Roman Catholic religious orders in Bombay . They called the islands by various names , which finally took the written form Bombaim . The islands were leased to several Portuguese officers during their regime . The Portuguese Franciscans and Jesuits built several churches in the city , prominent being the St. Michael 's Church at Mahim ( 1534 ) , St. John the Baptist Church at Andheri ( 1579 ) , St. Andrew 's Church at Bandra ( 1580 ) , and Gloria Church at Byculla ( 1632 ) . The Portuguese also built several fortifications around the city like the Bombay Castle , Castella de Aguada ( Castelo da Aguada or Bandra Fort ) , and Madh Fort . The English were in constant struggle with the Portuguese vying for hegemony over Bombay , as they recognised its strategic natural harbour and its natural isolation from land-attacks . By the middle of the 17th century the growing power of the Dutch Empire forced the English to acquire a station in western India . On 11 May 1661 , the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza , daughter of King John IV of Portugal , placed the islands in possession of the English Empire , as part of Catherine 's dowry to Charles . However , Salsette , Bassein , Mazagaon , Parel , Worli , Sion , Dharavi , and Wadala still remained under Portuguese possession . From 1665 to 1666 , the English managed to acquire Mahim , Sion , Dharavi , and Wadala . In accordance with the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668 , England leased these islands to the English East India Company in 1668 for a sum of £10 per annum . The population quickly rose from 10,000 in 1661 , to 60,000 in 1675 . The islands were subsequently attacked by Yakut Khan , the Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire , in October 1672 , Rickloffe van Goen , the Governor-General of Dutch India on 20 February 1673 , and Siddi admiral Sambal on 10 October 1673 . In 1687 , the English East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat to Bombay . The city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency . Following the transfer , Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company 's establishments in India . Towards the end of the 17th century , the islands again suffered incursions from Yakut Khan in 1689–90 . The Portuguese presence ended in Bombay when the Marathas under Peshwa Baji Rao I captured Salsette in 1737 , and Bassein in 1739 . By the middle of the 18th century , Bombay began to grow into a major trading town , and received a huge influx of migrants from across India . Later , the British occupied Salsette on 28 December 1774 . With the Treaty of Surat ( 1775 ) , the British formally gained control of Salsette and Bassein , resulting in the First Anglo-Maratha War . The British were able to secure Salsette from the Marathas without violence through the Treaty of Purandar ( 1776 ) , and later through the Treaty of Salbai ( 1782 ) , signed to settle the outcome of the First Anglo-Maratha War . From 1782 onwards , the city was reshaped with large-scale civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the seven islands into a single amalgamated mass . This project , known as Hornby Vellard , was completed by 1784 . In 1817 , the British East India Company under Mountstuart Elphinstone defeated Baji Rao II , the last of the Maratha Peshwa in the Battle of Khadki . Following his defeat , almost the whole of the Deccan came under British suzerainty , and was incorporated into the Bombay Presidency . The success of the British campaign in the Deccan marked the liberation of Bombay from all attacks by native powers . By 1845 , the seven islands coalesced into a single landmass by the Hornby Vellard project via large scale land reclamation . On 16 April 1853 , India 's first passenger railway line was established , connecting Bombay to the neighbouring town of Thana ( now Thane ) . During the American Civil War ( 1861–1865 ) , the city became the world 's chief cotton-trading market , resulting in a boom in the economy that subsequently enhanced the city 's stature . The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the Arabian Sea . In September 1896 , Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week . About 850,000 people fled Bombay and the textile industry was adversely affected . As the capital of the Bombay Presidency , the city witnessed the Indian independence movement , with the Quit India Movement in 1942 and The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny in 1946 being its most notable events . Independent India After India 's independence in 1947 , the territory of the Bombay Presidency retained by India was restructured into Bombay State . The area of Bombay State increased , after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into the state . Subsequently , the city became the capital of Bombay State . On April 1950 , Municipal limits of Bombay were expanded by merging the Bombay Suburban District and Bombay City to form the Greater Bombay Municipal Corporation . The Samyukta Maharashtra movement to create a separate Maharashtra state including Bombay was at its height in the 1950s . In the Lok Sabha discussions in 1955 , the Congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state . The States Reorganisation Committee recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra–Gujarat with Bombay as its capital in its 1955 report . Bombay Citizens ' Committee , an advocacy group of leading Gujarati industrialists lobbied for Bombay 's independent status . Following protests during the movement in which 105 people lost their lives in clashes with the police , Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 May 1960 . Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat . Maharashtra State with Bombay as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay State , eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar , five districts from Hyderabad State , and numerous princely states enclosed between them . As a memorial to the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement , Flora Fountain was renamed as Hutatma Chowk ( Martyr 's Square ) , and a memorial was erected . The following decades saw massive expansion of the city and its suburbs . In the late 1960s , Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade were reclaimed and developed . The Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority ( BMRDA ) was established on 26 January 1975 by the Government of Maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co-ordination of development activities in the Bombay metropolitan region . In August 1979 , a sister township of New Bombay was founded by the City and Industrial Development Corporation ( CIDCO ) across the Thane and Raigad districts to help the dispersal and control of Bombay 's population . The textile industry in Bombay largely disappeared after the widespread 1982 Great Bombay Textile Strike , in which nearly 250,000 workers in more than 50 textile mills went on strike . Mumbai 's defunct cotton mills have since become the focus of intense redevelopment . The Jawaharlal Nehru Port , which currently handles 55–60 % of India 's containerised cargo , was commissioned on 26 May 1989 across the creek at Nhava Sheva with a view to de-congest Bombay Harbour and to serve as a hub port for the city . The geographical limits of Greater Bombay were coextensive with municipal limits of Greater Bombay . On 1 October 1990 , the Greater Bombay district was bifurcated to form two revenue districts namely , Bombay City and Bombay Suburban , though they continued to be administered by same Municipal Administration . From 1990 to 2010 , there has been an increase in violence in the hitherto largely peaceful city . Following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya , the city was rocked by the Hindu-Muslim riots of 1992–93 in which more than 1,000 people were killed . On 12 March 1993 , a series of 13 co-ordinated bombings at several city landmarks by Islamic extremists and the Bombay underworld resulted in 257 deaths and over 700 injuries . In 2006 , 209 people were killed and over 700 injured when seven bombs exploded on the city 's commuter trains . In 2008 , a series of ten coordinated attacks by armed terrorists for three days resulted in 173 deaths , 308 injuries , and severe damage to several heritage landmarks and prestigious hotels . The blasts that occurred at the Opera House , Zaveri Bazaar , and Dadar on 13 July 2011 were the latest in the series of terrorist attacks in Mumbai . Mumbai is the commercial capital of India and has evolved into a global financial hub . For several decades it has been the home of India 's main financial services , and a focus for both infrastructure development and private investment . From being an ancient fishing community and a colonial centre of trade , Mumbai has become South Asia 's largest city and home of the world 's most prolific film industry . Geography Mumbai consists of two distinct regions : Mumbai City district and Mumbai Suburban district , which form two separate revenue districts of Maharashtra . The city district region is also commonly referred to as the Island City or South Mumbai . The total area of Mumbai is 603.4 km2 ( 233 sq mi ) . Of this , the island city spans 67.79 km2 ( 26 sq mi ) , while the suburban district spans 370 km2 ( 143 sq mi ) , together accounting for 437.71 km2 ( 169 sq mi ) under the administration of Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai ( MCGM ) . The remaining areas belong to various Defence establishments , the Mumbai Port Trust , the Atomic Energy Commission and the Borivali National Park , which are out of the jurisdiction of the MCGM . Mumbai lies at the mouth of the Ulhas River on the western coast of India , in the coastal region known as the Konkan . It sits on Salsette Island ( Sashti Island ) , which it partially shares with the Thane district . Mumbai is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west . Many parts of the city lie just above sea level , with elevations ranging from 10 m ( 33 ft ) to 15 m ( 49 ft ) ; the city has an average elevation of 14 m ( 46 ft ) . Northern Mumbai ( Salsette ) is hilly , and the highest point in the city is 450 m ( 1,476 ft ) at Salsette in the Powai–Kanheri ranges . The Sanjay Gandhi National Park ( Borivali National Park ) is located partly in the Mumbai suburban district , and partly in the Thane district , and it extends over an area of 103.09 km2 ( 39.80 sq mi ) . Apart from the Bhatsa Dam , there are six major lakes that supply water to the city : Vihar , Lower Vaitarna , Upper Vaitarna , Tulsi , Tansa and Powai . Tulsi Lake and Vihar Lake are located in Borivili National Park , within the city 's limits . The supply from Powai lake , also within the city limits , is used only for agricultural and industrial purposes . Three small rivers , the Dahisar River , Poinsar ( or Poisar ) and Ohiwara ( or Oshiwara ) originate within the park , while the polluted Mithi River originates from Tulsi Lake and gathers water overflowing from Vihar and Powai Lakes . The coastline of the city is indented with numerous creeks and bays , stretching from the Thane creek on the eastern to Madh Marve on the western front . The eastern coast of Salsette Island is covered with large mangrove swamps , rich in biodiversity , while the western coast is mostly sandy and rocky . Soil cover in the city region is predominantly sandy due to its proximity to the sea . In the suburbs , the soil cover is largely alluvial and loamy . The underlying rock of the region is composed of black Deccan basalt flows , and their acidic and basic variants dating back to the late Cretaceous and early Eocene eras . Mumbai sits on a seismically active zone owing to the presence of 23 fault lines in the vicinity . The area is classified as a Seismic Zone III region , which means an earthquake of up to magnitude 6.5 on the Richter scale may be expected . Climate Mumbai has a tropical climate , specifically a tropical wet and dry climate ( Aw ) under the Köppen climate classification , with seven months of dryness and peak of rains in July . The cooler season from December to February is followed by the summer season from March to June . The period from June to about the end of September constitutes the south-west monsoon season , and October and November form the post-monsoon season . Between June and September , the south west monsoon rains lash the city . Pre-monsoon showers are received in May . Occasionally , north-east monsoon showers occur in October and November . The maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was 3452 mm for 1954 . The highest rainfall recorded in a single day was 944 mm on 26 July 2005 . The average total annual rainfall is for the Island City , and 2457 mm for the suburbs . The average annual temperature is , and the average annual precipitation is 2167 mm . In the Island City , the average maximum temperature is , while the average minimum temperature is . In the suburbs , the daily mean maximum temperature range from to , while the daily mean minimum temperature ranges from to . The record high is set on 14 April 1952 , and the record low is set on 27 January 1962 . Economy Mumbai is India 's largest city ( by population ) and is the financial and commercial capital of the country as it generates 6.16 % of the total GDP . It serves as an economic hub of India , contributing 10 % of factory employment , 25 % of industrial output , 33 % of income tax collections , 60 % of customs duty collections , 20 % of central excise tax collections , 40 % of India 's foreign trade and in corporate taxes . Along with the rest of India , Mumbai has witnessed an economic boom since the liberalisation of 1991 , the finance boom in the mid-nineties and the IT , export , services and outsourcing boom in 2000s . Although Mumbai had prominently figured as the hub of economic activity of India in the 1990s , the Mumbai Metropolitan Region is presently witnessing a reduction in its contribution to India 's GDP . As of October 2015 , Mumbai 's GDP is $ 278 billion ( from 2014 ) . and its per-capita ( PPP ) income in 2009 was , which is almost three times the national average . Its nominal per capita income is , ( US $ 2,094 ) . Many of India 's numerous conglomerates ( including Larsen and Toubro , State Bank of India ( SBI ) , Life Insurance Corporation of India ( LIC ) , Tata Group , Godrej and Reliance ) , and five of the Fortune Global 500 companies are based in Mumbai . This is facilitated by the presence of the Reserve Bank of India ( RBI ) , the Bombay Stock Exchange ( BSE ) , the National Stock Exchange of India ( NSE ) , and financial sector regulators such as the Securities and Exchange Board of India ( SEBI ) . Until the 1970s , Mumbai owed its prosperity largely to textile mills and the seaport , but the local economy has since then diversified to include finance , engineering , diamond-polishing , healthcare and information technology . The key sectors contributing to the city 's economy are : finance , gems & jewellery , leather processing , IT and ITES , textiles , and entertainment . Nariman Point and Bandra Kurla Complex ( BKC ) are Mumbai 's major financial centres . Despite competition from Bangalore , Hyderabad and Pune , Mumbai has carved a niche for itself in the information technology industry . The Santacruz Electronic Export Processing Zone ( SEEPZ ) and the International Infotech Park ( Navi Mumbai ) offer excellent facilities to IT companies . State and central government employees make up a large percentage of the city 's workforce . Mumbai also has a large unskilled and semi-skilled self-employed population , who primarily earn their livelihood as hawkers , taxi drivers , mechanics and other such blue collar professions . The port and shipping industry is well established , with Mumbai Port being one of the oldest and most significant ports in India . Dharavi , in central Mumbai , has an increasingly large recycling industry , processing recyclable waste from other parts of the city ; the district has an estimated 15,000 single-room factories . Mumbai has been ranked sixth among top ten global cities on the billionaire count , 48th on the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index 2008 , seventh in the list of `` Top Ten Cities for Billionaires '' by Forbes magazine ( April 2008 ) , and first in terms of those billionaires ' average wealth . , the Globalization and World Cities Study Group ( GaWC ) has ranked Mumbai as an `` Alpha world city '' , third in its categories of Global cities . Mumbai is the third most expensive office market in the world , and was ranked among the fastest cities in the country for business startup in 2009 . Civic administration Greater Mumbai , an area of 603 km2 , consisting of the Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban districts , extends from Colaba in the south , to Mulund and Dahisar in the north , and Mankhurd in the east . Its population as per the 2011 census was 12,442,373 . It is administered by the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai ( MCGM ) ( sometimes referred to as the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation ) , formerly known as the Bombay Municipal Corporation ( BMC ) . The MCGM is in charge of the civic and infrastructure needs of the metropolis . The Mayor is chosen through indirect election by the councillors from among themselves for a term of two and half years . The Municipal Commissioner is the chief Executive Officer and head of the executive arm of the Municipal Corporation . All executive powers are vested in the Municipal Commissioner who is an Indian Administrative Service ( IAS ) officer appointed by the state government . Although the Municipal

jp_2523--Mumbai.txt

What was Mumbai formerly called?

Arches National Park is a US National Park in eastern Utah . The park is located on the Colorado River 4 mi north of Moab , Utah . It is known for containing over 2,000 natural sandstone arches , including the world-famous Delicate Arch , in addition to a variety of unique geological resources and formations . The park is located just outside Moab , Utah , and is in area . Its highest elevation is 5653 ft at Elephant Butte , and its lowest elevation is 4085 ft at the visitor center . Forty-three arches are known to have collapsed since 1977 . The park receives 10 in of rain a year on average . Administered by the National Park Service , the area was originally named a National Monument on April 12 , 1929 . It was redesignated as a National Park on November 12 , 1971 . Geology The national park lies atop an underground evaporite layer or salt bed , which is the main cause of the formation of the arches , spires , balanced rocks , sandstone fins , and eroded monoliths in the area . This salt bed is thousands of feet thick in places , and was deposited in the Paradox Basin of the Colorado Plateau some 300 million years ago when a sea flowed into the region and eventually evaporated . Over millions of years , the salt bed was covered with debris eroded from the Uncompahgre Uplift to the northeast . During the Early Jurassic ( about 210 Ma ) desert conditions prevailed in the region and the vast Navajo Sandstone was deposited . An additional sequence of stream laid and windblown sediments , the Entrada Sandstone ( about 140 Ma ) , was deposited on top of the Navajo . Over 5000 feet ( 1500 m ) of younger sediments were deposited and have been mostly eroded away . Remnants of the cover exist in the area including exposures of the Cretaceous Mancos Shale . The arches of the area are developed mostly within the Entrada formation.Kiver , Eugene P. and David V. Harris , Geology of U. S. Parklands , Wiley , 5th ed. , 1999 p.503-515 ISBN 0-471-33218-6 The weight of this cover caused the salt bed below it to liquefy and thrust up layers of rock into salt domes . The evaporites of the area formed more unusual salt anticlines or linear regions of uplift . Faulting occurred and whole sections of rock subsided into the areas between the domes . In some places , they turned almost on edge . The result of one such 2500 ft displacement , the Moab Fault , is seen from the visitor center . As this subsurface movement of salt shaped the landscape , erosion removed the younger rock layers from the surface . Except for isolated remnants , the major formations visible in the park today are the salmon-colored Entrada Sandstone , in which most of the arches form , and the buff-colored Navajo Sandstone . These are visible in layer cake fashion throughout most of the park . Over time , water seeped into the surface cracks , joints , and folds of these layers . Ice formed in the fissures , expanding and putting pressure on surrounding rock , breaking off bits and pieces . Winds later cleaned out the loose particles . A series of free-standing fins remained . Wind and water attacked these fins until , in some , the cementing material gave way and chunks of rock tumbled out . Many damaged fins collapsed . Others , with the right degree of hardness and balance , survived despite their missing sections . These became the famous arches . Although the park 's terrain appears rugged and durable , it is the exact opposite . More than 700,000 visitors each year threaten the fragile high desert ecosystem . The problem lies within the soil 's crust which is composed of cyanobacteria , algae , fungi , and lichens that grow in the dusty parts of the park . Factors that make Arches National Park sensitive to visitor damage include : semiarid region , and the scarce , unpredictable rainfall , lack of deep freezing , and lack of plant litter which results in soils that have both a low resistance to , and slow recovery from , compressional forces such as foot traffic . Methods of indicating effects on the soil are cytophobic soil crust index , measuring of water infiltration , and t-tests that are used to compare the values from the undisturbed and disturbed areas . Climate History Humans have occupied the region since the last ice age 10,000 years ago . Fremont people and Ancient Pueblo People lived in the area up until about 700 years ago . Spanish missionaries encountered Ute and Paiute tribes in the area when they first came through in 1775 , but the first European-Americans to attempt settlement in the area were the Mormon Elk Mountain Mission in 1855 , who soon abandoned the area . Ranchers , farmers , and prospectors later settled Moab in the neighboring Riverine Valley in the 1880s . Word of the beauty of the surrounding rock formations spread beyond the settlement as a possible tourist destination . The Arches area was first brought to the attention of the National Park Service by Frank A. Wadleigh , passenger traffic manager of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad . Wadleigh , accompanied by railroad photographer George L. Beam , visited the area in September 1923 at the invitation of Alexander Ringhoffer , a Hungarian-born prospector living in Salt Valley . Ringhoffer had written to the railroad in an effort to interest them in the tourist potential of a scenic area he had discovered the previous year with his two sons and a son-in-law , which he called the `` Devil 's Garden '' ( known today as the `` Klondike Bluffs '' ) . Wadleigh was impressed by what Ringhoffer showed him , and suggested to Park Service director Stephen T. Mather that the area be made a national monument . The following year , additional support for the monument idea came from Laurence Gould , a University of Michigan graduate student ( and future polar explorer ) studying the geology of the nearby La Sal Mountains , who was shown the scenic area by local physician Dr. J. W. `` Doc '' Williams . A succession of government investigators examined the area , in part due to confusion as to the precise location . In the process , the name `` Devil 's Garden '' was transposed to an area on the opposite side of Salt Valley , and Ringhoffer 's original discovery was omitted , while another area nearby , known locally as `` The Windows '' , was included . Designation of the area as a national monument was supported by the Park Service from 1926 , but was resisted by President Calvin Coolidge 's Interior Secretary , Hubert Work . Finally in April 1929 , shortly after his inauguration , President Herbert Hoover signed a presidential proclamation creating Arches National Monument , consisting of two comparatively small , disconnected sections . The purpose of the reservation under the 1906 Antiquities Act was to protect the arches , spires , balanced rocks , and other sandstone formations for their scientific and educational value . The name `` Arches '' was suggested by Frank Pinkely , superintendent of the Park Service 's southwestern national monuments , following a visit to the Windows section in 1925 . In late 1938 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a proclamation which enlarged Arches to protect additional scenic features and permit development of facilities to promote tourism . A small adjustment was made by President Dwight Eisenhower in 1960 to accommodate a new road alignment . In early 1969 , just before leaving office , President Lyndon B. Johnson signed a proclamation substantially enlarging Arches . Two years later , President Richard Nixon signed legislation enacted by Congress which significantly reduced the total area enclosed , but changed its status to a National Park . Recreational activities Climbing on named arches within the park has long been banned by park regulations . Following Dean Potter 's successful free climb on the Delicate Arch in May 2006 , however , the wording of the regulations was deemed unenforceable by the park attorney . The park revised its regulations as follows in response : Climbing on other features in the park is allowed , but regulated . The revised regulations also prohibit slacklining parkwide . Approved recreational activities include auto touring , backpacking , biking , camping , and hiking , some of which require permits . Guided commercial tours and ranger programs are also available . Astronomy is also popular in the park due to its dark skies despite the increasing light pollution from towns like Moab . Publicity American writer Edward Abbey was a park ranger at Arches National Monument where he kept journals that became his book Desert Solitaire . The success of this book , as well as the rise in adventure-based recreation , has drawn many hikers , mountain-bikers , and off-road enthusiasts to the area , but activities are limited within park boundaries : camping , foot hiking ( along designated trails ) , and driving only along marked roads . The Hayduke Trail , an 825 mi backpacking route named after one of Edward Abbey 's characters , begins in the park . Arches National Park was used as one of the filming locations for the 1965 biblical film , The Greatest Story Ever Told . Portions of The Windows section of Arches National Park were used as locations in the 1989 film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade . Arches National Park is the subject of the third 2014 quarter scheduled as part of the U.S. Mint 's America the Beautiful quarters coin program commemorating national parks and historic sites . Plants and animals There is an abundance of wildlife in Arches . The list includes : spadefoot toad , antelope squirrel , scrub jay , peregrine falcon , many kinds of sparrows , red fox , desert bighorn sheep , kangaroo rat , mule deer , cougar , midget faded rattlesnake , yucca moth , many types of cyanobacteria , Western rattlesnake , and the Western collared lizard . Plants also dominate the landscape in the park . The list of plants includes : prickly pear cactus , Indian ricegrass , bunch grasses , cheatgrass , lichen , moss , liverworts , Utah juniper , Mormon tea , blackbrush , cliffrose , four-winged saltbrush , pinyon pine , stemless woollybase , evening primrose , sand verbena , yucca , and sacred datura . Features Among the notable features of the park are : * Balanced Rock – a large balancing rock , the size of three school buses * Courthouse Towers – a collection of tall stone columns * Dark Angel – a free-standing 150 ft sandstone pillar at the end of the Devil 's Garden Trail * Delicate Arch – a lone-standing arch which has become a symbol of Utah and the most recognized arch in the park * Devil 's Garden or The Klondike Bluffs – with many arches and columns scattered along a ridge * Double Arch – two arches that share a common end * Fiery Furnace – an area of maze-like narrow passages and tall rock columns ( see biblical reference Fiery Furnace ) * Landscape Arch – a very thin and long arch with a span of 290 ft ( This is the longest arch in the park ) * Petrified dunes – petrified remnants of sand dunes blown from the ancient lakes that covered the area * Wall Arch – located along the popular Devil 's Garden Trail ; collapsed sometime on August 4/5 , 2008 Gallery Image : ArchesNationalPark-Entrance.jpg|View at the entrance of the Park Image : Balanced rock at arches national park.jpg|Balanced Rock Image : Balance Rock Arches.jpg|Balanced Rock During Winter Image : Arches Nationalpark Dark Angel.jpg|Dark Angel Image : Delicate arch sunset.jpg|Delicate Arch , one of the most famous arches in the world Image : Parque Nacional de los-Arcos-Utah2508.JPG|The Delicate Arch through Frame Arch Image : Double arch.jpg|The Double Arch Image : Double-O-Arch Arches National Park 2.jpg|Double O Arch Image : Arco doble O.jpg|Superior arch of Double O Arch Image : LandscapeArchPano.jpg|Landscape Arch Image : Skyline Arch at Arches National Park-Unburnsky.jpg|Skyline Arch Image : Arches-National-Park North-Window 2012-10-26.JPG|North Window as viewed from Windows Trails

odql_12623--Arches_National_Park.txt

In which U S state is Arches National Park located just outside the city of Moab?

Stephen Glenn `` Steve '' Martin ( born August 14 , 1945 ) is an American actor , comedian , writer , producer and musician . Martin came to public notice in the 1960s as a writer for the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour , and later as a frequent guest on The Tonight Show . In the 1970s , Martin performed his offbeat , absurdist comedy routines before packed houses on national tours . Since the 1980s , having branched away from stand-up comedy , Martin has become a successful actor , as well as an author , playwright , pianist and banjo player , eventually earning him an Emmy , Grammy and American Comedy awards , among other honors . In 2004 , Comedy Central ranked Martin at sixth place in a list of the 100 greatest stand-up comics . He was awarded an Honorary Academy Award at the Academy 's 5th Annual Governors Awards in 2013 . While he has played banjo since an early age , and included music in his comedy routines from the beginning of his professional career , he has increasingly dedicated his career to music since the 2000s , acting less and spending much of his professional life playing banjo , recording , and touring with various bluegrass acts , including Earl Scruggs , with whom he won a Grammy for Best Country Instrumental Performance in 2002 . He released his first solo music album , The Crow : New Songs for the 5-String Banjo , in 2009 , for which he won the Grammy Award for Best Bluegrass Album . Early life Martin was born on August 14 , 1945 , in Waco , Texas , the son of Mary Lee ( née Stewart ; 1913–2002 ) and Glenn Vernon Martin ( 1914–1997 ) , a real estate salesman and aspiring actor . Martin was raised in Inglewood , California , and then later in Garden Grove , California , in a Baptist family . Martin was a cheerleader of Garden Grove High School . One of his earliest memories is of seeing his father , as an extra , serving drinks onstage at the Call Board Theatre on Melrose Place . During World War II , in England , Martin 's father had appeared in a production of Our Town with Raymond Massey . Expressing his affection through gifts of cars , bikes , etc. , Martin 's father was stern , and not emotionally open to his son . He was proud but critical , with Martin later recalling that in his teens his feelings for his father were mostly ones of hatred . Martin 's first job was at Disneyland , selling guidebooks on weekends and full-time during the school 's summer break . That lasted for three years ( 1955–58 ) . During his free time he frequented the Main Street Magic shop , where tricks were demonstrated to potential customers . By 1960 , he had mastered several of the tricks and illusions , and took a paying job at the Magic shop in Fantasyland in August . There he perfected his talents for magic , juggling , and creating balloon animals in the manner of mentor Wally Boag , Martin ( 2007 ) p18–19 frequently performing for tips . In his authorized biography , close friend Morris Walker suggests that Martin could `` be described most accurately as an agnostic [ ... ] he rarely went to church and was never involved in organized religion of his own volition '' . Comedy After high school graduation , Martin attended Santa Ana College , taking classes in drama and English poetry . In his free time , he teamed up with friend and Garden Grove High School classmate Kathy Westmoreland to participate in comedies and other productions at the Bird Cage Theatre . He joined a comedy troupe at Knott 's Berry Farm . Later , he met budding actress Stormie Sherk , and they developed comedy routines and became romantically involved . Sherk 's influence caused Martin to apply to the California State University , Long Beach , for enrollment with a major in Philosophy . Stormie enrolled at UCLA , about an hour 's drive north , and the distance eventually caused them to lead separate lives . Inspired by his philosophy classes , Martin considered becoming a professor instead of an actor-comedian . His time at college changed his life . `` It changed what I believe and what I think about everything . I majored in philosophy . Something about non-sequiturs appealed to me . In philosophy , I started studying logic , and they were talking about cause and effect , and you start to realize , 'Hey , there is no cause and effect ! There is no logic ! There is no anything ! ' Then it gets real easy to write this stuff , because all you have to do is twist everything hard—you twist the punch line , you twist the non sequitur so hard away from the things that set it up '' .Fong-Torres , Ben ( 1982 ) `` Steve Martin Sings : The Rolling Stone Interview '' . Rolling Stone February 18 , 1982 . Issue 363 Martin recalls reading a treatise on comedy that led him to think `` What if there were no punch lines ? What if there were no indicators ? What if I created tension and never released it ? What if I headed for a climax , but all I delivered was an anticlimax ? What would the audience do with all that tension ? Theoretically , it would have to come out sometime . But if I kept denying them the formality of a punch line , the audience would eventually pick their own place to laugh , essentially out of desperation . '' Martin periodically spoofed his philosophy studies in his 1970s stand-up act , comparing philosophy with studying geology . `` If you 're studying geology , which is all facts , as soon as you get out of school you forget it all , but philosophy you remember just enough to screw you up for the rest of your life . '' In 1967 , Martin transferred to UCLA and switched his major to theater . While attending college , he appeared in an episode of The Dating Game . Martin began working local clubs at night , to mixed notices , and at twenty-one he dropped out of college . Career Early career : stand-up In 1967 , his former girlfriend Nina Goldblatt , a dancer on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour , helped Martin land a writing job with the show by submitting his work to head writer Mason Williams . Williams initially paid Martin out of his own pocket . Along with the other writers for the show , Martin won an Emmy Award in 1969 , aged 23 . He also wrote for John Denver ( a neighbor of his in Aspen , Colorado , at one point ) , The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour , and The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour . Martin 's first TV appearance was on The Steve Allen Show in 1969 . He says : `` [ I ] appeared on The Virginia Graham Show , circa 1970 . I looked grotesque . I had a hairdo like a helmet , which I blow-dried to a puffy bouffant , for reasons I no longer understand . I wore a frock coat and a silk shirt , and my delivery was mannered , slow and self-aware . I had absolutely no authority . After reviewing the show , I was depressed for a week . '' During these years his roommates included comedian Gary Mule Deer and singer/guitarist Michael Johnson . Martin opened for groups such as The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , The Carpenters , and Toto . He appeared at San Francisco 's The Boarding House , among other venues . He continued to write , earning an Emmy nomination for his work on Van Dyke and Company in 1976 . In the mid-1970s , Martin made frequent appearances as a stand-up comedian on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. , and on The Gong Show , HBO 's On Location , The Muppet Show , and NBC 's Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) . SNL audience jumped by a million viewers when he made guest appearances , and he was one of the most successful SNL hosts . Martin appeared on 27 Saturday Night Live shows and he guest-hosted 15 times , bested only in number of presentations by host Alec Baldwin ( who has hosted 16 times ) . On the show , Martin popularized the air quotes gesture , which uses four fingers to make double quote marks in the air . While on the show Martin became close with several of the cast members , including Gilda Radner . Radner died of ovarian cancer on Saturday , May 20 , 1989 ; a visibly shaken Martin hosted SNL that night , and featured footage of himself and Radner together in a 1978 sketch . In the 1970s , his TV appearances led to the release of comedy albums that went platinum . The track `` Excuse Me '' on his first album , Let 's Get Small , helped establish a national catch phrase . His next album , A Wild and Crazy Guy ( 1978 ) , was an even bigger success , reaching the No . 2 spot on the U.S. sales chart , selling over a million copies . `` Just a wild and crazy guy '' became another of Martin 's known catch phrases . The album featured a character based on a series of Saturday Night Live sketches where Martin and Dan Aykroyd played the Festrunk Brothers ; Georgi and Yortuk ( respectively ) were bumbling Czechoslovak would-be playboys . The album ends with the song `` King Tut '' , sung and written by Martin and backed by the `` Toot Uncommons '' , members of the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band . It was later released as a single , reaching No . 17 on the U.S. charts in 1978 and selling over a million copies . The song came out during the King Tut craze that accompanied the popular traveling exhibit of the Egyptian king 's tomb artifacts . Both albums won Grammys for Best Comedy Recording in 1977 and 1978 , respectively . Martin performed `` King Tut '' on the April 22 , 1978 edition of SNL . Decades later , in 2012 , the A.V . Club described Martin 's unique style and its impact on audiences : On his comedy albums , Martin 's stand-up is self-referential and sometimes self-mocking . It mixes philosophical riffs with sudden spurts of `` happy feet '' , banjo playing with balloon depictions of concepts like venereal disease , and the `` controversial '' kitten juggling ( he is a master juggler ) ( the `` kittens '' were stuffed animals ) . His style is off-kilter and ironic , and sometimes pokes fun at stand-up comedy traditions , such as Martin opening his act ( from A Wild and Crazy Guy ) by saying , `` I think there 's nothing better for a person to come up and do the same thing over and over for two weeks . This is what I enjoy , so I 'm going to do the same thing over and over and over [ ... ] I 'm going to do the same joke over and over in the same show , it 'll be like a new thing . '' Or : `` Hello , I 'm Steve Martin , and I 'll be out here in a minute . '' In one comedy routine , used on the Comedy Is Not Pretty ! album , Martin claimed that his real name was `` Gern Blanston '' . The riff took on a life of its own . There is a Gern Blanston website , and for a time a rock band took the moniker as their name . Martin suddenly stopped doing stand-up comedy in 1981 to concentrate on movies , and did n't return for 35 years . About this decision , he states , `` My act was conceptual . Once the concept was stated , and everybody understood it , it was done . [ ... ] It was about coming to the end of the road . There was no way to live on in that persona . I had to take that fabulous luck of not being remembered as that , exclusively . You know , I did n't announce that I was stopping . I just stopped . '' In 2016 , Martin made a rare return to stand up comedy , opening for Jerry Seinfeld . He performed a 10-minute set before turning the stage over to Seinfeld . Later in 2016 he returned to stand up comedy , staging a national tour with Martin Short and the Steep Canyon Rangers . Acting career By the end of the 1970s , Martin had acquired the kind of following normally reserved for rock stars , with his tour appearances typically occurring at sold-out arenas filled with tens of thousands of screaming fans . But unknown to his audience , stand-up comedy was `` just an accident '' for him ; his real goal was to get into film . Martin had a small role in the 1972 film Another Nice Mess . His first substantial film appearance was in a short titled The Absent-Minded Waiter ( 1977 ) . The seven-minute-long film , also featuring Buck Henry and Teri Garr , was written by and starred Martin . The film was nominated for an Academy Award as Best Short Film , Live Action . He made his first substantial feature film appearance in the musical Sgt . Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , where he sang The Beatles ' `` Maxwell 's Silver Hammer '' . In 1979 , Martin co-wrote and starred in The Jerk , directed by Carl Reiner . The movie was a huge success , grossing over $ 100 million on a budget of approximately $ 4 million . Stanley Kubrick met with him to discuss the possibility of Martin starring in a screwball comedy version of Traumnovelle ( Kubrick later changed his approach to the material , the result of which was 1999 's Eyes Wide Shut ) . Martin was executive producer for Domestic Life , a prime-time television series starring friend Martin Mull , and a late-night series called Twilight Theater . It emboldened Martin to try his hand at his first serious film , Pennies from Heaven , based on the 1978 BBC serial by Dennis Potter . He was anxious to perform in the movie because of his desire to avoid being typecast . To prepare for that film , Martin took acting lessons from director Herbert Ross , and spent months learning how to tap dance . The film was a financial failure ; Martin 's comment at the time was `` I do n't know what to blame , other than it 's me and not a comedy . '' Martin was in three more Reiner-directed comedies after The Jerk : Dead Men Do n't Wear Plaid in 1982 , The Man with Two Brains in 1983 and All of Me in 1984 , his most critically acclaimed performance up to that point . In 1986 , Martin joined fellow Saturday Night Live veterans Martin Short and Chevy Chase in ¡Three Amigos ! , directed by John Landis , and written by Martin , Lorne Michaels , and singer-songwriter Randy Newman . It was originally entitled The Three Caballeros and Martin was to be teamed with Dan Aykroyd and John Belushi . In 1986 , Martin was in the movie musical film version of the hit Off-Broadway play Little Shop of Horrors ( based on a famous B-movie ) , playing the sadistic dentist , Orin Scrivello . The film was the first of three films teaming Martin with Rick Moranis . In 1987 , Martin joined comedian John Candy in the John Hughes movie Planes , Trains and Automobiles . That same year , Roxanne , the film adaptation of Cyrano de Bergerac which Martin co-wrote , won him a Writers Guild of America Award . It also garnered recognition from Hollywood and the public that he was more than a comedian . In 1988 , he performed in the Frank Oz film Dirty Rotten Scoundrels , a remake of Bedtime Story , alongside Michael Caine . Also in 1988 , he appeared at the Mitzi E. Newhouse Theater at Lincoln Center in a revival of Waiting for Godot directed by Mike Nichols . He played Vladimir , with Robin Williams as Estragon and Bill Irwin as Lucky . Martin starred in the Ron Howard film Parenthood , with Moranis in 1989 . He later re-teamed with Moranis in the Mafia comedy My Blue Heaven ( 1990 ) . In 1991 , Martin starred in and wrote L.A. Story , a romantic comedy , in which the female lead was played by his then-wife Victoria Tennant . Martin also appeared in Lawrence Kasdan 's Grand Canyon , in which he played the tightly wound Hollywood film producer , Davis , who was recovering from a traumatic robbery that left him injured , which was a more serious role for him . Martin also starred in a remake of the comedy Father of the Bride in 1991 ( followed by a sequel in 1995 ) , and in the 1992 comedy Housesitter , with Goldie Hawn and Dana Delany . In 1994 , he starred in , A Simple Twist of Fate ; a film adaptation of Silas Marner . In David Mamet 's 1997 thriller , The Spanish Prisoner , Martin played a darker role as a wealthy stranger who takes a suspicious interest in the work of a young businessman ( Campbell Scott ) . He went on to star with Eddie Murphy in the 1999 comedy Bowfinger , which Martin also wrote . In 1998 , Martin guest starred with U2 in the 200th episode of The Simpsons titled `` Trash of the Titans '' , providing the voice for sanitation commissioner Ray Patterson . In 1999 , Martin and Hawn starred in a remake of the 1970 Neil Simon comedy , The Out-of-Towners . By 2003 , Martin ranked fourth on the box office stars list , after starring in Bringing Down The House and Cheaper By The Dozen , each of which earned over $ 130 million at U.S. theaters . That same year , he also played the villainous Mr. Chairman in the animation/live action blend , Looney Tunes : Back in Action . In 2005 , Martin wrote and starred in Shopgirl , based on his own novella ( 2000 ) , and starred in Cheaper by the Dozen 2 . In 2006 , he starred in the box office hit The Pink Panther , as the bumbling Inspector Clouseau . He reprised the role in 2009 's The Pink Panther 2 . When combined , the two films grossed over $ 230 million at the box office . In Baby Mama ( 2008 ) , Martin played the founder of a health food company , and in It 's Complicated ( 2009 ) , he played opposite Meryl Streep and Alec Baldwin . In 2009 , an article in The Guardian listed Martin as one of the best actors never to receive an Oscar nomination . In 2011 , he appeared with Jack Black , Owen Wilson , and JoBeth Williams in the birdwatching comedy The Big Year . After a three-year hiatus , Martin returned in 2015 when he voiced a role in the animated film Home . Writing In 1993 , Martin wrote his first full-length play Picasso at the Lapin Agile . The first reading of the play took place in Beverly Hills , California , at Steve Martin 's home , with Tom Hanks reading the role of Pablo Picasso and Chris Sarandon reading the role of Albert Einstein . Following this , the play opened at the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in Chicago , Illinois , and played from October 1993 to May 1994 , then went on to run successfully in Los Angeles , New York City and several other US cities . In 2009 , the school board in La Grande , Oregon , refused to allow the play to be performed after several parents complained about the content . In an open letter in the local Observer newspaper , Martin wrote `` I have heard that some in your community have characterized the play as 'people drinking in bars , and treating women as sex objects . ' With apologies to William Shakespeare , this is like calling Hamlet a play about a castle [ ... ] I will finance a non-profit , off-high school campus production [ ... ] so that individuals , outside the jurisdiction of the school board but within the guarantees of freedom of expression provided by the Constitution of the United States can determine whether they will or will not see the play '' . Throughout the 1990s , Martin wrote various pieces for The New Yorker . In 2002 , he adapted the Carl Sternheim play The Underpants , which ran Off Broadway at Classic Stage Company , and in 2008 co-wrote and produced Traitor , starring Don Cheadle . He has also written the novellas Shopgirl ( 2000 ) and The Pleasure of My Company ( 2003 ) , both more wry in tone than raucous . A story of a 28-year-old woman behind the glove counter at the Saks Fifth Avenue department store in Beverly Hills , Shopgirl was made into a film starring Martin and Claire Danes . [ http : //www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998225,00.html But Seriously , Folks . Time article . October 16 , 2000 ] . Retrieved August 14 , 2010 The film premiered at the Toronto Film Festival in September 2005 and was featured at the Chicago International Film Festival and the Austin Film Festival before going into limited release in the US . In 2007 , he published a memoir , Born Standing Up , which Time magazine named as one of the Top 10 Nonfiction Books of 2007 , ranking it at 6 , and praising it as `` a funny , moving , surprisingly frank memoir . '' In 2010 , he published the novel An Object of Beauty . Hosting Martin hosted the Academy Awards solo in 2001 and 2003 , and with Alec Baldwin in 2010 . In 2005 , Martin co-hosted Disneyland : The First 50 Magical Years , marking the park 's anniversary . Disney continued to run the show until March 2009 , which now plays in the lobby of Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln . Music Martin first picked up the banjo when he was around 17 years of age . Martin has claimed in several interviews and in his memoir , Born Standing Up , that he used to take 33 rpm bluegrass records and slow them down to 16 rpm and tune his banjo down , so the notes would sound the same . Martin was able to pick out each note , and perfect his playing . Martin learned how to play the banjo with help from John McEuen , who later joined the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band . McEuen 's brother later managed Martin as well as the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band . Martin did his stand-up routine opening for the band in the early 1970s . He had the band play on his hit song , `` King Tut '' , being credited as `` The Toot Uncommons '' ( as in Tutankhamun ) . The banjo was a staple of Martin 's 1970s stand-up career , and he periodically poked fun at his love for the instrument . On the Comedy Is Not Pretty ! album he included an all-instrumental jam , titled `` Drop Thumb Medley '' , and played the track on his 1979 concert tour . His final comedy album , The Steve Martin Brothers ( 1981 ) , featured one side of Martin 's typical stand-up material , with the other side featuring live performances of Steve playing banjo with a bluegrass band . In 2001 , he played banjo on Earl Scruggs 's remake of `` Foggy Mountain Breakdown '' . The recording was the winner of the Best Country Instrumental Performance category at the Grammy Awards of 2002 . In 2008 , Martin appeared with the band , In the Minds of the Living , during a show in Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . In 2009 , Martin released his first all-music album , The Crow : New Songs for the 5-String Banjo with appearances from stars such as Dolly Parton . The album won the Grammy Award for Best Bluegrass Album in 2010 . Nitty Gritty Dirt Band member John McEuen produced the album . Martin made his first appearance on The Grand Ole Opry on May 30 , 2009 . In the American Idol season eight finals , he performed alongside Michael Sarver and Megan Joy in the song `` Pretty Flowers '' . In June , Martin played banjo along with the Steep Canyon Rangers on A Prairie Home Companion , and began a two-month U.S. tour with the Rangers in September , including appearances at the Hardly Strictly Bluegrass festival , Carnegie Hall and Benaroya Hall in Seattle . In November , they went on to play at the Royal Festival Hall in London with support from Mary Black . In 2010 , Steve Martin and the Steep Canyon Rangers appeared at the New Orleans Jazzfest , Merlefest Bluegrass Festival in Wilkesboro , North Carolina , at Bonnaroo Music Festival , at the ROMP Bluegrass festival in Owensboro , Kentucky , at the Red Butte Garden Concert series and on the BBC 's Later ... with Jools Holland . Martin performed `` Jubilation Day '' with the Steep Canyon Rangers on The Colbert Report on March 21 , 2011 , on Conan on May 3 , 2011 , and on BBC 's The One Show on July 6 , 2011 . Martin performed a song he wrote called `` Me and Paul Revere '' in addition to two other songs on the lawn of the Capitol Building in Washington , DC , at the `` Capitol Fourth Celebration '' on July 4 , 2011 . In 2011 , Martin also narrated and appeared in the PBS documentary `` Give me the Banjo '' chronicling the history of the banjo in America . Love Has Come For You , a collaboration album with Edie Brickell , was released in April 2013 . The two made musical guest appearances on talk shows , such as The View and Late Show with David Letterman , to promote the album . The title track won the Grammy Award for Best American Roots Song . Starting in May 2013 , he is touring with the Steep Canyon Rangers and Edie Brickell throughout the United States . In 2015 , Brickell and Martin released So Familiar as the second installment of their partnership . Inspired by Love has Come for You , Martin and Brickell collaborated on his first musical , Bright Star . It is set in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina in 1945-46 , with flashbacks to 1923 . The musical debuted on Broadway on March 24 , 2016 . Steve Martin Prize for Excellence In 2010 , Martin created the Steve Martin Prize for Excellence in Banjo and Bluegrass , an award established to reward artistry and bring greater visibility to bluegrass performers . The prize includes a USD $ 50,000 cash award , a bronze sculpture created by the artist Eric Fischl , and a chance to perform with Martin on Late Show with David Letterman . Recipients include Noam Pikelny of the Punch Brothers band ( 2010 ) , Sammy Shelor of Lonesome River Band ( 2011 ) , Mark Johnson ( 2012 ) , Jens Kruger ( 2013 ) , Eddie Adcock ( 2014 ) , and Danny Barnes ( 2015 ) . Personal life Martin was romantically involved with actress and singer Bernadette Peters , his costar in the films The Jerk and Pennies from Heaven , during the 1970s and early 1980s . He married actress Victoria Tennant on November 20 , 1986 ; they divorced in 1994 . On July 28 , 2007 , after three years together , Martin married Anne Stringfield , a writer and former staffer for The New Yorker magazine . Former Nebraska Senator Bob Kerrey presided over the ceremony at Martin 's Los Angeles home . Lorne Michaels , creator of Saturday Night Live , was best man . Several of the guests ,

qb_1647--Steve_Martin.txt

Steve Martin and which other actor hosted the 2010 Academy Awards?

Vatican City ( ; ; ) , officially Vatican City State or the State of Vatican City ( ; ) , is a walled enclave within the city of Rome . With an area of approximately 44 hectares ( 110 acres ) , and a population of 842 , it is the smallest state in the world by both area and population . It is an ecclesiastical or sacerdotal-monarchical state ( a type of theocracy ) ruled by the Bishop of Rome – the Pope . The highest state functionaries are all Catholic clergy of various national origins . Since the return of the Popes from Avignon in 1377 , they have generally resided at the Apostolic Palace within what is now Vatican City , although at times residing instead in the Quirinal Palace in Rome or elsewhere . Vatican City is distinct from the Holy See ( ) , which dates back to early Christianity and is the main episcopal see of 1.2 billion Latin and Eastern Catholic adherents around the globe . The independent city-state , on the other hand , came into existence in 1929 by the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy , which spoke of it as a new creation , not as a vestige of the much larger Papal States ( 756–1870 ) , which had previously encompassed much of central Italy . According to the terms of the treaty , the Holy See has `` full ownership , exclusive dominion , and sovereign authority and jurisdiction '' over the city-state . Within Vatican City are religious and cultural sites such as St. Peter 's Basilica , the Sistine Chapel and the Vatican Museums . They feature some of the world 's most famous paintings and sculptures . The unique economy of Vatican City is supported financially by the sale of postage stamps and tourist mementos , fees for admission to museums , and the sale of publications . Name The name was first used in the Lateran Treaty , signed on 11 February 1929 , which established the modern city-state . The name is taken from Vatican Hill , the geographic location of the state . `` Vatican '' is derived from the name of an Etruscan settlement , Vatica or Vaticum meaning garden , located in the general area the Romans called vaticanus ager , `` Vatican territory '' . The official Italian name of the city is ' or , more formally , ' , meaning `` Vatican City State '' . Although the Holy See ( which is distinct from the Vatican City ) and the Catholic Church use Ecclesiastical Latin in official documents , the Vatican City officially uses Italian . The Latin name is ' ; this is used in official documents by not just the Holy See , but in most official Church and Papal documents . History Early history The name `` Vatican '' was already in use in the time of the Roman Republic for a marshy area on the west bank of the Tiber across from the city of Rome . Under the Roman Empire , many villas were constructed there , after Agrippina the Elder ( 14 BC – 18 October AD 33 ) drained the area and laid out her gardens in the early 1st century AD . In AD 40 , her son , Emperor Caligula ( 31 August AD 12–24 January AD 41 ; r. 37–41 ) built in her gardens a circus for charioteers ( AD 40 ) that was later completed by Nero , the Circus Gaii et Neronis , usually called , simply , the Circus of Nero . Even before the arrival of Christianity , it is supposed that this originally uninhabited part of Rome ( the ager vaticanus ) had long been considered sacred , or at least not available for habitation . A shrine dedicated to the Phrygian goddess Cybele and her consort Attis remained active long after the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter was built nearby . The particularly low quality of Vatican wine , even after the reclamation of the area , was commented on by the poet Martial ( 40 – between 102 and 104 AD ) . In AD 69 , the Year of the Four Emperors , when the northern army that brought Vitellius to power arrived in Rome , `` a large proportion camped in the unhealthy districts of the Vatican , which resulted in many deaths among the common soldiery ; and the Tiber being close by , the inability of the Gauls and Germans to bear the heat and the consequent greed with which they drank from the stream weakened their bodies , which were already an easy prey to disease '' . The Vatican Obelisk was originally taken by Caligula from Heliopolis in Egypt to decorate the spina of his circus and is thus its last visible remnant . This area became the site of martyrdom of many Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64 . Ancient tradition holds that it was in this circus that Saint Peter was crucified upside-down . Opposite the circus was a cemetery separated by the Via Cornelia . Funeral monuments and mausoleums and small tombs as well as altars to pagan gods of all kinds of polytheistic religions were constructed lasting until before the construction of the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter 's in the first half of the 4th century . Remains of this ancient necropolis were brought to light sporadically during renovations by various popes throughout the centuries , increasing in frequency during the Renaissance until it was systematically excavated by orders of Pope Pius XII from 1939 to 1941 . The Constantinian basilica was built in 326 over what was believed to be the tomb of Saint Peter , buried in that cemetery . From then on , the area became more populated in connection with activity at the basilica . A palace was constructed nearby as early as the 5th century during the pontificate of Pope Symmachus ( reigned 498–514 ) . Papal States Popes gradually came to have a secular role as governors of regions near Rome . They ruled the Papal States , which covered a large portion of the Italian peninsula , for more than a thousand years until the mid-19th century , when all the territory belonging to the papacy was seized by the newly created Kingdom of Italy . For most of this time the popes did not live at the Vatican . The Lateran Palace , on the opposite side of Rome was their habitual residence for about a thousand years . From 1309 to 1377 , they lived at Avignon in France . On their return to Rome they chose to live at the Vatican . They moved to the Quirinal Palace in 1583 , after work on it was completed under Pope Paul V ( 1605–1621 ) , but on the capture of Rome in 1870 retired to the Vatican , and what had been their residence became that of the King of Italy . Italian unification In 1870 , the Pope 's holdings were left in an uncertain situation when Rome itself was annexed by the Piedmont-led forces which had united the rest of Italy , after a nominal resistance by the papal forces . Between 1861 and 1929 the status of the Pope was referred to as the `` Roman Question '' . Italy made no attempt to interfere with the Holy See within the Vatican walls . However , it confiscated church property in many places . In 1871 the Quirinal Palace was confiscated by the king of Italy and became the royal palace . Thereafter the popes resided undisturbed within the Vatican walls , and certain papal prerogatives were recognized by the Law of Guarantees , including the right to send and receive ambassadors . But the Popes did not recognise the Italian king 's right to rule in Rome , and they refused to leave the Vatican compound until the dispute was resolved in 1929 ; Pope Pius IX ( 1846–78 ) , the last ruler of the Papal States , was referred to as a `` prisoner in the Vatican '' . Forced to give up secular power , the popes focused on spiritual issues . Lateran treaties This situation was resolved on 11 February 1929 , when the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy was signed by Prime Minister and Head of Government Benito Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III and by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri for Pope Pius XI . [ http : //www.vaticanstate.va/content/dam/vaticanstate/documenti/leggi-e-decreti/Normative-Penali-e-Amministrative/LateranTreaty.pdf Preamble of the Lateran Treaty ] The treaty , which became effective on 7 June 1929 , established the independent state of Vatican City and reaffirmed the special status of Catholicism in Italy . [ http : //www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/archivio/documents/rc_seg-st_19290211_patti-lateranensi_it.html Lateran Treaty , article 1 : `` L'Italia riconosce e riafferma il principio consacrato nell ’ articolo 1° dello Statuto del Regno 4 marzo 1848 , pel quale la religione cattolica , apostolica e romana è la sola religione dello Stato . '' ( Italy recognizes and re-affirms the principle consecrated in Article 1 of the Statute of the Kingdom 4 March 1848 , by which the Catholic , Apostolic and Roman Religion is the sole religion of the State . ) ] World War II The Holy See , which ruled Vatican City , pursued a policy of neutrality during World War II , under the leadership of Pope Pius XII . Although German troops occupied the city of Rome after the September 1943 Armistice of Cassibile , and the Allies from 1944 , they respected Vatican City as neutral territory . One of the main diplomatic priorities of the bishop of Rome was to prevent the bombing of the city ; so sensitive was the pontiff that he protested even the British air dropping of pamphlets over Rome , claiming that the few landing within the city-state violated the Vatican 's neutrality . The British policy , as expressed in the minutes of a Cabinet meeting , was : `` that we should on no account molest the Vatican City , but that our action as regards the rest of Rome would depend upon how far the Italian government observed the rules of war '' . After the American entry into the war , the US opposed such a bombing , fearful of offending Catholic members of its military forces , but said that `` they could not stop the British from bombing Rome if the British so decided '' . The British uncompromisingly said `` they would bomb Rome whenever the needs of the war demanded '' . In December 1942 , the British envoy suggested to the Holy See that Rome be declared an `` open city '' , a suggestion that the Holy See took more seriously than was probably meant by the British , who did not want Rome to be an open city , but Mussolini rejected the suggestion when the Holy See put it to him . In connection with the Allied invasion of Sicily , 500 American aircraft bombed Rome on 19 July 1943 , aiming particularly at the railway hub . Some 1,500 people were killed ; Pius XII himself , who had been described in the previous month as `` worried sick '' about the possible bombing , went to the scene of the tragedy . Another raid took place on 13 August 1943 , after Mussolini had been ousted from power . On the following day , the new government declared Rome an open city , after consulting the Holy See on the wording of the declaration , but the British had decided that they would never recognize Rome as an open city . Post-war history Pius XII had refrained from creating cardinals during the war . By the end of World War II , there were several prominent vacancies : Cardinal Secretary of State , Camerlengo , Chancellor , and Prefect for the Congregation for the Religious among them . Pius XII created 32 cardinals in early 1946 , having announced his intentions to do so in his preceding Christmas message . The Pontifical Military Corps , except for the Swiss Guard , was disbanded by will of Paul VI , as expressed in a letter of 14 September 1970 . The Gendarmerie Corps was transformed into a civilian police and security force . In 1984 , a new concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certain provisions of the earlier treaty , including the position of Catholicism as the Italian state religion , a position given to it by a statute of 1848 . Construction in 1995 of a new guest house , Domus Sanctae Marthae , adjacent to St Peter 's Basilica was criticised by Italian environmental groups , backed by Italian politicians . They claimed the new building would block views of the Basilica from nearby Italian apartments . For a short while the plans strained the relations between the Vatican and the Italian government . The head of the Vatican 's Department of Technical Services robustly rejected challenges to the Vatican State 's right to build within its borders . Geography The name `` Vatican '' predates Christianity and comes from the Latin ' , meaning Vatican Mount . The territory of Vatican City is part of the Mons Vaticanus , and of the adjacent former Vatican Fields . It is in this territory that St. Peter 's Basilica , the Apostolic Palace , the Sistine Chapel , and museums were built , along with various other buildings . The area was part of the Roman rione of Borgo until 1929 . Being separated from the city , on the west bank of the Tiber river , the area was an outcrop of the city that was protected by being included within the walls of Leo IV ( 847–55 ) , and later expanded by the current fortification walls , built under Paul III ( 1534–49 ) , Pius IV ( 1559–65 ) and Urban VIII ( 1623–44 ) . When the Lateran Treaty of 1929 that gave the state its form was being prepared , the boundaries of the proposed territory were influenced by the fact that much of it was all but enclosed by this loop . For some tracts of the frontier , there was no wall , but the line of certain buildings supplied part of the boundary , and for a small part of the frontier a modern wall was constructed . The territory includes St. Peter 's Square , distinguished from the territory of Italy only by a white line along the limit of the square , where it touches Piazza Pio XII . St. Peter 's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione which runs from close to the Tiber River to St. Peter 's . This grand approach was constructed by Benito Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty . According to the Lateran Treaty , certain properties of the Holy See that are located in Italian territory , most notably the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas , enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies . These properties , scattered all over Rome and Italy , house essential offices and institutions necessary to the character and mission of the Holy See . Castel Gandolfo and the named basilicas are patrolled internally by police agents of Vatican City State and not by Italian police . According to the Lateran Treaty ( Art . 3 ) St. Peter 's Square , up to but not including the steps leading to the basilica , is normally patrolled by the Italian police . There are no passport controls for visitors entering Vatican City from the surrounding Italian territory . There is free public access to Saint Peter 's Square and Basilica and , on the occasion of papal general audiences , to the hall in which they are held . For these audiences and for major ceremonies in Saint Peter 's Basilica and Square , tickets free of charge must be obtained beforehand . The Vatican Museums , incorporating the Sistine Chapel , usually charge an entrance fee . There is no general public access to the gardens , but guided tours for small groups can be arranged to the gardens and excavations under the basilica . Other places are open to only those individuals who have business to transact there . Climate Vatican City 's climate is the same as Rome 's : a temperate , Mediterranean climate with mild , rainy winters from September to mid-May and hot , dry summers from May to August . Some minor local features , principally mists and dews , are caused by the anomalous bulk of St Peter 's Basilica , the elevation , the fountains and the size of the large paved square . In July 2007 , the Vatican accepted a proposal by two firms based respectively in San Francisco and Budapest , whereby it would become the first carbon neutral state by offsetting its carbon dioxide emissions with the creation of a Vatican Climate Forest in Hungary , as a purely symbolic gesture [ http : //www.cathnews.com/news/707/76.php Vatican signs up for a carbon offset forest ] , Catholic News Service , published 13 July 2007 . Retrieved 3 August 2007 to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . Nothing came of the project . On 26 November 2008 , the Vatican itself put into effect a plan announced in May 2007 to cover the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall with photovoltaic panels . Gardens Within the territory of Vatican City are the Vatican Gardens ( ) , which account for more than half of this territory . The gardens , established during the Renaissance and Baroque era , are decorated with fountains and sculptures . The gardens cover approximately 23 ha which is most of the Vatican Hill . The highest point is 60 m above mean sea level . Stone walls bound the area in the North , South and West . The gardens date back to medieval times when orchards and vineyards extended to the north of the Papal Apostolic Palace . In 1279 Pope Nicholas III ( Giovanni Gaetano Orsini , 1277–1280 ) moved his residence back to the Vatican from the Lateran Palace and enclosed this area with walls . He planted an orchard ( pomerium ) , a lawn ( pratellum ) and a garden ( viridarium ) . Governance The politics of Vatican City takes place in an absolute elective monarchy , in which the head of the Roman Catholic Church takes power . The Pope exercises principal legislative , executive , and judicial power over the State of Vatican City ( an entity distinct from the Holy See ) , which is a rare case of a non-hereditary monarchy . Vatican City is currently the only widely recognized independent state that has not become a member of the United Nations . The Holy See , which is distinct from Vatican City State , has permanent observer status with all the rights of a full member except for a vote in the UN General Assembly . Political system The government of Vatican City has a unique structure . The Pope is the sovereign of the state . Legislative authority is vested in the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State , a body of cardinals appointed by the Pope for five-year periods . Executive power is in the hands of the President of that commission , assisted by the General Secretary and Deputy General Secretary . The state 's foreign relations are entrusted to the Holy See 's Secretariat of State and diplomatic service . Nevertheless , the pope has absolute power in the executive , legislative and judicial branches over Vatican City . He is currently the only absolute monarch in Europe . There are specific departments that deal with health , security , telecommunications , etc . The Cardinal Camerlengo presides over the Apostolic Camera to which is entrusted the administration of the property and the protection of the temporal rights of the Holy See during a papal vacancy . Those of the Vatican State remain under the control of the Pontifical Commission for the State of Vatican City . Acting with three other cardinals chosen by lot every three days , one from each order of cardinals ( cardinal bishop , cardinal priest , and cardinal deacon ) , he in a sense performs during that period the functions of head of state of Vatican City . All the decisions these four cardinals take must be approved by the College of Cardinals as a whole . The nobility that was closely associated with the Holy See at the time of the Papal States continued to be associated with the Papal Court after the loss of these territories , generally with merely nominal duties ( see Papal Master of the Horse , Prefecture of the Pontifical Household , Hereditary officers of the Roman Curia , Black Nobility ) . They also formed the ceremonial Noble Guard . In the first decades of the existence of the Vatican City State , executive functions were entrusted to some of them , including that of Delegate for the State of Vatican City ( now denominated President of the Commission for Vatican City ) . But with the motu proprio Pontificalis Domus of 28 March 1968 , Pope Paul VI abolished the honorary positions that had continued to exist until then , such as Quartermaster general and Master of the Horse . Vatican City State , created in 1929 by the Lateran Pacts , provides the Holy See with a temporal jurisdiction and independence within a small territory . It is distinct from the Holy See . The state can thus be deemed a significant but not essential instrument of the Holy See . The Holy See itself has existed continuously as a juridical entity since Roman Imperial times and has been internationally recognized as a powerful and independent sovereign entity since Late Antiquity to the present , without interruption even at times when it was deprived of territory ( e.g . 1870 to 1929 ) . The Holy See has the oldest active continuous diplomatic service in the world , dating back to at least AD 325 with its legation to the Council of Nicea . Head of state The Pope is ex officio head of state of Vatican City , functions dependent on his primordial function as bishop of the diocese of Rome . The term Holy See refers not to the Vatican state but to the Pope 's spiritual and pastoral governance , largely exercised through the Roman Curia . His official title with regard to Vatican City is Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City . Pope Francis , born Jorge Mario Bergoglio in Buenos Aires , Argentina , was elected on 13 March 2013 . Francis took the unusual decision to live in the Vatican 's guest house , Domus Sanctae Marthae , rather than the Papal Apartments of the Apostolic Palace which is the official papal residence . He still carries out his business and meets foreign representatives in the Palace . His principal subordinate government official for Vatican City is the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State , who since 1952 exercises the functions previously belonging to the Governor of Vatican City . Since 2001 , the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State also has the title of President of the Governorate of the State of Vatican City . The current President is Italian Cardinal Giuseppe Bertello , who was appointed on 1 October 2011 . Administration Legislative functions are delegated to the unicameral Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State , led by the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State . Its seven members are cardinals appointed by the pope for terms of five years . Acts of the commission must be approved by the pope , through the Holy See 's Secretariat of State , and before taking effect must be published in a special appendix of the Acta Apostolicae Sedis . Most of the content of this appendix consists of routine executive decrees , such as approval for a new set of postage stamps . Executive authority is delegated to the Governorate of Vatican City . The Governorate consists of the President of the Pontifical Commission—using the title `` President of the Governorate of Vatican City '' —a general secretary , and a Vice general secretary , each appointed by the pope for five-year terms . Important actions of the Governorate must be confirmed by the Pontifical Commission and by the Pope through the Secretariat of State . The Governorate oversees the central governmental functions through several departments and offices . The directors and officials of these offices are appointed by the pope for five-year terms . These organs concentrate on material questions concerning the state 's territory , including local security , records , transportation , and finances . The Governorate oversees a modern security & police corps , the Corpo della Gendarmeria dello Stato della Città del Vaticano . Judicial functions are delegated to a supreme court , an appellate court , a tribunal ( Tribunal of Vatican City State ) , and a trial judge . At the Vatican 's request , sentences imposed can be served in Italy ( see the section on crime , below ) . The international postal country code prefix is SCV , and the only postal code is 00120 – altogether SCV-00120 . Defense and security As the Vatican City is an enclave within Italy , its military defence is provided by the Italian armed forces . However , there is no formal defence treaty with Italy , as the Vatican City is a neutral state . Vatican City has no armed forces of its own , although the Swiss Guard is a military corps of the Holy See responsible for the personal security of the Pope , and resident in the state . Soldiers of the Swiss Guard are entitled to hold Vatican City State passports and nationality . Swiss mercenaries were historically recruited by Popes as part of an army for the Papal States , and the Pontifical Swiss Guard was founded by Pope Julius II on 22 January 1506 as the pope 's personal bodyguard and continues to fulfill that function . It is listed in the Annuario Pontificio under `` Holy See '' , not under `` State of Vatican City '' . At the end of 2005 , the Guard had 134 members . Recruitment is arranged by a special agreement between the Holy See and Switzerland . All recruits must be Catholic , unmarried males with Swiss citizenship who have completed their basic training with the Swiss Army with certificates of good conduct , be between the ages of 19 and 30 , and be at least 174 cm in height . Members are equipped with small arms and the traditional halberd ( also called the Swiss voulge ) , and trained in bodyguarding tactics . The Palatine Guard and the Noble Guard , the last armed forces of the Vatican City State , were disbanded by Pope Paul VI in 1970 . As Vatican City has listed every building in its territory on the International Register of Cultural Property under Special Protection , the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict theoretically renders it immune to armed attack . Civil defence is the responsibility of the Corps of Firefighters of the Vatican City State , the national fire brigade . Dating its origins to the early nineteenth century , the Corps in its present form was established in 1941 . It is responsible for fire fighting , as well as a range of civil defence scenarios including flood , natural disaster , and mass casualty management . The Corps is governmentally supervised through the Directorate for Security Services and Civil Defence , which is also responsible for the Gendarmerie ( see below ) . The Gendarmerie Corps ( Corpo della Gendarmeria ) is the gendarmerie , or police and security force , of Vatican City and the extraterritorial properties of the Holy See . The corps is responsible for security , public order , border control , traffic control , criminal investigation , and other general police duties in Vatican City including providing security for the pope outside of Vatican City . The corps has 130 personnel and is a part of the Directorate for Security Services and Civil Defence ( which also includes the Vatican Fire Brigade ) , an organ of the Governorate

odql_10600--Vatican_City.txt

Only two nations have square flags. One is the Vatican City. Name the other?

Easy Rider is a 1969 American road movie written by Peter Fonda , Dennis Hopper , and Terry Southern , produced by Fonda and directed by Hopper . It tells the story of two bikers ( played by Fonda and Hopper ) who travel through the American Southwest and South after selling a large score of cocaine . The success of Easy Rider helped spark the New Hollywood phase of filmmaking during the early 1970s . The film was added to the Library of Congress National Registry in 1998 . A landmark counterculture film , and a `` touchstone for a generation '' that `` captured the national imagination '' , Easy Rider explores the societal landscape , issues , and tensions in the United States during the 1960s , such as the rise and fall of the hippie movement , drug use , and communal lifestyle . In Easy Rider , real drugs were used in scenes showing the use of marijuana and other substances . Plot The protagonists are two freewheeling guys : Wyatt ( Fonda ) , nicknamed `` Captain America '' , and Billy ( Hopper ) . Fonda and Hopper have said that these characters ' names refer to Wyatt Earp and Billy the Kid . Wyatt dresses in American flag-adorned leather ( with an Office of the Secretary of Defense Identification Badge affixed to it ) , while Billy dresses in Native American-style buckskin pants and shirts and a bushman hat . The former is quite open to people they meet on their journey and accepting of help while the latter is more hostile and suspicious . After smuggling cocaine from Mexico to Los Angeles , Wyatt and Billy sell their haul to `` Connection '' , a man ( played by Phil Spector ) in a Rolls-Royce , and receive a large sum in return . With the money stuffed into a plastic tube hidden inside the Stars & Stripes-painted fuel tank of Wyatt 's California-style chopper , they ride eastward aiming to reach New Orleans , Louisiana , in time for the Mardi Gras festival . During their trip Wyatt and Billy stop to repair one of the bikes at a farmstead , and have a meal with the farmer ( Warren Finnerty ) and his family . Wyatt seems to appreciate the simple , traditional lifestyle presented here . Later Wyatt stops to pick up a hippyish hitch-hiker ( Luke Askew ) and he invites them to visit his commune , where they stay for the rest of the day . Life in the commune appears to be hard , with young hippies from the city struggling to grow their own crops in a dry climate with poor soil and little rainfall . ( One of the children seen in the commune is played by Fonda 's four-year-old daughter Bridget . ) At one point , the bikers witness a prayer for blessing of the new crop , as put by a commune-member ( Robert Walker Jr. ) : A chance `` to make a stand '' , and to plant `` simple food , for our simple taste '' . The commune is also hosting a traveling theater group that `` sings for its supper '' ( performs for food ) . The notion of `` free love '' appears to be practiced , with two of the women , Lisa ( Luana Anders ) and Sarah ( Sabrina Scharf ) , seemingly sharing the affections of the hitch-hiking commune-member before turning their attention to Wyatt and Billy . The hitch-hiker asks the two bikers to stay at the commune , saying , `` the time is now '' , to which Wyatt replies `` I 'm hip about time ... but I just got ta go . '' As the bikers leave , the hitch-hiker ( known only as `` Stranger on highway '' in the credits ) gives Wyatt some LSD for him to share with `` the right people '' . Later , while naughtily riding along with a parade in a small town , the pair are arrested by the local authorities for `` parading without a permit '' and thrown in jail . There , they befriend American Civil Liberties Union lawyer and local drunk George Hanson ( Jack Nicholson ) , who has spent the night in jail after overindulging in alcohol . George helps them get out of jail and decides to travel with Wyatt and Billy to New Orleans . As they camp that night , Wyatt and Billy introduce George to marijuana . As an alcoholic and a `` square '' , George is reluctant to try the marijuana ( `` It leads to harder stuff '' , and `` I do n't want to get hooked '' ) , but he quickly relents . Stopping to eat at a smalltown Louisiana diner , the trio 's appearance attracts the attention of the locals . The girls in the restaurant think they 're exciting but the local men and a police officer begin making loud and denigrating comments and taunts . One of the men menacingly states , `` I do n't believe they 'll make the parish line . '' The waitress does not take their order and Wyatt , Billy and George , feeling the hostility , decide to leave without any fuss . They make camp outside town . The events of the day cause George to comment : `` This used to be a hell of a good country . I ca n't understand what 's gone wrong with it . '' He observes that Americans talk a lot about the value of freedom but are actually afraid of anyone who truly exhibits it . In the middle of the night a group of locals attack the sleeping trio , beating them with clubs . Billy screams and brandishes a knife and the attackers leave . Wyatt and Billy suffer minor injuries but George has been bludgeoned to death . Wyatt and Billy wrap George 's body up in his sleeping bag , gather his belongings , and vow to return the items to his parents . They continue to New Orleans and find a brothel George had told them about . Taking prostitutes Karen ( Karen Black ) and Mary ( Toni Basil ) with them , Wyatt and Billy decide to go outside and wander the parade-filled street of the Mardi Gras celebration . They end up in a cemetery , where all four ingest the LSD which the hitch-hiker had given to Wyatt . They experience a bad trip , cinematically presented by the use of quick cuts , fish-eye lenses , sound collages ( including snippets of prayer ) and over-exposed film . Making camp afterward , Billy declares that their trek has been a success . Wyatt disagrees , declaring , `` We blew it . '' The next morning , the two are continuing their trip eastward to Florida ( where they hope to retire wealthy ) when two rednecks in a pickup truck spot them and decide to `` scare the hell out of them '' with their shotgun . As they pull alongside Billy , one of the men lazily aims the shotgun at him and threatens and insults him by saying , `` Want me to blow your brains out ? '' and `` Why do n't you get a haircut ? '' When Billy flips his middle finger up at them , the hillbilly fires the shotgun and Billy slews the bike into the roadside , seriously wounded in the side . As the truck then takes off past Wyatt down the road , Wyatt turns around and races back to put his jacket over his critically injured friend , who is already drenched in blood , before riding off for help . By this time , the pickup truck has turned around and closes on Wyatt . The hillbilly fires at Wyatt as he speeds by the pickup , hitting the bike 's gas tank and causing it to erupt into a fiery explosion . Wyatt is killed and the bike soars into the air and crashes down further along the road . As the murderous rednecks drive away , the film ends with a shot of the flaming bike in the middle of the deserted road , as the camera ascends to the sky . Cast * Peter Fonda as Wyatt , `` Captain America '' * Dennis Hopper as Billy * Antonio Mendoza as Jesus * Phil Spector as Connection * Mac Mashourian as Bodyguard * Warren Finnerty as Rancher * Tita Colorado as Rancher 's Wife * Luke Askew as Stranger on Highway Commune * Luana Anders as Lisa * Sabrina Scharf as Sarah * Sandy Wyeth as Joanne * Robert Walker , Jr. as Jack * Robert Ball as Mime # 1 * Carmen Phillips as Mime # 2 * Ellie Walker as Mime # 3 * Michael Pataki as Mime # 4 Jail * Jack Nicholson as George Hanson * George Fowler , Jr. as Guard * Keith Green as Sheriff Café * Hayward Robillard as Cat Man * Arnold Hess , Jr. as Deputy * Buddy Causey , Jr. as Customer # 1 * Duffy Lafont as Customer # 2 * Blasé M. Dawson as Customer # 3 * Paul Guedry as Customer # 4 * Suzie Ramagos as Girl # 1 * Elida Ann Hebert as Girl # 2 * Rose LeBlanc as Girl # 3 * Mary Kaye Hebert as Girl # 4 * Cynthia Grezaffi as Girl # 5 * Colette Purpera as Girl # 6 House of Blue Lights * Toni Basil as Mary * Karen Black as Karen * Lea Marmer as Madame * Cathé Cozzi as Dancing Girl * Thea Salerno as Hooker # 1 * Anne McClain as Hooker # 2 * Beatriz Monteil as Hooker # 3 * Marcia Bowman as Hooker # 4 Pickup Truck * David C. Billodeau * Johnny David Production Hopper and Fonda 's first collaboration was in The Trip ( 1967 ) , written by Jack Nicholson , which had similar themes and characters as Easy Rider . Peter Fonda had become `` an icon of the counterculture '' in The Wild Angels ( 1966 ) , where he established `` a persona he would develop further in The Trip and Easy Rider . '' The Trip also popularized LSD , while Easy Rider went on to `` celebrate 60s counterculture '' but does so `` stripped of its innocence . '' Author Katie Mills wrote that The Trip is a way point along the `` metamorphosis of the rebel road story from a Beat relic into its hippie reincarnation as Easy Rider '' , and connected Peter Fonda 's characters in those two films , along with his character in The Wild Angels , deviating from the `` formulaic biker '' persona and critiquing `` commodity-oriented filmmakers appropriating avant-garde film techniques . '' It was also a step in the transition from independent film into Hollywood 's mainstream , and while The Trip was criticized as a faux , popularized underground film made by Hollywood insiders , Easy Rider `` interrogates '' the attitude that underground film must `` remain strictly segregated from Hollywood . '' Mills also wrote that the famous acid trip scene in Easy Rider `` clearly derives from their first tentative explorations as filmmakers in The Trip . '' When seeing a still of himself and Bruce Dern in The Wild Angels , Peter Fonda had the idea of a modern Western , involving two bikers travelling around the country and eventually getting shot by hillbillies . He called Dennis Hopper , and the two decided to turn that into a movie , The Loners , with Hopper directing , Fonda producing , and both starring and writing . They brought in screenwriter Terry Southern , who came up with the title Easy Rider . The film was mostly shot without a screenplay , with ad-libbed lines , and production started with only the outline and the names of the protagonists . Keeping the Western theme , Wyatt was named after Wyatt Earp and Billy after Billy the Kid . However , Southern disputes that Hopper wrote much of the script . In a 2016 interview he said `` You know if Den Hopper improvises a dozen lines and six of them survive the cutting room floor he 'll put in for screenplay credit . Now it would be almost impossible to exaggerate his contribution to the film—but , by George , he manages to do it every time . '' According to Southern , Fonda was under contract to produce a motorcycle film with A.I.P. , which Fonda had agreed to allow Hopper to direct . According to Southern , Fonda and Hopper did n't seek screenplay credit until after the first screenings of the film , which required Southern 's agreement due to writers guild policies . Southern says he agreed out of a sense of camaraderie , and that Hopper later took credit for the entire script . Hopper was also said to be difficult on set . During test shooting on location in New Orleans , Hopper fought with the production 's ad hoc crew for control . At one point he entered into a physical confrontation with photographer Barry Feinstein , who was one of the camera operators for the shoot . After this turmoil , Hopper and Fonda decided to assemble a proper crew for the rest of the film . Allegedly , the characters of Wyatt and Billy were respectively based on Roger McGuinn and David Crosby of The Byrds . According to Terry Southern 's biographer , Lee Hill , the part of George Hanson had been written for Southern 's friend , actor Rip Torn . When Torn met with Hopper and Fonda at a New York restaurant in early 1968 to discuss the role , Hopper began ranting about the `` rednecks '' he had encountered on his scouting trip to the South . Torn , a Texan , took exception to some of Hopper 's remarks , and the two almost came to blows , as a result of which Torn withdrew from the project . Torn was replaced by Jack Nicholson , whom Hopper had recently appeared with in Head ( along with another Easy Rider co-star , Toni Basil ) . In 1994 , Jay Leno interviewed Hopper about Easy Rider on The Tonight Show , and during the interview , Hopper alleged that Torn had pulled a knife on him during the altercation , prompting Torn to sue Hopper successfully for defamation . The hippie commune was recreated from pictures and shot at a site overlooking Malibu Canyon , since the New Buffalo commune in Arroyo Hondo near Taos , New Mexico , did not permit shooting there . A short clip near the beginning of the film shows Wyatt and Billy on Route 66 in Flagstaff , Arizona , passing a large figure of a lumberjack . That lumberjack statue—once situated in front of the Lumberjack Cafe—remains in Flagstaff , but now stands inside the J. Lawrence Walkup Skydome on the campus of Northern Arizona University . A second , very similar statue was also moved from the Lumberjack Cafe to the exterior of the Skydome . Most of the film is shot outside with natural lighting . Hopper said all the outdoor shooting was an intentional choice on his part , because `` God is a great gaffer . '' The production used two five-ton trucks , one for the equipment and one for the motorcycles , with the cast and crew in a motor home . One of the locations was Monument Valley . The restaurant scenes with Fonda , Hopper , and Nicholson were shot in Morganza , Louisiana . The men and girls in that scene were all Morganza locals . In order to inspire more vitriolic commentary from the local men , Hopper told them the characters of Billy , Wyatt , and George had raped and killed a girl outside of town . The scene in which Billy and Wyatt were shot was filmed on Louisiana Highway 105 North , just outside Krotz Springs , and the two other men in the scene—Johnny David and D.C. Billodeau—were Krotz Springs locals . While shooting the cemetery scene , Hopper tried to convince Fonda to talk to the statue of the Madonna as though it were Fonda 's mother ( who had committed suicide when he was 10 years old ) and ask her why she left him . Although Fonda was reluctant , he eventually complied . Later , Fonda used the inclusion of this scene as leverage to persuade Roger McGuinn to allow the use of his cover of Bob Dylan 's `` It 's Alright , Ma ( I 'm Only Bleeding ) '' . Despite being filmed in the first half of 1968 , roughly between Mardi Gras and the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy , with production starting on February 22 the film did not have a U.S. premiere until July 1969 , after having won an award at the Cannes film festival in May . The delay was partially due to a protracted editing process . Inspired by 2001 : A Space Odyssey , one of Hopper 's proposed cuts was 220 minutes long , including extensive use of the `` flash-forward '' narrative device , wherein scenes from later in the movie are inserted into the current scene . But only one flash-forward survives in the final edit : when Wyatt in the New Orleans brothel has a premonition of the final scene . At the request of Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider , Henry Jaglom was brought in to edit the film into its current form , while Schneider purchased Hopper a trip to Taos so he would not interfere with the recut . Upon seeing the final cut , Hopper was originally displeased , saying that his movie was `` turned into a TV show '' , but he eventually accepted , claiming that Jaglom had crafted the film the way Hopper had originally intended . Despite the large part he played in shaping the film , Jaglom only received credit as an `` Editorial Consultant '' . There are various reports about the exact running time of original rough cut of the movie ; four hours , four and a half hours , or five hours . All deleted footage is believed to be lost . Some of the scenes which were in the original cut but got deleted are : the original opening showing Wyatt and Billy performing in a Los Angeles stunt show ( their real jobs ) , the two of them being ripped off by the promoter , getting in a biker fight , picking up women at a drive-in , cruising to and escaping from Mexico to score the cocaine they sell , an elaborate police and helicopter chase that took place at the beginning after the dope deal with police chasing Wyatt and Billy over mountains and across the Mexican border , the road trip out of L.A. edited to the full length of Steppenwolf 's Born to Be Wild with billboards along the way offering wry commentary , Wyatt and Billy being pulled over by a cop while driving their motorcycles across a highway , the two of them encountering the black motorcycle gang , ten additional minutes for the volatile café scene in Louisiana where George deftly keeps the peace , Wyatt and Billy checking into a hotel before going over to Madam Tinkertoy 's , an extended and much longer Madam Tinkertoy sequence , and extended versions of all the campfire scenes including the enigmatic finale in which Wyatt says `` We blew it , Billy '' . Easy Riders style — the jump cuts , time shifts , flash forwards , flashbacks , jerky hand-held cameras , fractured narrative and improvised acting — can be seen as a cinematic translation of the psychedelic experience . Peter Biskind , author of Easy Riders , Raging Bulls wrote : `` LSD did create a frame of mind that fractured experience and that LSD experience had an effect on films like Easy Rider '' . Motorcycles The motorcycles for the film , based on hardtail frames and panhead engines , were designed and built by two African-American chopper builders — Cliff Vaughs and Ben Hardy — following ideas of Peter Fonda , and handled by Tex Hall and Dan Haggerty during shooting . In total , four former police bikes were used in the film . The 1949 , 1950 and 1952 Harley-Davidson Hydra-Glide bikes were purchased at an auction for $ 500 , equivalent to about $ in . Each bike had a backup to make sure that shooting could continue in case one of the old machines failed or got wrecked accidentally . One `` Captain America '' was demolished in the final scene , while the other three were stolen and probably taken apart before their significance as movie props became known . The demolished bike was rebuilt by Dan Haggerty and shown in a museum . He sold it at an auction in 2001 . It now resides at the National Motorcycle Museum in Anamosa , Iowa . Many replicas have been built since the film 's release . Hopper and Fonda hosted a wrap party for the movie and then realized they had not yet shot the final campfire scene . Thus , it was shot after the bikes had already been stolen , which is why they are not visible in the background as in the other campfire scenes . Reception The film holds an 86 % `` Certified Fresh '' rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 44 reviews , with an average rating of 7.8/10 . Awards and honors Hopper received the First Film Award ( Prix de la première œuvre ) at the 1969 Cannes Film Festival . At the 42nd Academy Awards , Jack Nicholson was nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role , and the film was also nominated for Best Original Screenplay . The film appears at number 88 on the American Film Institute 's list of 100 Years , 100 Movies . In 1998 , Easy Rider was added to the United States National Film Registry , having been deemed `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . '' Significance A box office smash with a $ 60-million intake , of which $ 41.7 million was domestic gross , it became the third highest-grossing film of 1969 . Along with Bonnie and Clyde and The Graduate , Easy Rider helped kick-start the New Hollywood phase during the late 1960s and early 1970s . The major studios realized that money could be made from low-budget films made by avant-garde directors . Heavily influenced by the French New Wave , the films of the so-called `` post-classical Hollywood '' came to represent a counterculture generation increasingly disillusioned with its government as well as the government 's effects on the world at large , and the Establishment in general . Although Jack Nicholson appears only as a supporting actor and in the last half of the film , the standout performance signaled his arrival as a movie star , along with his subsequent film Five Easy Pieces in which he had the lead role . Vice President Spiro Agnew criticized Easy Rider , along with the band Jefferson Airplane , as examples of the permissiveness of the 1960s counterculture . The film 's success , and the new era of Hollywood that it helped usher in , gave Hopper the chance to direct again with complete artistic control . The result was 1971 's The Last Movie , which was a notable box office and critical failure , effectively ending Hopper 's career as a director for well over a decade . Roger Ebert added Easy Rider to his `` Great Movies '' list in 2004 . Music The movie 's `` groundbreaking '' soundtrack featured The Band , The Byrds , The Jimi Hendrix Experience and Steppenwolf . Editor Donn Cambern used various music from his own record collection to make watching hours of bike footage more interesting during editing . Most of Cambern 's music was used , with licensing costs of $ 1 million , more than the film 's budget . The extensive use of pop and rock music for a film 's soundtrack was unusual at the time , especially since the film lacks a classical score . When the band Crosby , Stills , Nash , & Young viewed a rough cut of the film , they assured Hopper that they could not do any better than he already had . Bob Dylan was asked to contribute music , but was reluctant to use his own recording of `` It 's Alright , Ma ( I 'm Only Bleeding ) '' , so a version performed by Byrds frontman Roger McGuinn was used instead . Also , instead of writing an entirely new song for the film , Dylan simply wrote out the first verse of `` Ballad of Easy Rider '' and told the filmmakers , `` Give this to McGuinn , he ’ ll know what to do with it . '' McGuinn completed the song and performed it in the film . Home media The film was released by The Criterion Collection in November 2010 as part of the box set America Lost and Found : The BBS Story . It included two audio commentaries , one featuring actor-director-writer Dennis Hopper , the other with Hopper , actor-writer Peter Fonda , and production manager Paul Lewis ; two documentaries about the making and history of the film , Born to Be Wild ( 1995 ) and Easy Rider : Shaking the Cage ( 1999 ) ; television excerpts showing Hopper and Fonda at the Cannes Film Festival ; and a new video interview with BBS co-founder Stephen Blauner . Sequel In 2012 , a sequel to the movie was released titled Easy Rider : The Ride Back , directed by Dustin Rikert . The film is about the family of Wyatt `` Captain America '' Williams from the 1940s to the present day .

qb_3880--Easy_Rider.txt

Which US actor appeared in the films ‘Ironweed’, ‘The Pledge’ and ‘Easy Rider’?

Spencer Perceval , ( 1 November 1762 – 11 May 1812 ) was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 4 October 1809 until his death on 11 May 1812 . He is the only British prime minister to have been assassinated . He is also the only solicitor general or attorney general to have been prime minister , and the only prime minister whose entire lifetime was spent in the reign of the sovereign under which he held office , George III ( who had become king in 1760 and survived Perceval to 1820 ) . The younger son of an Irish earl , Perceval was educated at Harrow School and Trinity College , Cambridge . He studied law at Lincoln ’ s Inn , practised as a barrister on the Midland circuit and in 1796 became a King ’ s Counsel before entering politics at the age of 33 as a Member of Parliament for Northampton . A follower of William Pitt , Perceval always described himself as a `` friend of Mr Pitt '' rather than a Tory . Perceval was opposed to Catholic emancipation and reform of Parliament ; he supported the war against Napoleon and the abolition of the slave trade . He was opposed to hunting , gambling and adultery , did not drink as much as most Members of Parliament , gave generously to charity , and enjoyed spending time with his twelve children . After a late entry into politics , his rise to power was rapid ; he was solicitor and then attorney general in the Addington Ministry , Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons in the Portland Ministry , and became prime minister in October 1809 . At the head of a weak ministry , Perceval faced a number of crises during his term in office including an inquiry into the Walcheren expedition , the madness of King George III , economic depression and Luddite riots . He overcame these crises , successfully pursued the Peninsular War in the face of opposition defeatism , and won the support of the Prince Regent . His position was looking stronger by the spring of 1812 , when he was assassinated by John Bellingham , a merchant with a grievance against the government , who shot him dead in the lobby of the House of Commons . Although Perceval was a seventh son and had four older brothers who survived to adulthood , the Earldom of Egmont reverted to one of his great-grandsons in the early 20th century and remained in the hands of his descendants until its extinction in 2011 . Childhood and education Perceval was born in Audley Square , Mayfair , the seventh son of John Perceval , 2nd Earl of Egmont ; he was the second son of the Earl ’ s second marriage . His mother , Catherine Compton , Baroness Arden , was a granddaughter of the 4th Earl of Northampton . Spencer was a Compton family name ; Catherine Compton 's great uncle Spencer Compton , 1st Earl of Wilmington , had been prime minister . His father , a political advisor to Frederick , Prince of Wales and King George III , served briefly in the Cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty . Perceval ’ s early childhood was spent at Charlton House , which his father had taken to be near Woolwich docks . Perceval ’ s father died when he was eight . Perceval went to Harrow School , where he was a disciplined and hard-working pupil . It was at Harrow that he developed an interest in evangelical Anglicanism and formed what was to be a lifelong friendship with Dudley Ryder . After five years at Harrow he followed his older brother Charles to Trinity College , Cambridge , where he won the declamation prize in English and graduated in 1782 . Legal career and marriage As the second son of a second marriage , and with an allowance of only £200 a year ( equivalent to about £28,000 in 2014 ) , Perceval faced the prospect of having to make his own way in life . He chose the law as a profession , studied at Lincoln ’ s Inn , and was called to the bar in 1786 . Perceval ’ s mother had died in 1783 , and Perceval and his brother Charles , now Lord Arden , rented a house in Charlton , where they fell in love with two sisters who were living in the Percevals ' old childhood home . The sisters ’ father , Sir Thomas Spencer Wilson , approved of the match between his eldest daughter Margaretta and Lord Arden , who was wealthy and already a Member of Parliament and a Lord of the Admiralty . Perceval , who was at that time an impecunious barrister on the Midland Circuit , was told to wait until the younger daughter , Jane , came of age in three years ’ time . When Jane reached 21 , in 1790 , Perceval ’ s career was still not prospering , and Sir Thomas still opposed the marriage , so the couple eloped and married by special licence in East Grinstead . They set up home together in lodgings over a carpet shop in Bedford Row , later moving to Lindsey House , Lincoln 's Inn Fields . Perceval ’ s family connections obtained a number of positions for him : Deputy Recorder of Northampton , and commissioner of bankrupts in 1790 ; surveyor of the Maltings and clerk of the irons in the mint — a sinecure worth £119 a year – in 1791 ; counsel to the Board of Admiralty in 1794 . He acted as junior counsel for the Crown in the prosecutions of Thomas Paine in absentia for seditious libel ( 1792 ) , and John Horne Tooke for high treason ( 1794 ) . Perceval joined the London and Westminster Light Horse Volunteers in 1794 when the country was under threat of invasion by France and served with them until 1803 . Perceval wrote anonymous pamphlets in favour of the impeachment of Warren Hastings , and in defence of public order against sedition . These pamphlets brought him to the attention of William Pitt the Younger , and in 1795 he was offered the appointment of Chief Secretary for Ireland . He declined the offer . He could earn more as a barrister and needed the money to support his growing family . In 1796 he became a King ’ s Counsel and had an income of about £1000 a year ( equivalent to about £101,000 in 2014 ) . Early political career 1796–1801 In 1796 , Perceval ’ s uncle , the 8th Earl of Northampton , died . Perceval ’ s cousin , who was MP for Northampton , succeeded to the earldom and took his place in the House of Lords . Perceval was invited to stand for election in his place . In the May by-election he was elected unopposed , but weeks later had to defend his seat in a fiercely contested general election . Northampton had an electorate of about one thousand — every male householder not in receipt of poor relief had a vote — and the town had a strong radical tradition . Perceval stood for the Castle Ashby interest , Edward Bouverie for the Whigs , and William Walcot for the corporation . After a disputed count Perceval and Bouverie were returned . Perceval represented Northampton until his death 16 years later , and is the only MP for Northampton to have held the office of prime minister . 1796 was his first and last contested election ; in the general elections of 1802 , 1806 and 1807 Perceval and Bouverie were returned unopposed . When Perceval took his seat in the House of Commons in September 1796 his political views were already formed . `` He was for the constitution and Pitt ; he was against Fox and France '' , wrote his biographer Denis Gray . During the 1796–1797 session he made several speeches , always reading from notes . His public speaking skills had been sharpened at the Crown and Rolls debating society when he was a law student . After taking his seat in the House of Commons , Perceval continued with his legal practice as MPs did not receive a salary , and the House only sat for a part of the year . During the Parliamentary recess of the summer of 1797 he was senior counsel for the Crown in the prosecution of John Binns for sedition . Binns , who was defended by Samuel Romilly , was found not guilty . The fees from his legal practice allowed Perceval to take out a lease on a country house , Belsize House in Hampstead . It was during the next session of Parliament , in January 1798 , that Perceval established his reputation as a debater — and his prospects as a future minister — with a speech in support of the Assessed Taxes Bill ( a bill to increase the taxes on houses , windows , male servants , horses and carriages , in order to finance the war against France ) . He used the occasion to mount an attack on Charles Fox and his demands for reform . Pitt described the speech as one of the best he had ever heard , and later that year Perceval was given the post of Solicitor to the Ordnance . Solicitor and attorney general 1801–1806 Pitt resigned in 1801 when the King and Cabinet opposed his bill for Catholic emancipation . As Perceval shared the King ’ s views on Catholic emancipation he did not feel obliged to follow Pitt into opposition and his career continued to prosper during Henry Addington ’ s administration . He was appointed solicitor general in 1801 and attorney general the following year . Perceval did not agree with Addington 's general policies ( especially on foreign policy ) , and confined himself to speeches on legal issues . He kept the position of attorney general when Addington resigned and Pitt formed his second ministry in 1804 . As attorney general Perceval was involved with the prosecution of radicals Edward Despard and William Cobbett , but was also responsible for more liberal decisions on trade unions , and for improving the conditions of convicts transported to New South Wales . When Pitt died , in January 1806 , Perceval was an emblem bearer at his funeral and , although he had little money to spare ( by now he had eleven children ) , he contributed £1000 towards a fund to pay off Pitt ’ s debts . He resigned as attorney general , refusing to serve in Lord Grenville ’ s ministry of `` all the talents '' as it included Fox . Instead he became the leader of the Pittite opposition in the House of Commons . During his period in opposition , Perceval ’ s legal skills were put to use to defend Princess Caroline , the estranged wife of the Prince of Wales , during the `` delicate investigation '' . The Princess had been accused of giving birth to an illegitimate child and the Prince of Wales ordered an inquiry , hoping to obtain evidence for a divorce . The government inquiry found that the main accusation was untrue ( the child in question had been adopted by the Princess ) but was critical of the behaviour of the Princess . The opposition sprang to her defence and Perceval became her advisor , drafting a 156-page letter in her support to King George III . Known as `` The Book '' , it was described by Perceval ’ s biographer as `` the last and greatest production of his legal career '' . When the King refused to let Caroline return to court , Perceval threatened publication of The Book . But Grenville ’ s ministry fell – again over a difference of opinion with the King on the Catholic question – before The Book could be distributed and , as a member of the new government , Perceval drafted a cabinet minute acquitting Caroline on all charges and recommending her return to court . He had a bonfire of The Book at Lindsey House and large sums of government money were spent on buying back stray copies , but a few remained at large and The Book was published soon after his death . Chancellor of the Exchequer 1807–1809 On the resignation of Grenville , the Duke of Portland put together a ministry of Pittites and asked Perceval to become Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons . Perceval would have preferred to remain attorney general or become home secretary , and pleaded ignorance of financial affairs . He agreed to take the position when the salary ( smaller than that of the Home Office ) was augmented by the Duchy of Lancaster . Lord Hawkesbury ( later Liverpool ) recommended him to the King by explaining that he came from an old English family and shared the King ’ s views on the Catholic question . Perceval ’ s youngest child , Ernest Augustus , was born soon after Perceval became chancellor ( Princess Caroline was godmother ) . Jane Perceval became ill after the birth and the family moved out of the damp and draughty Belsize House , spending a few months in Lord Teignmouth ’ s house in Clapham before finding a suitable country house in Ealing . Elm Grove was a 16th-century house that had been the home of the Bishop of Durham ; Perceval paid £7,500 for it in 1808 ( borrowing from his brother Lord Arden and the trustees of Jane ’ s dowry ) and the Perceval family ’ s long association with Ealing began . Meanwhile , in town , Perceval had moved from Lindsey House into 10 Downing Street , when the Duke of Portland moved back to Burlington House shortly after becoming prime minister . One of Perceval ’ s first tasks in Cabinet was to expand the Orders in Council that had been brought in by the previous administration and were designed to restrict the trade of neutral countries with France , in retaliation to Napoleon ’ s embargo on British trade . He was also responsible for ensuring that Wilberforce ’ s bill on the abolition of the slave trade , which had still not passed its final stages in the House of Lords when Grenville ’ s ministry fell , would not `` fall between the two ministries '' and be rejected in a snap division . Perceval was one of the founding members of the African Institute , which was set up in April 1807 to safeguard the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act . As Chancellor of the Exchequer , Perceval had to raise money to finance the war against Napoleon . This he managed to do in his budgets of 1808 and 1809 without increasing taxes , by raising loans at reasonable rates and making economies . As leader of the House of Commons he had to deal with a strong opposition , which challenged the government over the conduct of the war , Catholic emancipation , corruption and Parliamentary reform . Perceval successfully defended the commander-in-chief of the army , the Duke of York , against charges of corruption when the Duke ’ s ex-mistress Mary Anne Clarke claimed to have sold army commissions with his knowledge . Although Parliament voted to acquit the Duke of the main charge , his conduct was criticised and he accepted Perceval ’ s advice to resign . ( He was to be re-instated in 1811 ) . Portland ’ s ministry contained three future prime-ministers – Perceval , Lord Hawkesbury and George Canning – as well as another two of the 19th-century ’ s great statesmen : Lord Eldon and Lord Castlereagh . But Portland was not a strong leader and his health was failing . The country was plunged into political crisis in the summer of 1809 as Canning schemed against Castlereagh and the Duke of Portland resigned following a stroke . Negotiations began to find a new prime minister : Canning wanted to be either prime minister or nothing , Perceval was prepared to serve under a third person , but not Canning . The remnants of the cabinet decided to invite Lord Grey and Lord Grenville to form `` an extended and combined administration '' in which Perceval was hoping for the home secretaryship . But Grenville and Grey refused to enter into negotiations , and the King accepted the Cabinet ’ s recommendation of Perceval for his new prime minister . Perceval kissed the King ’ s hands on 4 October and set about forming his Cabinet , a task made more difficult by the fact that Castlereagh and Canning had ruled themselves out of consideration by fighting a duel ( which Perceval had tried to prevent ) . Having received five refusals for the office , he had to serve as his own Chancellor of the Exchequer – characteristically declining to accept the salary . Prime minister 1809–1812 The new ministry was not expected to last . It was especially weak in the Commons , where Perceval had only one cabinet member – Home Secretary Richard Ryder – and had to rely on the support of backbenchers in debate . In the first week of the new Parliamentary session in January 1810 the government lost four divisions , one on a motion for an inquiry into the Walcheren Expedition ( in which , the previous summer , a military force intending to seize Antwerp had instead withdrawn after losing many men to an epidemic on the island of Walcheren off the Dutch coast ) and three on the composition of the finance committee . The government survived the inquiry into the Walcheren Expedition at the cost of the resignation of the expedition ’ s leader Lord Chatham . The radical MP Sir Francis Burdett was committed to the Tower of London for having published a letter in William Cobbett ’ s Political Register denouncing the government ’ s exclusion of the press from the inquiry . It took three days , owing to various blunders , to execute the warrant for Burdett ’ s arrest . The mob took to the streets in support of Burdett , troops were called out , and there were fatal casualties . As Chancellor , Perceval continued to find the funds to finance Wellington ’ s campaign in the Iberian Peninsula , whilst contracting a lower debt than his predecessors or successors . King George III had celebrated his Golden Jubilee in 1809 ; by the following autumn he was showing signs of a return of the illness that had led to a Regency in 1788 . The prospect of another Regency was not attractive to Perceval , as the Prince of Wales was known to favour Whigs and disliked Perceval for the part he had played in the `` delicate investigation '' . Twice Parliament was adjourned in November 1810 , as doctors gave optimistic reports about the King ’ s chances of a return to health . In December select committees of the Lords and Commons heard evidence from the doctors , and Perceval finally wrote to the Prince of Wales on 19 December saying that he planned the next day to introduce a regency bill . As with Pitt ’ s bill in 1788 , there would be restrictions : the regent ’ s powers to create peers and award offices and pensions would be restricted for 12 months , the Queen would be responsible for the care of the King , and the King ’ s private property would be looked after by trustees . The Prince of Wales , supported by the Opposition , objected to the restrictions , but Perceval steered the bill through Parliament . Everyone had expected the Regent to change his ministers but , surprisingly , he chose to retain his old enemy Perceval . The official reason given by the Regent was that he did not wish to do anything to aggravate his father ’ s illness . The King signed the regency bill on 5 February , the Regent took the royal oath the following day and Parliament formally opened for the 1811 session . The session was largely taken up with problems in Ireland , economic depression and the bullion controversy in England ( a bill was passed to make bank notes legal tender ) , and military operations in the peninsula . The restrictions on the Regency expired in February 1812 , the King was still showing no signs of recovery , and the Prince Regent decided , after an unsuccessful attempt to persuade Grey and Grenville to join the government , to retain Perceval and his ministers . Richard Wellesley , 1st Marquess Wellesley , after intrigues with the Prince Regent , resigned as foreign secretary and was replaced by Castlereagh . The opposition meanwhile was mounting an attack on the Orders in Council , which had caused a crisis in relations with America and were widely blamed for depression and unemployment in England . Rioting had broken out in the Midlands and North , and been harshly repressed . Henry Brougham 's motion for a select committee was defeated in the Commons , but , under continuing pressure from manufacturers , the government agreed to set up a Committee of the Whole House to consider the Orders in Council and their impact on trade and manufacture . The committee began its examination of witnesses in early May 1812 . Assassination At 5:15 pm , on the evening of 11 May 1812 , Perceval was on his way to attend the inquiry into the Orders in Council . As he entered the lobby of the House of Commons , a man stepped forward , drew a pistol and shot him in the chest . Perceval fell to the floor , after uttering something that was variously heard as `` murder '' and `` oh my god '' . They were his last words . By the time he had been carried into an adjoining room and propped up on a table with his feet on two chairs , he was senseless , although there was still a faint pulse . When a surgeon arrived a few minutes later , the pulse had stopped , and Perceval was declared dead . At first it was feared that the shot might signal the start of an uprising , but it soon became apparent that the assassin—who had made no attempt to escape—was a man with an obsessive grievance against the Government and had acted alone . The assassin , John Bellingham , was a merchant who believed he had been unjustly imprisoned in Russia and was entitled to compensation from the government , but all his petitions had been rejected . Perceval ’ s body was laid on a sofa in the speaker ’ s drawing room and removed to Number 10 in the early hours of 12 May . That same morning an inquest was held at the Cat and Bagpipes public house on the corner of Downing Street and a verdict of wilful murder was returned . Perceval left a widow and twelve children aged between three and twenty , and there were soon rumours that he had not left them well provided for . He had just £106 5s 1d in the bank when he died . A few days after his death , Parliament voted to settle £50,000 on Perceval ’ s children , with additional annuities for his widow and eldest son . Jane Perceval married Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Henry Carr , brother of the Reverend Robert James Carr , then Vicar of Brighton , in 1815 and was widowed again six years later . She died aged 74 in 1844 . Perceval was buried on 16 May in the Egmont vault at St Luke 's Church , Charlton . At his widow 's request , it was a private funeral . Lord Eldon , Lord Liverpool , Lord Harrowby and Richard Ryder were the pall-bearers . The previous day , Bellingham had been tried , and , refusing to enter a plea of insanity , was found guilty . He was hanged on 18 May . In a curious echo Henry Bellingham , who says he is descended from a relative of Bellingham 's , was elected in 1983 as the Member of Parliament for North West Norfolk . In 1997 he lost the seat by 1,339 votes . This could be attributed in part to the 2,923 votes received by the Referendum Party candidate Roger Percival , who newspapers claimed to be descended from Perceval . Legacy Perceval was a small , slight , and very pale man , who usually dressed in black . Lord Eldon called him `` Little P '' . He never sat for a full-sized portrait ; likenesses are either miniatures or are based on a death mask by Joseph Nollekens . Perceval was the last British prime minister to wear a powdered wig tied in a queue , and knee-breeches according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century . He is sometimes referred to as one of Britain 's forgotten prime ministers , remembered only for the manner of his death . Although not considered an inspirational leader , he is generally seen as a devout , industrious , principled man who at the head of a weak government steered the country through difficult times . A contemporary MP Henry Grattan , used a naval analogy to describe Perceval : `` He is not a ship-of-the-line , but he carries many guns , is tight-built and is out in all weathers '' . Perceval 's modern biographer , Denis Gray , described him as `` a herald of the Victorians '' . Perceval was mourned by many ; Lord Chief Justice Sir James Mansfield wept during his summing up to the jury at Bellingham 's trial . But in some quarters he was unpopular and in Nottingham the crowds that gathered following his assassination were in more cheerful mood . Public monuments to Perceval were erected in Northampton , Lincoln 's Inn and Westminster Abbey . Four biographies have been published : a book on his life and administration by Charles Verulam Williams , which appeared soon after his death ; his grandson Spencer Walpole 's biography in 1894 ; Philip Treherne 's short biography in 1909 ; Denis Gray 's 500-page political biography in 1963 . In addition there are three books about his assassination , one by Mollie Gillen , one by David Hanrahan , and the latest by Andro Linklater entitled Why Spencer Perceval Had to Die . Perceval 's assassination inspired poems such as Universal sympathy on the martyr 'd statesman ( 1812 ) : One of Perceval 's most noted critics , especially on the question of Catholic emancipation , was the cleric Sydney Smith . In Peter Plymley 's Letters Smith writes : If I lived at Hampstead upon stewed meats and claret ; if I walked to church every Sunday before eleven young gentlemen of my own begetting , with their faces washed , and their hair pleasingly combed ; if the Almighty had blessed me with every earthly comfort—how awfully would I pause before I sent forth the flame and the sword over the cabins of the poor , brave , generous , open-hearted peasants of Ireland ! American historian Henry Adams suggested that it was this picture of Perceval that stayed in the minds of Liberals for a whole generation . In July 2014 , a memorial plaque was unveiled in St Stephen 's Hall , Houses of Parliament , close to the place where Perceval was killed . Michael Ellis , Conservative MP for Northampton North ( part of Perceval 's old Northampton constituency ) had campaigned for the plaque . Family Spencer and Jane Perceval had thirteen children , of whom twelve survived to adulthood . * Jane ( 1791–1824 ) married her cousin Edward Perceval , son of Lord Arden , in 1821 and lived in Felpham , Sussex . She died three years after marrying , apparently in childbirth . * Frances ( 1792–1877 ) lived with her mother and three unmarried sisters in Elm Grove , Ealing . On her mother ’ s death the sisters moved to nearby Pitzhanger Manor House , while her brother Spencer took over Elm Grove . * Maria ( 1794–1877 ) lived with her unmarried sisters in Ealing . * Spencer ( 1795–1859 ) was , like his father , educated at Harrow and Trinity College , Cambridge . After Perceval 's assassination Spencer junior had been voted an annuity of £1000 , free legal training at Lincoln 's Inn and a tellership of the Exchequer , all of

qz_4140--Spencer_Perceval.txt

Who was the only Prime Minister of Britain to be assassinated?

Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is a novella by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson first published in 1886 . The work is commonly known today as The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde , Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde , or simply Jekyll & Hyde . It is about a London lawyer named Gabriel John Utterson who investigates strange occurrences between his old friend , Dr. Henry Jekyll , and the evil Edward Hyde . The novella 's impact is such that it has become a part of the language , with the very phrase `` Jekyll and Hyde '' coming to mean a person who is vastly different in moral character from one situation to the next . There have been many audio recordings of the novella , with some of the more famous readers including Tom Baker , Roger Rees , Christopher Lee , Anthony Quayle , Martin Jarvis , Tim Pigott-Smith , John Hurt , Ian Holm and Gene Lockhart . Inspiration and writing Stevenson had long been intrigued by the idea of how personalities can affect a human and how to incorporate the interplay of good and evil into a story . While still a teenager , he developed a script for a play about Deacon Brodie , which he later reworked with the help of W. E. Henley and was produced for the first time in 1882 . In early 1884 he wrote the short story `` Markheim '' , which he revised in 1884 for publication in a Christmas annual . One night in late September or early October 1885 , possibly while he was still revising `` Markheim , '' Stevenson had a dream , and upon wakening had the intuition for two or three scenes that would appear in the story . Biographer Graham Balfour quoted Stevenson 's wife Fanny Stevenson : In the small hours of one morning , [ ... ] I was awakened by cries of horror from Louis . Thinking he had a nightmare , I awakened him . He said angrily : `` Why did you wake me ? I was dreaming a fine bogey tale . '' I had awakened him at the first transformation scene . Lloyd Osbourne , Stevenson 's stepson , wrote : `` I do n't believe that there was ever such a literary feat before as the writing of Dr Jekyll . I remember the first disease of the world though it were yesterday . Louis came downstairs in a fever ; read nearly half the book aloud ; and then , while we were still gasping , he was away again , and busy writing . I doubt if the first draft took so long as three days . '' Louis Vivet , a mental patient who was suffering from split-personality disorder , caught Stevenson 's inspiration while developing the story . As was customary , Mrs Stevenson would read the draft and offer her criticisms in the margins . Louis was confined to bed at the time from a haemorrhage . Therefore , she left her comments with the manuscript and Louis in the toilet . She said that in effect the story was really an allegory , but Louis was writing it as a story . After a while Louis called her back into the bedroom and pointed to a pile of ashes : he had burnt the manuscript in fear that he would try to salvage it , and in the process forced himself to start again from nothing , writing an allegorical story as she had suggested . Scholars debate whether he really burnt his manuscript ; there is no direct factual evidence for the burning , but it remains an integral part of the history of the novella . Stevenson re-wrote the story in three to six days . A number of later biographers have alleged that Stevenson was on drugs during the frantic re-write ; for example , William Gray 's revisionist history A Literary Life ( 2004 ) said he used cocaine , while other biographers said he used ergot . However , the standard history , according to the accounts of his wife and son ( and himself ) , says he was bed-ridden and sick while writing it . According to Osbourne , `` The mere physical feat was tremendous and , instead of harming him , it roused and cheered him inexpressibly '' . He continued to refine the work for four to six weeks after the initial re-write . The novella was written in the southern English sea side town of Bournemouth , where Stevenson had moved due to ill health , to benefit from its sea air and warmer southern climate . The name Jekyll was borrowed from Reverend Walter Jekyll , a friend of Stevenson and younger brother of horticulturalist and landscape designer Gertrude Jekyll . Plot Gabriel John Utterson , a lawyer , is on his weekly walk with his cousin , Richard Enfield . During that walk , they reach a door leading into a rather large house , and this motivates Enfield to tell Utterson of an encounter he had seen some months ago while coming home late at night between a man and a young girl . The man , a sinister figure named Edward Hyde , and a young girl , who has run to get a doctor , accidentally bump into one another , but Hyde proceeds to trample her . Enfield chases after Hyde , brings him back to the scene , and , after the doctor assures them that the girl is okay , though frightened , joins with the girl 's family in forcing Hyde to pay £100 to avoid the scandal they will otherwise spread for his despicable behaviour . Hyde leads them to the building in front of which Enfield and Utterson have now paused , where he disappears , and re-emerges with £10 in gold and a cheque for the rest , drawn on the account of a reputable gentleman . ( This gentleman is later revealed to be Dr. Henry Jekyll , one of Utterson 's clients and old friends . ) Jekyll had recently so draughted his will as to make Hyde the sole beneficiary in case of his death or—much to Utterson 's disturbance—his disappearance for more than three months . This development concerns and disturbs Utterson , who makes an effort to seek out Hyde , fearing that Hyde is blackmailing Jekyll . When he finally sees Hyde , the latter 's ugliness , as if deformed , amazes Utterson . Although Utterson can not say exactly how or why , Hyde provokes an instinctive feeling of revulsion in him . Much to Utterson 's surprise , Hyde willingly offers Utterson his address . After one of Jekyll 's dinner parties , Utterson stays behind to discuss the matter of Hyde with Jekyll . This causes Jekyll to turn pale , which Utterson notices . Yet Jekyll assures Utterson that everything involving Hyde is in order and that Hyde should be left alone . A year passes uneventfully . One night in late October , a servant girl witnesses Hyde beat a man to death with a heavy cane . The victim was MP Sir Danvers Carew , another of Utterson 's clients , who was carrying a letter addressed to Utterson when he was killed . The police , who suspect Hyde , contact Utterson . He leads the officers to Hyde 's apartment , feeling a sense of foreboding amid the eerie weather . ( The morning is dark and wreathed in fog . ) When they arrive at the apartment , the murderer has vanished , but they find half of the cane ( described as being made of a strong wood but broken due to the beating ) left behind a door . It is revealed to be one which Utterson himself gave to Jekyll . Shortly thereafter , Utterson again visits Jekyll , who now claims to have ended all relations with Hyde . Jekyll shows Utterson a note , allegedly written to Jekyll by Hyde , apologising for the trouble that he has caused him and saying goodbye . That night , however , Utterson 's clerk , Mr . Guest , points out that Hyde 's handwriting bears a remarkable similarity to Jekyll 's own . For two months , Jekyll reverts to his former friendly and sociable manner , as if a weight has been lifted from his shoulders . But in early January , Jekyll suddenly starts refusing visitors , and Dr. Hastie Lanyon , a mutual acquaintance of Jekyll and Utterson , dies suddenly of shock after receiving information relating to Jekyll . Before his death , Lanyon gives Utterson a letter , with instructions that he should only open it after Jekyll 's death or his disappearance . In late February , Utterson goes out walking with Enfield , and they see Jekyll at a window of his laboratory . The three men start conversing , but a look of horror suddenly comes over Jekyll 's face , and he slams the window and disappears . Soon afterwards , in early March , Jekyll 's butler , Mr. Poole , visits Utterson in a state of desperation and explains that Jekyll has secluded himself in his laboratory for several weeks . Utterson and Poole travel to Jekyll 's house through empty , windswept , sinister streets . Once there , they find the servants huddled together in fear . They go to see the laboratory where they hear that the voice coming from inside is not the voice of Jekyll and the footsteps are light and not the heavy footsteps of the doctor . After arguing for a time , the two of them resolve to break into Jekyll 's laboratory . Inside , they find the body of Hyde wearing Jekyll 's clothes and apparently dead from suicide . They find also , as the second of three enclosures within a large envelope , a letter from Jekyll to Utterson promising to explain the entire mystery . ( The first is a re-draughted will which disinherits Edward Hyde and names Gabriel John Utterson sole residuary legatee . ) Utterson takes the document , the third enclosure , back to his home , where he first reads Lanyon 's letter and then Jekyll 's . The first reveals that Lanyon 's deterioration and eventual death resulted from the shock of seeing Hyde drinking a serum ( potion or `` draught '' ) and , as a result of doing so , turning into Dr. Jekyll . The second letter explains that Jekyll , having previously indulged unstated vices ( and with it the fear that discovery would lead to his losing his social position ) found a way to transform himself ( writing of `` the most racking pangs '' accompanying this transformation ) and thereby indulge his vices without fear of detection . But Jekyll 's transformed personality , Hyde , was effectively a sociopath—evil , self-indulgent , and utterly uncaring to anyone but himself . Initially , Jekyll was able to control the transformations , but one night in August , he became Hyde involuntarily in his sleep . At this point , Jekyll resolved to cease becoming Hyde . On the October night of Sir Danvers Carew 's murder , however , the urge gripped him too strongly , and after the transformation he immediately rushed out and violently killed Sir Danvers . Horrified , Jekyll tried more adamantly to stop the transformations , and for a time he proved successful by engaging in philanthropic work . One day in early January , at a park , he considered how good a person he had become as a result of his deeds in comparison to others , believing himself redeemed . However , before he completed his line of thought , he was seized by sensations of agony ; once they had faded , he looked down at his hands and realised that he had suddenly transformed once again into Hyde . This was the first time that an involuntary metamorphosis had happened in waking hours . Far from the chemicals in his laboratory and now hunted by the police as a murderer , Hyde needed help to avoid being caught . He wrote to Lanyon ( in Jekyll 's hand ) , asking his friend to retrieve the contents of a cabinet in his laboratory and to meet him at midnight at Lanyon 's home in Cavendish Square . In Lanyon 's presence , Hyde mixed the chemicals , drank the draught , and transformed back into Jekyll . The shock of the sight , for which Lanyon condemned Jekyll and declared the two former friends irredeemably estranged , instigated Lanyon 's deterioration and death . Meanwhile , Jekyll returned to his home , only to find himself ever more helpless and trapped as the transformations increased in frequency and necessitated even larger doses of the draught to reverse them . It was the onset of one of these spontaneous metamorphoses that caused Jekyll to slam his laboratory window shut in the middle of his conversation with Enfield and Utterson . Eventually , one of the medicinal chemicals from which Jekyll had been preparing the draught ran low , and subsequent batches prepared by Jekyll from renewed stocks failed to produce the transformation . Jekyll speculated that the one essential ingredient that made the original draught work ( a salt ) must have been contaminated . After sending his butler Poole to one chemist after another , to purchase the salt that was running low , only to find it ineffective , he deduced that it was the contaminant itself that was the essential ingredient that made the draught successful for his experiments , and subsequent supplies all lacked it . His ability to change back from Hyde into Jekyll had slowly vanished in consequence . In March , as he inscribed his `` confession , '' Jekyll wrote that even as he composed his letter , he knew that he would soon become Hyde permanently , having used the last of this salt , and he wondered if Hyde would face execution for his crimes or choose to kill himself . Jekyll noted that , in either case , the end of his letter marked the end of the life of Dr. Jekyll . He ended the letter by saying , `` I bring the life of that unhappy Henry Jekyll to an end . '' With these words , both the document and the novella come to a close . Characters Dr. Henry Jekyll/Mr . Edward Hyde Dr. Jekyll is a `` large , well-made , smooth-faced man of fifty with something of a slyish cast '' , who occasionally feels he is battling between the good and evil within himself , thus leading to the struggle between his dual personalities of Henry Jekyll and Edward Hyde . He has spent a great part of his life trying to repress evil urges that were not fitting for a man of his stature . He creates a serum , or potion , in an attempt to mask this hidden evil within his personality . However , in doing so , Jekyll transforms into the smaller , younger , cruel , remorseless , evil Hyde . Jekyll has many friends and has an amiable personality , but as Hyde , he becomes mysterious and violent . As time goes by , Hyde grows in power . After taking the potion repeatedly , he no longer relies upon it to unleash his inner demon , i.e. , his alter ego . Eventually , Hyde grows so strong that Jekyll becomes reliant on the potion to remain conscious . Gabriel John Utterson Gabriel John Utterson , a lawyer and loyal friend of Jekyll 's ( and Lanyon 's ) , is the character the narrator focuses on , and follows in Utterson 's quest to discover the identity of Hyde . Utterson is a measured , and at all times emotionless , bachelor – who nonetheless seems believable , trustworthy , tolerant of the faults of others , and indeed genuinely likeable . Utterson has been close friends with Lanyon and Dr. Jekyll . However , Utterson is not immune to guilt , as , while he is quick to investigate and judge the faults of others even for the benefit of his friends , Stevenson states that `` he was humbled to the dust by the many ill things he had done '' . Whatever these `` ill things '' may be , he does not partake in gossip or other views of the upper class out of respect for his fellow man . Often the last remaining friend of the down-falling , he finds an interest in others ' downfalls , which creates a spark of interest not only in Jekyll but also regarding Hyde . He comes to the conclusion that human downfall results from indulging oneself in topics of interest . As a result of this line of reasoning , he lives life as a recluse and `` dampens his taste for the finer items of life '' . Utterson concludes that Jekyll lives life as he wishes by enjoying his occupation . Richard Enfield Richard Enfield is Utterson 's distant relative and is a well known `` man about town '' , suggesting a certain sexual licentiousness . Evidence to support this is that he first sees Hyde at about three in the morning in an episode that is well documented as Hyde is running over a little girl . He is the person who mentions to Utterson the actual personality of Jekyll 's heir , Hyde . Enfield witnessed Hyde running over a little girl in the street recklessly , and the group of witnesses , with the girl 's parents and other residents , force Hyde into writing a cheque for the girl 's family . Enfield discovers that Jekyll signed the cheque , which is genuine . He says that Hyde is disgusting looking but finds himself stumped when asked to describe the man . Dr. Hastie Lanyon A longtime friend of Jekyll 's , Hastie Lanyon disagrees with his `` scientific '' concepts , which Lanyon describes as `` ... too fanciful '' . He is the first person to discover Hyde 's true identity ( Hyde transforms himself back into Jekyll in Lanyon 's presence ) . Lanyon helps Utterson solve the case , when he describes the letter given to him by Jekyll , and his thoughts and reactions to the transformation . When Lanyon witnesses the transformation process ( and subsequently hears Jekyll 's private confession , made to him alone ) , Lanyon becomes critically ill and later dies of shock . Mr. Poole Poole is Jekyll 's butler who has lived with him for many years . Upon noticing the reclusiveness and changes of his master , Poole goes to Utterson with the fear that his master has been murdered and his murderer , Mr Hyde , is residing in the chambers . Poole serves Jekyll faithfully , and attempts to do a good job and be loyal to his master . Yet events finally drive him into joining forces with Utterson to find the truth . Inspector Newcomen Utterson joins this Scotland Yard inspector after the murder of Sir Danvers Carew . They explore Hyde 's loft in Soho and discover evidence of his depraved life . He is driven by professional ambition and sees the murder of Sir Danvers Carew as a way to further his career . Sir Danvers Carew , MP A kind , white-haired old man and an important Member of Parliament . The maid claims that Hyde , in a murderous rage , killed Carew in the streets of London on the night of 18 October ( sometime between 11 pm and 2 am by the testimony of the maid ) . At the time of his death , Carew is 70 years old and is carrying on his person a letter addressed to Utterson . As a result , the police subsequently interview Utterson with regard to the murder . Maid A maid , whose employer Hyde had once visited , is the only person who claims to have witnessed the murder of Sir Danvers Carew . She states that she believes Hyde murdered Carew . Having fainted after seeing what happened , she then wakes up and rushes to the police , thus initiating the murder case . Analysis Literary genres which critics have applied as a framework for interpreting the novel include religious allegory , fable , detective story , sensation fiction , Doppelgänger literature , Scottish devil tales and gothic novel . Themes Dualities The novella is frequently interpreted as an examination of the duality of human nature , usually expressed as an inner struggle between good and evil , with variations such as human versus animal , civlization versus barbarism sometimes substituted , the main thrust being that of an essential inner struggle between the one and other , and that the failure to accept this tension results in evil , or barbarity , or animal violence , being projected onto others . In Freudian theory the thoughts and desires banished to the unconscious mind motivate the behaviour of the conscious mind . If someone banishes all evil to the unconscious mind in an attempt to be wholly and completely good , it can result in the development of a Mr Hyde-type aspect to that person 's character . This failure to accept the tension of duality is related to Christian theology , where Satan 's fall from Heaven is due to his refusal to accept that he is a created being ( that he has a dual nature ) and is not God . This idea is suggested when Hyde says to Lanyon , shortly before drinking the famous potion – `` ... and your sight shall be blasted by a prodigy to stagger the unbelief of Satan . '' This is because in Christianity , pride ( to consider oneself as without sin or without evil ) is the greatest sin , as it is the precursor to evil itself . In his discussion of the novel , Vladimir Nabokov argues that the `` good versus evil '' view of the novel is misleading , as Jekyll himself is not , by Victorian standards , a morally good person . Public vs private The work is commonly associated today with the Victorian concern over the public and private division , the individual 's sense of playing a part and the class division of London In this respect , the novella has also been noted as `` one of the best guidebooks of the Victorian era '' because of its piercing description of the fundamental dichotomy of the 19th century `` outward respectability and inward lust , '' as this period had a tendency for social hypocrisy . Scottish nationalism vs union with Britain Another common interpretation sees the novella 's duality as representative of Scotland and the Scottish character . In this reading the duality represents the national and linguistic dualities inherent in Scotland 's relationship with the wider Britain and the English language , respectively , and also the repressive effects of the Church of Scotland on the Scottish character . [ http : //www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/dec/13/dr-jekyll-mr-hyde-stevenson The Beast Within ] The Guardian , 13 December 2008 A further parallel is also drawn with the city of Edinburgh itself , Stevenson 's birthplace , which consists of two distinct parts : the old medieval section historically inhabited by the city 's poor , where the dark crowded slums were rife with all types of crime , and the modern Georgian area of wide spacious streets representing respectability . Reception Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde was an immediate success and is one of Stevenson 's best-selling works . Stage adaptations began in Boston and London and soon moved all across England and then towards his home Scotland . The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde was initially sold as a paperback for one shilling in the UK and one dollar in the U.S .. The American publisher issued the book on 5 January 1886 , four days before the first appearance of the UK edition issued by Longmans ; Scribner 's published 3000 copies , only 1250 of them bound in cloth . Initially stores would not stock it until a review appeared in The Times , on 25 January 1886 , giving it a favourable reception . Within the next six months , close to forty thousand copies were sold . As Stevenson 's biographer , Graham Balfour , wrote in 1901 , the book 's success was probably due rather to the `` moral instincts of the public '' than to any conscious perception of the merits of its art . It was read by those who never read fiction and quoted in pulpit sermons and in religious papers . By 1901 it was estimated to have sold over 250,000 copies in the United States . Adaptations There have been numerous adaptations of the novella including over 120 stage and film versions alone .

wh_2708--Strange_Case_of_Dr_Jekyll_and_Mr_Hyde.txt

In the novel Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde , what is Dr Jekyll's first name ?

Australia ( officially known as the Commonwealth of Australia ) is a federation of six states , together with ten federal territories . The Australian mainland consists of five of the six federated statesthe state of Tasmania is an island in close proximity to the mainlandand three of the federal territories . Aside from the Australian Antarctic Territory , which is Australia 's claim to part of Antarctica , Australia is the world 's sixth-largest country by total area . The three mainland territories are classified for some purposes as `` internal '' territories , the others as `` external '' territories . All states and the two largest internal territories are partially self-governing , as well as being represented in the federal parliament ; the other territories are administered by the federal government . Since 2015 , federal control has also been extended to the formerly self-governing territory of Norfolk Island . Three of the external territories are inhabited ; the others are uninhabited , apart from non-permanent scientists . Geographic Australia The term geographic Australia is used by the Australian government to describe the area covered by demographic statistics such as national population figures . This area comprises Christmas Island and the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands in addition to the six states and three mainland territories . Norfolk Island is the only territory with a native population that is not part of geographic Australia . External territories , states and territories See also : List of State codes Australia has had three now-defunct territories in its history : * From 1926 to 1931 , the Northern Territory was divided into Central Australia and North Australia , with the border at the 20th parallel south . Both territories were reincorporated as the Northern Territory at the end of this period . * From 1949 to 1975 , the Territory of Papua and New Guinea was a territory of Australia , remaining so until the independence of the country of Papua New Guinea . Background and overview The states originated as separate British colonies prior to Federation in 1901 . The Colony of New South Wales was founded in 1788 and originally comprised much of the Australian mainland , as well as Lord Howe Island , New Zealand , Norfolk Island , and Van Diemen 's Land , in addition to the area currently referred to as the state of New South Wales . During the 19th century , large areas were successively separated to form the Colony of Tasmania ( initially established as a separate colony named Van Diemen 's Land in 1825 ) , the Colony of Western Australia ( initially established as the smaller Swan River Colony in 1829 ) , the Province of South Australia ( 1836 ) , the Colony of New Zealand ( 1840 ) , the Victoria Colony ( 1851 ) and the Colony of Queensland ( 1859 ) . Upon Federation , the six colonies of New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , and Tasmania became the founding states of the new Commonwealth of Australia . Legislative powers of the states are protected by the Australian constitution , section 107 , and under the principle of federalism Commonwealth legislation only applies to the states where permitted by the constitution . The territories , by contrast , are from a constitutional perspective directly subject to the Commonwealth Government . The Australian Parliament has power to legislate in the territories that it does not possess in the states : Constitution section 122 . Most of the territories are directly administered by the Commonwealth Government , while two ( the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have some degree of self-government although less than that of the states . In the self-governing territories , the Australian Parliament retains the full power to legislate , and can override laws made by the territorial institutions , which it has done on rare occasions . For the purposes of Australian ( and joint Australia-New Zealand ) intergovernmental bodies , the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory are treated as if they were states . Each state has a Governor , appointed by the Queen , which by convention she does on the advice of the state Premier . The Administrator of the Northern Territory , by contrast , is appointed by the Governor-General . The Australian Capital Territory has neither a Governor nor an Administrator , but the Governor-General exercises some powers that in other jurisdictions are exercised by the Governor of a state or Administrator of a territory , such as the power to dissolve the Legislative Assembly . Jervis Bay Territory is the only non-self-governing internal territory . Until 1989 , it was administered as if it were a part of the ACT , although it has always been a separate territory . Under the terms of the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act , the laws of the ACT apply to the Jervis Bay Territory insofar as they are applicable and providing they are not inconsistent with an Ordinance . Although residents of the Jervis Bay Territory are generally subject to laws made by the ACT Legislative Assembly , they are not represented in the Assembly . They are represented in the Parliament of Australia as part of the Electoral Division of Fraser in the ACT and by the ACT 's two Senators . In other respects , the territory is administered directly by the Federal Government through the Territories portfolio . The external territory of Norfolk Island possessed a degree of self-government from 1979 until 2015 . Each state has a bicameral parliament except Queensland , which abolished its upper house in 1922 . The lower house is called the Legislative Assembly , except in South Australia and Tasmania , where it is called the House of Assembly . Tasmania is the only state to use proportional representation for elections to its lower house ; all others elect members from single member constituencies , using preferential voting . The upper house is called the Legislative Council and is generally elected from multi-member constituencies using proportional representation . The three self-governing territories , the ACT , the Northern Territory , and Norfolk Island , each have unicameral Legislative Assemblies . The head of government of each state is called the Premier , appointed by the state 's Governor . In normal circumstances , the Governor will appoint as Premier whoever leads the party or coalition which exercises control of the lower house ( in the case of Queensland , the only house ) of the state Parliament . However , in times of constitutional crisis , the Governor can appoint someone else as Premier . The head of government of the self-governing internal territories is called the Chief Minister . The Northern Territory 's Chief Minister , in normal circumstances whoever controls the Legislative Assembly , is appointed by the Administrator . Comparative terminology Governors and Administrators of states and territories Premiers and Chief Ministers of states and territories State and territorial parliaments * Parliament of New South Wales * Parliament of Queensland * Parliament of South Australia * Parliament of Tasmania * Parliament of Victoria * Parliament of Western Australia * Northern Territory Legislative Assembly * Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly State and territory supreme courts * Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory * Supreme Court of New South Wales * Supreme Court of the Northern Territory * Supreme Court of Queensland * Supreme Court of South Australia * Supreme Court of Tasmania * Supreme Court of Victoria * Supreme Court of Western Australia * Supreme Court of Norfolk Island State and territory police forces * Australian Capital Territory Police ( performed by Australian Federal Police ) * New South Wales Police * Northern Territory Police * Queensland Police * South Australia Police * Tasmania Police * Victoria Police * Western Australia Police State and territory borders * Australian Capital Territory border * New South Wales borders * Northern Territory borders * Queensland borders * South Australian borders * Tasmanian borders * Victorian borders * Western Australian border Statistics Distance table Distance in kilometres from the corresponding city on the X-Y axis . State and territory codes

sfq_17893--States_and_territories_of_Australia.txt

The most northerly part of mainland Australia is in which state?

Cornwall ( or ; , ) is a ceremonial county and unitary authority area of England within the United Kingdom . It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea , to the south by the English Channel , and to the east by the county of Devon , over the River Tamar . Cornwall has a population of and covers an area of 3563 km2 . The administrative centre , and only city in Cornwall , is Truro , although the town of Falmouth has the largest population for a civil parish and the conurbation of Camborne , Pool and Redruth has the highest total population . Cornwall forms the westernmost part of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain , and a large part of the Cornubian batholith is within Cornwall . This area was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods . It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples , and later ( in the Iron Age ) by Brythons with distinctive cultural relations to neighbouring Wales and Brittany . There is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found . Cornwall was the home of a division of the Dumnonii tribe – whose tribal centre was in the modern county of Devon – known as the Cornovii , separated from the Brythons of Wales after the Battle of Deorham , often coming into conflict with the expanding kingdom of Wessex before King Athelstan in AD 936 set the boundary between English and Cornish at the high water mark of the eastern bank of the River Tamar . From the early Middle Ages , British language and culture was apparently shared by Brythons trading across both sides of the Channel , evidenced by the corresponding high medieval Breton kingdoms of Domnonée and Cornouaille and the Celtic Christianity common to both territories . Historically tin mining was important in the Cornish economy , becoming increasingly significant during the High Middle Ages and expanding greatly during the 19th century when rich copper mines were also in production . In the mid-19th century , however , the tin and copper mines entered a period of decline . Subsequently china clay extraction became more important and metal mining had virtually ended by the 1990s . Traditionally , fishing ( particularly of pilchards ) and agriculture ( notably dairy products and vegetables ) were the other important sectors of the economy . Railways led to a growth of tourism in the 20th century ; however , Cornwall 's economy struggled after the decline of the mining and fishing industries . The area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes , its long and varied coastline , its attractive villages , its many place-names derived from the Cornish language , and its very mild climate . Extensive stretches of Cornwall 's coastline , and Bodmin Moor , are protected as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations , retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history . Some people question the present constitutional status of Cornwall , and a nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly . On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities . Toponymy The name Cornwall derives from the combination of two separate terms from different languages . The Corn- part comes from the hypothesised original tribal name of the Celtic people who had lived here since the Iron Age , the Cornovii . The second element -wall derives from the Old English w ( e ) alh , meaning a `` foreigner '' or `` Welshman '' . The name first appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 891 as On Corn walum . In the Domesday Book it was referred to as Cornualia and in c. 1198 as Cornwal . A latinisation of the name as Cornubia first appears in a mid-9th-century deed purporting to be a copy of one dating from c. 705 . Another variation , with Wales reinterpreted as Gallia , thus : Cornugallia , is first attested in 1086 . Finally , the Cornish language form of the name , Kernow , which first appears around 1400 , derives directly from the original Cornowii . which is postulated from a single mention in the Ravenna Cosmography of around 700 ( but based on earlier sources ) of Purocoronavis . This is considered to be a corruption of Durocornovium , ' a fort or walled settlement of the Cornovii ' . Its location is unidentified , but Tintagel or Carn Brea have been suggested . In pre-Roman times , Cornwall was part of the kingdom of Dumnonia , and was later known to the Anglo-Saxons as `` West Wales '' , to distinguish it from `` North Wales '' ( modern-day Wales ) . Cornwall is one of only a few places in Britain – London , Edinburgh , and Dover being other examples – to have a corresponding name in the French language : Cornouailles . History Prehistory , Roman and post-Roman periods The present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age . The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods . It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples . According to John T. Koch and others , Cornwall in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-networked culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age , in modern-day Ireland , England , France , Spain and Portugal . During the British Iron Age Cornwall , like all of Britain south of the Firth of Forth , was inhabited by a Celtic people known as the Britons with distinctive cultural relations to neighbouring Wales and Brittany . The Common Brittonic spoken at the time eventually developed into several distinct tongues , including Cornish . The first account of Cornwall comes from the 1st century BC Sicilian Greek historian Diodorus Siculus , supposedly quoting or paraphrasing the 4th-century BCE geographer Pytheas , who had sailed to Britain : The identity of these merchants is unknown . It has been theorised that they were Phoenicians , but there is no evidence for this . Professor Timothy Champion , discussing Diodorus Siculus 's comments on the tin trade , states that `` Diodorus never actually says that the Phoenicians sailed to Cornwall . In fact , he says quite the opposite : the production of Cornish tin was in the hands of the natives of Cornwall , and its transport to the Mediterranean was organised by local merchants , by sea and then over land through France , well outside Phoenician control . '' ( For further discussion of tin mining see the section on the economy below . ) There is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter in Devon and few Roman remains have been found . However , after 410 , Cornwall appears to have reverted to rule by Romano-Celtic chieftains of the Cornovii tribe as part of Dumnonia including one Marcus Cunomorus with at least one significant power base at Tintagel . 'King ' Mark of Cornwall is a semi-historical figure known from Welsh literature , the Matter of Britain , and in particular , the later Norman-Breton medieval romance of Tristan and Yseult where he is regarded as a close kinsman of King Arthur ; himself usually considered to be born of the Cornish people in folklore traditions derived from Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae . Archaeology supports ecclesiastical , literary and legendary evidence for some relative economic stability and close cultural ties between the sub-Roman Westcountry , South Wales , Brittany and Ireland through the fifth and sixth centuries . Conflict with Wessex The Battle of Deorham in 577 saw the separation of Dumnonia ( and therefore Cornwall ) from Wales , following which the Dumnonii often came into conflict with the expanding English kingdom of Wessex . The Annales Cambriae report that in 722 AD the Britons of Cornwall won a battle at `` Hehil '' . It seems likely that the enemy the Cornish fought was a West Saxon force , as evidenced by the naming of King Ine of Wessex and his kinsman Nonna in reference to an earlier Battle of Lining in 710 . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle stated in 815 ( adjusted date ) `` and in this year king Ecgbryht raided in Cornwall from east to west . '' and thenceforth apparently held it as a ducatus or dukedom annexed to his regnum or kingdom of Wessex , but not wholly incorporated with it . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that in 825 ( adjusted date ) a battle took place between the Wealas ( Cornish ) and the Defnas ( men of Devon ) at Gafulforda . In the same year Ecgbert , as a later document expresses it , `` disposed of their territory as it seemed fit to him , giving a tenth part of it to God . '' In other words , he incorporated Cornwall ecclesiastically with the West Saxon diocese of Sherborne , and endowed Ealhstan , his fighting bishop , who took part in the campaign , with an extensive Cornish estate consisting of Callington and Lawhitton , both in the Tamar valley , and Pawton near Padstow . In 838 , the Cornish and their Danish allies were defeated by Egbert in the Battle of Hingston Down at Hengestesdune ( probably Hingston Down in Cornwall ) . In 875 , the last recorded king of Cornwall , Dumgarth , is said to have drowned . Around the 880s , Anglo-Saxons from Wessex had established modest land holdings in the eastern part of Cornwall ; notably Alfred the Great who had acquired a few estates . William of Malmesbury , writing around 1120 , says that King Athelstan of England ( 924–939 ) fixed the boundary between English and Cornish people at the east bank of the River Tamar . Norman-Breton period One interpretation of the Domesday Book is that by this time the native Cornish landowning class had been almost completely dispossessed and replaced by English landowners , particularly Harold Godwinson himself . However , the Bodmin manumissions show that two leading Cornish figures nominally had Saxon names , but these were both glossed with native Cornish names . Naming evidence cited by medievalist Edith Ditmas suggests that many post-Conquest landowners in Cornwall were Breton allies of the Normans and further proposed this period for the early composition of the Tristan and Iseult cycle by poets such as Beroul from a pre-existing shared Brittonic oral tradition . Soon after the Norman conquest most of the land was transferred to the new Breton-Norman aristocracy , with the lion 's share going to Robert , Count of Mortain , half-brother of King William and the largest landholder in England after the king with his stronghold at Trematon Castle near the mouth of the Tamar . Cornwall and Devon west of Dartmoor showed a very different type of settlement pattern from that of Saxon Wessex and places continued , even after 1066 , to be named in the Celtic Cornish tradition with Saxon architecture being uncommon . Later medieval administration and society Subsequently , however , Norman absentee landlords became replaced by a new Cornu-Norman elite including scholars such as Richard Rufus of Cornwall . These families eventually became the new ruling class of Cornwall ( typically speaking Norman French , Cornish , Latin and eventually English ) , many becoming involved in the operation of the Stannary Parliament system , Earldom and eventually the Duchy . The Cornish language continued to be spoken and it acquired a number of characteristics establishing its identity as a separate language from Breton . Cornish piracy was active during the Elizabethan era on the west coast of Britain . Christianity in Cornwall Many place names in Cornwall are associated with Christian missionaries described as coming from Ireland and Wales in the 5th century AD and usually called saints ( See List of Cornish saints ) . The historicity of some of these missionaries is problematic . The patron saint of Wendron Parish Church , `` Saint Wendrona '' is another example . and it has been pointed out by Canon Doble that it was customary in the Middle Ages to ascribe such geographical origins to saints . Some of these saints are not included in the early lists of saints . Saint Piran , after whom Perranporth is named , is generally regarded as the patron saint of Cornwall . However , in early Norman times it is likely that Saint Michael the Archangel was recognised as the patron saint and is still recognised by the Anglican Church as the Protector of Cornwall . The title has also been claimed for Saint Petroc who was patron of the Cornish diocese prior to the Normans . Celtic and Anglo-Saxon times The church in Cornwall until the time of Athelstan of Wessex observed more or less orthodox practices , being completely separate from the Anglo-Saxon church until then ( and perhaps later ) . The See of Cornwall continued until much later : Bishop Conan apparently in place previously , but ( re- ? ) consecrated in 931 AD by Athelstan . However , it is unclear whether he was the sole Bishop for Cornwall or the leading Bishop in the area . The situation in Cornwall may have been somewhat similar to Wales where each major religious house corresponded to a cantref ( this has the same meaning as Cornish keverang ) both being under the supervision of a Bishop . However , if this was so the status of keverangow before the time of King Athelstan is not recorded . However , it can be inferred from the districts included at this period that the minimum number would be three : Triggshire ; Wivelshire ; and the remaining area . Penwith , Kerrier , Pydar and Powder meet at a central point ( Scorrier ) which some have believed indicates a fourfold division imposed by Athelstan on a sub-kingdom . Middle Ages The whole of Cornwall was in this period in the Archdeaconry of Cornwall within the Diocese of Exeter . From 1267 the archdeacons had a house at Glasney near Penryn . Their duties were to visit and inspect each parish annually and to execute the bishop 's orders . Archdeacon Roland is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as having land holdings in Cornwall but he was not Archdeacon of Cornwall , just an archdeacon in the Diocese of Exeter . In the episcopate of William Warelwast ( 1107–37 ) the first Archdeacon of Cornwall was appointed ( possibly Hugo de Auco ) . Most of the parish churches in Cornwall in Norman times were not in the larger settlements , and the medieval towns which developed thereafter usually had only a chapel of ease with the right of burial remaining at the ancient parish church . Over a hundred holy wells exist in Cornwall , each associated with a particular saint , though not always the same one as the dedication of the church . Various kinds of religious houses existed in mediaeval Cornwall though none of them were nunneries ; the benefices of the parishes were in many cases appropriated to religious houses within Cornwall or elsewhere in England or France . From the Reformation to the Victorian period In the 16th century there was some violent resistance to the replacement of Catholicism with Protestantism in the Prayer Book Rebellion . In 1548 the college at Glasney , a centre of learning and study established by the Bishop of Exeter , had been closed and looted ( many manuscripts and documents were destroyed ) which aroused resentment among the Cornish . They , among other things , objected to the English language Book of Common Prayer , protesting that the English language was still unknown to many at the time . The Prayer Book Rebellion was a cultural and social disaster for Cornwall ; the reprisals taken by the forces of the Crown have been estimated to account for 10–11 % of the civilian population of Cornwall . Culturally speaking , it saw the beginning of the slow decline of the Cornish language . From that time Christianity in Cornwall was in the main within the Church of England and subject to the national events which affected it in the next century and a half . Roman Catholicism never became extinct , though openly practised by very few ; there were some converts to Puritanism , Anabaptism and Quakerism in certain areas though they suffered intermittent persecution which more or less came to an end in the reign of William and Mary . During the 18th century Cornish Anglicanism was very much in the same state as Anglicanism in most of England . Wesleyan Methodist missions began during John Wesley 's lifetime and had great success over a long period during which Methodism itself divided into a number of sects and established a definite separation from the Church of England . From the early 19th to the mid-20th century Methodism was the leading form of Christianity in Cornwall but it is now in decline . The Church of England was in the majority from the reign of Queen Elizabeth until the Methodist revival of the 19th century : before the Wesleyan missions dissenters were very few in Cornwall . The county remained within the Diocese of Exeter until 1876 when the Anglican Diocese of Truro was created ( the first Bishop was appointed in 1877 ) . Roman Catholicism was virtually extinct in Cornwall after the 17th century except for a few families such as the Arundells of Lanherne . From the mid-19th century the church reestablished episcopal sees in England , one of these being at Plymouth . Since then immigration to Cornwall has brought more Roman Catholics into the population . Physical geography Cornwall forms the tip of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain , and is therefore exposed to the full force of the prevailing winds that blow in from the Atlantic Ocean . The coastline is composed mainly of resistant rocks that give rise in many places to impressive cliffs . Cornwall has a border with only one other county , Devon , which is formed almost entirely by the River Tamar and ( to the north ) by the Marsland Valley . Coastal areas The north and south coasts have different characteristics . The north coast on the Celtic Sea , part of the Atlantic Ocean , is more exposed and therefore has a wilder nature . The prosaically named High Cliff , between Boscastle and St Gennys , is the highest sheer-drop cliff in Cornwall at 223 m. However , there are also many extensive stretches of fine golden sand which form the beaches that are so important to the tourist industry , such as those at Bude , Polzeath , Watergate Bay , Perranporth , Porthtowan , Fistral Beach , Newquay , St Agnes , St Ives , and on the south coast Gyllyngvase beach in Falmouth and the large beach at Praa Sands further to the south west . There are two river estuaries on the north coast : Hayle Estuary and the estuary of the River Camel , which provides Padstow and Rock with a safe harbour . The seaside town of Newlyn is a popular holiday destination , as it is one of the last remaining traditional Cornish fishing ports , with views reaching over Mount 's Bay . The south coast , dubbed the `` Cornish Riviera '' , is more sheltered and there are several broad estuaries offering safe anchorages , such as at Falmouth and Fowey . Beaches on the south coast usually consist of coarser sand and shingle , interspersed with rocky sections of wave-cut platform . Also on the south coast , the picturesque fishing village of Polperro , at the mouth of the Pol River , and the fishing port of Looe on the River Looe are both popular with tourists . Inland areas The interior of the county consists of a roughly east-west spine of infertile and exposed upland , with a series of granite intrusions , such as Bodmin Moor , which contains the highest land within Cornwall . From east to west , and with approximately descending altitude , these are Bodmin Moor , Hensbarrow north of St Austell , Carnmenellis to the south of Camborne , and the Penwith or Land 's End peninsula . These intrusions are the central part of the granite outcrops that form the exposed parts of the Cornubian batholith of south-west Britain , which also includes Dartmoor to the east in Devon and the Isles of Scilly to the west , the latter now being partially submerged . The intrusion of the granite into the surrounding sedimentary rocks gave rise to extensive metamorphism and mineralisation , and this led to Cornwall being one of the most important mining areas in Europe until the early 20th century . It is thought tin was mined here as early as the Bronze Age , and copper , lead , zinc and silver have all been mined in Cornwall . Alteration of the granite also gave rise to extensive deposits of China Clay , especially in the area to the north of St Austell , and the extraction of this remains an important industry . The uplands are surrounded by more fertile , mainly pastoral farmland . Near the south coast , deep wooded valleys provide sheltered conditions for flora that like shade and a moist , mild climate . These areas lie mainly on Devonian sandstone and slate . The north east of Cornwall lies on Carboniferous rocks known as the Culm Measures . In places these have been subjected to severe folding , as can be seen on the north coast near Crackington Haven and in several other locations . The Lizard Peninsula The geology of the Lizard peninsula is unusual , in that it is mainland Britain 's only example of an ophiolite , a section of oceanic crust now found on land . Much of the peninsula consists of the dark green and red Precambrian serpentinite , which forms spectacular cliffs , notably at Kynance Cove , and carved and polished serpentine ornaments are sold in local gift shops . This ultramafic rock also forms a very infertile soil which covers the flat and marshy heaths of the interior of the peninsula . This is home to rare plants , such as the Cornish Heath , which has been adopted as the county flower . Ecology Cornwall has varied habitats including terrestrial and marine ecosystems . One noted species in decline locally is the Reindeer lichen , which species has been made a priority for protection under the national UK Biodiversity Action Plan . Botanists divide Cornwall and Scilly into two vice-counties : West ( 1 ) and East ( 2 ) . The standard flora is by F. H. Davey Flora of Cornwall ( 1909 ) . Davey was assisted by A. O. Hume and he thanks Hume , his companion on excursions in Cornwall and Devon , and for help in the compilation of that Flora , publication of which was financed by him . Climate Cornwall has a temperate Oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cfb ) and has the mildest and sunniest climate in the United Kingdom , as a result of its southerly latitude and the influence of the Gulf Stream . The average annual temperature in Cornwall ranges from on the Isles of Scilly to in the central uplands . Winters are amongst the warmest in the country due to the southerly latitude and moderating effects of the warm ocean currents , and frost and snow are very rare at the coast and are also rare in the central upland areas . Summers are however not as warm as in other parts of southern England . The surrounding sea and its southwesterly position mean that Cornwall 's weather can be relatively changeable . Cornwall is one of the sunniest areas in the UK , with over 1541 hours of sunshine per year , with the highest average of 7.6 hours of sunshine per day in July . The moist , mild air coming from the south west brings higher amounts of rainfall than in eastern Great Britain , at 1051 to per year , however not as much as in more northern areas of the west coast . The Isles of Scilly , for example , where there are on average less than 2 days of air frost per year , is the only area in the UK to be in the USDA Hardiness zone 10 . In Scilly there is on average less than 1 day of air temperature exceeding 30 °C per year and it is in the AHS Heat Zone 1 . Extreme temperatures in Cornwall are particularly rare ; however , extreme weather in the form of storms and floods is common . Politics and administration Local politics With the exception of the Isles of Scilly , Cornwall is governed by a unitary authority , Cornwall Council , based in Truro . The Crown Court is based at the Courts of Justice in Truro . Magistrates ' Courts are found in Truro ( but at a different location to the Crown Court ) , Bodmin , Penzance and Liskeard . The Isles of Scilly form part of the ceremonial county of Cornwall and have , at times , been served by the same county administration . Since 1890 they have been administered by their own unitary authority , the Council of the Isles of Scilly . They are grouped with Cornwall for other administrative purposes , such as the National Health Service and Devon and Cornwall Police . Before reorganisation on 1 April 2009 , council functions throughout the rest of Cornwall were organised on a two-tier basis , with a county council and district councils for its six districts , Caradon , Carrick , Kerrier , North Cornwall , Penwith , and Restormel . While projected to streamline services , cut red tape and save around £17 million a year , the reorganisation was met with wide opposition , with a poll in 2008 giving a result of 89 % disapproval from Cornish residents . The first elections for the unitary authority were held on 4 June 2009 . The council has 123 seats ; the largest party ( in 2015 ) is the Liberal Democrats with 37 seats ( 37 ) , followed by the Independents , 36 seats ( 23 ) , Conservative Party with 31 seats ( 46 ) Labour Party 8 seats ( 1 ) , UKIP 6 seats ( 0 ) , Mebyon Kernow with 4 seats ( 6 ) , Greens 1 seat , ( 0 ) . ( Number of seats prior to 2013 election in brackets . ) Before the creation of the unitary council , the former county council had 82 seats , the majority of which were held by the Liberal Democrats , elected at the 2005 county council elections . The six former districts had a total of 249 council seats , and the groups with greatest numbers of councillors were Liberal Democrats , Conservatives , and Independents . Parliament and national politics Following a review by the Boundary Commission for England taking effect at the 2010 general election , Cornwall is divided into six county constituencies to elect MPs to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom . Before the 2010 boundary changes Cornwall had five constituencies all of which were won by Liberal Democrats in the 2005 general election . At the 2010 general election Liberal Democrat candidates won three constituencies and Conservative candidates won three constituencies ( see also 2010 United Kingdom general election result in Cornwall ) . At the 2015 general election all six Cornish seats were won by Conservative candidates . Until 1832 , Cornwall had 44 MPs – more than any other county – reflecting the importance of tin to the Crown . Most of the increase in numbers of MPs came between 1529 and 1584 after which there was no change until 1832 . Self-rule movement Cornish nationalists have organised into two political parties : Mebyon Kernow , formed in 1951 , and the Cornish Nationalist Party . In addition to the political parties , there are various interest groups such as the Revived Cornish

dpql_499--Cornwall.txt

In which city are the administrative headquarters of the county of Cornwall?

The 18th century lasted from January 1 , 1701 to December 31 , 1800 in the Gregorian calendar . During the 18th century , the Enlightenment culminated in the French and American revolutions . Philosophy and science increased in prominence . Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age . This dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution , although it was later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror of Maximilien Robespierre . At first , the monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals , but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power and formed broad coalitions for the counter-revolution . The Ottoman Empire underwent a protracted decline , as it failed to keep up with the technological advances in Europe . The Tulip period symbolized a period of peace and reorientation towards European society , after victory against a burgeoning Russian Empire in the Pruth River Campaign . Throughout the century various reforms were introduced with limited success . The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state . The once-powerful and vast kingdom , which was able to conquer Moscow and defeat the great Ottoman armies , collapsed under numerous invasions . Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring monarchies of the Kingdom of Prussia , the Russian Empire and the Archduchy of Austria which divided the Commonwealth territories among them , changing the landscape of Central European politics for the next hundred years . European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and the associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued . Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s and the conquest of large parts of India . However , Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution , which resulted in the creation of the newly independent United States of America . The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the improved steam engine . Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century , steam-powered machinery would radically change human society and the environment . Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work . For example , the `` short '' 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789 , denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution with an emphasis on directly interconnected events . To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements , the `` long '' 18th century may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 or even later . Events 1700s * 1700-1721 : Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire . * 1701 : Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I . * 1701 : Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I . * 1701–1714 : The War of the Spanish Succession is fought , involving most of continental Europe . * 1701–1702 : The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England . * 1702 : Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan . * 1702–1715 : Camisard Rebellion in France . * 1703 : Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great ; it is the Russian capital until 1918 . * 1703–1711 : The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy . * 1704 : End of Japan 's Genroku period . * 1704 : First Javanese War of Succession . * 1705 : George Frideric Handel 's first opera , Almira , premieres . * 1706 : War of the Spanish Succession : French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies and Turin . * 1706 : The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published . * 1707 : The Act of Union is passed , merging the Scottish and English Parliaments , thus establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain . * 1707 : After Aurangzeb 's death , the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it . * 1707 : Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700 . * 1707 : War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India . * 1708 : The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies and English Company Trading to the East Indies merge to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies . * 1708–1709 : Famine kills one-third of East Prussia 's population . * 1709 : The Great Frost of 1709 marks the coldest winter in 500 years . * 1709 : Hotaki dynasty founded in Afghanistan . * 1709 : Charles XII of Sweden flees to the Ottoman Empire after Peter I of Russia defeats his army at the Battle of Poltava . 1710s * 1710 : The world 's first copyright legislation , Britain 's Statute of Anne , takes effect . * 1710-1711 : Ottoman Empire fights Russia in the Russo-Turkish War . * 1711-1715 : Tuscarora War between British , Dutch , and German settlers and the Tuscarora people of North Carolina . * 1712 : War of the Spanish Succession : The French defeat a combined Dutch-Austrian force at the Battle of Denain . * 1712 : The first shipment of coffee from Java reaches Amsterdam . * 1713 : The Treaty of Utrecht ends the War of the Spanish Succession . * 1713-1714 : Tarabai establishes the rival Maratha Empire government in Kolhapur against Chattrapati Shahu . * 1714 : Accession of George I , Elector of Hanover , to the throne of Great Britain . * 1715 : The first Jacobite rising breaks out ; the British halt the Jacobite advance at the Battle of Sheriffmuir ; Battle of Preston . * 1715 : Louis XIV dies , leaving France greatly enlarged but deep in debt ; The Regency takes power under Philippe d'Orleans . * 1715 : Pope Clement XI declares Catholicism and Confucianism incompatible . * 1716 : Establishment of the Sikh Confederacy along the present-day India-Pakistan border . * 1717 : The Netherlands , Britain and France sign the Triple Alliance . * 1717 : Surabaya rebels against the VOC . * 1718 : The city of New Orleans is founded by the French in North America . * 1718 : Blackbeard ( Edward Teach ) is killed by Robert Maynard in a North Carolina inlet on the inner side of Ocracoke Island . * 1718-1730 : Tulip period of the Ottoman Empire . * 1719 : The Spanish attempt to restart the Jacobite rebellion fails . * 1719 : Second Javanese War of Succession . 1720s * 1720 : The South Sea Bubble . * 1720 : Spanish military embarks on the Villasur expedition , traveling north from Mexico into the Great Plains . * 1720–1721 : The Great Plague of Marseille . * 1721 : Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of Great Britain ( de facto ) . * 1721 : The Treaty of Nystad is signed , ending the Great Northern War . * 1721 : Kangxi Emperor bans Christian missionaries because of Pope Clement XI 's decree . * 1721 : Peter I reforms the Russian Orthodox Church . * 1722 : Afghans conquer Iran , overthrowing the Safavid Shah Sultan Husayn . * 1722 : Kangxi Emperor of China dies . * 1722 : Bartholomew Roberts is killed in a sea battle off the African coast . * 1722–1723 : Russo-Persian War . * 1722–1725 : Controversy over William Wood 's halfpence leads to the Drapier 's Letters and begins the Irish economic independence from England movement . * 1723 : Slavery is abolished in Russia ; Peter the Great converts household slaves into house serfs . * 1723–1730 : The `` Great Disaster '' , an invasion of Kazakh territories by the Dzungars . * 1724 : The Treaty of Constantinople is signed , partitioning Persia between the Ottoman Empire and Russia . * 1725 : The Fulani nomads take complete control of Futa Jallon and set up the first of many Fulani jihad states to come . * 1726 : The enormous Chinese encyclopedia Gujin Tushu Jicheng of over 100 million written Chinese characters in over 800,000 pages is printed in 60 different copies using copper-based Chinese movable type printing . * 1727–1729 : Anglo-Spanish War . * 1729–1735 : Charles Wesley and John Wesley begin Methodism in England . 1730s * 1730 : Mahmud I takes over Ottoman Empire after the Patrona Halil revolt , ending the Tulip period . * 1730–1760 : The First Great Awakening takes place in Great Britain and North America . * 1732–1734 : Crimean Tatar raids into Russia . * 1733–1738 : War of the Polish Succession . * 1735–1739 : Russo-Turkish War . * 1735–1799 : The Qianlong Emperor of China oversees a huge expansion in territory . * 1735 : Governor-General Dirck van Cloon dies , one of many victims of malaria in Batavia . * 1736 : Nader Shah assumes the title of Shah of Persia and founds the Afsharid dynasty ; he rules until his death in 1747 . * 1736 : Qing Dynasty Chinese court painters recreate Zhang Zeduan 's classic panoramic painting , Along the River During Qingming Festival . * 1738–1756 : Famine across the Sahel ; half the population of Timbuktu dies . * 1738 : Pope Clement XII issues In eminenti apostolatus , prohibiting Catholics from becoming Freemasons . * 1738 : Turlough O'Carolan , famous Irish harper , dies . * 1739 : Nader Shah defeats the Mughals at the Battle of Karnal and sacks Delhi . * 1739 : Great Britain and Spain fight the War of Jenkins ' Ear in the Caribbean . 1740s * 1740 : Frederick the Great comes to power in Prussia . * 1740 : The British attempt to capture St. Augustine , Florida but lose to the Spanish during the Siege of St. Augustine . * 1740–1741 : Famine in Ireland kills ten percent of the population . * 1740–1748 : War of the Austrian Succession . * 1740 : 9 October , a massacre of Batavia 's ethnic Chinese begins after they are suspected by the VOC of planning a rebellion ; approximately 10,000 are killed and the Chinese quarter is burned . * 1741 : Russians begin settling the Aleutian Islands . * 1741 : Pope Benedict XIV issues Immensa Pastorum principis against slavery . * 1742 : Marvel 's Mill , the first water-powered cotton mill , begins operation in England . * 1743 : The capital of the Sultanate of Mataram Kartasura fell under Geger Pecinan uprising — Raden Mas Garendi ( Sunan Kuning ) led Chinese mercenaries revolted against Pakubuwono II . * 1744 : The First Saudi State is founded by Mohammed Ibn Saud . * 1744 : The French attempt to restart the Jacobite rebellion fails . * 1744–1748 : The First Carnatic War is fought between the British , the French , the Marathas , and Mysore in India . * 1745 : Second Jacobite rising is begun by Charles Edward Stuart in Scotland . * 1745 : 17 February , Pakubuwono II establishes a new kraton in Sala village , along with Surakarta Sunanate . * 1747 : Ahmed Shah Durrani founds the Durrani Empire in modern-day Afghanistan . * 1748 : The Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War . * 1748–1754 : The Second Carnatic War is fought between the British , the French , the Marathas , and Mysore in India . 1750s * 1750 : Peak of the Little Ice Age . * 1754 : The Treaty of Pondicherry ends the Second Carnatic War and recognizes Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah as Nawab of the Carnatic . * 1754 : King 's College is founded by a royal charter of George II of Great Britain . * 1754–1763 : The French and Indian War , the North American chapter of the Seven Years ' War , is fought in colonial North America , mostly by the French and their allies against the English and their allies . * 1755 : The Lisbon earthquake occurs . * 1755–1763 : The Great Upheaval forces transfer of the French Acadian population from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick . * 1755 : 13 February , the Treaty of Giyanti is signed , effectively partitioning the Mataram Sultanate ; the VOC recognizes Mangkubumi as Sultan Hamengkubuwana I , who rules half of Central Java ; Hamengkubuwana I then establishes Yogyakarta Sultanate , moves to Yogya and renames the city Yogyakarta . * 1756–1763 : The Seven Years ' War is fought among European powers in various theaters around the world . * 1756–1763 : The Third Carnatic War is fought between the British , the French , the Marathas , and Mysore in India . * 1757 : The Battle of Plassey signals the beginning of formal British rule in India after years of commercial activity under the auspices of the East India Company . * 1757 : 17 March , Salatiga treaty between Prince Sambernyawa with Pakubuwono III and Hamengkubuwono I further partitions the remnant of Mataram Sultanate ; the Mangkunegaran Grand Duchy is established . * 1758 : British colonel James Wolfe issues Wolfe 's Manifesto . * 1759 : French and Indian War : French commander Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and British commander James Wolfe die during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . 1760s * 1760 : George III becomes King of Britain . * 1760 : Zand dynasty is founded in Iran . * 1761 : Maratha Empire defeated at Battle of Panipat . * 1762–1796 : Reign of Catherine the Great of Russia . * 1763 : The Treaty of Paris ends the Seven Years ' War and Third Carnatic War . * 1763 : Kingdom of Mysore conquers the Kingdom of Keladi . * 1765 : The Stamp Act is introduced into the American colonies by the British Parliament . * 1766 : Christian VII becomes king of Denmark . He was king of Denmark to 1808 . * 1766–1799 : Anglo-Mysore Wars . * 1767 : Burmese conquer the Ayutthaya kingdom . * 1768 : Gurkhas conquer Nepal . * 1768–1772 : War of the Bar Confederation . * 1768–1774 : Russo-Turkish War . * 1769 : Spanish missionaries establish the first of 21 missions in California . * 1769–1770 : James Cook explores and maps New Zealand and Australia . * 1769–1773 : The Bengal famine of 1770 kills one-third of the Bengal population . * 1769 : French expeditions capture clove plants in Ambon , ending the VOC monopoly of the plant . ( to 1772 ) 1770s * 1770 : James Cook claims the East Coast of Australia ( New South Wales ) for Great Britain . * 1770–1771 : Famine in Czech lands kills hundreds of thousands . * 1770 : James Cook stops at Onrust Island in the Bay of Batavia for repairs to his ship Endeavour on his voyage around the world . * 1771 : The Plague Riot in Moscow . * 1771 : Richard Arkwright and his partners build the world 's first water-powered mill at Cromford . * 1772 : Reformer Johann Friedrich Struensee executed in Denmark . * 1772 : Gustav III of Sweden stages a coup d'état , becoming almost an absolute monarch . * 1772–1779 : Maratha Empire fights Britain and Raghunathrao 's forces during the First Anglo-Maratha War . * 1772–1795 : The Partitions of Poland end the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and erase Poland from the map for 123 years . * 1773–1775 : Pugachev 's Rebellion , the largest peasant revolt in Russian history . * 1773 : East India Company starts operations in Bengal to smuggle opium into China . * 1775 : John Harrison H4 and Larcum Kendall K1 marine chronometers are used to measure longitude by James Cook on his second voyage ( 1772–1775 ) . * 1775–1782 : First Anglo-Maratha War . * 1775–1783 : American Revolutionary War . * 1776 : Illuminati founded by Adam Weishaupt . * 1776 : The United States Declaration of Independence is adopted by the Continental Congress in Philadelphia . * 1776 : Adam Smith publishes The Wealth of Nations . * 1778 : Tây Sơn Dynasty is established in Vietnam . * 1778 : James Cook becomes the first European to land on the Hawaiian Islands . * 1778 : 24 April , the Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences is established by a group of Dutch intellectuals ; this institution is a pioneer of scientific efforts in Indonesia and the founder of the National Museum of Indonesia . * 1779–1879 : Xhosa Wars between British and Boer settlers and the Xhosas in the South African Republic . 1780s * 1780 : Outbreak of the indigenous rebellion against Spanish colonization led by Túpac Amaru II in Peru . * 1781 : The city of Los Angeles is founded by Spanish settlers . * 1781–1785 : Serfdom is abolished in the Austrian monarchy ( first step ; second step in 1848 ) . * 1783 : Famine in Iceland , caused by the eruption of the Laki volcano . * 1783 : Russian Empire annexes the Crimean Khanate . * 1783 : The Treaty of Paris formally ends the American Revolutionary War . * 1785–1791 : Imam Sheikh Mansur , a Chechen warrior and Muslim mystic , leads a coalition of Muslim Caucasian tribes from throughout the Caucasus in a holy war against Russian settlers and military bases in the Caucasus , as well as against local traditionalists , who followed the traditional customs and common law ( Adat ) rather than the theocratic Sharia . * 1785–1795 : The Northwest Indian War is fought between the United States and Native Americans . * 1787 : The United States Constitution is written in Philadelphia and submitted to the states for ratification . * 1787 : Freed slaves from London establish Freetown in present-day Sierra Leone . * 1787 : Kansei Reforms instituted in Japan by Matsudaira Sadanobu . * 1787–1792 : Russo-Turkish War . * 1788 : First French Quaker community established in Congénies . * 1788 : First permanent European settlement established in Australia by Britain at Sydney . * 1788–1790 : Russo-Swedish War ( 1788–1790 ) . * 1788 : New Hampshire becomes the 9th state to ratify the United States Constitution , and by the terms of Article VII it takes effect . * 1788–1789 : Inconfidência Mineira , conspiracy against the colonial authorities in Brazil . * 1789 : George Washington is elected the first President of the United States ; he serves until 1797 . * 1789 : Great Britain and Spain dispute the Nootka Sound during the Nootka Crisis . * 1789–1799 : French Revolution . * 1789 : The Liège Revolution . * 1789 : The Brabant Revolution . 1790s-1800 * 1790 : The United States of Belgium is proclaimed following the Brabant Revolution . * 1790 : Suppression of the United States of Belgium and re-establishment of Austrian control . * 1790 : Establishment of the Polish-Prussian Pact . * 1791 : The Constitutional Act ( or Canada Act ) creates the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada in British North America . * 1791 : Suppression of the Liège Revolution by Austrian forces and re-establishment of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège . * 1791–1795 : George Vancouver explores the world during the Vancouver Expedition . * 1791–1804 : The Haitian Revolution . * 1792–1802 : The French Revolutionary Wars lead into the Napoleonic Wars , which last from 1803-1815 . * 1792 : The New York Stock & Exchange Board is founded . * 1792 : Polish–Russian War of 1792 . * 1792 : King Gustav III of Sweden is assassinated by a conspiracy of noblemen . * 1792 : March , Hamengkubuwana I dies . * 1793 : Upper Canada bans slavery . * 1793 : The largest yellow fever epidemic in American history kills as many as 5,000 people in Philadelphia , roughly 10 % of the population . * 1793–1796 : Revolt in the Vendée against the French Republic at the time of the Revolution . * 1794 : Polish revolt . * 1794 : Jay 's Treaty is concluded between Great Britain and the United States , by which the Western outposts in the Great Lakes are returned to the U.S. and commerce between the two countries is regulated . * 1794 : Qajar dynasty founded in Iran after replacing the Zand dynasty . * 1795 : Mohammad Khan Qajar razes Tbilisi to the ground . * 1795 : Establishment of the French-backed Batavian Republic in present-day Netherlands . * 1795 : Pinckney 's Treaty between the United States and Spain grants the Mississippi Territory to the U.S . * 1795 : The Marseillaise is officially adopted as the French national anthem . * 1795 : Kamehameha I of the Island of Hawaii defeats the Oahuans at the Battle of Nu'uanu . * 1796 : Edward Jenner administers the first smallpox vaccination ; smallpox killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century , including five reigning monarchs . * 1796 : War of the First Coalition : The Battle of Montenotte marks Napoleon Bonaparte 's first victory as an army commander . * 1796 : The British eject the Dutch from Ceylon . * 1796 : Mungo Park , backed by the African Association , is the first European to set eyes on the Niger River in Africa . * 1796–1804 : The White Lotus Rebellion against the Manchu Dynasty in China . * 1797 : Napoleon 's invasion and partition of the Republic of Venice ends over 1,000 years of independence for the Serene Republic . * 1798 : The Irish Rebellion fails to overthrow British rule in Ireland . * 1798–1800 : The Quasi-War is fought between the United States and France . * 1799 : Napoleon stages a coup d'état and becomes First Consul of France . * 1799 : Dutch East India Company is dissolved . * 1799 : The assassination of the 14th Tu ' i Kanokupolu , Tukuʻaho , plunges Tonga into half a century of civil war . * 1799 : Tipu Sultan is killed in a battle with British forces . * 1800 : 1 January , The bankrupt Dutch East India Company ( VOC ) is formally dissolved and the nationalised Dutch East Indies are established . Significant people World leaders , politicians , military * John Adams , American statesman * Samuel Adams , American statesman * Ahmad Shah Abdali , Afghan King * Ahmed III , Sultan of the Ottoman Empire * Hyder Ali , Ruler of Mysore * Ethan Allen , American Revolutionary Army * Anne , Queen of Great Britain * Marie Antoinette , Austrian-born Queen of France * Ferdinand VI , King of Spain * Augustus III , Elector of Saxony , King of Poland , and Grand Duke of Lithuania * Aurangzeb , Mughal Emperor * Bajirao I , Second Peshwa of Maratha Empire * Boromakot , King of Ayutthaya * Boromaracha V , King of Ayutthaya * Aaron Burr , American statesman * William Cavendish , Anglo-Irish politician * William Pitt the Younger , Prime Minister of Britain * John Carteret , Anglo-Irish politician * Catherine the Great , Empress of Russia * Charles III , King of Spain , Naples , and Sicily * Charles VI , Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire , King of Bohemia and Hungary * Charles XII , King of Sweden , the Goths and the Wends ; * Charlotte Corday , French revolutionary * Georges Danton , French revolutionary * Elizabeth of Russia , Empress of Russia * Farrukhsiyar , Emperor of Mughal * Ferdinand I , King of Naples , Sicily , and the Two Sicilies * Benjamin Franklin , American leader , scientist and statesman * Juan Francisco , Spanish naval officer and explorer * Adolf Frederick , King of Sweden , the Goths and the Wends * Frederick the Great , King of Prussia * George I , King of Great Britain and Ireland * George II , King of Great Britain and Ireland * George III , King of Great Britain and Ireland * Olympe de Gouges , French feminist * Robert Gray , American revolutionary , merchant , and explorer * Gustav III , King of Sweden , the Goths and the Wends * Guru Gobind Singh , tenth of the eleven Sikh Gurus * Gyeongjong , King of Joseon Dynasty * Nathan Hale , American patriot , executed for espionage by the British * Abdul Hamid I , Sultan of Ottoman Empire * Alexander Hamilton , American statesman * Patrick Henry , American statesman * Emperor Higashiyama , Emperor of Japan * John Jay , American statesman * Thomas Jefferson , American statesman * Jeongjo , King of Joseon Dynasty * John Paul Jones , American naval commander * Joseph I , King of Portugal * Joseph II , Austrian Emperor * Kangxi Emperor , Chinese Emperor * Karim Khan , Shah of Iran and King of Persia * Marquis de Lafayette , Continental Army officer * Louis XIV , King of France * Louis XV , King of France * Louis XVI , King of France * Louis XVII , imprisoned King of France , never ruled * James Madison , American statesman * Madhavrao I , Fourth Peshwa of Maratha Empire * Madhavrao I Scindia , Marathan leader * Mahmud I , Sultan of Ottoman Empire * Alessandro Malaspina , Spanish explorer * George Mason , American statesman * Prince Aleksandr Menshikov , Russian statesman , generalissimo * Michikinikwa , Miami chief and warrior * José Moñino y Redondo , Spanish statesman * Louis-Joseph de Montcalm , French officer * Mustafa III , Sultan of Ottoman Empire * Nader Shah , King of Persia * Nakamikado , Emperor of Japan * Horatio Nelson , British admiral * Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao , Third Peshwa of Maratha Empire * Shivappa Nayaka , King of Keladi Nayaka * Osman III , Sultan of Ottoman Empire * Peter I ( Peter the Great ) , Emperor of Russia * Philip V , King of Spain * Pontiac , Ottawa chief and warrior * Prince Grigory Potyomkin , Russian statesman and general * Nguyen Hue , Emperor of Tây Sơn Dynasty of Vietnam * Qianlong Emperor , Emperor of China * Rajaram II of Satara , Monarch of the Maratha Confederacy * Francis II Rákóczi , Prince of Hungary and Transylvania , revolutionary leader * Tadeusz Rejtan , Polish politician * Paul Revere , American revolutionary leader and silversmith * Maximilien Robespierre , French revolutionary leader * Betsy Ross , American flag maker * Count Pyotr Rumyantsev , Russian general * Shah Rukh of Persia , King of Persia . * John Russell , Anglo-Irish politician * Lionel Sackville , Anglo-Irish politician * Louis Antoine de Saint-Just , French revolutionary * Sebastião de Melo , Prime Minister of Portugal * Prithivi Narayan Shah , King of Nepal and founder of Kingdom of Nepal * Chattrapati Shahu , Emperor of Maratha Empire * Selim III , Sultan of Ottoman Empire * Charles Edward Stuart , Anglo-Scottish Jacobite exile * Sukjong , King

jp_3055--18th_century.txt

What country dominated the East Indies spice trade in the 17th and 18th centuries?

Burkina Faso ( ; ) is a landlocked country in West Africa around 274200 km2 in size . It is surrounded by six countries : Mali to the north ; Niger to the east ; Benin to the southeast ; Togo and Ghana to the south ; and Ivory Coast to the southwest . Its capital is Ouagadougou . In 2014 , its population was estimated at just over 17.3 million . Burkina Faso is a francophone country . It has a population of 18.7 million as of 2016 . Formerly called the Republic of Upper Volta , the country was renamed `` Burkina Faso '' on 4 August 1984 by then-President Thomas Sankara . Residents of Burkina Faso are known as Burkinabé ( ) . French is an official language of government and business . Before the conquest of what is now Burkina Faso by the French and other colonial powers during the late 19th century the country was ruled by various ethnic groups including the Mossi kingdoms . After gaining independence from France in 1960 , the country underwent many governmental changes . Blaise Compaoré was the most recent president and ruled the country from 1987 until he was ousted from power by the popular youth upheaval of 31 October 2014 . This resulted in a semi-presidential republic which lasted from October 2014 to September 2015 . On 17 September 2015 the provisional government was in turn toppled by an apparent military coup d'état carried out by the Regiment of Presidential Security . On 24 September 2015 , after pressure from the African Union , ECOWAS , and the armed forces , the military junta agreed to step down , and Michel Kafando was reinstated as Acting President . History Prehistory The northwestern part of today 's Burkina Faso was populated by hunter-gatherers between 14,000 and 5000 BC . Their tools , including scrapers , chisels and arrowheads , were discovered in 1973 through archeological excavations . Agricultural settlements were established between 3600 and 2600 BC . The Bura culture was an Iron-Age civilization centered in the southwest portion of modern-day Niger and in the southeast part of contemporary Burkina Faso . Iron industry , in smelting and forging for tools and weapons , had developed in Sub-Saharan Africa by 1200 BC . Early history Historians debate the exact dates when Burkina Faso 's many ethnic groups arrived . The Proto-Mossi arrived in the far eastern part of what is today Burkina Faso sometime between the 8th and 11th centuries , the Samo arrived around the 15th century , the Dogon lived in Burkina Faso 's north and northwest regions until sometime in the 15th or 16th centuries , and many of the other ethnic groups that make up the country 's population arrived in the region during this time . During the Middle Ages the Mossi established several separate kingdoms including those of Tenkodogo , Yatenga , Gourma , Zandoma , and Ouagadougou . Sometime between 1328 and 1338 Mossi warriors raided Timbuktu but the Mossi were defeated by Sonni Ali of Songhai at the Battle of Kobi in Mali in 1483 . During the early 16th century the Songhai conducted many slave raids into what is today Burkina Faso . During the 18th century the Gwiriko Empire was established at Bobo Dioulasso and ethnic groups such as the Dyan , Lobi , and Birifor settled along the Black Volta . From colony to independence ( 1890s–1958 ) Starting in the early 1890s a series of British , French and German military officers made attempts to claim parts of what is today Burkina Faso . At times these colonialists and their armies fought the local peoples ; at times they forged alliances with them and made treaties . The colonialist officers and their home governments also made treaties amongst themselves . Through a complex series of events what is Burkina Faso eventually became a French protectorate in 1896 . The eastern and western regions , where a standoff against the forces of the powerful ruler Samori Ture complicated the situation , came under French occupation in 1897 . By 1898 , the majority of the territory corresponding to Burkina Faso was nominally conquered ; however , French control of many parts remained uncertain . The Franco-British Convention of 14 June 1898 created the country 's modern borders . In the French territory , a war of conquest against local communities and political powers continued for about five years . In 1904 , the largely pacified territories of the Volta basin were integrated into the Upper Senegal and Niger colony of French West Africa as part of the reorganization of the French West African colonial empire . The colony had its capital in Bamako . The French imposed their own language as the official one for colonial administration and generally appointed French colonists or nationals to prominent positions . The French started some schools and selected top students for additional education in France . Draftees from the territory participated in the European fronts of World War I in the battalions of the Senegalese Rifles . Between 1915 and 1916 , the districts in the western part of what is now Burkina Faso and the bordering eastern fringe of Mali became the stage of one of the most important armed oppositions to colonial government : the Volta-Bani War . The French government finally suppressed the movement but only after suffering defeats . It also had to organize its largest expeditionary force of its colonial history to send into the country to suppress the insurrection . Armed opposition wracked the Sahelian north when the Tuareg and allied groups of the Dori region ended their truce with the government . French Upper Volta was established on 1 March 1919 . The French feared a recurrence of armed uprising and had related economic considerations . To bolster its administration , the colonial government separated the present territory of Burkina Faso from Upper Senegal and Niger . The new colony was named Haute Volta , and François Charles Alexis Édouard Hesling became its first governor . Hesling initiated an ambitious road-making program to improve infrastructure and promoted the growth of cotton for export . The cotton policy – based on coercion – failed , and revenue generated by the colony stagnated . The colony was dismantled on 5 September 1932 , being split between the French colonies of Ivory Coast , French Sudan and Niger . Ivory Coast received the largest share , which contained most of the population as well as the cities of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso . France reversed this change during the period of intense anti-colonial agitation that followed the end of World War II . On 4 September 1947 , it revived the colony of Upper Volta , with its previous boundaries , as a part of the French Union . The French designated its colonies as departments of metropole France on the European continent . On 11 December 1958 the colony achieved self-government as the Republic of Upper Volta ; it joined the Franco-African Community . A revision in the organization of French Overseas Territories had begun with the passage of the Basic Law ( Loi Cadre ) of 23 July 1956 . This act was followed by reorganization measures approved by the French parliament early in 1957 to ensure a large degree of self-government for individual territories . Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the French community on 11 December 1958 . Full independence from France was received in 1960 . Upper Volta ( 1958–1984 ) The Republic of Upper Volta ( ) was established on 11 December 1958 as a self-governing colony within the French Community . The name Upper Volta related to the nation 's location along the upper reaches of the Volta River . The river 's three tributaries are called the Black , White and Red Volta . These were expressed in the three colors of the former national flag . Before attaining autonomy , it had been French Upper Volta and part of the French Union . On 5 August 1960 , it attained full independence from France . The first president , Maurice Yaméogo , was the leader of the Voltaic Democratic Union ( UDV ) . The 1960 constitution provided for election by universal suffrage of a president and a national assembly for five-year terms . Soon after coming to power , Yaméogo banned all political parties other than the UDV . The government lasted until 1966 . After much unrest , including mass demonstrations and strikes by students , labor unions , and civil servants , the military intervened . Lamizana 's rule and multiple coups The 1966 military coup deposed Yaméogo , suspended the constitution , dissolved the National Assembly , and placed Lt. Col. Sangoulé Lamizana at the head of a government of senior army officers . The army remained in power for four years . On 14 June 1976 , the Voltans ratified a new constitution that established a four-year transition period toward complete civilian rule . Lamizana remained in power throughout the 1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments . Lamizana 's rule coincided with the beginning of the Sahel drought and famine which had a devastating impact on Upper Volta and neighboring countries . After conflict over the 1976 constitution , a new constitution was written and approved in 1977 . Lamizana was reelected by open elections in 1978 . Lamizana 's government faced problems with the country 's traditionally powerful trade unions , and on 25 November 1980 , Col. Saye Zerbo overthrew President Lamizana in a bloodless coup . Colonel Zerbo established the Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress as the supreme governmental authority , thus eradicating the 1977 constitution . Colonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from trade unions and was overthrown two years later by Maj. Dr. Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo and the Council of Popular Salvation ( CSP ) in the 1982 Upper Voltan coup d'état . The CSP continued to ban political parties and organizations , yet promised a transition to civilian rule and a new constitution . 1983 coup d'état Infighting developed between the right and left factions of the CSP . The leader of the leftists , Capt . Thomas Sankara , was appointed prime minister in January 1983 , but subsequently arrested . Efforts to free him , directed by Capt . Blaise Compaoré , resulted in a military coup d'état on 4 August 1983 . The coup brought Sankara to power and his government began to implement a series of revolutionary programs which included mass-vaccinations , infrastructure improvements , the expansion of women 's rights , encouragement of domestic agricultural consumption , and anti-desertification projects . Burkina Faso ( Since 1984 ) On 4 August 1984 , on President Sankara 's initiative , the country 's name was changed from Upper Volta to Burkina Faso ( land of the upright/honest people ) . Sankara 's government formed the National Council for the Revolution ( CNR ) , with Sankara as its president , and established popular Committees for the Defense of the Revolution ( CDRs ) to `` mobilize the masses '' and implement the CNR 's revolutionary programs . The regime created a youth program ( the Pioneers of the Revolution ) for educating children about Marxist ideals . The government also armed and deputized CDR members who began a campaign to weed out suspected anti-revolutionaries , causing discontent amongst the country 's population and increasing domestic opposition to Sankara 's regime . A more positive reading of Thomas Sankara 's presidency is given by the Liberation News : ` Burkina Faso became food self-sufficient in the span of four years . Sankara rejected the imperialist aid industry and encouraged local production and trade . He nationalized Burkina Faso ’ s land and mineral wealth against the broaching power of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) . Alongside the economic revolution , he instated a vast social-cultural transformation wherein civil servants were forbidden from driving Mercedes vehicles and required to wear cotton tunics indigenous to the country . The women of Burkina Faso partook in the revolution with action centering on their rights . Sankara outlawed female genital mutilation and polygamy , and more women joined the military and were appointed to government positions . Sankara 's revolution took place within the context of the Cold War , and his visits to the Soviet Union and Cuba , calls for the cancellation of African debts held by Western governments and institutions and Marxist political regime were controversial , in particular in France and the United States as well as in most of Burkina Faso 's immediate neighbors , all of which were generally western-oriented or else cautious towards the Soviet bloc with the exception of Togo . On 15 October 1987 , Sankara along with twelve other officials were killed in a coup d'état organized by Blaise Compaoré , Sankara 's former colleague and Burkina Faso 's president until October 2014 . After the coup and although Sankara was known to be dead , some CDRs mounted an armed resistance to the army for several days . A majority of Burkinabé citizens hold that France 's foreign ministry , the Quai d'Orsay , was behind Compaoré in organizing the coup . Deterioration in relations with neighbouring countries was one of the reasons given by Compaoré for the coup . Compaoré argued that Sankara had jeopardised foreign relations with the former colonial power France and neighbouring Ivory Coast ( both of which supported the change in government ) . Following the coup Compaoré immediately reversed the nationalizations , overturned nearly all of Sankara 's policies , returned the country back into the IMF fold , and ultimately spurned most of Sankara 's legacy . Limited democratic reforms were introduced in 1990 by Compaoré . Under the new constitution , Compaoré was re-elected without opposition in 1991 . In 1998 Compaoré won election in a landslide . In 2004 13 people were tried for plotting a coup against President Compaoré and the coup 's alleged mastermind was sentenced to life imprisonment . , Burkina Faso remains one of the least developed countries in the world . Compaoré 's government had played the role of negotiator in several West-African disputes including the 2010–11 Ivorian crisis , the Inter-Togolese Dialogue , and the 2012 Malian Crisis . Between February and April 2011 , the death of a schoolboy provoked protests throughout the country , coupled with a military mutiny and a magistrates ' strike . October 2014 protests Starting on 28 October 2014 protesters began to march and demonstrate in Ouagadougou against President Blaise Compaore who appeared ready to amend the constitution and extend his 27 year rule . On 30 October , some protesters set fire to the parliament and took over the national TV headquarters . Ouagadougou International Airport was closed and MPs suspended the vote on changing the constitution to allow Compaoré to stand for re-election in 2015 . Later in the day , the military dissolved all government institutions and set a curfew . On 31 October 2014 , President Compaoré , facing mounting pressure , resigned after 27 years in office . Lt. Col. Isaac Zida said that he would lead the country during its transitional period before the planned 2015 presidential election but there were concerns over his close ties to the former president . In November 2014 opposition parties , civil society groups and religious leaders adopted a plan for a transitional authority to guide Burkina Faso to elections . Under the plan Michel Kafando was made the transitional President of Burkina Faso and Lt. Col. Zida became the acting Prime Minister and Defense Minister . 2015 coup d'état In September 2015 , the Regiment of Presidential Security ( RSP ) seized the country 's president and prime minister , and declared the National Council for Democracy the new national government . However , on 22 September 2015 , the coup leader , Gilbert Diendéré , apologized and promised to restore the civilian government . On 23 September 2015 , the prime minister and interim president were restored to power . Government and politics With French help , Blaise Compaoré seized power in a coup d'état in 1987 . He overthrew his long-time friend and ally Thomas Sankara , who was killed in the coup . The constitution of 2 June 1991 established a semi-presidential government : its parliament could be dissolved by the President of the Republic , who was to be elected for a term of seven years . In 2000 , the constitution was amended to reduce the presidential term to five years and set term limits to two , preventing successive re-election . The amendment took effect during the 2005 elections . If passed beforehand , it would have prevented Compaoré from being reelected . Other presidential candidates challenged the election results . But in October 2005 , the constitutional council ruled that , because Compaoré was the sitting president in 2000 , the amendment would not apply to him until the end of his second term in office . This cleared the way for his candidacy in the 2005 election . On 13 November 2005 , Compaoré was reelected in a landslide , because of a divided political opposition . In the 2010 Presidential elections , President Compaoré was re-elected . Only 1.6 million Burkinabés voted , out of a total population 10 times that size . The 2011 Burkinabè protests were a series of popular protests that called for the resignation of Compaoré , democratic reforms , higher wages for troops and public servants and economic freedom . As a result , Governors were replaced and wages for public servants were raised . The parliament consisted of one chamber known as the National Assembly which had 111 seats with members elected to serve five-year terms . There was also a constitutional chamber , composed of ten members , and an economic and social council whose roles were purely consultative . The 1991 constitution created a bicameral parliament but the upper house ( Chamber of Representatives ) was abolished in 2002 . The Compaoré administration had worked to decentralize power by devolving some of its powers to regions and municipal authorities . But the widespread distrust of politicians and lack of political involvement by many residents complicated this process . Critics described this as a hybrid decentralisation . Political freedoms are severely restricted in Burkina Faso . Human rights organizations had criticised the Compaoré administration for numerous acts of state-sponsored violence against journalists and other politically active members of society . In mid-September 2015 the Kafando government , along with the rest of the post-October 2014 political order , was temporarily overthrown in a coup attempt by the Regiment of Presidential Security ( RSP ) . They installed Gilbert Diendéré as chairman of the new National Council for Democracy . On 23 September 2015 , the prime minister and interim president were restored to power . The national elections were subsequently rescheduled for 29 November . Kaboré won the election in the first round of voting , receiving 53.5 % of the vote against 29.7 % for the second place candidate , Zephirin Diabré . He was sworn in as President on 29 December 2015 . Foreign relations Burkina Faso is a member of the African Union , Community of Sahel-Saharan States , La Francophonie , Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , Economic Community of West African States , and United Nations . Military The army consists of some 6,000 men in voluntary service , augmented by a part-time national People 's Militia composed of civilians between 25 and 35 years of age who are trained in both military and civil duties . According to Jane ’ s Sentinel Country Risk Assessment , Burkina Faso 's Army is undermanned for its force structure and poorly equipped , but has wheeled light-armour vehicles , and may have developed useful combat expertise through interventions in Liberia and elsewhere in Africa . In terms of training and equipment , the regular Army is believed to be neglected in relation to the élite Regiment of Presidential Security ( – RSP ) . Reports have emerged in recent years of disputes over pay and conditions . There is an air force with some 19 operational aircraft , but no navy , as the country is landlocked . Military expenses constitute approximately 1.2 % of the nation ’ s GDP . In April 2011 , there was an army mutiny ; the president named new chiefs of staff , and a curfew was imposed in Ouagadougou . Law enforcement Burkina Faso employs numerous police and security forces , generally modeled after organizations used by French police . France continues to provide significant support and training to police forces . The Gendarmerie Nationale is organized along military lines , with most police services delivered at the brigade level . The Gendarmerie operates under the authority of the Minister of Defence , and its members are employed chiefly in the rural areas and along borders . There is a municipal police force controlled by the Ministry of Territorial Administration ; a national police force controlled by the Ministry of Security ; and an autonomous Regiment of Presidential Security ( Régiment de la Sécurité Présidentielle , or RSP ) , a ‘ palace guard ’ devoted to the protection of the President of the Republic . Both the gendarmerie and the national police are subdivided into both administrative and judicial police functions ; the former are detailed to protect public order and provide security , the latter are charged with criminal investigations . All foreigners and citizens are required to carry photo ID passports , or other forms of identification or risk a fine , and police spot identity checks are commonplace for persons traveling by auto , bush-taxi , or bus . Geography and climate Geography Burkina Faso lies mostly between latitudes 9° and 15°N ( a small area is north of 15° ) , and longitudes 6°W and 3°E . It is made up of two major types of countryside . The larger part of the country is covered by a peneplain , which forms a gently undulating landscape with , in some areas , a few isolated hills , the last vestiges of a Precambrian massif . The southwest of the country , on the other hand , forms a sandstone massif , where the highest peak , Ténakourou , is found at an elevation of 749 m. The massif is bordered by sheer cliffs up to 150 m high . The average altitude of Burkina Faso is 400 m and the difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater than 600 m. Burkina Faso is therefore a relatively flat country . The country owes its former name of Upper Volta to three rivers which cross it : the Black Volta ( or Mouhoun ) , the White Volta ( Nakambé ) and the Red Volta ( Nazinon ) . The Black Volta is one of the country 's only two rivers which flow year-round , the other being the Komoé , which flows to the southwest . The basin of the Niger River also drains 27 % of the country 's surface . The Niger 's tributaries – the Béli , Gorouol , Goudébo , and Dargol – are seasonal streams and flow for only four to six months a year . They still can flood and overflow , however . The country also contains numerous lakes – the principal ones are Tingrela , Bam , and Dem . The country contains large ponds , as well , such as Oursi , Béli , Yomboli , and Markoye . Water shortages are often a problem , especially in the north of the country . Administrative divisions The country is divided into 13 administrative regions . These regions encompass 45 provinces and 301 departments . Each region is administered by a Governor . Climate Burkina Faso has a primarily tropical climate with two very distinct seasons . In the rainy season , the country receives between 60 and of rainfall ; in the dry season , the harmattan – a hot dry wind from the Sahara – blows . The rainy season lasts approximately four months , May/June through September , and is shorter in the north of the country . Three climatic zones can be defined : the Sahel , the Sudan-Sahel , and the Sudan-Guinea . The Sahel in the north typically receives less than 60 cm of rainfall per year and has high temperatures , 5 – . A relatively dry tropical savanna , the Sahel extends beyond the borders of Burkina Faso , from the Horn of Africa to the Atlantic Ocean , and borders the Sahara to its north and the fertile region of the Sudan to the South . Situated between 11°3 ' and 13°5' north latitude , the Sudan-Sahel region is a transitional zone with regards to rainfall and temperature . Further to the south , the Sudan-Guinea zone receives more than 90 cm of rain each year and has cooler average temperatures . Burkina Faso 's natural resources include gold , manganese , limestone , marble , phosphates , pumice , and salt . Wildlife and the environment Burkina Faso has a larger number of elephants than many countries in West Africa . Lions , leopards and buffalo can also be found here , including the dwarf or red buffalo , a smaller reddish-brown animal which looks like a fierce kind of short-legged cow . Other large predators live in Burkina Faso , such as the cheetah , the caracal or African lynx , the spotted hyena and the African wild dog , one of the continent ’ s most endangered species . Burkina Faso 's fauna and flora are protected in four national parks : * The W National Park in the east which passes Burkina Faso , Benin , and Niger * The Arly Wildlife Reserve ( Arly National Park in the east ) * The Léraba-Comoé Classified Forest and Partial Reserve of Wildlife in the west * The Mare aux Hippopotames in the west and several reserves : see List of national parks in Africa and Nature reserves of Burkina Faso . Economy and Infrastructure The value of Burkina Faso 's exports fell from $ 2.77 billion in 2011 to $ 754 million in 2012 . Agriculture represents 32 % of its gross domestic product and occupies 80 % of the working population . It consists mostly of rearing livestock . Especially in the south and southwest , the people grow crops of sorghum , pearl millet , maize ( corn ) , peanuts , rice and cotton , with surpluses to be sold . A large part of the economic activity of the country is funded by international aid . Burkina Faso was ranked the 111th safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings . Remittances used to be an important source of income to Burkina Faso until the 1990s , when unrest in Ivory Coast , the main destination for Burkinabe emigrants , forced many to return home . Remittances now account for less than 1 % of GDP . Burkina Faso is part of the West African Monetary and Economic Union ( UMEOA ) and has adopted the CFA Franc . This is issued by the Central Bank of the West African States ( BCEAO ) , situated in Dakar , Senegal . The BCEAO manages the monetary and reserve policy of the member states , and provides regulation and oversight of financial sector and banking activity . A legal framework regarding licensing , bank activities , organizational and capital requirements , inspections and sanctions ( all applicable to all countries of the Union ) is in place , having been reformed significantly in 1999 . Micro-finance institutions are governed by a separate law , which regulates micro-finance activities in all WAEMU countries . The insurance sector is regulated through the Inter-African Conference on Insurance Markets ( CIMA ) . There is mining of copper , iron , manganese , gold , cassiterite ( tin ore ) , and phosphates . These operations provide employment and generate international aid . Gold production increased 32 % in 2011 at six gold mine sites , making Burkina Faso the fourth-largest gold producer in Africa , after South Africa , Mali and Ghana . Burkina Faso also hosts the International Art and Craft Fair , Ouagadougou

qw_11383--Burkina_Faso.txt

What country changed its name to Burkina Faso?

The Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies . The IAU , the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature , specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects , but uses mixed `` Solar System '' and `` solar system '' in their [ http : //www.iau.org/public/themes/naming/ naming guidelines document ] . The name is commonly rendered in lower case ( `` solar system '' ) , as , for example , in the Oxford English Dictionary and [ http : //www.m-w.com/dictionary/solar % 20system Merriam-Webster 's 11th Collegiate Dictionary ] . is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it , either directly or indirectly.The moons orbiting the Solar System 's planets are an example of the latter . Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly , the largest eight are the planets , Historically , several other bodies were once considered planets , including , from its discovery in 1930 until 2006 , Pluto . See Former planets . with the remainder being significantly smaller objects , such as dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies . Of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly , the moons , two are larger than the smallest planet , Mercury.The two moons larger than Mercury are Ganymede which orbits Jupiter , and Titan which orbits Saturn . Although bigger than Mercury , each of those two moons has less than half the mass of Mercury . The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud . The vast majority of the system 's mass is in the Sun , with most of the remaining mass contained in Jupiter . The four smaller inner planets , Mercury , Venus , Earth and Mars , are terrestrial planets , being primarily composed of rock and metal . The four outer planets are giant planets , being substantially more massive than the terrestrials . The two largest , Jupiter and Saturn , are gas giants , being composed mainly of hydrogen and helium ; the two outermost planets , Uranus and Neptune , are ice giants , being composed mostly of substances with relatively high melting points compared with hydrogen and helium , called ices , such as water , ammonia and methane . All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic . The Solar System also contains smaller objects . The asteroid belt , which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter , mostly contains objects composed , like the terrestrial planets , of rock and metal . Beyond Neptune 's orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc , which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices , and beyond them a newly discovered population of sednoids . Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity . `` Today we know of more than a dozen dwarf planets in the solar system '' . [ http : //pluto.jhuapl.edu/overview/piPerspective.php ? page piPerspective_08_24_2012 The PI 's Perspective ] Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets . Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris . In addition to these two regions , various other small-body populations , including comets , centaurs and interplanetary dust , freely travel between regions . Six of the planets , at least four of the dwarf planets , and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by natural satellites , See List of natural satellites of the Solar System for the full list of natural satellites of the eight planets and first five dwarf planets usually termed `` moons '' after the Moon . Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects . The solar wind , a stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun , creates a bubble-like region in the interstellar medium known as the heliosphere . The heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of interstellar wind ; it extends out to the edge of the scattered disc . The Oort cloud , which is thought to be the source for long-period comets , may also exist at a distance roughly a thousand times further than the heliosphere . The Solar System is located in the Orion Arm , 26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way . Discovery and exploration For many thousands of years , humanity , with a few exceptions , did not recognize or understand the concept of the Solar System . Most people up to the Late Middle Ages–Renaissance believed Earth to be stationary at the centre of the universe and categorically different from the divine or ethereal objects that moved through the sky . Although the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos had speculated on a heliocentric reordering of the cosmos , Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematically predictive heliocentric system . In the 17th century , Galileo Galilei , Johannes Kepler , and Isaac Newton developed an understanding of physics that led to the gradual acceptance of the idea that Earth moves around the Sun and that the planets are governed by the same physical laws that governed Earth . The invention of the telescope led to the discovery of further planets and moons . Improvements in the telescope and the use of unmanned spacecraft have enabled the investigation of geological phenomena , such as mountains , craters , seasonal meteorological phenomena , such as clouds , dust storms and ice caps on the other planets . Structure and composition The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun , a G2 main-sequence star that contains 99.86 % of the system 's known mass and dominates it gravitationally . The Sun 's four largest orbiting bodies , the giant planets , account for 99 % of the remaining mass , with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more than 90 % . The remaining objects of the Solar System ( including the four terrestrial planets , the dwarf planets , moons , asteroids , and comets ) together comprise less than 0.002 % of the Solar System 's total mass . Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth 's orbit , known as the ecliptic . The planets are very close to the ecliptic , whereas comets and Kuiper belt objects are frequently at significantly greater angles to it . All the planets and most other objects orbit the Sun in the same direction that the Sun is rotating ( counter-clockwise , as viewed from above Earth 's north pole ) . There are exceptions , such as Halley 's Comet . The overall structure of the charted regions of the Solar System consists of the Sun , four relatively small inner planets surrounded by a belt of mostly rocky asteroids , and four giant planets surrounded by the Kuiper belt of mostly icy objects . Astronomers sometimes informally divide this structure into separate regions . The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt . The outer Solar System is beyond the asteroids , including the four giant planets . Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt , the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune . Most of the planets in the Solar System have secondary systems of their own , being orbited by planetary objects called natural satellites , or moons ( two of which are larger than the planet Mercury ) , and , in the case of the four giant planets , by planetary rings , thin bands of tiny particles that orbit them in unison . Most of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation , with one face permanently turned toward their parent . Kepler 's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects about the Sun . Following Kepler 's laws , each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus . Objects closer to the Sun ( with smaller semi-major axes ) travel more quickly because they are more affected by the Sun 's gravity . On an elliptical orbit , a body 's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year . A body 's closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion , whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion . The orbits of the planets are nearly circular , but many comets , asteroids , and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits . The positions of the bodies in the Solar System can be predicted using numerical models . Although the Sun dominates the system by mass , it accounts for only about 2 % of the angular momentum . The planets , dominated by Jupiter , account for most of the rest of the angular momentum due to the combination of their mass , orbit , and distance from the Sun , with a possibly significant contribution from comets . The Sun , which comprises nearly all the matter in the Solar System , is composed of roughly 98 % hydrogen and helium . Jupiter and Saturn , which comprise nearly all the remaining matter , are also primarily composed of hydrogen and helium . A composition gradient exists in the Solar System , created by heat and light pressure from the Sun ; those objects closer to the Sun , which are more affected by heat and light pressure , are composed of elements with high melting points . Objects farther from the Sun are composed largely of materials with lower melting points . The boundary in the Solar System beyond which those volatile substances could condense is known as the frost line , and it lies at roughly 5 AU from the Sun . The objects of the inner Solar System are composed mostly of rock , the collective name for compounds with high melting points , such as silicates , iron or nickel , that remained solid under almost all conditions in the protoplanetary nebula . Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases , the astronomical term for materials with extremely low melting points and high vapour pressure , such as hydrogen , helium , and neon , which were always in the gaseous phase in the nebula . Ices , like water , methane , ammonia , hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide , have melting points up to a few hundred kelvins . They can be found as ices , liquids , or gases in various places in the Solar System , whereas in the nebula they were either in the solid or gaseous phase . Icy substances comprise the majority of the satellites of the giant planets , as well as most of Uranus and Neptune ( the so-called `` ice giants '' ) and the numerous small objects that lie beyond Neptune 's orbit . Together , gases and ices are referred to as volatiles . Distances and scales The distance from Earth to the Sun is 1 AU , or AU . For comparison , the radius of the Sun is . Thus , the Sun occupies 0.00001 % ( 10−5 % ) of the volume of a sphere with a radius the size of Earth 's orbit , whereas Earth 's volume is roughly one millionth ( 10−6 ) that of the Sun . Jupiter , the largest planet , is from the Sun and has a radius of 71000 km , whereas the most distant planet , Neptune , is 30 AU from the Sun . With a few exceptions , the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun , the larger the distance between its orbit and the orbit of the next nearer object to the Sun . For example , Venus is approximately 0.33 AU farther out from the Sun than Mercury , whereas Saturn is 4.3 AU out from Jupiter , and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from Uranus . Attempts have been made to determine a relationship between these orbital distances ( for example , the Titius–Bode law ) , but no such theory has been accepted . The images at the beginning of this section show the orbits of the various constituents of the Solar System on different scales . Some Solar System models attempt to convey the relative scales involved in the Solar System on human terms . Some are small in scale ( and may be mechanical—called orreries ) —whereas others extend across cities or regional areas . The largest such scale model , the Sweden Solar System , uses the 110-metre ( 361-ft ) Ericsson Globe in Stockholm as its substitute Sun , and , following the scale , Jupiter is a 7.5-metre ( 25-foot ) sphere at Arlanda International Airport , 40 km ( 25 mi ) away , whereas the farthest current object , Sedna , is a 10-cm ( 4-in ) sphere in Luleå , 912 km ( 567 mi ) away . If the Sun–Neptune distance is scaled to 100 metres , then the Sun would be about 3 cm in diameter ( roughly two-thirds the diameter of a golf ball ) , the giant planets would be all smaller than about 3 mm , and Earth 's diameter along with that of the other terrestrial planets would be smaller than a flea ( 0.3 mm ) at this scale . Formation and evolution The Solar System formed 4.568 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region within a large molecular cloud.The date is based on the oldest inclusions found to date in meteorites , million years , and is thought to be the date of the formation of the first solid material in the collapsing nebula.A . Bouvier and M. Wadhwa . `` The age of the Solar System redefined by the oldest Pb–Pb age of a meteoritic inclusion '' . Nature Geoscience , 3 , 637–641 , 2010 . This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars . As is typical of molecular clouds , this one consisted mostly of hydrogen , with some helium , and small amounts of heavier elements fused by previous generations of stars . As the region that would become the Solar System , known as the pre-solar nebula , collapsed , conservation of angular momentum caused it to rotate faster . The centre , where most of the mass collected , became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc . As the contracting nebula rotated faster , it began to flatten into a protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU and a hot , dense protostar at the centre . The planets formed by accretion from this disc , in which dust and gas gravitationally attracted each other , coalescing to form ever larger bodies . Hundreds of protoplanets may have existed in the early Solar System , but they either merged or were destroyed , leaving the planets , dwarf planets , and leftover minor bodies . Due to their higher boiling points , only metals and silicates could exist in solid form in the warm inner Solar System close to the Sun , and these would eventually form the rocky planets of Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars . Because metallic elements only comprised a very small fraction of the solar nebula , the terrestrial planets could not grow very large . The giant planets ( Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune ) formed further out , beyond the frost line , the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid . The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets , allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium , the lightest and most abundant elements . Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the asteroid belt , Kuiper belt , and Oort cloud . The Nice model is an explanation for the creation of these regions and how the outer planets could have formed in different positions and migrated to their current orbits through various gravitational interactions . Within 50 million years , the pressure and density of hydrogen in the centre of the protostar became great enough for it to begin thermonuclear fusion . The temperature , reaction rate , pressure , and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved : the thermal pressure equalled the force of gravity . At this point , the Sun became a main-sequence star . The main-sequence phase , from beginning to end , will last about 10 billion years for the Sun compared to around two billion years for all other phases of the Sun 's pre-remnant life combined . Solar wind from the Sun created the heliosphere and swept away the remaining gas and dust from the protoplanetary disc into interstellar space , ending the planetary formation process . The Sun is growing brighter ; early in its main-sequence life its brightness was 70 % that of what it is today . The Solar System will remain roughly as we know it today until the hydrogen in the core of the Sun has been entirely converted to helium , which will occur roughly 5 billion years from now . This will mark the end of the Sun 's main-sequence life . At this time , the core of the Sun will collapse , and the energy output will be much greater than at present . The outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly 260 times its current diameter , and the Sun will become a red giant . Because of its vastly increased surface area , the surface of the Sun will be considerably cooler ( 2,600 K at its coolest ) than it is on the main sequence . The expanding Sun is expected to vaporize Mercury and Venus and render Earth uninhabitable as the habitable zone moves out to the orbit of Mars . Eventually , the core will be hot enough for helium fusion ; the Sun will burn helium for a fraction of the time it burned hydrogen in the core . The Sun is not massive enough to commence the fusion of heavier elements , and nuclear reactions in the core will dwindle . Its outer layers will move away into space , leaving a white dwarf , an extraordinarily dense object , half the original mass of the Sun but only the size of Earth . The ejected outer layers will form what is known as a planetary nebula , returning some of the material that formed the Sun—but now enriched with heavier elements like carbon—to the interstellar medium . Sun The Sun is the Solar System 's star and by far its most massive component . Its large mass ( 332,900 Earth masses ) produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium , making it a main-sequence star . This releases an enormous amount of energy , mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light . The Sun is a G2-type main-sequence star . Hotter main-sequence stars are more luminous . The Sun 's temperature is intermediate between that of the hottest stars and that of the coolest stars . Stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare , whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars , known as red dwarfs , make up 85 % of the stars in the Milky Way . The Sun is a population I star ; it has a higher abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium ( `` metals '' in astronomical parlance ) than the older population II stars . Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars , so the first generation of stars had to die before the Universe could be enriched with these atoms . The oldest stars contain few metals , whereas stars born later have more . This high metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun 's development of a planetary system because the planets form from the accretion of `` metals '' . Interplanetary medium The vast majority of the Solar System consists of a near-vacuum known as the interplanetary medium . Along with light , the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles ( a plasma ) known as the solar wind . This stream of particles spreads outwards at roughly 1.5 million kilometres per hour , creating a tenuous atmosphere that permeates the interplanetary medium out to at least 100 AU ( see ) . Activity on the Sun 's surface , such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections , disturb the heliosphere , creating space weather and causing geomagnetic storms . The largest structure within the heliosphere is the heliospheric current sheet , a spiral form created by the actions of the Sun 's rotating magnetic field on the interplanetary medium . Earth 's magnetic field stops its atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind . Venus and Mars do not have magnetic fields , and as a result the solar wind is causing their atmospheres to gradually bleed away into space . Coronal mass ejections and similar events blow a magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun . The interaction of this magnetic field and material with Earth 's magnetic field funnels charged particles into Earth 's upper atmosphere , where its interactions create aurorae seen near the magnetic poles . The heliosphere and planetary magnetic fields ( for those planets that have them ) partially shield the Solar System from high-energy interstellar particles called cosmic rays . The density of cosmic rays in the interstellar medium and the strength of the Sun 's magnetic field change on very long timescales , so the level of cosmic-ray penetration in the Solar System varies , though by how much is unknown . The interplanetary medium is home to at least two disc-like regions of cosmic dust . The first , the zodiacal dust cloud , lies in the inner Solar System and causes the zodiacal light . It was likely formed by collisions within the asteroid belt brought on by gravitational interactions with the planets . The second dust cloud extends from about 10 AU to about 40 AU , and was probably created by similar collisions within the Kuiper belt . Inner Solar System The inner Solar System is the region comprising the terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt . Composed mainly of silicates and metals , the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun ; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn . This region is also within the frost line , which is a little less than 5 AU ( about 700 million km ) from the Sun . Inner planets The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense , rocky compositions , few or no moons , and no ring systems . They are composed largely of refractory minerals , such as the silicates , which form their crusts and mantles , and metals , such as iron and nickel , which form their cores . Three of the four inner planets ( Venus , Earth and Mars ) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather ; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features , such as rift valleys and volcanoes . The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet , which designates those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is ( i.e . Mercury and Venus ) . Mercury Mercury ( 0.4 AU from the Sun ) is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet in the Solar System ( 0.055 Earth masses ) . Mercury has no natural satellites ; besides impact craters , its only known geological features are lobed ridges or rupes that were probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history . Mercury 's very tenuous atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind . Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately explained . Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant impact ; or , that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun 's energy . Venus Venus ( 0.7 AU from the Sun ) is close in size to Earth ( 0.815 Earth masses ) and , like Earth , has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core , a substantial atmosphere , and evidence of internal geological activity . It is much drier than Earth , and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense . Venus has no natural satellites . It is the hottest planet , with surface temperatures over 400 °C ( 752°F ) , most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus , but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere , which suggests that its atmosphere is being replenished by volcanic eruptions . Earth Earth ( 1 AU from the Sun ) is the largest and densest of the inner planets , the only one known to have current geological activity , and the only place where life is known to exist . Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets , and it is the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed . Earth 's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets , having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21 % free oxygen . It has one natural satellite , the Moon , the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System . Mars Mars ( 1.5 AU from the Sun ) is smaller than Earth and Venus ( 0.107 Earth masses ) . It has an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars ( roughly 0.6 % of that of Earth ) . Its surface , peppered with vast volcanoes , such as Olympus Mons , and rift valleys , such as Valles Marineris , shows geological activity that may have persisted until as recently as 2 million years ago . Its red colour comes from iron oxide ( rust ) in its soil . Mars has two tiny natural satellites ( Deimos and Phobos ) thought to be captured asteroids . Asteroid belt Asteroids except for the largest , Ceres , are classified as small Solar System bodies and are composed mainly of refractory rocky and metallic minerals , with some ice . They range from a few metres to hundreds of kilometres in size . Asteroids smaller than one meter are usually called meteoroids and micrometeoroids ( grain-sized ) , depending on different , somewhat arbitrary definitions . The asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter , between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun . It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System 's formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter . The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands , possibly millions , of objects over one kilometre in diameter . Despite this , the total mass of the asteroid belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of Earth . The asteroid belt is very sparsely populated ; spacecraft routinely pass through without incident . Ceres Ceres ( 2.77 AU ) is the largest asteroid , a protoplanet , and a dwarf planet . It has a diameter of slightly under 1,000 km , and a mass large enough for its own gravity to pull it into a spherical shape . Ceres was considered a planet when it was discovered in 1801 , and was reclassified to asteroid in the 1850s as further observations revealed additional asteroids . It was classified as a dwarf planet in 2006 when the definition of a planet was created . Asteroid groups Asteroids in the asteroid belt are divided into asteroid groups and families based on their orbital characteristics . Asteroid moons are asteroids that orbit larger asteroids . They are not as clearly distinguished as planetary moons , sometimes being almost as large as their partners . The asteroid belt also contains main-belt comets , which may have been the source of Earth 's water . Jupiter trojans are located in either of Jupiter 's L4 or L5 points ( gravitationally stable regions leading and

dpql_1607--Solar_System.txt

Clyde Tombaugh discovered which celestial object in our solar system in 1930?

Chesil Beach , sometimes called Chesil Bank , in Dorset , southern England is one of three major shingle structures in Britain . Its toponym is derived from the Old English ceosel or cisel , meaning `` gravel '' or `` shingle '' . The beach is often identified as a tombolo , although research into the geomorphology of the area has revealed that it is in fact a barrier beach which has `` rolled '' landwards , joining the mainland with the Isle of Portland , giving the appearance of a tombolo . The shingle beach is 29 km long , 200 m wide and 15 m high . The beach and the Fleet are part of the Jurassic Coast , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and the location for a 2007 novel , On Chesil Beach by Ian McEwan . At the eastern end of the beach at the village of Chiswell , against the cliffs of the Isle of Portland , the beach curves round sharply to form Chesil Cove . This part of the beach protects the low-lying village from flooding . The beach has been the scene of many shipwrecks , and as such was named by Thomas Hardy as `` Dead Man 's Bay '' . Westwards the shingle forms a straight line along the coast , enclosing the Fleet , a shallow tidal lagoon . The beach provides shelter from the prevailing winds and waves for the town of Weymouth and the village of Chiswell on Portland . Varying with the Bank 's unbroken increase in height , to , above mean high water , the size of the flint and chert shingle varies from pea-sized at the north-west end ( by West Bay ) to orange-sized at the south-east end ( by Portland ) . It is said that smugglers who landed on the beach in the middle of the night could judge `` exactly where they were '' by the size of the shingle . There are three owners of the beach ; the Crown Estates own the beach from Portland to its boundary stone at Littlesea . The bed of the lagoon and Chesil Beach adjacent to the Fleet , as well as the majority of the land of Upper Fleet to West Bexington , is owned by the Ilchester Estates , who are based north of Dorchester , but also have a local office in Abbotsbury . Finally from West Bexington to West Bay it is owned by the National Trust . The whole of Chesil Beach south from the Portland Bound Stone is registered common land over which there is a right of public access on foot . Origin The origin of Chesil Beach has been argued over for some time . Originally it was believed that beach material was from the Budleigh Salterton pebble beds to the west and later from Portland to the south east . The differences between the pebbles on the beach and nearby sources is now put down to the Flandrian isostatic sea level rise , so the feature could also be considered a barrier beach or bar , that happens to connect the mainland to an island rather than a 'true ' tombolo . Normally , tombolos are created due to the effects of the island on waves ( through refraction ) and to sediment transport , which usually produces a beach perpendicular to the mainland rather than parallel to it . Fossils occur all along the landward shore of the Fleet and along the landward side of Chesil Beach from Abbotsbury to West Bay . The main site is at Burton Bradstock . History There have been many shipwrecks on Chesil Beach , particularly during the age of sail . The beach was particularly dangerous within the English Channel , as it forms an extended lee shore during south-westerly gales . A ship coming up the Channel had to clear Portland Bill to be safe , but the wind and tide would be pushing it northwards into Lyme Bay . When sailing ships were common , a strong string of coastguards were based along the beach , with lookouts and cottages at Chiswell , Wyke Regis , Chickerell , Langton Herring , Abbotsbury , East Bexington , Burton Bradstock and West Bay . At present there are no manned stations along the beach , as coverage is provided when required from Portland Coastguard . The local fishermen , particularly at Portland , developed a purpose-built vessel to withstand the sea actions of Chesil Beach . The boat , known as a Lerret , is a double-ended open fishing boat - 16–17 feet long - used for seine net fishing . It is usually rowed by four people with a fifth to steer and deploy the net . Much of the villages Fleet and Chiswell were destroyed in the great storm of 1824 . Over the centuries Chiswell had battled with the sea and was regularly flooded during rough winter storms . In the storms the sea would pour through the upper part of the bank , and for this reason plans to drain the Fleet were abandoned in 1630 . The great storm of November 1824 struck the village with disastrous results - an event from which Chiswell would never fully recover . Since then various defences have been set-up to aid the village , notably the sea wall and promenade which commenced work in 1958 , and was completed in 1965 . The Weymouth to Portland Railway line was opened in 1865 , and built along the southern end of the beach . It closed to passengers in 1952 and finally closed to all traffic in 1965 . The line included a viaduct across Ferry Bridge . Over the last 150 years there have been a number of proposals to build a line from Weymouth to Bridport running the length of Chesil Beach . A line was built from Upwey to Abbotsbury but could not be continued through lack of money . A line was also built from Maiden Newton to Bridport and then onwards to West Bay . A more recent proposal was to build a light railway between Weymouth and West Bay . A rifle range , built around 1907 , is situated on Chesil Beach , near Ferry Bridge . It had 100 yard increments up to 800 yards , and some remains of this structure can still be seen today . The Royal Navy operated a minesweeping trials range off West Bexington for many years following World War II . It was abandoned in the mid-1980s . The cables came ashore under the beach at the West Bexington car park , and today the range control building can still be seen behind the car park , while one of the theodolite stations is located near the entrance to the Cogden Beach car park . The Fleet Lagoon From West Bay to Cliff End the beach is piled up against the cliff . At Cliff End a hollow forms behind the beach and at Abbotsbury a stretch of saline ( or brackish ) water called the Fleet Lagoon begins . The Fleet is home to many wading birds and Abbotsbury Swannery , and fossils can be found in the sand and mud . The Fleet connects to Portland Harbour at Ferry Bridge . Initially a ferry boat was used to connect Portland to the mainland , until the first bridge was constructed in 1839 . An iron bridge replaced this in 1896 , and this was in turn replaced with a concrete bridge in 1985 . Both Chesil Beach and the Fleet Lagoon are a Site of Special Scientific Interest , and the view of the beach from Abbotsbury has been voted by Country Life magazine as Britain 's third best view . The Fleet Lagoon and Chesil Beach feature in the novel Moonfleet by J. Meade Falkner ( 1898 ) , in which the village of Moonfleet is based on the real village of East Fleet . An arrangement of nets and poles to lure ducks into a closed area of netting is a decoy located within Abbotsbury Swannery . It was originally installed to provide food for the local monks , but is now used to catch ducks for ringing . It may be the oldest surviving decoy in England . Located in the Upper Fleet , within Abbotsbury Swannery , is Bum Point , and adjacent to this is an artificial island known as Tern Island , which was created to provide a nesting site for common terns . The lagoon is a designated bass nursery area , and the species are frequently seen on an underwater camera connected to the Chesil Beach Visitor Centre . As such angling for the fish is only permitted in the lower Fleet area , from the Narrows to Ferrybridge and only from the shore . However this has also been discouraged by the Southern-IFCA ( Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority ) as a conservation measure . A shallow draft boat , named the Fleet Observer , featuring a transparent bottom , takes visitors around the lower Fleet to observe the wildlife above and below the water . The main site of the Wyke Regis Training Area is found to the west of the Wyke Regis village , where it lies on the north side of the Fleet . This site , a bridging camp , was constructed in 1928 by Royal Engineers . Since then the site has been in continuous use for the training of Royal Engineers , amongst other armed forces , including both regular and reserve forces in the construction of both bridges and ferries , along with other types of military training . The Bridging Camp 's inner training area allows Sappers to hone their skills on everything from raft building to familiarising themselves with state of the art weaponry . Due to the close proximity of the lagoon , water based training is held there . A commercial oyster farm is situated on the sandbanks on the north side of the lower Fleet . The species farmed is the Pacific oyster , rather than the local oyster , and the farm racks are always visible at low tide . At Seabarn , a 68 metre high hill located in the mid-Fleet , between Butterstreet Cove and Herbury , is a disused control tower and landing pad for the navy helicopter firing range in Lyme Bay . The range was closed when the Navy left Portland in 1995 . There are also the remains of an anti-aircraft battery from the Second World War . Wildlife Due to the bird nesting season from 1 April until the end of August , access along , and to all parts of the beach from the Portland boundary stone to Abbotsbury is not permitted . Additionally access to the Fleet slope of the beach from Wyke to Abbotsbury is not permitted at any time in effort to protect and conserve the delicate environment . The Upper Fleet has some parts restricted to protect sensitive habitats . The little egret , Egretta garzetta , once a rare visitor to the UK , but is now regularly seen along the shores of the Fleet . The scaly cricket , a small insect , is only found at three sites in the UK , including Chesil Beach . Two species of eelgrass are found in the Fleet : Zostera marina and Zostera Noltii . These species both grow submerged in the shallow waters of the mid and upper Fleet , where large quantities die off in the early autumn . Chesil Beach is a popular location for sea angling , with access at Chiswell , Ferry Bridge , Abbotsbury , Cogden , Burton Bradstock and West Bay . Angling is also allowed in the lower Fleet from the shore . Commercial fishing , which often involved seine nets , has now virtually disappeared from Chesil Beach compared with the level of activity a century ago . Within the Fleet there is still a small controlled fishery for eels using fyke nets . The grey mullet is a common fish of the Fleet , occurring in large numbers along its entire length . In 1971 , the Japanese seaweed , Sargassum muticum , arrived in Britain , where it first appeared in the Isle of Wight . However , in the following years it spread along the south coast to the Fleet . It soon dominated the environment despite a number of attempts to limit its impact . It has since died back to a much lower level of occupancy in the Narrows and lower Fleet , however the current amount of growth is often dependent on a number of factors and as such varies from year to year . Due to issue with litter , both natural and man-made , brought to the beach by south-westerly gales , regular litter picks are organised , which involves volunteers to help alleviate the problem . A boom is in place at Ferry Bridge to minimise the impact on the Fleet of any oil pollution from within Portland Harbour . Chesil Beach is susceptible to oil pollution from accidents in Lyme Bay . If the oil gets into the pebbles it would prove impossible to remove . There is also a danger of oil getting into the Fleet from an accident in Portland Harbour . A boom is available to place across the entrance at Ferrybridge to minimise the impact on the Fleet Second World War defences Because of the low population density of nearby areas , and their proximity to the naval base on Portland , the beach and the Fleet were used as an experimental bombing range by the RAF before and during World War II . Additionally during the war the beach was used for machine gun training and Highball bouncing bomb testing . The Second World War defences constructed on and around Chesil Beach have been documented , and various defences still remain today , although some have been demolished or destroyed by the sea . A double row of anti-tank blocks divides the beach near Abbotsbury , where the Fleet Lagoon begins . Most of the seaward blocks have been destroyed , but the parallel lines of blocks on the landward side still survive in good condition . Within the same spot are two remaining Type 26 pillboxes , which were originally of four pillboxes associated with the blocks . The pillboxes were constructed in 1940 and were situated within the Abbotsbury Defence area , which at this time , was manned by the 6th Battalion Durham Light Infantry . Both structures remain half buried in the beach and tilted at an angle . An anti-tank ditch was located within this area , behind Chesil Beach . An observation post still exists on the landward side of the Fleet , with the open front facing Chesil Beach . The portion of the beach to the east of the anti-tank division , in front of Fleet Lagoon , had no passive defences against a landing , whereas the beach to the west was protected with miles of Admiralty scaffolding with anti-tank ditches and minefields and flame fougasse installations a little further inland . There were many pillboxes . Jurassic Coast The Jurassic Coast stretches over a distance of 155 km from Orcombe Point near Exmouth , in the west , to Old Harry Rocks on the Isle of Purbeck , in the east . The coastal exposures along the coastline provide a continuous sequence of Triassic , Jurassic and Cretaceous rock formations spanning approximately 185 million years of the Earths history . The localities along the Jurassic Coast includes a large range of important fossil zones .

dpql_3341--Chesil_Beach.txt

In which county would you find Chesil Beach?

John Smith ( 13 September 1938 – 12 May 1994 ) was a Scottish Labour Party politician who served as Leader of the Labour Party from July 1992 until his death from a heart attack in May 1994 . Smith first entered Parliament in 1970 and , after junior ministerial roles as Minister of State for Energy ( 1975–1976 ) and Minister of State for the Privy Council Office ( 1976–1977 ) , he entered the Cabinet at the end of James Callaghan 's tenure as Prime Minister , serving as Secretary of State for Trade and President of the Board of Trade ( 1978–1979 ) . During Labour 's time in Opposition to Margaret Thatcher 's Conservative government , he rose through the Shadow Cabinet , serving as Shadow Secretary of State for Trade ( 1979–1982 ) , Shadow Secretary of State for Energy ( 1982–1983 ) , Shadow Secretary of State for Employment ( 1983–1984 ) , Shadow Secretary of State for Trade and Industry ( 1984–1987 ) and Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer ( 1987–1992 ) . After Labour leader Neil Kinnock resigned following the Party 's surprise loss in the 1992 general election to new Conservative leader John Major , Smith was elected his successor in July 1992 . He continued Kinnock 's moves to reform Labour , abolishing the trade union block vote at Labour party conferences and replacing it with `` one member , one vote '' at the 1993 party conference . However , his overall cautious approach to reform , which was dubbed `` one more heave '' , sought to avoid controversy and win the next election by capitalising on the unpopularity of the Conservative government . This frustrated many modernisers like Tony Blair and Gordon Brown and after Smith 's sudden death in May 1994 , he was succeeded as Leader by Blair , who undertook the subsequent re-branding of Labour as New Labour , winning the 1997 general election in a landslide . Early life The son of a headmaster , Smith was born in Dalmally , Argyll , and grew up in Ardrishaig . He attended Dunoon Grammar School , lodging in the town with a landlady and going home during the holidays , before enrolling at the University of Glasgow , where he studied History from 1956 to 1959 , and then Law , from 1959 to 1962 . He joined the Labour Party in 1956 . He became involved in debating with the Glasgow University Dialectic Society and the Glasgow University Union . In 1962 , he won The Observer Mace debating competition , speaking with Gordon Hunter . In 1995 , after his death , the competition was renamed the John Smith Memorial Mace in his honour . After graduating , Smith practised as a solicitor for a year . He was then elected to the Faculty of Advocates ( the Scottish equivalent of being called to the bar ) . Member of Parliament Smith first stood as a Labour parliamentary candidate at a by-election in 1961 in the East Fife constituency ; he contested that seat again in the 1964 general election . At the 1970 general election , he was elected as Member of Parliament ( MP ) for North Lanarkshire succeeding Margaret Herbison . Smith defied the Labour whips in 1971 , joining Labour MPs led by Roy Jenkins who voted in favour of entry to the European Economic Community . These included Roy Hattersley , Shirley Williams , Bill Rodgers and David Owen all of whom he was later to sit with in the Callaghan cabinet . In government In October 1974 , Harold Wilson offered Smith the post of Solicitor General for Scotland . Smith turned it down , not wishing his political career to become sidelined as a law officer . He was instead made an Under-Secretary of State at the Department of Energy . In December 1975 , he was made a Minister of State . When James Callaghan became Prime Minister , Smith became a Minister of State at the Privy Council Office , serving with Labour 's Deputy leader , Michael Foot , the Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Commons . In this position Smith piloted the highly controversial devolution proposals for Scotland and Wales through the House of Commons . Smith 's adroit handling of these proposals impressed Callaghan , and in November 1978 , when Edmund Dell retired , Callaghan appointed Smith Secretary of State for Trade . In this post , Smith was the youngest member of the cabinet , and served there until the 1979 general election . Shadow Cabinet In the early 1980s , Smith was Shadow Energy Secretary . He became a QC in 1983 , the same year that the constituency became Monklands East . Smith acted as Roy Hattersley 's campaign manager for the party leadership election in October 1983 and after serving a year as Shadow Employment Secretary , was Shadow Secretary of State for Trade and Industry between late 1984 and 1987 . Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer Smith was appointed Shadow Chancellor by Neil Kinnock in July 1987 after the Labour Party 's general election defeat . He suffered a serious heart attack whilst Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer on 9 October 1988 and was forced to spend three months away from Westminster to recover . On that occasion , he had complained of chest pains the night before , and had to be persuaded to cancel a flight to London so he could go to hospital for a check-up . He was examined at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary by an ECG . The doctor who examined him said `` Whatever it is , we do n't think it is your heart '' . Then Smith suddenly collapsed and was briefly unconscious before coming around . He spent three days in intensive care before leaving hospital on 20 October 1988 , and made a full recovery . Smith made modifications to his lifestyle by going on a 1,000-calories per day diet , cutting down on rich foods and fine wines , giving up smoking and taking up Munro bagging and by the time of his death , he had succeeded in climbing 108 of the 277 Scottish Munros ( mountains over 3,000 feet above sea level at the summit ) . His weight dropped from 15 st at the time of the first heart attack , to 12 st when he returned to Parliament on 23 January 1989 . Despite a quiet , modest manner , and his politically moderate stance , he was a witty , often scathing speaker . Smith was named as Parliamentarian of the Year twice : first in November 1986 for his performances during the Westland controversy , during which Leon Brittan resigned and second in November 1989 for taking Nigel Lawson to task over the state of the economy and over his difficult relationship with Sir Alan Walters , the Prime Minister 's economic adviser . Smith made two notably witty attacks on Lawson that year . On 7 June 1989 , he sang the theme tune for the soap Neighbours at the dispatch box , lampooning the differences between Lawson and Sir Alan Walters , who was critical of Lawson 's policies but whom Thatcher refused to sack . Then on 24 October , he made another scathing attack on the differences . Two days later , Lawson resigned , followed shortly afterwards by Walters . Leader of HM Opposition Following Labour 's fourth consecutive defeat at the general election of April 1992 , Neil Kinnock resigned as leader and Smith was elected Labour leader . Although Labour had now been out of power for 13 years , their performance in the 1992 election had been much better than in the previous three . They had cut the Conservative majority from 102 seats to 21 , and for most of the three years leading up to the election , opinion polls had indicated that Labour were more likely to win the election than the Conservatives . The resignation of long-serving but increasingly unpopular Conservative prime minister Margaret Thatcher , and the well-received election of John Major as her successor , had seen the comfortable Labour lead in the opinion polls wiped out and in the 17 months leading up to the election , its outcome had become much harder to predict . Much of the blame had been placed on Labour 's `` shadow budget '' drawn up by Smith , which included raising the top rate of income tax from 40p in the pound to 50p , and the Conservative election campaign was centred on warning voters that they would face higher taxes under a Labour government . In September 1992 , Smith made his maiden speech as party leader , in which he attacked the Government 's ERM debacle eight days earlier - an event which was seen by many observers as playing a large part in determining the outcome of the next general election , long before it was even on the political horizon , as from that point onwards the Labour Party was ascendant in the opinion polls , winning several seats from the Conservatives in by-elections ( eventually even attracting a Conservative MP to defect to Labour ) and trouncing them in local council elections . In this speech , he referred to John Major as `` the devalued Prime Minister of a devalued Government '' . At Labour 's party conference , Smith branded Major and Norman Lamont the `` Laurel and Hardy of British politics '' . This echoed his attacks on Major 's government made before the 1992 election ( while he was still shadow chancellor ) , most memorably when he labelled `` irresponsible '' Conservative plans for cutting income tax to 20 % , and joked at a Labour Party rally in Sheffield that the Conservatives would have a box-office disaster with `` Honey , I Shrunk the Economy '' – in reference to the recent Disney motion picture Honey , I Shrunk the Kids – mocking the recession which was plaguing the British economy at the time . In a June 1993 debate , Smith again savaged the Conservative Government , saying that under John Major 's premiership , `` the man with the non-Midas touch is in charge . It is no wonder that we live in a country where the Grand National does not start and hotels fall into the sea '' ( in reference to the 1993 Grand National , which was cancelled after a false start , and to Holbeck Hall Hotel in Scarborough , which had recently collapsed off a cliff ) . This was in spite of neither of these events being part of the political or economic scene . During the same debate , Smith commented on a recent Government defeat in the Newbury by-election to the Liberal Democrats , a poor showing in the local elections and a subsequent Cabinet reshuffle by saying that `` if we were to offer that tale of events to the BBC Light Entertainment Department as a script for a programme , I think that the producers of Yes Minister would have turned it down as hopelessly over the top . It might have even been too much for Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em '' . In the same speech , Smith also attacked the Conservatives ' broken election promises ( in particular Lamont 's recent Budget decision to impose VAT on domestic energy bills ) – claiming he possessed the last copy of a 1992 policy document `` to escape the Central Office shredder '' . He also performed very well in the July 1993 motion of confidence debate on the Conservative government . Despite his dispatch box successes ( Smith was always more effective in the House of Commons than on platforms or at Prime Minister 's Questions , though he began to improve at the latter towards the end of his life ) , Tony Blair and Gordon Brown were , under Smith 's leadership , restless and privately anxious that the party had adopted a `` One more heave '' approach and had become over-cautious in tackling the legacy of `` tax and spend '' . Despite this , during his time as leader of the Labour Party , Smith abolished the trade union block vote at Labour party conferences and replaced it with `` One member , one vote '' at the 1993 party conference . He also committed a future Labour government to establishing a Scottish Parliament , an aim fulfilled by his successors after his death ( most notably his close friend Donald Dewar ) . Smith was also a committed British Unionist . During Smith 's tenure as leader the Labour party gained a significant lead in the polls over the Conservatives ; on 5 May 1994 , one week before Smith 's death , the Conservatives suffered a major defeat in the British council elections , their worst in over 30 years . This happened in spite of the strong economic recovery and reduction of unemployment which had followed the declaration of the recession 's end in April 1993 . Labour 's opinion poll lead was shown to be as high as 23 % in May 1994 . Death On the evening of 11 May 1994 , with around 500 people present , Smith made a speech at a fundraising dinner at Park Lane Hotel , London , saying `` The opportunity to serve our country—that is all we ask '' . At 8:05 a.m. the following morning , whilst in his Barbican flat , Smith suffered a fatal heart attack . His wife phoned an ambulance and he was rushed to Saint Bartholomew 's Hospital where he died at 9:15 a.m. , having never regained consciousness . On 28 April , a fortnight before his death , Smith had visited the same accident and emergency department to campaign against its proposed closure . The doctor who had served as his tour guide , Professor Mike Besser , tried unsuccessfully to save Smith 's life . In response to his death , John Major paid tribute in the House of Commons to Smith , culminating in the now well-known line , that he and Smith `` would share a drink : sometimes tea , sometimes not tea '' . It was reported that there was weeping in the chamber . On the day of his death , the BBC 9 O'Clock News was extended to an hour as opposed to the usual half-hour . This replaced the medical drama which was due to follow at 9:30 , coincidentally entitled Cardiac Arrest . During Question Time that evening , panellists paid tribute to Smith instead of debating . George Robertson and Menzies Campbell were among the participants . On 20 May 1994 , after a public funeral service in Cluny Parish Church , Edinburgh which was attended by almost 1,000 people , Smith was buried in a private family service on the island of Iona , at the sacred burial ground of Reilig Odhráin , which contains the graves of several Scottish kings as well as monarchs of Ireland , Norway and France . His grave is marked with an epitaph quoting Alexander Pope : `` An honest man 's the noblest work of God '' . [ http : //travel.independent.co.uk/uk/article625010.ece Walk Of The Month : The island of Iona ] The Independent 4 June 2006 His close friend Donald Dewar was the only political figure at the funeral ; Dewar also acted as one of Smith 's pallbearers . On 14 July 1994 , a memorial service for Smith took place at Westminster Abbey and was attended by over 2,000 people . The Archbishop of Canterbury George Carey gave an address . Following Smith 's death , the Labour Party renamed its Walworth Road headquarters John Smith House in his memory . Aftermath Tony Blair , Smith 's successor as Labour leader , was highly popular and an effective campaigner and won a landslide victory in the 1997 general election . Smith 's biographer , Mark Stuart , claimed that Smith could have won Labour a victory on a scale similar to that achieved by Blair because of the combination of the Black Wednesday debacle and Conservative divisions over Europe since 1992 . Stuart argues that the lack of a `` Blair effect '' would have meant that the Conservative Party would have held slightly over 200 seats ( rather than the 165 it actually won ) in the House of Commons , leaving the Conservatives in a position similar to that of Labour after the 1983 election . Personal life Smith was married to Elizabeth Bennett from 5 July 1967 until his death . Elizabeth Smith was created Baroness Smith of Gilmorehill in 1995 . They had three daughters , one of whom , Sarah Smith , has served as the Washington correspondent for Channel 4 news and now works for BBC Scotland . Their other daughters are Jane , a costume designer , and Catherine , a lawyer .

dpql_5680--John_Smith_(Labour_Party_leader).txt

On which Scottish island was former Labour party leader John Smith laid to rest?

The Last Supper is the final meal that , in the Gospel accounts , Jesus shared with his Apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion . The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Maundy Thursday . The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist , also known as `` Holy Communion '' or `` The Lord 's Supper '' . The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper . The four canonical Gospels all state that the Last Supper took place towards the end of the week , after Jesus ' triumphal entry into Jerusalem and that Jesus and his Apostles shared a meal shortly before Jesus was crucified at the end of that week . During the meal Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the Apostles present , and foretells that before the next morning , Peter will deny knowing him . The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread , breaks it and gives it to the Apostles , saying : `` This is my body which is given for you '' . The Gospel of John does not include this episode , but tells of Jesus washing the feet of the Apostles , giving the new commandment `` to love one another as I have loved you '' , and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus , calling the Apostles who follow his teachings `` friends and not servants '' , as he prepares them for his departure . Scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharist traditions . Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practiceFunk , Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar . The acts of Jesus : the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus . HarperSanFrancisco . 1998 . Introduction , p. 1-40 as described by Paul in the mid-50s . The Last Supper served the dual purpose of venerating Passover , the escape of the Jews from slavery in Egypt , and the establishment of a new tradition , Christianity . Terminology The term `` Last Supper '' does not appear in the New Testament , The Gospel according to Luke : introduction , translation , and notes , Volume 28 , Part 1 by Joseph A. Fitzmyer 1995 ISBN 0-385-00515-6 page 1378 but traditionally many Christians refer to the New Testament accounts of the last meal Jesus shared with his Apostles as the `` Last Supper '' . Most Protestants use the term `` Lord 's Supper '' , stating that the term `` last '' suggests this was one of several meals and not the meal . The term `` Lord 's Supper '' refers both to the biblical event and the act of `` Holy Communion '' and Eucharistic ( `` thanksgiving '' ) celebration within their liturgy . Evangelical Protestants also use the term `` Lord 's Supper '' , but most do not use the terms `` Eucharist '' or the word `` Holy '' with the name `` Communion '' .Humanists and Reformers : A History of the Renaissance and Reformation by Bard Thompson 1996 ISBN 978-0-8028-6348-5 pages 493-494 The Eastern Orthodox use the term `` Mystical Supper '' which refers both to the biblical event and the act of Eucharistic celebration within liturgy . Scriptural basis The last meal that Jesus shared with his disciples is described in all four canonical Gospels ( , , and ) . This meal later became known as the Last Supper.The Encyclopedia of Christianity , Volume 4 by Erwin Fahlbusch , 2005 ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5 pages 52-56 The Last Supper was likely a retelling of the events of the last meal of Jesus among the early Christian community , and became a ritual which recounted that meal . Paul 's First Epistle to the Corinthians , which was likely written before the Gospels , includes a reference to the Last Supper but emphasizes the theological basis rather than giving a detailed description of the event or its background.The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 pages 465-477 Background and setting The overall narrative that is shared in all Gospel accounts that leads to the Last Supper is that after the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem early in the week , and encounters with various people and the Jewish elders , Jesus and his disciples share a meal towards the end of the week . After the meal , Jesus is betrayed , arrested , tried , and then crucified . Key events in the meal are the preparation of the disciples for the departure of Jesus , the predictions about the impending betrayal of Jesus , and the foretelling of the upcoming denial of Jesus by Apostle Peter . Prediction of Judas ' betrayal In , , and during the meal , Jesus predicted that one of his Apostles would betray him.Steven L. Cox , Kendell H Easley , 2007 Harmony of the Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 page 182 Jesus is described as reiterating , despite each Apostle 's assertion that he would not betray Jesus , that the betrayer would be one of those who were present , and saying that there would be woe to the man who betrays the Son of man ! It would be better for him if he had not been born . In and , Judas is specifically identified as the traitor . In the Gospel of John , when asked about the traitor , Jesus states : “ It is the one to whom I will give this piece of bread when I have dipped it in the dish. ” Then , dipping the piece of bread , he gave it to Judas , the son of Simon Iscariot . As soon as Judas took the bread , Satan entered into him . '' Institution of the Eucharist In the course of the Last Supper , Jesus divides up some bread , says a prayer , and hands the pieces of bread to his disciples , saying `` this is my body . '' He then takes a cup of wine , offers another prayer , and hands it around , saying `` this is my blood of the everlasting covenant , which is poured for many . '' Finally , according to Paul and Luke , he tells the disciples `` do this in remembrance of me . '' This event has been regarded by Christians of most denominations as the institution of the Eucharist . There is recorded celebration of the Eucharist by the early Christian community in Jerusalem.Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church / editors , F. L. Cross & E. A. Livingstone 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3 , article Eucharist The institution of the Eucharist is recorded in the three Synoptic Gospels and in Paul 's First Epistle to the Corinthians . The words of institution differ slightly in each account , reflecting a Marcan tradition ( upon which Matthew is based ) and a Pauline tradition ( upon which Luke is based ) . In addition , is a disputed text which does not appear in some of the early manuscripts of Luke . Some scholars , therefore , believe that it is an interpolation , while others have argued that it is original . A comparison of the accounts given in the Gospels and 1 Corinthians is shown in the table below , with text from the ASV . The disputed text from Luke 22:19b-20 is in italics . Jesus ' actions in sharing the bread and wine have been linked with which refers to a blood sacrifice that , as recounted in , Moses offered in order to seal a covenant with God . Scholars often interpret the description of Jesus ' action as asking his disciples to consider themselves part of a sacrifice , where Jesus is the one due to physically undergo it . Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread and wine ritual during the Last Supper , most scholars agree that ( the Bread of Life Discourse ) has a Eucharistic nature and resonates with the `` words of institution '' used in the Synoptic Gospels and the Pauline writings on the Last Supper . Prediction of Peter 's denial In , , and Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him , stating that Peter will disown him three times before the rooster crows the next morning . The three Synoptic Gospels mention that after the arrest of Jesus Peter denied knowing him three times , but after the third denial , heard the rooster crow and recalled the prediction as Jesus turned to look at him . Peter then began to cry bitterly . Elements unique to the Gospel of John In John , Jesus ' last supper is not explicitly referred to as a Passover meal . Furthermore , John places the official Jewish Passover a few hours after Jesus ' crucifixion , so that Jesus dies in the hour that the Passover lambs are slaughtered . Astronomical calculations of ancient Passover dates support John 's chronology as being historical , apparently in contrast with the synoptic description of Jesus celebrating a Passover meal before his death . The resulting scholarly debate is detailed in the Date section below . includes the account of the washing the feet of the Apostles by Jesus before the meal . In this episode , Apostle Peter objects and does not want to allow Jesus to wash his feet , but Jesus answers him , “ Unless I wash you , you have no part with me ” , after which Peter agrees . In the Gospel of John , after the departure of Judas from the Last Supper , Jesus tells his remaining eleven disciples that he will be with them for only a short time , then gives them a New Commandment , stating : Encountering John : The Gospel in Historical , Literary , and Theological Perspective by Andreas J. Kostenberger 2002 ISBN 0801026032 pages 149-151 “ A new command I give you : Love one another . As I have loved you , so you must love one another . By this everyone will know that you are my disciples , if you love one another. ” in . Two similar statements also appear later in : `` My command is this : Love each other as I have loved you '' , and : `` This is my command : Love each other . `` 1 , 2 , and 3 John by Robert W. Yarbrough 2008 ISBN 0801026873 Baker Academic Press page 215 At the Last Supper in the Gospel of John , Jesus gives an extended sermon to his disciples . This discourse resembles farewell speeches called testaments , in which a father or religious leader , often on the deathbed , leaves instructions for his children or followers . This sermon is referred to as the Farewell discourse of Jesus , and has historically been considered a source of Christian doctrine , particularly on the subject of Christology . is generally known as the Farewell Prayer or the High Priestly Prayer , given that it is an intercession for the coming Church.The Gospel according to John by Herman Ridderbos 1997 ISBN 978-0-8028-0453-2 The Farewell Prayer : pages 546-576 The prayer begins with Jesus ' petition for his glorification by the Father , given that completion of his work and continues to an intercession for the success of the works of his disciples and the community of his followers . Time and place Date Historians estimate that the date of the crucifixion fell in the range AD 30-36 . Physicists such as Isaac Newton and Colin Humphreys have ruled out the years 31 , 32 , 35 , and 36 on astronomical grounds , leaving 7 April AD 30 and 3 April AD 33 as possible crucifixion dates . Humphreys proposes narrowing down the date of the Last Supper as having occurred in the evening of Wednesday , 1 April AD 33 , by revising Annie Jaubert 's double-Passover theory . The rationale is as follows . All Gospels agree that Jesus held a Last Supper with his disciples prior to dying on a Friday at or just before the time of Passover ( annually on 15 Nisan , the official Jewish day beginning at sunset ) and that his body was left in the tomb for the whole of the next day , which was a Shabbat ( Saturday ) . However , while the Synoptic Gospels present the Last Supper as a Passover meal , the Gospel of John makes no explicit mention that the Last Supper was a Passover meal and presents the official Jewish Passover feast as beginning in the evening a few hours after the death of Jesus . John thus implies that the Friday of the crucifixion was the day of preparation for the feast ( 14 Nisan ) , not the feast itself ( 15 Nisan ) , and astronomical calculations of ancient Passover dates initiated by Isaac Newton in 1733 support John 's chronology . Historically , various attempts to reconcile the three synoptic accounts with John have been made , some of which are indicated in the [ http : //www.newadvent.org/cathen/14341a.htm article on the Last Supper ] by Francis Mershman in the 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia . The Maundy Thursday church tradition assumes that the Last Supper was held on the evening before the crucifixion day ( although , strictly speaking , in no Gospel is it unequivocally said that this meal took place on the night before Jesus died ) . A new approach to resolve this contrast was undertaken in the wake of the excavations at Qumran in the 1950s when Annie Jaubert argued that there were two Passover feast dates : while the official Jewish lunar calendar had Passover begin on a Friday evening in the year that Jesus died , a solar calendar was also used , for instance by the Essene community at Qumran , which always had the Passover feast begin on a Tuesday evening . According to Jaubert , Jesus would have celebrated the Passover on Tuesday , and the Jewish authorities three days later , on Friday . However , Humphreys has calculated that Jaubert 's proposal can not be correct , as the Qumran solar Passover would always fall after the official Jewish lunar Passover . Nevertheless , he agrees with the approach of two Passover dates , and argues that the Last Supper took place on the evening of Wednesday 1 April 33 , based on his recent discovery of the Essene , Samaritan , and Zealot lunar calendar , which is based on Egyptian reckoning . Humphreys ' implication is that Jesus and other communities were following the original Jewish calendar putatively imported from Egypt by Moses ( which requires calculating the time of the invisible new moon ) , rather than the official Jewish calendar which had been modified more recently , in the 6th century BC during the Babylonian exile ( which simply requires observing the visible waxing moon ) . A Last Supper on Wednesday , he argues , would allow more time than in the traditional view ( Last Supper on Thursday ) for the various interrogations of Jesus and his presentation to Pilate before he was crucified on Friday . Furthermore , a Wednesday Last Supper , followed by a Thursday daylight Sanhedrin trial , followed by a Friday judicial confirmation and crucifixion would not require violating Jewish court procedure as documented in the 2nd century , which forbade capital trials at night and moreover required a confirmatory session the following day . In a review of Humphreys ' book , the Bible scholar William R Telford points out that the non-astronomical parts of his argument are based on the assumption that the chronologies described in the New Testament are historical and based on eyewitness testimony . In doing so , Telford says , Humphreys has built an argument upon unsound premises which `` does violence to the nature of the biblical texts , whose mixture of fact and fiction , tradition and redaction , history and myth all make the rigid application of the scientific tool of astronomy to their putative data a misconstrued enterprise . '' Location According to later tradition , the Last Supper took place in what is today called The Room of the Last Supper on Mount Zion , just outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem , and is traditionally known as The Upper Room . This is based on the account in the Synoptic Gospels that states that Jesus had instructed a pair of unnamed disciples to go to `` the city '' to meet `` a man carrying a jar of water '' , who would lead them to a house , where they would find `` a large upper room furnished and ready '' . In this upper room they `` prepare the Passover '' . But , in Luke 22:8 , it is noted that Jesus sent Peter and John . No more specific indication of the location is given in the New Testament , and the `` city '' referred to may be a suburb of Jerusalem , such as Bethany , rather than Jerusalem itself . The traditional location is in an area that , according to archaeology , had a large Essene community , a point made by scholars who suspect a link between Jesus and the group ( Kilgallen 265 ) . Saint Mark 's Syrian Orthodox Church in Jerusalem is another possible site for the room in which the Last Supper was held , and contains a Christian stone inscription testifying to early reverence for that spot . Certainly the room they have is older than that of the current coenaculum ( crusader - 12th century ) and as the room is now underground the relative altitude is correct ( the streets of 1st century Jerusalem were at least twelve feet ( 3.6 metres ) lower than those of today , so any true building of that time would have even its upper storey currently under the earth ) . They also have a revered Icon of the Virgin Mary , reputedly painted from life by St Luke . Bargil Pixner claims the original site is located beneath the current structure of the Cenacle on Mount Zion . Theology of the Last Supper St. Thomas Aquinas viewed The Father , Christ , and the Holy Spirit as teachers and masters who provide lessons , at times by example . For Aquinas , the Last Supper and the Cross form the summit of the teaching that wisdom flows from intrinsic grace , rather than external power . For Aquinas , at the Last Supper Christ taught by example , showing the value of humility ( as reflected in John 's foot washing narrative ) and self-sacrifice , rather than by exhibiting external , miraculous powers.Reading John with St. Thomas Aquinas by Michael Dauphinais , Matthew Levering 2005 ISBN page xixA-Z of Thomas Aquinas by Joseph Peter Wawrykow 2005 ISBN 0-334-04012-4 pages 124-125 Aquinas stated that based on ( in the Farewell discourse ) in which Jesus said : `` No longer do I call you servants ; ... but I have called you friends '' . Those who are followers of Christ and partake in the Sacrament of the Eucharist become his friends , as those gathered at the table of the Last Supper . For Aquinas , at the Last Supper Christ made the promise to be present in the Sacrament of the Eucharist , and to be with those who partake in it , as he was with his disciples at the Last Supper . John Calvin believed only in the two sacraments of Baptism and the `` Lord 's Supper '' ( i.e. , Eucharist ) . Thus , his analysis of the Gospel accounts of the Last Supper were an important part of his entire theology.Reformed worship by Howard L. Rice , James C. Huffstutler 2001 ISBN 0-664-50147-8 pages 66-68Calvin 's Passion for the Church and the Holy Spirit by David S. Chen 2008 ISBN 978-1-60647-346-7 pages 62-68 Calvin related the Synoptic Gospel accounts of the Last Supper with the Bread of Life Discourse in that states : `` I am the bread of life . He who comes to me will never go hungry . '' Calvin also believed that the acts of Jesus at the Last Supper should be followed as an example , stating that just as Jesus gave thanks to the Father before breaking the bread , those who go to the `` Lord 's Table '' to receive the sacrament of the Eucharist must give thanks for the `` boundless love of God '' and celebrate the sacrament with both joy and thanksgiving . Remembrances The institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper is remembered by Roman Catholics as one of the Luminous Mysteries of the Rosary , the First Station of the Scriptural Way of the Cross and by most Christians as the `` inauguration of the New Covenant '' , mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah , fulfilled at the last supper when Jesus `` took bread , and after blessing it broke it and gave it to them , and said , 'Take ; this is my body . ' And he took a cup , and when he had given thanks he gave it to them , and they all drank of it . And he said to them , 'This is my blood of the covenant , which is poured out for many . Other Christian groups consider the Bread and Wine remembrance to be a change to the Passover ceremony , as Jesus Christ has become `` our Passover , sacrificed for us '' , and hold that partaking of the Passover Communion ( or fellowship ) is now the sign of the New Covenant , when properly understood by the practicing believer . These meals evolved into more formal worship services and became codified as the Mass in the Catholic Church , and as the Divine Liturgy in the Eastern Orthodox Church ; at these liturgies , Catholics and Eastern Orthodox celebrate the Sacrament of the Eucharist . The name `` Eucharist '' is from the Greek word εὐχαριστία ( eucharistia ) which means `` thanksgiving '' . Early Christianity observed a ritual meal known as the `` agape feast '' These `` love feasts '' were apparently a full meal , with each participant bringing food , and with the meal eaten in a common room . They were held on Sundays , which became known as the Lord 's Day , to recall the resurrection , the appearance of Christ to the disciples on the road to Emmaus , the appearance to Thomas and the Pentecost which all took place on Sundays after the Passion . Passover parallels Raymond Brown has argued that during the Jewish Passover Seder , the first cup of wine is drunk before the eating of the ( unleavened ) bread , but here it occurs after . This may indicate that the event was not the first Passover Seder ( which occurs on Nisan 15 ) , and hence more in line with John 's chronology which places it on Nisan 14 , although the meal could easily have been altered during the Last Supper for symbolic or religious purposes . Among Christian denominations , the Eastern Orthodox Church holds that this Eucharistic meal was not the Passover Seder , but a separate meal . The Presbyterian Church ( U.S.A. ) documents also specifically reject the Seder arguments and state that given that no Jewish Seder texts exist earlier than the 9th century , it is historically implausible to attempt a reconstruction of the Seder to create a parallel to the Last Supper , and that the Gospel accounts clearly indicate that the purpose of the Last Supper was not the annual repetition of the Exodus . The fifth chapter in Quran , Al-Ma'ida ( the table ) contains a reference to a meal ( Sura 5:114 ) with a table sent down from God to ʿĪsá ( i.e. , Jesus ) and the apostles ( Hawariyyin ) . However , there is nothing in Sura 5:114 to indicate that Jesus was celebrating that meal regarding his impending death , especially as the Qur'an insists that Jesus was never crucified to begin with . Thus although , Sura 5:114 refers to `` a meal '' , there is no indication that it is the Last Supper . However , some scholars believe that Jesus ' manner of speech during which the table was sent down suggests that it was an affirmation of the apostles ' resolves and to strengthen their faiths as the impending trial was about to befall them . Historicity Some scholars consider the Lord 's supper to have derived not from Jesus ' last supper with the disciples but rather from the gentile tradition of memorial dinners for the dead.Funk , Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar . The acts of Jesus : the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus . HarperSanFrancisco . 1998 . `` Mark , '' p. 51-161 In this view , the Last Supper is a tradition associated mainly with the gentile churches that Paul established , rather than with the earlier , Jewish congregations . However , there is little evidence that this is correct . Luke is the only Gospel in which Jesus tells his disciples to repeat the ritual of bread and wine . Bart D. Ehrman states that these particular lines do not appear in certain ancient manuscripts and might not be original to the text . However , it is in the earliest Greek manuscripts , e.g . P75 , Sinaticus , Vaticanus and Ephraemi Rescriptus . However , many early Church Fathers have attested to the belief that at the Last Supper , Christ made the promise to be present in the Sacrament of the Eucharist , with attestations dating back to the first century AD . The teaching was also affirmed by many councils throughout the Church 's history . Artistic depictions The Last Supper has been a popular subject in Christian art . Such depictions date back to early Christianity and can be seen in the Catacombs of Rome . Byzantine artists frequently focused on the Apostles receiving Communion , rather than the reclining figures having a meal . By the Renaissance , the Last Supper was a favorite topic in Italian art.Vested angels : eucharistic allusions in early Netherlandish paintings by Maurice B. McNamee 1998 ISBN 978-90-429-0007-3 pages 22-32 There are three major themes in the depictions of the Last Supper : the first is the dramatic and dynamic depiction of Jesus ' announcement of his betrayal . The second is the moment of the institution of the tradition of the Eucharist . The depictions here are generally solemn and mystical . The third major theme is the farewell of Jesus to his disciples , in which Judas Iscariot is no longer present , having left the supper . The depictions here are generally melancholy , as Jesus prepares his disciples for his departure.Gospel figures in art by Stefano Zuffi 2003 ISBN 978-0-89236-727-6 pages 254-259 There are also other , less frequently depicted scenes , such as the washing of the feet of the disciples.Gospel figures in art by Stefano Zuffi 2003 ISBN 978-0-89236-727-6 pages 252 Well known examples include Leonardo da Vinci 's depiction , which is considered the first work of High Renaissance art due to its high level of harmony , Experiencing art around us by Thomas Buser 2005 ISBN 978-0-534-64114-6 pages 382-383 Tintoretto 's depiction which is unusual in that it includes secondary characters carrying or taking the dishes from the table and Salvadore Dali 's depiction combines the typical Christian themes with modern approaches of Surrealism . File : Last Supper miniature from a Psalter c1220-40.png|miniature depiction from circa 1230 File : Comunione degli apostoli , cella 35.jpg|Communion of the Apostles , by Fra Angelico , with donor portrait , 1440–41 File : Domenico ghirlandaio , cenacolo di ognissanti 01.jpg|Domenico Ghirlandaio , 1480 , depicting Judas separately File : Valentin de Boulogne , Last Supper.jpg|Valentin de Boulogne , 1625-1626 File : Wrocław Last Supper.jpg |Last Supper , sculpture File : Jaume Huguet - Last Supper - WGA11797.jpg|Last Supper by Jaume Huguet File : Tiepolo Last Supper.jpg|Last Supper by Tiepolo File : BouveretLastSupper.jpg|The Last Supper , by Bouveret , 19th century

qw_3500--Last_Supper.txt

"Which 16th century Venetian, born Jacopo Robusti, studied under Titian and painted ""St George and the Dragon"", ""Belshazzar's Feast"", ""The Last Supper"" and ""Paradise""?"

The Queen Is Dead is the third studio album by the English rock band the Smiths . It was released on 16 June 1986 in the United Kingdom by Rough Trade Records and released in the United States on 23 June 1986 through Sire Records . The album spent twenty two weeks on the UK Albums Chart , peaking at number two . Across the Atlantic , it reached number 28 in Canada on the RPM 100 album chart and number 70 on the Billboard 200 chart , and was certified Gold by the RIAA in late 1990 . It has sold consistently well ever since and has received unanimous critical acclaim , with NME listing it as the greatest album of all time in 2013 . Songwriting Guitarist Johnny Marr wrote several songs that would later appear on The Queen Is Dead while the Smiths toured Britain in early 1985 , working out song arrangements with bassist Andy Rourke and drummer Mike Joyce during soundchecks . The title of the album is from the novel , `` Last Exit to Brooklyn '' by author Hubert Selby , Jr .. The title of the album could be a reference to the scene in Macbeth where Seyton informs the title character of his wife 's murder ( `` The queen , my Lord , is dead '' ) . The title could also refer to a scene in Cymbeline where Cornelius , the doctor , informs Cymbeline , the king , `` The queen is dead . '' `` The Boy with the Thorn in His Side '' was , according to Marr , `` an effortless piece of music '' , and was written on tour in the spring of 1985 . The song 's lyrics refer allegorically to the band 's experience of the music industry that failed to appreciate it . In 2003 , Morrissey named this as his favourite Smiths song . A demo of the music for `` Some Girls Are Bigger Than Others '' was posted by Marr through Morrissey 's letterbox in the summer of 1985 . Morrissey then completed the song by adding lyrics . Marr has stated that he `` preferred the music to the lyrics '' . `` Frankly , Mr. Shankly '' , `` I Know It 's Over '' and `` There Is a Light That Never Goes Out '' were written by Morrissey and Marr in a `` marathon '' writing session in the late summer of 1985 at Marr 's home in Bowdon , Greater Manchester . The first of these is reputed to have been addressed to Geoff Travis , head of the Smiths ' record label Rough Trade . Travis has since described it as `` a funny lyric '' about `` Morrissey 's desire to be somewhere else '' , acknowledging that a line in the song about `` bloody awful poetry '' was a reference to a poem he had written for Morrissey . `` There Is a Light That Never Goes Out '' features lyrics drawn from `` Lonely Planet Boy '' by the New York Dolls . According to Marr : `` When we first played it , I thought it was the best song I 'd ever heard '' . The guitar part of `` There Is a Light That Never Goes Out ' draws on the Rolling Stones cover of Marvin Gaye 's `` Hitch Hike '' , a song that , itself , was an inspiration for the Velvet Underground 's `` There She Goes Again '' . The music for `` Never Had No One Ever '' , completed in August 1985 , was based on a demo which Marr had recorded in December 1984 , itself based on `` I Need Somebody '' by the Stooges . According to Marr : `` The atmosphere of that track pretty much sums up the whole album and what it was like recording it . '' The lyric to the song reflects Morrissey 's feeling unsafe and , being from an immigrant family , not at home on the streets of Manchester . `` The Boy with the Thorn in His Side '' , `` Bigmouth Strikes Again '' and `` Frankly , Mr. Shankly '' were debuted live during a tour of Scotland in September and October , during which `` The Queen Is Dead '' and `` There Is a Light That Never Goes Out '' were soundchecked . `` The Queen is Dead '' was based on a song Marr began writing as a teenager . `` Cemetry Gates '' ( sic ) was a late addition to the album . Marr had not believed that the guitar part was interesting enough to be developed into a song , but Morrissey disagreed when he heard Marr play it . Recording The album was produced by Morrissey and Marr , working predominantly with engineer Stephen Street , who had engineered the band 's 1985 album , Meat Is Murder . Street recalled : `` Morrissey , Johnny and I had a really good working relationship – we were all roughly the same age and into the same kind of things , so everyone felt quite relaxed in the studio '' . At the time the group was having difficulty with its record label Rough Trade . However , according to Street `` this did n't get in the way of recording because the atmosphere in the studio was very , very constructive . '' The first song from the album to be recorded , in July 1985 , was `` The Boy with the Thorn in His Side '' . The recording , made with engineer Stephen Street at a small studio in Manchester and initially intended as a demo , was considered by the band to be good enough for release as a single . It went on sale on 16 September 1985 and made number 23 in the UK Singles Chart . In August 1985 , `` Bigmouth Strikes Again '' and `` Some Girls Are Bigger Than Others '' were recorded at RAK Studios in London , along with the B-sides to `` The Boy with the Thorn in His Side '' , `` Asleep '' and `` Rubber Ring '' . Kirsty MacColl sang a backing vocal for `` Bigmouth Strikes Again '' but it was considered `` really weird '' by Marr , and was replaced with a sped-up vocal by Morrissey in the final mix , for which he is credited as Ann Coates on the sleeve of The Queen Is Dead . `` Some Girls Are Bigger Than Others '' includes a false fade near the start , intended by Street to give the impression of a door closing and opening again . During the same session , a first version of `` Never Had No-one Ever '' was recorded . The bulk of the album was recorded in the winter of 1985 at Jacob Studios in Farnham , under the working title `` Margaret on the Guillotine '' . `` Frankly , Mr. Shankly '' was an attempt to recreate the `` vibe '' of Sandie Shaw 's `` Yesterday 's Man '' , although `` it did n't quite work out that way '' , according to Marr . Linda McCartney was asked to play piano on the track , but declined , and a first take featuring a trumpeter was scrapped . The version originally intended for inclusion on The Queen Is Dead was ruined by a technical glitch on the tape , and so the song was re-recorded with John Porter at Wessex Studios in London . `` The Queen Is Dead '' was among the last songs to be recorded . Its distinctive tom-tom loop was created by Mike Joyce and Stephen Street using a sampler . A line of guitar feedback was played by Marr through a wah-wah pedal throughout the song . Album cover The album cover , designed by Morrissey , features Alain Delon from the 1964 film L'Insoumis . Release The Queen Is Dead finally emerged in June 1986 , and was previewed by the May single release of `` Bigmouth Strikes Again '' , the only single taken from the album . Many encouraged the band to release `` There Is a Light That Never Goes Out '' as a single , but Johnny Marr is said to have wanted an explosive , searing single , along the lines of the Rolling Stones ' `` Jumpin ' Jack Flash '' , to announce that The Smiths had returned from hiatus . It did not fare as well as expected , stalling at number 26 on the British charts . The album is popularly regarded as the Smiths ' best album . Its mix of jangle pop , British Invasion , music hall , rockabilly and punk rock quickly became a British sensation and established The Smiths as one of the biggest bands of their era . Both Morrissey and Marr disagree , however , citing its 1987 successor ( and unexpectedly final Smiths LP ) , Strangeways , Here We Come , as their peak . Reception The Queen Is Dead received critical acclaim , and is considered to be a defining album of the 1980s , as well as one of the greatest albums of all time . In a contemporaneous review of the album , Mark Coleman of Rolling Stone remarked on Morrissey 's sense of humour and singled out the singer 's performance on `` Cemetry Gates '' as a highlight , concluding that `` like it or not , this guy 's going to be around for a while . '' Writing in pop magazine Smash Hits , Tom Hibbert gave a favourable review , stating that `` the guitars are great , some of the words are marvellous , others like scratchings on a Fifth Form desk '' , as well as describing Morrissey as `` half genius half buffoon '' . Robert Christgau of The Village Voice wrote that despite his dislike of The Smiths ' previous albums , he held an `` instant attraction '' to The Queen Is Dead , where he found that `` Morrissey wears his wit on his sleeve , dishing the queen like Johnny Rotten never did and kissing off a day-job boss who 's no Mr. Sellack '' , which `` makes it easier to go along on his moonier escapades '' . Pitchfork Media listed The Queen Is Dead as sixth best album of the 1980s . In 2003 , The Queen Is Dead was ranked number 216 on Rolling Stones list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . In 2006 , it was named the second greatest British album of all time by the NME . In 2006 , Q magazine placed the album at number three in its list of `` 40 Best Albums of the '80s '' . UK-based magazine Clash added The Queen Is Dead to its `` Classic Album Hall of Fame '' in its June 2011 issue , saying it `` is an album to lose yourself in ; it has depth , focus and some great tunes . It 's easy to see why the album is held in such high esteem by Smiths fanatics and why , a decade later , it became a key influence for all things Britpop . '' In 2012 , Slant Magazine listed the album at number 16 on its list of `` Best Albums of the 1980s '' and said : `` There may never again be an indie-rock album as good as The Queen Is Dead '' . In 2013 , The Queen Is Dead was ranked the greatest record of all time on the NMEs Greatest Albums of All Time list . At Rolling Stone , Gavin Edwards gave a contemporary retrospective review to the album rating it a perfect five stars , writing that `` he made one of the funniest rock albums ever '' , and if even the queen was not pleased with the album `` then she was the only one . '' Music The song `` There Is a Light That Never Goes Out '' , was a contender for lead single off the album , but was passed over in favour of `` Bigmouth Strikes Again '' . ( Later in 1986 it was released as a 7 '' -only single in France . ) It received a belated release in 1992 , when it became one of WEA 's singles in a programme to promote Smiths re-releases ( see the entry on ... Best II ) . In 1990 the song was voted no . 1 on a list of the greatest songs of all time by the readers of SPIN magazine in the US . `` Cemetry Gates '' was Morrissey 's direct response to critics who had cried foul over his use of texts written by some of his favourite authors , notably Shelagh Delaney and Elizabeth Smart . Oscar Wilde , who was also accused of plagiarism , figures as a patron saint of Morrissey 's in the song 's lyrics . A Wilde quote , `` Talent borrows , genius steals '' , was etched in the vinyl run-out grooves of the first single off the album , `` Bigmouth Strikes Again '' . These etchings appear almost exclusively on the UK releases ( denoted by the RT and RTT prefixes on the catalogue number ) . `` The Queen Is Dead '' , which leads off the album and notably became an expressionistic music video directed by Derek Jarman , starts with a soundbite from Bryan Forbes ' 1962 British film The L-Shaped Room . Another instance of Morrissey 's fascination with '60s British cinema , the film featured performances by Pat Phoenix ( who had already appeared as a cover star on the 1985 single `` Shakespeare 's Sister '' ) and Cicely Courtneidge as an elderly lesbian veteran of the music halls . The soundbite is Courtneidge 's character nostalgically singing the World War I song `` Take Me Back to Dear Old Blighty '' . The actress had also appeared in a gala performance for Elizabeth II 's Silver Jubilee called `` God Save the Queen '' , and died in 1980 . A few songs , including `` The Queen Is Dead '' and `` Bigmouth Strikes Again '' , feature pitch-shifted backing vocals by Morrissey . Morrissey liked to experiment with effects on his voice , so Street ran his voice through a harmoniser for the backing tracks . Street recalled , `` At that time , apart from the harmoniser , he did n't go for much backing vocal or harmony work – he 's done that more on recent albums – but he did like to experiment '' . The backing vocals are attributed to `` Ann Coates '' on the record sleeve ( Ancoats is a district in Manchester , just north east of the city centre ) . Track listing Personnel ; The Smiths * Morrissey – vocals * Johnny Marr – guitars , harmonium , synthesised string instruments and flute arrangements * Andy Rourke – bass * Mike Joyce – drums ; Production personnel * Morrissey and Johnny Marr – producers * Stephen Street – engineer * John Porter – engineer on `` Frankly , Mr. Shankly '' Charts Album

bt_3299--The_Queen_Is_Dead.txt

Which French actor features on the cover on The Smiths album The Queen is Dead

Quantrill 's Raiders were the best-known of the pro-Confederate partisan rangers ( `` bushwhackers '' ) , who fought in the American Civil War . Their leader was William Quantrill and they included Jesse James and his brother Frank . Early in the war , Missouri and Kansas , nominally under Union government , had become bandit country , with groups of Confederate bushwhackers and anti-slavery Jayhawkers competing for control . The town of Lawrence , Kansas , a centre of anti-slavery sentiment , had outlawed Quantrill ’ s men and jailed some of their young womenfolk . In August 1863 , Quantrill led a furious attack on the town , killing over 180 civilians , supposedly in retaliation for the casualties caused when the women ’ s jail had collapsed , possibly by design . The Confederate government , which had granted Quantrill a field commission under the Partisan Ranger Act , was outraged and withdrew support for such irregular forces . By 1864 , Quantrill had lost control of the group , which split-up into small bands . Some , including Quantrill , were killed in various engagements . Others lived on , to hold reunions many years later , when the name Quantrill 's Raiders began to be used . Origins The Missouri-Kansas border area was fertile ground for the outbreak of guerrilla warfare when the Civil War erupted in 1861 . Historian Albert Castel wrote : In February 1861 Missouri voters elected delegates to a statewide convention , which rejected secession by a vote of 89-1 . Unionists , led by regular U.S. Army commander Nathaniel Lyon and Frank Blair of the politically powerful Blair family , and increasingly pro-secessionist forces , led by governor Claiborne Jackson and future Confederate general Sterling Price , contested for the political and military control of the state . By June , there was open warfare between Union forces and troops supporting the Confederacy . Guerrilla warfare immediately erupted throughout the state and intensified in August after the Union defeat at the Battle of Wilson 's Creek . By August 1862 , with the Union victory at the Battle of Pea Ridge , the state was free of significant regular Confederate troops but the violence in Missouri continued . One historical work describes the situation in the state after Wilson 's Creek : The most notorious of these guerrilla forces was led by William Clarke Quantrill . Methods and legal status Quantrill was not the only Confederate guerrilla operating in Missouri , but he rapidly gained the greatest notoriety . He and his men ambushed Union patrols and supply convoys , seized the mail , and occasionally struck towns on either side of the Kansas-Missouri border . Reflecting the internecine nature of the guerrilla conflict in Missouri , Quantrill directed much of his effort against pro-Union civilians , attempting to drive them from the territory where he operated . Quantrill 's guerrillas attacked Jayhawkers , Union militia , and U.S. forces relying primarily on ambush and raids . Under his direction , Confederate guerrillas perfected military tactics such as disguises , coordinated and synchronized attacks , planned dispersal after an attack using pre-planned routes and relays of horses , and technical methods , including the use of multiple .36 caliber Colt revolvers , for increased firepower and their improved accuracy over the .44 caliber . Confederate induction On 15 August 1862 , Quantrill was granted a field commission as a captain in the Confederate army under the Confederate Partisan Ranger Act . Other officers were elected by the men . Quantrill often referred to himself as a colonel . Despite the legal responsibility assumed by the Confederate government , Quantrill often acted on his own with little concern for his government 's policy or orders . His most notable operation was the Lawrence Massacre , a revenge raid on Lawrence , Kansas in August 1863 . Lawrence Massacre Lawrence had historically been the base of operations for abolitionist and jayhawker organizations . During the period of border warfare ( 1855-1861 ) , known as `` Bleeding Kansas '' in the press , and during the Civil War , irregular raids into Missouri by abolitionists , redlegs , and jayhawkers and Union soldiers , resulted in robberies , theft , arson , and the murder of citizens . In August 1863 , Union authorities assigned to the border were frustrated by the hit-and-run tactics of Quantrill 's guerrillas and particularly the aid provided by Confederate sympathizers in Western Missouri . Authorities began imprisoning the female family members of the known guerrillas , with the intent of banishing them . These females , some teenagers , were jailed in Kansas City , Missouri , in George Caleb Bingham 's house , on Grand Street . Alterations in an adjoining structure plus an extra story that had been added by Bingham resulted in the collapse of the structure . Several women were maimed and killed . The deaths of female non-combatants caused outrage among the guerrillas . Calling for revenge , Quantrill organized a unified partisan raid on Lawrence . Coordinating across vast distances , small bands of partisans rode across 50 miles of open prairie to rendezvous on Mount Oread in the early morning hours before the raid . Quantrill 's men burned a quarter of the town 's buildings and killed at least 150 men and boys . One of the main targets of the raid , abolitionist U.S . Senator Jim Lane , escaped by fleeing into corn fields . The Lawrence raid was the most deadly and infamous operation of Missouri 's Confederate guerrillas . Confederate reaction The Confederate leadership was appalled by the raid and withdrew even tacit support from the `` bushwhackers '' . Following the raid , in the winter of 1863-64 , Quantrill led his men behind Confederate lines into Texas where their - often lawless - presence proved an embarrassment to the Confederate command . Some Confederate officers appreciated the effectiveness of these irregulars against Union forces , which rarely gained the upper hand over them , especially Quantrill . Among these was General Joseph O. Shelby , who rode south into Mexico with his troops rather than surrender at the end of the war , and whose command was remembered as `` The Undefeated '' . Their exploits are also immortalized in a later addition to the post-war ballad , `` The Unreconstructed Rebel '' : `` I wo n't be reconstructed– I 'm better now than then . And for that Carpetbagger I do not care a damn . So it 's forward to the Frontier soon as I can go . I 'll fix me up a weapon and start for Mexico . '' John Noland Among Quantrill 's men was a freed former slave man named John Noland . He was one of Quantrill 's scouts , reputed to be his best one . Noland helped scouting Lawrence , Kansas , before the raid by Quantrill 's men in 1863 . He joined Quantrill 's raiders because of the abuse his family suffered at the hands of Kansas jayhawkers . Post-war pictures show him sitting with comrades at reunions of the Raiders . In the 1999 movie Ride with the Devil , depicting a group of fictionalized Missouri bushwhackers similar to those of Quantrill 's Raiders as well as the Lawrence raid , the character of Daniel Holt was representative of Quantrill 's John Noland . Dissolution and aftermath During late winter 1863 , Quantrill lost his hold over his men . In early 1864 , the guerrillas he had led through the streets of Lawrence returned from Texas to Missouri in separate bands , none led by Quantrill himself . Deaths Quantrill 's guerrillas , as a group , did not maintain operations in winters along the border . Quantrill would lead his men to Tyler , Texas over-winter and offer his services to the Confederacy . Their assignments included attacking teamsters who supplied the Union , repelling Union & jayhawkers raids into Northern Texas , repelling native Indians and policing & rounding-up deserters , roaming in Texas & Oklahoma . The guerrillas were rowdy , undisciplined and dangerous . Quantrill lost his control of the men in the winter of 1863\64 . The men split into bands and were commanded by lieutenants , `` Bloody '' Bill Anderson and George Todd . These guerrillas returned to Missouri , while Quantrill took several of his loyal troops East towards Kentucky . Quantrill 's group of guerrillas that went to Kentucky were hunted & tracked by pro-Union soldiers and hired killers . His men were cornered in a barn in Kentucky . A shootout resulted in William Quantrill being injured in the spine , unable to move . He was arrested , but reportedly died a week later from his wounds . William Anderson 's splinter group of Quantrill 's guerrillas was assigned to duty north of the Missouri River , during the General Sterling Price raid , in 1864 . His duties included disrupting operations north of the Missouri river , drawing Union troops toward his cavalry command . Anderson was reportedly shot dead north of Orrick . His body was dragged through the streets of Richmond , Missouri . His grave marker is located in the old Mormon Pioneer cemetery , in the extreme SW corner , behind some pine trees , near the road . George Todd 's splinter group of Quantrill 's guerrillas was attached to Major General Sterling Price 's raid across Missouri , south of the Missouri River . He functioned as a cavalry scout and was shot out of his saddle by a Union sniper , north of Independence , Missouri a day before the Battle of Westport . Some of the guerrillas continued under the leadership of Archie Clement , who kept the Raiders together after the war and harassed the state government of Missouri during the tumultuous year of 1866 . In December 1866 , state militiamen killed Clement in Lexington , but his men continued on as outlaws , emerging in time as the James-Younger Gang . Popular culture In the films True Grit , protagonist Rooster Cogburn ( John Wayne in the original 1969 version and Jeff Bridges in the 2010 version ) prides himself on being a part of Quantrill 's Raiders during the Civil War while arguing with Texas Ranger LaBoeuf . He also has a cat named General Sterling Price after a famous Confederate general from Missouri . The main character of the film The Outlaw Josey Wales joins Bloody Bill Anderson 's unit after his family is murdered by jayhawkers . Ride with the Devil starring Tobey Maguire and Jewel depicts Quantrill 's Raiders and the Missouri-Kansas conflict . The Audie Murphy film Arizona Raiders deals with Quantrill 's Raiders in the period immediately after the Civil War . In the film Bandolero ! , Mace Bishop ( James Stewart ) compares his riding with Sherman to his brother Dee Bishop 's ( Dean Martin ) riding with Quantrill as `` war versus meanness '' . The film Dark Command ( 1940 ) deals with the fictional William Cantrell 's Raiders , also led by a partisan made an officer by the Confederacy . The Lone Ranger episode `` The Twisted Track '' is about a member of Quantrill 's Raiders ( William Henry ) seeking revenge against the Union officer who imprisoned him during the Civil War . Quantrill 's Raiders are a major element in Wildwood Boys ( William Morrow , New York ; 2000 ) , a biographical novel of `` Bloody Bill '' Anderson by James Carlos Blake . In the movie The Hateful Eight , much of the plot centers about the Mannix Marauders , a fictionalized version of Quantrill 's Raiders . See also the 1969 movie , The Desperados . Notes

qw_5351--Quantrill's_Raiders.txt

Quantrill's Raiders, a loosely organised force of Partisan rangers under the leadership of William Clarke Quantril, fought in which war?

A nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation , from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory.Such a definition is a working one : `` All attempts to develop terminological consensus around `` nation '' resulted in failure '' , concludes . Walker Connor , in [ ] discusses the impressions surrounding the characters of `` nation '' , `` ( sovereign ) state '' , `` nation state '' , and `` nationalism '' . Connor , who gave the term `` ethnonationalism '' wide currency , also discusses the tendency to confuse nation and state and the treatment of all states as if nation states . In Globalization and Belonging , Sheila L. Crouche discusses `` The Definitional Dilemma '' ( pp . 85ff ) . A state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity , whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one . The term `` nation state '' implies that the two coincide , in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it . `` Nation state '' formation can take place at different times in different parts of the world . The concept of a nation state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state , city state , empire , confederation , and other state formations with which it may overlap . The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the `` nation state . '' History and origins The origins and early history of nation states are disputed . A major theoretical question is : `` Which came first , the nation or the nation state ? '' Scholars such as Steven Weber , David Woodward , and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state did n't arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source , nor was it an accident of history or political invention ; but is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy , capitalism , mercantilism , political geography , and geography combined together with cartography and advances in map-making technologies . It was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose . For others , the nation existed first , then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty , and the nation state was created to meet that demand . Some `` modernization theories '' of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state . Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon , facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education , mass literacy and mass media . However , historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic . In France , Eric Hobsbawm argues , the French state preceded the formation of the French people . Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation , not French nationalism , which emerged at the end of the 19th century , the time of the Dreyfus Affair . At the time of the 1789 French Revolution , only half of the French people spoke some French , and 12-13 % spoke it `` fairly '' , according to Hobsbawm . During the Italian unification , the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower . The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language . The introduction of conscription and the Third Republic 's 1880s laws on public instruction , facilitated the creation of a national identity , under this theory . Some nation states , such as Germany or Italy , came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists , during the 19th century . In both cases , the territory was previously divided among other states , some of them very small . The sense of common identity was at first a cultural movement , such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states , which rapidly acquired a political significance . In these cases , the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states . Historians Hans Kohn , Liah Greenfeld , Philip White and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy , where cultural unification preceded state unification , as ethnic nations or ethnic nationalities . However , 'state-driven ' national unifications , such as in France , England or China , are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies , producing a traditional national heritage of civic nations , or territory-based nationalities . Some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts . They argue that the paradigmatic case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition and not in opposition to it . For example , they argue that the arguments used by Renan at the conference What is a nation ? are not consistent with his thinking . This alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War . The idea of a nation state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states , often called the `` Westphalian system '' in reference to the Treaty of Westphalia ( 1648 ) . The balance of power , which characterized that system , depended on its effectiveness upon clearly defined , centrally controlled , independent entities , whether empires or nation states , which recognize each other 's sovereignty and territory . The Westphalian system did not create the nation state , but the nation state meets the criteria for its component states ( by assuming that there is no disputed territory ) . The nation state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of Romanticism , at first as the 'natural ' expression of the individual peoples ( romantic nationalism : see Johann Gottlieb Fichte 's conception of the Volk , later opposed by Ernest Renan ) . The increasing emphasis during the 19th century on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation , led to a redefinition of the nation state in these terms . Racism , which in Boulainvilliers 's theories was inherently antipatriotic and antinationalist , joined itself with colonialist imperialism and `` continental imperialism '' , most notably in pan-Germanic and pan-Slavic movements . The relation between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the 20th century fascism and Nazism . The specific combination of 'nation ' ( 'people ' ) and 'state ' expressed in such terms as the Völkische Staat and implemented in laws such as the 1935 Nuremberg laws made fascist states such as early Nazi Germany qualitatively different from non-fascist nation states . Minorities were not considered part of the people ( Volk ) , and were consequently denied to have an authentic or legitimate role in such a state . In Germany , neither Jews nor the Roma were considered part of the people , and were specifically targeted for persecution . German nationality law defined 'German ' on the basis of German ancestry , excluding all non-Germans from the people . In recent years , a nation state 's claim to absolute sovereignty within its borders has been much criticized . A global political system based on international agreements and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era . Non-state actors , such as international corporations and non-governmental organizations , are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation states , potentially leading to their eventual disappearance . Before the nation state In Europe , during the 18th century , the classic non-national states were the multiethnic empires , the Austrian Empire , Kingdom of France , Kingdom of Hungary , the Russian Empire , the Ottoman Empire , the British Empire and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level . The multi-ethnic empire was a monarchy ruled by a king , emperor or sultan . The population belonged to many ethnic groups , and they spoke many languages . The empire was dominated by one ethnic group , and their language was usually the language of public administration . The ruling dynasty was usually , but not always , from that group . This type of state is not specifically European : such empires existed on all continents , except Australasia and Antarctica . Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse , but were also dynastic states , ruled by a royal house . Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged . In some parts of Europe , notably Germany , very small territorial units existed . They were recognised by their neighbours as independent , and had their own government and laws . Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers , some were governed by bishops or abbots . Because they were so small , however , they had no separate language or culture : the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region . In some cases these states were simply overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century . Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification , which was preceded by a customs union , the Zollverein . However , the Austro-Prussian War , and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War , were decisive in the unification . The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire broke up after the First World War , and the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War . A few of the smaller states survived : the independent principalities of Liechtenstein , Andorra , Monaco , and the republic of San Marino . ( Vatican City is a special case . All of the larger Papal State save the Vatican itself was occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870 . The resulting Roman Question , was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See . ) Characteristics `` Legitimate states that govern effectively and dynamic industrial economies are widely regarded today as the defining characteristics of a modern nation-state . '' Nation states have their own characteristics , differing from those of the pre-national states . For a start , they have a different attitude to their territory when compared with dynastic monarchies : it is semisacred and nontransferable . No nation would swap territory with other states simply , for example , because the king 's daughter married . They have a different type of border , in principle defined only by the area of settlement of the national group , although many nation states also sought natural borders ( rivers , mountain ranges ) . They are constantly changing in population size and power because of the limited restrictions of their borders . The most noticeable characteristic is the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity , in economic , social and cultural life . The nation state promoted economic unity , by abolishing internal customs and tolls . In Germany , that process , the creation of the Zollverein , preceded formal national unity . Nation states typically have a policy to create and maintain a national transportation infrastructure , facilitating trade and travel . In 19th-century Europe , the expansion of the rail transport networks was at first largely a matter for private railway companies , but gradually came under control of the national governments . The French rail network , with its main lines radiating from Paris to all corners of France , is often seen as a reflection of the centralised French nation state , which directed its construction . Nation states continue to build , for instance , specifically national motorway networks . Specifically transnational infrastructure programmes , such as the Trans-European Networks , are a recent innovation . The nation states typically had a more centralised and uniform public administration than its imperial predecessors : they were smaller , and the population less diverse . ( The internal diversity of the Ottoman Empire , for instance , was very great . ) After the 19th-century triumph of the nation state in Europe , regional identity was subordinate to national identity , in regions such as Alsace-Lorraine , Catalonia , Brittany and Corsica . In many cases , the regional administration was also subordinated to central ( national ) government . This process was partially reversed from the 1970s onward , with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy , in formerly centralised states such as France . The most obvious impact of the nation state , as compared to its non-national predecessors , is the creation of a uniform national culture , through state policy . The model of the nation state implies that its population constitutes a nation , united by a common descent , a common language and many forms of shared culture . When the implied unity was absent , the nation state often tried to create it . It promoted a uniform national language , through language policy . The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education and a relatively uniform curriculum in secondary schools , was the most effective instrument in the spread of the national languages . The schools also taught the national history , often in a propagandistic and mythologised version , and ( especially during conflicts ) some nation states still teach this kind of history . Language and cultural policy was sometimes negative , aimed at the suppression of non-national elements . Language prohibitions were sometimes used to accelerate the adoption of national languages and the decline of minority languages ( see examples : Anglicisation , Czechization , Francisation , Italianization , Germanisation , Magyarisation , Polonisation , Russification , Serbization , Slovakisation ) . In some cases , these policies triggered bitter conflicts and further ethnic separatism . But where it worked , the cultural uniformity and homogeneity of the population increased . Conversely , the cultural divergence at the border became sharper : in theory , a uniform French identity extends from the Atlantic coast to the Rhine , and on the other bank of the Rhine , a uniform German identity begins . To enforce that model , both sides have divergent language policy and educational systems , although the linguistic boundary is in fact well inside France , and the Alsace region changed hands four times between 1870 and 1945 . In practice In some cases , the geographic boundaries of an ethnic population and a political state largely coincide . In these cases , there is little immigration or emigration , few members of ethnic minorities , and few members of the `` home '' ethnicity living in other countries . Examples of nation states where ethnic groups make up more than 95 % of the population include the following : * Albania : The vast majority of the population is ethnically Albanian at about 98.6 % of the population , with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities . * Armenia : The vast majority of Armenia 's population consists of ethnic Armenians at about 98 % of the population , with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities . * Bangladesh : The vast majority ethnic group of Bangladesh are the Bengali people , comprising 98 % of the population , with the remainder consisting of mostly Bihari migrants and indigenous tribal groups . Therefore , Bangladeshi society is to a great extent linguistically and culturally homogeneous , with very small populations of foreign expatriates and workers , although there is a substantial number of Bengali workers living abroad . * Egypt : The vast majority of Egypt 's population consists of ethnic Egyptians at about 99 % of the population , with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities , as well as refugees or asylum seekers . Modern Egyptian identity is closely tied to the geography of Egypt and its long history ; its development over the centuries saw overlapping or conflicting ideologies . Though today an Arabic-speaking people , that aspect constitutes for Egyptians a cultural dimension of their identity , not a necessary attribute of or prop for their national political being . Today most Egyptians see themselves , their history , culture and language ( the Egyptian variant of Arabic ) as specifically Egyptian and at the same time as part of the Arab world . * Estonia : Defined as a nation state in its 1920 constitution , up until the period of Soviet colonialisation , Estonia was historically a very homogenous state with 88.2 % of residents being Estonians , 8.2 % Russians , 1.5 % Germans and 0.4 % Jews according to the 1934 census . As a result of Soviet policies the demographic situation significantly changed with the arrival of Russian speaking settlers . Today Estonians form 69 % , Russians 25.4 % , Ukrainians 2.04 % and Belarusians 1.1 % of the population ( 2012 ) . A significant proportion of the inhabitants ( 84.1 % ) are citizens of Estonia , around 7.3 % are citizens of Russia and 7.0 % as yet undefined citizenship ( 2010 ) . * Hungary : The Hungarians ( or Magyar ) people consist of about 95 % of the population , with a small Roma and German minority : see Demographics of Hungary . * Iceland : Although the inhabitants are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups , the national culture and language are found only in Iceland . There are no cross-border minorities as the nearest land is too far away : see Demographics of Iceland * Japan : Japan is also traditionally seen as an example of a nation state and also the largest of the nation states , with population in excess of 120 million . It should be noted that Japan has a small number of minorities such as Ryūkyū peoples , Koreans and Chinese , and on the northern island of Hokkaidō , the indigenous Ainu minority . However , they are either numerically insignificant ( Ainu ) , their difference is not as pronounced ( though Ryukyuan culture is closely related to Japanese culture , it is nonetheless distinctive in that it historically received much more influence from China and has separate political and nonpolitical and religious traditions ) or well assimilated ( Zainichi population is collapsing due to assimilation/naturalisation ) . * Lebanon : The Arabic-speaking Lebanese consist at about 95 % of the population , with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities , as well as refugees or asylum seekers . Modern Lebanese identity is closely tied to the geography of Lebanon and its history . Although they are now an Arabic-speaking people and ethnically homogeneous , its identity oversees overlapping or conflicting ideologies between its Phoenician heritage and Arab heritage . While many Lebanese regard themselves as Arab , other Lebanese regard themselves , their history , and their culture as Phoenician and not Arab , while still other Lebanese regard themselves as both . * Lesotho : Lesotho 's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho ( singular Mosotho ) , a Bantu-speaking people ; about 99.7 % of the population are Basotho . * Maldives : The vast majority of the population is ethnically Dhivehi at about 98 % of the population , with the remainder consisting of foreign workers ; there are no indigenous ethnic minorities . * Malta : The vast majority of the population is ethnically Maltese at about 95.3 % of the population , with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities . * Mongolia : The vast majority of the population is ethnically Mongol at about 95.0 % of the population , with the remainder consisting of a few ethnic minorities included in Kazakhs . * North and South Korea are among the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world . Particularly in reclusive North Korea , there are very few ethnic minority groups and expatriate foreigners . * Poland : After World War II , with the genocide of the Jews by the invading German Nazis during the Holocaust , the expulsion of Germans after World War II and the loss of eastern territories ( Kresy ) , 96.7 % of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality , while 97.8 % declare that they speak Polish at home ( Census 2002 ) . * Several Polynesian countries such as Tonga , Samoa , Tuvalu , etc . * Portugal : Although surrounded by other lands and people , the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory since the romanization or latinization of the native population during the Roman era . The modern Portuguese nation is a very old amalgam of formerly distinct historical populations that passed through and settled in the territory of modern Portugal : native Iberian peoples , Celts , ancient Mediterraneans ( Greeks , Phoenicians , Romans , Jews ) , invading Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths , and Muslim Arabs and Berbers . Most Berber/Arab people and the Jews were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista and the repopulation by Christians . * San Marino : The Sammarinese make up about 97 % of the population and all speak Italian and are ethnically and linguisticially identical to Italians . San Marino is a landlocked enclave , completely surrounded by Italy . The state has a population of approximately 30,000 , including 1,000 foreigners , most of whom are Italians . * Swaziland : The vast majority of the population is ethnically Swazi at about 98.6 % of the population , with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities . The notion of a unifying `` national identity '' also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups , such as India and China . For example , Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons , and has four official languages , but it has also a 'Swiss ' national identity , a national history and a classic national hero , Wilhelm Tell . Innumerable conflicts have arisen where political boundaries did not correspond with ethnic or cultural boundaries . After World War II in the Josip Broz Tito era , nationalism was appealed to for uniting South Slav peoples . Later in the 20th century , after the break-up of the Soviet Union , leaders appealed to ancient ethnic feuds or tensions that ignited conflict between the Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , as well Bosnians , Montenegrins and Macedonians , eventually breaking up the long collaboration of peoples and ethnic cleansing was carried out in the Balkans , resulting in the destruction of the formerly socialist republic and produced the civil wars in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–95 , resulted in mass population displacements and segregation that radically altered what was once a highly diverse and intermixed ethnic makeup of the region . These conflicts were largely about creating a new political framework of states , each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous . Serbians , Croatians and Bosnians insisted they were ethnically distinct although many communities had a long history of intermarriage . Presently Slovenia ( 89 % Slovene ) , Croatia ( 90,4 % Croat ) and Serbia ( 83 % Serb ) could be classified as nation states per se , whereas Macedonia ( 66 % Macedonian ) , Montenegro ( 42 % Montenegrin ) and Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 47 % Bosniak ) are multinational states . Belgium is a classic example of a state that is not a nation state . The state was formed by secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830 , whose neutrality and integrity was protected by the Treaty of London 1839 ; thus it served as a buffer state after the Napoleonitic Wars between the European powers France , Prussia ( after 1871 the German Empire ) and the United Kingdom until World War I , when its neutrality was breached by the Germans . Currently , Belgium is divided between the Flemings in the north and the French-speaking or the German-speaking population in the south . The Flemish population in the north speaks Dutch , the Walloon population in the south speaks French and/or German . The Brussels population speaks French and/or Dutch . The Flemish identity is also cultural , and there is a strong separatist movement espoused by the political parties , the right-wing Vlaams Belang and the Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie . The Francophone Walloon identity of Belgium is linguistically distinct and regionalist . There is also unitary Belgian nationalism , several versions of a Greater Netherlands ideal , and a German-speaking community of Belgium annexed from Germany in 1920 , and re-annexed by Germany in 1940–1944 . However these ideologies are all very marginal and politically insignificant during elections . China covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of `` Zhonghua minzu '' or Chinese nationality , in the sense of ethnic groups , but it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group which accounts for over 90 % of the population , and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities . According to Philip G. Roeder , Moldova is an example of a Soviet era `` segment-state '' ( Moldavian SSR ) , where the `` nation-state project of the segment-state trumped the nation-state project of prior statehood . In Moldova , despite strong agitation from university faculty and students for reunification with Romania , the nation-state project forged within the Moldavian SSR trumped the project for a return to the interwar nation-state project of Greater Romania . '' See Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova for further details . Exceptional cases United Kingdom The United Kingdom is an unusual example of a nation state , due to its claimed `` countries within a country '' status . The United Kingdom , which is formed by the union of England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland , is a unitary state formed initially by the merger of two independent kingdoms , the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland , but the Treaty of Union ( 1707 ) that set out the agreed terms has ensured the continuation of distinct features of each state , including separate legal systems and separate national churches . In 2003 , the British Government described the United Kingdom as `` countries within a country '' . While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a `` nation state '' , others , including a then Prime Minister , describe it as a `` multinational state '' , and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom ( England , Northern Ireland , Scotland , Wales ) . Kingdom of the Netherlands A similar unusual example is the Kingdom of the Netherlands . As of 10 October 2010 , the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of four countries : * Netherlands proper * Aruba * Curaçao * Sint Maarten Each is expressly designated as a land in Dutch law by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands . Unlike the German Länder and the Austrian Bundesländer , landen is consistently translated as `` countries '' by the Dutch government . Israel Israel was founded as a Jewish state in 1948 . Its `` Basic Laws '' describe it as both a Jewish and a democratic state . According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics , 75.7 % of Israel 's population is Jewish . Arabs , who make up 20.4 % of the population , are the largest ethnic minority in Israel . Israel also has very small communities of Armenians , Circassians , Assyrians , Samaritans , and persons of some Jewish heritage . There are also some non-Jewish spouses of Israeli Jews . However , these communities are very small , and usually number only in the hundreds or thousands . Pakistan Pakistan , even being an ethnically diverse country and officially a federation , is regarded as a nation state due to its ideological basis on which it was given independence from British India as a separate nation rather than as part of a unified India . Different ethnic groups in Pakistan are strongly bonded by their common Muslim identity

dpql_2624--Nation_state.txt

Which country was founded by Muhammed Ali Jinnah?

James David Rodríguez Rubio ( born 12 July 1991 ) , known as James Rodríguez , is a Colombian professional footballer who plays for Spanish club Real Madrid and captains the Colombia national team as an attacking midfielder or winger . James is commonly ranked as one of the best young players in the world . He is praised for his technique , vision and playmaking skills , and often referred as the successor to his compatriot Carlos Valderrama . James became well known in Europe during his time at Porto , winning several trophies and individual awards during his three years at the club . In 2014 , James moved from AS Monaco to Real Madrid for a transfer fee of €80 million , which beats the one set by Radamel Falcao and makes him the most expensive Colombian football player and one of the most expensive players in football . He started his international career with the Colombian under-20 team , with which he won the 2011 Toulon Tournament . He then captained the U-20 team during the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup . Due to his performance in the tournament , he was regularly called into the senior squad by the age of 20 . He played in the 2014 FIFA World Cup where he won the Golden Boot as the top goalscorer and was part of the Cup 's All Star Team . Club career Envigado Born in Cúcuta , James spent his childhood in the city of Ibagué . He was born to Wilson James Rodríguez Bedoya and Maria Del Pilar Rubio . James started his professional football career in 2006 with the Colombian second division club Envigado , with which he reached the Colombian first division through the 2007 promotion . Banfield 2008 In 2008 , he was signed by Argentine team Banfield . He made his first team debut on 7 February 2009 and scored his first goal for the club on 27 February with a long range strike in a 3–1 victory over Rosario Central . 2009 In 2009 , he became a regular first team player featuring in every game of the Apertura 2009 . At only 17 , he became the youngest foreigner to score a goal in Argentina . His second goal for Banfield came on 26 September when he scored with a strike into the top corner from outside of the area in an important 2–1 win against Newell 's Old Boys , a victory that helped Banfield win the Argentine championship for the first time in the club history . In December 2009 , Italian club Udinese planned to make a bid for James for a reported €5 million after the 2010 Copa Libertadores . However , Banfield rejected the bid , labelling it as `` insufficient . '' For the Clausura 2010 , on 13 February 2010 , James scored a golazo in the match against arch rivals Lanús with a left-footed lob to make the game 2–0 in the final minutes . After the game , daily sports website Diario Olé likened his playing and personal style to Cristiano Ronaldo and nicknamed him the `` James Bond of Banfield '' . 2010 On 10 February 2010 , James scored his first Copa Libertadores goal in a 2–1 home victory over Mexican club Monarcas Morelia . James added to his glowing reputation a week later with a goal in a daunting victory over Copa Libertadores group rivals Deportivo Cuenca away from home , scoring the fourth goal of the game with a nice finish in the area on his left foot . Banfield thrashed the home team 4–1 . His wonderful scoring season continued with a brace in the Copa Libertadores group game on 10 March 2010 . In an away match against Uruguayan club Nacional , James scored first with a diving header and then from the penalty spot on his right foot . The game ended 2–2 . The 18-year-old netted another goal against Brazilian club Internacional on 29 April 2010 in the first leg match of Copa Libertadores 2010 Round 16 which Banfield won 3–1 . This goal brought his tally to five goals in seven games . However , James ' international season ended in defeat as his team went down on away goals with a 0–2 defeat in Porto Alegre in the second leg , in which James was red carded for two fouls . Porto 2010–11 season On 6 July 2010 , James was signed by Porto for €5.1 million , with 30 % economic rights retained by other parties . He signed a four-year contract with a €30 million release clause . Porto later re-sold 10 % economic rights to third parties . On 18 July , he played his first game and scored his first goal in a friendly against Ajax . In November , Porto sold 35 % economic rights ( half of 70 % ) to Gol Football Luxembourg , S.A.R.L . for €2.5 million . On 15 December 2010 , James scored his first competition goal in Europe in a 3–1 home victory against Bulgarian club CSKA Sofia . James scored a hat-trick and assisted once against Vitória de Guimarães in the 2011 Taça de Portugal Final , which Porto won by 6–2 . On 17 May , Porto bought the remaining 30 % economic rights from Convergence Capital Partners B.V. for €2.25 million and once again hold more than half of the economic rights with 55 % . On 13 June , James signed a new five-year contract in which the release clause increased to €45 million . In no more than 24 appearances did he score six goals , provide eight assists and play a part in the Europa League victory . 2011–12 season In the 2011–12 season , James scored 14 goals for Porto and delivered 11 assists . In 2011 , James won the LPFP Award for Breakthrough Player of 2011–12 Primeira Liga season at age 20 , becoming the first Colombian player to do so . He is a two-time winner of the SJPF Player of the Month . James won the Portuguese Golden Ball award in 2012 , becoming the second Colombian to win the award after Radamel Falcao as well as the youngest player ever to hold the honour . On 20 September 2011 in a league match against Feirense , he punched Rabiola and was subsequently dismissed , missing the match against Benfica . 2012–13 season In the 2012–13 season , James was given the number 10 shirt and became a regular starter . Since fellow Colombians Radamel Falcao , Fredy Guarín and Brazilian Hulk left the club during the last two seasons , James was able to start more regularly than before . In a match against Olhanense , James chipped a goal outside the box at a tight angle . In the same game , he assisted compatriot Jackson Martínez with a through ball for an eventual 3–2 win . James scored the team 's third goal against Beira-Mar soon after assisting the first two goals in a 4–0 victory . A week later , James assisted a goal with a free kick rebound in an away game against Rio Ave that eventually ended at 2–2 . In the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League group stage , he scored against French club Paris Saint-Germain in a 1–0 victory allowing Porto to top their current group . A few days later , James scored a penalty against rivals Sporting Clube de Portugal . In no more than one month since the start of the 2012–13 season did James won the SJPF Player of the Month award . In the third round of the Champions League group stage , he assisted a goal to an eventual 3–2 victory . James registered an assist in a 2–1 victory against Estoril . In a 5–0 win over Marítimo , James scored twice . James was once again on the score sheet nine days later in a match against Académica de Coimbra . In the 90th minute against Braga , James scored a game-winning goal that ended 2–0 . Against Moreirense , he assisted a goal from the corner to fellow countryman Jackson Martínez . Prior to the second half of the season , James suffered a hamstring injury causing him to struggle to maintain fitness . in a match against Nacional , he injured his hamstring once more and was subsequently substituted after the first half . The injury sidelined him for a month . On 1 February 2013 , Porto bought back 30 % economic rights of James from Gol Football Luxembourg for €8.57 million ( by selling 47.5 % economic rights of Diego Reyes for €3.5 million ) , which Porto sold in November 2010 for €2.5 million . James made his return at the 70th minute in the 2–0 victory over Beira-Mar , his first match since being injured for more than a month . In the first leg of the Champions League round of 32 against Málaga , James was called onto the pitch at the 60th minute . Although he failed to change the 1–0 victory score , James became a big game changer in Porto 's attack despite his current fitness . In his second league match since his return , James assisted a goal against Rio Ave with a wonderful cross . Soon afterwards in his next league match , he assisted a goal against Estoril from a corner in a 2–0 victory . It was James ' first start in two months . James did not start in the second leg of the Champions League match against Málaga until the second half when Porto was down to ten men after the dismiss of a defender . Porto lost the match and coach Vítor Pereira was greatly criticized and questioned why James did n't start sooner considering that the player was a key member and Porto could have had a more solid team . James expressed his disappointment , claiming to be `` 100 % '' in good health ( as well as giving a performance with no struggles shown ) . However , he also expressed his respect and understanding to the coach 's concern . Despite an exit from the Champions League , James went on to become the second-most fouled player in the tournament that year . James scored a goal in a 1–1 tie against Marítimo . Manchester United reportedly made a bid for €30 million to purchase James , though Porto rejected the offer as being too low . James made his debut in the 2012–13 Taça da Liga semi-final where he scored a penalty . Porto won the match 4–0 and advanced to the final . James gave a man of the match performance against Braga , scoring the first goal and assisting two , one from the field and the other from the corner , in a 3–1 victory . James assisted one of the goals in a 2–0 victory over Vitória de Setúbal . He also scored the opening goal in a 3–1 victory over Nacional . In the final match of the season against Paços de Ferreira , James was tripped inside the box and secured a penalty that was later scored and that led to Porto 's third consecutive league title . He finished the season with ten goals and 13 assists in 24 league appearances . In all competitions that season , he scored 13 goals and provided 15 assists in 32 appearances . Winning the league title meant that James , at 21 , won his eighth trophy since joining the club three years ago . Monaco On 25 May 2013 , it was announced that James had joined French side AS Monaco for a transfer fee of €45 million , the second most expensive transfer in Portuguese football behind former teammate Hulk . James subsequently signed a five-year contract that was set to keep him at the club until 2018 . This transfer made him not only one of the most expensive transfers in the club 's history , but in Ligue 1 history as well , along as the one of the highest in world football . James made his Monaco debut against Bordeaux , a game Monaco went on to win 2–0 . He then missed Monaco 's second league match to avoid a possible injury . James made his first direct offensive contribution for Monaco by assisting the first goal in a 3–0 victory against Bastia before setting up plays for his team 's other two goals . Against Saint-Étienne in the following week , James gave a man of the match performance by assisting on both goals in a 2–1 victory . Following the international break , James assisted the first goal in a 2–2 draw against Sochaux . James assisted the only goal for Monaco in a 1–1 draw against Évian . He finally scored his first goal for the club with a free-kick in a 2–0 win over Rennes . James scored another goal in the next match in the fourth minute against Nice , a game Monaco prevailed in 3–0 . Away against Guingamp , James assisted both goals in a 2–0 victory . He then scored a goal against Valenciennes to put Monaco on the score sheet , though Monaco ultimately lost 1–2 . James began the 2014 calendar year by making his Coupe de France debut in a match against Vannes , where he both assisted and scored a goal in a 3–2 victory . In his first league match of 2014 , James assisted a goal against Montpellier . Against Toulouse , James provided an assist to the second goal in a 2–0 away victory with a cross . James ' first double at Monaco came in the match against Bastia , a 2–0 Monaco victory . Within the final seconds against Reims , James hit a shot that hit the post and allowed teammate Layvin Kurzawa to score the rebound allowing Monaco to win the game 3–2 . In the French media , James was referred to as `` perhaps '' the best footballer in Ligue 1 due to his impressive debut season with Monaco , although he stated that he still required more time in the league to fully adapt . Following the international break , James scored his first penalty for Monaco against Sochaux in a 2–1 win . James ended his debut season without a trophy , though nonetheless helped Monaco secure a spot in the following season 's UEFA Champions League . On an individual level , he earned a spot in the star Ligue 1 XI , and led Ligue 1 in assists on the season . Real Madrid In a post-match interview during the 2014 FIFA World Cup , James stated his `` love '' , `` admiration '' and `` passion '' for Real Madrid , saying that it would be a `` life 's dream '' to play for them after his performances aroused rumors linking him to the Spanish club . On 22 July 2014 , James confirmed the rumours by signing a six-year contract with the Spanish club for an undisclosed fee , which was reported to be approximately €80 million . This move would make him the fourth-most expensive player in history , the third-most expensive in Real Madrid 's history and the most expensive Colombian to date after surpassing Radamel Falcao 's €60 million transfer in 2013 . The amount spent on his transfer fee led many to referring James as a Galáctico credited by the fact that he was given the number 10 shirt carrying the legacy of Real Madrid legends such as Luís Figo , Ferenc Puskás and the player he admired the most while growing up and supporting the club , Zinedine Zidane . James was greeted by a 45,000 attendance during his presentation . The Colombian ambassador in Madrid made a speech at the event and carried a message from Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos that James was changing the history of Colombian football and that the entire nation is behind him . Real Madrid President Florentino Pérez would follow with a speech of his own , stating that he welcomed James , a `` lover '' and `` long supporter '' of the club who will never forget the day he made his dream a reality . 2014–15 season James made his debut in the UEFA Super Cup at Cardiff City Stadium against Sevilla , in which Real Madrid won 2–0 . He played 72 minutes before being replaced by Isco . On 19 August , James scored his first goal for Real Madrid against Atlético Madrid in the first leg of the Spanish Super Cup after coming on as a substitute for Cristiano Ronaldo at half-time . James made his Champions League debut for Real in the group stage opening match against Basel , where he scored the fourth goal in a 5–1 victory . James would then score his first league goal days later against Deportivo La Coruña , where he also supplied an assist in an 8–2 victory . James scored in a 4–0 win at Granada on 1 November a brace including a dipping volley from a poor angle . In the match against Sevilla in which he scored the opening goal , James experienced a fracture on the fifth metatarsal in his right foot after being fouled . It was then reported that he would have immediate surgery and be out of action for two months . James returned on 5 April in the match against Granada , where he assisted two goals in a 9-1 victory before being subbed at the 60th minute . Days later , James scored his first goal since his injury against Rayo Vallecano in a 2–0 victory . 2015–16 season After being left on the bench for his team 's season opener , a scoreless draw against Sporting Gijon , James made his first contribution of the season by giving a man of the match performance against Real Betis . The player scored with both a spectacular free-kick and bicycle kick and provided an assist for Gareth Bale . On 8 September 2015 , during an international friendly match against Peru , James collided with Peruvian player Juan Manuel Vargas while going for a ball . Although he initially appeared able to continue , James was removed from the game as a precautionary measure . On 10 September , Real Madrid announced the player had been diagnosed with a thigh muscle tear as a result of the knock . James was not seen back in training until 27 October 2015 . He was a part-time starter when the team won the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League . International career Youth James was part of the Colombia U-17 team that finished runners-up in the 2007 South American Under-17 Championships , where he scored three goals . He also helped Colombia advance to the knockout stages during the 2007 FIFA U-17 World Cup , where they eventually lost to the winners of the tournament Nigeria . He was also part of the Colombia under-20 squad in three youth tournaments during 2011 : the Toulon Tournament , the South American U-20 Championship and the U-20 World Cup that was held in his homeland Colombia . James scored two goals and provided three assists during the 2011 Toulon Tournament . This show led him to being voted as the MVP of the tournament where Colombia won the final by defeating France in a penalty shootout . James scored one of the penalties in the shootout . During the 2011 South American U-20 Championship , he provided three assists . During the 2011 U-20 World Cup , he was named captain of the U20 squad due to his impressive leadership and talent . By scoring three goals and providing three assists in the tournament , he gained international attention as a promising star and made many consider him as a potential key member of the Colombian senior squad . Despite Colombia losing in the quarter-finals against Mexico , James gained attention from many big clubs in Europe and received praise from Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson . Senior 2014 World Cup qualification and friendlies On 29 September 2011 , James received his first call-up to the Colombian senior side for a match against Bolivia on 11 October 2011 . He was selected as the man of match due to his incredible performance including the initiation of the goal scored in the last minute by his former Porto teammate Radamel Falcao which gave Colombia a 2–1 win . Under the new manager José Pékerman , he played a crucial part in setting up both goals in a 2–0 victory over Mexico . He scored his first goal for Colombia against Peru . Colombia went on to win the match and boosted its place in the World Cup qualifying table from sixth to fifth . James assisted two goals in a row from 1–0 to 3–0 In the World Cup qualifying match against Uruguay that eventually ended 4–0 . James scored a stunning volley from a 30-yard free kick against Chile , leveling the game to an eventual 3–1 away victory boosting Colombia to the second place in the qualifying stages . In the match against Paraguay , James set up the plays leading towards both goals in a 2–0 victory . In Colombia 's last international friendly of the year , James assisted the sole goal allowing Colombia to tie with 2014 World Cup hosts Brazil 1–1 . James played his first match of 2013 in the second half of the CONMEBOL qualifiers against Bolivia where he gave a man of the match performance . He set up the second goal thanks to a free kick that he took . The game ended 5–0 eventually . Playing against South American leaders Argentina , James suffered an injury in the 30th minute forcing him to be substituted . While the injury was not serious , James was rested and therefore missed the game against Peru days later . James made a good comeback when he scored the winning goal in a 1–0 victory over Ecuador during the final stages of the world cup qualifiers . In a tough match against Chile , James drew both penalties that equalized Colombia from a 1–3 to a 3–3 . This drew allowed Colombia to return to the World Cup for the first time in 16 years . Days later , James assisted the first goal with a free-kick while setting up the second in a 2–1 away victory over Paraguay . James continued his play-making form by assisting the first goal and setting up the second against Belgium in a 2–0 victory . He was later voted man of the match . A few days later , James was praised once more as the man of the match in a 0–0 draw against the Netherlands . James started in Colombia 's 2014 opening match and scored a penalty against Tunisia in a 1–1 draw . In the last friendly before the World Cup , James scored yet another penalty against Jordan in a 3–0 victory . 2014 World Cup On 2 June 2014 , James was named in Colombia 's 23-man squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup and assigned the number 10 shirt . In the team 's opening match of the tournament , James set up the first two goals , scored a last-minute goal with a low shot to seal a 3–0 victory over Greece and was named man of the match by FIFA . In the second match , James continued his form by scoring with a header and setting up a second goal for Juan Fernando Quintero in a 2–1 victory over Ivory Coast and was once again elected as man of the match . In the final group stage match against Japan , James came on as a second-half substitute and assisted two Jackson Martínez goals before scoring the final goal in a 4–1 victory . At the end of the group stage , James was ranked as the best performing player at the tournament by FIFA . On 28 June , James scored both goals to defeat Uruguay 2–0 at the Maracanã in the round of 16 , taking Colombia to its first ever World Cup quarter-finals . These goals made him the first player to score in all of his team 's opening matches since Ronaldo and Rivaldo in 2002 . His volleyed opening goal was described as `` one of the greatest goals the World Cup has ever seen '' by opposition manager Óscar Tabárez , who also called James `` the best player in the World Cup . '' Because of his performance against the Uruguayans , James was named by FIFA as man of the match for the third time in four matches . The volley was later voted as the best goal in the tournament by more than four million people on FIFA 's website and won the FIFA Puskás Award for the best goal of the year . In the quarter-final against Brazil , he scored his sixth goal of the tournament , a penalty in Colombia 's 2–1 defeat . A tearful James was consoled by Brazil 's David Luiz and stated , `` He ( David ) told me I was a good player . The truth is that having so many superstars hug me did make me happy . We have to raise our heads now and thank Colombia for their support . We are sad because we wanted to keep going and set new records . We gave everything to reach the semi-final , but we have to be proud because we played a great side . I 'm crying because we gave everything . We 're sad but we also have to feel proud because we left our skin out there . '' Luiz and Rodriguez also exchanged jerseys . James received a standing ovation from the home crowd , ending his first World Cup campaign with six goals and two assists in five matches . On 11 July , he was named on the 10-man shortlist for FIFA 's Golden Ball award for the tournament 's best player . He then won the Golden Boot as the tournament 's top goalscorer despite being eliminated in the quarter finals . Due to his performances , he was named in the World Cup All Star XI and was also listed in the Cup 's star XI by Castrol 's index rating system in FIFA 's website . Argentina legend Diego Maradona argued that it is James , rather than Lionel Messi , that should have won the tournament 's Golden Ball award . 2015 Copa América and Copa América Centenario James was called up to represented Colombia at the 2015 Copa América in Chile , where his team were eliminated 5–4 on penalties by eventual finalists Argentina on 27 June , following a 0–0 draw . The following summer , James was named to Colombia 's squad for the Copa América Centenario and was named the team 's captain . On 3 June , he started in Colombia 's opening 2–0 win against tournament hosts the United States , scoring his team 's second goal from the penalty spot , although he was later forced off early due to an injury . Although it was initially feared that he would be unable to feature in his nation 's second group match against Paraguay , he recovered in time to start the match , setting up Colombia 's first goal , and later scoring one himself in a 2–1 win which sealed his team a place in the quarter-finals of the tournament . Style of play Once considered to be among the best young players in the world , James can play in several positions across the midfield , having played as a playmaker , a winger , and a central midfielder for both club and country , though in an interview , he stated his main preference as an attacking midfielder . Praised for his technical skills , vision , and his ability to create chances for team-mates as a playmaker , James ' performances have led to comparisons with the famous Colombian footballer Carlos Valderrama ; Valderrama himself declared James as his `` successor '' . Although naturally left-footed , James has shown ambidexterity in his dribbling and style of play . His goal scoring abilities were a highlight of the 2014 FIFA World Cup , where he managed to claim the Golden Boot despite Colombia 's elimination in the quarter finals . He is also an accurate free kick taker , and a goal threat from anywhere outside the area . Career

odql_5184--James_Rodríguez.txt

What nationality is James Rodriguez who won the Golden Boot Award at the 2014 FIFA World Cup Finals in July having scored six goals?

The Pastry War ( , ) , also known as the First French intervention in Mexico or the First Franco-Mexican War ( 1838–1839 ) , began in November 1838 with the naval blockade of some Mexican ports and the capture of the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa in Veracruz by French forces sent by King Louis-Philippe . It ended several months later in March 1839 with a British-brokered peace . The intervention followed many claims by French nationals of losses due to unrest in Mexico City , as well as the failure of Mexico to pay a large debt to France . This incident was the first and lesser of Mexico 's two 19th-century wars with France , being followed by the French invasion of 1861–67 , resulting in the installation of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico . Background During the early years of the new Mexican republic , there was widespread civil disorder as factions competed for control . In 1828 , President Guadalupe Victoria ejected Lorenzo de Zavala from the office of governor of the State of Mexico . Zavala , supported by Antonio López de Santa Anna , rallied most of the garrison in Mexico City ( then a part of Mexico State ) to his aid . Four days of fighting in Mexico City resulted in Zavala 's winning and installing a new president , Vicente Guerrero . The fighting in the streets destroyed a great deal of personal property of residents . Average citizens had little recourse for damages suffered . They had no consuls , or representatives to speak on their behalf . Foreigners whose property was damaged or destroyed by rioters or bandits were usually unable to obtain compensation from the government . They began to appeal to their own governments for help and compensation , as they were often international traders . Despite repeated claims from French nationals in the city , the French government let the matter subside . Course of war In 1838 a French pastry cook , Remontel , claimed that his shop in the Tacubaya district of Mexico City had been ruined by looting Mexican officers in 1828 . He appealed to France 's King Louis-Philippe . Coming to a national 's aid , France demanded 600,000 pesos in damages , an enormous sum for the time , when the typical daily wage in Mexico City was about one peso ( 8 Mexican reals ) . More importantly , the government of Mexico had defaulted on millions of dollars ' worth of loans from France . Diplomat Baron Antoine Louis Deffaudis gave Mexico an ultimatum to pay , or the French would demand satisfaction . When president Anastasio Bustamante made no payment , the king of France ordered a fleet under Rear Admiral Charles Baudin to declare and carry out a blockade of all Mexican ports from Yucatán to the Rio Grande , to bombard the Mexican fortress of San Juan de Ulúa , and to seize the city of Veracruz , which was the most important port on the Gulf coast . French forces captured virtually the entire Mexican Navy at Veracruz by December 1838 . Mexico declared war on France . With trade cut off , the Mexicans began smuggling imports via Corpus Christi , Republic of Texas , and into Mexico . Fearing that France would blockade the Republic 's ports as well , a battalion of Texan forces began patrolling Corpus Christi Bay to stop Mexican smugglers . One smuggling party abandoned their cargo of about a hundred barrels of flour on the beach at the mouth of the bay , thus giving Flour Bluff its name . The United States , ever watchful of its relations with Mexico , sent the schooner Woodbury to help the French in their blockade . Meanwhile , acting without explicit government authority , Antonio López de Santa Anna , known for his military leadership , came out of retirement from his hacienda near Xalapa and surveyed the defenses of Veracruz . He offered his services to the government , which ordered him to fight the French by any means necessary . He led Mexican forces against the French . In a skirmish with the rear guard of the French , Santa Anna was wounded in the leg by French grapeshot . His leg was amputated , and buried with full military honors . Exploiting his wounds with eloquent propaganda , Santa Anna catapulted back to power . Peace restored With the diplomatic intervention of the United Kingdom , eventually President Bustamante agreed to pay the 600,000 pesos for the baker 's damages , and the French forces withdrew on 9 March 1839 . Notes Sources * Nofi , Albert A. ; The Alamo and the Texas War for Independence ; Da Capo Press ; ISBN 0-306-80563-4 * Warner , Michael S. ; Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico ; Fitzroy Dearborn . * Marley , David ; Wars of the Americas : a chronology of armed conflict in the New World , 1492 to the present

dpql_2052--Pastry_War.txt

Between 1838 and 1839, against which country did France fight the so-called Pastry War?

Boxing is a martial art and combat sport in which two people wearing protective gloves throw punches at each other for a predetermined set of time in a boxing ring . Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth sport and is a common fixture in most international games—it also has its own World Championships . Boxing is supervised by a referee over a series of one- to three-minute intervals called rounds . The result is decided when an opponent is deemed incapable to continue by a referee , is disqualified for breaking a rule , resigns by throwing in a towel , or is pronounced the winner or loser based on the judges ' scorecards at the end of the contest . In the event that both fighters gain equal scores from the judges , the fight is considered a draw ( professional boxing ) . In Olympic boxing , due to the fact that a winner must be declared , in the case of a draw - the judges use technical criteria to choose the most deserving winner of the bout . While people have fought in hand-to-hand combat since before the dawn of history , the origin of boxing as an organized sport may be its acceptance by the ancient Greeks as an Olympic game in BC 688 . Boxing evolved from 16th- and 18th-century prizefights , largely in Great Britain , to the forerunner of modern boxing in the mid-19th century , again initially in Great Britain and later in the United States . History Ancient history See also Ancient Greek boxing The earliest known depiction of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief in Iraq from the 3rd millennium BCE Later depictions from the 2nd millennium BC are found in reliefs from the Mesopotamian nations of Assyria and Babylonia , and in Hittite art from Asia Minor . The earliest evidence for fist fighting with any kind of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete ( c.1650–1400 BCE ) , and on Sardinia , if we consider the boxing statues of Prama mountains ( c. 2000–1000 BC ) . Boxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome . In order for the fighters to protect themselves against their opponents they wrapped leather thongs around their fists . Eventually harder leather was used and the thong soon became a weapon . The Romans even introduced metal studs to the thongs to make the cestus which then led to a more sinister weapon called the myrmex ( 'limb piercer ' ) . Fighting events were held at Roman Amphitheatres . The Roman form of boxing was often a fight until death to please the spectators who gathered at such events . However , especially in later times , purchased slaves and trained combat performers were valuable commodities , and their lives were not given up without due consideration . Often slaves were used against one another in a circle marked on the floor . This is where the term ring came from . In AD 393 , during the Roman gladiator period , boxing was abolished due to excessive brutality . It was not until the late 17th century that boxing re-surfaced in London . Early London prize ring rules Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again and interest in fighting with the fists waned . However , there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries . There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Kulachniy Boy or `` Fist Fighting '' . As the wearing of swords became less common , there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists . The sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting . The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury , and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719 . This is also the time when the word `` boxing '' first came to be used . It should be noted , that this earliest form of modern boxing was very different . Contests in Mr. Figg 's time , in addition to fist fighting , also contained fencing and cudgeling . On 6 January 1681 , the first recorded boxing match took place in Britain when Christopher Monck , 2nd Duke of Albemarle ( and later Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica ) engineered a bout between his butler and his butcher with the latter winning the prize . Early fighting had no written rules . There were no weight divisions or round limits , and no referee . In general , it was extremely chaotic . An early article on boxing was published in Nottingham , 1713 , by Sir Thomas Parkyns , a successful Wrestler from Bunny , Nottinghamshire , who had practised the techniques he described . The article , a single page in his manual of wrestling and fencing , Progymnasmata : The inn-play , or Cornish-hugg wrestler , described a system of headbutting , punching , eye-gouging , chokes , and hard throws , not recognized in boxing today . The first boxing rules , called the Broughton 's rules , were introduced by champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred . Under these rules , if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds , the fight was over . Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited . Broughton encouraged the use of 'mufflers ' , a form of padded bandage or mitten , to be used in 'jousting ' or sparring sessions in training , and in exhibition matches . These rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today 's boxers ; they permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to begin a 30-second count at any time . Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover . However , this was considered `` unmanly '' and was frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the Seconds of the Boxers . Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system . Furthermore , as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands , they used different punching technique to preserve their hands , because the head was a common target to hit full out . Almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body behind them to the face ( including forehead ) as the basic blows . Marquess of Queensberry rules ( 1867 ) In 1867 , the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights , Middleweights and Heavyweights . The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry , whose name has always been associated with them . There were twelve rules in all , and they specified that fights should be `` a fair stand-up boxing match '' in a 24-foot-square or similar ring . Rounds were three minutes with one-minute rest intervals between rounds . Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down , and wrestling was banned . The introduction of gloves of `` fair-size '' also changed the nature of the bouts . An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists . The gloves can be used to block an opponent 's blows . As a result of their introduction , bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping , bobbing , countering and angling . Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves , the classical forearms outwards , torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to a more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face . Late 19th and early 20th centuries Through the late nineteenth century , the martial art of boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy . Outlawed in England and much of the United States , prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police . Brawling and wrestling tactics continued , and riots at prizefights were common occurrences . Still , throughout this period , there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics . The English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm , despite the consent of the participants . This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England . The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was `` Gentleman Jim '' Corbett , who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans . The first instance of film censorship in the United States occurred in 1897 when several states banned the showing of prize fighting films from the state of Nevada , where it was legal at the time . Throughout the early twentieth century , boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy . They were aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions such as John L. Sullivan . Rules The Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867 . A boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds , a total of up to 9 to 12 rounds . A minute is typically spent between each round with the fighters in their assigned corners receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff . The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters , rule on their ability to fight safely , count knocked-down fighters , and rule on fouls . Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers , based on punches that connect , defense , knockdowns , and other , more subjective , measures . Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging , many fights have controversial results , in which one or both fighters believe they have been `` robbed '' or unfairly denied a victory . Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring , where his or her coach , as well as one or more `` seconds '' may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds . Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signaled end of each round . A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges , and is said to `` go the distance '' . The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner . With three judges , unanimous and split decisions are possible , as are draws . A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knock-out ; such bouts are said to have ended `` inside the distance '' . If a fighter is knocked down during the fight , determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent 's punch and not a slip , as determined by the referee , the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to his or her feet and can continue . Should the referee count to ten , then the knocked-down boxer is ruled `` knocked out '' ( whether unconscious or not ) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout ( KO ) . A `` technical knock-out '' ( TKO ) is possible as well , and is ruled by the referee , fight doctor , or a fighter 's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight , based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves . Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a `` three-knockdown rule '' , in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO . A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter 's record . A `` standing eight '' count rule may also be in effect . This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that he feels may be in danger , even if no knockdown has taken place . After counting the referee will observe the fighter , and decide if he is fit to continue . For scoring purposes , a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown . In general , boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt , holding , tripping , pushing , biting , or spitting . The boxer 's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury . Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul . They also are prohibited from kicking , head-butting , or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist ( including hitting with the elbow , shoulder or forearm , as well as with open gloves , the wrist , the inside , back or side of the hand ) . They are prohibited as well from hitting the back , back of the neck or head ( called a `` rabbit-punch '' ) or the kidneys . They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching , holding an opponent while punching , or ducking below the belt of their opponent ( dropping below the waist of your opponent , no matter the distance between ) . If a `` clinch '' – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee , each fighter must take a full step back before punching again ( alternatively , the referee may direct the fighters to `` punch out '' of the clinch ) . When a boxer is knocked down , the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue . Violations of these rules may be ruled `` fouls '' by the referee , who may issue warnings , deduct points , or disqualify an offending boxer , causing an automatic loss , depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul . An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified . A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover , after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue . Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a `` no contest '' result , or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds ( typically four or more , or at least three in a four-round fight ) have passed . Unheard of these days , but common during the early 20th Century in North America , a `` newspaper decision ( NWS ) '' might be made after a no decision bout had ended . A `` no decision '' bout occurred when , by law or by pre-arrangement of the fighters , if both boxers were still standing at the fight 's conclusion and there was no knockout , no official decision was rendered and neither boxer was declared the winner . But this did not prevent the pool of ringside newspaper reporters from declaring a consensus result among themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications . Officially , however , a `` no decision '' bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing . Boxing historians sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight records for illustrative purposes only . Often , media outlets covering a match will personally score the match , and post their scores as an independent sentence in their report . Professional vs. amateur boxing Throughout the 17th to 19th centuries , boxing bouts were motivated by money , as the fighters competed for prize money , promoters controlled the gate , and spectators bet on the result . The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports , and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908 . In their current form , Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds , scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed , regardless of impact , and fighters wear protective headgear , reducing the number of injuries , knockdowns , and knockouts . Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges , but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System , which introduces scoring objectivity , improves safety , and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators . Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally , though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics . For most fighters , an amateur career , especially at the Olympics , serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career . Amateur boxing Amateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level , at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games , and in many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations . Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage . Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games , and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA ( Amateur Boxing Association ) bout , each with a one-minute interval between rounds . Competitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip or circle across the knuckle . There are cases however , where white ended gloves are not required but any solid color may be worn . The white end just is a way to make it easier for judges to score clean hits . Each competitor must have their hands properly wrapped , pre-fight , for added protection on their hands and for added cushion under the gloves . Gloves worn by the fighters must be twelve ounces in weight unless , the fighters weigh under 165 pounds , thus allowing them to wear 10 ounce gloves . A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves . Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient force is awarded a point . A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows . A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing low blows below the belt is disqualified . Referees also ensure that the boxers do n't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging . If this occurs , the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing . Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified . Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured , if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced . Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as `` RSC '' ( referee stopped contest ) with notations for an outclassed opponent ( RSCO ) , outscored opponent ( RSCOS ) , injury ( RSCI ) or head injury ( RSCH ) . Professional boxing Professional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts , typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds , though four-round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters . There are also some two- and three-round professional bouts , especially in Australia . Through the early twentieth century , it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds , ending only when one fighter quit , benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey . Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the twentieth century until the early 1980s , when the death of boxer Duk Koo Kim eventually prompted the World Boxing Council and other organizations sanctioning professional boxing to reduce the limit to twelve rounds . Headgear is not permitted in professional bouts , and boxers are generally allowed to take much more damage before a fight is halted . At any time , the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant can not defend himself due to injury . In that case , the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win . A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent , and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut . For this reason , fighters often employ cutmen , whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut . If a boxer simply quits fighting , or if his corner stops the fight , then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory . In contrast with amateur boxing , professional male boxers have to be bare-chested . Boxing styles Definition of style `` Style '' is often defined as the strategic approach a fighter takes during a bout . No two fighters ' styles are alike , as it is determined by that individual 's physical and mental attributes . Three main styles exist in boxing : outside fighter ( `` boxer '' ) , brawler ( or `` slugger '' ) , and Inside fighter ( `` swarmer '' ) . These styles may be divided into several special subgroups , such as counter puncher , etc . The main philosophy of the styles is , that each style has an advantage over one , but disadvantage over the other one . It follows the rock-paper-scissors scenario - boxer beats brawler , brawler beats swarmer , and swarmer beats boxer . Boxer/out-fighter A classic `` boxer '' or stylist ( also known as an `` out-fighter '' ) seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent , fighting with faster , longer range punches , most notably the jab , and gradually wearing his opponent down . Due to this reliance on weaker punches , out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout , though some out-fighters have notable knockout records . They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent , methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler . Out-fighters need reach , hand speed , reflexes , and footwork . Notable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali , Larry Holmes , Joe Calzaghe Wilfredo Gómez , Salvador Sanchez , Cecilia Brækhus , Gene Tunney , Ezzard Charles , Willie Pep , Meldrick Taylor , Ricardo Lopez , Floyd Mayweather , Roy Jones , Jr. , Sugar Ray Leonard , Miguel Vazquez , Sergio `` Maravilla '' Martínez , Vitali Klitschko , Wladimir Klitschko , and Guillermo Rigondeaux . This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed . Boxer-puncher A boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power , often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot . Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter ( although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter ) , but instead of winning by decision , they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout . A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style . Notable boxer-punchers include Muhammad Ali , Wladimir Klitschko , Lennox Lewis , Joe Louis , Wilfredo Gómez , Oscar de la Hoya , Archie Moore , Miguel Cotto , Nonito Donaire , Sam Langford , Henry Armstrong , Sugar Ray Robinson , Tony Zale , Carlos Monzón , Alexis Argüello , Erik Morales , Terry Norris , Marco Antonio Barrera , Naseem Hamed and Thomas Hearns . Counter puncher Counter punchers are slippery , defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent 's mistakes in order to gain the advantage , whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a knockout . They use their well-rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch . A fight with a skilled counter-puncher can turn into a war of attrition , where each shot landed is a battle in itself . Thus , fighting against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid telegraphing one 's attacks . To be truly successful using this style they must have good reflexes , a high level of prediction and awareness , pinpoint accuracy and speed , both in striking and in footwork . Notable counter punchers include Muhammad Ali , Vitali Klitschko , Evander Holyfield , Max Schmeling , Chris Byrd , Jim Corbett , Jack Johnson , Bernard Hopkins , Laszlo Papp , Jerry Quarry , Anselmo Moreno , James Toney , Marvin Hagler , Juan Manuel Márquez , Humberto Soto , Floyd Mayweather , Jr. , Roger Mayweather , Pernell Whitaker , Sergio Gabriel Martinez and Guillermo Rigondeaux . Counter punchers usually wear their opponents down by causing them to miss their punches . The more the opponent misses , the faster they tire , and the psychological effects of being unable to land a hit will start to sink in . The counter puncher often tries to outplay their opponent entirely , not just in a physical sense , but also in a mental and emotional sense . This style can be incredibly difficult , especially against seasoned fighters , but winning a fight without getting hit is often worth the pay-off . They usually try to stay away from the center of the ring , in order to outmaneuver and chip away at their opponents . A large advantage in counter-hitting is the forward momentum of the attacker , which drives them further into your return strike . As such , knockouts are more common than one would expect from a defensive style . Brawler/slugger A brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring , but makes up for it through sheer punching power . Mainly Irish , Irish-American , Puerto Rican , Mexican , and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style . Many brawlers tend to lack mobility , preferring a less mobile , more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet . They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favor of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower , more powerful single punches ( such as hooks and uppercuts ) . Their slowness and predictable punching pattern ( single punches with obvious leads ) often leaves them open to counter punches , so successful brawlers must be able to absorb substantial amounts of punishment . However , not all brawler/slugger fighters are not mobile ; some can move around and switch styles if needed but still have the brawler/slugger style such as Wilfredo Gómez , Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García . A brawler 's most important assets are power and chin ( the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing ) . Examples of this style include George Foreman , Rocky Marciano , Julio Cesar Chavez , Roberto Duran , Danny García , Wilfredo Gómez , Sonny Liston , John L. Sullivan , Max Baer , Prince Naseem Hamed , Ray Mancini , David Tua , Arturo Gatti , Micky Ward , Brandon Ríos , Ruslan Provodnikov ,

qg_1107--Boxing.txt

What boxer was stripped of his heavyweight boxing titles when he refused his US army induction in April, 1967?

The Path is the tenth studio album by English acoustic roots duo Show of Hands , released in April 2003 . The album was conceived as an `` instrumental journey '' around the South West Coast Path , a 630-mile coastline path opened in 1978 in the duo 's native West Country , and a celebration of the coastline 's `` sights and sounds '' . It is the band 's only completely instrumental album , with each of its songs named after and inspired by different locations on the path . It was a project between Show Of Hands and The South West Coast Path Team , as part of the latter 's celebrations for the silver jubilee ( 25th anniversary ) of the path . As such the album is endorsed by various organisations who own different parts of the path , namely The Countryside Agency , The National Trust and English Heritage Commission , .and the music is ambient instrumentals inspired by different locations around the coastline . The duo hoped that , with the album , listeners would be inspired to discover or rediscover the `` endless fascination '' of the coast path . The album was released on 14 April 2003 by the duo 's own label Hands on Music , a month before they released their following album Country Life . In July 2012 , music from The Path featured in several themed videos on a new interactive official website for the South West Coast Path , which attracts some 400,000 hits a year . One track from the album , `` Port Isaac '' , featured on their compilation album Roots : The Best of Show of Hands ( 2007 ) . Background Show of Hands entered the 2000s by recording an album of cover versions , Covers ( 2000 ) , which presented a stripped down sound with no overdubs or multitracking . They followed this their second concert at the Royal Albert Hall which was filmed for their VHS concert film The Big Gig ( 2001 ) , which itself was followed by their ninth studio album , Cold Frontier ( 2001 ) , which was co-produced between the duo and Mick Dolan , engineer for Steve Winwood . Critical praise greeted both releases , and the duo embarked on The Cold Frontier Tour in November 2001 , where they played a great deal of unreleased or `` rare '' material . The band 's live album Cold Cuts ( 2002 ) , which was drawn from material from the tour , was released to positive reviews . The duo began writing for what they planned to be their next album . Meanwhile , The Countryside Agency were looking to celebrate the silver jubilee ( 25th anniversary ) of the South West Coast Path , a National Trail that remains the longest waymarked long-distance footpath ( and one of the longest in the UK ) . It stretches for 630 mi , running from Minehead in Somerset , along the coasts of Devon and Cornwall , to Poole Harbour in Dorset . It is also one of the more challenging trails as it rises and falls with every river mouth , and its total height climbed has been calculated to be 114,931 ft ( 35,031 m ) , almost four times the height of Mount Everest . It has been voted `` Britain 's Best Walking Route '' twice in a row by readers of the Ramblers Walk magazine , and regularly features in lists of the world 's best walks . The South West Coast Path Association formed in 1973 , and after being constructed over five years , the path was opened in 1978 . To celebrate the silver jubilee of the association in 1998 , they set up a fund to raise money for markers at Minehead and South Haven Point , and erected `` Path Markers '' on the path at Minehead in 2001 and South Haven Point in 2002 . To celebrate the silver jubilee of the path 's opening , Show of Hands , who had began work on their tenth album Country Life , were asked by The South West Coast Path Association to create an album of music celebrating the path and the sites that it visits . Show of Hands are from Devon , the only English country to have two coastlines , and the South West Coast Path crosses both of them . As such , it became a local project for the duo . The duo changed their focus from Country Life to the album concerning the coast path 's silver jubilee . As different parts of the path are owned by different charities and organisations , namely The National Trust , English Heritage and The Countryside Agency , the album would also be endorsed by those organisations . The duo named the album simply The Path , after the path . Music Unlike the band 's previous albums , which feature songs , The Path is completely instrumental , and to date remains their only completely instrumental album . The album is set up as an `` instrumental journey '' around the coast path , and a celebration of the path 's `` sights and sounds '' . Each of the album 's sixteen tracks is named after a specific location on the path 's track . As such , the album is seen as a concept album . The duo 's website states that the album `` creates an atmospheric musical portrait of the sea , and the seaside '' . Whilst the album is folk music , it has also been described as an ambient album . Describing the coast path , the duo noted that `` the full 630 mile adventure around the coastline of the southwest peninsula has now become the region 's most popular attraction . From the Exmoor National Park to Poole harbour there is no better way to enjoy our dramatic coastline , its wildlife , history and culture , '' and the duo hoped that , with the album , listeners would be inspired to discover - or rediscover its `` endless fascination '' . The album is co-produced between Show of Hands , Matt Clifford and Mick Dolan , and all producers wrote music featured on the album , making this a departure from most of the duo 's previous albums , which were predominately written by Steve Knightley of the duo . Several of the tracks are instrumental reworkings of older material . Knightley wrote the album 's first track , `` Foreland Point '' , whilst the second track , `` Braunton Burrows '' , is adapted from a track from Beer 's sporadic collaborator Paul Downes , whilst his composition `` Lamorna Cave '' was also recorded for the seventh track . Matt Clifford wrote the third track , `` Buck 's Mills '' . The fourth track , `` Port Isaac '' , is essentially an instrumental reworking of the duo 's earlier song `` Cousin Jack '' , about miners of the Cornish diaspora departing from Port Isaac , which featured on their sixth studio album Dark Fields ( 1997 ) . The final , sixteenth track , `` The Foreland – Reprise '' , is a reworking of the album 's first track , `` Foreland Point '' . Phil Beer of the duo had previously released the collaborative album Ridgeriders in 1999 , a soundtrack to the ITV Meridian television series of the same name presented by Nick Knowles which featured Knowles visiting the ancient trackways of Southern England on a motorcycle . The album , a collaboration between Ashley Hutchings , Chris While , The Albion Band and Julie Matthews , was also a `` journey '' concept album featuring sixteen songs mostly set in different locations in Southern England , with some of the songs named after the locations , making it similar in some sense to The Path . Ridgeriders was released in June 1999 to positive reviews , including one from Living Tradition who said `` interesting concept album with enough interest for those who never saw the series , but for those readers north of the Border , it is very English in feel . '' Release and legacy The Path was released on 14 April 2003 on Compact Disc by the duo 's own record label Hands on Music with the catalogue number HMCD18 . The album cover features a photograph of Pendeen Lighthouse , which is visited on the path , by Graham Norways . The back cover features the logos for The National Trust , English Heritage and The Countryside Agency . The duo explained that this was because the coast path is mostly funded by The Countryside Agency , whilst a third of the land the path crosses is owned by The National Trust , whilst Pendennis Castle , visited in the path and the name of one of the track 's on the album , is within the ownership of English Heritage . The disc face features a map of the coast path . The album was not reviewed by any publications , perhaps due to its low-key release . After the album 's release , the duo returned to work on Country Life , which was released in October 2003 . Country Life ironically features a greater focus on rural issues , most notably on its first song , `` Country Life '' , a `` stirring '' and `` finely honed rant about the desecration of British country life '' It was packaged with a bonus disc which contained CD-ROM bonus material , including a lyrics section set to `` The Exe Estuary '' from The Path . The same track was also performed live by Knightley in an acoustic variation for his BBC Radio 4 documentary Open Country in 2010 . In July 2012 , music from The Path featured in several themed videos on a new interactive official website for the South West Coast Path , which attracts some 400,000 hits a year . One track from the album , `` Port Isaac '' , features on their `` best of '' compilation album Roots : The Best of Show of Hands ( 2007 ) . It features on the second disc , subtitled Longdogs , whose tracks were chosen by asking members of the duo 's internet forum Longdogs to choose their favourite track from each of their albums via a poll . Track listing # '' Foreland Point '' ( Steve Knightley ) – 4:09 # '' Braunton Burrows '' ( Paul Downes ) – 2:27 # '' Buck 's Mills '' ( Matt Clifford ) – 2:31 # '' Port Isaac '' ( Knightley ) – 4:29 # '' Carbis Bay '' ( Phil Beer – 2:46 # '' Land 's End '' ( Knightley ) – 3:13 # '' Lamorna Cave '' ( Downes ) – 3:08 # '' Pendennis Castle '' ( Beer ) – 2:27 # '' Charlestown '' ( Clifford ) – 1:46 # '' Rame Head '' ( Knightley ) – 3:32 # '' Hallsands '' ( Clifford ) – 2:31 # '' Paignton '' ( Knightley ) – 1:28 # '' The Exe Estuary '' ( Knightley ) – 3:11 # '' Lyme Regis '' ( Beer ) – 1:18 # '' Golden Cap '' ( Knightley/Beer ) – 4:56 # '' The Foreland - Reprise '' ( Knightley ) – 1:29

sfq_13780--The_Path_(album).txt

The UK's longest National Trail, what path stretches 630 miles between Minehead and Poole Harbour?

The Stockton and Darlington Railway ( S & DR ) was a railway company that operated in north-east England from 1825 to 1863 . The world 's first public railway to use steam locomotives , its first line connected collieries near Shildon with Stockton-on-Tees and Darlington , and was officially opened on 27 September 1825 . The movement of coal to ships rapidly became a lucrative business , and the line was soon extended to a new port and town at Middlesbrough . While coal waggons were hauled by steam locomotives from the start , passengers were carried in coaches drawn by horses until carriages hauled by steam locomotives were introduced in 1833 . The S & DR was involved in the building of the East Coast Main Line between York and Darlington , but its main expansion was at Middlesbrough Docks and west into Weardale and east to Redcar . It suffered severe financial difficulties at the end of the 1840s and was nearly taken over by the York , Newcastle and Berwick Railway , before the discovery of iron ore in Cleveland and the subsequent increase in revenue meant it could pay its debts . At the beginning of the 1860 it took over railways that had crossed the Pennines to join the West Coast Main Line at and Clifton , near . The company was taken over by the North Eastern Railway in 1863 , transferring 200 rtmi of line and about 160 locomotives , but continued to operate independently as the Darlington Section until 1876 . The opening of the S & DR was seen as proof of the effectiveness of steam railways and its anniversary was celebrated in 1875 , 1925 and 1975 . Much of the original route is now served by the Tees Valley Line , operated by Northern . Genesis Origins Coal from the inland mines in County Durham was taken away on packhorses , and then horse and carts as the roads were improved . A canal was proposed by George Dixon in 1767 and again by John Rennie in 1815 , but both schemes failed . A few years later a canal was proposed on a route that bypassed Darlington and Yarm , and a meeting was held in Yarm to oppose the route . The Welsh engineer George Overton was consulted , and he advised building a tramroad . Overton carried out a survey and planned a route from the Etherley and Witton Collieries to Shildon , and then passing to the north of Darlington to reach Stockton . The Scottish engineer Robert Stevenson was said to favour the railway , and the Quaker Edward Pease supported it at a public meeting in Darlington on 13 November 1818 , promising a five per cent return on investment . Approximately two-thirds of the shares were sold locally , and the rest were bought by Quakers nationally . A private bill was presented to Parliament in March 1819 , but as the route passed through Earl of Eldon 's estate and one of the Earl of Darlington 's fox coverts , it was opposed and defeated by 13 votes . Overton surveyed a new line that avoided Darlington 's estate and agreement was reached with Eldon , but another application was deferred early in 1820 , as the death of King George III had made it unlikely a bill would pass that parliamentary year . The promoters lodged a bill on 30 September 1820 , the route having changed again as agreement had not been reached with Viscount Barrington about the line passing over his land . The railway was unopposed this time , but the bill nearly failed to enter the committee stage as the required four-fifths of shares had not been sold . Pease subscribed £7,000 ; from that time he had considerable influence over the railway and it became known as `` the Quaker line '' . The Act that received royal assent on 19 April 1821 allowed for a railway that could be used by anyone with suitably built vehicles on payment of a toll , that was closed at night , and with which land owners within 5 mi could build branches and make junctions ; no mention was made of steam locomotives . This new railway initiated the construction of more railway lines , causing significant developments in railway mapping and cartography , iron and steel manufacturing , as well as in any industries requiring more efficient transportation . George Stephenson Concerned about Overton 's competence , Pease asked George Stephenson , an experienced enginewright of the collieries of Killingworth , to meet him in Darlington . On 12 May 1821 the shareholders appointed Thomas Meynell as Chairman and Jonathan Backhouse as treasurer ; a majority of the managing committee , which included Thomas Richardson , Edward Pease and his son Joseph Pease , were Quakers . The committee designed a seal , showing waggons being pulled by a horse , and adopted the Latin motto ' ( `` At private risk for public service '' ) . By 23 July 1821 it had decided that the line would be a railway with edge rails , rather than a plateway , and appointed Stephenson to make a fresh survey of the line . Stephenson recommended using malleable iron rails , even though he owned a share of the patent for the alternative cast iron rails , and both types were used . Stephenson was assisted by his 18-year-old son Robert during the survey , and by the end of 1821 had reported that a usable line could be built within the bounds of the Act , but another route would be shorter by 3 mi and avoid deep cuttings and tunnels . Overton had kept himself available , but had no further involvement and the shareholders elected Stephenson Engineer on 22 January 1822 , with a salary of £660 per year . On 23 May 1822 a ceremony at Stockton celebrated the laying of the first track , the rails 4 ft apart , the same gauge used by Stephenson on his Killingworth Railway . Stephenson advocated the use of steam locomotives on the line . Pease visited Killingworth in mid-1822 and the directors visited Hetton colliery railway , on which Stephenson had introduced steam locomotives . A new bill was presented , requesting Stephenson 's deviations from the original route and the use of `` loco-motives or moveable engines '' , and this received assent on 23 May 1823 . The line included embankments up to 48 ft high , and Stephenson designed an iron truss bridge to cross the River Gaunless . The stone bridge over the River Skerne was designed by the Durham architect Ignatius Bonomi . In 1823 Stephenson and Pease opened Robert Stephenson and Company , a locomotive works at Forth Street , Newcastle , from which the following year the S & DR ordered two steam locomotives and two stationary engines . On 16 September 1825 , with the stationary engines in place , the first locomotive , Locomotion No . 1 , left the works , and the following day it was advertised that the railway would open on 27 September 1825 . Opening The cost of building the railway had greatly exceeded the estimates . By September 1825 the company had borrowed £60,000 in short-term loans and needed to earn some income . A railway coach , named Experiment , arrived the evening of 26 September 1825 , was attached to Locomotion No . 1 , and Pease , Stephenson and other members of the committee made an experimental journey between Shildon and Darlington , with James Stephenson , George 's elder brother , at the controls . On 27 September , between 7 am and 8 am , 12 waggons of coal were drawn up Etherley North Bank by a rope attached to the stationary engine at the top , and then let down the South Bank to St Helen 's Auckland . A waggon of flour bags was attached and horses hauled the train to the bottom of Brusselton West Bank , where thousands watched the second stationary engine draw the train up the incline . The train was let down the East Bank to Shildon Lane End , where Locomotion No . 1 , Experiment and 21 new coal waggons fitted with seats were waiting . The directors had allowed room for 300 passengers , but the train left carrying between 450 and 600 people , most travelling in empty waggons but some on top of waggons full of coal . Brakesmen were placed between the waggons , and the train set off , led by a man on horseback with a flag . It picked up speed on the gentle downward slope and reached 10 to , leaving behind men on field hunters ( horses ) who had tried to keep up with the procession . The train stopped when the waggon carrying the company surveyors and engineers lost a wheel ; the waggon was left behind and the train continued . The train stopped again , this time for 35 minutes to repair the locomotive and the train set off again , reaching 15 mph before it was welcomed by an estimated 10,000 people as it came to a stop at the Darlington branch junction . Eight and a half miles ( ) had been covered in two hours , and subtracting the 55 minutes accounted by the two stops , it had travelled at an average speed of 8 mph . Six waggons of coal were distributed to the poor , workers stopped for refreshments and many of the passengers from Brusselton alighted at Darlington , to be replaced by others . Two waggons for the Yarm Band were attached , and at 12:30 pm the locomotive started for Stockton , now hauling 31 vehicles with 550 passengers . On the 5 mi of nearly level track east of Darlington the train struggled to reach more than 4 mph . Crowds waited for the train to cross the Stockton to Yarm turnpike . Approaching Stockton it gained speed and reached 15 mph again , before a man clinging to the outside of a waggon fell off and his foot was crushed by the following vehicle . The train arrived 3 hours , 7 minutes after leaving Darlington . The opening ceremony was considered a success and that evening 102 people sat down to a celebratory dinner at the Town Hall . Early operations The railway that opened in September 1825 was 25 mi long and ran from Phoenix Pit , Old Etherley Colliery , to Cottage Row , Stockton ; there was also a half-mile ( 0.8 km ) branch to the depot at Darlington , of the Hagger Leases branch , and a branch to Yarm . Most of the track used 28 lb/yd malleable iron rails , and 4 mi of cast iron rails were used for junctions . The line was single track with four passing loops each mile ; square sleepers supported each rail separately so that horses could walk between them . Stone was used for the sleepers to the west of Darlington and oak to the east ; Stephenson would have preferred all of them to have been stone , but the transport cost was too high as they were quarried in the Auckland area . The railway opened with the company owing money and unable to raise further loans ; Pease advanced money twice early in 1826 so the workers could be paid . By August 1827 the company had paid its debts and was able to raise more money ; that month the Black Boy branch opened and construction began on the Croft and Hagger Leases branches . During 1827 shares rose from £120 at the start to £160 at the end . Initially the line was used to carry coal to Darlington and Stockton , carrying 10,000 tons in the first three months and earning nearly £2,000 . In Stockton the price of coal dropped from 18 to 12 shillings , and by the beginning of 1827 was 8 shillings 6 pence ( 8s 6d ) . Initially the drivers had been paid a daily wage , but after February 1826 they were paid d per ton per mile ; from this they had to pay assistants and fireman and to buy coal for the locomotive . The 1821 Act had received opposition from the owners of collieries on the River Wear who supplied London and feared competition , and it had been necessary to restrict the rate for transporting coal destined for ships to d per ton per mile , which had been assumed would make the business uneconomic . There was interest from London for 100,000 tons a year , so the company began investigations in September 1825 . In January 1826 the first staith opened at Stockton , designed so waggons over a ship 's hold could discharge coal from the bottom . A little over 18,500 tons of coal was transported to ships in the year ending June 1827 and this increased to over 52,000 tons the following year , per cent of the total carried . The locomotives were unreliable at first . Soon after opening , Locomotion No . 1 broke a wheel , and it was not ready for traffic until 12 or 13 October ; Hope , the second locomotive , arrived in November 1825 but needed a week to ready it for the line – the cast-iron wheels were a source of trouble . Two more locomotives of a similar design arrived in 1826 ; that August 16s 9d was spent on ale to motivate the men maintaining the engines . By the end of 1827 the company had also bought Chittaprat from Robert Wilson and Experiment from Stephenson . Timothy Hackworth , locomotive superintendent , used the boiler from the unsuccessful Chittaprat to build the Royal George in the works at Shildon ; it started work at the end of November . John Wesley Hackworth later published an account stating that locomotives would have been abandoned were it not for the fact that Pease and Thomas Richardson were partners with Stephenson in the Newcastle works , and that when Timothy Hackworth was commissioned to rebuild Chittaprat it was `` as a last experiment '' to `` make an engine in his own way '' . Both Tomlinson and Rolt state this claim was unfounded and the company had shown earlier that locomotives were superior to horses , Tomlinson showing that coal was being moved using locomotives at half the cost of horses . Robert Young states that the company was unsure as to the real costs as they reported to shareholders in 1828 that the saving using locomotives was 30 per cent . Young also showed that Pease and Richardson were both concerned about their investment in the Newcastle works and Pease unsuccessfully tried to sell his share to George Stephenson . New locomotives were ordered from Stephenson 's , but the first was too heavy when it arrived in February 1828 . It was rebuilt with six wheels and hailed as a great improvement , Hackworth being told to convert the remaining locomotives as soon as possible . In 1828 two locomotive boilers exploded within four months , both killing the driver and both due to the safety valves being left fixed down while the engine was stationary . Horses were also used on the line , and they could haul up to four waggons . The dandy cart was introduced in mid-1828 : a small cart at the end of the train , this carried the horse downhill , allowing it to rest and the train to run at higher speed . The S & DR made their use compulsory from November 1828 . Passenger traffic started on 10 October 1825 , after the required licence was purchased , using the Experiment coach hauled by a horse . The coach was initially timetabled to travel from Stockton to Darlington in two hours , with a fare of 1s , and made a return journey four days a week and a one-way journey on Tuesdays and Saturdays . In April 1826 the operation of the coach was contracted for £200 a year ; by then the timetabled journey time had been reduced to hours and passengers were allowed to travel on the outside for 9d . A more comfortable coach , Express , started the same month and charged 1s 6d for travel inside . Innkeepers began running coaches , two to Shildon from July , and the Union , which served the Yarm branch from 16 October . There were no stations : in Darlington the coaches picked up passengers near the north road crossing , whereas in Stockton they picked up at different places on the quay . Between 30,000 and 40,000 passengers were carried between July 1826 and June 1827 . Founding of Middlesbrough The export of coal had become the railway 's main business , but the staiths at Stockton had inadequate storage and the size of ships was limited by the depth of the Tees . A branch from Stockton to Haverton , on the north bank of the Tees , was proposed in 1826 , and the engineer Thomas Storey proposed a shorter and cheaper line to Middlesbrough , south of the Tees in July 1827 . Later approved by George Stephenson , this plan was ratified by the shareholders on 26 October . The Tees Navigation Company was about to improve the river and proposed that the railway delay application to Parliament , but , despite opposition , at a meeting in January 1828 it was decided to proceed . A more direct northerly route from Auckland to the Tees had been considered since 1819 , and the Tees & Weardale Railway had applied unsuccessfully to Parliament for permission for such a line in 1823 , 1824 and 1825 . This now became a line linking Simpasture on the S & DR 's line near today 's Newton Aycliffe station with Haverton and Stockton , via a route that was 6 mi shorter than via the route of the S & DR , and named the Clarence Railway in honour of the Duke of Clarence , later King William IV . Meetings held in Stockton in early 1828 supported the Tees Navigation and the Clarence Railway , but the S & DR received permission for its branch on 23 May 1828 after promising to complete the Hagger Leases Branch and to build a bridge across the Tees at least 72 ft wide and 19 ft above low water , so as not to affect shipping . Two members of the management committee resigned , as they felt that Stockton would be adversely affected by the line , and Meynell , the S & DR chairman , stepped down from leadership . The Clarence Railway was approved a few days later , with the same gauge as the S & DR . The route of the Clarence Railway was afterwards amended to reach Samphire Batts , later known as Port Clarence , and traffic started in August 1833 ; by the middle of 1834 Port Clarence had opened and 28 mi of line was in use . The S & DR charged the d per ton per mile landsale rate for coal it carried the 10 mi from the collieries to Simpasture for forwarding to Port Clarence , rather than the lower shipping rate . By July 1834 , the Exchequer Loan Commissioners had taken control of the Clarence Railway . The Croft branch opened in October 1829 . Construction of the suspension bridge across the Tees started in July 1829 , but was suspended in October after the Tees Navigation Company pointed out the S & DR had no permission to cross the Old Channel of the Tees . The S & DR prepared to return to Parliament but withdrew after a design for a drawbridge was agreed with the Navigation Company . The line to Middlesbrough was laid with malleable iron rails weighing 33 lb/yd , resting on oak blocks . The suspension bridge had been designed to carry 150 tons , but the cast iron retaining plates split when it was tested with just 66 tons and loaded trains had to cross with the waggons split into groups of four linked by a 9 yd long chain . For the opening ceremony on 27 December 1830 , `` Globe '' , a new locomotive designed by Hackworth for passenger trains , hauled people in carriages and waggons fitted with seats across the bridge to the staiths at Port Darlington , which had berths for six ships . Stockton continued to be served by a station on the line to the quay until 1848 , when it was replaced by a station on the Middlesbrough line on the other side of the Tees . Before May 1829 Thomas Richardson had bought about 500 acre near Port Darlington , and with Joseph and Edward Pease and others he formed the Owners of the Middlesbrough Estate to develop it . Middlesbrough had only a few houses before the coming of the railway , but a year later had a population of over 2,000 and at the 2011 census had over 138,000 people . Railway improvements In 1830 the company opened new offices at the corner of Northgate and Union Street in Darlington . Between 1831 and 1832 a second track was laid between Stockton and the foot of Brusselton Bank . Workshops were built at Shildon for the maintenance and construction of locomotives . In 1830 approximately 50 horses shared the traffic with 19 locomotives , but travelled at different speeds , so to help regulate traffic horse-drawn trains were required to operate in groups of four or five . This had led to horses , startled by a passing locomotive and coming off their dandy cart , being run down by the following train . On one occasion a driver fell asleep in the dandy cart of the preceding train and his horse , no longer being led , came to a stop and was run down by a locomotive . The rule book stated that locomotive-hauled trains had precedence over horse-drawn trains , but some horse drivers refused to give way and on one occasion a locomotive had to follow a horse-drawn train for over 2 mi . The committee decided in 1828 to replace horses with locomotives on the main line , starting with the coal trains , but there was resistance from some colliery owners . After the S & DR bought out the coach companies in August 1832 , a mixed passenger and small goods service began between Stockton and Darlington on 7 September 1833 , travelling at 12 – ; locomotive-hauled services began to Shildon in December 1833 and to Middlesbrough on 7 April 1834 . The company had returned the five per cent dividend that had been promised by Edward Pease , and this had increased to eight per cent by the time he retired in 1832 . When the treasurer Jonathan Backhouse retired in 1833 to become a Quaker minister he was replaced by Joseph Pease . The way north Great North of England Railway On 13 October 1835 the York & North Midland Railway ( Y & NMR ) was formed to connect York to London by a line to a junction with the planned North Midland Railway . Representatives of the Y & NMR and S & DR met two weeks later and formed the Great North of England Railway ( GNER ) , a line from York to Newcastle that used the route of the Croft branch at Darlington . The railway was to be built in sections , and to allow both to open at the same time permission for the more difficult line through the hills from Darlington to Newcastle was to be sought in 1836 and a bill for the easier line south of Darlington to York presented the following year . Pease specified a formation wide enough for four tracks , so freight could be carried at 30 mph and passengers at 60 mph , and George Stephenson had drawn up detailed plans by November . The Act for the from Newcastle to Darlington was given royal assent on 4 July 1836 , but little work had been done by the time the 43 mi from Croft to York received permission on 12 July the following year . In August a general meeting decided to start work on the southern section , but construction was delayed , and after several bridges collapsed the engineer Thomas Storey was replaced by Robert Stephenson . The S & DR sold its Croft branch to the GNER , and the railway opened for coal traffic on 4 January 1841 using S & DR locomotives . The railway opened to passengers with its own locomotives on 30 March . Between November 1841 and February 1842 the S & DR introduced a service between Darlington and Coxhoe , on the Clarence Railway , where an omnibus took passengers the to the Durham & Sunderland Railway at Shincliffe . Early in 1842 the nominally independent Shildon Tunnel Company opened its 1225 yd tunnel through the hills at Shildon to the Wear basin and after laying 2 mi of track to South Church station , south of Bishop Auckland , opened in May 1842 . The SD & R provided a hour service between Darlington and Newcastle , with a four-horse omnibus from South Church to Rainton Meadows on the Durham Junction Railway , from where trains ran to Gateshead , on the south side of the River Tyne near Newcastle . Railway operations in the 1830s By 1839 the track had been upgraded with rails weighing 64 lb/yd . The railway had about 30 steam locomotives , most of them six coupled , that ran with four-wheeled tenders with two water butts , each capable of holding 600 impgal of water . The line descended from Shildon to Stockton , assisting the trains that carried coal to the docks at a maximum speed of 6 mph ; the drivers were fined if caught travelling faster than 8 mph , and one was dismissed for completing the forty-mile return journey in hours . On average there were about 40 coal trains a day , hauling 28 waggons with a weight of 116 tons . There were about 5000 privately owned waggons , and at any one time about 1000 stood at Shildon depot . The railway had modern passenger locomotives , some with four wheels There were passenger stations at Stockton , Middlesbrough , Darlington , Shildon and West Auckland , and trains also stopped at Middlesbrough Junction , Yarm Junction , Fighting Cocks and Heighington . Some of the modified road coaches were still in use , but there were also modern railway carriages , some first class with three compartments each seating eight passengers , and second class carriages that seated up to 40 . Luggage and sometimes the guard travelled on the carriage roof ; a passenger travelling third class suffered serious injuries after falling from the roof in 1840 . Passenger trains averaged 22 – , and a speed of 42 mph was recorded . Over 200,000 passengers were carried in the year to 1 October 1838 , and in 1839 there were twelve trains each day between Middlesbrough and Stockton , six trains between Stockton and Darlington , and three between Darlington and Shildon , where a carriage was fitted with Rankine 's self-acting brake , taken over the Brussleton Inclines , and then drawn by a horse to St Helens Auckland . The Bradshaw 's railway guide for March 1843 , after South Church opened , shows five services a day between Darlington and South Church via Shildon , with three between Shildon and St Helens . Also listed were six trains between Stockton and Hartlepool via Seaton over the Clarence Railway and the Stockton and Hartlepool Railway that had opened in 1841 . By this time Port Darlington had become overwhelmed by the volume of imports and exports and work started in 1839 on Middlesbrough Dock , which had been laid out by William Cubitt , capable of holding 150 ships , and built by resident civil engineer George Turnbull . The suspension bridge across the Tees was replaced by a cast iron bridge on masonry piers in 1841 . After three years and an expenditure of £122,000 ( equivalent to £9.65m at 2011 prices ) , the formal opening of the new dock took place on 12 May 1842 . The S & DR provided most of the finance , and the dock was absorbed by the company in 1849 . Newcastle and Darlington Junction Railway The GNER had authority for a railway from York to Newcastle ; it opened to Darlington in 1841 having spent all of its authorised capital and could not start work on the extension to Newcastle . At the time Parliament was considering the route of a railway between England and Scotland and favoured a

qw_12046--Stockton_and_Darlington_Railway.txt

The world's first publicly subscribed passenger railway, the Stockton and Darlington, opened in England with steam engines when?

Croquet is a sport that involves hitting plastic or wooden balls with a mallet through hoops ( often called `` wickets '' in the United States ) embedded in a grass playing court . History The oldest document to bear the word croquet with a description of the modern game is the set of rules registered by Isaac Spratt in November 1856 with the Stationers ' Company in London . This record is now in the Public Record Office . In 1868 , the first croquet all-comers ' meet was held at Moreton-in-Marsh , Gloucestershire and in the same year the All England Croquet Club was formed at Wimbledon , London . Regardless when and by what route it reached England and the British colonies in its recognizable form , croquet is , like golf , pall-mall , trucco , and kolven , among the later forms of ground billiards , which as a class have been popular in Western Europe back to at least the Late Middle Ages , with roots in classical antiquity , including sometimes the use of arches and pegs along with and balls and mallets or other striking sticks ( some more akin to modern field hockey sticks ) . By the 12th century , a team ball game called ' or ' , akin to a chaotic version of hockey or football ( depending on whether sticks were used ) , was regularly played in France and southern Britain between villages or parishes ; it was attested in Cornwall as early as 1283 . In the book Queen of Games : The History of Croquet , Nicky Smith presents two theories of the origin of the modern game of croquet , which took England by storm in the 1860s and then spread overseas . The first explanation is that the ancestral game was introduced to Britain from France during the 1630–1685 reign of Charles II of England , and was played under the name of ' ( among other spellings , today usually pall-mall ) , derived ultimately from Latin words for ' '' ball and mallet ' ( the latter also found in the name of the earlier French game , ' ) . This was the explanation given in the ninth edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica , dated 1877 . In his 1810 book The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England , Joseph Strutt , in 1611 , described the way pall-mall was played in England at the time : `` Pale-maille is a game wherein a round box [ wood ] ball is struck with a mallet through a high arch of iron , which he that can do at the fewest blows , or at the number agreed upon , wins . It is to be observed , that there are two of these arches , that is one at either end of the alley . The game of mall was a fashionable amusement in the reign of Charles the Second , and the walk in Saint James 's Park , now called the Mall , received its name from having been appropriated to the purpose of playing at mall , where Charles himself and his courtiers frequently exercised themselves in the practice of this pastime . '' While the name pall-mall and various games bearing this name also appeared elsewhere ( France and Italy ) , the description above suggests that the croquet-like games in particular were popular in England by the early 17th century . Some other early modern sources refer to pall-mall being played over a large distance ( as in golf ) , however an image in Strutt 's 1801 book shows a croquet-like ground billiards game ( balls on ground , hoop , bats and peg ) being played over a , garden-sized distance . The image 's caption describes the game as `` a curious ancient pastime '' , confirming that croquet games were not new in early nineteenth century England . In Samuel Johnson 's 1755 dictionary , his definition of `` pall-mall '' clearly describes a game with similarities to modern croquet : `` A play in which the ball is struck with a mallet through an iron ring '' . However , there is no evidence that pall-mall involved the croquet stroke which is the distinguishing characteristic of the modern game . The second theory is that the rules of the modern game of croquet arrived from Ireland during the 1850s , perhaps after being brought there from Brittany where a similar game was played on the beaches . Regular contact between Ireland and France had continued since the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 . By no later than the early 15th century , the game ' ( itself ancestral to pall-mall and perhaps to indoor billiards ) was popular in France , including in the courts of Henry II in the 16th century and Louis XIV of the 17th . At least one version of it , ' ( 'wheel ' ) was a multi-ball lawn game . Records show a game called `` crookey '' , similar to croquet , being played at Castlebellinghamin County Louth , Ireland , in 1834 , which was introduced to Galway in 1835 and played on the bishop 's palace garden , and in the same year to the genteel Dublin suburb of Kingstown ( today Dún Laoghaire ) where it was first spelt as `` croquet '' . There is , however , no pre-1858 Irish document that describes the way game was played , in particular there is no reference to the distinctive croquet stroke . The noted croquet historian Dr Prior , in his book of 1872 , makes the categoric statement `` One thing only is certain : it is from Ireland that croquet came to England and it was on the lawn of the late Lord Lonsdale that it was first played in this country . '' This was about 1851 . John Jaques apparently claimed in a letter to Arthur Lillie in 1873 that he had himself seen the game played in Ireland and , `` I made the implements and published directions ( such as they were ) before Mr Spratt [ mentioned above ] introduced the subject to me . '' Whatever the truth of the matter , Jaques certainly played an important role in popularising the game , producing editions of the rules in 1857 , 1860 , and 1864 . Croquet became highly popular as a social pastime in England during the 1860s . It was enthusiastically adopted and promoted by the Earl of Essex who held lavish croquet parties at Cassiobury House , his stately home in Watford , Hertfordshire , and the Earl even launched his own Cassiobury brand croquet set . By 1867 , Jaques had printed 65,000 copies of his Laws and Regulations of the game . It quickly spread to other Anglophone countries , including Australia , Canada , New Zealand , South Africa , and the United States . No doubt one of the attractions was that the game could be played by both sexes ; this also ensured a certain amount of adverse comment . By the late 1870s , however , croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game , tennis , and many of the newly created croquet clubs , including the All England club at Wimbledon , converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts . There was a revival in the 1890s , but from then onwards , croquet was always a minority sport , with national individual participation amounting to a few thousand players . The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club still has a croquet lawn , but has not hosted any significant tournaments . The English headquarters for the game is now in Cheltenham . Captain Moreton 's Eglinton Castle The earliest known reference to croquet in Scotland is the booklet The Game of Croquet , its Laws and Regulations which was published in the mid-1860s for the proprietor of Eglinton Castle , the Earl of Eglinton . On the page facing the title page is a picture of Eglinton Castle with a game of `` croquet '' in full swing . The croquet lawn existed on the northern terrace , between Eglinton Castle and the Lugton Water . The 13th Earl developed a variation on croquet named Captain Moreton 's Eglinton Castle croquet , which had small bells on the eight hoops `` to ring the changes '' , two pegs , a double hoop with a bell and two tunnels for the ball to pass through . In 1865 the 'Rules of the Eglinton Castle and Cassiobury Croquet ' was published by Edmund Routledge . Several incomplete sets of this form of croquet are known to exist , and one complete set is still used for demonstration games in the West of Scotland . It is not known why the earl named the game thus . Competitive variations There are several variations of croquet currently played , differing in the scoring systems , order of shots , and layout ( particularly in social games where play must be adapted to smaller-than-standard playing courts ) . Two forms of the game , association croquet and golf croquet , have rules that are agreed internationally and are played in many countries around the world . The United States has its own set of rules for domestic games . Gateball , a sport originated in Japan under the influence of croquet , is played mainly in East and Southeast Asia and the Americas and can also be regarded as a croquet variant . As well as club-level games , there are regular world championships and international matches between croquet-playing countries . The sport has particularly strong followings in the UK , US , New Zealand and Australia ; every four years , these countries play the MacRobertson Shield tournament . Many other countries also play . The current world rankings show England in top place for association croquet , followed by Australia and New Zealand sharing second place , with the United States in fourth position ; the same four countries appear in the top six of the golf croquet league table , below Egypt in top position , and with South Africa at number five . Croquet is popularly believed to be viciously competitive . This may derive from the fact that ( unlike in golf ) players will often attempt to move their opponents ' balls to unfavourable positions . However , purely negative play is rarely a winning strategy : successful players ( in all versions other than golf croquet ) will use all four balls to set up a break for themselves , rather than simply making the game as difficult as possible for their opponents . At championship-standard association croquet , players can often make all 26 points ( 13 for each ball ) in two turns . Croquet was an event at the 1900 Summer Olympics . Roque , an American variation on croquet , was an event at the 1904 Summer Olympics . Pronunciation Like similar words with a French derivation , the final 't ' is silent . British pronunciation puts the accent on the first syllable , American on the second : ˈkrəʊkeɪ versus kroʊˈkeɪ . Variations Association Association croquet is the name of an advanced game of croquet , played at international level . It involves four balls teamed in pairs , with both balls going through every hoop for one pair to win . The game 's distinguishing feature is the `` croquet '' shot : when certain balls hit other balls , extra shots are allowed . The six hoops are arranged three at each end of the court , with a centre peg . In association croquet one side takes the black and blue balls , the other takes red and yellow . At each turn , players can choose to play with either of their balls for that turn . At the start of a turn , the player plays a stroke . If the player either hits the ball through the correct hoop ( `` runs '' the hoop ) , or hits another ball ( a `` roquet '' ) , the turn continues . Following a roquet , the player picks up his or her own ball and puts it down next to the ball that it hit . The next shot is played with the two balls touching : this is the `` croquet stroke '' from which the game takes its name . By varying the speed and angle at which the mallet hits the striker 's ball , a good player can control the final position of both balls : the horizontal angle determines how much the balls diverge in direction , while the vertical angle and the amount of follow-through determine the relative distance that the two balls travel . After the croquet stroke , the player plays a `` continuation '' stroke , during which the player may again attempt to make a roquet or run a hoop . Each of the other three balls may be roqueted once in a turn before a hoop is run , after which they become available to be roqueted again . The winner of the game is the team who completes the set circuit of six hoops ( and then back again the other way ) , with both balls , and then strikes the centre peg ( making a total of 13 points per ball = 26 ) . Good players may make `` breaks '' of several hoops in a single turn . The best players may take a ball round a full circuit in one turn . `` Advanced play '' ( a variant of association play for expert players ) gives penalties to a player who runs certain hoops in a turn , to allow the opponent a chance of getting back into the game ; feats of skill such as triple peels or better , in which the partner ball ( or occasionally an opponent ball ) is caused to run a number of hoops in a turn by the striker 's ball help avoid these penalties . A handicap system ( 'bisques ' ) provides less experienced players a chance of winning against more formidable opponents . Players of all ages and both sexes compete on level terms . The World Championships are organised by the World Croquet Federation ( WCF ) and usually take place every 2 or 3 years . The 2016 championships took place in Florida , the winner being Stephen Mulliner of England — at 62 , the oldest ever champion . The current Women 's Association Croquet World Champion ( 2015 ) is Miranda Chapman of England . The New Zealand team won the last MacRobertson International Croquet Shield tournament , which is the major international test tour trophy in association croquet . It is contested every three to four years between Australia , Great Britain , the United States and New Zealand . Historically the British have been the dominant force , winning 14 times out of the 20 times the event has been held . In individual competition , the UK is often divided by subnational country ( England , Scotland and Wales ) , while Northern Ireland joins with the republic in an All Ireland association ( as it does in other sports ) . The world 's top 10 association croquet players as of December 2015 were Robert Fulford ( England ) , Robert Fletcher ( Australia ) , Reg Bamford ( South Africa ) , Greg Bryant ( New Zealand ) , Paddy Chapman ( New Zealand ) , David Maugham ( England ) , Jamie Burch ( England ) , Jonathan Kirby ( Scotland ) , Jeff Dawson ( England ) , Samir Patel ( England ) . Unlike most sports , men and women compete and are ranked together . Three women have won the British Open Championship : Lily Gower in 1905 , Dorothy Steel in 1925 , 1933 , 1935 and 1936 , and Hope Rotherham in 1960 . While male players are in the majority at club level in the UK , the opposite is the case in Australia and New Zealand . The governing body in England is The Croquet Association , which has been the driving force of the development of the game . The rules and tournament regulations are now maintained by the International Laws Committee , established by the croquet associations of England and Wales ( CA ) , Australia ( ACA ) , New Zealand ( CNZ ) and the United States ( USCA ) . Golf In golf croquet , a hoop is won by the first ball to go through each hoop . Unlike association croquet , there are no additional turns for hitting other balls . Each player takes a stroke in turn , each trying to hit a ball through the same hoop . The sequence of play is blue , red , black , yellow . Blue and black balls play against red and yellow . When a hoop is won , the sequence of play continues as before . The winner of the game is the player/team who wins the most hoops . Golf croquet is the fastest-growing version of the game , owing largely to its simplicity and competitiveness . There is an especially large interest with competitive success by players in Egypt . Golf croquet is easier to learn and play , but requires strategic skills and accurate play . In comparison with association croquet , play is faster and balls are more likely to be lifted off the ground . In April 2013 , Reg Bamford of South Africa beat Ahmed Nasr of Egypt in the final of the Golf Croquet World Championship in Cairo , becoming the first person to simultaneously hold the title in both association croquet and golf croquet . As of 2015 , the Golf Croquet World Champion was Ahmed El Mahdi ( Egypt ) and the Women 's Golf Croquet World Champion was Judith Hanekom ( South Africa ) . Garden Garden croquet is widely played in the UK . The rules are easy to learn and the game can be played on lawns of almost any size but usually around 32 ft by 40 ft . The rules are similar to those described above for Association Croquet with three major differences : # The starting point for all balls is a spot in from the boundary directly in front of hoop 1 . # If a strikers ball goes off , there is no penalty , it comes back on and the turn continues . # In a croquet stroke the croqueted ball does not have to move when the strikers ball is struck . This version of the game is easy for beginners to learn . The main Garden Croquet Club in the UK is the Bygrave Croquet Club which is a private club with five lawns . Other clubs also use garden croquet as an introduction to the game , notably the Hampstead Heath Croquet Club and the Watford Croquet Club . American six-wicket The American rules version of croquet , another six-hoop game , is the dominant version of the game in the United States and is also widely played in Canada . It is governed by the United States Croquet Association . Its genesis is mostly in association croquet , but it differs in a number of important ways that reflect the home-grown traditions of American `` backyard '' croquet . Two of the most notable differences are that the balls are always played in the same sequence ( blue , red , black , yellow ) throughout the game , and that a ball 's `` deadness '' on other balls is carried over from turn to turn until the ball has been `` cleared '' by scoring its next hoop . A Deadness Board is used to keep track of deadness on all four balls . Tactics are simplified on the one hand by the strict sequence of play , and complicated on the other hand by the continuation of deadness . A further difference is the more restrictive boundary-line rules of American croquet . In the American game , roqueting a ball out of bounds or running a hoop out of bounds causes the turn to end , and balls that go out of bounds are replaced only 9 in from the boundary rather than as in association croquet . `` Attacking '' balls on the boundary line to bring them into play is thus far more challenging . Nine-wicket Nine-wicket croquet , sometimes called `` backyard croquet '' , is played mainly in Canada and the United States , and is the game most recreational players in those countries call simply `` croquet '' . In this version of croquet there are nine wickets , two stakes , and six balls . Players compete individually with a single ball , or Cutthroat , to stake out first . There are six balls in a typical set so up to six players can compete at once but a game can be played with fewer balls . The course is arranged in a double-diamond pattern , with one stake at each end of the course . Players start at one stake , navigate one side of the double diamond , hit the turning stake , then navigate the opposite side of the double diamond and hit the starting stake to win the game . Another variation of basic backyard croquet is Partner Ball where two teams compete against each other . It is played with four balls , and teams are blue-black versus red-yellow . Sequence of play is according to the colors on the stakes : blue , red , black , yellow . Up to four players can compete as two teams making this a more friendly and sociable game where people can strategize and work together . Games are won by aggressive scoring of multiple wickets in one turn . This is called `` break play '' . Each time a ball is roqueted a croquet shot must be taken , players have four options after roqueting another ball . These reflect the more individual aspect of nine-wicket croquet . The options are : . If two bonus shots are scored by striking another ball , the first of these two shots may be taken in any of four ways : from a mallet-head distance or less away from the ball that was hit ( “ taking a mallet-head ” ) From a position in contact with the ball that was hit , with the striker ball held steady by the striker 's foot or hand ( a “ foot shot ” or “ hand shot ” ) From a position in contact with the ball that was hit , with the striker ball not held by foot or hand ( a “ croquet shot ” ) From where the striker ball stopped after the roquet . The second bonus shot after a roquet is an ordinary shot played from where the striker ball came to rest , called a `` continuation shot '' . * Croquet shot : Players place their ball in contact with the ball they hit and strike their ball in such a way that both balls move . This `` buggy ride '' is very useful for positioning the ball for a second use after going through a wicket . Firing a ball is when a player place their hand or foot on top of their ball , then strike their own ball such that their opponent 's ball moves away while their own ball remains in place . Players often `` fire '' a ball far away or off the court to get them away from their next wicket . They may then take their second shot as a `` continuation shot '' . Carryover Deadness is often imposed to make the game more difficult and players have to remember who they hit last before getting cleared of deadness by going through their next wicket . In Cutthroat , the first person to finish the course wins the game . However , some players prefer to use an endgame procedure called `` poison '' . In poison , once a player has scored the last hoop but has not hit the starting stake , their ball becomes `` poison '' , which allows them to eliminate other balls from the game by roqueting them . If a non-poison ball roquets a poison ball , the standard roqueting options apply , but if a poison ball travels through a wicket or hits a stake for any reason , it forfeits and is eliminated from the game.The last person remaining is the winner . In Partner Ball games are usually timed to 60 minutes with the high score team ( most wickets cleared ) being the winner . Ricochet This version of the game was invented by John Riches of Adelaide , Australia with help from Tom Armstrong in the 1980s . The game can be played by up to 6 people and is very easy to learn . For this reason it is often used as a stepping stone to association croquet . Ricochet has similar rules to association and garden croquet , except that when a ball is roqueted , the striker 's ball remains live and two free shots are earned . This enables strikers to play their ball near to another opponent ball and ricochet that too thus earning two more free shots . Running a hoop earns one free shot . Glossary of terms * Backward ball : The ball of a side that has scored fewer hoops ( compare with 'forward ball ' ) . * Ball-in-hand : A ball that the striker can pick up to change its position , for example : # any ball when it leaves the court has to be replaced on the yard-line # the striker ’ s ball after making a roquet must be placed in contact with the roqueted ball # the striker ’ s ball when the striker is entitled to a lift . * Ball in play : A ball after it has been played into the game , which is not a ball in hand or pegged out . * Baulk : An imaginary line on which a ball is placed for its first shot in the game , or when taking a lift . The A-baulk coincides with the western half of the yard line along the south boundary ; the B-baulk occupies the eastern half of the north boundary yard line . * Bisque , half-bisque A bisque is a free turn in a handicap match . A half-bisque is a restricted handicap turn in which no point may be scored . * Break down : To end a turn by making a mistake . * Continuation stroke : Either the bonus stroke played after running a hoop in order or the second bonus stroke played after making a roquet . * Croquet stroke : A stroke taken after making a roquet , in which the striker 's ball and the roqueted ball are placed together in contact . * Double tap : A fault in which the mallet makes more than one audible sound when it strikes the ball . * Forward ball : The ball of a side that has scored more hoops ( compare with 'backward ball ' ) . * Hoop : Metal U-shaped gate pushed into ground . ( Also called a wicket in the US ) . * Leave : The position of the balls after a successful break , in which the striker is able to leave the balls placed so as to make life as difficult as possible for the opponent . * Lift : A turn in which the player is entitled to remove the ball from its current position and play instead from either baulk line . A lift is permitted when a ball has been placed by the opponent in a position where it is wired from all other balls , and also in advanced play when the opponent has completed a break that includes hoops 1-back or 4-back . * Object ball : A ball which is going to be rushed . * Peg out : To cause a rover ball to strike the peg and conclude its active involvement in the game . * Peel : To send a ball other than the striker 's ball through its target hoop . * Pioneer : A ball

qb_2091--Croquet.txt

Which creatures are used as croquet balls in the novel ‘Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland’?

Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication , particularly the human ability to do so , and a language is any specific example of such a system . The scientific study of language is called linguistics . Questions concerning the philosophy of language , such as whether words can represent experience , have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece . Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought . 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language . Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky . Estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000 . However , any precise estimate depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects . Natural languages are spoken or signed , but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory , visual , or tactile stimuli – for example , in whistling , signed , or braille . This is because human language is modality-independent . Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning , when used as a general concept , `` language '' may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication , or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems , or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules . All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings . Oral and sign languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes , and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances . Human language has the properties of productivity , recursivity , and displacement , and relies entirely on social convention and learning . Its complex structure affords a much wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication . Language is thought to have originated when early hominins started gradually changing their primate communication systems , acquiring the ability to form a theory of other minds and a shared intentionality . This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume , and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions . Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain , but especially in Broca 's and Wernicke 's areas . Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood , and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old . The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture . Therefore , in addition to its strictly communicative uses , language also has many social and cultural uses , such as signifying group identity , social stratification , as well as social grooming and entertainment . Languages evolve and diversify over time , and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur . A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family . The Indo-European family is the most widely spoken and includes languages such as English , Russian , and Hindi ; the Sino-Tibetan family , which includes Mandarin and the other Chinese languages , and Tibetan ; the Afro-Asiatic family , which includes Arabic , Somali , and Hebrew ; the Bantu languages , which include Swahili , and Zulu , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout Africa ; and the Malayo-Polynesian languages , which include Indonesian , Malay , Tagalog , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout the Pacific . The languages of the Dravidian family that are spoken mostly in Southern India include Tamil and Telugu . Academic consensus holds that between 50 % and 90 % of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100 . Definitions The English word language derives ultimately from Proto-Indo-European `` tongue , speech , language '' through Latin lingua , `` language ; tongue '' , and Old French language . The word is sometimes used to refer to codes , ciphers , and other kinds of artificially constructed communication systems such as formally defined computer languages used for computer programming . Unlike conventional human languages , a formal language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information . This article specifically concerns the properties of natural human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics . As an object of linguistic study , `` language '' has two primary meanings : an abstract concept , and a specific linguistic system , e.g . `` French '' . The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure , who defined the modern discipline of linguistics , first explicitly formulated the distinction using the French word langage for language as a concept , langue as a specific instance of a language system , and parole for the concrete usage of speech in a particular language . When speaking of language as a general concept , definitions can be used which stress different aspects of the phenomenon . These definitions also entail different approaches and understandings of language , and they inform different and often incompatible schools of linguistic theory . Debates about the nature and origin of language go back to the ancient world . Greek philosophers such as Gorgias and Plato debated the relation between words , concepts and reality . Gorgias argued that language could represent neither the objective experience nor human experience , and that communication and truth were therefore impossible . Plato maintained that communication is possible because language represents ideas and concepts that exist independently of , and prior to , language . During the Enlightenment and its debates about human origins , it became fashionable to speculate about the origin of language . Thinkers such as Rousseau and Herder argued that language had originated in the instinctive expression of emotions , and that it was originally closer to music and poetry than to the logical expression of rational thought . Rationalist philosophers such as Kant and Descartes held the opposite view . Around the turn of the 20th century , thinkers began to wonder about the role of language in shaping our experiences of the world – asking whether language simply reflects the objective structure of the world , or whether it creates concepts that it in turn imposes on our experience of the objective world . This led to the question of whether philosophical problems are really firstly linguistic problems . The resurgence of the view that language plays a significant role in the creation and circulation of concepts , and that the study of philosophy is essentially the study of language , is associated with what has been called the linguistic turn and philosophers such as Wittgenstein in 20th-century philosophy . These debates about language in relation to meaning and reference , cognition and consciousness remain active today . Mental faculty , organ or instinct One definition sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour : to learn languages and to produce and understand utterances . This definition stresses the universality of language to all humans , and it emphasizes the biological basis for the human capacity for language as a unique development of the human brain . Proponents of the view that the drive to language acquisition is innate in humans argue that this is supported by the fact that all cognitively normal children raised in an environment where language is accessible will acquire language without formal instruction . Languages may even develop spontaneously in environments where people live or grow up together without a common language ; for example , creole languages and spontaneously developed sign languages such as Nicaraguan Sign Language . This view , which can be traced back to the philosophers Kant and Descartes , understands language to be largely innate , for example , in Chomsky 's theory of Universal Grammar , or American philosopher Jerry Fodor 's extreme innatist theory . These kinds of definitions are often applied in studies of language within a cognitive science framework and in neurolinguistics . Formal symbolic system Another definition sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning . This definition stresses that human languages can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings . This structuralist view of language was first introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure , and his structuralism remains foundational for many approaches to language . Some proponents of Saussure 's view of language have advocated a formal approach which studies language structure by identifying its basic elements and then by presenting a formal account of the rules according to which the elements combine in order to form words and sentences . The main proponent of such a theory is Noam Chomsky , the originator of the generative theory of grammar , who has defined language as the construction of sentences that can be generated using transformational grammars . Chomsky considers these rules to be an innate feature of the human mind and to constitute the rudiments of what language is . By way of contrast , such transformational grammars are also commonly used to provide formal definitions of language are commonly used in formal logic , in formal theories of grammar , and in applied computational linguistics . In the philosophy of language , the view of linguistic meaning as residing in the logical relations between propositions and reality was developed by philosophers such as Alfred Tarski , Bertrand Russell , and other formal logicians . Tool for communication Yet another definition sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to exchange verbal or symbolic utterances . This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment . Functional theories of grammar explain grammatical structures by their communicative functions , and understand the grammatical structures of language to be the result of an adaptive process by which grammar was `` tailored '' to serve the communicative needs of its users . This view of language is associated with the study of language in pragmatic , cognitive , and interactive frameworks , as well as in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology . Functionalist theories tend to study grammar as dynamic phenomena , as structures that are always in the process of changing as they are employed by their speakers . This view places importance on the study of linguistic typology , or the classification of languages according to structural features , as it can be shown that processes of grammaticalization tend to follow trajectories that are partly dependent on typology . In the philosophy of language , the view of pragmatics as being central to language and meaning is often associated with Wittgenstein 's later works and with ordinary language philosophers such as J. L. Austin , Paul Grice , John Searle , and W. O. Quine . Unique status of human language Human language is unique in comparison to other forms of communication , such as those used by non-human animals . Communication systems used by other animals such as bees or apes are closed systems that consist of a finite , usually very limited , number of possible ideas that can be expressed . In contrast , human language is open-ended and productive , meaning that it allows humans to produce a vast range of utterances from a finite set of elements , and to create new words and sentences . This is possible because human language is based on a dual code , in which a finite number of elements which are meaningless in themselves ( e.g . sounds , letters or gestures ) can be combined to form an almost infinite number of larger units of meaning ( words and sentences ) . Furthermore , the symbols and grammatical rules of any particular language are largely arbitrary , so that the system can only be acquired through social interaction . The known systems of communication used by animals , on the other hand , can only express a finite number of utterances that are mostly genetically determined . Several species of animals have proved to be able to acquire forms of communication through social learning : for instance a bonobo named Kanzi learned to express itself using a set of symbolic lexigrams . Similarly , many species of birds and whales learn their songs by imitating other members of their species . However , while some animals may acquire large numbers of words and symbols , The gorilla Koko reportedly uses as many as 1000 words in American Sign Language , and understands 2000 words of spoken English . There are some doubts about whether her use of signs is based on complex understanding or simple conditioning ; . none have been able to learn as many different signs as are generally known by an average 4 year old human , nor have any acquired anything resembling the complex grammar of human language . Human languages also differ from animal communication systems in that they employ grammatical and semantic categories , such as noun and verb , present and past , which may be used to express exceedingly complex meanings . Human language is also unique in having the property of recursivity : for example , a noun phrase can contain another noun phrase ( as in `` the chimpanzee ] 's lips ] '' ) or a clause can contain another clause ( as in `` [ I see [ the dog is running '' ) . Human language is also the only known natural communication system whose adaptability may be referred to as modality independent . This means that it can be used not only for communication through one channel or medium , but through several . For example , spoken language uses the auditive modality , whereas sign languages and writing use the visual modality , and braille writing uses the tactile modality . Human language is also unique in being able to refer to abstract concepts and to imagined or hypothetical events as well as events that took place in the past or may happen in the future . This ability to refer to events that are not at the same time or place as the speech event is called displacement , and while some animal communication systems can use displacement ( such as the communication of bees that can communicate the location of sources of nectar that are out of sight ) , the degree to which it is used in human language is also considered unique . Origin Theories about the origin of language differ in regard to their basic assumptions about what language is . Some theories are based on the idea that language is so complex that one can not imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form , but that it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our pre-human ancestors . These theories can be called continuity-based theories . The opposite viewpoint is that language is such a unique human trait that it can not be compared to anything found among non-humans and that it must therefore have appeared suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to early man . These theories can be defined as discontinuity-based . Similarly , theories based on Chomsky 's generative view of language see language mostly as an innate faculty that is largely genetically encoded , whereas functionalist theories see it as a system that is largely cultural , learned through social interaction . The only prominent proponent of a discontinuity-based theory of human language origins is linguist and philosopher Noam Chomsky . Chomsky proposes that `` some random mutation took place , maybe after some strange cosmic ray shower , and it reorganized the brain , implanting a language organ in an otherwise primate brain . '' Though cautioning against taking this story too literally , Chomsky insists that `` it may be closer to reality than many other fairy tales that are told about evolutionary processes , including language . '' Continuity-based theories are held by a majority of scholars , but they vary in how they envision this development . Those who see language as being mostly innate , for example psychologist Steven Pinker , hold the precedents to be animal cognition , whereas those who see language as a socially learned tool of communication , such as psychologist Michael Tomasello , see it as having developed from animal communication in primates : either gestural or vocal communication to assist in cooperation . Other continuity-based models see language as having developed from music , a view already espoused by Rousseau , Herder , Humboldt , and Charles Darwin . A prominent proponent of this view is archaeologist Steven Mithen . Stephen Anderson states that the age of spoken languages is estimated at 60,000 to 100,000 years and that : Researchers on the evolutionary origin of language generally find it plausible to suggest that language was invented only once , and that all modern spoken languages are thus in some way related , even if that relation can no longer be recovered ... because of limitations on the methods available for reconstruction . Because language emerged in the early prehistory of man , before the existence of any written records , its early development has left no historical traces , and it is believed that no comparable processes can be observed today . Theories that stress continuity often look at animals to see if , for example , primates display any traits that can be seen as analogous to what pre-human language must have been like . And early human fossils can be inspected for traces of physical adaptation to language use or pre-linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour . Among the signs in human fossils that may suggest linguistic abilities are the size of the brain relative to body mass , the presence of a larynx capable of advanced sound production and the nature of tools and other manufactured artifacts . It is mostly undisputed that pre-human australopithecines did not have communication systems significantly different from those found in great apes in general , but scholarly opinions vary as to the developments since the appearance of the genus Homo some 2.5 million years ago . Some scholars assume the development of primitive language-like systems ( proto-language ) as early as Homo habilis ( 2.3 million years ago ) while others place the development of primitive symbolic communication only with Homo erectus ( 1.8 million years ago ) or Homo heidelbergensis ( 0.6 million years ago ) , and the development of language proper with Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens with the Upper Paleolithic revolution less than 100,000 years ago . The study of language The study of language , linguistics , has been developing into a science since the first grammatical descriptions of particular languages in India more than 2000 years ago , after the development of the Brahmi script . Modern linguistics is a science that concerns itself with all aspects of language , examining it from all of the theoretical viewpoints described above . Subdisciplines The academic study of language is conducted within many different disciplinary areas and from different theoretical angles , all of which inform modern approaches to linguistics . For example , descriptive linguistics examines the grammar of single languages , theoretical linguistics develops theories on how best to conceptualize and define the nature of language based on data from the various extant human languages , sociolinguistics studies how languages are used for social purposes informing in turn the study of the social functions of language and grammatical description , neurolinguistics studies how language is processed in the human brain and allows the experimental testing of theories , computational linguistics builds on theoretical and descriptive linguistics to construct computational models of language often aimed at processing natural language or at testing linguistic hypotheses , and historical linguistics relies on grammatical and lexical descriptions of languages to trace their individual histories and reconstruct trees of language families by using the comparative method . Early history The formal study of language is often considered to have started in India with Pāṇini , the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology . However , Sumerian scribes already studied the differences between Sumerian and Akkadian grammar around 1900 BC . Subsequent grammatical traditions developed in all of the ancient cultures that adopted writing . In the 17th century AD , the French Port-Royal Grammarians developed the idea that the grammars of all languages were a reflection of the universal basics of thought , and therefore that grammar was universal . In the 18th century , the first use of the comparative method by British philologist and expert on ancient India William Jones sparked the rise of comparative linguistics . The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo-European to language in general by Wilhelm von Humboldt . Early in the 20th century , Ferdinand de Saussure introduced the idea of language as a static system of interconnected units , defined through the oppositions between them . By introducing a distinction between diachronic and synchronic analyses of language , he laid the foundation of the modern discipline of linguistics . Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of linguistic analysis that are still fundamental in many contemporary linguistic theories , such as the distinctions between syntagm and paradigm , and the Langue-parole distinction , distinguishing language as an abstract system ( langue ) , from language as a concrete manifestation of this system ( parole ) . Contemporary linguistics In the 1960s , Noam Chomsky formulated the generative theory of language . According to this theory , the most basic form of language is a set of syntactic rules that is universal for all humans and which underlies the grammars of all human languages . This set of rules is called Universal Grammar ; for Chomsky , describing it is the primary objective of the discipline of linguistics . Thus , he considered that the grammars of individual languages are only of importance to linguistics insofar as they allow us to deduce the universal underlying rules from which the observable linguistic variability is generated . In opposition to the formal theories of the generative school , functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool , its structures are best analyzed and understood by reference to their functions . Formal theories of grammar seek to define the different elements of language and describe the way they relate to each other as systems of formal rules or operations , while functional theories seek to define the functions performed by language and then relate them to the linguistic elements that carry them out . `` Functional grammar analyzes grammatical structure , as do formal and structural grammar ; but it also analyzes the entire communicative situation : the purpose of the speech event , its participants , its discourse context . Functionalists maintain that the communicative situation motivates , constrains , explains , or otherwise determines grammatical structure , and that a structural or formal approaches not merely limited to an artificially restricted data base , but is inadequate even as a structural account . Functional grammar , then , differs from formal and structural grammar in that it purports not to model but to explain ; and the explanation is grounded in the communicative situation '' ; The framework of cognitive linguistics interprets language in terms of the concepts ( which are sometimes universal , and sometimes specific to a particular language ) which underlie its forms . Cognitive linguistics is primarily concerned with how the mind creates meaning through language . Physiological and neural architecture of language and speech Speaking is the default modality for language in all cultures . The production of spoken language depends on sophisticated capacities for controlling the lips , tongue and other components of the vocal apparatus , the ability to acoustically decode speech sounds , and the neurological apparatus required for acquiring and producing language . The study of the genetic bases for human language is at an early stage : the only gene that has definitely been implicated in language production is FOXP2 , which may cause a kind of congenital language disorder if affected by mutations . The brain and language The brain is the coordinating center of all linguistic activity ; it controls both the production of linguistic cognition and of meaning and the mechanics of speech production . Nonetheless , our knowledge of the neurological bases for language is quite limited , though it has advanced considerably with the use of modern imaging techniques . The discipline of linguistics dedicated to studying the neurological aspects of language is called neurolinguistics . Early work in neurolinguistics involved the study of language in people with brain lesions , to see how lesions in specific areas affect language and speech . In this way , neuroscientists in the 19th century discovered that two areas in the brain are crucially implicated in language processing . The first area is Wernicke 's area , which is located in the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere . People with a lesion in this area of the brain develop receptive aphasia , a condition in which there is a major impairment of language comprehension , while speech retains a natural-sounding rhythm and a relatively normal sentence structure . The second area is Broca 's area , located in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere . People with a lesion to this area develop expressive aphasia , meaning that they know what they want to say , they just can not get it out . They are typically able to understand what is being said to them , but unable to speak fluently . Other symptoms that may be present in expressive aphasia include problems with fluency , articulation , word-finding , word repetition , and producing and comprehending complex grammatical sentences , both orally and in writing . Those with this aphasia also exhibit ungrammatical speech and show inability to use syntactic information to determine the meaning of sentences . Both expressive and receptive aphasia also affect the use of sign language , in analogous ways to how they affect speech , with expressive aphasia causing signers to sign slowly and with incorrect grammar , whereas a signer with receptive aphasia will sign fluently , but make little sense to others and have difficulties comprehending others ' signs . This shows that the impairment is specific to the ability to use language , not to the physiology used for speech production . With technological advances in the late 20th century , neurolinguists have also incorporated non-invasive techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) and electrophysiology to study language processing in individuals without impairments . Anatomy of speech Spoken language relies on human physical ability to produce sound , which is a longitudinal wave propagated through the air at a frequency capable of vibrating the ear drum . This ability depends on the physiology of the human speech organs . These organs consist of the lungs , the voice box ( larynx ) , and the upper vocal tract – the throat , the mouth , and the nose . By controlling the different parts of the speech apparatus , the airstream can be manipulated to produce different speech sounds . The sound of speech can be analyzed into a combination of segmental and suprasegmental elements . The segmental elements are those that follow each other in sequences , which are usually represented by distinct letters in alphabetic scripts , such as the Roman script . In free flowing speech , there are no clear boundaries between one segment and the next , nor usually are there any audible pauses between words . Segments therefore are distinguished by their distinct sounds which are a result of their different articulations , and they can be either vowels or consonants . Suprasegmental phenomena encompass such elements as stress , phonation type , voice timbre , and prosody or intonation , all of which may have effects across multiple segments . Consonants and vowel segments combine to form syllables , which in turn combine to form utterances ; these can be distinguished phonetically as the space between two inhalations . Acoustically , these different segments are characterized by different formant structures , that are visible in a spectrogram of the recorded sound wave ( See illustration of Spectrogram of the formant structures of three

bb_3515--Language.txt

What language was first to be represented in dictionaries and related language theory?

The Towering Inferno is a 1974 American action drama disaster film produced by Irwin Allen featuring an all-star cast led by Paul Newman and Steve McQueen . The picture was directed by John Guillermin . A co-production between 20th Century Fox and Warner Bros. ( this was the first film to be a joint venture by two major Hollywood studios ) , it was adapted by Stirling Silliphant from a pair of novels , The Tower by Richard Martin Stern and The Glass Inferno by Thomas N. Scortia and Frank M. Robinson . The film was a critical success , earning a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture , and was the highest-grossing film released in 1974 . The film was nominated for eight Oscars in all , winning three . In addition to McQueen and Newman , the cast includes William Holden , Faye Dunaway , Fred Astaire , Susan Blakely , Richard Chamberlain , O. J. Simpson , Robert Vaughn , Robert Wagner , Susan Flannery , Gregory Sierra , Dabney Coleman and , in her final film , Jennifer Jones . Plot Architect Doug Roberts returns to San Francisco for the dedication of the Glass Tower , which he designed for owner James Duncan . At 138 stories ( 1,800 ft/550 m ) , it is the world 's tallest building . Shortly after his arrival , an electrical short starts an undetected fire on the 81st floor . While Roberts accuses the building 's electrical engineer , Roger Simmons of cutting corners , Simmons insists the building is up to standards . During the dedication ceremony , public relations chief Dan Bigelow is ordered to turn on the tower 's exterior lights to impress the guests and dignitaries . The lighting overloads the electrical system and Roberts orders it shut off . Smoke is seen on the 81st floor and the San Francisco Fire Department is summoned . Roberts and engineer Will Giddings go to the 81st floor but fail to prevent a security guard opening a door , leading to a fire flash which burns Giddings ( and who is later disclosed to have died ) . Roberts reports the fire to a dismissive Duncan , who refuses to order an evacuation . Ill-equipped firefighters arrive to tackle the blaze , which soon spreads out of control . SFFD Chief Michael O'Halloran forces Duncan to evacuate the guests in the Promenade Room on the 135th floor , directing them to express elevators . A guest , Lisolette Mueller , who is being wooed by con man Harlee Claiborne , rushes to the 87th floor to check on a young family . Simmons admits to Duncan that he cut corners to stay under budget . Duncan , aided by Senator Parker and Mayor Ramsey , directs the elevator evacuation from the Promenade Room until the fire renders the express elevators unsafe . Not heeding Duncan 's directions , one last group takes an elevator to the ground , but are killed when it stops on the fire 's floor . The fire also traps Bigelow and his secretary/mistress Lorrie in his 65th floor office , killing them . Security Chief Harry Jernigan and Roberts rescue Mueller and the family from 87 . Jernigan gets the mother out safely but Roberts , Mueller and the two children are halted by a collapsed stairwell . They make a perilous climb down the stairs but fire forces them up to the Promenade Room . With fire suppression efforts becoming ineffective , the building loses electrical power and O'Halloran 's men are forced to rappel down an elevator shaft . A rooftop rescue results in disaster as guests rush the helicopter , causing it to crash , setting the roof ablaze and rendering further rooftop rescues impossible . Naval rescue teams attach a breeches buoy to the adjacent Peerless Building and rescue a number of guests , including Duncan 's daughter , Simmons ' wife Patty . Roberts rigs a gravity brake on the external scenic elevator allowing twelve people , including Roberts ' girlfriend Susan , Mueller , and the children , one trip down . An explosion leaves the descending elevator hanging by a single cable at the 110th floor , where Mueller falls to her death . O'Halloran and others save the rest . Simmons tells Duncan that he and others will use the breeches buoy next , but Duncan punches him , saying the rest will draw numbers but he and his son-in-law will be the last to leave . The fire reaches the Promenade Room and Simmons forces his way onto the buoy , leading to a struggle . Parker is pushed to his death by Simmons , who is killed by an explosion moments later . An SFFD deputy chief summons O'Halloran with a plan to explode the million-gallon water tanks atop the building to extinguish the fire . Knowing it could result in his death , O'Halloran meets with Roberts and they set C-4 on the six water tanks on the 138th floor . They return to the Promenade Room , where the remaining guests tie themselves down . O'Halloran , Roberts , Duncan , Claiborne and most of the party-goers survive as water rushes through the building , extinguishing the flames . On the ground , Claiborne learns that Mueller did not survive and is heartbroken . Jernigan gives him Mueller 's pet cat . Duncan consoles Patty over her husband 's death but does not disclose the cowardly way Simmons died . Roberts says to Susan that he does not know what will become of the building , and perhaps it should be left in its fire-damaged state as `` a kind of shrine to all the bullshit in the world '' . Informing Roberts that the casualty toll numbered less than 200 , O'Halloran says they were lucky . Roberts agrees to consult with fire officials in the future when such buildings are designed . O'Halloran drives away , exhausted . Cast * Paul Newman as Doug Roberts , the Architect * Steve McQueen as Michael `` Mike '' O ’ Halloran , SFFD 5th Battalion Chief * William Holden as James `` Jim '' Duncan , the Builder * Faye Dunaway as Susan Franklin , Doug Roberts ' fiancée * Fred Astaire as Harlee Claiborne , the Con-Man who flirts with Mrs. Mueller * Susan Blakely as Patty Duncan Simmons , James Duncan 's daughter * Richard Chamberlain as Roger Simmons , the Electrical Engineer , and Duncan 's son-in-law * Jennifer Jones as Lisolette Mueller * O. J. Simpson as Harry Jernigan , the Chief Security Officer * Robert Vaughn as U.S . Senator Gary Parker * Robert Wagner as Dan Bigelow , the Public Relations Officer * Susan Flannery as Lorrie * Sheila Matthews Allen as Paula Ramsay * Norman Burton as Will Giddings , Electrical Engineer * Jack Collins as Mayor Robert `` Bob '' Ramsay * Don Gordon as Kappy , SFFD Truck Co. 12 Fire Captain * Felton Perry as Scott , SFFD Engine Co. 4 Fireman * Gregory Sierra as Carlos , the Bartender * Ernie Orsatti as Mark Powers , SFFD Engine Co. 4 Fireman * Dabney Coleman as SFFD Deputy Chief 1 * Elizabeth Rogers as Lady in Buoy * Ann Leicester as Guest * Norm Grabowski as Flaker , Navy Air Rescue chief * Ross Elliott as SFFD Deputy Chief 2 * Olan Soule as Johnson * Carlena Gower as Angela Allbright * Mike Lookinland as Phillip Allbright * Carol McEvoy as Mrs. Allbright * Scott Newman as Young Fireman * Paul Comi as Tim * George Wallace as Chief Officer * Patrick Culliton as Technician * William Bassett as Leasing Agent * John Crawford as Callahan * Erik Nelson as Wes * Art Balinger as Announcer * Lcdr . Norman Hicks as Pilot * Ltjg . Thomas Karnahan as Co-pilot * Maureen McGovern as Singer at Party * William Traylor as Bill Harton , Security Guard Several actors who appeared in small roles , including John Crawford , Erik Nelson , Elizabeth Rogers , Ernie Orsatti , and Sheila Matthews , had previously appeared in The Poseidon Adventure , which Irwin Allen also produced . Paul Newman 's son Scott played the acrophobic fireman afraid to rappel down the elevator shaft . McQueen and Newman McQueen , Newman , and William Holden all wanted top billing . Holden was refused , his long-term standing as a box office draw having been eclipsed by both McQueen and Newman . To provide dual top billing , the credits were arranged diagonally , with McQueen lower left and Newman upper right . Thus , each appeared to have `` first '' billing depending on whether the credit was read left-to-right or top-to-bottom , [ http : //www.art.com/asp/sp-asp/_/pd -- 10134441/The_Towering_Inferno_Style_A.htm The Towering Inferno Masterprint at Art.com ] the first of countless times in which billing would be displayed this way in films . McQueen is mentioned first in the film 's trailers . In the cast list rolling from top to bottom at the film 's end , however , McQueen and Newman 's names were arranged diagonally as at the beginning ; as a consequence , Newman 's name is fully visible first there . McQueen and Newman were promised the same pay and number of lines , which meant that one had to shoot additional scenes to equalize the dialog . Music The score was composed and conducted by John Williams , orchestrated by Herbert W. Spencer and Al Woodbury , and recorded at the 20th Century Fox scoring stage on October 31 and November 4 , 7 and 11 , 1974 . The original recording engineer was Ted Keep . Source music in portions of the film includes instrumental versions of `` Again '' by Lionel Newman and Dorcas Cochran , `` You Make Me Feel So Young '' by Josef Myrow and Mack Gordon , and `` The More I See You '' by Harry Warren and Mack Gordon . A snippet of a cue from Williams ’ score to Cinderella Liberty titled 'Maggie Shoots Pool ' is heard in a scene when William Holden 's character converses on the phone with Paul Newman 's character . It is not the recording on the soundtrack album but a newer arrangement recorded for The Towering Inferno . An extended version is heard , ostensibly as source music in a deleted theatrical scene sometimes shown as part of a longer scene from the TV broadcast version . One of the most sought-after unreleased music cues from the film is the one where Williams provides low-key lounge music during a party prior to the announcement of a fire . O ’ Halloran orders Duncan to evacuate the party ; the music becomes louder as Lisolette and Harlee are seen dancing and Duncan lectures son-in-law Roger . Titled `` The Promenade Room '' on the conductor 's cue sheet , the track features a ragged ending as Duncan asks the house band to stop playing . Because of this , Film Score Monthly could not add this cue to the expanded soundtrack album . The Academy Award-winning song `` We May Never Love Like This Again '' was composed by Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn and performed by Maureen McGovern , who appears in a cameo as a lounge singer and on the score 's soundtrack album , which features the film recording plus the commercially released single version . Additionally , the theme tune is interpolated into the film 's underscore by Williams . The song 's writers collaborated on `` The Morning After '' from The Poseidon Adventure which was also sung by McGovern , although hers was not the vocal in that film . The first release of portions of the score from The Towering Inferno was on Warner Bros. Records early in 1975 ( Catalog No . BS-2840 ) # `` Main Title '' ( 5:00 ) # `` An Architect 's Dream '' ( 3:28 ) # `` Lisolette And Harlee '' ( 2:34 ) # `` Something For Susan '' ( 2:42 ) # `` Trapped Lovers '' ( 4:28 ) # `` We May Never Love Like This Again '' – Kasha/Hirschhorn , performed by Maureen McGovern ( 2:11 ) # `` Susan And Doug '' ( 2:30 ) # `` The Helicopter Explosion '' ( 2:50 ) # `` Planting The Charges – And Finale '' ( 10:17 ) A near-complete release came on the Film Score Monthly label ( FSM ) on April 1 , 2001 and was produced by Lukas Kendall and Nick Redman . FSM 's was an almost completely expanded version remixed from album masters at Warner Bros. archives and the multi-track 35mm magnetic film stems at 20th Century Fox . Placed into chronological order and restoring action cues , it became one of the company 's biggest sellers ; only 4000 copies were pressed and it is now out of print . Reports that this soundtrack and that of the film Earthquake ( also composed by Williams ) borrowed cues from each other are inaccurate . The version of `` Main Title '' on the FSM disc is the film version . It differs from the original soundtrack album version . There is a different balance of instruments in two spots , and in particular the snare drum is more prominent than the album version which also features additional cymbal work . Although the album was not a re-recording , the original LP tracks were recorded during the same sessions and several cues were combined . The film version sound was reportedly better than the quarter-inch WB two-track album master . Although some minor incidental cues were lost , some sonically 'damaged ' cues – so called due to a deterioration of the surviving audio elements – are placed at the end of the disc 's program time following the track `` An Architect 's Dream '' which is used over the end credits sequence . # `` Main Title '' ( 5:01 ) # `` Something For Susan '' ( 2:42 ) # `` Lisolette and Harlee '' ( 2:35 ) # `` The Flame Ignites '' ( 1:01 ) # `` More For Susan '' ( 1:55 ) # `` Harlee Dressing '' ( 1:37 ) # `` Let There Be Light '' ( :37 ) # `` Alone At Last '' ( :51 ) # `` We May Never Love Like This Again ( Film Version ) '' – Maureen McGovern ( 2:04 ) # `` The First Victims '' ( 3:24 ) # `` Not A Cigarette '' ( 1:18 ) # `` Trapped Lovers '' ( 4:44 ) # `` Doug 's Fall/Piggy Back Ride '' ( 2:18 ) # `` Lisolette 's Descent '' ( 3:07 ) # `` Down The Pipes/The Door Opens '' ( 2:59 ) # `` Couples '' ( 3:38 ) # `` Short Goodbyes '' ( 2:26 ) # `` Helicopter Rescue '' ( 3:07 ) # `` Passing The Word '' ( 1:12 ) # `` Planting The Charges '' ( 9:04 ) # `` Finale '' ( 3:57 ) # `` An Architect 's Dream '' ( 3:28 ) # `` We May Never Love Like This Again ( Album Version ) '' – Maureen McGovern ( 2:13 ) # `` The Morning After ( Instrumental ) '' ( 2:07 ) # `` Susan And Doug ( Album Track ) '' ( 2:33 ) # `` Departmental Pride and The Cat ( Damaged ) '' ( 2:34 ) # `` Helicopter Explosion ( Damaged ) '' ( 2:34 ) # `` Waking Up ( Damaged ) '' ( 2:39 ) Reaction Critical reception The Towering Inferno met with positive reviews from critics , garnering an 77 % `` Fresh '' rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times praised the film as `` the best of the mid-1970s wave of disaster films '' . Awards Legacy American Film Institute lists * AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – Nominated * AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs : * * '' We May Never Love Like This Again '' – Nominated

bb_9192--The_Towering_Inferno.txt

In which US city is the 1974 film Towering Inferno set?

The Uzbeks ( Oʻzbek/Ўзбек , pl . Oʻzbeklar/Ўзбеклар ) are the largest Turkic ethnic group in Central Asia . They comprise the majority population of Uzbekistan but are also found as a minority group in Afghanistan , Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan , Kazakhstan , Turkmenistan , Russia and China . Uzbek diaspora communities also exist in Turkey , Saudi Arabia , and Pakistan . Etymology The origin of the word Uzbek remains disputed . One view holds that it is eponymously named after Oghuz Khagan , also known as Oghuz Beg , became the word Uzbek . Another states that the name means independent or the lord itself , from Oʻz ( self ) and the Turkic title Bek/Bey/Beg . There is another theory which holds that the pronunciation of Uz comes from one of the Oghuz Turks variously known as Uz or Uguz united with the word Bey or Bek to form uguz-bey , meaning `` leader of an oguz '' . Origins Before , 5th century , what is today 's Uzbekistan was part of Sogdia , mainly inhabited by Sogdians , an Indo-Iranian people . It was part of the Achaemenid Empire and later part of Sasanian Empire . From 5th to 6th century , what is today 's Uzbekistan was part of the Hephthalite Empire . From 6th to 8th century , what is today 's Uzbekistan was under the rule of Göktürk Khanate . Turkic and Chinese migration into central Asia occurred during the Chinese Tang Dynasty , and Chinese armies commanded by Turkic generals stationed in large parts of central Asia . But Chinese influence ended with the An Lushan rebellion . From the 9th century on , Transoxania was under the rule of Turkic Kara-Khanid Khanate , their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia . Kara-Khanid ruler Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan was the first Turkic ruler to convert Islam , most people of Central Asia soon followed . In the 12th century , Transoxania was conquered by Qara Khitai ( Western Liao ) , a sinicized Khitan dynasty , they brought to Central Asia the Chinese system of government . In the 13th century , Kara-Khanid Khanate was destroyed by the Turkic Khwarazmian dynasty , a vassal of the Qara Khitai . Although Turko-Mongol infiltration into Central Asia had started early , as late as the 13th century when Turkic and Mongol armies finally conquered the entire region , the majority of Central Asia 's peoples were Iranian peoples such as Sogdians , Bactrians and , more ancient , the Saka–Massagetae tribes . It is generally believed that these ancient Indo-European-speaking peoples were linguistically assimilated by smaller but dominant Turkic-speaking groups while the sedentary population finally adopted the Persian language , the traditional lingua franca of the eastern Islamic lands . The language-shift from Middle Iranian to Turkic and New Persian was predominantly the result of an elite dominance process . This process was dramatically boosted during the Mongol conquest when millions were either killed or pushed further south to the Pamir region . The modern Uzbek language is largely derived from the Chagatai language which gained prominence in the Timurid Empire . The position of Chagatai ( and later Uzbek ) was further strengthened after the fall of the Timurids and the rise of the Shaybanid Uzbek Khaqanate that finally shaped the Turkic language and identity of modern Uzbeks , while the unique grammatical and phonetical features of the Uzbek language as well as the modern Uzbek culture reflect the more ancient Iranian roots of the Uzbek people . Genetic origins The modern Uzbek population represents varying degrees of diversity derived from the high traffic invasion routes through Central Asia . Once populated by Iranian tribes and other Indo-European people , Central Asia experienced numerous invasions emanating out of Mongolia that would drastically affect the region . According to recent genetic genealogy testing from a University of Oxford study , the genetic admixture of the Uzbeks clusters somewhere between the Iranian peoples and the Mongols . From the 3d century B.C. , Central Asia experienced nomadic expansions of Altaic-speaking oriental-looking people , and their incursions continued for hundreds of years , beginning with the Hsiung-Nu ( who may be ancestors of the Huns ) , in ~300 B.C. , and followed by the Turks , in the 1st millennium A.D. , and the Mongol expansions of the 13th century . High levels of haplogroup 10 [ C-M130 ] and its derivative , haplogroup 36 [ C-M210 ] , are found in most of the Altaic-speaking populations and are a good indicator of the genetic impact of these nomadic groups . The expanding waves of Altaic-speaking nomads involved not only eastern Central Asia—where their genetic contribution is strong , [ ... ] —but also regions farther west , like Iran , Iraq , Anatolia , and the Caucasus , as well as Europe , which was reached by both the Huns and the Mongols . In these western regions , however , the genetic contribution is low or undetectable ( ... ) , even though the power of these invaders was sometimes strong enough to impose a language replacement , as in Turkey and Azerbaijan ( ... ) . The difference could be due to the population density of the different geographical areas . Eastern regions of Central Asia must have had a low population density at the time , so an external contribution could have had a great genetic impact . In contrast , the western regions were more densely inhabited , and it is likely that the existing populations were more numerous than the conquering nomads , therefore leading to only a small genetic impact . Thus , the admixture estimate from North-East Asia is high in the east , but is barely detectable west of Uzbekistan . Uzbek Tribes Uzbeks are said to have included 92 tribes in their orbit : Manghit , Qunghrat , Qiyat , Qipchaq , Khitai , Qanghli ( kangli ) , Keneges , Durman , Targhut , Shoran , Shirin , Tama , Bahrin , Girai , Aghrikur , Anghit , Barkut , Tubin , Tam , Ramdan , Matin , Busa , Yajqar , Qilwai , Dojar , Jaurat , Qurlaut , Mehdi , Kilaji , Sakhtiiyan , Qirq , Ming , Yuz , Saroi , Loqai , Qushchi , Kerait , Chaqmaq , Utarchi , Turcoman , Arlat , Kait , Qirghiz , Qalan , Uishun , Ormaq , Chubi , Lechi , Qari , Moghul , Hafiz dad Kaln , Belad Bustan , Quchi Qataghan , Barlas , Yabu , Jalair , Misit , Naiman , Samrjiq , Qarlug , Arghun , Oklan , Qalmaq , Fuladchi , Jaljat Uljin or Olchin , Chimbai , Tilabi , Kalmuk , Machar or Majar , Ojinbai , Badai As , Kilchi , Ilaji , Jebergen , Botiyai , Timan , Yankuz , Tatar , Uighur , Baghlan or Baghan , Tanghut , Shagird , Pesha , Tushlub , Onk , Biyat , Ozjolaji , Josolaji , Tuwadiq , Ghariband Jit . History Ancient history Uzbeks are inhabitants of Uzbekistan , the heart of Central Asia history goes back to the earliest Bronze Age colonists of the Tarim Basin were people of Caucasoid physical type who entered probably from the north and west , who may have spoken languages ancestral to the Indo-European Tocharian languages documented later in the Tarim Basin . These early settlers occupied the northern and eastern parts of the Tarim Basin , where their graves have yielded mummies dated about 1800 BC . They participated in a cultural world centered on the eastern steppes of central Eurasia , including modern northeastern Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , and Tajikistan . The first people known to have inhabited Central Asia were Iranian nomads who arrived from the northern grasslands of what is now Uzbekistan sometime in the first millennium BC . These nomads , who spoke Iranian dialects , settled in Central Asia and began to build an extensive irrigation system along the rivers of the region . At this time , cities such as Bukhoro ( Bukhara ) and Samarqand ( Samarkand ) began to appear as centers of government and culture . By the 5th century BC , the Bactrian , Soghdian , and Tokharian states dominated the region . As China began to develop its silk trade with the West , Iranian cities took advantage of this commerce by becoming centers of trade . Using an extensive network of cities and settlements in the province of Mawarannahr ( a name given the region after the Arab conquest ) in Uzbekistan and farther east in what is today China 's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region , the Soghdian intermediaries became the wealthiest of these Iranian merchants . Because of this trade on what became known as the Silk Route , Bukhoro and Samarqand eventually became extremely wealthy cities , and at times Mawarannahr ( Transoxiana ) was one of the most influential and powerful Persian provinces of antiquity.Lubin , Nancy . `` Early history '' . In Curtis . Alexander the Great conquered Sogdiana and Bactria in 327 BC , marrying Roxana , daughter of a local Bactrian chieftain . The conquest was supposedly of little help to Alexander as popular resistance was fierce , causing Alexander 's army to be bogged down in the region that became the northern part of Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . For many centuries the region of Uzbekistan was ruled by Persian empires , including the Parthian and Sassanid Empires . Early Islamic period The conquest of Central Asia by Muslim Arabs , which was completed in the 8th century AD , brought to the region a new religion that continues to be dominant . The Arabs first invaded Mawarannahr in the middle of the 7th century through sporadic raids during their conquest of Persia . Available sources on the Arab conquest suggest that the Soghdians and other Iranian peoples of Central Asia were unable to defend their land against the Arabs because of internal divisions and the lack of strong indigenous leadership . The Arabs , on the other hand , were led by a brilliant general , Qutaybah ibn Muslim , and were also highly motivated by the desire to spread their new faith ( the official beginning of which was in AD 622 ) . Because of these factors , the population of Mawarannahr was easily subdued . The new religion brought by the Arabs spread gradually into the region . The native religious identities , which in some respects were already being displaced by Persian influences before the Arabs arrived , were further displaced in the ensuing centuries . Nevertheless , the destiny of Central Asia as an Islamic region was firmly established by the Arab victory over the Chinese armies in 750 in a battle at the Talas River.Lubin , Nancy . `` Early Islamic period '' . In Curtis . Despite brief Arab rule , Central Asia successfully retained much of its Iranian characteristic , remaining an important center of culture and trade for centuries after the adoption of the new religion . Mawarannahr continued to be an important political player in regional affairs , as it had been under various Persian dynasties . In fact , the Abbasid Caliphate , which ruled the Arab world for five centuries beginning in 750 , was established thanks in great part to assistance from Central Asian supporters in their struggle against the then-ruling Umayyad Caliphate . During the height of the Abbasid Caliphate in the 8th and 9th centuries , Central Asia and Mawarannahr experienced a truly golden age . Bukhoro became one of the leading centers of learning , culture , and art in the Muslim world , its magnificence rivaling contemporaneous cultural centers such as Baghdad , Cairo , and Cordoba . Some of the greatest historians , scientists , and geographers in the history of Islamic culture were natives of the region . As the Abbasid Caliphate began to weaken and local Islamic Iranian states emerged as the rulers of Iran and Central Asia , the Persian language continued its preeminent role in the region as the language of literature and government . The rulers of the eastern section of Iran and of Mawarannahr were Persians . Under the Samanids and the Buyids , the rich Perso-Islamic culture of Mawarannahr continued to flourish . Samanid Empire The Samanids were a Persian state that reigned for 180 years , encompassing a vast territoriy stretching from Central Asia to West Asia . The Samanids were descendants of Bahram Chobin , and thus descended from the House of Mihrān , one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran . In governing their territory , the Samanids modeled their state organization after the Abbasids , mirroring the caliph 's court and organization . They were rewarded for supporting the Abbasids in Transoxania and Khorasan , and with their established capitals located in Bukhara , Balkh , Samarkand , and Herat , they carved their kingdom after defeating the Saffarids . The Samanid Empire was the first native Persian dynasty to arise after the Muslim Arab conquest . The four grandsons of the dynasty 's founder , Saman Khuda , had been rewarded with provinces for their faithful service to the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun : Nuh obtained Samarkand ; Ahmad , Fergana ; Yahya , Shash ; and Elyas , Herat . Ahmad 's son Nasr became governor of Transoxania in 875 , but it was his brother and successor , Ismail Samani who overthrew the Saffarids and the Zaydites of Tabaristan , thus establishing a semiautonomous rule over Transoxania and Khorasan , with Bukhara as his capital . Samanids defeat the Saffarids and Zaydids Samanid rule in Bukhara was not formally recognized by the caliph until the early 10th century when the Saffarid ruler 'Amr-i Laith had asked the caliph for the investiture of Transoxiana . The caliph , Al-Mu'tadid however sent the Samanid amir , Ismail Samani , a letter urging him to fight Amr-i Laith and the Saffarids whom the caliph considered usurpers . According to the letter , the caliph stated that he prayed for Ismail who the caliph considered as the rightful ruler of Khorasan . The letter had a profound effect on Ismail , as he was determined to oppose the Saffarids . The two sides fought in Balkh , northern Afghanistan during the spring of 900 . During battle , Ismail was significantly outnumbered as he came out with 20,000 horsemen against Amr 's 70,000 strong cavalry . Ismail 's horsemen were ill-equipped with most having wooden stirrups while some had no shields or lances . Amr-i Laith 's cavalry on the other hand , were fully equipped with weapons and armor . Despite fierce fighting , Amr was captured as some of his troops switched sides and joined Ismail . Isma'il thereafter sent an army to Tabaristan in accordance with the caliph 's directive . The area at that time was then controlled by the Zaydids . The Samanid army defeated the Zaydid ruler and the Samanids gained control of the region . Turkification of Transoxiana In the 9th century , the continued influx of nomads from the northern steppes brought a new group of people into Central Asia . These people were the Turks who lived in the great grasslands stretching from Mongolia to the Caspian Sea . Introduced mainly as slave soldiers to the Samanid Dynasty , these Turks served in the armies of all the states of the region , including the Abbasid army . In the late 10th century , as the Samanids began to lose control of Transoxiana ( Mawarannahr ) and northeastern Iran , some of these soldiers came to positions of power in the government of the region , and eventually established their own states , albeit highly Persianized . With the emergence of a Turkic ruling group in the region , other Turkic tribes began to migrate to Transoxiana.Lubin , Nancy . `` Turkification of Mawarannahr '' . In Curtis . The first of the Turkic states in the region was the Persianate Ghaznavid Empire , established in the last years of the 10th century . The Ghaznavid state , which captured Samanid domains south of the Amu Darya , was able to conquer large areas of Iran , Afghanistan , and northern India apart from Central Asia , during the reign of Sultan Mahmud . The Ghaznavids were closely followed by the Turkic Qarakhanids , who took the Samanid capital Bukhara in 999 AD , and ruled Transoxiana for the next two centuries . Samarkand was made the capital of the Western Qarakhanid state . The dominance of Ghazna was curtailed , however , when the Seljuks led themselves into the western part of the region , conquering the Ghaznavid territory of Khorazm ( also spelled Khorezm and Khwarazm ) . The Seljuks also defeated the Qarakhanids , but did not annex their territories outright . Instead they made the Qarakhanids a vassal state . The Seljuks dominated a wide area from Asia Minor to the western sections of Transoxiana in the 11th century . The Seljuk Empire then split into states ruled by various local Turkic and Iranian rulers . The culture and intellectual life of the region continued unaffected by such political changes , however . Turkic tribes from the north continued to migrate into the region during this period . The power of the Seljuks however became diminished when the Seljuk Sultan Ahmed Sanjar was defeated by the Kara-Khitans at the Battle of Qatwan in 1141 . In the late 12th century , a Turkic leader of Khorazm , which is the region south of the Aral Sea , united Khorazm , Transoxiana , and Iran under his rule . Under the rule of the Khorazm shah Kutbeddin Muhammad and his son , Muhammad II , Transoxiana continued to be prosperous and rich while maintaining the region 's Perso-Islamic identity . However , a new incursion of nomads from the north soon changed this situation . This time the invader was Genghis Khan with his Mongol armies . Mongol period The Mongol invasion of Central Asia is one of the turning points in the history of the region . The Mongols had such a lasting impact because they established the tradition that the legitimate ruler of any Central Asian state could only be a blood descendant of Genghis Khan.Lubin , Nancy . `` Mongol period '' . In Curtis . The Mongol conquest of Central Asia , which took place from 1219 to 1225 , led to a wholesale change in the population of Mawarannahr . The conquest quickened the process of Turkification in some parts of the region because , although the armies of Genghis Khan were led by Mongols , they were made up mostly of Turkic tribes that had been incorporated into the Mongol armies as the tribes were encountered in the Mongols ' southward sweep . As these armies settled in Mawarannahr , they intermixed with the local populations which did not flee . Another effect of the Mongol conquest was the large-scale damage the soldiers inflicted on cities such as Bukhoro and on regions such as Khorazm . As the leading province of a wealthy state , Khorazm was treated especially severely . The irrigation networks in the region suffered extensive damage that was not repaired for several generations . Many Iranian-speaking populations were forced to flee southwards in order to avoid persecution . Rule of Mongols and Timurids Following the death of Genghis Khan in 1227 , his empire was divided among his four sons and his family members . Despite the potential for serious fragmentation , Mongol law of the Mongol Empire maintained orderly succession for several more generations , and control of most of Mawarannahr stayed in the hands of direct descendants of Chaghatai , the second son of Genghis . Orderly succession , prosperity , and internal peace prevailed in the Chaghatai lands , and the Mongol Empire as a whole remained strong and united.Lubin , Nancy . `` Rule of Timur '' . In Curtis . In the early 14th century , however , as the empire began to break up into its constituent parts , the Chaghatai territory also was disrupted as the princes of various tribal groups competed for influence . One tribal chieftain , Timur ( Tamerlane ) , emerged from these struggles in the 1380s as the dominant force in Mawarannahr . Although he was not a descendant of Genghis , Timur became the de facto ruler of Mawarannahr and proceeded to conquer all of western Central Asia , Iran , the Caucasus , Asia Minor , and the southern steppe region north of the Aral Sea . He also invaded Russia before dying during an invasion of China in 1405 . Timur initiated the last flowering of Mawarannahr by gathering in his capital , Samarqand , numerous artisans and scholars from the lands he had conquered . By supporting such people , Timur imbued his empire with a very rich Perso-Islamic culture . During Timur 's reign and the reigns of his immediate descendants , a wide range of religious and palatial construction projects were undertaken in Samarqand and other population centers . Timur also patronized scientists and artists ; his grandson Ulugh Beg was one of the world 's first great astronomers . It was during the Timurid dynasty that Turkic , in the form of the Chaghatai dialect , became a literary language in its own right in Mawarannahr , although the Timurids were Persianate in nature . The greatest Chaghataid writer , Ali Shir Nava ' i , was active in the city of Herat , now in northwestern Afghanistan , in the second half of the 15th century . The Timurid state quickly broke into two halves after the death of Timur . The chronic internal fighting of the Timurids attracted the attention of the Uzbek nomadic tribes living to the north of the Aral Sea . In 1501 the Uzbeks began a wholesale invasion of Mawarannahr . Under the leadership of Muhammad Shaybani , the Uzbeks conquered the key cities of Samarkand and Herat in 1505 and 1507 , respectively , and founded the Khanate of Bukhara . Uzbek period By 1510 the Uzbeks had completed their conquest of Central Asia , including the territory of the present-day Uzbekistan . Of the states they established , the most powerful , the Khanate of Bukhoro , centered on the city of Bukhoro . The khanate controlled Mawarannahr , especially the region of Tashkent , the Fergana Valley in the east , and northern Afghanistan . A second Uzbek state , the Khanate of Khiva was established in the oasis of Khorazm at the mouth of the Amu Darya . The Khanate of Bukhoro was initially led by the energetic Shaybanid Dynasty , the successors of Muhammad Shaybani . The Shaybanids initially competed against Iran for a few years , which was led by the Safavid Dynasty , for the rich far-eastern territory of present-day Iran . The struggle with the Safavids also had a religious aspect because the Uzbeks were Sunni Muslims , and Iran was Shia.Lubin , Nancy . `` Uzbek period '' . In Curtis . Near the end of the 16th century , the Uzbek states of Bukhoro and Khorazm began to weaken because of their endless wars against each other and the Persians and because of strong competition for the throne among the khans in power and their heirs . At the beginning of the 17th century , the Shaybanid Dynasty was replaced by the Janid Dynasty . Another factor contributing to the weakness of the Uzbek khanates in this period was the general decline of trade moving through the region . This change had begun in the previous century when ocean trade routes were established from Europe to India and China , circumventing the Silk Route . As European-dominated ocean transport expanded and some trading centers were destroyed , cities such as Bukhoro , Merv , and Samarqand in the Khanate of Bukhoro and Khiva and Urganch ( Urgench ) in Khorazm began to steadily decline . The Uzbeks ' struggle with Iran also led to the cultural isolation of Central Asia from the rest of the Islamic world . In addition to these problems , the struggle with the nomads from the northern steppe continued . In the 17th and 18th centuries , Kazakh nomads and Mongols continually raided the Uzbek khanates , causing widespread damage and disruption . In the beginning of the 18th century , the Khanate of Bukhoro lost the fertile Fergana region , and a new Uzbek khanate was formed in Quqon . Russian conquest In the 19th century , Russian interest in the area increased greatly , sparked by nominal concern over British designs on Central Asia ; by anger over the situation of Russian citizens held as slaves ; and by the desire to control the trade in the region and to establish a secure source of cotton for Russia . When the United States Civil War prevented cotton delivery from Russia 's primary supplier , the southern United States , Central Asian cotton assumed much greater importance for Russia.Lubin , Nancy . `` Russian conquest '' . In Curtis . As soon as the Russian conquest of the Caucasus was completed in the late 1850s , the Russian Ministry of War began to send military forces against the Central Asian khanates . Three major population centers of the khanates—Tashkent , Bukhoro , and Samarqand—were captured in 1865 , 1867 , and 1868 , respectively . In 1868 the Khanate of Bukhoro signed a treaty with Russia making Bukhoro a Russian protectorate . Khiva became a Russian protectorate in 1873 , and the Quqon Khanate finally was incorporated into the Russian Empire , also as a protectorate , in 1876 . Afghan Pashtun conquest The Pashtuns battled and conquered the Uzbeks and forced them into the status of ruled people who were discriminated against . Out of anti-Russian strategic interests , the British assisted the Afghan conquest of the Uzbek Khanates , giving weapons to the Afghans and backed the Afghan colonization of northern Afghanistan which involved sending massive amounts of Pashtun colonists onto Uzbek land and British literature from the period demonized the Uzbeks . Russian rule By 1876 Russia had incorporated all three khanates ( hence all of present-day Uzbekistan ) into its empire , granting the khanates limited autonomy . In the second half of the 19th century , the Russian population of Uzbekistan grew and some industrialization occurred . [ http : //lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Uzbekistan.pdf `` Country Profile : Uzbekistan '' ] . Library of Congress Federal Research Division ( February 2007 ) . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . The Jadidists engaged in educational reform among Muslims of Central Asia . Moscow 's control over Uzbekistan weakened in the 1970s as Uzbek party leader Sharaf Rashidov brought many cronies and relatives into positions of power . In the mid-1980s , Moscow attempted to regain control by again purging the entire Uzbek party leadership . However , this move increased Uzbek nationalism , which had long resented Soviet policies such as the imposition of cotton monoculture and the suppression of Islamic traditions . In the late 1980s , the liberalized atmosphere of the Soviet Union under Mikhail S. Gorbachev ( in power 1985–91 ) fostered political opposition groups and open ( albeit limited ) opposition to Soviet policy in Uzbekistan . In 1989 a series of violent ethnic clashes involving Uzbeks brought the appointment of ethnic Uzbek outsider Islam Karimov as Communist Party chief . When the Supreme Soviet of Uzbekistan reluctantly approved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 , Karimov became president of the Republic of Uzbekistan . On August 31 , 1991 , Uzbekistan declared independence , marking September 1 as a national holiday . Uzbeks in Saudi Arabia Dissident Islamist and anti-Soviet Central Asians fled to Afghanistan , British India , and to the Hijaz in Saudi Arabia . The last Emir of Bukhara Mohammed Alim Khan fled to Afghanistan . The Islamist Uzbek As-Sayyid Qāsim bin Abd al-Jabbaar Al-Andijaani ( السيد قاسم بن عبد الجبار الأنديجاني ) was born in Fergana valley 's Andijan city in Turkestan ( Central Asia ) . He went to British India was educated at Darul Uloom Deoband , and then returned to Turkestan where he preached against Communist Russian rule . He then fled to Afghanistan , then to British India and then to Hijaz where he continued his education in Mecca and Medina and wrote several works on Islam and engaged in anti-Soviet activities . Uzbek exiles in Saudi Arabia from Soviet ruled Central Asia also adopted the identity `` Turkistani '' . A lot of them are

bb_951--Uzbeks.txt

In what Eastern European country did violence arise against Uzbeks during 2010?

In music , dynamics are instructions in musical notation to the performer about hearing the loudness of a note or phrase . More generally , dynamics may also include other aspects of the execution of a given piece . Relative loudness The two basic dynamic indications in music are : * p or piano , meaning `` soft '' . * f or forte , meaning `` loud '' . More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by : * mp , standing for mezzo-piano , meaning `` moderately soft '' . * mf , standing for mezzo-forte , meaning `` moderately loud '' . Beyond f and p , there are also * pp , standing for `` pianissimo '' and meaning `` very soft '' . * ff , standing for `` fortissimo '' and meaning `` very loud '' . * ppp , standing for `` pianississimo '' and meaning `` very very soft '' . * fff , standing for `` fortississimo '' and meaning `` very very loud '' . And so on . Some pieces contain dynamic designations with more than three f 's or p 's . In Holst 's The Planets , ffff occurs twice in Mars and once in Uranus often punctuated by organ and fff occurs several times throughout the work . It also appears in Heitor Villa-Lobos ' Bachianas Brasileiras No . 4 ( Prelude ) , and in Liszt 's Fantasy and Fugue on the chorale `` Ad nos , ad salutarem undam '' . The Norman Dello Joio Suite for Piano ends with a crescendo to a ffff , and Tchaikovsky indicated a bassoon solo pppppp ( 6 p 's ) in his Pathétique Symphony and ffff in passages of his 1812 Overture and the 2nd movement of his Fifth Symphony . Igor Stravinsky used ffff at the end of the finale of the Firebird Suite . ffff is also found in a prelude by Rachmaninoff , op.3-2 . Shostakovich even went as loud as fffff ( 5 f 's ) in his fourth symphony . Gustav Mahler , in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony , gives the celli and basses a marking of fffff ( 5 f 's ) , along with a footnote directing 'pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood . ' On another extreme , Carl Nielsen , in the second movement of his Symphony No . 5 , marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to ppppp ( 5 p 's ) . Another more extreme dynamic is in György Ligeti 's Études No . 13 ( Devil 's Staircase ) , which has at one point a ffffff ( 6 f 's ) and progresses to a ffffffff ( 8 f 's ) . In Ligeti 's Études No . 9 , he uses pppppppp ( 8 p 's ) . In the baritone passage Era la notte from his opera Otello , Verdi uses pppp . Steane ( 1971 ) and others suggest that such markings are in reality a strong reminder to less than subtle singers to at least sing softly rather than an instruction to the singer actually to attempt a pppp . Dynamic indications of this kind are relative , not absolute . mp does not indicate an exact level of volume , it merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be a little louder than p and a little quieter than mf . Interpretations of dynamic levels are left mostly to the performer ; in the Barber Piano Nocturne , a phrase beginning pp is followed by a diminuendo leading to a mp marking . Another instance of performer 's discretion in this piece occurs when the left hand is shown to crescendo to a f , and then immediately after marked p while the right hand plays the melody f. It has been speculated that this is used simply to remind the performer to keep the melody louder than the harmonic line in the left hand . In some music notation programs , there are default MIDI key velocity values associated with these indications , but more sophisticated programs allow users to change these as needed . Apple 's Logic Pro 9 uses the following values : ppp ( 16 ) , pp ( 32 ) , p ( 48 ) , mp ( 64 ) , mf ( 80 ) , f ( 96 ) , ff ( 112 ) , fff ( 127 ) . Sudden changes and accented notes Sudden changes in dynamics may be notated by adding the word subito ( Italian for suddenly ) as a prefix or suffix to the new dynamic notation . Accented notes ( notes to emphasize or play louder compared to surrounding notes ) can be notated sforzando , sforzato , forzando or forzato ( abbreviated sfz , sf , or fz ) ( `` forcing '' or `` forced '' ) . Accents can also be notated using the sign > , placed above or below the head of the note . The > sign indicates an accent only , and is neither related to nor derived from the sign for diminuendo , even though the signs are of a roughly similar shape . Sforzando ( or sforzato or forzando or forzato ) , indicates a forceful accent and is abbreviated as sf , sfz or fz . There is often confusion surrounding these markings and whether or not there is any difference in the degree of accent . However all of these indicate the same expression , depending on the dynamic level , and the extent of the Sforzando is determined purely by the performer . The fortepiano notation fp indicates a forte followed immediately by piano . Sforzando piano ( sfzp or sfp ) indicates a sforzando followed immediately by piano ; in general , any two dynamic markings may be treated similarly . Rinforzando , rfz or rf ( literally `` reinforcing '' ) indicates that several notes , or a short phrase , are to be emphasized . Gradual changes Three Italian words are used to show gradual changes in volume . Crescendo , abbreviated cresc. , translates as `` growing '' , and diminuendo , abbreviated dim. , or decrescendo , abbreviated to decresc. , mean `` gradually becoming softer '' . Signs sometimes referred to as `` hairpins '' are also used to stand for these words ( See image ) . If the lines open up , then the indication is to get louder ; if they close gradually , the indication is to get softer . The following notation indicates music starting moderately strong , then becoming gradually stronger and then gradually quieter : Hairpins are usually written below the staff , but are sometimes found above , especially in music for singers or in music with multiple melody lines being played by a single performer . They tend to be used for dynamic changes over a relatively short space of time ( at most a few bars ) , while cresc. , decresc . and dim . are generally used for changes over a longer period . Word directions can be extended with dashes to indicate over what time the event should occur , which may be as long as multiple pages . For greater changes in dynamics , cresc . molto and dim . molto are often used , where the molto means much . Similarly , for slow changes poco cresc . and poco dim . are used , where poco translates as a little . A good example of a piece that uses both gradual changes and quick changes in dynamics is Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky 's fantasy overture , Romeo and Juliet . Words/phrases indicating changes of dynamics ( In Italian unless otherwise indicated ) * al niente : to nothing ; fade to silence . Sometimes written as n * calando : literally `` decreasing '' , means simultaneous reduction of volume and tempo , same as French en diminuant and Italian dim . e rall . ( diminuendo and rallentando ) * calmando : becoming calmer * crescendo : becoming louder * dal niente : from nothing ; out of silence * decrescendo or diminuendo : becoming softer * fortepiano : loud and then immediately soft * fortissimo piano : very loud and then immediately soft * in rilievo : in relief ( French en dehors : outwards ) ; indicates that a particular instrument or part is to play louder than the others so as to stand out over the ensemble . In the circle of Arnold Schoenberg , this expression had been replaced by the letter `` H '' ( for German , `` Hauptstimme '' ) , with an added horizontal line at the letter 's top , pointing to the right , the end of this passage to be marked by the symbol `` ┐ `` . * perdendo or perdendosi : losing volume , fading into nothing , dying away * mezzoforte piano : moderately strong and then immediately soft * morendo : dying away ( may also indicate a tempo change ) * marcato : stressed , pronounced * pianoforte : soft and then immediately strong * sforzando piano : with marked emphasis , then immediately soft * sotto voce : in an undertone ( whispered or unvoiced ) * smorzando : becoming muffled or toned down History The Renaissance composer Giovanni Gabrieli was one of the first to indicate dynamics in music notation , but dynamics were used sparingly by composers until the late 18th century . Bach used some dynamic terms , including forte , piano , più piano , and pianissimo ( although written out as full words ) , and in some cases it may be that ppp was considered to mean pianissimo in this period . The fact that the harpsichord could play only `` terraced '' dynamics ( either loud or soft , but not in between ) , and the fact that composers of the period did not mark gradations of dynamics in their scores , has led to the `` somewhat misleading suggestion that baroque dynamics are 'terraced dynamics ' , '' writes Robert Donington . In fact , baroque musicians constantly varied dynamics . `` Light and shade must be constantly introduced ... by the incessant interchange of loud and soft , '' wrote Johann Joachim Quantz in 1752 . In addition to this , the harpsichord in fact becomes louder or softer depending on the thickness of the musical texture ( four notes are louder than two ) . This allowed composers such as Bach to build dynamics directly into their compositions , without the need for notation . In the Romantic period , composers greatly expanded the vocabulary for describing dynamic changes in their scores . Where Haydn and Mozart specified six levels ( pp to ff ) , Beethoven used also ppp and fff ( the latter less frequently ) , and Brahms used a range of terms to describe the dynamics he wanted . In the slow movement of the trio for violin , horn and piano ( Opus 40 ) , he uses the expressions ppp , molto piano , and quasi niente to express different qualities of quiet .

dpql_782--Dynamics_(music).txt

Which musical term means ‘very loud’?

A tool is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal , especially if the item is not consumed in the process . Tool use by humans dates back millions of years , and other animals are also known to employ simple tools . Tools that are used in particular fields or activities may have different designations such as `` instrument '' , `` utensil '' , `` implement '' , `` machine '' , `` device , '' or `` apparatus '' . The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is `` equipment '' . The knowledge of constructing , obtaining and using tools is technology . History Anthropologists believe that the use of tools was an important step in the evolution of mankind.Sam Lilley , [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id Cj0EAAAAMAAJ & qtools+history & dq tools+history & pgis=1 Men , Machines and History : The Story of Tools and Machines in Relation to Social Progress ] , 1948 Cobbett Press . Because tools are used extensively by both humans and wild chimpanzees , it is widely assumed that the first routine use of tools took place prior to the divergence between the two species . These early tools , however , were likely made of perishable materials such as sticks , or consisted of unmodified stones that can not be distinguished from other stones as tools . Stone artifacts only date back to about 2.5 million years ago . However , a 2010 study suggests the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis ate meat by carving animal carcasses with stone implements . This finding pushes back the earliest known use of stone tools among hominins to about 3.4 million years ago . Finds of actual tools date back at least 2.6 million years in Ethiopia . One of the earliest distinguishable stone tool forms is the hand axe . Up until recently , weapons found in digs were the only tools of “ early man ” that were studied and given importance . Now , more tools are recognized as culturally and historically relevant . As well as hunting , other activities required tools such as preparing food , “ …nutting , leatherworking , grain harvesting and woodworking… ” Included in this group are “ flake stone tools '' . Tools are the most important items that the ancient humans used to climb to the top of the food chain ; by inventing tools , they were able to accomplish tasks that human bodies could not , such as using a spear or bow and arrow to kill prey , since their teeth were not sharp enough to pierce many animals ' skins . “ Man the hunter ” as the catalyst for Hominin change has been questioned . Based on marks on the bones at archaeological sites , it is now more evident that pre-humans were scavenging off of other predators ' carcasses rather than killing their own food . Mechanical devices experienced a major expansion in their use in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome with the systematic employment of new energy sources , especially waterwheels . Their use expanded through the Dark Ages with the addition of windmills . Machine tools occasioned a surge in producing new tools in the industrial revolution . Advocates of nanotechnology expect a similar surge as tools become microscopic in size . Functions One can classify tools according to their basic functions : * Cutting and edge tools , such as the knife , scythe or sickle , are wedge-shaped implements that produce a shearing force along a narrow face . Ideally , the edge of the tool needs to be harder than the material being cut or else the blade will become dulled with repeated use . But even resilient tools will require periodic sharpening , which is the process of removing deformation wear from the edge . Other examples of cutting tools include gouges and drill bits . * Moving tools move large and tiny items . Many are levers which give the user a mechanical advantage . Examples of force-concentrating tools include the hammer which moves a nail or the maul which moves a stake . These operate by applying physical compression to a surface . In the case of the screwdriver , the force is rotational and called torque . By contrast , an anvil concentrates force on an object being hammered by preventing it from moving away when struck . Writing implements deliver a fluid to a surface via compression to activate the ink cartridge . Grabbing and twisting nuts and bolts with pliers , a glove , a wrench , etc . likewise move items by some kind of force . * Tools that enact chemical changes , including temperature and ignition , such as lighters and blowtorches . * Guiding , measuring and perception tools include the ruler , glasses , set square , sensors , straightedge , theodolite , microscope , monitor , clock , phone , printer * Shaping tools , such as molds , jigs , trowels . * Fastening tools , such as welders , rivet guns , nail guns , or glue guns . * Information and data manipulation tools , such as computers , IDE , spreadsheets * Simple machine tools , including the wheel , pulley , inclined plane , wedge and screw . Some tools may be combinations of other tools . An alarm-clock is for example a combination of a measuring tool ( the clock ) and a perception tool ( the alarm ) . This enables the alarm-clock to be a tool that falls outside of all the categories mentioned above . There is some debate on whether to consider protective gear items as tools , because they do not directly help perform work , just protect the worker like ordinary clothing . They do meet the general definition of tools and in many cases are necessary for the completion of the work . Personal protective equipment includes such items as gloves , safety glasses , ear defenders and biohazard suits . Tool substitution Often , by design or coincidence , a tool may share key functional attributes with one or more other tools . In this case , some tools can substitute for other tools , either as a makeshift solution or as a matter of practical efficiency . `` One tool does it all '' is a motto of some importance for workers who can not practically carry every specialized tool to the location of every work task ; such as a carpenter who does not necessarily work in a shop all day and needs to do jobs in a customer 's house . Tool substitution may be divided broadly into two classes : substitution `` by-design '' , or `` multi-purpose '' , and substitution as makeshift . Substitution `` by-design '' would be tools that are designed specifically to accomplish multiple tasks using only that one tool . Substitution as makeshift is when human ingenuity comes into play and a tool is used for its unintended purpose such as a mechanic using a long screw driver to separate a cars control arm from a ball joint instead of using a tuning fork . In many cases , the designed secondary functions of tools are not widely known . As an example of the former , many wood-cutting hand saws integrate a carpenter 's square by incorporating a specially shaped handle that allows 90° and 45° angles to be marked by aligning the appropriate part of the handle with an edge and scribing along the back edge of the saw . The latter is illustrated by the saying `` All tools can be used as hammers . '' Nearly all tools can be used to function as a hammer , even though very few tools are intentionally designed for it and even fewer work as well as the original . Tools are also often used to substitute for many mechanical apparatuses , especially in older mechanical devices . In many cases a cheap tool could be used to occupy the place of a missing mechanical part . A window roller in a car could easily be replaced with a pair of vise-grips or regular pliers . A transmission shifter or ignition switch would be able to be replaced with a screw-driver . Again , these would be considered tools that are being used for their unintended purposes , substitution as makeshift . Tools such as a rotary tool would be considered the substitution `` by-design '' , or `` multi-purpose '' . This class of tools allows the use of one tool that has at least two different capabilities . `` Multi-purpose '' tools are basically multiple tools in one device/tool . Tools such as this are often power tools that come with many different attachments like a rotary tool does , so you could say that a power drill is a `` multi-purpose '' tool because you can do more than just one thing with a power drill . Multi-use tools A multi-tool is a hand tool that incorporates several tools into a single , portable device ; the Swiss army knife represents one of the earliest examples . Other tools have a primary purpose but also incorporate other functionality - for example , lineman 's pliers incorporate a gripper and cutter , and are often used as a hammer ; and some hand saws incorporate a carpenter 's square in the right-angle between the blade 's dull edge and the saw 's handle . This would also be the category in which the `` multi-purpose '' tools since they are also multiple tools in one ( multi-use and multi-purpose can be used interchangeably ) . These types of tools were specifically made to catch the eye of many different craftsman who traveled to do their work . To these workers these types of tools were revolutionary because they were one tool or one device that could do several different things . With this new revolution of tools the traveling craftsman would not have to carry so many tools with them to job sites , being that their space would be limited to the vehicle they were driving . The problem of having to deal with so many different tools was solved with the overtaking of multi-use tools . Use by other animals Observation has confirmed that a number of species can use tools including monkeys , apes , elephants , several birds , and sea otters . Philosophers originally thought that only humans had the ability to make tools , until zoologists observed birds and monkeys making tools . Now the unique relationship of humans with tools is considered to be that we are the only species that uses tools to make other tools . Tool metaphors A telephone is a communication tool that interfaces between two people engaged in conversation at one level . It also interfaces between each user and the communication network at another level . It is in the domain of media and communications technology that a counter-intuitive aspect of our relationships with our tools first began to gain popular recognition . Marshall McLuhan famously said `` We shape our tools . And then our tools shape us . '' McLuhan was referring to the fact that our social practices co-evolve with our use of new tools and the refinements we make to existing tools .

wh_673--Tool.txt

Usually made of plastic, which transparent instrument, in the shape of a triangle with one angle at ninety degrees, is used for drawing angles on paper?

Band Aid is a charity supergroup featuring mainly British and Irish musicians and recording artists . It was founded in 1984 by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise money for anti-famine efforts in Ethiopia by releasing the song `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? '' for the Christmas market that year . On 25 November 1984 , the song was recorded at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill , London , and was released in the UK four days later . The single surpassed the hopes of the producers to become the Christmas number one on that release . Two subsequent re-recordings of the song to raise further money for charity also topped the charts . The original was produced by Midge Ure . The 12 '' version was mixed by Trevor Horn . In November 2014 , a new version of the song was recorded by artists under the name of Band Aid 30 . Background The supergroup was formed by Bob Geldof , former lead singer of Irish Band The Boomtown Rats . The BBC played a major role in capturing the poverty affecting Ethiopian citizens and thereby influenced Geldof to take action . Paula Yates , Bob Geldof ’ s partner , is considered to have been the brains behind the original Band Aid . It was she who became the driving force that inspired ( and helped ) Geldof to rally the most famous pop stars of the Eighties to raise money for famine relief in Ethiopia . The group was composed of forty artists to raise awareness and funds for the Ethiopian famine in 1983-1985 . The group 's name stemmed from the idea that the musicians were providing aid to the less fortunate and suggested that their project was likened to putting a band-aid on a wound . Geldof was looking for support from all nations for Africa beginning in the United Kingdom . To do so , the artists recorded a hit single titled `` Do They Know It ’ s Christmas ? '' depicting the poverty stricken African scenery of the time . Lyrics of the song included description of the country saying , “ where nothing ever grows , no rain or rivers flow , do they know it ’ s Christmas time at all ? ” Ethiopia follows the Orthodox calendar where Christmas is celebrated on the seventh of January . Original Band Aid Chronology ( 1984 ) Geldof was so moved by the plight of starving children in Ethiopia , that he decided to try to raise money using his contacts in pop music . Geldof enlisted the help of Midge Ure , from the group Ultravox , to produce a charity record . Ure took Geldof 's lyrics , and created the melody and backing track for the record . Geldof called many of the most popular British and Irish performers of the time , persuading them to give their time free . His one criterion for selection was how famous they were , in order to maximise sales of the record . He then kept an appointment to appear on a show on BBC Radio 1 , with Richard Skinner , but instead of promoting the new Boomtown Rats material as planned , he announced the plan for Band Aid . The recording studio gave Band Aid no more than 24 free hours to record and mix the record , on 25 November 1984 . The recording took place at SARM Studios in Notting Hill between 11am and 7pm , and was filmed by director Nigel Dick to be released as the pop video though some basic tracks had been recorded the day before at Midge Ure 's home studio . The first tracks to be recorded were the group / choir choruses which were filmed by the international press . The footage was rushed to newsrooms where it aired while the remainder of the recording process continued . Later , drums by Phil Collins were recorded . The introduction of the song features a slowed down sample from a Tears for Fears ' track called `` The Hurting '' , released in 1983 . Tony Hadley , of Spandau Ballet , was the first to record his vocal , while a section sung by Status Quo was deemed unusable , and replaced with section comprising Paul Weller , Sting , and Glenn Gregory , from Heaven 17 . Simon Le Bon from Duran Duran sang between contributions from George Michael and Sting . Paul Young has since admitted , in a documentary , that he knew his opening lines were written for David Bowie , who was not able to make the recording but made a contribution to the B-side ( Bowie performed his lines at the Live Aid concert the following year ) . Boy George arrived last at 6pm , after Geldof woke him up by phone to have him flown over from New York on Concorde to record his solo part . ( At the time , Culture Club was in the middle of a US tour . ) The following morning , Geldof appeared on the Radio 1 breakfast show with Mike Read , to promote the record further and promise that every penny would go to the cause . This led to a stand-off with the British Government , who refused to waive the VAT on the sales of the single . Geldof made the headlines by publicly standing up to Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and , sensing the strength of public feeling , the government backed down and donated the tax back to the charity . The record was released on 3 December 1984 , and went straight to No . 1 in the UK singles chart , outselling all the other records in the chart put together . It became the fastest- selling single of all time in the UK , selling a million copies in the first week alone . It stayed at No . 1 for five weeks , selling over three million copies and becoming easily the biggest-selling single of all time in the UK , thus beating the seven-year record held by Mull of Kintyre . It has since been surpassed by Elton John 's `` Candle in the Wind 1997 '' ( his tribute to Diana , Princess of Wales ) but it is likely to keep selling in different versions for many years to come . In 1986 the original music video from `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? '' received Band Aid a Grammy Award nomination for Best Music Video , Short Form . After Live Aid , `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? '' was re-released in late 1985 in a set that included a special-edition 'picture disc ' version , modelled after the Live Aid logo with 'Band ' in place of 'Live ' . An added bonus , `` One Year On '' ( a statement from Geldof and Ure on the telephone ) was available as a b-side . `` One Year On '' can also be found in transcript form in a booklet which was included in the DVD set of Live Aid , the first disc of which features the BBC news report , as well as the Band Aid video . Live Aid inspired a number of charity events , such as Media Aid that raised money for Save the Children . 1984 performers Vocalists : * Robert `` Kool '' Bell ( Kool & the Gang ) * Bono ( U2 ) * Pete Briquette ( The Boomtown Rats ) * Adam Clayton ( U2 ) * Phil Collins ( Genesis and solo artist ) * Chris Cross ( Ultravox ) * Simon Crowe ( The Boomtown Rats ) * Sara Dallin ( Bananarama ) * Siobhan Fahey ( Bananarama ) * Johnny Fingers ( The Boomtown Rats ) * Bob Geldof ( The Boomtown Rats ) * Boy George ( Culture Club ) * Glenn Gregory ( Heaven 17 ) * Tony Hadley ( Spandau Ballet ) * John Keeble ( Spandau Ballet ) * Gary Kemp ( Spandau Ballet ) * Martin Kemp ( Spandau Ballet ) * Simon Le Bon ( Duran Duran ) * Marilyn * George Michael ( Wham ! ) * Jon Moss ( Culture Club ) * Steve Norman ( Spandau Ballet ) * Rick Parfitt ( Status Quo ) * Nick Rhodes ( Duran Duran ) * Francis Rossi ( Status Quo ) * Sting ( The Police and solo artist ) * Andy Taylor ( Duran Duran ) * James `` J.T . '' Taylor ( Kool & the Gang ) * John Taylor ( Duran Duran ) * Roger Taylor ( Duran Duran ) * Dennis Thomas ( Kool & the Gang ) * Midge Ure ( Ultravox ) * Martyn Ware ( Heaven 17 ) * Jody Watley * Paul Weller ( The Style Council ) * Keren Woodward ( Bananarama ) * Paul Young Additional spoken messages on B-side : * Stuart Adamson , Mark Brzezicki , Tony Butler , Bruce Watson ( Big Country ) * David Bowie * Holly Johnson ( Frankie Goes to Hollywood ) * Paul McCartney Musicians : * Phil Collins – drums * John Taylor – bass * Midge Ure – keyboards and programming Effectiveness The hit single , `` Do They Know It ’ s Christmas ? `` , was highly successful worldwide . It sold over two million copies around the globe and raised more than $ 24,000,000 ( USD ) . The super group 's success was seen as a large increase in Celebrity Diplomacy and inspired similar actions of support from countries such as Canada , France , Spain and the United States . The success influenced two organizations of live Benefit Concerts run by Celebrity Charity . The concerts were USA for Africa and Live Aid and were broadcast in over 165 countries across the globe . Band Aid and Live Aid combined raised about 150 million USD for the famine relief effort in Ethiopia . The first hit was so popular that several of the artists got together again to do a cover version of the original song “ Do They Know It ’ s Christmas ? ” These artists include Dido , Robbie Williams and Chris Martin . The group has now come together on a total of four occasions composed of popular British and Irish musicians . Band Aid II This version , released in 1989 was produced by British songwriting and production team formed of Mike Stock , Matt Aitken and Pete Waterman known as Stock Aitken Waterman . The only artists from the original Band Aid to be featured again on this version were Sara Dallin and Keren Woodward of Bananarama . This version topped the UK Singles Chart for three weeks , but ultimately achieved far less historical significance and status than its predecessor . Production On Friday 1 December 1989 , Bob Geldof called Pete Waterman to ask if he would consider producing a new version of the song featuring the big stars from that time . Waterman immediately cancelled his wedding ( planned for the same day ) and began calling up the artists . With just two days ' notice , on Sunday 3 December , recording took place at PWL Studios in South London . Present in the studio was Bob Geldof , wife Paula Yates and six-year-old daughter , Fifi Trixiebelle , who was eager to meet Jason Donovan . Production continued through the Monday , and by Tuesday 5 December the song was broadcast for the first time on London 's Capital Radio . Advance sales of the record reached 500,000 . The song was released the following week on 11 December and spent three weeks at number one , becoming the 9th biggest selling song of the year , outselling Madonna 's `` Like a Prayer '' . 1989 performers Vocalists : * Bananarama * Big Fun * Bros * Cathy Dennis * D Mob * Jason Donovan * Kevin Godley * Glen Goldsmith * Kylie Minogue * The Pasadenas * Chris Rea * Cliff Richard * Jimmy Somerville * Sonia * Lisa Stansfield * Technotronic * Wet Wet Wet Musicians : * Matt Aitken - keyboards & guitar * Luke Goss ( Bros ) – drums * Chris Rea – guitar * Mike Stock – keyboards Band Aid 20 Band Aid 20 was the 2004 incarnation of the charity group Band Aid . The group , which included Daniel Bedingfield , Justin Hawkins of The Darkness , Chris Martin of Coldplay , Bono of U2 , and Paul McCartney , re-recorded the 1984 song `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? `` , written by Band Aid organisers Bob Geldof and Midge Ure . 2004 performers Vocalists : * Daniel Bedingfield * Natasha Bedingfield * Bono ( U2 ) * Busted * Tom Chaplin ( Keane ) * Dido * Dizzee Rascal * Ms Dynamite * Skye Edwards ( Morcheeba ) * Estelle * Feeder * Neil Hannon ( The Divine Comedy ) * Justin Hawkins ( The Darkness ) * Fran Healy ( Travis ) * Jamelia * Beverley Knight * Lemar * Shaznay Lewis ( formerly of All Saints ) * Chris Martin ( Coldplay ) * Katie Melua * Róisín Murphy ( Moloko ) * Tim Rice-Oxley ( Keane ) * Snow Patrol * Rachel Stevens ( formerly of S Club 7 ) * Joss Stone * Sugababes * The Thrills * Turin Brakes * Robbie Williams * Will Young Musicians : * Danny Goffey ( Supergrass ) – drums * Jonny Greenwood ( Radiohead ) – guitar * Dan Hawkins ( The Darkness ) – guitar * Justin Hawkins ( The Darkness ) – guitar * Paul McCartney – bass guitar * Thom Yorke ( Radiohead ) – piano Additional personnel : * Damon Albarn – tea boy * Bob Geldof – organiser * Nigel Godrich – producer * Midge Ure – executive producer Band Aid 30 Band Aid 30 is the 2014 incarnation of the charity supergroup Band Aid . Announced by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure , the aim was to aid 2014 Ebola outbreak victims in Western Africa and preventing its spread . As in previous incarnations , the group covered the track `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? `` , written in 1984 by Geldof and Ure . The song was recorded by some of the biggest-selling current British and Irish pop acts , including One Direction , Sam Smith , Ed Sheeran , Emeli Sandé , Ellie Goulding and Rita Ora . Bastille and Take That also took part , along with Chris Martin ( Coldplay ) and Bono ( U2 ) —the third time he has contributed to a Band Aid recording . Their version of the song debuted at the chart 's summit during the week of its release , then dropped down a place in each of the following two weeks before dropping out of the Top 10 in its fourth week . It also received a polarized reception from many music critics due to its new lyrics directed towards Africa . Also , for the first time , a German version was produced and reached the top position of the German single charts at the beginning of December 2014 . The project is led by Geldof 's close friend Campino , lead vocalist of the punkrock band Die Toten Hosen . A French version of the song is led by Carla Bruni . 2014 performers Vocalists : * Bono ( U2 ) * Clean Bandit * Paloma Faith * Guy Garvey ( Elbow ) * Ellie Goulding * Angélique Kidjo * Chris Martin ( Coldplay ) * Sinéad O'Connor * One Direction * Rita Ora * Olly Murs * Emeli Sandé * Seal * Ed Sheeran * Dan Smith ( Bastille ) * Sam Smith * Underworld * Jessie Ware Musicians : * Milan Neil Amin-Smith ( Clean Bandit ) – violin * Grace Chatto ( Clean Bandit ) – cello * Roger Taylor ( Queen ) – drums , keyboards Remixes : * Underworld Additional personnel : * Paul Epworth – producer Musicians and instrumentation Many of the people involved in the original Band Aid single appeared on the 1984 Christmas edition of Top of the Pops , along with Slade , The Thompson Twins , Bronski Beat , Frankie Goes to Hollywood and Jim Diamond to mime to the record . This was the only time the original Band Aid single was performed live on television . However Bono could not attend , which led to the spectacle of Paul Weller miming to Bono 's line . According to the film made by The Tube on the days of the recording 24–25 November 1984 , Bob Geldof says The Edge from U2 was to have played guitar on the track but was unable to as he was in hospital at the time with a kidney infection . Related projects The Band Aid project inspired other charity records around the world , including We Are the World by USA for Africa ( in the United States ) , Cantaré Cantarás by Project Hermanos ( in Latin America ) , Nackt im Wind by Band für Afrika ( in Germany ) , Ethiopie by Chanteurs Sans Frontiere ' ( in France ) , Tears Are Not Enough by Northern Lights ( in Canada ) , Show some Concern by The Concerned in Ireland , Sammen for Livet by Forente Artister ( in Norway ) , Maksamme Velkaa by Apua-Orkesteri ( in Finland ) , Chega de Mágoa by Nordeste Já ( in Brazil ) , Za milion godina by YU Rock Misija ( in Yugoslavia ) , Stars by Hear 'n Aid ( international heavy metal artists ) , Afrika written by Nanna with various Danish artists , Volare by Musicaitalia per l'Etiopia in Italy and many others . A compilation of computer games for the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum was published under the name Soft Aid . Each platform had its own selection of games from ten different publishers ; Elite Systems , Ocean Software , Quicksilva , and Virgin were represented on both . The cassette also featured a recording of the `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? '' single . Criticism and controversies Claims of self-righteousness In 1986 , the anarchist band Chumbawamba released the album Pictures of Starving Children Sell Records , as well as an EP entitled `` We Are the World '' , jointly recorded with US band A State of Mind , both of which were intended as anti-capitalist critiques of the Band Aid/Live Aid phenomenon . They argued that the record was primarily a cosmetic spectacle , designed to draw attention away from the real political causes of world hunger . In a 1985 Time Out interview , Morrissey gave his views about the song : ' I 'm not afraid to say that I think Band Aid was diabolical . Or to say that I think Bob Geldof is a nauseating character . Many people find that very unsettling , but I 'll say it as loud as anyone wants me to . In the first instance the record itself was absolutely tuneless . One can have great concern for the people of Ethiopia , but it 's another thing to inflict daily torture on the people of Great Britain . It was an awful record considering the mass of talent involved . And it was n't done shyly it was the most self-righteous platform ever in the history of popular music . ' View of Africa At the time of the 2004 release , the World Development Movement described the lyrics as `` patronising , false and out of date '' . In 2014 , musician , Fuse ODG , turned down a request to sing with the group during the 2014 ebola outbreak . He revealed that the lyrics of the song do not reflect what Africa truly is , citing lyrics such as `` There is no peace and joy in west Africa this Christmas '' . According to him , he goes to Ghana yearly for the sole purpose of peace and joy , so singing such lyrics would be a blatant lie .

qg_1986--Band_Aid_(band).txt

Name the year: The Macintosh is introduced, Louisiana hosted the last World’s Fair to be held in the US, Vanessa Williams resigns her Miss America crown, Band Aid records the song “Do They Know It’s Christmas” for famine relief, Union Carbide wipes out a good chunk of Bhopal, India

Finland ( ; ; ) , officially the Republic of Finland , is a sovereign state in Europe . A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west , the country has land borders with Sweden to the northwest , Norway to the north , and Russia to the east . Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland . Finland is situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia , which also includes Scandinavia . Finland 's population is 5.5 million ( 2014 ) , staying roughly on the same level over the past two decades . The majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region . In terms of area , it is the eighth largest country in Europe and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union . Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki , local governments in 317 municipalities , and an autonomous region , the Åland Islands . Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area , which produces a third of the country 's GDP . From the late 12th century , Finland was an integral part of Sweden , a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status . In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson ( 1791–1858 ) , `` we are no-longer Swedes , we do not want to become Russians , let us therefore be Finns '' , the Finnish national identity started to establish . Nevertheless , in 1809 , Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland . In 1906 , Finland became the second nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens and the first in the world to give full suffrage to all adult citizens . Following the 1917 Russian Revolution , Finland declared itself independent . In 1918 , the fledgling state was divided by civil war , with the Bolshevik-leaning `` Reds '' supported by the equally new Soviet Union , fighting the `` Whites '' , supported by the German Empire . After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom , the country became a republic . During World War II , the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland , with Finland losing parts of Karelia , Salla and Kuusamo , Petsamo and some islands , but retaining independence . Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality . The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era . Finland joined the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) in 1969 , the NATO Partnership for Peace on 1994 , the European Union in 1995 , the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in 1997 , and finally the Eurozone at its inception , in 1999 . Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization , remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s . It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state , resulting in widespread prosperity and one of the highest per capita incomes in the world . However , since 2012 Finnish GDP growth has been negative , with a preceding nadir of −8 % in 2009 . Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance , including education , economic competitiveness , civil liberties , quality of life , and human development . In 2015 , Finland was ranked first in the World Human Capital and the Press Freedom Index , and as the most stable country in the world in the Failed States Index , and second in the Global Gender Gap Report . A large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church , though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution . Etymology Etymology The first known written appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones . Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti ( U 582 ) . The third was found in Gotland , in the Baltic Sea . It has the inscription finlandi ( G 319 ) and dates from the 13th century . The name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns , which is mentioned first known time AD 98 ( disputed meaning ) . Suomi The name Suomi ( ) has uncertain origins , but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word * źemē , meaning `` land '' . In addition to the close relatives of Finnish ( the Finnic languages ) , this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian . Alternatively , the Indo-European word * gʰm-on `` man '' ( cf . Gothic guma , Latin homo ) has been suggested , being borrowed as * ćoma . The word originally referred only to the province of Finland Proper , and later to the northern coast of Gulf of Finland , with northern regions such as Ostrobothnia still sometimes being excluded until later . Earlier theories suggested derivation from suomaa ( fen land ) or suoniemi ( fen cape ) , and parallels between saame ( Sami , a Finno-Ugric people in Lapland ) , and Häme ( a province in the inland ) were drawn , but these theories are now considered outdated . Concept In the 12th and 13th centuries , the term `` Finland '' mostly referred to the area around Turku ( Åbo ) , a region that later became known as Finland Proper , while the other parts of the country were called Tavastia and Karelia , but which could also sometimes be collectively referred to as `` Österland '' ( compare Norrland ) . ( Medieval politics concerned tribes such as the Finns , the Tavastians , and the Karelians more than geographical boundaries . ) In the 15th century , `` Finland '' became a common name for the whole land area to the east of the Bothnian Sea , possibly even including Åland , when the archipelago was seen as belonging to Åbo ( Turku ) . What the term actually refers to can vary between sources , additionally , the boundaries to the east and the north were not exact . A sort of establishment of Finland as a united entity , if only in name , was made when John III of Sweden called his duchy the `` grand duchy of Finland '' ( about 1580 ) , as a strategy to meet the claims of the Russian tsar . The term became part of the title of the King of Sweden but had little practical meaning . The Finnish land area had the same standing as the area to the west of the Bothnian Sea , and the Finnish part of the realm had the same representation in the parliament as the western part . In 1637 , Queen Christina named Per Brahe the Younger Governor General of Finland , Åland , and Ostrobothnia ( other parts of Sweden had also had governor generals ) . The modern boundaries of Finland actually came into existence only after the end of Sweden-Finland . What was signed over to Russia in 1809 was not so much `` Finland '' as six counties , Åland , and a small part of Västerbotten County . The boundary between the new Grand Duchy of Finland and the remaining part of Sweden could have been drawn along the river Kemijoki , the boundary at the time between Västerbotten County and Österbotten County ( Ostrobothnia ) — as proposed by the Swedes in the peace negotiations — or along the river Kalix , thereby including the Finnish-speaking part of Meänmaa — as proposed by the Russians . The actual boundary , which followed the Torne River and the Muonio River to the fells Saana and Halti in the northwest , was a compromise . The area it delineated was to become what was represented by the concept of Finland — at least after Tsar Alexander I of Russia permitted the parts of Finland located to the east of the Kymi River , which were conquered by Russia in 1721 and 1743 , called `` Old Finland '' , to be administratively included in `` New Finland '' in 1812 . History Prehistory According to archaeological evidence , the area now comprising Finland was settled at the latest around 8500 BCE during the Stone Age as the ice sheet of the last ice age receded . The artifacts the first settlers left behind present characteristics that are shared with those found in Estonia , Russia , and Norway . The earliest people were hunter-gatherers , using stone tools . The first pottery appeared in 5200 BCE , when the Comb Ceramic culture was introduced . The arrival of the Corded Ware culture in southern coastal Finland between 3000 and 2500 BCE may have coincided with the start of agriculture . Even with the introduction of agriculture , hunting and fishing continued to be important parts of the subsistence economy . The Bronze Age ( 1500–500 BCE ) and Iron Age ( 500 BCE–1200 CE ) were characterised by extensive contacts with other cultures in the Fennoscandian and Baltic regions . There is no consensus on when Uralic languages and Indo-European languages were first spoken in the area of contemporary Finland . During the first millennium AD , early Finnish was spoken in agricultural settlements in southern Finland , whereas Sámi-speaking populations occupied most parts of the country . Although distantly related , the Sami are a different people that retained the hunter-gatherer lifestyle longer than the Finns . The Sami cultural identity and the Sami language have survived in Lapland , the northernmost province , but the Sami have been displaced or assimilated elsewhere . Swedish era As a part of Northern Crusades Swedish kings established their rule in Finland gradually during 12th and 13th centuries with first , second and third crusade against Finns proper , Tavastians and Karelians . Swedish-speaking settlers colonized the coastal regions during the Middle Ages . In the 17th century , Swedish became the dominant language of the nobility , administration , and education ; Finnish was chiefly a language for the peasantry , clergy , and local courts in predominantly Finnish-speaking areas . During the Protestant Reformation , the Finns gradually converted to Lutheranism . In the 16th century , Mikael Agricola published the first written works in Finnish . The first university in Finland , The Royal Academy of Turku , was established in 1640 . Finland suffered a severe famine in 1696–1697 , during which about one third of the Finnish population died , and a devastating plague a few years later . In the 18th century , wars between Sweden and Russia twice led to the occupation of Finland by Russian forces , times known to the Finns as the Greater Wrath ( 1714–1721 ) and the Lesser Wrath ( 1742–1743 ) . It is estimated that almost an entire generation of young men was lost during the Great Wrath , due namely to the destruction of homes and farms , and to the burning of Helsinki . By this time Finland was the predominant term for the whole area from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Russian border . Two Russo-Swedish wars in twenty-five years served as reminders to the Finnish people of how precarious their position between Sweden and Russia was . An increasingly vocal elite in Finland soon determined that Finnish ties with Sweden were becoming too costly , and following Gustav III 's War ( 1788–1790 ) , the Finnish elite 's desire to break with Sweden only heightened . In the late eighteenth century a politically active portion of the Finnish nobility became convinced that , due to Sweden and Russia 's repeated use of Finland as a battlefield , it would be in the country 's best interests to seek autonomy . Even before the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–1790 , there were conspiring Finns , among them Col G. M. Sprengtporten , who had supported Gustav III 's coup in 1772 . Sprengporten fell out with the king and resigned his commission in 1777 . In the following decade he tried to secure Russian support for an autonomous Finland , and later became an adviser to Catherine II . Notwithstanding the efforts of Finland 's elite and nobility to break ties with Sweden , there was no genuine independence movement in Finland until the early twentieth century . As a matter of fact , at this time the Finnish peasantry was outraged by the actions of their elite and almost exclusively supported Gustav 's actions against the conspirators . ( The High Court of Turku condemned Sprengtporten as a traitor c . 1793 . ) Russian Empire era On 29 March 1809 , having been taken over by the armies of Alexander I of Russia in the Finnish War , Finland became an autonomous Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire until the end of 1917 . In 1811 , Alexander I incorporated Russian Vyborg province into the Grand Duchy of Finland . During the Russian era , the Finnish language began to gain recognition . From the 1860s onwards , a strong Finnish nationalist movement known as the Fennoman movement grew . Milestones included the publication of what would become Finland 's national epic - the Kalevala - in 1835 , and the Finnish language 's achieving equal legal status with Swedish in 1892 . The Finnish famine of 1866–1868 killed 15 % of the population , making it one of the worst famines in European history . The famine led the Russian Empire to ease financial regulations , and investment rose in following decades . Economic and political development was rapid . The GDP per capita was still half of that of the United States and a third of that of Britain . In 1906 , universal suffrage was adopted in the Grand Duchy of Finland . However , the relationship between the Grand Duchy and the Russian Empire soured when the Russian government made moves to restrict Finnish autonomy . For example , the universal suffrage was , in practice , virtually meaningless , since the tsar did not have to approve any of the laws adopted by the Finnish parliament . Desire for independence gained ground , first among radical liberals and socialists . Civil war and early independence After the 1917 February Revolution , the position of Finland as part of the Russian Empire was questioned , mainly by Social Democrats . Since the head of state was the tsar of Russia , it was not clear who the chief executive of Finland was after the revolution . The parliament , controlled by social democrats , passed the so-called Power Act to give the highest authority to parliament . This was rejected by the Russian Provisional Government which dissolved the parliament . New elections were conducted , in which right-wing parties won a slim majority . Some social democrats refused to accept the result and still claimed that the dissolution of the parliament ( and thus the ensuing elections ) were extralegal . The two nearly equally powerful political blocs , the right-wing parties and the social democratic party , were highly antagonized . The October Revolution in Russia changed the game anew . Suddenly , the right-wing parties in Finland started to reconsider their decision to block the transfer of highest executive power from the Russian government to Finland , as the Bolsheviks took power in Russia . Rather than acknowledge the authority of the Power Law of a few months earlier , the right-wing government declared independence on 6 December 1917 . On 27 January 1918 , the official opening shots of the war were fired in two simultaneous events . The government started to disarm the Russian forces in Pohjanmaa , and the Social Democratic Party staged a coup . The latter succeeded in controlling southern Finland and Helsinki , but the white government continued in exile from Vaasa . This sparked the brief but bitter civil war . The Whites , who were supported by Imperial Germany , prevailed over the Reds . After the war , tens of thousands of Reds and suspected sympathizers were interned in camps , where thousands died by execution or from malnutrition and disease . Deep social and political enmity was sown between the Reds and Whites and would last until the Winter War and beyond . The civil war and activist expeditions into Soviet Russia strained Eastern relations . After a brief flirtation with monarchy , Finland became a presidential republic , with Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg elected as its first president in 1919 . The Finnish–Russian border was determined by the Treaty of Tartu in 1920 , largely following the historic border but granting Pechenga ( ) and its Barents Sea harbour to Finland . Finnish democracy did not see any Soviet coup attempts and survived the anti-Communist Lapua Movement . The relationship between Finland and the Soviet Union was tense . Germany 's relations with democratic Finland cooled also after the Nazis ' rise to power . Army officers were trained in France , and relations to Western Europe and Sweden were strengthened . In 1917 , the population was 3 million . Credit-based land reform was enacted after the civil war , increasing the proportion of capital-owning population . About 70 % of workers were occupied in agriculture and 10 % in industry . The largest export markets were the United Kingdom and Germany . World War II During World War II , Finland fought the Soviet Union twice : in the Winter War of 1939–1940 after the Soviet Union had attacked Finland ; and in the Continuation War of 1941–1944 , following Operation Barbarossa , during which Finland aligned , however not allied , with Germany following its invasion of the Soviet Union . After fighting a major Soviet offensive in June/July 1944 to a standstill , Finland reached an armistice with the Soviet Union . This was followed by the Lapland War of 1944–1945 , when Finland fought against the retreating German forces in northern Finland . The treaties signed in 1947 and 1948 with the Soviet Union included Finnish obligations , restraints , and reparations—as well as further Finnish territorial concessions in addition to those in the Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940 . As a result of the two wars , Finland was forced to cede most of Finnish Karelia , Salla , and Petsamo , which amounted to 10 % of its land area and 20 % of its industrial capacity , including the ports of Vyborg ( Viipuri ) and the ice-free Liinakhamari ( Liinahamari ) . Almost the whole population , some 400,000 people , fled these areas . Finland was never occupied by Soviet forces ; it retained its independence , however , at a loss of about 93,000 soldiers . Finland rejected Marshall aid , in apparent deference to Soviet desires . However , the United States provided secret development aid and helped the ( non-communist ) Social Democratic Party in hopes of preserving Finland 's independence . Establishing trade with the Western powers , such as the United Kingdom , and the reparations to the Soviet Union caused Finland to transform itself from a primarily agrarian economy to an industrialised one . For example , the Valmet corporation was founded to create materials for war reparations . Even after the reparations had been paid off , Finland—which was poor in certain resources necessary for an industrialized nation ( such as iron and oil ) —continued to trade with the Soviet Union in the framework of bilateral trade . Cold War In 1950 , 46 % of Finnish workers worked in agriculture and a third lived in urban areas . The new jobs in manufacturing , services , and trade quickly attracted people to the towns . The average number of births per woman declined from a baby boom peak of 3.5 in 1947 to 1.5 in 1973 . When baby-boomers entered the workforce , the economy did not generate jobs fast enough , and hundreds of thousands emigrated to the more industrialized Sweden , with emigration peaking in 1969 and 1970 . The 1952 Summer Olympics brought international visitors . Finland took part in trade liberalization in the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade . Officially claiming to be neutral , Finland lay in the grey zone between the Western countries and the Soviet Union . The YYA Treaty ( Finno-Soviet Pact of Friendship , Cooperation and Mutual Assistance ) gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics . This was extensively exploited by president Urho Kekkonen against his opponents . He maintained an effective monopoly on Soviet relations from 1956 on , which was crucial for his continued popularity . In politics , there was a tendency of avoiding any policies and statements that could be interpreted as anti-Soviet . This phenomenon was given the name `` Finlandization '' by the German press . Despite close relations with the Soviet Union , Finland remained a Western European market economy . Various industries benefited from trade privileges with the Soviets , which explains the widespread support that pro-Soviet policies enjoyed among business interests in Finland . Economic growth was rapid in the postwar era , and by 1975 Finland 's GDP per capita was the 15th highest in the world . In the 1970s and 80s , Finland built one of the most extensive welfare states in the world . Finland negotiated with the EEC ( a predecessor of the European Union ) a treaty that mostly abolished customs duties towards the EEC starting from 1977 , although Finland did not fully join . In 1981 , president Urho Kekkonen 's failing health forced him to retire after holding office for 25 years . Miscalculated macroeconomic decisions , a banking crisis , the collapse of its largest single trading partner ( the Soviet Union ) , and a global economic downturn caused a deep early 1990s recession in Finland . The depression bottomed out in 1993 , and Finland saw steady economic growth for more than ten years . Recent history Like other Nordic countries , Finland has decentralised its economy since the late 1980s . Financial and product market regulation were loosened . Some state enterprises have been privatized and there have been some modest tax cuts . Finland joined the European Union in 1995 , and the Eurozone in 1999 . On 21 September 1990 , Finland declared unilaterally the Paris Peace Treaty obsolete , following the German reunification decision nine days earlier . The population is aging with the birth rate at 10.42 births per 1,000 population per year , or a fertility rate of 1.8 . With a median age of 42.7 years , Finland is one of countries with most mature population ; half of voters are estimated to be over 50 years old . The Finnish markka was replaced by the euro in 2002 . As a preparation for this date , the minting of the new euro coins started as early as 1999 ; this is why the first euro coins from Finland have the year 1999 on them , instead of 2002 like some of the other countries of the Eurozone . Three different designs ( one for the €2 coin , one for the €1 coin and one for the other six coins ) were selected for the Finnish coins . In 2007 , in order to adopt the new common map like the rest of the Eurozone countries , Finland changed the common side of its coins . Geography Lying approximately between latitudes 60° and 70° N , and longitudes 20° and 32° E , Finland is one of the world 's northernmost countries . Of world capitals , only Reykjavík lies more to the north than Helsinki . The distance from the southernmost—Hanko—to the northernmost point in the country—Nuorgam—is 1160 km . Finland is a country of thousands of lakes and islands—about 188,000 lakes ( larger than 500 m2 ) and 179,000 islands . Its largest lake , Saimaa , is the fourth largest in Europe . The area with the most lakes is called Finnish Lakeland . The greatest concentration of islands is found in the southwest in the Archipelago Sea between continental Finland and the main island of Åland . Much of the geography of Finland is explained by the Ice Age . The glaciers were thicker and lasted longer in Fennoscandia compared with the rest of Europe . Their eroding effects have left the Finnish landscape mostly flat with few hills and fewer mountains . Its highest point , the Halti at 1324 m , is found in the extreme north of Lapland at the border between Finland and Norway . The highest mountain whose peak is entirely in Finland is Ridnitsohkka at 1,316 m ( 4,318 ft ) , directly adjacent to Halti . The retreating glaciers have left the land with morainic deposits in formations of eskers . These are ridges of stratified gravel and sand , running northwest to southeast , where the ancient edge of the glacier once lay . Among the biggest of these are the three Salpausselkä ridges that run across southern Finland . Having been compressed under the enormous weight of the glaciers , terrain in Finland is rising due to the post-glacial rebound . The effect is strongest around the Gulf of Bothnia , where land steadily rises about 1 cm a year . As a result , the old sea bottom turns little by little into dry land : the surface area of the country is expanding by about 7 km2 annually . Relatively speaking , Finland is rising from the sea . The landscape is covered mostly by coniferous taiga forests and fens , with little cultivated land . Of the total area 10 % is lakes , rivers and ponds , and 78 % forest . The forest consists of pine , spruce , birch , and other species . Finland is the largest producer of wood in Europe and among the largest in the world . The most common type of rock is granite . It is a ubiquitous part of the scenery , visible wherever there is no soil cover . Moraine or till is the most common type of soil , covered by a thin layer of humus of biological origin . Podzol profile development is seen in most forest soils except where drainage is poor . Gleysols and peat bogs occupy poorly drained areas . Biodiversity Phytogeographically , Finland is shared between the Arctic , central European , and northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom . According to the WWF , the territory of Finland can be subdivided into three ecoregions : the Scandinavian and Russian taiga , Sarmatic mixed forests , and Scandinavian Montane Birch forest and grasslands . Taiga covers most of Finland from northern regions of southern provinces to the north of Lapland . On the southwestern coast , south of the Helsinki-Rauma line , forests are characterized by mixed forests , that are more typical in the Baltic region . In the extreme north of Finland , near the tree line and Arctic Ocean , Montane Birch forests are common . Similarly , Finland has a diverse and extensive range of fauna . There are at least sixty native mammalian species , 248 breeding bird species , over 70 fish species , and 11 reptile and frog species present today , many migrating from neighboring countries thousands of years ago . Large and widely recognized wildlife mammals found in Finland are the brown bear ( the national animal ) , gray wolf , wolverine , and elk . Three of the more striking birds are the whooper swan , a large European swan and the national bird of Finland ; the capercaillie , a large , black-plumaged member of the grouse family ; and the European eagle-owl . The latter is considered an indicator of old-growth forest connectivity , and has been declining because of landscape fragmentation . The most common breeding birds are the willow warbler , common chaffinch , and redwing . Of some seventy species of freshwater fish , the northern pike , perch , and others are plentiful . Atlantic salmon remains the favourite of fly rod enthusiasts . The endangered Saimaa ringed seal , one of only three lake seal species in the world , exists only in the Saimaa lake system of southeastern Finland , down to only 300 seals today . It has become the emblem

tc_2506--Finland.txt

Which country is known to its people as Suomen Tasavalta?

A weasel is a mammal of the genus Mustela of the family Mustelidae . The genus Mustela includes the least weasels , polecats , stoats , ferrets , and minks . Members of this genus are small , active predators , with long and slender bodies and short legs . The family Mustelidae ( which also includes badgers , otters , and wolverines ) is often referred to as the `` weasel family '' . In the UK , the term `` weasel '' usually refers to the smallest species Mustela nivalis . Weasels vary in length from 173 to , females being smaller than the males , and usually have red or brown upper coats and white bellies ; some populations of some species moult to a wholly white coat in winter . They have long , slender bodies , which enable them to follow their prey into burrows . Their tails may be from 34 to long . Weasels feed on small mammals , and have from time to time been considered vermin , since some species took poultry from farms , or rabbits from commercial warrens . They do on the other hand eat large numbers of rodents . They can be found all across the world except for Antarctica , Australia , and neighbouring islands . Terminology The English word `` weasel '' was originally applied to one species of the genus , the European form of the least weasel ( Mustela nivalis ) . This usage is retained in British English , where the name is also extended to cover several other small species of the genus . However , in technical discourse and in American usage , the term `` weasel '' can refer to any member of the genus , or to the genus as a whole . Of the 17 extant species currently classified in the genus Mustela , 10 have `` weasel '' in their common names . Among those that do not are the stoat , the polecats , the ferret , and the European mink . The American mink and the extinct sea mink were commonly included in this genus as Mustela vison and Mustela macrodon respectively , but in 1999 were moved to the genus Neovison . Species The following information is according to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System . 1 Europe and northern Asia division excludes China . Hybrids in this genus include the polecat-ferret hybrid and the polecat-mink hybrid . Cultural meanings Weasels have been assigned a variety of cultural meanings . In Greek culture , a weasel near one 's house is a sign of bad luck , even evil , `` especially if there is in the household a girl about to be married '' , since the animal ( based on its Greek etymology ) was thought to be an unhappy bride who was transformed into a weasel and consequently delights in destroying wedding dresses . In neighboring Macedonia , however , weasels are generally seen as an omen of good fortune . In early modern Mecklenburg , Germany , amulets from weasels were deemed to have strong magic ; the period between August 15 and September 8 was specifically designated for the killing of weasels . In Montagne Noire ( France ) , Ruthenia , and the early medieval culture of the Wends , weasels were not meant to be killed . In North America , Native Americans deemed the weasel to be a bad sign ; crossing its path meant a `` speedy death '' . According to Daniel Defoe also , meeting a weasel is a bad omen . In English-speaking areas , weasel can be a disparaging term , noun or verb , for someone regarded as sneaky , conniving or untrustworthy . Similarly , weasel words is a critical term for words or phrasing that are vague , misleading or equivocal . Japanese folklore In Japan , were seen as yōkai from time immemorial , and they cause various strange occurrences . According to the encyclopedia Wakan Sansai Zue from the Edo period , a nate of weasels would cause conflagrations , and the cry of a weasel was considered a harbinger of misfortune . In the Niigata Prefecture , the sound of a nate of weasels making a rustle resembled six people hulling rice , so was called the `` '' , and it was an omen for one 's home to decline or flourish . It is said that when people chase after this sound , the sound stops . They are also said to shapeshift like the fox ( kitsune ) or tanuki , and the nyūdō-bōzu told about in legends in the Tōhoku region and the Chūbu region are considered weasels in disguise , and they are also said to shapeshift into ōnyūdō and little monks . In the collection of depictions , the Gazu Hyakki Yagyō by Sekien Toriyama , they were depicted under the title 鼬 , but they were read not as `` itachi '' , but rather as `` ten '' , and `` ten '' were considered to be weasels that have reached one hundred years of age and became yōkai that possessed supernatural powers . Another theory is that when weasels reach several hundred years of age , they become mujina ( badger ) . In Japanese weasels are called and in the Tōhoku Region and Shinshu , it was believed that there were families that were able to use a certain practice to freely use kudagitsune as iizuna-tsukai or kitsune-mochi . It is said that Mount Iizuna , from the Nagano Prefecture , got its name due to how the gods gave people mastery of this technique from there . According to the folkloristician Mutō Tetsujō , `` They are called izuna in the Senboku District , Akita Prefecture , and there are also the ichiko ( itako ) that use them . '' Also , in the Kitaakita District , they are called mōsuke ( 猛助 ) , and they are feared as yōkai even more than foxes ( kitsune ) . In the Ainu language , ermines are called upas-čironnup or sáčiri , but since least weasels are also called sáčiri , Mashio Chiri surmised that the honorary title poy-sáčiri-kamuy ( where poy means `` small '' ) refers to least weasels . Kamaitachi Kamaitachi are a phenomenon wherein one who is idle is suddenly injured , as if his or her skin were cut by a scythe . In the past , this was thought to be `` the deed of an invisible yōkai weasel '' . However , this has been established as a physiological phenomenon that dried skin that receives a shock would tear off . An alternate theory , asserts that kamaitachi are derived from ' , so were not originally related to weasels at all . In popular culture Film * In the Foghorn Leghorn animated film Plop Goes the Weasel ( 1953 ) , a weasel tries to capture Foghorn Leghorn for food . * In the initiation scene in National Lampoon 's Animal House ( 1978 ) , Bluto ( John Belushi ) names one of the new members `` Weasel '' . * In Who Framed Roger Rabbit ( 1988 ) , Judge Doom 's Toon Patrol were five weasels . * Pauly Shore has the nickname of The Weasel . ( 1992 ) Literature * In Kenneth Grahame 's classic children 's book , The Wind in the Willows ( 1908 ) , a pack of armed weasels , accompanied by other Mustelids , overruns Toad Hall and has to be driven out by Badger , Mole , Ratty , and Toad . * In Phil Drabble 's book A Weasel in my Meatsafe ( 1979 ) , it is suggested that a weasel can make an endearing pet . * The Weasel was a humorous weekly column in The Independent Magazine , written by Christopher Hirst from 1995-2008 and illustrated by Lucinda Rogers . Music * Frank Zappa 's album , Weasels Ripped My Flesh ( 1970 ) , with artwork by Neon Park , parodies a 1950s razor advertisement . Notes

qw_12331--Weasel.txt

Which semi-aquatic carnivorous mammal of the weasel family has only two living species: the American and the European?

Annette Carol Bening ( born May 29 , 1958 ) is an American actress . She began her career on stage with the Colorado Shakespeare Festival company in 1980 , and played Lady Macbeth in 1984 at the American Conservatory Theatre . She was nominated for the 1987 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play for her Broadway debut in Coastal Disturbances . She is a four-time Academy Award nominee ; for the films The Grifters ( 1990 ) , American Beauty ( 1999 ) , Being Julia ( 2004 ) and The Kids Are All Right ( 2010 ) . In 2006 , she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . After her film debut in the 1988 film The Great Outdoors , she starred in Valmont ( 1989 ) , Bugsy ( 1991 ) , The American President ( 1995 ) , The Siege ( 1998 ) , Open Range ( 2003 ) and Running with Scissors ( 2006 ) . She won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress for American Beauty ; Golden Globe Awards for Being Julia and The Kids Are All Right , and was nominated for a 2006 Emmy Award for Mrs. Harris . Early life Bening was born in Topeka , Kansas , the daughter of Shirley Katherine ( née Ashley ; b . 1929 ) and Arnett Grant Bening . Her mother was a church singer and soloist , and her father was a sales training consultant and insurance salesman . Her parents , natives of Iowa , were practicing Episcopalians and conservative Republicans . She is of mostly German and English descent . Bening has one sister , Jane , and two brothers , Bradley and Byron . The family moved to Wichita , Kansas in 1959 , where she spent her early childhood . In 1965 , her father took a job with a company in San Diego , California , and they moved there . She began acting in junior high school , playing the lead in The Sound of Music . She graduated in 1975 from Patrick Henry High School , where she studied drama . She then spent a year working as a cook on a charter boat taking fishing parties out on the Pacific Ocean , and scuba diving for recreation . Bening attended San Diego Mesa College , then completed an academic degree in theatre arts at San Francisco State University . Career Bening began her career on stage with the Colorado Shakespeare Festival company in 1980 , and appeared in plays at the San Diego Repertory Theatre . She was a member of the acting company at the American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco while studying acting as part of the Advanced Theatre Training Program . There , she starred in such productions as Shakespeare 's Macbeth as Lady Macbeth . Bening also starred in productions of Pygmalion and The Cherry Orchard at the Denver Center Theatre Company during the 1985–86 season . She made her Broadway debut in 1987 , garnering a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Play for her performance in Coastal Disturbances . Bening made her film debut in The Great Outdoors ( 1988 ) . Her second film appearance was as the Marquise de Merteuil in Valmont ( 1989 ) , opposite Colin Firth . Her breakthrough role was in The Grifters ( 1990 ) , which starred John Cusack and Anjelica Huston , and earned Bening a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress . In 1991 , she portrayed Virginia Hill in Barry Levinson 's biopic Bugsy , alongside Warren Beatty . Later , she appeared in Regarding Henry with Harrison Ford . In 1994 , Bening and Beatty starred in Love Affair , which also featured Katharine Hepburn . In 1995 , Bening appeared in The American President , followed by Tim Burton 's sci-fi spoof Mars Attacks ! ( 1996 ) . In 1998 , she co-starred with Denzel Washington and Bruce Willis in The Siege . The biggest critical and commercial success of her career thus far was the 1999 film American Beauty , which won the Academy Award for Best Picture and was directed by Sam Mendes . For this performance , Bening was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress and won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role . Bening also starred in the films In Dreams ( 1999 ) and What Planet Are You From ? ( 2000 ) . Bening played Sue Barlow , Charley Waite 's love interest , in Open Range ( 2003 ) . In 2004 , she played the title role in Being Julia , which earned her a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress and her second Academy Award nomination for Best Actress . She was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for her portrayal of Jean Harris the 2005 HBO film Mrs. Harris . In 2006 , she replaced Julianne Moore to star in the film adaptation of Running with Scissors . In December of that year , Bening hosted Saturday Night Live with musical guests Gwen Stefani and Akon . In 2008 , Bening starred in The Women . In 2009 , Bening starred in a new interpretation of the Euripides classic Medea at UCLA 's Freud Playhouse . The following year , she received positive reviews for her performance in the independent film Mother and Child ( 2009 ) . In 2010 , she starred in Joanna Murray-Smith ’ s comedy The Female of the Species at the Geffen Playhouse in Los Angeles . Later that year , Bening received strong critical acclaim for her performance in The Kids Are All Right , with several reviewers noting that she `` deserves an Oscar '' for her `` sublime '' performance . For that role , Bening won a second Golden Globe Award , and received Academy Award and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations . In 2012 , Bening 's audiobook recording of Virginia Woolf 's Mrs. Dalloway was released at Audible.com . It was announced in May 2014 that she would join John Lithgow in Shakespeare 's King Lear at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park , as part of the Public Theatre 's Free Shakespeare in the Park . It marked her first New York stage appearance in 20 years . Personal life Bening was married to choreographer J. Steven White from 1984 to 1991 . She has been married to actor Warren Beatty since 1992 . They have four children : Stephen Ira ( born January 8 , 1992 ) , Benjamin ( born August 23 , 1994 ) , Isabel ( born January 11 , 1997 ) and Ella ( born April 8 , 2000 ) . Bening was ordained as a minister by the Universal Life Church Monastery . Filmography Film Television Awards and honors * 2006 : Bening was awarded the Ibsen Centennial Commemoration Award * 2006 : Bening was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame * 2014 : Bening was recognized by Elle during the Women in Hollywood Awards , honoring women for their outstanding achievements in film , spanning all aspects of the motion picture industry , including acting , directing , and producing

qw_3761--Annette_Bening.txt

Which British stage director won an Oscar for his feature-film directing debut, which starred Kevin Spacey, Annette Bening, and Thora Birch?

Santiago ( ; ) , also known as Santiago de Chile , is the capital and largest city of Chile . It is also the center of its largest conurbation . Santiago is located in the country 's central valley , at an elevation of 520 m above mean sea level . Founded in 1541 , Santiago has been the capital city of Chile since colonial times . The city has a downtown core of 19th century neoclassical architecture and winding side-streets , dotted by art deco , neo-gothic , and other styles . Santiago 's cityscape is shaped by several stand-alone hills and the fast-flowing Mapocho River , lined by parks such as Parque Forestal . The Andes Mountains can be seen from most points in the city . These mountains contribute to a considerable smog problem , particularly during winter . The city outskirts are surrounded by vineyards and Santiago is within a few hours of both the mountains and the Pacific Ocean . Santiago is the cultural , political and financial center of Chile and is home to the regional headquarters of many multinational corporations . The Chilean executive and judicial powers are located in Santiago , but Congress meets mostly in nearby Valparaíso . Santiago is named after the biblical figure St. James . Nomenclature In Chile , there are several entities which bear the name of `` Santiago '' that are often confused . The Commune of Santiago , sometimes referred to as `` downtown '' or `` Central Santiago '' ( Santiago Centro ) , is an administrative division that comprises roughly the area occupied by the city during its colonial period . The commune , administered by the Municipality of Santiago and headed by a mayor , is part of the Santiago Province headed by a provincial governor , which is in itself a subdivision of the Santiago Metropolitan Region headed by an intendant . Despite these classifications , when the term `` Santiago '' is used without another descriptor , it usually refers to what is also known as Greater Santiago ( Gran Santiago ) , a territorial extension defined by its urban continuity that includes the Commune of Santiago in addition to 36 other communes , which together comprise the majority of the Santiago Province and some areas of neighboring provinces ( see Political divisions ) . The city and region 's demonym is santiaguinos ( male ) and santiaguinas ( female ) . History Founding of the city According to certain archaeological investigations , it is believed that the first human groups of the X millennium settled in the Santiago basin . The groups were mainly nomadic hunter-gatherers , who traveled from the coast to the interior in search of guanacos during the time of the Andean snowmelt . About the year 800 , the first sedentary inhabitants began to settle due to the formation of agricultural communities along the Mapocho River , mainly maize , potatoes and beans , and the domestication of camelids in the area . The villages established in the areas belonging to picunches groups ( name given by Chileans ) or promaucaes ( name given by Incas ) , were subject to the Inca Empire throughout the late fifteenth century and into the early sixteenth century . The Incas settled in the valley of mitimaes , the main installation settled in the center of the present city , with strengths as Huaca de Chena and the sanctuary of El Plomo hill . The area would have served as a basis for the failed Inca expeditions southward road junction as the Inca Trail . Having been sent by Francisco Pizarro from Peru and having made the long journey from Cuzco , Extremadura conquistador Pedro de Valdivia reached the valley of the Mapocho on 13 December 1540 . The hosts of Valdivia camped by the river in the slopes of the Tupahue hill and slowly began to interact with the picunches natives who inhabited the area . Valdivia later summoned the chiefs of the area to a parliament , where he explained his intention to found a city on behalf of the king Carlos I of Spain , which would be the capital of his governorship of Nueva Extremadura . The natives accepted and even recommended the foundation of the town on a small island between two branches of the river next to a small hill called Huelén . On 12 February 1541 , Valdivia officially founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo ( Santiago of New Extremadura ) in honor of St. James , patron saint of Spain , near the Huelén , renamed by the conqueror as `` St. Lucia '' . ( The name Santiago is the local Galician evolution of Vulgar Latin Sanctu Iacobu , `` Saint James '' . ) Following colonial rule , Valdivia entrusted the layout of the new town to master builder Pedro de Gamboa , who would design the city grid layout . In the center of the city , Gamboa designed a Plaza Mayor , around which various plots for the Cathedral and the governor 's house were selected . In total , eight blocks from north to south , and ten from east to west , were built . Each solar ( quarter block ) was given to the settlers , who built houses of mud and straw . Valdivia left months later to the south with his troops , beginning the War of Arauco . Santiago was left unprotected . The indigenous hosts of Michimalonco used this to their advantage , and attacked the fledgling city . On 11 September 1541 , the city was destroyed by the natives , but the 55 Spanish Garrison managed to defend the fort . The resistance was led by Inés de Suárez , a mistress to Valdivia . When she realized they were being overrun , she ordered the execution of all native prisoners , and proceeded to put their heads on pikes and also threw a few heads to the natives . In face of this barbaric act , the natives dispersed in terror . The city would be slowly rebuilt , giving prominence to the newly founded Concepción , where the Royal Audiencia of Chile was then founded in 1565 . However , the constant danger faced by Concepción , due partly to its proximity to the War of Arauco and also to a succession of devastating earthquakes , would not allow the definitive establishment of the Royal Court in Santiago until 1607 . This establishment reaffirmed the city 's role as capital . Colonial Santiago Although early Santiago appeared to be in imminent danger of permanent destruction , threatened by Indigenous attacks , earthquakes , and a series of floods , the city began to grow rapidly . Of the 126 blocks designed by Gamboa in 1558 , forty were occupied , and in 1580 , the first major buildings in the city began to rise , the start of construction highlighted with the placing of the foundation stone of the first Cathedral in 1561 and the building of the church of San Francisco in 1572 . Both of these constructions consisted of mainly adobe and stone . In addition to construction of important buildings , the city began to develop as nearby lands welcomed tens of thousands of livestock . A series of disasters impeded the development of the city during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries : an earthquake , a 1575 smallpox epidemic , in 1590 , 1608 , and 1618 , the Mapocho River floods , and , finally , the earthquake of 13 May 1647 , which killed over 600 people and affected more than five thousand others . However these disasters would not stop the growth of the capital of the Captaincy General of Chile at a time when all the power of the country was centered on the Plaza de Armas santiaguina . In 1767 , the corregidor Luis Manuel de Zañartu , launched one of the most important architectural works of the entire colonial period , Calicanto Bridge , effectively allowing the city to join La Chimba to north of the river , and began the construction of embankments to prevent overflows of the Mapocho River . Although the bridge was able to be built , the stems were constantly destroyed by the river . In 1780 , Governor Agustín de Jáuregui hired the Italian architect Joaquín Toesca , who would design , among other important works , the façade of the cathedral , the Palacio de La Moneda , the canal San Carlos , and the final construction of the embankments during the government of Ambrosio O'Higgins . These important works were opened permanently in 1798 . The O'Higgins government also oversaw the opening of the road to Valparaíso in 1791 , which connected the capital with the country 's main port . Capital of the Republic 18 September 1810 was proclaimed the First Government Junta in Santiago , beginning the process of establishing the independence of Chile . The city , which became the capital of the new nation , was threatened by various events , especially the nearby military actions . Although some institutions , such as the National Institute and the National Library , were installed in the Patria Vieja , they were closed after the patriot defeat at the Battle of Rancagua in 1814 . The royal government lasted until 1817 , when the Army of the Andes secured victory in battle of Chacabuco , reinstating the patriot government in Santiago . Independence , however , was not assured . The Spanish army gained new victories in 1818 and headed for Santiago , but their march was definitively halted on the plains of the Maipo River , during the Battle of Maipú on 5 April 1818 . With the end of the war , Bernardo O'Higgins was accepted as Supreme Director and , like his father , began a number of important works for the city . During the call Patria Nueva , closed institutions reopened . The General Cemetery opened , work on the canal San Carlos was completed , and , in the south arm of the Mapocho River , known as La Cañada , the drying riverbed , used for sometime as a landfill , was turned into an avenue , now known as the Alameda de las Delicias . Two new earthquakes hit the city , one on 19 November 1822 , and another on 20 February 1835 . These two events , however , did not prevent the city 's rapid , continued growth . In 1820 , the city reported 46,000 inhabitants , while in 1854 , the population reached 69,018 . In 1865 , the census reported 115,337 inhabitants . This significant increase was the result of suburban growth to the south and west of the capital , and in part to La Chimba , a vibrant district growing from the division of old properties that existed in the area . This new peripheral development led to the end of the traditional checkerboard structure that previously governed the city center . 19th century During the years of the Republican era , institutions such as the University of Chile ( Universidad de Chile ) , the Normal School of Preceptors , the School of Arts and Crafts , and the Quinta Normal , which included the Museum of Fine Arts ( now Museum of Science and Technology ) and the National Museum of Natural History , were founded . Created primarily for educational use , they also became examples of public planning during that period . In 1851 , the first telegraph system connecting the capital with the Port of Valparaíso was inaugurated . A new momentum in the urban development of the capital took place during the so-called `` Liberal Republic '' and the administration of Mayor Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna . Among the main works during this period are the remodeling of the Cerro Santa Lucía which , despite its central location , had been in a state of poor repair . In an effort to transform Santiago , Vicuña Mackenna began construction of the Camino de Cintura , a road surrounding the entire city . A new redevelopment of the Alameda Avenue turned it into the main road of the city . Also during this time and with the work of European landscapers in 1873 , O'Higgins Park came into existence . The park , open to the public , became a landmark in Santiago due to its large gardens , lakes , and carriage trails . Other important buildings were opened during this era , such as the Teatro Municipal opera house , and the Club Hípico de Santiago . At the same time , the 1875 International Exposition was held in the grounds of the Quinta Normal . The city became the main hub of the national railway system . The first railroad reached the city on 14 September 1857 , at the Santiago Estación Central railway station . Under construction at the time , the station would be opened permanently in 1884 . During those years , railways connected the city to Valparaíso as well as regions in the north and south of Chile . The streets of Santiago were paved and by 1875 and there were 1,107 cars in the city , while 45,000 people used tram services on a daily basis . The centennial Santiago With the arrival of the new century , the city began to experience various changes related to the strong development of industry . Valparaíso , which had hitherto been the economic center of the country slowly begins to lose prominence at the expense of capital . Already in 1895 , 75 % of the national manufacturing industry was in the capital and only 28 % in the harbor , and by 1910 , major banks and shops were set up in the streets of the city center , leaving Valparaíso . The enactment of the Autonomous Municipalities ' act allowed municipalities to create various administrative divisions around the then Santiago departamento , with the aim of improving local ruling . Maipú , Ñuñoa , Renca , Lampa and Colina were to be created in 1891 , Providencia and Barrancas in 1897 , and Las Condes in 1901 . The La Victoria departamento was split with the creation of Lo Cañas in 1891 , which would be split into La Granja and Puente Alto in 1892 , La Florida in 1899 , and La Cisterna in 1925 . The San Cristobal Hill in this period began a long process of development . In 1903 an astronomical observatory was installed and the following year the first stone was placed for its 14-meter Virgin Mary statue , nowadays visible from various points of city . However , the shrine would not be completed until some decades later . With the 1910 Chile Centennial celebrations , many urban projects were undertaken . The railway network was extended allowing connection of the city with its nascent suburbs by rail ring and wearing the Cajón del Maipo , while a new railway station was built in the north of the city : the Mapocho Station . At the Mapocho river southern side , the Parque Forestal was created and new buildings as the Museum of Fine Arts , the National Internship and the National Library were opened . In addition , the work would include stories , covering about 85 % of the urban population . Population explosion The 1920 census estimated the population of Santiago to be 507,296 inhabitants , equivalent to 13.6 % of the population of Chile . This represented an increase of 52.47 % from the census of 1907 , i.e . an annual growth of 3.3 % , almost three times the national figure . This growth was mainly due to the arrival of farmers from the south who came to work in factories and railroads which were under construction . However , this growth was experienced on the outskirts and not in the town itself . During this time , the downtown district was consolidated into a commercial , financial and administrative center , with the establishment of various portals and locales around Ahumada Street and a Civic District in the immediate surroundings of the Palace of La Moneda . The latter project involved the construction of various modernist buildings for the establishment of the offices of ministries and other public services , as well as commencing the construction of medium-rise buildings . On the other hand , the traditional inhabitants of the center began to migrate out of the city to more rural areas like Providencia and Ñuñoa , which hosted the oligarchy and the European immigrant professionals , and San Miguel for middle-class families . Furthermore , in the periphery villas were built various partners from various organizations of the time . Modernity expanded in the city , with the appearance of the first theaters , the extension of the telephone network and the opening of the Airport Los Cerrillos in 1928 , among other advances . The feeling that the early 20th century was an era of economic growth due to technological advances contrasted dramatically with the standard of living of lower social classes . The growth of the previous decades led to an unprecedented population explosion starting in 1929 . The Great Depression caused the collapse of the nitrate industry in the north , leaving 60,000 unemployed , which added to the decline in agricultural exports , resulting in a total number for the unemployed to be about 300,000 nationwide . These unemployed workers saw Santiago and its booming industry as the only chance to survive . Many migrants arrived in Santiago with nothing and thousands had to survive on the streets due to the great difficulty in finding a place they could rent . Widespread disease , including tuberculosis , claimed the lives of hundreds of the homeless . Unemployment and living costs increased dramatically whilst the salaries of the population of Santiago fell . The situation would change only several years later with a new industrial boom fostered by CORFO and the expansion of the state apparatus from the late 1930s . At this time , the aristocracy lost much of its power and the middle class , composed of merchants , bureaucrats and professionals , acquired the role of setting national policy . In this context , Santiago began to develop a substantial middle- and lower-class population , while the upper classes sought refuge in the districts of the capital . Thus , the old moneyed class trips to Cousino and Alameda Park , lost hegemony over popular entertainment venues such as the National Stadium emerged in 1938 . The Greater Santiago In the following decades , Santiago continued to grow unabated . In 1940 , the city accumulated 952,075 inhabitants , in 1952 this figure rose to 1,350,409 residents and the census of 1960 totaled 1,907,378 santiaguinos . This growth was reflected in the urbanization of rural areas on the periphery , where families of middle and lower class with stable housing were established : in 1930 the urban area had an area of 6500 hectares , which in 1960 reached 20 900 and in 1980 to 38 296 Although most of the communities continued to grow , it is mainly concentrated in outlying communities such as Canyon to the west , Conchalí northern and La Cisterna and La Granja to the south . For the upper class , it began to approach the foothills of Las Condes and La Reina sector . The center , however , lost people leaving more space for the development of trade , banking and government This growth took place without any regulation and only began to be implemented during the 1960s with the creation of various development plans of Greater Santiago , a concept that reflected the new reality of a much larger city . In 1958 he was released on intercommunal Plan of Santiago and proposing the organization of urban areas , setting a limit of 38 600 urban and semi hectares for a maximum population of 3,260,000 inhabitants , the construction of new avenues , like the Américo Vespucio Avenue and Panamericana route 5 , the expansion of existing and the establishment of 'industrial belts ' . The celebration of the World Cup in 1962 gave new impetus to the improvement works of the city . In 1966 the Santiago Metropolitan Park was established in the Cerro San Cristóbal and MINVU began eradicating shanty towns and the construction of new homes and the San Borja , near which was built the Edificio Diego Portales . In 1967 he opened the new International Airport Pudahuel and , after years of discussion , in 1969 started the construction of the Santiago Metro would , the first phase would run beneath the western section of the Alameda and would be inaugurated in 1975 The Metro would become one of the most prestigious buildings in the city and in the following years would continue to expand , reaching two perpendicular lines by the end of 1978 telecommunications also have an important development , reflected in the construction of the Torre Entel , which since its construction in 1975 would be one of the symbols of the capital to be the tallest structure in the country for two decades . After the coup of 1973 and the establishment of the military regime , urban planning major changes did not start until the 1980s , when the government adopted a neoliberal economic model and the role of organizer passes the state to the market . In 1979 the master plan was amended , extending the urban area to more than 62 000 ha for real estate development , causing a new sprawl of the city , reaching the 40 619 ha in size in the early 1990s , especially in the Near La Florida , in the 1992 census became the country 's most populous municipality with 328,881 inhabitants . Meanwhile , a strong earthquake struck the city on 3 March 1985 , although it caused few casualties , left many homeless and destroying many old buildings . The metropolis in the early twenty-first century With the start of the transition in 1990 , the city of Santiago and surpassed the four million inhabitants , preferably living in the south : La Florida was followed in population by Puente Alto and Maipú . The real estate development in these municipalities and others like Quilicura and Peñalolen largely due to the construction of housing projects for middle-class families . Meanwhile , high-income families moved into the foothills and called Barrio Alto , increasing the population of Las Condes and giving rise to new communes like Vitacura and Lo Barnechea . Moreover , although poverty began to drop significantly , there remained a strong dichotomy between the thriving global city and scattered city slums . Providencia Avenue area was consolidated as an important commercial hub in the eastern sector and into the 1990s , this development was extended to the Barrio Alto which became an attractive location for the construction of high-rise buildings . Major companies and financial corporations were established in the area , giving rise to a thriving modern business center known as Sanhattan . The departure of these companies to Barrio Alto and the construction of shopping centers all around the city , creating a crisis in the city center , which had reinvented : its main shopping streets turned into pedestrian walkways , as the Paseo Ahumada , and instituted tax benefits for the construction of residential buildings , mainly attracting young adults . In these years , the city began to face a series of problems generated by disorganized growth . Air pollution reached critical levels during the winter months and a layer of smog settled over the city , so the authorities adopted legislative measures to reduce industrial pollution and placed vehicle restrictions on cars . The Metro was expanded considerably , extending its lines and creating three new lines between 1997 and 2006 in the southeastern sector . A new extension to Maipú was inaugurated in 2011 , leaving the metropolitan railway with a length of 105 km . In the case of buses , the system underwent a major reform in the early 1990s and then in 2007 with the establishment of a master plan known as Transantiago transport , which has faced a number of problems since its launch . As we enter the twenty-first century , Santiago persists in its rapid development . The Civic District was renewed with the creation of the Plaza de la Ciudadanía and construction of the Ciudad Parque Bicentenario to commemorate the bicentenary of the Republic . The development of tall buildings continues in the eastern sector , which will culminate in the opening of skyscrapers Titanium La Portada and Gran Torre Santiago in real Costanera Center complex . However , socioeconomic inequality and geosocial fragmentation remain two of the most important problems , both city and country . The 27 February 2010 , a strong earthquake was felt in the capital , causing some damage to old buildings ; however , some modern buildings are uninhabitable , generating much debate about the actual implementation of mandatory earthquake standards in the modern architecture of Santiago . In the coming years the development of several new projects in many areas , especially in transport is expected . Reshaping the international airport by 2012 and expansion of rail services is expected , including several projects currently under evaluation as a network of trams in Las Condes , close to trains Lampa and Padre Hurtado ( Melitrén ) and a high-speed train that connects the capital to Valparaíso and Viña del Mar . Two new urban highways , Vespucci East and Central Costanera , are in the bidding process , while the Santiago Metro announced the construction of two new lines ; 3 and 6 to this transformation would add parks on the banks of the Mapocho river , navigable become a flagship project of Sebastián Piñera who was President between 2010 and 2014 . Geography The city lies in the center of the Santiago Basin , a large bowl-shaped valley consisting of broad and fertile lands surrounded by mountains . The city has a varying elevation , with 400 m in the western areas and 540 m at the Plaza Baquedano . It is flanked by the main chain of the Andes to the east and the Chilean Coastal Range to the west . On the north , it is bounded by the Cordón de Chacabuco , a mountain range of the Andes . The Andes mountains around Santiago are quite elevated ; the tallest is the Tupungato mountain at . Other mountains include Tupungatito , San José , and Maipo . Cerro El Plomo is the highest mountain visible from Santiago 's urban area . The Mapocho River flows through the city . At the southern border lies the Angostura de Paine , an elongated spur of the Andes that almost reaches the coast . The Santiago Basin is part of the Intermediate Depression and is remarkably flat , interrupted only by a few hills ; among them are Cerro Renca , Cerro Blanco , and Cerro Santa Lucía . This basin is approximately 80 km in a north–south direction and 35 km from east to west . To the east stands the massive Sierra de Ramón , a mountain chain formed at the foothills of the Precordillera due to the activity of the San Ramón Fault , reaching 3296 metres at the Cerro de Ramón . 20 km further east is the Cordillera of the Andes with its mountain ranges and volcanoes , many of which exceed 6000 m and in which some glaciers are present . During recent decades , urban growth has outgrown the boundaries of the city , expanding to the east closer to the Andean Precordillera . In areas such as La Dehesa , Lo Curro , and El Arrayan , urban development is present at over 1,000 metres of altitude . File : El Colorado ski.jpg|Ski Center El Colorado File : San Cristóbal altura.jpg|Cerro San Cristobal File : Pre-Cordillera de los Andes , Santiago , Chile.JPG|Santiago in winter File : Santiago de Chile.jpg|Santiago in summer Climate Santiago has a cool semi-arid climate ( BSk according to the Köppen climate classification ) , with Mediterranean ( Csb ) patterns : warm dry summers ( November to March ) with temperatures reaching up to 35 °C on the hottest days ; winters ( June to August ) are cool and humid , with cool to cold mornings ; typical daily maximum temperatures of 14 °C , and low temperatures near 0 °C Mean rainfall is 282 mm per year , about 80 % of which occurs during the winter months ( May to September ) , varying between 50 and

sfq_4807--Santiago.txt

Which South American capital was founded on the banks of the Rio Mapocho by Pedro de Valdivia in 1541?

The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy ( sometimes referred to as HG2G , HHGTTG or H2G2 ) is a comedy science fiction series created by Douglas Adams . Originally a radio comedy broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 1978 , it was later adapted to other formats , including stage shows , novels , comic book adaptations , a 1981 TV series , a 1984 computer game , and 2005 feature film . The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy has become an international multi-media phenomenon . The novels are the most widely distributed , having been translated into more than 30 languages by 2005 . The broad narrative follows the misadventures of the last surviving human , Arthur Dent , following the demolition of the planet Earth by a Vogon constructor fleet to make way for a hyperspace bypass . Dent is rescued from Earth 's destruction by Ford Prefect , a human-like alien writer for the fictional , eccentric , electronic travel guide , The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , by hitchhiking onto a passing spacecraft . Following his rescue , Dent explores the galaxy with Prefect and encounters Trillian , another human that had been taken from Earth prior to its destruction by the President of the Galaxy , the two-headed Zaphod Beeblebrox , and the depressed Marvin , the Paranoid Android . Certain narrative details were changed between the various adaptations . Plot The various versions follow the same basic plot but they are in many places mutually contradictory , as Adams rewrote the story substantially for each new adaptation . Throughout all versions , the series follows the adventures of Arthur Dent , a hapless Englishman , following the destruction of the Earth by the Vogons to make way for an intergalactic bypass . Dent 's adventures intersect with several other characters : Ford Prefect ( who named himself after the Ford Prefect car to blend in with what was assumed to be the dominant life form , automobiles ) , an alien from a small planet somewhere in the vicinity of Betelgeuse and a researcher for the eponymous guidebook who rescues Dent from Earth 's destruction ; Zaphod Beeblebrox , Ford 's eccentric semi-cousin and the Galactic President ; the depressed robot Marvin the Paranoid Android ; and Trillian , formerly known as Tricia McMillan , a woman Arthur once met at a party in Islington and the only other human survivor of Earth 's destruction thanks to Beeblebrox ' intervention . Background The first radio series comes from a proposal called `` The Ends of the Earth '' : six self-contained episodes , all ending with Earth 's being destroyed in a different way . While writing the first episode , Adams realized that he needed someone on the planet who was an alien to provide some context , and that this alien needed a reason to be there . Adams finally settled on making the alien a roving researcher for a `` wholly remarkable book '' named The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy . As the first radio episode 's writing progressed , the Guide became the centre of his story , and he decided to focus the series on it , with the destruction of Earth being the only hold-over . Adams claimed that the title came from a 1971 incident while he was hitchhiking around Europe as a young man with a copy of the Hitch-hiker 's Guide to Europe book : while lying drunk in a field near Innsbruck with a copy of the book and looking up at the stars , he thought it would be a good idea for someone to write a hitchhiker 's guide to the galaxy as well . However , he later claimed that he had told this story so many times that he had forgotten the incident itself , and only remembered himself telling the story . His friends are quoted as saying that Adams mentioned the idea of `` hitch-hiking around the galaxy '' to them while on holiday in Greece in 1973 . Adams 's fictional Guide is an electronic guidebook to the Milky Way galaxy , originally published by Megadodo Publications , one of the great publishing houses of Ursa Minor Beta . The narrative of the various versions of the story are frequently punctuated with excerpts from the Guide . The voice of the Guide ( Peter Jones in the first two radio series and TV versions , later William Franklyn in the third , fourth and fifth radio series , and Stephen Fry in the movie version ) , also provides general narration . Original radio series The first radio series of six episodes ( called `` Fits '' after the names of the sections of Lewis Carroll 's nonsense poem `` The Hunting of the Snark '' ) was broadcast in 1978 on BBC Radio 4 . Despite a low-key launch of the series ( the first episode was broadcast at 10:30 pm on Wednesday , 8 March 1978 ) , it received generally good reviews and a tremendous audience reaction for radio . A one-off episode ( a `` Christmas special '' ) was broadcast later in the year . The BBC had a practice at the time of commissioning `` Christmas Special '' episodes for popular radio series , and while an early draft of this episode of The Hitchhiker 's Guide had a Christmas-related plotline , it was decided to be `` in slightly poor taste '' and the episode as transmitted served as a bridge between the two series . This episode was released as part of the second radio series and , later , The Secondary Phase on cassettes and CDs . The Primary and Secondary Phases were aired , in a slightly edited version , in the United States on NPR Playhouse . The first series was repeated twice in 1978 alone and many more times in the next few years . This led to an LP re-recording , produced independently of the BBC for sale , and a further adaptation of the series as a book . A second radio series , which consisted of a further six episodes , and bringing the total number of episodes to 12 , was broadcast in 1980 . The radio series ( and the LP and TV versions ) greatly benefited from the narration of noted comedy actor Peter Jones as The Book . He was cast after it was decided that a `` Peter Jonesy '' sort of voice was required . This led to a three-month search for an actor who sounded exactly like Peter Jones , which was unsuccessful : the producers then hired Peter Jones as exactly the `` Peter Jonesy '' voice they were looking for . The series was also notable for its use of sound , being the first comedy series to be produced in stereo . Adams said that he wanted the programme 's production to be comparable to that of a modern rock album . Much of the programme 's budget was spent on sound effects , which were largely the work of Paddy Kingsland ( for the pilot episode and the complete second series ) at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop and Dick Mills and Harry Parker ( for the remaining episodes ( 2–6 ) of the first series ) . The fact that they were at the forefront of modern radio production in 1978 and 1980 was reflected when the three new series of Hitchhiker 's became some of the first radio shows to be mixed into four-channel Dolby Surround . This mix was also featured on DVD releases of the third radio series . The theme tune used for the radio , television , LP and film versions is `` Journey of the Sorcerer '' , an instrumental piece composed by Bernie Leadon and recorded by The Eagles on their album One of These Nights . Only the transmitted radio series used the original recording ; a sound-alike cover by Tim Souster was used for the LP and TV series , another arrangement by Joby Talbot was used for the 2005 film , and still another arrangement , this time by Philip Pope , was recorded to be released with the CDs of the last three radio series . Apparently , Adams chose this song for its futuristic-sounding nature , but also for the fact that it had a banjo in it , which , as Geoffrey Perkins recalls , Adams said would give an `` on the road , hitch-hiking feel '' to it . The twelve episodes were released ( in a slightly edited form , removing the Pink Floyd music and two other tunes `` hummed '' by Marvin when the team land on Magrathea ) on CD and cassette in 1988 , becoming the first CD release in the BBC Radio Collection . They were re-released in 1992 , and at this time Adams suggested that they could retitle Fits the First through Sixth as `` The Primary Phase '' and Fits the Seventh through Twelfth as `` The Secondary Phase '' instead of just `` the first series '' and `` the second series '' . It was about at this time that a `` Tertiary Phase '' was first discussed with Dirk Maggs , adapting Life , the Universe and Everything , but this series would not be recorded for another ten years . The audience survey reaction report at the time actually reported a very split reaction – people hated it , or loved it . The decision to commission the second series was backed by management gut instincts rather than clear metrics . Main cast : * Simon Jones as Arthur Dent * Geoffrey McGivern as Ford Prefect * Susan Sheridan as Trillian * Mark Wing-Davey as Zaphod Beeblebrox * Stephen Moore as Marvin , the Paranoid Android * Richard Vernon as Slartibartfast * Peter Jones as The Book Novels The novels are described as `` a trilogy in five parts '' , having been described as a trilogy on the release of the third book , and then a `` trilogy in four parts '' on the release of the fourth book . The US edition of the fifth book was originally released with the legend `` The fifth book in the increasingly inaccurately named Hitchhiker 's Trilogy '' on the cover . Subsequent re-releases of the other novels bore the legend `` The [ first , second , third , fourth ] book in the increasingly inaccurately named Hitchhiker 's Trilogy '' . In addition , the blurb on the fifth book describes it as `` the book that gives a whole new meaning to the word 'trilogy . The plots of the television and radio series are more or less the same as that of the first two novels , though some of the events occur in a different order and many of the details are changed . Much of parts five and six of the radio series were written by John Lloyd , but his material did not make it into the other versions of the story and is not included here . Many consider the books ' version of events to be definitive , because they are the most readily accessible and widely distributed version of the story . However , they are not the final version that Adams produced . Before his death from a heart attack at age 49 in 2001 , Adams was considering writing a sixth novel in the Hitchhiker 's series . He was working on a third Dirk Gently novel , under the working title The Salmon of Doubt , but felt that the book was not working and abandoned it . In an interview , he said some of the ideas in the book might fit better in the Hitchhiker 's series , and suggested he might rework those ideas into a sixth book in that series . He described Mostly Harmless as `` a very bleak book '' and said he `` would love to finish Hitchhiker on a slightly more upbeat note '' . Adams also remarked that if he were to write a sixth instalment , he would at least start with all the characters in the same place . Eoin Colfer , who wrote the sixth book in the Hitchhiker 's series in 2008–09 , used this latter concept but none of the plot ideas from The Salmon of Doubt . The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy In The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy ( published in 1979 ) , the characters visit the legendary planet Magrathea , home to the now-collapsed planet-building industry , and meet Slartibartfast , a planetary coastline designer who was responsible for the fjords of Norway . Through archival recordings , he relates the story of a race of hyper-intelligent pan-dimensional beings who built a computer named Deep Thought to calculate the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life , the Universe , and Everything . When the answer was revealed to be 42 , Deep Thought explained that the answer was incomprehensible because the beings did n't know what they were asking . It went on to predict that another computer , more powerful than itself would be made and designed by it to calculate the question for the answer . ( Later on , referencing this , Adams would create the 42 Puzzle , a puzzle which could be approached in multiple ways , all yielding the answer 42 . ) The computer , often mistaken for a planet ( because of its size and use of biological components ) , was the Earth , and was destroyed by Vogons to make way for a hyperspatial express route five minutes before the conclusion of its 10-million-year program . Two members of the race of hyper-intelligent pan-dimensional beings who commissioned the Earth in the first place disguise themselves as Trillian 's mice , and want to dissect Arthur 's brain to help reconstruct the question , since he was part of the Earth 's matrix moments before it was destroyed , and so he is likely to have part of the question buried in his brain . Trillian is also human but had left Earth six months previously with Zaphod Beeblebrox , President of the Galaxy . The protagonists escape , setting course for `` The Restaurant at the End of the Universe '' . The mice , in Arthur 's absence , create a phony question since it is too troublesome for them to wait 10 million years again just to cash in on a lucrative deal . The book was adapted from the first four radio episodes . It was first published in 1979 , initially in paperback , by Pan Books , after BBC Publishing had turned down the offer of publishing a novelisation , an action they would later regret . The book reached number one on the book charts in only its second week , and sold over 250,000 copies within three months of its release . A hardback edition was published by Harmony Books , a division of Random House in the United States in October 1980 , and the 1981 US paperback edition was promoted by the give-away of 3,000 free copies in the magazine Rolling Stone to build word of mouth . In 2005 , Del Rey Books rereleased the Hitchhiker series with new covers for the release of the 2005 movie . To date , it has sold over 14 million copies . A photo-illustrated edition of the first novel appeared in 1994 . The Restaurant at the End of the Universe In The Restaurant at the End of the Universe ( published in 1980 ) , Zaphod is separated from the others and finds he is part of a conspiracy to uncover who really runs the Universe . Zaphod meets Zarniwoop , a conspirator and editor for The Guide , who knows where to find the secret ruler . Zaphod becomes briefly reunited with the others for a trip to Milliways , the restaurant of the title . Zaphod and Ford decide to steal a ship from there , which turns out to be a stunt ship pre-programmed to plunge into a star as a special effect in a stage show . Unable to change course , the main characters get Marvin to run the teleporter they find in the ship , which is working other than having no automatic control ( someone must remain behind to operate it ) , and Marvin seemingly sacrifices himself . Zaphod and Trillian discover that the Universe is in the safe hands of a simple man living on a remote planet in a wooden shack with his cat . Ford and Arthur , meanwhile , end up on a spacecraft full of the outcasts of the Golgafrinchan civilisation . The ship crashes on prehistoric Earth ; Ford and Arthur are stranded , and it becomes clear that the inept Golgafrinchans are the ancestors of modern humans , having displaced the Earth 's indigenous hominids . This has disrupted the Earth 's programming so that when Ford and Arthur manage to extract the final readout from Arthur 's subconscious mind by pulling lettered tiles from a Scrabble set , it is `` What do you get if you multiply six by nine ? '' Arthur then comments , `` I 've always said there was something fundamentally wrong with the universe . '' The book was adapted from the remaining material in the radio series—covering from the fifth episode to the twelfth episode , although the ordering was greatly changed ( in particular , the events of Fit the Sixth , with Ford and Arthur being stranded on pre-historic Earth , end the book , and their rescue in Fit the Seventh is deleted ) , and most of the Brontitall incident was omitted , instead of the Haggunenon sequence , co-written by John Loyd , the Disaster Area stunt ship was substituted—this having first been introduced in the LP version . Adams himself considered Restaurant to be his best novel of the five . Life , the Universe and Everything In Life , the Universe and Everything ( published in 1982 ) , Ford and Arthur travel through the space-time continuum from prehistoric Earth to Lord 's Cricket Ground . There they run into Slartibartfast , who enlists their aid in preventing galactic war . Long ago , the people of Krikkit attempted to wipe out all life in the Universe , but they were stopped and imprisoned on their home planet ; now they are poised to escape . With the help of Marvin , Zaphod and Trillian , our heroes prevent the destruction of life in the Universe and go their separate ways . This was the first Hitchhiker 's book originally written as a book and not adapted from radio . Its story was based on a treatment Adams had written for a Doctor Who theatrical release , with the Doctor role being split between Slartibartfast ( to begin with ) , and later Trillian and Arthur . In 2004 it was adapted for radio as the Tertiary Phase of the radio series . So Long , and Thanks for All the Fish In So Long , and Thanks for All the Fish ( published in 1984 ) , Arthur returns home to Earth , rather surprisingly since it was destroyed when he left . He meets and falls in love with a girl named Fenchurch , and discovers this Earth is a replacement provided by the dolphins in their Save the Humans campaign . Eventually he rejoins Ford , who claims to have saved the Universe in the meantime , to hitch-hike one last time and see God 's Final Message to His Creation . Along the way , they are joined by Marvin , the Paranoid Android , who , although 37 times older than the universe itself ( what with time travel and all ) , has just enough power left in his failing body to read the message and feel better about it all before expiring . This was the first Hitchhiker 's novel which was not an adaptation of any previously written story or script . In 2005 it was adapted for radio as the Quandary Phase of the radio series . Mostly Harmless Finally , in Mostly Harmless ( published in 1992 ) , Vogons take over The Hitchhiker 's Guide ( under the name of InfiniDim Enterprises ) , to finish , once and for all , the task of obliterating the Earth . After abruptly losing Fenchurch and travelling around the galaxy despondently , Arthur 's spaceship crashes on the planet Lamuella , where he settles in happily as the official sandwich-maker for a small village of simple , peaceful people . Meanwhile , Ford Prefect breaks into The Guide 's offices , gets himself an infinite expense account from the computer system , and then meets The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , Mark II , an artificially intelligent , multi-dimensional guide with vast power and a hidden purpose . After he declines this dangerously powerful machine 's aid ( which he receives anyway ) , he sends it to Arthur Dent for safety ( `` Oh yes , whose ? `` —Arthur ) . Trillian uses DNA that Arthur donated for travelling money to have a daughter , and when she goes to cover a war , she leaves her daughter Random Frequent Flyer Dent with Arthur . Random , a more than typically troubled teenager , steals The Guide Mark II and uses it to get to Earth . Arthur , Ford , Trillian , and Tricia McMillan ( Trillian in this alternate universe ) follow her to a crowded club , where an anguished Random becomes startled by a noise and inadvertently fires her gun at Arthur . The shot misses Arthur and kills a man ( the ever-unfortunate Agrajag ) . Immediately afterwards , The Guide Mark II causes the removal of all possible Earths from probability . All of the main characters , save Zaphod , were on Earth at the time and are apparently killed , bringing a good deal of satisfaction to the Vogons . In 2005 it was adapted for radio as the Quintessential Phase of the radio series , with the final episode first transmitted on 21 June 2005 . And Another Thing ... It was announced on 17 September 2008 that the author of Artemis Fowl , Eoin Colfer , had been commissioned to write the sixth instalment entitled And Another Thing ... with the support of Jane Belson , Adams 's widow . The story begins as death rays bear down on Earth , and the characters awaken from a virtual reality . Zaphod picks them up shortly before they are killed , but completely fails to escape the death beams . They are then saved by Bowerick Wowbagger , the Infinitely Prolonged , whom they agree to help kill . Zaphod travels to Asgard to get Thor 's help . In the meantime , the Vogons are heading to destroy a colony of people who also escaped Earth 's destruction , on the planet Nano . Arthur , Wowbagger , Trillian and Random head to Nano to try to stop the Vogons , and on the journey , Wowbagger and Trillian fall in love , making Wowbagger question whether or not he wants to be killed . Zaphod arrives with Thor , who then signs up to be the planet 's God . With Random 's help , Thor almost kills Wowbagger . Wowbagger , who merely loses his immortality , then marries Trillian . Thor then stops the first Vogon attack , and apparently dies . Meanwhile , Constant Mown , son of Prostetnic Jeltz , convinces his father that the people on the planet are not citizens of Earth , but are , in fact , citizens of Nano , which means that it would be illegal to kill them . As the book draws to a close , Arthur is on his way to check out a possible university for Random , when , during a hyperspace jump , he is flung across alternate universes , has a brief encounter with Fenchurch , and ends up exactly where he would want to be . And then the Vogons turn up again . The book was published by Penguin Books in the UK and Hyperion in the US on 12 October 2009 . Omnibus editions Two omnibus editions were created by Douglas Adams to combine the Hitchhiker series novels and to `` set the record straight '' . `` Introduction : A Guide to the Guide - Some unhelpful remarks from the author '' by Adams p.vi-xi in the omnibus edition `` The More Than Complete Hitchhiker 's Guide '' ISBN 0-681-40322-5 The stories came in so many different formats that Adams stated that every time he told it he would contradict himself . Therefore , he stated in the introduction of The More Than Complete Hitchhiker 's Guide that `` anything I put down wrong here is , as far as I 'm concerned , wrong for good . '' The two omnibus editions were The More Than Complete Hitchhiker 's Guide , Complete and Unabridged ( published in 1987 ) and The Ultimate Hitchhiker 's Guide , Complete and Unabridged ( published in 1997 ) . The More Than Complete Hitchhiker 's Guide Published in 1987 , this 624 page leatherbound omnibus edition contains `` wrong for good '' versions of the four Hitchhiker series novels at the time , and also includes one short story : * The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy * The Restaurant at the End of the Universe * Life , the Universe and Everything * So Long , and Thanks for All the Fish * `` Young Zaphod Plays it Safe '' The Ultimate Hitchhiker 's Guide Published in 1997 , this 832 page leatherbound final omnibus edition contains five Hitchhiker series novels and one short story : * The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy * The Restaurant at the End of the Universe * Life , the Universe and Everything * So Long , and Thanks for All the Fish * Mostly Harmless * `` Young Zaphod Plays it Safe '' Also appearing in The Ultimate Hitchhiker 's Guide , at the end of Adams 's introduction , is a list of instructions on `` How to Leave the Planet , '' providing a humorous explanation of how one might replicate Arthur and Ford 's feat at the beginning of Hitchhikers . Other Hitchhiker's-related books and stories Related stories A short story by Adams , `` Young Zaphod Plays It Safe '' , first appeared in The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book , a special large-print compilation of different stories and pictures that raised money for the new ( at the time ) Comic Relief charity in the UK . The story also appears in some of the omnibus editions of the trilogy , and in The Salmon of Doubt . There are two versions of this story , one of which is slightly more explicit in its political commentary . A novel , Douglas Adams 's Starship Titanic written by Terry Jones , is based on Adams 's computer game of the same name , which in turn is based on an idea from Life , the Universe and Everything . The idea concerns a luxury passenger starship that suffers `` sudden and gratuitous total existence failure '' on its maiden voyage . Wowbagger the Infinitely Prolonged , a character from Life , the Universe and Everything , also appears in a short story by Adams titled `` The Private Life of Genghis Khan '' which appears in some early editions of The Salmon of Doubt . Published radio scripts Douglas Adams and Geoffrey Perkins collaborated on The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy : The Original Radio Scripts , first published in the United Kingdom and United States in 1985 . A tenth-anniversary ( of the script book publication ) edition was printed in 1995 , and a twenty-fifth-anniversary ( of the first radio series broadcast ) edition was printed in 2003 . The 2004 series was produced by Above The Title Productions and the scripts were published in July 2005 , with production notes for each episode . This second radio script book is entitled The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy Radio Scripts : The Tertiary , Quandary and Quintessential Phases . Douglas Adams gets the primary writer 's credit ( as he wrote the original novels ) , and there is a foreword by Simon Jones

odql_13241--The_Hitchhiker's_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.txt

“And Another Thing...” by Eoin Colfer, published in 2009, eight years after the death of the author of the first five, is described as the sixth in which trilogy of books?

A still life ( plural still lifes ) is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter , typically commonplace objects which may be either natural ( food , flowers , dead animals , plants , rocks , or shells ) or man-made ( drinking glasses , books , vases , jewelry , coins , pipes , and so on ) . With origins in the Middle Ages and Ancient Graeco-Roman art , still-life painting emerged as a distinct genre and professional specialization in Western painting by the late 16th century , and has remained significant since then . Still life gives the artist more freedom in the arrangement of elements within a composition than do paintings of other types of subjects such as landscape or portraiture . Early still-life paintings , particularly before 1700 , often contained religious and allegorical symbolism relating to the objects depicted . Some modern still life breaks the two-dimensional barrier and employs three-dimensional mixed media , and uses found objects , photography , computer graphics , as well as video and sound . Still life emerged from the painting of details in larger compositions with subjects , and historically has been often combined with figure subjects , especially in Flemish Baroque painting . The term includes the painting of dead animals , especially game . Live ones are considered animal art , although in practice they were often painted from dead models . The still-life category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially botanical illustration , where there has been considerable overlap among artists . Generally a still life includes a fully depicted background , and puts aesthetic rather than illustrative concerns as primary . Still life occupied the lowest rung of the hierarchy of genres , but still has been extremely popular with buyers . As well as the independent still-life subject , still-life painting encompasses other types of painting with prominent still-life elements , usually symbolic , and `` images that rely on a multitude of still-life elements ostensibly to reproduce a 'slice of life ' . The trompe-l'œil painting , which intends to deceive the viewer into thinking the scene is real , is a specialized type of still life , usually showing inanimate and relatively flat objects . Antecedents and development Still-life paintings often adorn the interior of ancient Egyptian tombs . It was believed that food objects and other items depicted there would , in the afterlife , become real and available for use by the deceased . Ancient Greek vase paintings also demonstrate great skill in depicting everyday objects and animals . Peiraikos is mentioned by Pliny the Elder as a panel painter of `` low '' subjects , such as survive in mosaic versions and provincial wall-paintings at Pompeii : `` barbers ' shops , cobblers ' stalls , asses , eatables and similar subjects '' . Similar still life , more simply decorative in intent , but with realistic perspective , have also been found in the Roman wall paintings and floor mosaics unearthed at Pompeii , Herculaneum and the Villa Boscoreale , including the later familiar motif of a glass bowl of fruit . Decorative mosaics termed `` emblema '' , found in the homes of rich Romans , demonstrated the range of food enjoyed by the upper classes , and also functioned as signs of hospitality and as celebrations of the seasons and of life . By the 16th century , food and flowers would again appear as symbols of the seasons and of the five senses . Also starting in Roman times is the tradition of the use of the skull in paintings as a symbol of mortality and earthly remains , often with the accompanying phrase Omnia mors aequat ( Death makes all equal ) . These vanitas images have been re-interpreted through the last 400 years of art history , starting with Dutch painters around 1600 . The popular appreciation of the realism of still-life painting is related in the ancient Greek legend of Zeuxis and Parrhasius , who are said to have once competed to create the most lifelike objects , history ’ s earliest descriptions of trompe-l'œil painting . As Pliny the Elder recorded in ancient Roman times , Greek artists centuries earlier were already advanced in the arts of portrait painting , genre painting and still life . He singled out Peiraikos , `` whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few ... He painted barbershops and shoemakers ’ stalls , donkeys , vegetables , and such , and for that reason came to be called the ‘ painter of vulgar subjects ’ ; yet these works are altogether delightful , and they were sold at higher prices than the greatest [ paintings ] of many other artists . '' Middle Ages and Renaissance By 1300 , starting with Giotto and his pupils , still-life painting was revived in the form of fictional niches on religious wall paintings which depicted everyday objects . Through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance , still life in Western art remained primarily an adjunct to Christian religious subjects , and convened religious and allegorical meaning . This was particularly true in the work of Northern European artists , whose fascination with highly detailed optical realism and symbolism led them to lavish great attention on their paintings ' overall message . Painters like Jan van Eyck often used still-life elements as part of an iconographic program . The development of oil painting technique by Jan van Eyck and other Northern European artists made it possible to paint everyday objects in this hyper-realistic fashion , owing to the slow drying , mixing , and layering qualities of oil colors . Among the first to break free of religious meaning were Leonardo da Vinci , who created watercolor studies of fruit ( around 1495 ) as part of his restless examination of nature , and Albrecht Dürer who also made precise drawings of flora and fauna . Petrus Christus ’ portrait of a bride and groom visiting a goldsmith is a typical example of a transitional still life depicting both religious and secular content . Though mostly allegorical in message , the figures of the couple are realistic and the objects shown ( coins , vessels , etc . ) are accurately painted but the goldsmith is actually a depiction of St. Eligius and the objects heavily symbolic . Another similar type of painting is the family portrait combining figures with a well-set table of food , which symbolizes both the piety of the human subjects and their thanks for God ’ s abundance . Around this time , simple still-life depictions divorced of figures ( but not allegorical meaning ) were beginning to be painted on the outside of shutters of private devotional paintings . Another step toward the autonomous still life was the painting of symbolic flowers in vases on the back of secular portraits around 1475 . Jacopo de ’ Barbari went a step further with his Still Life with Partridge , Iron Gloves , and Crossbow Arrows ( 1504 ) , among the earliest signed and dated trompe-l'œil still-life paintings , which contains minimal religious content . Still Life Sixteenth century Though most still lifes after 1600 were relatively small paintings , a crucial stage in the development of the genre was the tradition , mostly centred on Antwerp , of the `` monumental still life '' , which were large paintings that included great spreads of still-life material with figures and often animals . This was a development by Pieter Aertsen , whose A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms ( 1551 , now Uppsala ) introduced the type with a painting that still startles . Another example is `` The Butcher Shop '' by Aertsen 's nephew Joachim Beuckelaer ( 1568 ) , with its realistic depiction of raw meats dominating the foreground , while a background scene conveys the dangers of drunkenness and lechery . The type of very large kitchen or market scene developed by Pieter Aertsen and his nephew Joachim Beuckelaer typically depicts an abundance of food with a kitchenware still life and burly Flemish kitchen-maids . A small religious scene can often be made out in the distance , or a theme such as the Four Seasons is added to elevate the subject . This sort of large-scale still life continued to develop in Flemish painting after the separation of the North and South , but is rare in Dutch painting , although other works in this tradition anticipate the `` merry company '' type of genre painting . Gradually , religious content diminished in size and placement in this type of painting , though moral lessons continued as sub-contexts . One of the relatively few Italian works in the style , Annibale Carracci ’ s treatment of the same subject in 1583 , Butcher 's Shop , begins to remove the moral messages , as did other `` kitchen and market '' still-life paintings of this period . Vincenzo Campi probably introduced the Antwerp style to Italy in the 1570s . The tradition continued into the next century , with several works by Rubens , who mostly sub-contracted the still-life and animal elements to specialist masters such as Frans Snyders and his pupil Jan Fyt . By the second half of the 16th century , the autonomous still life evolved . The 16th century witnessed an explosion of interest in the natural world and the creation of lavish botanical encyclopædias recording the discoveries of the New World and Asia . It also prompted the beginning of scientific illustration and the classification of specimens . Natural objects began to be appreciated as individual objects of study apart from any religious or mythological associations . The early science of herbal remedies began at this time as well , which was a practical extension of this new knowledge . In addition , wealthy patrons began to underwrite the collection of animal and mineral specimens , creating extensive cabinets of curiosities . These specimens served as models for painters who sought realism and novelty . Shells , insects , exotic fruits and flowers began to be collected and traded , and new plants such as the tulip ( imported to Europe from Turkey ) , were celebrated in still-life paintings . The horticultural explosion was of widespread interest in Europe and artist capitalized on that to produce thousands of still-life paintings . Some regions and courts had particular interests . The depiction of citrus , for example , was a particular passion of the Medici court in Florence , Italy . This great diffusion of natural specimens and the burgeoning interest in natural illustration throughout Europe , resulted in the nearly simultaneous creation of modern still-life paintings around 1600 . File : Jacopo de ' Barbari 001.jpg|Jacopo de ' Barbari , Still-Life with Partridge and Gauntlets ( 1504 ) , a very early independent still life , perhaps the back or cover for a portrait File : A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms - Pieter Aertsen - Google Cultural Institute.jpg|Pieter Aertsen , A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms ( 1551 ) , 123.3 × 150 cm ( 48.5 × 59″ ) File : Joachim Beuckelaer 003.jpg|Joachim Beuckelaer ( 1533–1575 ) , Kitchen scene , with Jesus in the house of Martha and Mary in the background ( 1566 ) , 171 × 250 cm ( 67.3 × 98.4 in ) . File : Carracci-Butcher 's shop.jpg|Annibale Carracci ( 1560–1609 ) , Butcher 's Shop ( 1580 ) At the turn of the century the Spanish painter Juan Sánchez Cotán pioneered the Spanish still life with austerely tranquil paintings of vegetables , before entering a monastery in his forties in 1603 , after which he painted religious subjects . Sixteenth-century paintings File : Canestra di frutta ( Caravaggio ) .jpg|Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio , Fruitbasket ( 1595–96 ) , oil on canvas , 31 x 47 cm File : Fra Juan Sánchez Cotán 001.jpg|Juan Sánchez Cotán ( 1560–1627 ) , Still life with Quince , Cabbage , Melon and Cucumber , oil on canvas , 69x 84,5 cm File : Still Life with Game Fowl , Vegetables and Fruits , Prado , Museum , Madrid,1602 , HernaniCollection.jpg|Juan Sánchez Cotán , Still Life with Game Fowl , Vegetables and Fruits ( 1602 ) , Museo del Prado Madrid File : Giovanni Ambrogio Figino - Teller mit Pfirsichen.jpg|Giovanni Ambrogio Figino , Metal Plate with Peaches and Vine Leaves ( 1591–94 ) , panel , 21 x 30 cm , his only known still life Seventeenth century Prominent Academicians of the early 17th century , such as Andrea Sacchi , felt that genre and still-life painting did not carry the `` gravitas '' merited for painting to be considered great . An influential formulation of 1667 by André Félibien , a historiographer , architect and theoretician of French classicism became the classic statement of the theory of the hierarchy of genres for the 18th century : Celui qui fait parfaitement des païsages est au-dessus d'un autre qui ne fait que des fruits , des fleurs ou des coquilles . Celui qui peint des animaux vivants est plus estimable que ceux qui ne représentent que des choses mortes & sans mouvement ; & comme la figure de l'homme est le plus parfait ouvrage de Dieu sur la Terre , il est certain aussi que celui qui se rend l'imitateur de Dieu en peignant des figures humaines , est beaucoup plus excellent que tous les autres ... He who produces perfect landscapes is above another who only produces fruit , flowers or seafood . He who paints living animals is more estimable than those who only represent dead things without movement , and as man is the most perfect work of God on the earth , it is also certain that he who becomes an imitator of God in representing human figures , is much more excellent than all the others ... '' . Dutch and Flemish painting Still life developed as a separate category in the Low Countries in the last quarter of the 16th century . The English term still life derives from the Dutch word stilleven while Romance languages ( as well as Greek , Polish , Russian and Turkish ) tend to use terms meaning dead nature . 15th-century Early Netherlandish painting had developed highly illusionistic techniques in both panel painting and illuminated manuscripts , where the borders often featured elaborate displays of flowers , insects and , in a work like the Hours of Catherine of Cleves , a great variety of objects . When the illuminated manuscript was displaced by the printed book , the same skills were later deployed in scientific botanical illustration ; the Low Countries led Europe in both botany and its depiction in art . The Flemish artist Joris Hoefnagel ( 1542–1601 ) made watercolour and gouache paintings of flowers and other still-life subjects for the Emperor Rudolf II , and there were many engraved illustrations for books ( often then hand-coloured ) , such as Hans Collaert 's Florilegium , published by Plantin in 1600 . Around 1600 flower paintings in oils became something of a craze ; Karel van Mander painted some works himself , and records that other Northern Mannerist artists such as Cornelis van Haarlem also did so . No surviving flower-pieces by them are known , but many survive by the leading specialists , Jan Brueghel the Elder and Ambrosius Bosschaert , both active in the Southern Netherlands . While artists in the North found limited opportunity to produce the religious iconography which had long been their staple—images of religious subjects were forbidden in the Dutch Reformed Protestant Church—the continuing Northern tradition of detailed realism and hidden symbols appealed to the growing Dutch middle classes , who were replacing Church and State as the principal patrons of art in the Netherlands . Added to this was the Dutch mania for horticulture , particularly the tulip . These two views of flowers—as aesthetic objects and as religious symbols— merged to create a very strong market for this type of still life . Still life , like most Dutch art work , was generally sold in open markets or by dealers , or by artists at their studios , and rarely commissioned ; therefore , artists usually chose the subject matter and arrangement . So popular was this type of still-life painting , that much of the technique of Dutch flower painting was codified in the 1740 treatise Groot Schilderboeck by Gerard de Lairesse , which gave wide-ranging advice on color , arranging , brushwork , preparation of specimens , harmony , composition , perspective , etc . The symbolism of flowers had evolved since early Christian days . The most common flowers and their symbolic meanings include : rose ( Virgin Mary , transience , Venus , love ) ; lily ( Virgin Mary , virginity , female breast , purity of mind or justice ) ; tulip ( showiness , nobility ) ; sunflower ( faithfulness , divine love , devotion ) ; violet ( modesty , reserve , humility ) ; columbine ( melancholy ) ; poppy ( power , sleep , death ) . As for insects , the butterfly represents transformation and resurrection while the dragonfly symbolizes transience and the ant hard work and attention to the harvest . Flemish and Dutch artists also branched out and revived the ancient Greek still life tradition of trompe-l'œil , particularly the imitation of nature or mimesis , which they termed bedriegertje ( `` little deception '' ) . In addition to these types of still life , Dutch artists identified and separately developed `` kitchen and market '' paintings , breakfast and food table still life , vanitas paintings , and allegorical collection paintings . In the Catholic Southern Netherlands the genre of garland paintings was developed . Around 1607–1608 , Antwerp artists Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen started creating these pictures which consist of an image ( usually devotional ) which is encircled by a lush still life wreath . The paintings were collaborations between two specialists : a still life and a figure painter . Daniel Seghers developed the genre further . Originally serving a devotional function , garland paintings became extremely popular and were widely used as decoration of homes . A special genre of still life was the so-called pronkstilleven ( Dutch for 'ostentatious still life ' ) . This style of ornate still-life painting was developed in the 1640s in Antwerp by Flemish artists such as Frans Snyders and Adriaen van Utrecht . They painted still lifes that emphasized abundance by depicting a diversity of objects , fruits , flowers and dead game , often together with living people and animals . The style was soon adopted by artists from the Dutch Republic . Especially popular in this period were vanitas paintings , in which sumptuous arrangements of fruit and flowers , books , statuettes , vases , coins , jewelry , paintings , musical and scientific instruments , military insignia , fine silver and crystal , were accompanied by symbolic reminders of life 's impermanence . Additionally , a skull , an hourglass or pocket watch , a candle burning down or a book with pages turning , would serve as a moralizing message on the ephemerality of sensory pleasures . Often some of the fruits and flowers themselves would be shown starting to spoil or fade to emphasize the same point . File : Cornelis Norbertus Gysbrechts 005.jpg|Cornelis Norbertus Gysbrechts ( c. 1660–1683 ) , Trompe l'oeil ( c. 1680 ) , Los Angeles County Museum of Art File : Vanitas-Still Life , Oosterwijck.jpg|Maria van Oosterwijk , Vanitas-Still Life ( 1693 ) File : Still Life with a Pewter Jug and Two Porcelain Plates by Jan Treck.jpg|Jan Jansz . Treck ( 1606–1652 ) , Still Life Pewter Jug and Two Porcelain Plates ( 1645 ) File : Lubin Baugin 001.jpg|Lubin Baugin ( c. 1610-1663 ) , Le Dessert de gaufrettes ( c. 1631 ) , Musée du Louvre , Paris Another type of still life , known as ontbijtjes or `` breakfast paintings '' , represent both a literal presentation of delicacies that the upper class might enjoy and a religious reminder to avoid gluttony . Around 1650 Samuel van Hoogstraten painted one of the first wall-rack pictures , trompe-l'œil still-life paintings which feature objects tied , tacked or attached in some other fashion to a wall board , a type of still life very popular in the United States in the 19th century . Another variation was the trompe-l'œil still life depicted objects associated with a given profession , as with the Cornelis Norbertus Gysbrecht ’ s painting `` Painter ’ s Easel with Fruit Piece '' , which displays all the tools of a painter ’ s craft . Also popular in the first half of the 17th century was the painting of a large assortment of specimens in allegorical form , such as the `` five senses '' , `` four continents '' , or `` the four seasons '' , showing a goddess or allegorical figure surrounded by appropriate natural and man-made objects . The popularity of vanitas paintings , and these other forms of still life , soon spread from Holland to Flanders and Germany , and also to Spain and France . The Netherlandish production of still lifes was enormous , and they were very widely exported , especially to northern Europe ; Britain hardly produced any itself . German still life followed closely the Dutch models ; Georg Flegel was a pioneer in pure still life without figures and created the compositional innovation of placing detailed objects in cabinets , cupboards , and display cases , and producing simultaneous multiple views . Dutch , Flemish , German and French paintings File : Willem Claesz . Heda - Still-Life with Pie , Silver Ewer and Crab - WGA11248.jpg|Willem Claeszoon Heda ( 1594–1680 ) , Still Life with Pie , Silver Ewer and Crab ( 1658 ) File : Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder ( Dutch - Flower Still Life - Google Art Project.jpg|Ambrosius Bosschaert ( 1573–1621 ) , Still-Life of Flowers ( 1614 ) File : Samuel van Hoogstraten - Still-Life - WGA11726.jpg|Samuel van Hoogstraten , Feigned Letter Rack with Writing Implements ( c. 1655 ) File : P boel martwa natura globus l.jpeg|Pieter Boel ( 1626–1674 ) , Still Life with a Globe and a Parrot ( c. 1658 ) File : Pieter Claesz . - Still-life - WGA4968.jpg|Pieter Claesz ( c.1597–1660 ) , Still Life ( 1623 ) File : Jan Davidsz . de Heem - Still-Life - WGA11283.jpg|Jan Davidsz . de Heem ( 1606–1684 ) , Still Life with Fruit , Flowers , Glasses and Lobster ( c. 1660s ) File : Stilleben . Frukt . Binoit - Skoklosters slott - 22175.tif|Peter Binoit , 1618 , Skokloster Castle . File : Pieter Claesz . 008.jpg|Pieter Claesz ( c. 1597–1660 ) , Still Life with Salt Tub File : Osias Beert the Elder - Dishes with Oysters , Fruit , and Wine - Google Art Project.jpg|Osias Beert the Elder , Dishes with Oysters , Fruit , and Wine File : George Flegel Still-Life with Bread and Confectionary.jpg|George Flegel ( 1566–1638 ) , Still-Life with Bread and Confectionery , 1630 Southern Europe In Spanish art , a bodegón is a still-life painting depicting pantry items , such as victuals , game , and drink , often arranged on a simple stone slab , and also a painting with one or more figures , but significant still-life elements , typically set in a kitchen or tavern . Starting in the Baroque period , such paintings became popular in Spain in the second quarter of the 17th century . The tradition of still-life painting appears to have started and was far more popular in the contemporary Low Countries , today Belgium and Netherlands ( then Flemish and Dutch artists ) , than it ever was in southern Europe . Northern still lifes had many subgenres ; the breakfast piece was augmented by the trompe-l'œil , the flower bouquet , and the vanitas . In Spain there were much fewer patrons for this sort of thing , but a type of breakfast piece did become popular , featuring a few objects of food and tableware laid on a table . Still-life painting in Spain , also called bodegones , was austere . It differed from Dutch still life , which often contained rich banquets surrounded by ornate and luxurious items of fabric or glass . The game in Spanish paintings is often plain dead animals still waiting to be skinned . The fruits and vegetables are uncooked . The backgrounds are bleak or plain wood geometric blocks , often creating a surrealist air . Even while both Dutch and Spanish still life often had an embedded moral purpose , the austerity , which some find akin to the bleakness of some of the Spanish plateaus , appears to reject the sensual pleasures , plenitude , and luxury of Dutch still-life paintings . Even though Italian still-life painting was gaining in popularity , it remained historically less respected than the `` grand manner '' painting of historical , religious , and mythic subjects . On the other hand , successful Italian still-life artists found ample patronage in their day . Furthermore , women painters , few as they were , commonly chose or were restricted to painting still life ; Giovanna Garzoni , Laura Bernasconi , Maria Theresa van Thielen , and Fede Galizia are notable examples . Many leading Italian artists in other genre , also produced some still-life paintings . In particular , Caravaggio applied his influential form of naturalism to still life . His Basket of Fruit ( c. 1595–1600 ) is one of the first examples of pure still life , precisely rendered and set at eye level . Though not overtly symbolic , this painting was owned by Cardinal Federico Borromeo and may have been appreciated for both religious and aesthetic reasons . Jan Bruegel painted his Large Milan Bouquet ( 1606 ) for the cardinal , as well , claiming that he painted it 'fatta tutti del natturel ' ( made all from nature ) and he charged extra for the extra effort . These were among many still-life paintings in the cardinal ’ s collection , in addition to his large collection of curios . Among other Italian still life , Bernardo Strozzi ’ s The Cook is a `` kitchen scene '' in the Dutch manner , which is both a detailed portrait of a cook and the game birds she is preparing . In a similar manner , one of Rembrandt ’ s rare still-life paintings , Little Girl with Dead Peacocks combines a similar sympathetic female portrait with images of game birds . In Catholic Italy and Spain , the pure vanitas painting was rare , and there were far fewer still-life specialists . In Southern Europe there is more employment of the soft naturalism of Caravaggio and less emphasis on hyper-realism in comparison with Northern European styles . In France , painters of still lifes ( nature morte ) were influenced by both the Northern and Southern schools , borrowing from the vanitas paintings of the Netherlands and the spare arrangements of Spain . Italian gallery File : Fede Galizia - Still-Life - WGA8434.jpg|Fede Galizia ( 1578–1630 ) , Apples in a Dish ( c. 1593 ) File : Basket111.jpg|Fede Galizia , ( 1578–1630 ) , Maiolica Basket of Fruit ( c. 1610 ) , private collection File : Giovanna Garzoni ( Italian - Still Life with Bowl of Citrons - Google Art Project.jpg|Giovanna Garzoni ( 1600–1670 ) , Still Life with Bowl of Citrons ( 1640 ) , tempera on vellum , Getty Museum , Pacific Palisades , Los Angeles , California File : Still life of fish and shellfish - Giacomo Francesco Cipper.jpg|Giacomo Francesco Cipper ( 1664–1736 ) , Still Life of Fish and Shellfish Eighteenth century The 18th century to a large extent continued to refine 17th-century formulae , and levels of production decreased . In the Rococo style floral decoration became far more common on porcelain , wallpaper , fabrics and carved wood furnishings , so that buyers preferred their paintings to have figures for a contrast . One change was a new enthusiasm among French painters , who now form a large proportion of the most notable artists , while the English remained content to import . Jean-Baptiste Chardin painted small and simple assemblies of food and objects in a most subtle style that both built on the Dutch Golden Age masters , and was to be very influential on 19th-century compositions . Dead game subjects continued to be popular , especially for hunting lodges ; most specialists also painted live animal subjects . Jean-Baptiste Oudry combined superb renderings of the textures of fur and feather

qw_5903--Still_life.txt

What name is given to art that depicts inanimate (typically commonplace) objects, either natural (e.g. food, flowers, plants, rocks & shells) or man-made (e.g. drinking glasses, books, vases, jewelry, coins & pipes) in an artificial setting?

The Lake District , also known as The Lakes or Lakeland , is a mountainous region in North-West England . A popular holiday destination , it is famous for its lakes , forests and mountains ( or fells ) and its associations with the early 19th century writings of William Wordsworth and the other Lake Poets . Historically split between Cumberland , Westmorland and Lancashire , the Lake District is now entirely in Cumbria . All the land in England higher than 3000 ft above sea level lies within the National Park , including Scafell Pike , the highest mountain in England . It also contains the deepest and longest bodies of water in England , respectively Wastwater and Windermere . Lake District National Park The Lake District National Park includes nearly all of the Lake District , though the town of Kendal and the Lakeland Peninsulas are currently outside the park boundary . The area , which was designated a national park on 9 May 1951 ( less than a month after the first UK national park designation — the Peak District ) , is the most visited national park in the United Kingdom with 15.8 million annual visitors and more than 23 million annual day visits , the largest of the thirteen national parks in England and Wales , and the second largest in the UK after the Cairngorms . Its aim is to protect the landscape by restricting unwelcome change by industry or commerce . Most of the land in the park is in private ownership , with about 55 % registered as agricultural land . Landowners include : * Individual farmers and other private landowners , with more than half of the agricultural land farmed by the owners . * The National Trust owns about a quarter of the total area ( including some lakes and land of significant landscape value ) . * The Forestry Commission and other investors in forests and woodland . * United Utilities owns 8 % * Lake District National Park Authority ( 3.9 % ) The National Park Authority is based at offices in Kendal . It runs a visitor centre on Windermere at a former country house called Brockhole , Coniston Boating Centre , and Information Centres . It is reducing its landholding . In common with all other national parks in England , there is no restriction on entry to , or movement within the park along public routes , but access to cultivated land is usually restricted to public footpaths , bridleways and byways . Much of the uncultivated land has statutory open access rights - which cover around 50 % of the park . The lakes and mountains combine to form impressive scenery . Farmland and settlement add aesthetic value to the natural scenery with an ecology modified by human influence for millennia and including important wildlife habitats . The Lake District failed in a previous attempt to gain World Heritage status as a natural World Heritage Site , because of human activities , such as commercial forestry , which have adversely impacted the park 's assessment . However , in 2016 the [ http : //www.lakesworldheritage.co.uk English Lake District bid ] for World Heritage Status was submitted to UNESCO in the category of cultural landscape . A decision is expected in 2017 . Extension to the National Park In December 2009 , Natural England proposed extending the National Park in the direction of the Yorkshire Dales National Park . This would include land of high landscape value in the Lune Valley . The proposal was opposed by Cumbria County Council who said it would lead to less democratic control and would make local housing less affordable . A public inquiry was held into the proposals , which required a decision by the Secretary of State . The decision to recommend approval was announced on October 23 , 2015 , and the size of the park increased by 3 % on 1 August 2016 . Human geography General The precise extent of the Lake District was not defined traditionally , but is slightly larger than that of the National Park , the total area of which is about 885 sqmi . The park extends just over 32 mi from east to west and nearly 40 mi from north to south , with areas such as the Lake District Peninsulas to the south lying outside the National Park . Settlement The Lake District is one of the most highly populated national parks . There are , however , only a handful of major settlements within this mountainous area , the towns of Keswick , Windermere , Ambleside , and Bowness-on-Windermere being the four largest . Significant towns immediately outside the boundary of the national park include Millom , Barrow-in-Furness , Kendal , Ulverston , Cockermouth , Penrith , and Grange-over-Sands ; each of these has important economic links with the area . Villages such as Coniston , Threlkeld , Glenridding , Pooley Bridge , Broughton-in-Furness , Grasmere , Newby Bridge , Staveley , Lindale , Gosforth and Hawkshead are more local centres . The economies of almost all are intimately linked with tourism . Beyond these are a scattering of hamlets and many isolated farmsteads , some of which are still tied to agriculture ; others now function as part of the tourist economy . Communications Roads The Lake District National Park is almost contained within a box of trunk routes . It is flanked to the east by the A6 road which runs from Kendal to Penrith ( though the extension approved in 2015 will be east of the A6 ) . The A590 which connects the M6 to Cumbria 's largest town , Barrow-in-Furness , and the A5092 trunk roads cut across its southern fringes and the A66 trunk road between Penrith and Workington cuts across its northern edge . Finally the A595 trunk road runs through the coastal plains to the west of the area linking the A66 with the A5092 . Besides these , a few A roads penetrate the area itself , notably the A591 which runs north westwards from Kendal to Windermere and then on to Keswick . It continues up the east side of Bassenthwaite Lake . `` The A591 , Grasmere , Lake District '' was short-listed in the 2011 Google Street View awards in the Most Romantic Street category . The A593 and A5084 link the Ambleside and Coniston areas with the A590 to the south whilst the A592 and A5074 similarly link Windermere with the A590 . The A592 also continues northwards from Windermere to Ullswater and Penrith by way of the Kirkstone Pass . Some valleys which are not penetrated by A roads are served by B roads . The B5289 serves Lorton Vale and Buttermere and links via the Honister Pass with Borrowdale . The B5292 ascends the Whinlatter Pass from Lorton Vale before dropping down to Braithwaite near Keswick . The B5322 serves the valley of St John 's in the Vale whilst Great Langdale is served by the B5343 . Other valleys such as Little Langdale , Eskdale and Dunnerdale are served by minor roads . The last of these is connected with the first two by the Wrynose and Hardknott passes respectively - both of these passes are known for their steep gradients and are together one of the most popular climbs in the United Kingdom for cycling enthusiasts . A minor road through the Newlands Valley connects via Newlands Hause with the B5289 at Buttermere . Wasdale is served by a cul-de-sac minor road , as are Longsleddale and the valleys at Haweswater and Kentmere . There are networks of minor roads in the lower-lying southern part of the area , connecting numerous communities between Kendal , Windermere and Coniston . Railways and ferries The West Coast Main Line skirts the eastern edge of the Lake District and the Cumbrian Coast Line passes through the southern and western fringes of the area . A single railway line , the Windermere Branch Line , penetrates from Kendal to Windermere via Staveley . Railways once served Broughton-in-Furness and Coniston ( closed to passengers in 1958 ) and another ran from Penrith to Cockermouth via Keswick ( closed west of Keswick in 1966 and completely in 1972 ) . Part of the track of the latter is used by the improved A66 trunk road . The narrow gauge Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway runs from Ravenglass on the west coast up Eskdale as far as Dalegarth Station near the hamlet of Boot , catering for tourists . Another heritage railway , the Lakeside and Haverthwaite Railway , runs between Lake Windermere and Haverthwaite , and tourists can connect at Lakeside with the boats up the lake to Bowness . A vehicle-carrying cable ferry , the Windermere Ferry , runs frequent services across Windermere . There are also seasonal passenger boats on Coniston Water , Derwent Water and Ullswater . Footpaths and bridleways There are many paths over which the public has a right of way , all of which should be signposted . Within the area of the National Park in 2012 there were 2159 km of public footpaths , 875 km of public bridleways , 15 km of restricted byways and 30 km of byways open to all traffic . There is also a general `` right to roam '' in open country . Many of these tracks arose centuries ago and were used either as ridge highways ( such as along High Street ) or as passes for travelling across the ridges between settlements in the valleys . Historically these paths were not planned for reaching summits , but more recently they are used by fell walkers for that purpose . Cycling and horse riding are allowed on bridleways , but cyclists must give way to all other users . Motor vehicles are only allowed on `` byways open to all traffic '' ( green lanes ) but in practice Traffic Regulation Orders have been brought in on several prohibiting motor traffic , although a system of permits operates on Gatesgarth Pass . Physical geography As the highest ground in England , Scafell Pike naturally has a very extensive view on a clear day , ranging from the Mourne Mountains in Northern Ireland to Snowdonia in Wales . The Lake District takes the form of a roughly circular upland massif deeply dissected by a broadly radial pattern of major valleys whose character is largely the product of repeated glaciations over the last 2 million years . Most of these valleys display the U-shape cross-section characteristic of glacial origin , and often contain elongate lakes occupying sizeable bedrock hollows , often with tracts of relatively flat ground at their heads . Smaller lakes known as tarns occupy glacial cirques at higher elevations . It is the abundance of both which has led to the area becoming known as the Lake District . The mountains of the Lake District are also known as the `` Cumbrian Mountains '' , although this name is less frequently used than terms like `` the Lake District '' or `` the Lakeland Fells '' . Many of the higher fells are rocky , while moorland predominates at lower altitudes . Vegetation cover across better drained areas includes bracken and heather , though much of the land is boggy , due to the high rainfall . Deciduous native woodland occurs on many steeper slopes below the tree line , but with native oak supplemented by extensive conifer plantations in many areas , particularly Grizedale Forest in the generally lower southern part of the area . Valleys The principal radial valleys are ( clockwise from the south ) Dunnerdale , Eskdale , Wasdale , Ennerdale , Lorton Vale and the Buttermere valley , the Derwent Valley and Borrowdale , the valleys containing Ullswater and Haweswater , Longsleddale , the Kentmere valley and those radiating from the head of Windermere including Great Langdale . The valleys break the mountains up into separate blocks , which have been described by various authors in different ways . The most frequently encountered approach is that made popular by Alfred Wainwright who published seven separate area guides to the Lakeland Fells . Woodlands Below the tree line are wooded areas , including British and European native oak woodlands and introduced softwood plantations . The woodlands provide habitats for native English wildlife . The native red squirrel is found in the Lake District and in a few other parts of England . In parts of the Lake District the rainfall is higher than in any other part of England . This gives Atlantic mosses , ferns , lichen , and liverworts the chance to grow . There is some ancient woodland in the National Park . Management of the woodlands varies : some are coppiced , some pollarded , some left to grow naturally , and some provide grazing and shelter . Fells ( hills ) The four highest mountains in the Lake District exceed 3000 ft . These are : * Scafell Pike , 978 m * Scafell , 965 m * Helvellyn , 951 m * Skiddaw , 931 m Northern Fells The Northern Fells are a clearly defined range of hills contained within a 13-km diameter circle between Keswick in the south west and Caldbeck in the north east . They culminate in the 931 m peak of Skiddaw . Other notable peaks are Blencathra ( also known as Saddleback ) ( 868 m ) and Carrock Fell . Bassenthwaite Lake occupies the valley between this massif and the North Western Fells . North Western Fells The North Western Fells lie between Borrowdale and Bassenthwaite Lake to the east and Buttermere and Lorton Vale to the west . Their southernmost point is at Honister Pass . This area includes the Derwent Fells above the Newlands Valley and hills to the north amongst which are Dale Head , Robinson . To the north stand Grasmoor - highest in the range at 852 m , Grisedale Pike and the hills around the valley of Coledale , and in the far north west is Thornthwaite Forest and Lord 's Seat . The fells in this area are rounded Skiddaw slate , with few tarns and relatively few rock faces . Western Fells The view from the cairn built by the Westmorland brothers in 1876 to the SW of the summit of Great Gable , which they considered the finest view in the district . The Western Fells lie between Buttermere and Wasdale , with Sty Head forming the apex of a large triangle . Ennerdale bisects the area , which consists of the High Stile ridge north of Ennerdale , the Loweswater Fells in the far north west , the Pillar group in the south west , and Great Gable ( 2949 ft ) near Sty Head . Other tops include Seatallan , Haystacks and Kirk Fell . This area is craggy and steep , with the impressive pinnacle of Pillar Rock its showpiece . Wastwater , located in this part , is England 's deepest lake . Central Fells The Central Fells are lower in elevation than surrounding areas of fell , peaking at 762 m at High Raise . They take the form of a ridge running between Derwent Water in the west and Thirlmere in the east , from Keswick in the north to Langdale Pikes in the south . A spur extends south east to Loughrigg Fell above Ambleside . The central ridge running north over High Seat is exceptionally boggy . Eastern Fells The Eastern Fells consist of a long north-to-south ridge , the Helvellyn range , running from Clough Head to Seat Sandal with the 3118 ft Helvellyn at its highest point . The western slopes of these summits tend to be grassy , with rocky corries and crags on the eastern side . The Fairfield group lies to the south of the range , and forms a similar pattern with towering rock faces and hidden valleys spilling into the Patterdale valley . It culminates in the height of Red Screes overlooking the Kirkstone Pass . Far Eastern Fells The Far Eastern Fells refer to all of the Lakeland fells to the east of Ullswater and the A592 road running south to Windermere . At 828 m , the peak known as High Street is the highest point on a complex ridge which runs broadly north-south and overlooks the hidden valley of Haweswater to its east . In the north of this region are the lower fells of Martindale Common and Bampton Common whilst in the south are the fells overlooking the Kentmere valley . Further to the east , beyond Mardale and Longsleddale is Shap Fell , an extensive area consisting of high moorland , more rolling and Pennine in nature than the mountains to the west . Southern Fells The Southern Fells occupy the south-western quarter of the Lake District . They can be regarded as comprising a northern grouping between Wasdale , Eskdale and the two Langdale valleys , a south-eastern group east of Dunnerdale and south of Little Langdale and a south-western group bounded by Eskdale to the north and Dunnerdale to the east . The first group includes England 's highest mountains ; Scafell Pike in the centre , at 3209 ft and Scafell one mile ( 1.6 km ) to the south west . Though it is slightly lower it has a 700 ft rockface , Scafell Crag , on its northern side . It also includes the Wastwater Screes overlooking Wasdale , the Glaramara ridge overlooking Borrowdale , the three tops of Crinkle Crags , Bowfell and Esk Pike . The core of the area is drained by the infant River Esk . Collectively these are some of the Lake District 's most rugged hillsides . The second group , otherwise known as the Furness Fells or Coniston Fells , have as their northern boundary the steep and narrow Hardknott and Wrynose passes . The highest are Old Man of Coniston and Swirl How which slightly exceed 800 m . The third group to the west of the Duddon includes Harter Fell and the long ridge leading over Whitfell to Black Combe and the sea . The south of this region consists of lower forests and knolls , with Kirkby Moor on the southern boundary . The south-western Lake District ends near the Furness peninsula and Barrow-in-Furness , a town which many Lake District residents rely on for basic amenities . South-eastern area The south-eastern area is the territory between Coniston Water and Windermere and east of Windermere towards Kendal and south to Lindale . There are no high summits in this area which is mainly low hills , knolls and limestone cuestas such as Gummer 's How and Whitbarrow . Indeed , it rises only as high as at Top o ' Selside east of Coniston Water ; the wide expanse of Grizedale Forest stands between the two lakes . Kendal and Morecambe Bay stand at the eastern and southern edges of the area . Lakes Only one of the lakes in the Lake District is called by that name , Bassenthwaite Lake . All the others such as Windermere , Coniston Water , Ullswater and Buttermere are meres , tarns and waters , with mere being the least common and water being the most common . The major lakes and reservoirs in the National Park are given below . * Bassenthwaite Lake * Brotherswater * Buttermere * Coniston Water * Crummock Water * Derwent Water * Devoke Water * Elter Water * Ennerdale Water * Esthwaite Water * Grasmere * Haweswater Reservoir * Hayeswater * Loweswater * Rydal Water * Thirlmere * Ullswater * Wast Water * Windermere Geology The Lake District 's geology is very complex but well-studied . A granite batholith beneath the area is responsible for this upland massif , its relatively low density causing the area to be `` buoyed up '' . The granite can be seen at the surface as the Ennerdale , Skiddaw , Carrock Fell , Eskdale and Shap granites . Broadly speaking the area can be divided into three bands , the divisions between which run south west to north east . Generally speaking the rocks become younger from north west to south east . The north western band is composed of early to mid-Ordovician sedimentary rocks , largely mudstones and siltstones of marine origin . Together they comprise the Skiddaw Group and include the rocks traditionally known as the Skiddaw Slates . Their friability generally leads to mountains with relatively smooth slopes such as Skiddaw itself . The central band is a mix of volcanic and sedimentary rocks of mid-to-late Ordovician age comprising the lavas and tuffs of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group , erupted as the former Iapetus Ocean was subducted beneath what is now the Scottish border during the Caledonian orogeny . The northern central peaks , such as Great Rigg , were produced by considerable lava flows . These lava eruptions were followed by a series of pyroclastic eruptions which produced a series of calderas , one of which includes present-day Scafell Pike . These pyroclastic rocks give rise to the craggy landscapes typical of the central fells . The south eastern band comprises the mudstones and wackes of the Windermere Supergroup and which includes ( successively ) the rocks of the Dent , Stockdale , Tranearth , Coniston and Kendal groups . These are generally a little less resistant to erosion than the rocks sequence to the north and underlie much of the lower landscapes around Coniston and Windermere . Later intrusions have formed individual outcrops of igneous rock in each of these groups . Around the edges of these Ordovician and Silurian rocks on the northern , eastern and southern fringes of the area is a semi-continuous outcrop of Carboniferous Limestone seen most spectacularly at places like Whitbarrow Scar and Scout Scar . Climate The Lake District 's location on the north-west coast of England , coupled with its mountainous geography , makes it the wettest part of England . The UK Met Office reports average annual precipitation of more than 2000 mm , but with very large local variation . Although the entire region receives above average rainfall , there is a wide disparity between the amount of rainfall in the western and eastern lakes , as the Lake District experiences relief rainfall . Seathwaite in Borrowdale is the wettest inhabited place in England with an average of 3300 mm of rain a year , while nearby Sprinkling Tarn is even wetter , recording over 5000 mm per year ; by contrast , Keswick , at the end of Borrowdale receives 1470 mm every year , and Penrith ( just outside the Lake District ) only 870 mm . March to June tend to be the driest months , with October to January the wettest , but at low levels there is relatively little difference between months . Although sheltered valleys experience gales on an average of only five days a year , the Lake District is generally very windy with the coastal areas having 20 days of gales , and the fell tops around 100 days of gales per year . The maritime climate means that the Lake District experiences relatively moderate temperature variations through the year . Mean temperature in the valleys ranges from about 3 °C in January to around 15 °C in July . ( By comparison , Moscow , at the same latitude , ranges from . ) The relatively low height of most of the fells means that , while snow is expected during the winter , they can be free of snow at any time of the year . Normally , significant snow fall only occurs between November and April . On average , snow falls on Helvellyn 67 days per year . During the year , valleys typically experience 20 days with snow falling , a further 200 wet days , and 145 dry days . Hill fog is common at any time of year , and the fells average only around 2.5 hours of sunshine per day , increasing to around 4.1 hours per day on the coastal plains . Wildlife The Lake District is home to a great variety of wildlife , due to its range of varied topography , lakes and forests . It provides a home for the red squirrel and colonies of sundew and butterwort , two of the few carnivorous plants native to Britain . The Lake District is a major sanctuary for the red squirrel and has the largest population in England ( out of the estimated 140,000 red squirrels in the United Kingdom , compared with about 2.5 million grey squirrels ) . The Lake District is home to a range of bird species , and the RSPB maintain a reserve in Haweswater . England 's only nesting pair of golden eagles can be found in the Lake District . The female golden eagle has not been seen since 2004 although the male still remains . Conservationists believe he is now the only resident golden eagle in England . Following recolonisation attempts , a pair of ospreys nested in the Lake District for the first time in over 150 years near Bassenthwaite Lake during 2001 . Ospreys now frequently migrate north from Africa in the spring to nest in the Lake District , and a total of 23 chicks have fledged in The Lakes since 2001 . Another bird species which has had recolonisation attempts is the red kite which , as of 2012 , have a population of approximately 90 in the dense forest areas near Grizedale . Conservationists hope the re-introduction will create a large red kite population in the Lake District and in North West England where the red kite population is low . Other bird species resident to the Lake District include the buzzard , dipper , peregrine and raven . Seasonal birds include the ring ouzel and the redstart . The lakes of the Lake District support three rare and endangered species of fish : the vendace , which can be found only in Derwent Water and until 2008 in Bassenthwaite Lake . Vendace have struggled in recent years with naturally-occurring algae becoming a threat and the lakes gradually getting warmer . Vendace have been moved to higher lakes on a number of occasions to preserve the species , notably in 2005 and 2011 . The Lakes are also home to two other rare species : the schelly , which lives in Brothers Water , Haweswater , Red Tarn and Ullswater , and the Arctic charr , which can be found in Buttermere , Coniston Water , Crummock Water , Ennerdale Water , Haweswater , Loweswater , Thirlmere , Wast Water , and Windermere . In recent years , some important changes have been made to fisheries byelaws covering the north west region of England , to help protect some of the rarest fish species . In 2002 , the Environment Agency introduced a new fisheries byelaw , banning the use of all freshwater fish as live or dead bait in 14 of the lakes in the Lake District . Anglers not complying with the new byelaw can face fines of up to £2,500 . There are 14 lakes in the Lake District which are affected . These are : Bassenthwaite Lake , Brothers Water , Buttermere , Coniston Water , Crummock Water , Derwent Water , Ennerdale Water , Haweswater , Loweswater , Red Tarn , Thirlmere , Ullswater , Wast Water and Windermere . The lakes and waters of the Lake District do not naturally support as many species of fish as other similar habitats in the south of the country and elsewhere in Europe . Some fish that do thrive there are particularly at risk from introduction of new species . The introduction of non-native fish can lead to the predation of the native fish fauna or competition for food . There is also the risk of disease being introduced , which can further threaten native populations . In some cases , the introduced species can disturb the environment so much that it becomes unsuitable for particular fish . For example , a major problem has been found with ruffe . This non-native fish has now been introduced into a number of lakes in recent years . It is known that ruffe eat the eggs of vendace , which are particularly vulnerable because of their long incubation period . This means that they are susceptible to predators for up to 120

wh_1280--Lake_District.txt

In which Lake District town would you find the Cumberland Pencil Museum?

Year 490 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . At the time , it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Camerinus and Flavus ( or , less frequently , year 264 Ab urbe condita ) . The denomination 490 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years . Events By place Greece * Darius I sends an expedition , under Artaphernes and Datis the Mede across the Aegean to attack the Athenians and the Eretrians . Hippias , the aged ex-tyrant of Athens , is on one of the Persian ships in the hope of being restored to power in Athens . * When the Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor rebelled against Persia in 499 BC , Eretria joined Athens in sending aid to the rebels . As a result , Darius makes a point of punishing Eretria during his invasion of Greece . The city is sacked and burned and Darius enslaves its inhabitants . He intends the same fate for Athens . * September 12 – The Battle of Marathon takes place as a Persian army of more than 20,000 men is advised by Hippias to land in the Bay of Marathon , where they meet the Athenians supported by the Plataeans . The Persians are repulsed by 11,000 Greeks under the leadership of Callimachus and Miltiades . Some 6,400 Persians are killed at a cost of 192 Athenian dead . Callimachus , the war-archon of Athens , is killed in the battle . After the battle , the Persians return home . * Before the Battle of Marathon , the Athenians send a runner , Pheidippides , to seek help from Sparta . However , the Spartans delay sending troops to Marathon because religious requirements ( the Carnea ) mean they must wait for the full moon . * The Greek historian Herodotus , the main source for the Greco-Persian Wars , mentions Pheidippides as the messenger who runs from Athens to Sparta asking for help , and then runs back , a distance of over 240 kilometres each way . After the battle , he runs back to Athens to spread the news and raise the spirits . It is claimed that his last words before collapsing and dying in Athens are `` Chairete , nikomen '' ( `` Rejoice , we are victorious '' ) . * Hippias dies at Lemnos on the journey back to Sardis after the Persian defeat . * Cleomenes I is forced to flee Sparta when his plot against Demaratus is discovered , but the Spartans allow him to return when he begins gathering an army in the surrounding territories . However , by this time he has become insane , and the Spartans put him in prison . Shortly after , he commits suicide . He is succeeded as King of Sparta by a member of the Agiad house , his half-brother , Leonidas . By topic Architecture * The Athenians begin the building of a temple to Athena Parthenos ( approximate date ) . * Stelae are once again allowed in Athenian cemeteries , having been banned since 510 BC . Births * Empedocles , Greek philosopher ( d. c. 430 BC ) * Zeno of Elea , Greek philosopher ( d. c. 430 BC ) Deaths * Hippias , tyrant of Athens * Callimachus , war-archon of Athens * Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis , legendary founder of the Claudia gens

sfq_8523--490_BC.txt

Which force were defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon in 490BC?

A metal ( from Greek μέταλλον métallon , `` mine , quarry , metal '' ) is a material ( an element , compound , or alloy ) that is typically hard , opaque , shiny , and has good electrical and thermal conductivity . Metals are generally malleable — that is , they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking — as well as fusible ( able to be fused or melted ) and ductile ( able to be drawn out into a thin wire ) . About 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals , the others are nonmetals or metalloids . Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms . Astrophysicists use the term `` metal '' to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen and helium . In that sense , the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made up of chemical elements other than hydrogen and helium . Many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high pressures ; these are formed as metallic allotropes of non-metals . Structure and bonding The atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three common crystal structures , namely body-centered cubic ( bcc ) , face-centered cubic ( fcc ) , and hexagonal close-packed ( hcp ) . In bcc , each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others . In fcc and hcp , each atom is surrounded by twelve others , but the stacking of the layers differs . Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature . Atoms of metals readily lose their outer shell electrons , resulting in a free flowing cloud of electrons within their otherwise solid arrangement . This provides the ability of metallic substances to easily transmit heat and electricity . While this flow of electrons occurs , the solid characteristic of the metal is produced by electrostatic interactions between each atom and the electron cloud . This type of bond is called a metallic bond . Properties Chemical Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss , reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales ( iron rusts over years , while potassium burns in seconds ) . Examples : 4 Na + O2 → 2 Na2O ( sodium oxide ) 2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO ( calcium oxide ) 4 Al + 3 O2 → 2 Al2O3 ( aluminium oxide ) . The transition metals ( such as iron , copper , zinc , and nickel ) are slower to oxidize because they form a passivating layer of oxide that protects the interior . Others , like palladium , platinum and gold , do not react with the atmosphere at all . Some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which can not be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades ( like aluminium , magnesium , some steels , and titanium ) . The oxides of metals are generally basic , as opposed to those of nonmetals , which are acidic . Exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3 , Mn2O7 , and OsO4 , which have strictly acidic reactions . Painting , anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion . However , a more reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating , especially when chipping of the coating is expected . Water and the two metals form an electrochemical cell , and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee , the coating actually promotes corrosion . Physical Metals in general have high electrical conductivity , high thermal conductivity , and high density . Typically they are malleable and ductile , deforming under stress without cleaving . In terms of optical properties , metals are shiny and lustrous . Sheets of metal beyond a few micrometres in thickness appear opaque , but gold leaf transmits green light . Although most metals have higher densities than most nonmetals , there is wide variation in their densities , lithium being the least dense solid element and osmium the densest . The alkali and alkaline earth metals in groups I A and II A are referred to as the light metals because they have low density , low hardness , and low melting points . The high density of most metals is due to the tightly packed crystal lattice of the metallic structure . The strength of metallic bonds for different metals reaches a maximum around the center of the transition metal series , as those elements have large amounts of delocalized electrons in tight binding type metallic bonds . However , other factors ( such as atomic radius , nuclear charge , number of bonds orbitals , overlap of orbital energies and crystal form ) are involved as well . Electrical The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals originate from the fact that their outer electrons are delocalized . This situation can be visualized by seeing the atomic structure of a metal as a collection of atoms embedded in a sea of highly mobile electrons . The electrical conductivity , as well as the electrons ' contribution to the heat capacity and heat conductivity of metals can be calculated from the free electron model , which does not take into account the detailed structure of the ion lattice . When considering the electronic band structure and binding energy of a metal , it is necessary to take into account the positive potential caused by the specific arrangement of the ion cores – which is periodic in crystals . The most important consequence of the periodic potential is the formation of a small band gap at the boundary of the Brillouin zone . Mathematically , the potential of the ion cores can be treated by various models , the simplest being the nearly free electron model . Mechanical Mechanical properties of metals include ductility , i.e . their capacity for plastic deformation . Reversible elastic deformation in metals can be described by Hooke 's Law for restoring forces , where the stress is linearly proportional to the strain . Forces larger than the elastic limit , or heat , may cause a permanent ( irreversible ) deformation of the object , known as plastic deformation or plasticity . This irreversible change in atomic arrangement may occur as a result of : * The action of an applied force ( or work ) . An applied force may be tensile ( pulling ) force , compressive ( pushing ) force , shear , bending or torsion ( twisting ) forces . * A change in temperature ( heat ) . A temperature change may affect the mobility of the structural defects such as grain boundaries , point vacancies , line and screw dislocations , stacking faults and twins in both crystalline and non-crystalline solids . The movement or displacement of such mobile defects is thermally activated , and thus limited by the rate of atomic diffusion . Viscous flow near grain boundaries , for example , can give rise to internal slip , creep and fatigue in metals . It can also contribute to significant changes in the microstructure like grain growth and localized densification due to the elimination of intergranular porosity . Screw dislocations may slip in the direction of any lattice plane containing the dislocation , while the principal driving force for `` dislocation climb '' is the movement or diffusion of vacancies through a crystal lattice . In addition , the nondirectional nature of metallic bonding is also thought to contribute significantly to the ductility of most metallic solids . When the planes of an ionic bond slide past one another , the resultant change in location shifts ions of the same charge into close proximity , resulting in the cleavage of the crystal ; such shift is not observed in covalently bonded crystals where fracture and crystal fragmentation occurs . Alloys An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in which the main component is a metal . Most pure metals are either too soft , brittle or chemically reactive for practical use . Combining different ratios of metals as alloys modifies the properties of pure metals to produce desirable characteristics . The aim of making alloys is generally to make them less brittle , harder , resistant to corrosion , or have a more desirable color and luster . Of all the metallic alloys in use today , the alloys of iron ( steel , stainless steel , cast iron , tool steel , alloy steel ) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value . Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low , mid and high carbon steels , with increasing carbon levels reducing ductility and toughness . The addition of silicon will produce cast irons , while the addition of chromium , nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels ( more than 10 % ) results in stainless steels . Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium , titanium , copper and magnesium . Copper alloys have been known since prehistory—bronze gave the Bronze Age its name—and have many applications today , most importantly in electrical wiring . The alloys of the other three metals have been developed relatively recently ; due to their chemical reactivity they require electrolytic extraction processes . The alloys of aluminium , titanium and magnesium are valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios ; magnesium can also provide electromagnetic shielding . These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratio is more important than material cost , such as in aerospace and some automotive applications . Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications , such as jet engines , may contain more than ten elements . Categories Base metal In chemistry , the term base metal is used informally to refer to a metal that oxidizes or corrodes relatively easily , and reacts variably with dilute hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) to form hydrogen . Examples include iron , nickel , lead and zinc . Copper is considered a base metal as it oxidizes relatively easily , although it does not react with HCl . It is commonly used in opposition to noble metal . In alchemy , a base metal was a common and inexpensive metal , as opposed to precious metals , mainly gold and silver . A longtime goal of the alchemists was the transmutation of base metals into precious metals . In numismatics , coins in the past derived their value primarily from the precious metal content . Most modern currencies are fiat currency , allowing the coins to be made of base metal . Ferrous metal The term `` ferrous '' is derived from the Latin word meaning `` containing iron '' . This can include pure iron , such as wrought iron , or an alloy such as steel . Ferrous metals are often magnetic , but not exclusively . Noble metal Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation , unlike most base metals . They tend to be precious metals , often due to perceived rarity . Examples include gold , platinum , silver , rhodium , iridium and palladium . Precious metal A precious metal is a rare metallic chemical element of high economic value . Chemically , the precious metals are less reactive than most elements , have high luster and high electrical conductivity . Historically , precious metals were important as currency , but are now regarded mainly as investment and industrial commodities . Gold , silver , platinum and palladium each have an ISO 4217 currency code . The best-known precious metals are gold and silver . While both have industrial uses , they are better known for their uses in art , jewelry , and coinage . Other precious metals include the platinum group metals : ruthenium , rhodium , palladium , osmium , iridium , and platinum , of which platinum is the most widely traded . The demand for precious metals is driven not only by their practical use , but also by their role as investments and a store of value . Palladium was , as of summer 2006 , valued at a little under half the price of gold , and platinum at around twice that of gold . Silver is substantially less expensive than these metals , but is often traditionally considered a precious metal for its role in coinage and jewelry . Heavy metal A heavy metal is any relatively dense metal or metalloid . More specific definitions have been proposed , but none have obtained widespread acceptance . Some heavy metals have niche uses , or are notably toxic ; some are essential in trace amounts . Extraction Metals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining ores that are rich sources of the requisite elements , such as bauxite . Ore is located by prospecting techniques , followed by the exploration and examination of deposits . Mineral sources are generally divided into surface mines , which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment , and subsurface mines . Once the ore is mined , the metals must be extracted , usually by chemical or electrolytic reduction . Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals , while hydrometallurgy employs aqueous chemistry for the same purpose . The methods used depend on the metal and their contaminants . When a metal ore is an ionic compound of that metal and a non-metal , the ore must usually be smelted — heated with a reducing agent — to extract the pure metal . Many common metals , such as iron , are smelted using carbon as a reducing agent . Some metals , such as aluminium and sodium , have no commercially practical reducing agent , and are extracted using electrolysis instead . Sulfide ores are not reduced directly to the metal but are roasted in air to convert them to oxides . Recycling of metals Demand for metals is closely linked to economic growth . During the 20th century , the variety of metals uses in society grew rapidly . Today , the development of major nations , such as China and India , and advances in technologies , are fuelling ever more demand . The result is that mining activities are expanding , and more and more of the world 's metal stocks are above ground in use , rather than below ground as unused reserves . An example is the in-use stock of copper . Between 1932 and 1999 , copper in use in the US rose from 73g to 238g per person . Metals are inherently recyclable , so in principle , can be used over and over again , minimizing these negative environmental impacts and saving energy . For example , 95 % of the energy used to make aluminium from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material . Levels of metals recycling are generally low . In 2010 , the International Resource Panel , hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) published reports on metal stocks that exist within society and their recycling rates . The report authors observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground . They warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones , battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology . Metallurgy Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements , their intermetallic compounds , and their mixtures , which are called alloys . Applications Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass , making them useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage . Metal alloys can be engineered to have high resistance to shear , torque and deformation . However the same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a load capacity is exceeded . The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction , as well as most vehicles , many appliances , tools , pipes , non-illuminated signs and railroad tracks . The two most commonly used structural metals , iron and aluminium , are also the most abundant metals in the Earth 's crust . Metals are good conductors , making them valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost . Electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity . Home electrical systems , for the most part , are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties . The thermal conductivity of metal is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame . Metal is also used for heat sinks to protect sensitive equipment from overheating . The high reflectivity of some metals is important in the construction of mirrors , including precision astronomical instruments . This last property can also make metallic jewelry aesthetically appealing . Some metals have specialized uses ; radioactive metals such as uranium and plutonium are used in nuclear power plants to produce energy via nuclear fission . Mercury is a liquid at room temperature and is used in switches to complete a circuit when it flows over the switch contacts . Shape memory alloy is used for applications such as pipes , fasteners and vascular stents . Metals can be doped with foreign molecules – organic , inorganic , biological and polymers . This doping entails the metal with new properties that are induced by the guest molecules . Applications in catalysis , medicine , electrochemical cells , corrosion and more have been developed . Trade The World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the United States and Japan . History The nature of metals has fascinated humans for many centuries , because these materials provided people with tools of unsurpassed properties both in war and in their preparation and processing . Pure gold and silver were known to humans since the Stone Age . Lead and silver were fused from their ores as early as the fourth millennium BC . Ancient Latin and Greek writers such as Theophrastus , Pliny the Elder in his Natural History , or Pedanius Dioscorides , did not try to classify metals . The ancients never attained the concept `` metal '' as a distinct elementary substance with fixed , characteristic chemical and physical properties . Following Empedocles , all substances within the sublunary sphere were assumed to vary in their constituent classical elements of earth , water , air and fire . Following the Pythagoreans , Plato assumed that these elements could be further reduced to plane geometrical shapes ( triangles and squares ) bounding space and relating to the regular polyhedra in the sequence earth : cube , water : icosahedron , air : octahedron , fire : tetrahedron . However , this philosophical extension did not become as popular as the simple four elements , after it was rejected by Aristotle . Aristotle also rejected the atomic theory of Democritus , since he classified the implied existence of a vacuum necessary for motion as a contradiction ( a vacuum implies nonexistence , therefore can not exist ) . Aristotle did , however , introduce underlying antagonistic qualities ( or forces ) of dry vs. wet and cold vs. heat into the composition of each of the four elements . The word `` metal '' originally meant `` mines '' and only later gained the general meaning of products from materials obtained in mines . In the first centuries A.D. a relation between the planets and the existing metals was assumed as Gold : Sun , Silver : Moon , Electrum : Jupiter , Iron : Mars , Copper : Venus , Tin : Mercury , Lead : Saturn . After electrum was determined to be a combination of silver and gold , the relations Tin : Jupiter and Mercury : Mercury were substituted into the previous sequence . Arabic and medieval alchemists believed that all metals , and in fact , all sublunar matter , were composed of the principle of sulfur , carrying the combustible property , and the principle of mercury , the mother of all metals and carrier of the liquidity or fusibility , and the volatility properties . These principles were not necessarily the common substances sulfur and mercury found in most laboratories . This theory reinforced the belief that the all metals were destined to become gold in the bowels of the earth through the proper combinations of heat , digestion , time , and elimination of contaminants , all of which could be developed and hastened through the knowledge and methods of alchemy . Paracelsus added the third principle of salt , carrying the nonvolatile and incombustible properties , in his tria prima doctrine . These theories retained the four classical elements as underlying the composition of sulfur , mercury and salt . The first systematic text on the arts of mining and metallurgy was De la Pirotechnia by Vannoccio Biringuccio , which treats the examination , fusion , and working of metals . Sixteen years later , Georgius Agricola published De Re Metallica in 1555 , a clear and complete account of the profession of mining , metallurgy , and the accessory arts and sciences , as well as qualifying as the greatest treatise on the chemical industry through the sixteenth century . He gave the following description of a metal in his De Natura Fossilium ( 1546 ) . Metal is a mineral body , by nature either liquid or somewhat hard . The latter may be melted by the heat of the fire , but when it has cooled down again and lost all heat , it becomes hard again and resumes its proper form . In this respect it differs from the stone which melts in the fire , for although the latter regain its hardness , yet it loses its pristine form and properties . Traditionally there are six different kinds of metals , namely gold , silver , copper , iron , tin and lead . There are really others , for quicksilver is a metal , although the Alchemists disagree with us on this subject , and bismuth is also . The ancient Greek writers seem to have been ignorant of bismuth , wherefore Ammonius rightly states that there are many species of metals , animals , and plants which are unknown to us . Stibium when smelted in the crucible and refined has as much right to be regarded as a proper metal as is accorded to lead by writers . If when smelted , a certain portion be added to tin , a bookseller 's alloy is produced from which the type is made that is used by those who print books on paper . Each metal has its own form which it preserves when separated from those metals which were mixed with it . Therefore neither electrum nor Stannum [ not meaning our tin ] is of itself a real metal , but rather an alloy of two metals . Electrum is an alloy of gold and silver , Stannum of lead and silver . And yet if silver be parted from the electrum , then gold remains and not electrum ; if silver be taken away from Stannum , then lead remains and not Stannum . Whether brass , however , is found as a native metal or not , can not be ascertained with any surety . We only know of the artificial brass , which consists of copper tinted with the colour of the mineral calamine . And yet if any should be dug up , it would be a proper metal . Black and white copper seem to be different from the red kind . Metal , therefore , is by nature either solid , as I have stated , or fluid , as in the unique case of quicksilver . But enough now concerning the simple kinds .

qg_1929--Metal.txt

Used as an alloy in making high-speed cutting tools, mo is the symbol for what silver-white metallic element?

The Flemish Giant is a breed of domestic rabbit ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) known for its large size . History The Flemish Giant originated in Flanders . It was bred as early as the 16th century near the city of Ghent , Belgium . It is believed to have descended from a number of meat and fur breeds , possibly including the Steenkonijn ( Stone Rabbit—referring to the old Belgian weight size of one stone or about ) and the European `` Patagonian '' breed ( now extinct ) . This `` Patagonian '' rabbit , a large breed that was once bred in Belgium and France , was not related to the Patagonian rabbit of Argentina ( Sylvilagus brasiliensis ) , a separate wild species weighing less than two pounds ( about 1 kg ) , nor the Patagonian hare ( Dolichotis patagonum ) , a species in the cavy family of rodents that can not interbreed with rabbits . Thomas Coatoam , in his Origins of the Flemish Giants , tells us , `` The earliest authentic record of the Flemish Giant Rabbit occurred about the year 1860 . '' The first standards for the breed were written in 1893 . The Flemish Giant is an ancestor of many rabbit breeds all over the world , one of which is the Belgian Hare , imported into England in the mid 19th century . The Flemish Giant was exported from England and Belgium to America in the early 1890s to help improve the size of meat rabbits during the great `` rabbit boom '' . It received little attention until about 1910 where it started appearing at small livestock shows throughout the country . Today , it is one of the more popular breeds at rabbit shows because of its unusually large size and its varying colors . It is promoted by the National Federation of Flemish Giant Rabbit Breeders , which was formed in 1915 . The Flemish Giant has many nicknames , first and foremost the `` Gentle Giant '' for its uniquely docile personality and also the `` universal rabbit '' for its varied purposes as pet , show , breeding , meat and fur animal . Appearance As one of the largest breeds of domestic rabbit , the Flemish Giant is a semi-arch type rabbit with its back arch starting in back of the shoulders and carrying through to the base of the tail giving a `` mandolin '' shape . The body of a Flemish Giant Rabbit is long and powerful , with relatively broad hindquarters . The fur of the Flemish Giant is known to be glossy and dense . When stroked from the hindquarters to the head , the fur will roll back to its original position . Bucks have a broad , massive head in comparison to does , and can take 1.5 years to reach full maturity . Does may have a large , full , evenly carried dewlap ( the fold of skin under their chins ) , and can take 1 year to reach their full maturity . Flemish Giant Rabbits weigh 15 pounds on average , though the biggest ones can weigh up to 22 lb , and the longest one on record ( in fact , holding the record for the longest rabbit in the world of any kind ) , measured about 32 inches long . The American Rabbit Breed Association ( ARBA ) standard recognized seven different colors for this breed : black , blue , fawn , sandy , light gray , steel gray , and white . The show standard minimum weight for a senior doe is 14 lb ( about 6.4 kg ) , and the show standard minimum weight of a Senior buck is 13 lb ( about 5.9 kg ) . Behavior and lifestyle Flemish Giants can be docile and tolerant of handling ; frequent interaction with humans is a requirement for this to occur . Flemish Giants , like all rabbits , can become fearful , and sometimes aggressive , if handled incorrectly or irresponsibly . Their larger frame requires special attention paid to the spine alignment when handling a Flemish Giant , or any rabbit for that matter . Consequently , potential owners should consider these factors in addition to their size , level of food consumption , and substantial waste production before buying . Due to its large size , the Flemish Giant needs substantial living quarters that provide ample opportunity for physical movement . The House Rabbit Society recommends keeping rabbits inside the home in a very large pen or room ( s ) in the home . Larger dog crates are often more appropriate than traditional rabbit and small-pet cages , which tend to be smaller and shorter . In the United States Department of Agriculture 's standards for animal housing , rabbits over 12 pounds must have at least five square feet of floor space . The size of appropriate living quarters increases with size of the rabbit . Cages with incorrectly sized wire gauge bottoms ( as opposed to small gauge wire or solid bottoms ) can harm the feet of a Flemish Giant more so than smaller house rabbits due to their increased weight . A resting board may be required to prevent sore hocks for a larger breed rabbit . The Flemish Giant will require larger quantities of food compared to smaller breeds of domestic rabbits . Like some other short hair breeds of rabbits , the Flemish Giant will usually require mild attention to grooming due to its shorter hair . Shedding during the spring and fall transition periods tend to be the most dramatic , with smaller sheds often occurring in between . Diet Flemish Giants can be fed like other rabbits , with the amount of food increased to match their larger size . ARBA recommendations include hay and occasional treats . A high protein diet of 16 % or more is need for them to gain bone mass while growing and later when muscle mass develops . Apples , cabbage or broccoli in small amounts can be given as treats and slowly increased . A quarter apple per rabbit every other day for 3 weeks can be increased to a half apple after that . Do not feed the core or seeds to the rabbit . Since Flemish Giants do not reach full size until they are 1.5 years old , they need to be fed a lot until then . When females have babies and during winter , they need to be fed as much as they can eat , and given plenty of water . In supplementing a commercial diet , care must be taken to avoid excess protein , calories , and minerals such as salt and calcium , which in excess can cause kidney stones . Overfeeding leading to obesity is a major health concern for both commercial and pet rabbits . The House Rabbit Society recommends 2 cups of chopped leafy vegetables per 6 pounds ( 3 kg ) of body weight and no more than 2 tablespoons of fruit or carrots per 6 pounds of body weight daily . Breeding The American Rabbit Breeders ' Association ( ARBA ) recommends delaying breeding of female rabbits until they reach the senior weight range . For Flemish Giants , this is 14 pounds , and a typical rabbit will reach this weight when they are about 9 months to one year . A Flemish Flemish Giants can take up to 1.5 years to reach their maximum weight and a breeder should wait until the rabbit is slightly over a year old before breeding . Females and males can become sexually mature at 4 months and 8 days . Once the rabbits are 3 months old they should be keep in separate cages or put females with females and males with males . If fighting occurs then they must be separated . The breeding lifespan of a rabbit is variable . Some breeders prefer not to have any more litters after the age of three years while others continue to produce quality litters for five to eight years . The gestation period is between 28–31 days . On average they give birth at 30–32 days . The Flemish Giant rabbit can produce large litters , usually between 5 and 12 in a litter . A nesting box filled with hay is given to the female as she prepares for birth . After birth , clean out the hay , replace with some new hay , and check to see if babies are all alive . Check box every day in case babies die and take them out . Uses Apart from being kept as a pet , the Flemish Giant is used for meat , fur , show , pet assisted therapy and education . 4-H and Show Flemish Giants , due to their uncomplicated grooming requirements and docile personalities , are used by 4-H programs throughout the United States as a starter rabbit for teaching children responsibility and care of farm animals and pets . Another very popular youth program outside of 4-H that promotes responsible show breeding is the National Federation of Flemish Giant Breeders Youth Program . Flemish Giants are the second oldest domesticated rabbit breed in the United States , following behind the now rare Belgian Hare . Raising for pets and profit Flemish Giants make excellent pets as they are calm , but heavy for most children to handle . They require a lot of space . Outdoor cages should be 5 feet by 3 feet ( 1.5 meters by 1 meter ) . Cages must be in the shade so the rabbits do not overheat . Cages should be protected from wind using painter drop cloth . Cages should have plywood roofs so rabbits do not get rained or snowed on . They eat at least .5 kg . or more food a day of dried rabbit pellets . They expel a lot of waste . Flemish Giants are not typically regarded as `` meat '' rabbits because much of the commercial rabbit market focuses on young rabbits , usually around 70 days of age . At this time , Flemish Giants are developing bone mass rather than muscle . However , when raised to roasting ( under 6 months ) and stewing ( over 6 months ) age , the size of the Flemish makes them desirable . They are also often bred with other meat rabbit breeds , such as the New Zealand , to increase both meat-to-bone ratio and litter size . Due to the large amount of high protein food they consume and the cost of this food , the selling of the Flemish Giants for meat is not profitable ; as buyers want to give just a few dollars per rabbit .

qf_2530--Flemish_Giant_rabbit.txt

What is a Flemish Giant?

Sir David Lean , CBE ( 25 March 1908 - 16 April 1991 ) was an English film director , producer , screenwriter and editor , best remembered for big-screen epics such as The Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) , Lawrence of Arabia ( 1962 ) and Doctor Zhivago ( 1965 ) . He is also known for the Dickens adaptations of Great Expectations ( 1946 ) and Oliver Twist ( 1948 ) , as well as the romantic drama Brief Encounter ( 1945 ) . Lauded by directors such as Steven Spielberg and Stanley Kubrick , Lean was voted 9th greatest film director of all time in the British Film Institute Sight & Sound `` Directors ' Top Directors '' poll 2002 . Nominated seven times for the Academy Award for Best Director , which he won twice for The Bridge on the River Kwai and Lawrence of Arabia , he has three films in the top five of the British Film Institute 's Top 100 British Films . and was awarded the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1990 . Early life and education Lean was born in Croydon , Surrey ( now part of Greater London ) , to Francis William le Blount Lean and the former Helena Tangye ( niece of Sir Richard Trevithick Tangye ) . His parents were Quakers and he was a pupil at the Quaker-founded Leighton Park School in Reading . His younger brother , Edward Tangye Lean ( 1911–1974 ) , founded the original Inklings literary club when a student at Oxford University . Lean was a half-hearted schoolboy with a dreamy nature who was labeled a `` dud '' of a student ; he left in his mid-teens and entered his father 's chartered accountancy firm as an apprentice . A more formative event for his career than his formal education was an uncle 's gift , when Lean was aged ten , of a Brownie box camera . `` You usually did n't give a boy a camera until he was 16 or 17 in those days . It was a huge compliment and I succeeded at it . ' Lean printed and developed his films , and it was his 'great hobby ' . At age 16 , his father deserted the family when he ran off with another woman , and Lean would later follow a similar path after his own first marriage and child . Period as film editor Bored by his work , Lean spent every evening in the cinema , and in 1927 , after an aunt had advised him to find a job he enjoyed doing , he went to Gaumont Studios where his obvious enthusiasm earned him a month 's trial without pay . He was taken on as a teaboy , promoted to clapperboy , and soon rose to the position of third assistant director . By 1930 he was working as an editor on newsreels , including those of Gaumont Pictures and Movietone , while his move to feature films began with Freedom of the Seas ( 1934 ) and Escape Me Never ( 1935 ) . He edited Gabriel Pascal 's film productions of two George Bernard Shaw plays , Pygmalion ( 1938 ) and Major Barbara ( 1941 ) . He edited Powell & Pressburger 's 49th Parallel ( 1941 ) and One of Our Aircraft Is Missing ( 1942 ) . After this last film , Lean began his directing career , after editing more than two dozen features by 1942 . As Tony Sloman wrote in 1999 , `` As the varied likes of David Lean , Robert Wise , Terence Fisher and Dorothy Arzner have proved , the cutting rooms are easily the finest grounding for film direction . '' David Lean was given honorary membership of the Guild of British Film Editors in 1968 . British films His first work as a director was in collaboration with Noël Coward on In Which We Serve ( 1942 ) , and he later adapted several of Coward 's plays into successful films . These films are This Happy Breed ( 1944 ) , Blithe Spirit ( 1945 ) and Brief Encounter ( 1945 ) with Celia Johnson and Trevor Howard as quietly understated clandestine lovers , torn between their unpredictable passion and their respective orderly middle-class marriages in suburban England . The film shared Grand Prix honors at the 1946 Cannes film festival and garnered Lean his first Academy nominations for directing and screen adaptation , and Celia Johnson a nomination for Best Actress . It has since become a classic , one of the enduring favorites of British cinema , at the time still struggling to emerge from the shadow of six years of war . Two celebrated Charles Dickens adaptations followed – Great Expectations ( 1946 ) and Oliver Twist ( 1948 ) . David Shipman wrote in The Story of Cinema : Volume Two ( 1984 ) : `` Of the other Dickens films , only Cukor 's David Copperfield approaches the excellence of this pair , partly because his casting , too , was near perfect '' . These two films were the first directed by Lean to star Alec Guinness , whom Lean considered his `` good luck charm '' . The actor 's portrayal of Fagin was controversial at the time . The first screening in Berlin during February 1949 offended the surviving Jewish community and led to a riot . It caused problems too in New York , and after private screenings , was condemned by the Anti-Defamation League and the American Board of Rabbis . `` To our surprise it was accused of being anti-Semitic '' , Lean wrote . `` We made Fagin an outsize and , we hoped , an amusing Jewish villain . '' The terms of the production code meant that the film 's release in the United States was delayed until July 1951 after cuts amounting to eight minutes . The next film directed by Lean was The Passionate Friends ( 1949 ) , an atypical Lean film , but one which marked his first occasion to work with Claude Rains , who played the husband of a woman ( Todd ) torn between him and an old flame ( Howard ) . The Passionate Friends was the first of three films to feature the actress Ann Todd , who became his third wife . Madeleine ( 1950 ) , set in Victorian-era Glasgow is about an 1857 cause célèbre with Todd 's lead character accused of murdering a former lover . `` Once more '' , writes film critic David Thomson `` Lean settles on the pressing need for propriety , but not before the film has put its characters and the audience through a wringer of contradictory feelings . '' The last of the films with Todd , The Sound Barrier ( 1952 ) , has a screenplay by the playwright Terence Rattigan and was the first of his three films for Sir Alexander Korda 's London Films . Hobson 's Choice ( 1954 ) , with Charles Laughton in the lead , was based on the play by Harold Brighouse . Thomson , writing about Lean in his New Biographical Dictionary of Film , comments : International films Summertime ( 1955 ) marked a new departure for Lean . It was partly American financed , although again made for Korda 's London Films . The film features Katharine Hepburn in the lead role as a middle-aged American woman who has a romance while on holiday in Venice . It was shot entirely on location there . For Columbia and Sam Spiegel Lean 's films now began to become infrequent , but much larger in scale , and more extensively released internationally . The Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) was based on a novel by Pierre Boulle recounting the story of British and American prisoners of war trying to survive in a Japanese prison camp during the Second World War . The film stars William Holden and Alec Guinness and became the highest-grossing film of 1957 , in the United States . It won seven Academy Awards , including Best Picture and Best Director . and Best Actor , for Alec Guinness who had battled with Lean to give more depth to his role as an obsessively correct British commander who 's determined to build the best possible bridge for his Japanese captors in Burma . After extensive location work in the Middle East , North Africa , Spain , and elsewhere , Lean 's Lawrence of Arabia was released in 1962 . The was the first project of Lean 's with a screenplay by playwright Robert Bolt , rewriting an original script by MIcheal Wilson ( one of the two blacklisted writers of Bridge on the River Kwai ) . It recounts the life of T. E. Lawrence , the British officer who united the squabbling Bedouin peoples of the Arab peninsula to fight in World War One and then push on for independence , After some hesitation , Alec Guinness once again appeared , in his fourth David Lean film , as the Arab leader , Prince Faisal , despite his misgivings from their conflicts on Bridge on the River Kwai . French composer Maurice Jarre , on his first Lean film , created a soaring film score with a famous theme and won his first Oscar for Best Original Score . The film turned actor Peter O'Toole , playing Lawrence , into an international star , was nominated for ten Oscars and won seven , including Best Picture and Lean 's second win for Best Director . He remains the only British director to win more than one Oscar for directing . For MGM Lean had his greatest box office success with Doctor Zhivago ( 1965 ) , a romance set during the Russian Revolution . The film , based on the banned novel by Nobel Prize-winning Russian poet Boris Pasternak , tells the story of a brilliant and warm-hearted physician and poet ( Omar Sharif ) who , while seemingly happily married into the Russian aristocracy , and a father , falls in love with a beautiful abandoned young mother named Lara ( Julie Christie ) and struggles to be with her in the chaos of the Bolshevik revolution and subsequent Russian Civil War . The film 's reviews were lukewarm , but producer Carlo Ponti seized on Maurice Jarre 's lush romantic score to create a pop tune called `` Lara 's Theme , '' which became an international hit song with lyrics under the title `` Somewhere My Love '' , one of the best-sellling theme songs in cinematic history . Ponti stubbornly supported both the song on radio and the film in theaters across America . As of 2015 , it is the 8th highest-grossing film of all time , adjusted for inflation . The British director of photography , Freddie Young , won an Academy Award for his color cinematography . Lean also directed some scenes of The Greatest Story Ever Told ( 1965 ) while George Stevens was doing location work in Nevada . In 1970 , Lean 's Ryan 's Daughter was finally released after an extended period on location in Ireland . A doomed romance set against the backdrop of 1916 Ireland 's struggles against the British , it is loosely based on Gustave Flaubert 's Madame Bovary . Starring the aging Hollywood 'bad boy ' Robert Mitchum in an uncharacteristic role as a long-suffering Irish husband and British actress Sarah Miles , as his faithless young wife , the film received far fewer positive reviews than the director 's previous work , being particularly savaged by the New York critics . Some critics felt the film 's massive visual scale on gorgeous Irish beaches and extended running time did not suit its small-scale romantic narrative . Nonetheless , the film was a box office success , earning $ 31 million and making it the 8th highest-grossing film of that year . It won two Academy Awards the following year , another for cinematographer Freddie Young and for supporting actor John Mills in his role as a village halfwit . The poor critical reception of the film prompted Lean to meet with the National Society of Film Critics , gathered at the Algonquin Hotel in New York , including the New Yorker 's Pauline Kael , and ask them why they objected to the movie . `` I sensed trouble from the moment I sat down , '' Lean says of the now famous luncheon . Time critic Richard Shickel asked Lean pointblank how he , the director of Brief Encounter , could have made `` a piece of bullshit '' like Ryan 's Daughter . These critics so lacerated the film for two hours to David Lean 's face that the devastated Lean did not make another film for fourteen years . `` They just took the film to bits , '' said Lean in a later television interview . `` It really had such an awful effect on me for several years ... you begin to think that maybe they 're right . Why on earth am I making films if i do n't have to ? It shakes one 's confidence terribly . '' '' Last years and unfulfilled projects From 1977 until 1980 , Lean and Robert Bolt worked on a film adaptation of Captain Bligh and Mr. Christian , a dramatised account by Richard Hough of the Mutiny on the Bounty . It was originally to be released as a two-part film , one named The Lawbreakers that dealt with the voyage out to Tahiti and the subsequent mutiny , and the second named The Long Arm that studied the journey of the mutineers after the mutiny as well as the admiralty 's response in sending out the frigate HMS Pandora , in which some of the mutineers were imprisoned . Lean could not find financial backing for both films after Warner Bros. withdrew from the project ; he decided to combine it into one and looked at a seven-part TV series before getting backing from Italian mogul Dino De Laurentiis . The project then suffered a further setback when Bolt suffered a serious stroke and was unable to continue writing ; the director felt that Bolt 's involvement would be crucial to the film 's success . Melvyn Bragg ended up writing a considerable portion of the script . Lean was forced to abandon the project after overseeing casting and the construction of the $ 4 million Bounty replica ; at the last possible moment , actor Mel Gibson brought in his friend Roger Donaldson to direct the film , as producer De Laurentiis did not want to lose the millions he had already put into the project over what he thought was as insignificant a person as the director dropping out . The film was eventually released as The Bounty . Lean then embarked on a project he had pursued since 1960 , a film adaptation of ' A Passage to India ( 1984 ) , from E. M. Forster 's 1924 novel of colonial conflicts in British-occupied India , and this became his last completed film . For this final work , he muscled out Forster 's chosen screenwriter , the playwright of its stage adaptation , Santha Rama Rau , and wrote the script himself ; he also chose to return to editing , with the result that his three jobs - writing , editing and directing - were given precisely equal status in the film 's credits . Shot entirely on location in India , Lean also brought on familiar colleagues , including Maurice Jarre for another Academy-Award-winning score , Alec Guinness in his sixth and last role in a Lean film as an eccentric Hindu Brahmin and famed production designer for Dr. Zhivago , John Box . In vivid contrast to Ryan 's Daughter , the film opened to universally enthusiastic reviews ; the film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards and Lean himself nominated for three Academy Awards in directing , editing , and writing . His young female star , in the complex role of a confused young British woman who falsely accuses a colonial Indian man of rape , garnered Australian actress Judy Davis her first Academy nomination . Peggy Ashcroft , as the sensitive Mrs. Moore , won the Oscar for best supporting actress , making her , at 77 , the oldest actress to win that award . The film was hailed as the legendary director 's return to the screen , and , according to Roger Ebert is `` one of the greatest screen adaptations I have ever seen . '' But this was , sadly , to be his last . During the last years of his life , Lean was in pre-production of a film version of Joseph Conrad 's Nostromo . He assembled an all-star cast , including Marlon Brando , Paul Scofield , Anthony Quinn , Peter O'Toole , Christopher Lambert , Isabella Rossellini and Dennis Quaid , with Georges Corraface as the title character . Lean also wanted Alec Guinness to play Doctor Monyghan , but the aged actor turned him down in a letter from 1989 : `` I believe I would be disastrous casting . The only thing in the part I might have done well is the crippled crab-like walk . '' Steven Spielberg came on board as producer with the backing of Warner Bros. , but after several rewrites and disagreements on the script , he left the project and was replaced by Serge Silberman , a respected producer at Greenwich Film Productions . The project involved several writers , including Christopher Hampton and Robert Bolt , but their work was abandoned . In the end , Lean decided to write the film himself with the assistance of Maggie Unsworth , with whom he had worked on the scripts for Brief Encounter , Great Expectations , Oliver Twist , and The Passionate Friends . Originally Lean considered filming in Mexico but later decided to film in London and Madrid , partly to secure O'Toole , who had insisted he would take part only if the film was shot close to home . Nostromo had a total budget of $ 46 million and was six weeks away from filming at the time of Lean 's death from throat cancer . It was rumoured that fellow film director John Boorman would take over direction , but the production collapsed . Nostromo was finally adapted for the small screen with an unrelated BBC television mini-series in 1997 . Personal life and honours Lean was a long-term resident of Limehouse , east London . His home on Narrow Street is still owned by his family . His co-writer and producer Norman Spencer has said that Lean was a `` huge womaniser '' and `` to my knowledge , he had almost 1,000 women '' . He was married six times , had one son , and at least two grandchildren—from all of whom he was completely estranged—and was divorced five times . He was survived by his last wife , art dealer Sandra Cooke , the co-author ( with Barry Chattington ) of David Lean : An Intimate Portrait . His six wives were : * Isabel Lean ( 28 June 1930 – 1936 ) ( his first cousin ) ; one son , Peter * Kay Walsh ( 23 November 1940 – 1949 ) * Ann Todd ( 21 May 1949 – 1957 ) * Leila Matkar ( 4 July 1960 – 1978 ) ( From , Hyderabad , India ) . Lean 's longest-lasting marriage . * Sandra Hotz ( 28 October 1981 – 1984 ) * Sandra Cooke ( 15 December 1990 – 16 April 1991 ) Lean was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1973 , and was knighted in 1984 . David Lean received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1990 , being one of only three non-Americans to receive the award . Reputation and influence Lean is the most represented director on the BFI Top 100 British films list , having a total of seven films on the list . As Lean himself pointed out , his films are often admired by fellow directors as a showcase of the filmmaker 's art . Steven Spielberg and Martin Scorsese in particular are fans of Lean 's epic films , and claim him as one of their primary influences . Spielberg and Scorsese also helped in the 1989 restoration of Lawrence of Arabia which had been butchered both by the studio in theatrical release and in particular in its televised versions ; the theatrical re-release greatly revived Lean 's reputation . John Woo once named Lawrence of Arabia among his top three films . More recently , Joe Wright ( Pride & Prejudice , Atonement ) has cited Lean 's works , particularly Doctor Zhivago , as an important influence on his work . Filmography Award and Nominations Academy Awards Notes

qw_3624--David_Lean.txt

Which film, directed by David Lean and starring John Mills, opens with an escaped convict grabbing hold of a boy in a graveyard?

Traitor 's Gate ( ) is a 1964 West German-British co-production of a black-and-white crime film directed by Freddie Francis and starring Albert Lieven and Gary Raymond . It was made by Rialto Film using Hammer Films ' Freddie Francis and screenwriter Jimmy Sangster updating the 1927 novel The Traitor 's Gate by Edgar Wallace to the mid-1960s . The film features a group of criminals planning to steal the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom from the Tower of London . Cast * Albert Lieven - Trayne * Gary Raymond - Graham / Dick * Margot Trooger - Dinah * Catherine Schell - Hope Joyner * Eddi Arent - Hector * Klaus Kinski - Kane * Anthony James - John * Tim Barratt - Lloyd * Heinz Bernard - Martin * David Birks - Spider * Edward Underdown - Inspector Adams * Alec Ross - Sergeant Ross * Julie Mendez - Stripper * Peter Porteous - Kelly * Katy Wild - Mary * Harry Baird - Mate on Tramp Steamer * Joe Ritchie - News Vendor * Frank Sieman - Yeoman Warden Guide * Frank Forsyth - Chief Yeoman Warden * Caron Gardner - Blonde * Maurice Good - King * Robert Hunter - Captain * Marianne Stone - Cashier at Dandy Club * Hedger Wallace - Detective Sergeant Alexander * Beresford Williams - Warden Reception In Germany , the FSK gave the film a rating of `` 12 and up '' and found it not appropriate for screenings on public holidays . It premiered on 18 December 1964 .

sfq_21423--Traitor's_Gate_(film).txt

Traitor's Gate is part of which building?

A white dwarf , also called a degenerate dwarf , is a stellar remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter . A white dwarf is very dense : its mass is comparable to that of the Sun , while its volume is comparable to that of Earth . A white dwarf 's faint luminosity comes from the emission of stored thermal energy ; no fusion takes place in a white dwarf wherein mass is converted to energy . The nearest known white dwarf is Sirius B , at 8.6 light years , the smaller component of the Sirius binary star . There are currently thought to be eight white dwarfs among the hundred star systems nearest the Sun . The unusual faintness of white dwarfs was first recognized in 1910 . The name white dwarf was coined by Willem Luyten in 1922 . The universe has not existed long enough to experience a white dwarf releasing all of its energy as it will take close to a trillion years . White dwarfs are thought to be the final evolutionary state of stars whose mass is not high enough to become a neutron star , including the Earth 's Sun and over 97 % of the other stars in the Milky Way. , §1 . After the hydrogen-fusing period of a main-sequence star of low or medium mass ends , such a star will expand to a red giant during which it fuses helium to carbon and oxygen in its core by the triple-alpha process . If a red giant has insufficient mass to generate the core temperatures required to fuse carbon , around 1 billion K , an inert mass of carbon and oxygen will build up at its center . After a star sheds its outer layers and forms a planetary nebula , it will leave behind this core , which is the remnant white dwarf . Usually , therefore , white dwarfs are composed of carbon and oxygen . If the mass of the progenitor is between 8 and 10.5 solar masses ( ) , the core temperature is sufficient to fuse carbon but not neon , in which case an oxygen–neon–magnesium white dwarf may form . Stars of very low mass will not be able to fuse helium , hence , a helium white dwarf may form by mass loss in binary systems . The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions , so the star has no source of energy . As a result , it can not support itself by the heat generated by fusion against gravitational collapse , but is supported only by electron degeneracy pressure , causing it to be extremely dense . The physics of degeneracy yields a maximum mass for a non-rotating white dwarf , the Chandrasekhar limit—approximately 1.46 —beyond which it can not be supported by electron degeneracy pressure . A carbon-oxygen white dwarf that approaches this mass limit , typically by mass transfer from a companion star , may explode as a type Ia supernova via a process known as carbon detonation . ( SN 1006 is thought to be a famous example . ) A white dwarf is very hot when it forms , but because it has no source of energy , it will gradually radiate its energy and cool . This means that its radiation , which initially has a high color temperature , will lessen and redden with time . Over a very long time , a white dwarf will cool and its material will begin to crystallize ( starting with the core ) . The star 's low temperature means it will no longer emit significant heat or light , and it will become a cold black dwarf . The length of time it takes for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe ( approximately 13.8 billion years ) , and it is thought that no black dwarfs yet exist . The oldest white dwarfs still radiate at temperatures of a few thousand kelvin . Discovery The first white dwarf discovered was in the triple star system of 40 Eridani , which contains the relatively bright main sequence star 40 Eridani A , orbited at a distance by the closer binary system of the white dwarf 40 Eridani B and the main sequence red dwarf 40 Eridani C. The pair 40 Eridani B/C was discovered by William Herschel on 31 January 1783 ; , p. 73 it was again observed by Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve in 1825 and by Otto Wilhelm von Struve in 1851 . In 1910 , Henry Norris Russell , Edward Charles Pickering and Williamina Fleming discovered that , despite being a dim star , 40 Eridani B was of spectral type A , or white . In 1939 , Russell looked back on the discovery : , p. 1 I was visiting my friend and generous benefactor , Prof. Edward C. Pickering . With characteristic kindness , he had volunteered to have the spectra observed for all the stars—including comparison stars—which had been observed in the observations for stellar parallax which Hinks and I made at Cambridge , and I discussed . This piece of apparently routine work proved very fruitful—it led to the discovery that all the stars of very faint absolute magnitude were of spectral class M. In conversation on this subject ( as I recall it ) , I asked Pickering about certain other faint stars , not on my list , mentioning in particular 40 Eridani B. Characteristically , he sent a note to the Observatory office and before long the answer came ( I think from Mrs Fleming ) that the spectrum of this star was A. I knew enough about it , even in these paleozoic days , to realize at once that there was an extreme inconsistency between what we would then have called `` possible '' values of the surface brightness and density . I must have shown that I was not only puzzled but crestfallen , at this exception to what looked like a very pretty rule of stellar characteristics ; but Pickering smiled upon me , and said : `` It is just these exceptions that lead to an advance in our knowledge '' , and so the white dwarfs entered the realm of study ! The spectral type of 40 Eridani B was officially described in 1914 by Walter Adams . The white dwarf companion of Sirius , Sirius B , was next to be discovered . During the nineteenth century , positional measurements of some stars became precise enough to measure small changes in their location . Friedrich Bessel used position measurements to determine that the stars Sirius ( α Canis Majoris ) and Procyon ( α Canis Minoris ) were changing their positions periodically . In 1844 he predicted that both stars had unseen companions : If we were to regard Sirius and Procyon as double stars , the change of their motions would not surprise us ; we should acknowledge them as necessary , and have only to investigate their amount by observation . But light is no real property of mass . The existence of numberless visible stars can prove nothing against the existence of numberless invisible ones . Bessel roughly estimated the period of the companion of Sirius to be about half a century ; C. A. F. Peters computed an orbit for it in 1851 . It was not until 31 January 1862 that Alvan Graham Clark observed a previously unseen star close to Sirius , later identified as the predicted companion . Walter Adams announced in 1915 that he had found the spectrum of Sirius B to be similar to that of Sirius . In 1917 , Adriaan van Maanen discovered Van Maanen 's Star , an isolated white dwarf . These three white dwarfs , the first discovered , are the so-called classical white dwarfs. , p. 2 Eventually , many faint white stars were found which had high proper motion , indicating that they could be suspected to be low-luminosity stars close to the Earth , and hence white dwarfs . Willem Luyten appears to have been the first to use the term white dwarf when he examined this class of stars in 1922 ; the term was later popularized by Arthur Stanley Eddington . Despite these suspicions , the first non-classical white dwarf was not definitely identified until the 1930s . 18 white dwarfs had been discovered by 1939. , p. 3 Luyten and others continued to search for white dwarfs in the 1940s . By 1950 , over a hundred were known , and by 1999 , over 2,000 were known . Since then the Sloan Digital Sky Survey has found over 9,000 white dwarfs , mostly new . Composition and structure Although white dwarfs are known with estimated masses as low as 0.17 and as high as 1.33 , the mass distribution is strongly peaked at 0.6 , and the majority lie between 0.5 and 0.7 . The estimated radii of observed white dwarfs are typically 0.8–2 % the radius of the Sun ; this is comparable to the Earth 's radius of approximately 0.9 % solar radius . A white dwarf , then , packs mass comparable to the Sun 's into a volume that is typically a million times smaller than the Sun 's ; the average density of matter in a white dwarf must therefore be , very roughly , 1,000,000 times greater than the average density of the Sun , or approximately 106 g/cm3 , or 1 tonne per cubic centimetre . A typical white dwarf has a density of between 10 7 and 1011 kg per cubic meter . White dwarfs are composed of one of the densest forms of matter known , surpassed only by other compact stars such as neutron stars , black holes and , hypothetically , quark stars . White dwarfs were found to be extremely dense soon after their discovery . If a star is in a binary system , as is the case for Sirius B or 40 Eridani B , it is possible to estimate its mass from observations of the binary orbit . This was done for Sirius B by 1910 , yielding a mass estimate of 0.94 . ( A more modern estimate is 1.00 . ) Since hotter bodies radiate more energy than colder ones , a star 's surface brightness can be estimated from its effective surface temperature , and that from its spectrum . If the star 's distance is known , its absolute ( overall ) luminosity can also be estimated . From the absolute luminosity and distance , the star 's surface area and its radius can be calculated . Reasoning of this sort led to the realization , puzzling to astronomers at the time , that Sirius B and 40 Eridani B must be very dense . When Ernst Öpik estimated the density of a number of visual binary stars in 1916 , he found that 40 Eridani B had a density of over 25,000 times the Sun 's , which was so high that he called it `` impossible '' . As Arthur Stanley Eddington put it later in 1927 : , p. 50 We learn about the stars by receiving and interpreting the messages which their light brings to us . The message of the Companion of Sirius when it was decoded ran : `` I am composed of material 3,000 times denser than anything you have ever come across ; a ton of my material would be a little nugget that you could put in a matchbox . '' What reply can one make to such a message ? The reply which most of us made in 1914 was— '' Shut up . Do n't talk nonsense . '' As Eddington pointed out in 1924 , densities of this order implied that , according to the theory of general relativity , the light from Sirius B should be gravitationally redshifted . This was confirmed when Adams measured this redshift in 1925 . Such densities are possible because white dwarf material is not composed of atoms joined by chemical bonds , but rather consists of a plasma of unbound nuclei and electrons . There is therefore no obstacle to placing nuclei closer than normally allowed by electron orbitals limited by normal matter . Eddington wondered what would happen when this plasma cooled and the energy to keep the atoms ionized was no longer sufficient . This paradox was resolved by R. H. Fowler in 1926 by an application of the newly devised quantum mechanics . Since electrons obey the Pauli exclusion principle , no two electrons can occupy the same state , and they must obey Fermi–Dirac statistics , also introduced in 1926 to determine the statistical distribution of particles which satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle . At zero temperature , therefore , electrons can not all occupy the lowest-energy , or ground , state ; some of them would have to occupy higher-energy states , forming a band of lowest-available energy states , the Fermi sea . This state of the electrons , called degenerate , meant that a white dwarf could cool to zero temperature and still possess high energy . Compression of a white dwarf will increase the number of electrons in a given volume . Applying the Pauli exclusion principle , this will increase the kinetic energy of the electrons , thereby increasing the pressure . This electron degeneracy pressure supports a white dwarf against gravitational collapse . The pressure depends only on density and not on temperature . Degenerate matter is relatively compressible ; this means that the density of a high-mass white dwarf is much greater than that of a low-mass white dwarf and that the radius of a white dwarf decreases as its mass increases . The existence of a limiting mass that no white dwarf can exceed ( beyond which it becomes a neutron star ) is another consequence of being supported by electron degeneracy pressure . These masses were first published in 1929 by Wilhelm Anderson and in 1930 by Edmund C. Stoner . The modern value of the limit was first published in 1931 by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar in his paper `` The Maximum Mass of Ideal White Dwarfs '' . For a non-rotating white dwarf , it is equal to approximately , where is the average molecular weight per electron of the star . , eq . ( 63 ) As the carbon-12 and oxygen-16 which predominantly compose a carbon-oxygen white dwarf both have atomic number equal to half their atomic weight , one should take equal to 2 for such a star , leading to the commonly quoted value of 1.4 . ( Near the beginning of the 20th century , there was reason to believe that stars were composed chiefly of heavy elements , , p. 955 so , in his 1931 paper , Chandrasekhar set the average molecular weight per electron , , equal to 2.5 , giving a limit of 0.91 . ) Together with William Alfred Fowler , Chandrasekhar received the Nobel prize for this and other work in 1983 . The limiting mass is now called the Chandrasekhar limit . If a white dwarf were to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit , and nuclear reactions did not take place , the pressure exerted by electrons would no longer be able to balance the force of gravity , and it would collapse into a denser object called a neutron star . Carbon-oxygen white dwarfs accreting mass from a neighboring star undergo a runaway nuclear fusion reaction , which leads to a Type Ia supernova explosion in which the white dwarf may be destroyed , before it reaches the limiting mass . New research indicates that many white dwarfs—at least in certain types of galaxies—may not approach that limit by way of accretion . It has been postulated that at least some of the white dwarfs that become supernovae attain the necessary mass by colliding with one another . It may be that in elliptical galaxies such collisions are the major source of supernovae . This hypothesis is based on the fact that the X-rays produced by those galaxies are 30 to 50 times less than what is expected to be produced by type Ia supernovas of that galaxy as matter accretes on the white dwarf from its encircling companion . It has been concluded that no more than 5 percent of the supernovae in such galaxies could be created by the process of accretion onto white dwarfs . The significance of this finding is that there could be two types of supernovae , which could mean that the Chandrasekhar limit might not always apply in determining when a white dwarf goes supernova , given that two colliding white dwarfs could have a range of masses . This in turn would confuse efforts to use exploding white dwarfs as standard candles in determining distances . White dwarfs have low luminosity and therefore occupy a strip at the bottom of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram , a graph of stellar luminosity versus color ( or temperature ) . They should not be confused with low-luminosity objects at the low-mass end of the main sequence , such as the hydrogen-fusing red dwarfs , whose cores are supported in part by thermal pressure , or the even lower-temperature brown dwarfs . Mass–radius relationship and mass limit The relationship between the mass and radii of white dwarfs can be derived using an energy minimization argument . The energy of the white dwarf can be approximated by taking it to be the sum of its gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy . The gravitational potential energy of a unit mass piece of white dwarf , , will be on the order of , where is the gravitational constant , M is the mass of the white dwarf , and is its radius . : E_g \approx \frac { -G M } { R } . The kinetic energy of the unit mass , , will primarily come from the motion of electrons , so it will be approximately , where is the average electron momentum , is the electron mass , and is the number of electrons per unit mass . Since the electrons are degenerate , we can estimate to be on the order of the uncertainty in momentum , , given by the uncertainty principle , which says that is on the order of the reduced Planck constant , ħ. will be on the order of the average distance between electrons , which will be approximately , i.e. , the reciprocal of the cube root of the number density , , of electrons per unit volume . Since there are electrons in the white dwarf , where is the star 's mass and its volume is on the order of , will be on the order of . Solving for the kinetic energy per unit mass , Ek , we find that : E_k \approx \frac { N ( \Delta p ) ^2 } { 2m } \approx \frac { N \hbar^2 n^ { 2/3 } } { 2m } \approx \frac { M^ { 2/3 } N^ { 5/3 } \hbar^2 } { 2m R^2 } . The white dwarf will be at equilibrium when its total energy , , is minimized . At this point , the kinetic and gravitational potential energies should be comparable , so we may derive a rough mass-radius relationship by equating their magnitudes : : |E_g|\approx\frac { GM } { R } = E_k\approx\frac { M^ { 2/3 } N^ { 5/3 } \hbar^2 } { 2m R^2 } . Solving this for the radius , , gives : R \approx \frac { N^ { 5/3 } \hbar^2 } { 2m GM^ { 1/3 } } . Dropping , which depends only on the composition of the white dwarf , and the universal constants leaves us with a relationship between mass and radius : : R \sim M^ { -1/3 } i.e. , the radius of a white dwarf is inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass . Since this analysis uses the non-relativistic formula for the kinetic energy , it is non-relativistic . If we wish to analyze the situation where the electron velocity in a white dwarf is close to the speed of light , , we should replace by the extreme relativistic approximation for the kinetic energy . With this substitution , we find : E_ { k\ { \rm relativistic } } \approx \frac { M^ { 1/3 } N^ { 4/3 } \hbar c } { R } . If we equate this to the magnitude of , we find that drops out and the mass , , is forced to be : M_ { \rm limit } \approx N^2 \left ( \frac { \hbar c } { G } \right ) ^ { 3/2 } . To interpret this result , observe that as we add mass to a white dwarf , its radius will decrease , so , by the uncertainty principle , the momentum , and hence the velocity , of its electrons will increase . As this velocity approaches , the extreme relativistic analysis becomes more exact , meaning that the mass of the white dwarf must approach a limiting mass of . Therefore , no white dwarf can be heavier than the limiting mass , or 1.4 . For a more accurate computation of the mass-radius relationship and limiting mass of a white dwarf , one must compute the equation of state which describes the relationship between density and pressure in the white dwarf material . If the density and pressure are both set equal to functions of the radius from the center of the star , the system of equations consisting of the hydrostatic equation together with the equation of state can then be solved to find the structure of the white dwarf at equilibrium . In the non-relativistic case , we will still find that the radius is inversely proportional to the cube root of the mass. , eq . ( 80 ) Relativistic corrections will alter the result so that the radius becomes zero at a finite value of the mass . This is the limiting value of the mass—called the Chandrasekhar limit—at which the white dwarf can no longer be supported by electron degeneracy pressure . The graph on the right shows the result of such a computation . It shows how radius varies with mass for non-relativistic ( blue curve ) and relativistic ( green curve ) models of a white dwarf . Both models treat the white dwarf as a cold Fermi gas in hydrostatic equilibrium . The average molecular weight per electron , , has been set equal to 2 . Radius is measured in standard solar radii and mass in standard solar masses . These computations all assume that the white dwarf is non-rotating . If the white dwarf is rotating , the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium must be modified to take into account the centrifugal pseudo-force arising from working in a rotating frame . For a uniformly rotating white dwarf , the limiting mass increases only slightly . If the star is allowed to rotate nonuniformly , and viscosity is neglected , then , as was pointed out by Fred Hoyle in 1947 , there is no limit to the mass for which it is possible for a model white dwarf to be in static equilibrium . Not all of these model stars will be dynamically stable . Radiation and cooling The degenerate matter that makes up the bulk of a white dwarf has a very low opacity , because any absorption of a photon requires that an electron must transition to a higher empty state , which may not be possible as the energy of the photon may not be a match for the possible quantum states available to that electron , hence radiative heat transfer within a white dwarf is low ; it does , however , have a high thermal conductivity . As a result , the interior of the white dwarf maintains a uniform temperature , approximately 107 K. An outer shell of non-degenerate matter cools from approximately 107 K to 104 K. This matter radiates roughly as a black body . A white dwarf remains visible for a long time , as its tenuous outer atmosphere of normal matter begins to radiate at about 107 K , upon formation , while its greater interior mass is at 107 K but can not radiate through its normal matter shell . The visible radiation emitted by white dwarfs varies over a wide color range , from the blue-white color of an O-type main sequence star to the red of an M-type red dwarf . White dwarf effective surface temperatures extend from over 150,000 K to barely under 4,000 K. In accordance with the Stefan–Boltzmann law , luminosity increases with increasing surface temperature ; this surface temperature range corresponds to a luminosity from over 100 times the Sun 's to under 1/10,000 that of the Sun 's . Hot white dwarfs , with surface temperatures in excess of 30,000 K , have been observed to be sources of soft ( i.e. , lower-energy ) X-rays . This enables the composition and structure of their atmospheres to be studied by soft X-ray and extreme ultraviolet observations . As was explained by Leon Mestel in 1952 , unless the white dwarf accretes matter from a companion star or other source , its radiation comes from its stored heat , which is not replenished . , §2.1 . White dwarfs have an extremely small surface area to radiate this heat from , so they cool gradually , remaining hot for a long time . As a white dwarf cools , its surface temperature decreases , the radiation which it emits reddens , and its luminosity decreases . Since the white dwarf has no energy sink other than radiation , it follows that its cooling slows with time . The rate of cooling has been estimated for a carbon white dwarf of 0.59 with a hydrogen atmosphere . After initially taking approximately 1.5 billion years to cool to a surface temperature of 7,140 K , cooling approximately 500 more kelvins to 6,590 K takes around 0.3 billion years , but the next two steps of around 500 kelvins ( to 6,030 K and 5,550 K ) take first 0.4 and then 1.1 billion years . , Table 2 . Most observed white dwarfs have relatively high surface temperatures , between 8,000 K and 40,000 K. A white dwarf , though , spends more of its lifetime at cooler temperatures than at hotter temperatures , so we should expect that there are more cool white dwarfs than hot white dwarfs . Once we adjust for the selection effect that hotter , more luminous white dwarfs are easier to observe , we do find that decreasing the temperature range examined results in finding more white dwarfs . This trend stops when we reach extremely cool white dwarfs ; few white dwarfs are observed with surface temperatures below 4,000 K , and one of the coolest so far observed , WD 0346+246 , has a surface temperature of approximately 3,900 K. The reason for this is that the Universe 's age is finite , there has not been enough time for white dwarfs to cool below this temperature . The white dwarf luminosity function can therefore be used to find the time when stars started to form in a region ; an estimate for the age of our Galactic disk found in this way is 8 billion years . A white dwarf will eventually , in many trillion years , cool and become a non-radiating black dwarf in approximate thermal equilibrium with its surroundings and with the cosmic background radiation . No black dwarfs are thought to exist yet . Although white dwarf material is initially plasma—a fluid composed of nuclei and electrons—it was theoretically predicted in the 1960s that at a late stage of cooling , it should crystallize , starting at its center . The crystal structure is thought to be a body-centered cubic lattice . In 1995 it was suggested that asteroseismological observations of pulsating white dwarfs yielded a potential test of the crystallization theory , and in 2004 , observations were made that suggested approximately 90 % of the mass of BPM 37093 had crystallized . Other work gives a crystallized mass fraction of between 32 % and 82 % . As a white dwarf core undergoes crystallization into a solid phase , latent heat is released which provides a source of thermal energy that delays its cooling . Low-mass helium white dwarfs ( with a mass , §5–6 This atmosphere , the only part of the white dwarf visible to us , is thought to be the top of an envelope which is a residue of the star 's envelope in the AGB phase and may also contain material accreted from the interstellar medium . The envelope is believed

qw_6673--White_dwarf.txt

"What is a ""white dwarf""?"

Sid James ( born Solomon Joel Cohen ; 8 May 1913 – 26 April 1976 ) was a South African-born British actor and comedian . Appearing in British films from 1947 , he was cast in numerous small and supporting roles into the 1960s . His profile was raised as Tony Hancock 's co-star in Hancock 's Half Hour , which ran on television from 1956 until 1960 , and then he became known as a regular performer in the Carry On films , appearing in 19 films of the series with the top billing role in 17 ( in the other two he was cast below Frankie Howerd ) . Meanwhile , his starring roles in television sitcoms continued for the rest of his life . He starred alongside Diana Coupland in the 1970s sitcom Bless This House which aired from 1971 until James died in 1976 . Remembered for a lascivious persona , the Snopes website describing him as `` the grand old man of dirty laughter '' , he became known for his amiability in his later television work . Bruce Forsyth described him as `` a natural at being natural . '' On 26 April 1976 , James was touring in The Mating Season , appearing at the Sunderland Empire Theatre when he died from a heart attack . Some , including comedian Les Dawson , claim to have seen the ghost of James at the theatre . Early life James was born Solomon Joel Cohen , on 8 May 1913 , to Jewish parents , in South Africa , later changing his name to Sidney Joel Cohen , and then Sidney James . His family lived on Hancock Street in Hillbrow , Johannesburg . Upon moving to Britain later in life , he claimed various previous occupations , including diamond cutter , dance tutor and boxer ; in reality , he had trained and worked as a hairdresser . It was at a hairdressing salon in Kroonstad , Orange Free State , that he met his first wife . He married Berthe Sadie Delmont , known as Toots , on 12 August 1936 and they had a daughter , Elizabeth , born in 1937 . His father-in-law , Joseph Delmont , a Johannesburg businessman , bought a hairdressing salon for James , but within a year he announced that he wanted to become an actor and joined the Johannesburg Repertory Players . Through this group he gained work with the South African Broadcasting Corporation . During the Second World War he served as a lieutenant in an entertainment unit of the South African Army , and subsequently took up acting as a career . He moved to Britain immediately after the war , financed by his service gratuity . According to rumour , Sid had an affair with the daughter of an important member of Johannesburg society ; his decision to move away from South Africa was partly because he was `` advised '' to leave due to the possible controversy . Initially he worked in repertory before being spotted for the nascent British post-war film industry . From 1947 to 1964 James made his first credited film appearances in Night Beat and Black Memory ( 1947 ) , both crime dramas . He played the alcoholic hero 's barman in Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger 's The Small Back Room ( 1949 ) . His first major comedy role was in The Lavender Hill Mob ( 1951 ) : with Alfie Bass he made up the bullion robbery gang headed by Alec Guinness and Stanley Holloway . In the same year he also appeared in Lady Godiva Rides Again and The Galloping Major . In 1953 he appeared as Harry Hawkins in The Titfield Thunderbolt . In 1956 he appeared in Trapeze ( 1956 ) , a circus film which was one of the most successful films of its year , and played Master Henry in `` Outlaw Money '' an episode of The Adventures of Robin Hood . He also had a supporting part as a TV advertisement producer in Charlie Chaplin 's A King in New York , a non-comic supporting role as a journalist in the science-fiction film Quatermass 2 and performed in Hell Drivers ( all 1957 ) , a film with Stanley Baker . The next year , James starred with Miriam Karlin in East End , West End by Wolf Mankowitz , a half-hour comedy series for the ITV company Associated Rediffusion . Set within the Jewish community of London 's East End , the series of six episodes was transmitted in February and March 1958 , but plans for further episodes were abandoned after a disappointing response . For a moment though , it had looked as if his commitment elsewhere might end his work with Tony Hancock , one of the most popular television comedians of the time . In 1954 , he had begun working with Tony Hancock in his BBC Radio series Hancock 's Half Hour . Having seen him in The Lavender Hill Mob , it was the idea of Hancock 's writers , Ray Galton and Alan Simpson , to cast James . He played a character with his own name ( but having the invented middle name Balmoral ) , who was a petty criminal who would usually manage to con Hancock , although the character eventually ceased to be Hancock 's adversary . With the exception of James , the other regular cast members of the radio series were dropped when the series made the transition to television . His part in the show now greatly increased , and many viewers regarded Hancock and James as a double act . Feeling the format had become exhausted , Hancock decided to end his professional relationship with James at the end of the sixth television series in 1960 . Although the two men remained friends , James was upset at his colleague 's decision . Galton and Simpson continued to write for both men for a while , and the Sidney Balmoral James character resurfaced in the Citizen James ( 1960–62 ) series . Sid James was now consistently taking the lead role in his television work . Taxi ! ( 1963–64 ) was his next series . A comedy-drama rather than a sitcom , it was created by Ted Willis , but although running to two series , the programme was not particularly successful . Carry On films James became a leading member of the Carry On films team , originally to replace Ted Ray , who had appeared in Carry On Teacher ( 1959 ) . It was intended that Ray would become a recurring presence in the Carry On series , but he had been dropped after just one film because of contractual problems . James ultimately made 19 Carry On films , receiving top-billing in 17 , making him one of the most featured performers of the regular cast . The characters he portrayed in the films were usually very similar to the wise-cracking , sly , lecherous Cockney he was famed for playing on television , and in most cases bore the name Sid or Sidney , including for example Sir Sidney Ruff-Diamond in Carry On ... Up the Khyber . His trademark `` dirty laugh '' was often used and became , along with a world-weary `` Cor , blimey ! `` , his catchphrase . His laugh can be heard here [ http : //www.carryon.org.uk/sounds/yak_yak_yak.wav ] . ( Similarly , other regular members of the Carry On cast abbreviated their real first names in the films : Bernard Bresslaw was Bernie and Barbara Windsor Babs . ) There were Carry On films in which James played characters who were not called Sid or Sidney , namely , Carry On Henry ( 1971 , a parody of the TV series The Six Wives of Henry VIII ) ; Carry On Abroad ( 1972 ) , in which James 's character was named Vic Flange ; and Carry On Dick ( 1974 ) , a parody version of the legend of the highwayman Dick Turpin . In Henry and Dick James played the title roles , while in Carry On Cleo he played Mark Antony . In Carry On Cowboy he adopted an American accent for his part as `` The Rumpo Kid '' . According to Adrian Rigelsford : The cast make valiant attempts to maintain American accents , with the most convincing belonging to—surprisingly—Sid James , who made no attempt to disguise his accent in any other film , either before or after this one . Rigelsford was mistaken , as James had previously played an American ( with an American accent ) in the 1954 film Orders Are Orders and Chaplin 's `` A King in New York ( 1958 ) . Later career In 1967 , James was intending to play Sergeant Nocker in Follow That Camel , but was already committed to recording the TV series George and the Dragon ( 1966–68 ) for ATV , then one of the ITV contractors . James was replaced in Follow That Camel by the American comic actor Phil Silvers . On 13 May 1967 , two weeks after the filming began of what eventually became an entry in the Carry On series , James suffered a severe heart attack . In the same year in Carry On Doctor James was shown mainly lying in a hospital bed , owing to his real-life health problems . After his heart attack James gave up his heavy cigarette habit and instead smoked a pipe with an occasional cigar ; he lost weight , ate only one main meal a day , and limited himself to two or three alcoholic drinks per evening . Meanwhile his success in TV situation comedy continued with the series Two in Clover ( 1969–70 ) , and Bless This House ( 1971-76 ) as Sid Abbott , a successful enough series in its day to spawn its own film version in 1972 . On 26 April 1976 , while on a revival tour of The Mating Season , a 1969 farce by the Irish playwright Sam Cree , James suffered a heart attack on stage at the Sunderland Empire Theatre . Actress Olga Lowe thought that he was playing a practical joke at first when he failed to reply to her dialogue . When he failed to reply to her ad libs she moved towards the wings to seek help . The technical manager ( Melvyn James ) called for the curtain to close and requested a doctor , while the audience ( unaware of what was happening ) laughed , believing the events to be part of the show . He was taken to hospital by ambulance , but died about an hour later ; he was 62 . His body was cremated and his ashes were scattered at Golders Green Crematorium . Tributes James has been the subject of at least five tribute shows : a 1996 one-off tribute , The Very Best of Sid James ; as the focus of a 2000 episode of the series The Unforgettable ; a 2002 episode of Heroes of Comedy ; Channel Four 's With Out Walls , Seriously Seeking Sid in the late 1980s ; and in 2013 , the BBC 's The Many Faces Of Sid James . Personal life James married three times . He and his first wife divorced in 1940 , mainly as a result of his many relationships with other women ; it was a pattern which continued throughout his life . In 1943 , he married a dancer , Meg Sergei , née Williams ( born 1913 ) . Five years later they had a daughter , Reina , before divorcing on 17 August 1952 . On 21 August 1952 , James married Valerie Elizabeth Patsy Assan ( born 1928 ) , an actress who used Ashton as her stage name . During the latter part of their marriage they lived in a house partly designed by James himself , called Delaford Park , situated in Iver , Buckinghamshire , a location close enough to Pinewood Studios to allow him to return home for lunch while filming . During his marriage to Valerie he had a well-publicised affair with Carry On co-star Barbara Windsor lasting more than 10 years . The affair was dramatised in the 1998 stage-play Cleo , Camping , Emmanuelle and Dick and Cor , Blimey ! , its 2000 television adaptation . James 's obsession with Windsor was such that it was said that her then husband Ronnie Knight had all of James 's furniture rearranged at home as a subtle threat and , on another occasion , that he had put an axe in James 's floor . Close friends of the time , including Vince Powell and William G. Stewart , have dismissed the suggestions . James was an inveterate and largely unsuccessful gambler , losing tens of thousands of pounds over his lifetime . His gambling addiction was such that he had an agreement with his agent , Michael Sullivan , under which his wife was not told how much he was being paid so that a portion could be set aside for gambling . Filmography

sfq_17762--Sid_James.txt

In which country was the actor Sid James born?

Edward Regan `` Eddie '' Murphy ( born April 3 , 1961 ) is an American comedian , an actor , a writer , a singer , and a producer . He was a regular cast member on Saturday Night Live from 1980 to 1984 . He has worked as a stand-up comedian , and was ranked # 10 on Comedy Central 's list of the 100 Greatest Stand-ups of All Time . In films , he has received Golden Globe Award nominations for his performances in 48 Hrs. , the Beverly Hills Cop series , Trading Places , and The Nutty Professor . In 2007 , he won the Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor and received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of soul singer James `` Thunder '' Early in Dreamgirls . His work as a voice actor in films includes : Thurgood Stubbs in The PJs , Donkey in DreamWorks ' Shrek series , and the Chinese dragon Mushu in Disney 's Mulan . In some films , he plays multiple roles in addition to his main character , intended as a tribute to one of his idols Peter Sellers , who played multiple roles in Dr. Strangelove and elsewhere . He has played multiple roles in Coming to America , Wes Craven 's Vampire in Brooklyn , the Nutty Professor films ( where he played the title role in two incarnations , plus his character 's father , brother , mother , and grandmother ) , Bowfinger , The Adventures of Pluto Nash , Norbit , and Meet Dave . As of 2014 , Murphy 's films have grossed over $ 3.8 billion in the United States and Canada box office , and $ 6.6 billion worldwide . In 2015 , his films made him the 6th-highest grossing actor in the United States . Murphy was awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor by the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts . Early life Murphy was born in Brooklyn , New York City , and raised in the borough 's Bushwick neighborhood . His mother , Lillian , was a telephone operator , and his father , Charles Edward Murphy , was a transit police officer and an amateur actor and comedian . His father died when he was young . When Murphy 's single mother became ill , the eight-year-old and his older brother lived in foster care for one year . In interviews , Murphy has said that his time in foster care was influential in developing his sense of humor . Later , he and his older brother Charlie were raised in Roosevelt , New York by his mother and stepfather Vernon Lynch , a foreman at an ice cream plant . Around the age of 15 , Murphy was writing and performing his own routines , which were heavily influenced by Bill Cosby and Richard Pryor . Career Stand-up comedy His early comedy was characterized by frequent swearing and sketches lampooning a diverse group of people ( including White Anglo-Saxon Protestants ( WASPs ) , African Americans , Italian Americans , overweight people , and gay people ) . Murphy released two stand-up specials . Eddie Murphy was his first album , released in 1982 . Delirious was filmed in 1983 in Washington , D.C. Due to the popularity of Delirious , his concert film Eddie Murphy Raw ( 1987 ) received a wide theatrical release , grossing $ 50 million ; the movie was filmed in the Felt Forum section of Madison Square Garden in New York . 1980s acting career Murphy first earned national attention as a cast member on Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , and was credited with helping to revitalize the show during the early 1980s . His notable characters included a grownup version of the Little Rascals character Buckwheat ; a street-wise children 's show host named Mr. Robinson ( a spoof of Fred Rogers , who found it amusing ) ; and a morose , cynical Gumby , whose trademark slogan became an SNL catchphrase : `` I 'm Gumby , dammit ! '' The Buckwheat character was retired in spectacular fashion—assassinated , on camera , in front of 30 Rockefeller Plaza—at Murphy 's request , after he grew tired of constant demands from fans to `` Do Buckwheat ! Do Buckwheat ! '' In Rolling Stone magazine 's February 2015 appraisal of all 141 SNL cast members to date , Murphy was ranked second ( behind John Belushi ) . `` It is customary ( and accurate ) to say that Eddie Murphy is the only reason SNL survived the five-year wilderness without Lorne Michaels , '' they noted . In 1982 , Murphy made his big screen debut in the film 48 Hrs . with Nick Nolte . 48 Hrs . proved to be a hit when it was released in the Christmas season of 1982 . Nolte was scheduled to host the December 11 , 1982 , Christmas episode of Saturday Night Live , but became too ill to host , so Murphy took over . He became the only cast member to host while still a regular . Murphy opened the show with the phrase , `` Live from New York , It 's the Eddie Murphy Show ! '' The following year , Murphy starred in Trading Places with fellow SNL alumnus Dan Aykroyd . The movie marked the first of Murphy 's collaborations with director John Landis ( who also directed Murphy in Coming to America and Beverly Hills Cop III ) and proved to be an even greater box office success than 48 Hrs . In 1984 , Murphy starred in the successful action comedy film Beverly Hills Cop . The film was Murphy 's first solo leading role . Beverly Hills Cop grossed over $ 230 million at the box office and was 41st in the list of all-time total U.S. box office grossers ( 4th-highest amongst `` R '' rated films ) , after adjusting for inflation . In 1984 , Murphy appeared in Best Defense , co-starring Dudley Moore . Murphy , who was credited as a `` Strategic Guest Star '' , was added to the film after an original version was completed but tested poorly with audiences . Best Defense was a major financial and critical disappointment . When he hosted SNL , Murphy joined the chorus of those bashing Best Defense , calling it `` the worst movie in the history of everything '' . Aykroyd originally wrote the Winston Zeddemore character in Ghostbusters specifically for Murphy , but he was unable to commit at the time due to the Beverly Hills Cop shooting schedule . The part ultimately went to Ernie Hudson . Murphy was also offered a part in 1986 's Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home , a role that , after being heavily re-written from comic relief to love interest , ultimately went to future 7th Heaven star Catherine Hicks . By this point Murphy 's near-exclusive contract with Paramount Pictures rivaled Star Trek as Paramount 's most lucrative franchise . In 1986 , Murphy starred in the supernatural comedy , The Golden Child . Although The Golden Child performed well at the box office , the movie was not as critically acclaimed as 48 Hrs. , Trading Places , and Beverly Hills Cop . The Golden Child was considered a change of pace for Murphy because of the supernatural setting as opposed to the more `` street smart '' settings of Murphy 's previous efforts . A year later , Murphy reprised his role of Axel Foley in the Tony Scott-directed Beverly Hills Cop II . It was a box office success , grossing almost $ 300 million worldwide . Singing career Murphy is also a singer , having frequently provided background vocals to songs released by The Bus Boys ; their song `` The Boys Are Back in Town '' was featured in 48 Hrs . and Murphy 's comedy special Eddie Murphy Delirious . As a solo artist , Murphy had two hit singles , `` Party All the Time '' ( which was produced by Rick James ) and `` Put Your Mouth on Me '' during the latter half of the 1980s ( although he actually started singing earlier in his career , with the songs `` Boogie in Your Butt '' and `` Enough Is Enough '' , the latter being a parody of Barbra Streisand and Donna Summer 's 1979 song , `` No More Tears '' . They both appear on his 1982 self-titled comedy album . ) `` Party All the Time '' was featured on Murphy 's 1985 debut album How Could It Be , which included a minor follow-up R & B hit in the title track , a duet with vocalist Crystal Blake . This track was written by Rusty Hamilton and was produced by Stevie Wonder 's cousin Aquil Fudge after a brief falling out with Rick James . In 2004 , VH-1 and Blender voted `` Party All the Time '' number seven among the `` 50 Worst Songs of All-Time . '' Sharam used a sample of the song for the UK # 8 hit `` PATT ( Party All The Time ) '' in 2006 . `` Put Your Mouth on Me '' appeared on Murphy 's 1989 follow-up album , So Happy . Murphy recorded the album Love 's Alright in the early 1990s . He performed in a music video of the single `` Whatzupwitu '' , featuring Michael Jackson . He recorded a duet with Shabba Ranks called `` I Was a King '' . In 1992 , Murphy appeared in Michael Jackson 's `` Remember the Time '' alongside Magic Johnson and Iman . Though uncredited , Murphy provided vocal work on SNL castmate Joe Piscopo 's comedy single , `` The Honeymooners Rap . '' Piscopo impersonated Jackie Gleason on the single , while Murphy provided an imitation of Art Carney . In Coming to America , he imitated Jackie Wilson when he sang `` To Be Loved '' , but because the character he was playing had a thick accent , he had to sing it in character . In later years , Murphy performed several songs in the Shrek film franchise . In the first film , he performed a version of `` I 'm a Believer '' in the film 's final scene ; in Shrek 2 he performed Ricky Martin 's hit `` Livin ' La Vida Loca '' along with co-star Antonio Banderas . In 2013 he released his first single in years titled `` Red Light '' , a reggae song featuring Snoop Lion . He is also working on a new album titled 9 . 1990s career From 1989 and through most of the early 1990s , box office results and reviews for Murphy 's films were strong , but by 1992 results for both dropped , hitting a low point with the critically panned Beverly Hills Cop III ( 1994 ) , a movie Murphy would ultimately denounce during an appearance on Inside the Actors Studio , although he did find box office success with Boomerang and Another 48 Hrs . Harlem Nights featured Murphy , who had previously been known only as a performer , as director , producer , star , and co-writer , with his brother , Charlie Murphy , as well as supporting roles for Murphy 's comic idols Redd Foxx and Richard Pryor . During this period , Murphy was criticized by filmmaker Spike Lee for not using his show business stature to help black actors break into film , despite Murphy 's films ( especially those he produced ) often being populated with predominantly black casts ( Coming To America , Harlem Nights , Boomerang , Vampire in Brooklyn , Life ) . Many black actors who would later gain wider recognition make early appearances in Murphy films , such as Damon Wayans in Beverly Hills Cop , Halle Berry and Martin Lawrence in Boomerang , Samuel L. Jackson and Cuba Gooding Jr. in Coming to America , Dave Chappelle in The Nutty Professor , and Chris Rock in Beverly Hills Cop II . Although Murphy has enjoyed commercial success since Saturday Night Live , he did not participate in the making of the Live From New York : An Uncensored History of Saturday Night Live retrospective book by Tom Shales and James Andrew Miller ( 2002 ) , nor did he ever attend cast reunions or anniversary specials until his appearance on the SNL 40th anniversary special . Murphy 's box office results began to recover in 1996 , starting with The Nutty Professor . 1998 to present He followed with a series of very successful family-friendly movies like Mulan , Dr. Dolittle and its sequel , the Shrek series , Daddy Day Care , and The Haunted Mansion , along with Nutty Professor II : The Klumps . However , most of his movies meant for more adult audiences performed moderately ; Metro , I Spy , and Showtime all grossed less than $ 40 million domestically , Holy Man performed poorly , grossing less than $ 13 million , and The Adventures of Pluto Nash is on record as one of the biggest theatrical money-losers of all time , grossing just $ 7 million worldwide on a reported $ 110 million budget . A notable exception to this run of poorly received adult-themed films was the Frank Oz comedy Bowfinger , also starring Steve Martin . The film garnered generally positive critical reviews , and grossed $ 98 million at the box office . In 2006 , he starred in the motion picture version of the Broadway musical Dreamgirls as soul singer James `` Thunder '' Early . Murphy won a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor , as well as a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Broadcast Film Critics Association Award in that category . Several reviews for the film highlighted Murphy 's performance while he received some pre-release Academy Awards buzz . Murphy was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor on January 23 , 2007 , but lost to Alan Arkin for his performance in Little Miss Sunshine – there was a suggestion that one of the reasons Murphy lost out on winning the Academy Award were the negative reviews of his subsequent film Norbit , released in early February 2007 . As a result , Murphy notoriously exited the 79th Academy Awards as soon as Arkin was announced the winner . Dreamgirls was the first film distributed by Paramount Pictures to star Murphy ( who once was on an exclusive contract with the studio ) since Vampire in Brooklyn in 1995 . In 2007 , Murphy was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . As a result of Viacom 's acquisition of DreamWorks , Paramount distributed his other 2007 releases : Norbit and Shrek the Third . He starred in the 2008 film Meet Dave , and the 2009 film Imagine That for Paramount Pictures . Murphy co-starred in Tower Heist , directed by Brett Ratner . Murphy played a thief who joins a group of hardworking men who find out they have fallen victim to a wealthy businessman 's Ponzi scheme , and conspire to rob his high-rise residence . Ben Stiller , Matthew Broderick , and Casey Affleck also starred in the film , released on November 4 , 2011 . It was reported in 2011 that Murphy would host the 84th Academy Awards in 2012 . However , he dropped out of his hosting duties on November 9 , 2011 , in the wake of the Brett Ratner scandal . On December 6 , 2013 , it was announced that Murphy would star in the fourth film of the Beverly Hills Cop series . Brett Ratner will direct the film , Jerry Bruckheimer is confirmed to produce the film , and Josh Appelbaum and Andre Nemec will write . In a June 2014 interview Murphy discussed the plot of the film stating that it would take place in Detroit and they would actually film in Detroit bringing in an estimated $ 56.6 million to the state of Michigan . On March 8 , 2014 , it was announced that Murphy would team up with Boomerang co-star Halle Berry in a new film titled Miles And Me . The film also stars Laurence Fishburne and is set to begin pre-production later this year and is supposedly from Paramount Pictures . No other word yet on what the film is about or who else is attached . Murphy will co-star with actress Britt Robertson in the upcoming drama Mr. Church . On March 15 , 2015 , it was announced that Murphy will play comedian Richard Pryor 's father , LeRoy Pryor , in the upcoming biopic directed by Lee Daniels with Mike Epps playing Pryor . On June 14 , 2016 , it was announced that Murphy will reprise his role as Axel Foley in a fourth film of the Beverly Hills Cop franchise . Influences Murphy has said his comedic influences include Bill Cosby , Richard Pryor , Redd Foxx , and Robin Williams . Comedians who in turn cite Murphy has having influenced them include Russell Brand , Dave Chappelle , Chris Rock , and Kevin Hart . Personal life Family Murphy has a son , Eric ( born circa 1989 ) , with then girlfriend Paulette McNeely , and a son , Christian ( born circa 1990 ) with then girlfriend Tamara Hood . Murphy began a longtime romantic relationship with Nicole Mitchell after meeting her in 1988 at an NAACP Image Awards show . They lived together for almost two years before getting married at the Grand Ballroom of The Plaza Hotel in New York City on March 18 , 1993 . Murphy and Mitchell had five children together : Bria , Myles , Shayne , Zola , and Bella . In August 2005 , Mitchell filed for divorce , citing `` irreconcilable differences '' . The divorce was finalized on April 17 , 2006 . As of 2008 , Murphy resides in Long Island , New York . Following his divorce from Mitchell , in 2006 , Murphy began dating former Spice Girl Melanie Brown , who became pregnant and stated that the child was Murphy 's . When questioned about the pregnancy in December 2006 , by RTL Boulevard , Murphy told Dutch reporter Matthijs Kleyn , `` I do n't know whose child that is until it comes out and has a blood test . You should n't jump to conclusions , sir '' . Brown gave birth to a baby girl , Angel Iris Murphy Brown , on Murphy 's 46th birthday , April 3 , 2007 . On June 22 , 2007 , representatives for Brown announced in People that a DNA test had confirmed that Murphy was the father . Brown had stated in an interview that Murphy has not sought a relationship with Angel , although it was later reported in 2010 that Murphy was getting to know her . Murphy exchanged marriage vows with film producer Tracey Edmonds , former wife of Kenneth `` Babyface '' Edmonds , on January 1 , 2008 , in a private ceremony on an island off Bora Bora . On January 16 , 2008 , the couple released a statement saying , `` After much consideration and discussion , we have jointly decided that we will forgo having a legal ceremony as it is not necessary to define our relationship further , '' and called the Bora Bora wedding a `` symbolic union '' . The two had planned on having a legal ceremony upon their return to the U.S. but did not , and their wedding was never official . Murphy began dating model Paige Butcher in 2012 . Their daughter Izzy was born May 3 , 2016 . Lawsuit In 1988 Art Buchwald sued Murphy and Paramount Pictures , alleging that they had used ideas from a screenplay he had submitted to Paramount as the basis for Murphy 's film Coming to America . In 1992 Buchwald was awarded $ 150,000 in a summary judgment ; Buchwald 's producing partner , Alan Bernheim , was awarded $ 750,000 . Both sides described the outcome as a `` victory '' . Legal issues On May 2 , 1997 , Murphy was stopped by police after having been observed picking up a transvestite prostitute . The prostitute , Atisone Seiuli , was arrested on an outstanding warrant for prostitution . Murphy was not arrested or charged and claimed he was just giving Seiuli a ride . Philanthropy Murphy has donated money to the AIDS Foundation , and cancer , education , creative arts , family/parent support , health and homeless charities . He has donated to the Martin Luther King , Jr. Center , various cancer charities and $ 100,000 to the Screen Actors ' Guild 's strike relief fund . Discography * How Could It Be ( 1985 ) * So Happy ( 1989 ) * Love 's Alright ( 1993 ) Filmography Awards and nominations

qf_1431--Eddie_Murphy.txt

What year were all these comedians born: Harry Enfield, Eddie Murphy and Rory Bremner?

The piano is a musical instrument played using a keyboard , which is a row of keys ( small levers ) that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands . Invented in about 1700 ( the exact date is uncertain ) , the piano is widely employed in classical , jazz , traditional and popular music for solo and ensemble performances , accompaniment , and for composing and rehearsal . Although the piano is not portable and is often expensive , its versatility , wide range , ability to play chords , ability to play louder or softer , the large number of musicians trained in playing it and its ubiquity in performance venues and rehearsal spaces have made it one of the Western world 's most familiar musical instruments . An acoustic piano usually has a protective wooden case surrounding the soundboard and metal strings , and a row of 88 black and white keys ( 52 white keys for the note of the C Major scale and 36 shorter black keys , which are higher than the white keys , for the `` accidental '' notes , which are the sharp and flat notes needed to play in all 12 keys ) . The strings are sounded when the keys are pressed or struck , and silenced by a damper when the keys are released . The notes can be sustained , even when the keys are released , by the use of pedals at the base of the instrument . Unlike two of the major keyboard instruments that preceded the piano , the pipe organ and the harpsichord , the weight or force with which a performer presses or strikes the keys changes the dynamics and tone of the instrument . Pressing one or more keys on the piano 's keyboard causes a padded hammer ( often padded with firm felt ) to strike the strings . The hammer rebounds from the strings , and the strings continue to vibrate at their resonant frequency . These vibrations are transmitted through a bridge to a soundboard that amplifies by more efficiently coupling the acoustic energy to the air . When the key is released , a damper stops the strings ' vibration , ending the sound . Although an acoustic piano has strings , it is usually classified as a percussion instrument rather than as a stringed instrument , because the strings are struck rather than plucked ( as with a harpsichord or spinet ) ; in the Hornbostel-Sachs system of instrument classification , pianos are considered chordophones . With technological advances , Electric pianos ( 1929 ) , electronic ( 1970s ) , and digital pianos ( 1980s ) have also been developed . The electric piano became a popular instrument in the 1960s and 1970s genres of jazz fusion and rock music . The word piano is a shortened form of pianoforte , the Italian term for the instrument , which in turn derives from gravicembalo col piano e forte and fortepiano . The Italian musical terms piano and forte indicate `` soft '' and `` loud '' respectively , in this context referring to the variations in volume produced in response to a pianist 's touch on the keys : the greater the velocity of a key press , the greater the force of the hammer hitting the strings , and the louder the sound of the note produced . History The piano was founded on earlier technological innovations in keyboard instruments . The first string instruments with struck strings were the hammered dulcimers , which were used since the Middle Ages in Europe . During the Middle Ages , there were several attempts at creating stringed keyboard instruments with struck strings . By the 17th century , the mechanisms of keyboard instruments such as the clavichord and the harpsichord were well developed . In a clavichord , the strings are struck by tangents , while in a harpsichord , they are mechanically plucked by quills when the performer depresses the key . Centuries of work on the mechanism of the harpsichord in particular had shown the most effective ways to construct the case , soundboard , bridge , and mechanical action for a keyboard intended to sound strings . Invention The invention of the modern piano is credited to Bartolomeo Cristofori ( 1655–1731 ) of Padua , Italy , who was employed by Ferdinando de ' Medici , Grand Prince of Tuscany , as the Keeper of the Instruments ; he was an expert harpsichord maker , and was well acquainted with the body of knowledge on stringed keyboard instruments . It is not known exactly when Cristofori first built a piano . An inventory made by his employers , the Medici family , indicates the existence of a piano by the year 1700 ; another document of doubtful authenticity indicates a date of 1698 . The three Cristofori pianos that survive today date from the 1720s . Cristofori named the instrument un cimbalo di cipresso di piano e forte ( `` a keyboard of cypress with soft and loud '' ) , abbreviated over time as pianoforte , fortepiano , and simply , piano . While the clavichord allowed expressive control of volume and sustain , it was too quiet for large performances . The harpsichord produced a sufficiently loud sound , but offered little expressive control over each note . A harpsichord could not produce a variety of dynamic levels from the same keyboard during a musical passage ( although a harpischord with two manuals could be used to alternate between two different stops , which could include a louder stop and a quieter stop . The piano offered the best features of both instruments , combining the ability to play loudly with dynamic control that permitted a range of dynamics , including soft playing . Cristofori 's great success was solving , with no prior example , the fundamental mechanical problem of designing a stringed keyboard instrument in which the notes are struck by a hammer . The hammer must strike the string , but not remain in contact with it , because this would damp the sound . Moreover , the hammer must return to its rest position without bouncing violently , and it must return to a position in which it is ready to play almost immediately after its key is depressed so the player can repeat the same note rapidly . Cristofori 's piano action was a model for the many approaches to piano actions that followed . Cristofori 's early instruments were made with thin strings , and were much quieter than the modern piano , but much louder and with more sustain in comparison to the clavichord—the only previous keyboard instrument capable of dynamic nuance via the weight or force with which the keyboard is played . Early fortepiano Cristofori 's new instrument remained relatively unknown until an Italian writer , Scipione Maffei , wrote an enthusiastic article about it in 1711 , including a diagram of the mechanism , that was translated into German and widely distributed . Most of the next generation of piano builders started their work based on reading the article . One of these builders was Gottfried Silbermann , better known as an organ builder . Silbermann 's pianos were virtually direct copies of Cristofori 's , with one important addition : Silbermann invented the forerunner of the modern sustain pedal , which lifts all the dampers from the strings simultaneously . This allows the pianist to sustain the notes that she has depressed even after her fingers are no longer pressing down the keys . This innovation enabled pianists to , for example , play a loud chord with both hands in the lower register of the instrument , sustain the chord with the sustain pedal , and then , with the chord continuing to sound , relocate their hands to a different register of the keyboard in preparation for a subsequent section . Silbermann showed Johann Sebastian Bach one of his early instruments in the 1730s , but Bach did not like it at that time , claiming that the higher notes were too soft to allow a full dynamic range . Although this earned him some animosity from Silbermann , the criticism was apparently heeded . Bach did approve of a later instrument he saw in 1747 , and even served as an agent in selling Silbermann 's pianos . `` Instrument : piano et forte genandt '' –a reference to the instrument 's ability to play soft and loud–was an expression that Bach used to help sell the instrument when he was acting as Silbermann 's agent in 1749 . Piano-making flourished during the late 18th century in the Viennese school , which included Johann Andreas Stein ( who worked in Augsburg , Germany ) and the Viennese makers Nannette Streicher ( daughter of Stein ) and Anton Walter . Viennese-style pianos were built with wood frames , two strings per note , and leather-covered hammers . Some of these Viennese pianos had the opposite coloring of modern-day pianos ; the natural keys were black and the accidental keys white . It was for such instruments that Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart composed his concertos and sonatas , and replicas of them are built in the 2000s for use in authentic-instrument performance of his music . The pianos of Mozart 's day had a softer , more ethereal tone than 2000-era pianos or English pianos , with less sustaining power . The term fortepiano has in modern times come to be used to distinguish these early instruments ( and modern re-creations of them ) from later pianos . Modern piano In the period from about 1790 to 1860 , the Mozart-era piano underwent tremendous changes that led to the modern form of the instrument . This revolution was in response to a preference by composers and pianists for a more powerful , sustained piano sound , and made possible by the ongoing Industrial Revolution with resources such as high-quality piano wire for strings , and precision casting for the production of massive iron frames that could withstand the tremendous tension of the strings . Over time , the tonal range of the piano was also increased from the five octaves of Mozart 's day to the seven octave ( or more ) range found on modern pianos . Early technological progress in the late 1700s owed much to the firm of Broadwood . John Broadwood joined with another Scot , Robert Stodart , and a Dutchman , Americus Backers , to design a piano in the harpsichord case—the origin of the `` grand '' . They achieved this in about 1777 . They quickly gained a reputation for the splendour and powerful tone of their instruments , with Broadwood constructing pianos that were progressively larger , louder , and more robustly constructed . They sent pianos to both Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven , and were the first firm to build pianos with a range of more than five octaves : five octaves and a fifth ( interval ) during the 1790s , six octaves by 1810 ( Beethoven used the extra notes in his later works ) , and seven octaves by 1820 . The Viennese makers similarly followed these trends ; however the two schools used different piano actions : Broadwoods used a more robust action , whereas Viennese instruments were more sensitive . By the 1820s , the center of piano innovation had shifted to Paris , where the Pleyel firm manufactured pianos used by Frédéric Chopin and the Érard firm manufactured those used by Franz Liszt . In 1821 , Sébastien Érard invented the double escapement action , which incorporated a repetition lever ( also called the balancier ) that permitted repeating a note even if the key had not yet risen to its maximum vertical position . This facilitated rapid playing of repeated notes , a musical device exploited by Liszt . When the invention became public , as revised by Henri Herz , the double escapement action gradually became standard in grand pianos , and is still incorporated into all grand pianos currently produced in the 2000s . Other improvements of the mechanism included the use of felt hammer coverings instead of layered leather or cotton . Felt , which was first introduced by Jean-Henri Pape in 1826 , was a more consistent material , permitting wider dynamic ranges as hammer weights and string tension increased . The sostenuto pedal ( see below ) , invented in 1844 by Jean-Louis Boisselot and copied by the Steinway firm in 1874 , allowed a wider range of effects . One innovation that helped create the powerful sound of the modern piano was the use of a strong , cast iron frame . Also called the `` plate '' , the iron frame sits atop the soundboard , and serves as the primary bulwark against the force of string tension that can exceed 20 tons in a modern grand . The single piece cast iron frame was patented in 1825 in Boston by Alpheus Babcock , combining the metal hitch pin plate ( 1821 , claimed by Broadwood on behalf of Samuel Hervé ) and resisting bars ( Thom and Allen , 1820 , but also claimed by Broadwood and Érard ) . Babcock later worked for the Chickering & Mackays firm who patented the first full iron frame for grand pianos in 1843 . Composite forged metal frames were preferred by many European makers until the American system was fully adopted by the early 20th century . The increased structural integrity of the iron frame allowed the use of thicker , tenser , and more numerous strings . In 1834 , the Webster & Horsfal firm of Birmingham brought out a form of piano wire made from cast steel ; according to Dolge it was `` so superior to the iron wire that the English firm soon had a monopoly . '' But a better steel wire was soon created in 1840 by the Viennese firm of Martin Miller , and a period of innovation and intense competition ensued , with rival brands of piano wire being tested against one another at international competitions , leading ultimately to the modern form of piano wire . Other important advances included changes to the way the piano is strung , such as the use of a `` choir '' of three strings rather than two for all but the lowest notes , and the implementation of an over-strung scale , in which the strings are placed in two separate planes , each with its own bridge height . ( This is also called cross-stringing . Whereas earlier instruments ' bass strings were a mere continuation of a single string plane , over-stringing placed the bass bridge behind and to the treble side of the tenor bridge area . This crossed the strings , with the bass strings in the higher plane . ) This permitted a much narrower cabinet at the `` nose '' end of the piano , and optimized the transition from unwound tenor strings to the iron or copper-wrapped bass strings . Over-stringing was invented by Pape during the 1820s , and first patented for use in grand pianos in the United States by Henry Steinway , Jr. in 1859 . Some piano makers developed schemes to enhance the tone of each note . Julius Blüthner developed Aliquot stringing in 1893 as well as Pascal Taskin ( 1788 ) , and Collard & Collard ( 1821 ) . These systems were used to strengthen the tone of the highest register of notes on the piano , which up till this time were viewed as being too weak-sounding . Each used more distinctly ringing , undamped vibrations of sympathetically vibrating strings to add to the tone , except the Blüthner Aliquot stringing , which uses an additional fourth string in the upper two treble sections . While the hitchpins of these separately suspended Aliquot strings are raised slightly above the level of the usual tri-choir strings , they are not struck by the hammers but rather are damped by attachments of the usual dampers . Eager to copy these effects , Theodore Steinway invented duplex scaling , which used short lengths of non-speaking wire bridged by the `` aliquot '' throughout much of upper the range of the piano , always in locations that caused them to vibrate sympathetically in conformity with their respective overtones—typically in doubled octaves and twelfths . The mechanical action structure of the upright piano was invented in London , England in 1826 by Robert Wornum , and upright models became the most popular model . Upright pianos took less space than a grand piano , and as such they were a better size for use in private homes for domestic music-making and practice . Variations in shape and design Some early pianos had shapes and designs that are no longer in use . The square piano ( not truly square , but rectangular ) was cross strung at an extremely acute angle above the hammers , with the keyboard set along the long side . This design is attributed to Gottfried Silbermann or Christian Ernst Friderici on the continent , and Johannes Zumpe or Harman Vietor in England , and it was improved by changes first introduced by Guillaume-Lebrecht Petzold in France and Alpheus Babcock in the United States . Square pianos were built in great numbers through the 1840s in Europe and the 1890s in the United States , and saw the most visible change of any type of piano : the iron-framed , over-strung squares manufactured by Steinway & Sons were more than two-and-a-half times the size of Zumpe 's wood-framed instruments from a century before . Their overwhelming popularity was due to inexpensive construction and price , although their tone and performance were limited by narrow soundboards , simple actions and string spacing that made proper hammer alignment difficult . The tall , vertically strung upright grand was arranged like a grand set on end , with the soundboard and bridges above the keys , and tuning pins below them . The term was later revived by many manufacturers for advertising purposes . `` Giraffe pianos '' , `` pyramid pianos '' and `` lyre pianos '' were arranged in a somewhat similar fashion , using evocatively shaped cases . The very tall cabinet piano was introduced about 1805 and was built through the 1840s . It had strings arranged vertically on a continuous frame with bridges extended nearly to the floor , behind the keyboard and very large sticker action . The short cottage upright or pianino with vertical stringing , made popular by Robert Wornum around 1815 , was built into the 20th century . They are informally called birdcage pianos because of their prominent damper mechanism . The oblique upright , popularized in France by Roller & Blanchet during the late 1820s , was diagonally strung throughout its compass . The tiny spinet upright was manufactured from the mid-1930s until recent times . The low position of the hammers required the use of a `` drop action '' to preserve a reasonable keyboard height . Modern upright and grand pianos attained their present , 2000-era forms by the end of the 19th century . While improvements have been made in manufacturing processes , and many individual details of the instrument continue to receive attention , the 19th century was the era of the most dramatic innovations and modifications of the instrument . Types Modern acoustic pianos have two basic configurations , the grand piano and the upright piano , with various styles of each . There are also specialized and novelty pianos , electric pianos based on electromechanical designs , electronic pianos that synthesize piano-like tones using oscillators , and digital pianos using digital samples of acoustic piano sounds . Grand In grand pianos , the frame and strings are horizontal , with the strings extending away from the keyboard . The action lies beneath the strings , and uses gravity as its means of return to a state of rest . There are many sizes of grand piano . A rough generalization distinguishes the concert grand ( between 2.2 and 3 meters long , about –3 m ) from the parlor grand or boudoir grand ( 1.7 to 2.2 meters long , about – ) and the smaller baby grand ( around ) . All else being equal , longer pianos with longer strings have larger , richer sound and lower inharmonicity of the strings . Inharmonicity is the degree to which the frequencies of overtones ( known as partials or harmonics ) sound sharp relative to whole multiples of the fundamental frequency . This results from the piano 's considerable string stiffness ; as a struck string decays its harmonics vibrate , not from their termination , but from a point very slightly toward the center ( or more flexible part ) of the string . The higher the partial , the further sharp it runs . Pianos with shorter and thicker string ( i.e. , small pianos with short string scales ) have more inharmonicity . The greater the inharmonicity , the more the ear perceives it as harshness of tone . Inharmonicity requires that octaves be stretched , or tuned to a lower octave 's corresponding sharp overtone rather than to a theoretically correct octave . If octaves are not stretched , single octaves sound in tune , but double—and notably triple—octaves are unacceptably narrow . Stretching a small piano 's octaves to match its inherent inharmonicity level creates an imbalance among all the instrument 's intervallic relationships , not just its octaves . In a concert grand , however , the octave `` stretch '' retains harmonic balance , even when aligning treble notes to a harmonic produced from three octaves below . This lets close and widespread octaves sound pure , and produces virtually beatless perfect fifths . This gives the concert grand a brilliant , singing and sustaining tone quality—one of the principal reasons that full-size grands are used in the concert hall . Smaller grands satisfy the space and cost needs of domestic use . Upright ( vertical ) Upright pianos , also called vertical pianos , are more compact because the frame and strings are vertical . Upright pianos are widely used in elementary schools , high schools , music conservatories and university music programs as rehearsal and practice instruments and they are popular models for in-home purchase . The hammers move horizontally , and return to their resting position via springs , which are susceptible to degradation . Upright pianos with unusually tall frames and long strings are sometimes called upright grand pianos . Some authors classify modern pianos according to their height and to modifications of the action that are necessary to accommodate the height . * Studio pianos are around 42 to 45 inches ( 106 to 114 cm ) tall . This is the shortest cabinet that can accommodate a full-sized action located above the keyboard . * Console pianos have a compact action ( shorter hammers ) , and are a few inches shorter than studio models . * The top of a spinet model barely rises above the keyboard . The action is located below , operated by vertical wires that are attached to the backs of the keys . * Anything taller than a studio piano is called an upright . Specialized The toy piano , introduced in the 19th century , is a small piano-like instrument , that generally uses round metal rods to produce sound , rather than strings . The US Library of Congress recognizes the toy piano as a unique instrument with the subject designation , Toy Piano Scores : M175 T69 . In 1863 , Henri Fourneaux invented the player piano , which plays itself from a piano roll . A machine perforates a performance recording into rolls of paper , and the player piano replays the performance using pneumatic devices . Modern equivalents of the player piano include the Bösendorfer CEUS , Yamaha Disklavier and QRS Pianomation , using solenoids and MIDI rather than pneumatics and rolls . A silent piano is an acoustic piano having an option to silence the strings by means of an interposing hammer bar . They are designed for private silent practice . Edward Ryley invented the transposing piano in 1801 . It has a lever under the keyboard as to move the keyboard relative to the strings so a pianist can play in a familiar key while the music sounds in a different key . The minipiano , an instrument patented by the Brasted brothers of the Eavestaff Ltd. piano company , was patented in 1934 . This instrument has a braceless back , and a soundboard positioned below the keys—meaning that long metal rods pulled on the levers to make the hammers strike the strings . The first model , known as the Pianette , was unique in that the tuning pins extended through the instrument , so it could be tuned at the front . The prepared piano , present in some contemporary art music , is a piano with objects placed inside it to alter its sound , or has had its mechanism changed in some other way . The scores for music for prepared piano specify the modifications , for example instructing the pianist to insert pieces of rubber , paper , metal screws , or washers in between the strings . These either mute the strings or alter their timbre . A harpsichord-like sound can be produced by placing or dangling small metal buttons in front of the hammer . In 1954 a German company exhibited a wire-less piano at the Spring Fair in Frankfurt , Germany that sold for $ 238 . The wires were replaced by metal bars of different alloys that replicated the standard wires when played . A similar concept is used in the electric-acoustic Rhodes piano . Electric , electronic , and digital The first electric pianos from the late 1920s used metal strings with a magnetic pickup , an amplifier and a loudspeaker . The electric pianos that became most popular in pop and rock music in the 1960s and 1970s , such as the Fender Rhodes use metal tines in place of strings and use electromagnetic pickups similar to those on an electric guitar . The resulting electrical , analogue signal can then be amplified with a keyboard amplifier or electronically manipulated with effects units . Electric pianos are rarely used in classical music , where the main usage of them is as inexpensive rehearsal or practice instruments in music schools . However , electric pianos , particularly the Fender Rhodes , became important instruments in funk , jazz fusion and some rock music genres . Electronic pianos are non-acoustic ; they do not have strings , tines or hammers , but are a type of synthesizer that simulates or imitates piano sounds using oscillators that synthesize the sound of an acoustic piano . Digital pianos are also non-acoustic and do not have strings or hammers but use digital sampling technology to accurately reproduce the acoustic sound of each piano note . Digital pianos can include sustain pedals , weighted keys , multiple voice options ( e.g. , sampled or synthesized imitations of electric piano , Hammond organ , violin , etc . ) , and MIDI interfaces . MIDI inputs and outputs allow a digital piano to be connected to other electronic instruments or musical devices . For example , a digital piano 's MIDI out signal could be connected by a patch cord to a synth module , which would allow the performer to use the keyboard of the digital piano to play modern synthesizer sounds . Early digital pianos tended to lack a full set of pedals but the synthesis software of later models such as the Yamaha Clavinova series synthesised the sympathetic vibration of the other strings ( such as when the sustain pedal is depressed ) and full pedal sets can now be replicated . The processing power of digital pianos has enabled highly realistic pianos using multi-gigabyte piano sample sets with as many as ninety recordings , each lasting many seconds , for each key under different conditions ( e.g. , there are samples of each note being struck softly , loudly , with a sharp attack , etc . ) . Additional samples emulate sympathetic resonance of the strings when the sustain pedal is depressed , key release , the drop of the dampers , and simulations of techniques such as re-pedalling . Digital , MIDI-equipped , pianos can output a stream of MIDI data , or record and play via a CD ROM or USB flash drive using MIDI format files , similar in concept to a pianola . The MIDI file records the physics of a note rather than its resulting sound and

odql_10253--Piano.txt

Whose 23rd. piano sonata is known as the 'Apassionata'?

The Most Noble Order of the Garter , founded in 1348 , is the highest order of chivalry and the third most prestigious honour ( inferior only to the Victoria Cross and George Cross ) in England and the United Kingdom . It is dedicated to the image and arms of Saint George , England 's patron saint . It is awarded at the Sovereign 's pleasure as a personal gift on recipients from the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms . Membership of the Order is limited to the Sovereign , the Prince of Wales , and no more than 24 members , or Companions . The order also includes supernumerary knights and ladies ( e.g . members of the British Royal Family and foreign monarchs ) . New appointments to the Order of the Garter are always announced on St George 's Day ( 23 April ) , as Saint George is the order 's patron saint . The order 's emblem is a garter with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense ( Middle French : `` shame on him who thinks evil of it '' ) in gold lettering . Members of the order wear it on ceremonial occasions . History King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter around the time of his claim to the French throne . The year is usually presumed to be 1348 , however , the Complete Peerage , under `` The Founders of the Order of the Garter '' , states the order was first instituted on 23 April 1344 , listing each founding member as knighted in 1344 . The list includes Sir Sanchet D'Abrichecourt , who died on 20 October 1345 . Other dates from 1344 to 1351 have also been proposed . The King 's wardrobe account shows Garter habits first issued in the autumn of 1348 . Also , its original statutes required that each member of the Order already be a knight ( what would now be referred to as a knight bachelor ) and some of the initial members listed were only knighted that year . The earliest written mention of the Order is found in Tirant lo Blanch , a chivalric romance written in Catalan mainly by Valencian Joanot Martorell . It was first published in 1490 . This book devotes a chapter to the description of the origin of the Order of the Garter . List of Founder Knights At the time of its foundation , the Order consisted of King Edward III , together with 25 Founder Knights , listed in ascending order of stall number in St. George 's Chapel : * King Edward III ( 1312–77 ) * Edward , the Black Prince , Prince of Wales ( 1330–76 ) * Henry of Grosmont , Earl of Lancaster ( c. 1310–61 ) * Thomas , Earl of Warwick ( d. 1369 ) * Jean de Grailly , Captal de Buch ( d. 1377 ) * Ralph , Lord Stafford ( 1301–72 ) * William , Earl of Salisbury ( 1328–97 ) * Roger , Earl of March ( 1328–60 ) * John , Lord Lisle ( 1318–56 ) * Bartholomew , Lord Burghersh ( d. 1369 ) * John , Lord Beauchamp ( d. 1360 ) * John , Lord Mohun ( c. 1320–76 ) * Sir Hugh de Courtenay ( d. 1349 ) * Thomas , Earl of Kent ( 1314-1360 ) * John , Lord Grey de Rotherfield ( c. 1300–59 ) * Sir Richard Fitz-Simon ( b . 1295 ) * Sir Miles Stapleton ( d. 1364 ) * Sir Thomas Wale ( d. 1352 ) * Sir Hugh Wrottesley ( d. 1381 ) * Sir Nele Loring ( d. 1386 ) * Sir John Chandos ( d. 1369 ) * Sir James Audley ( d. 1369 ) * Sir Otho Holand ( d. 1359 ) * Sir Henry Eam ( d. before 1360 ) * Sir Sanchet D'Abrichecourt ( d. 1345 ) * Sir Walter Paveley ( d. 1375 ) They are all depicted in individual portraits in the Bruges Garter Book made c. 1431 . Legendary origins Various legends account for the origin of the Order . The most popular legend involves the `` Countess of Salisbury '' ( either Edward 's future daughter-in-law Joan of Kent or her former mother-in-law , Catherine Montacute , Countess of Salisbury ) . While she was dancing at a court ball at Calais , her garter is said to have slipped from her leg . When the surrounding courtiers sniggered , the king picked it up and returned it to her , exclaiming , `` Honi soit qui mal y pense '' ( `` Shame on him who thinks evil of it . `` ) , the phrase that has become the motto of the Order . According to another legend , King Richard I was inspired in the 12th century by St George the Martyr while fighting in the Crusades to tie garters around the legs of his knights , who subsequently won the battle . King Edward supposedly recalled the event in the 14th century when he founded the Order . This story is recounted in a letter to the Annual Register in 1774 : Another explanation is that the motto refers to Edward 's claim to the French throne , and the Order of the Garter was created to help pursue this claim . The use of the garter as an emblem may have derived from straps used to fasten armour . Medieval scholars have pointed to a connection between the Order of the Garter and the Middle English poem , Sir Gawain and the Green Knight . In Gawain , a girdle , very similar in its erotic undertones to the garter , plays a prominent role . A rough version of the Order 's motto also appears in the text . It translates from Old French as `` Accursed be a cowardly and covetous heart . '' While the author of that poem remains disputed , there seems to be a connection between two of the top candidates and the Order of the Garter . Scholar J.P. Oakden has suggested that it is someone related to John of Gaunt , 1st Duke of Lancaster , and , more importantly , a member of the Order . Another competing theory is that the work was written for Enguerrand de Coucy , seventh Sire de Coucy . The Sire de Coucy was married to King Edward III 's daughter , Isabella , and was given admittance to the Order of the Garter on their wedding day . '' Ladies Companion of the Garter Soon after the founding of the Order , women were appointed `` Ladies of the Garter , '' but were not made companions . King Henry VII discontinued the practice in 1488 ; his mother , Margaret Beaufort , was the last Lady of the Garter before Queen Alexandra . Except for female sovereigns , the next Lady of the Garter named was Queen Alexandra , by her husband King Edward VII . King George V also made his consort , Queen Mary , a Lady of the Garter and King George VI subsequently did the same for his wife , Queen Elizabeth . Throughout the 20th century , women continued to be associated with the Order , but except for foreign female monarchs , they were not made companions . In 1987 , however , it became possible to install `` Ladies Companion of the Garter '' under a statute of Queen Elizabeth II . Order Members Membership in the Order is strictly limited and includes the Monarch , the Prince of Wales , not more than 24 companion members , and various supernumerary members . The monarch alone can grant membership . He or she is known as the Sovereign of the Garter , and the Prince of Wales is known as a Royal Knight Companion of the Garter . Male members of the Order are titled `` Knights Companion , '' and female members are called `` Ladies Companion . '' Formerly , the Sovereign filled vacancies upon the nomination of the members . Each member would nominate nine candidates , of whom three had to have the rank of earl or higher , three the rank of baron or higher , and three the rank of knight or higher . The Sovereign would choose as many nominees as were necessary to fill any vacancies in the Order . He or she was not obliged to choose those who received the most nominations . Candidates were last nominated in 1860 , and appointments have since been made by the Sovereign acting alone , with no prior nominations . The statutes prescribing the former procedure were not amended , however , until 1953 . From the 18th century , the Sovereign made his or her choices on the advice of the Government . In 1946 , with the agreement of the Prime Minister Clement Attlee and the Leader of the Opposition Winston Churchill , membership of the United Kingdom 's highest ranking Orders of Chivalry ( the Order of the Garter , the Order of the Thistle and the dormant Order of St. Patrick ) became a personal gift of the Sovereign once again . Thus , the Sovereign personally selects Knights and Ladies Companion of the Garter , and need not act on or solicit the advice of His or Her Government . Supernumerary members In addition , the Order includes supernumerary members , who do not count towards the limit of 24 companions . Several supernumerary members , known as `` Royal Knights and Ladies of the Garter '' , belong to the royal family . These titles were introduced in 1786 by King George III so that his many sons would not count towards the limit on the number of companions . He created the statute of supernumerary members in 1805 so that any descendant of King George II could be installed as such a member . In 1831 , this statute was extended again to include all descendants of King George I . With the installation of Emperor Alexander I of Russia in 1813 , supernumerary membership was extended to foreign monarchs , who are known as `` Stranger Knights and Ladies of the Garter '' . Each such installation originally required the enactment of a statute ; however , a 1954 statute authorises the regular admission of Stranger Knights or Ladies without further special enactments . In lesser orders of chivalry , such foreign members would be regarded as having received honorary knighthoods . Traditionally , reigning European monarchs are admitted to the Order as Strangers . Constantine II , King of the Hellenes , neither in his short reign nor since he was deposed in 1973 , has succeeded his father Paul of Greece as a member of the Order . Similarly , Albert II , King of the Belgians and his son and successor Philippe are the only Belgian monarchs to date not to have been admitted to the Order . For a time , both Juliana , Queen of the Netherlands and her successor , Queen Beatrix were concurrently members of the Order as Stranger Ladies of the Garter . * Akihito , Emperor of Japan is the only non-European monarch and likely the only non-Christian who is currently a member of the Order . He is the fourth ( consecutive ) Emperor of Japan to be a Stranger Knight . * The first non-Christian ruler to be admitted to the Order was Abdülmecid I , Sultan of the Ottoman Empire , in 1856 as a Stranger Knight . * The first , and to date only , member of the Order from South America was Pedro II , Emperor of Brazil , created a Stranger Knight in 1871 . He was a member of the House of Braganza , the ruling house of Portugal and Brazil . * The first member of the Order admitted from Asia was Naser al-Din Shah Qajar , King of Persia , created a Stranger Knight in 1873 . His immediate successor was also admitted to the Order in 1903 , to be followed by the Meiji , Emperor of Japan in 1906 . * The first , and to date only , member of the Order from Africa was Haile Selassie , Emperor of Ethiopia , created a Stranger Knight in 1954 . * The first knight from Australasia or Oceania was Richard Gardiner Casey , Baron Casey , an Australian politician , diplomat and the 16th Governor-General of Australia , created a Knight Companion in 1969 . Subsequently , two more Australians , Sir Paul Hasluck and Sir Ninian Stephen , were appointed . Three New Zealanders have been appointed : Charles , Lord Elworthy , Sir Keith Holyoake , and Sir Edmund Hillary . * There have been no appointments from North America . Degradation of members The Sovereign may `` degrade '' members who have committed very serious crimes , such as treason or fleeing the battlefield , or those who have taken up arms against the Sovereign . From the late 15th century , there was a formal ceremony of degradation , in which Garter King of Arms , accompanied by the rest of the heralds , proceeded to St George 's Chapel . While the Garter King of Arms read out aloud the Instrument of Degradation , a herald climbed up a ladder and removed the former knight 's banner , crest , helm , and sword , throwing them down into the quire . Then the rest of the heralds kicked them down the length of the chapel , out of the doors , and into the castle ditch . The last such formal degradation was that of James , Duke of Ormonde in 1716 . During the First World War , two Royal Knights and six Stranger Knights , all monarchs or princes of enemy nations and including Wilhelm II , German Emperor and Franz Joseph , Emperor of Austria were struck off the roll of the Order or had their appointments annulled in 1915 . The banner of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy was also removed from the chapel after Italy entered World War II against the United Kingdom and her Allies . The banner of Emperor Hirohito of Japan was removed from St. George 's chapel when Japan entered World War II in 1941 , but that banner and the Japanese monarch 's knighthood were restored by Elizabeth II in 1971 , at which time he made a state visit to the United Kingdom . The Emperor was particularly pleased by the restoration of his banner as a Knight of the Garter . Officers The Order has six officers : the Prelate , the Chancellor , the Register , the Garter Principal King of Arms , the Usher , and the Secretary . The offices of Prelate , Register , and Usher were created on the order 's establishment ; those of Garter Principal King of Arms and Chancellor , in the 15th century ; and that of Secretary , in the 20th century . The office of Prelate is held by the Bishop of Winchester , traditionally one of the senior bishops of the Church of England . The office of Chancellor is now held by one of the companions of the order . For most of its existence , the Bishop of Salisbury has held the office , although laymen held it from 1553 to 1671 . In 1837 , after boundary changes made Windsor Castle fall in the diocese of Oxford , the Chancellorship was transferred to the Bishop of Oxford . A century later , the Bishop of Salisbury challenged this transfer , on the grounds that the Chancellorship had been attached to his office regardless of the diocese in which the chapel of the order lay ; and that , in any event , St George 's Chapel , as a Royal Peculiar , was not under diocesan jurisdiction . The office of Chancellor was removed from the Bishop of Oxford ( the outgoing bishop , Thomas Banks Strong , had been outspoken in the abdication crisis of Edward VIII ) , and so it was withheld from his successor , Kenneth Kirk , and has since been held by one of the Knights Companion . Since 1937 , the following members have held the post of Chancellor : * William , Duke of Portland ( 1937–1943 ) * Edward , Earl of Halifax ( 1943–1959 ) * Robert , Marquess of Salisbury ( 1960–1972 ) * Charles , Viscount Cobham ( 1972–1977 ) * John , Marquess of Abergavenny ( 1977–1994 ) * Peter , Lord Carrington ( 1994–2012 ) * James , Duke of Abercorn ( since 2012 ) The office of Register has been held by the Dean of Windsor since 1558 . The Garter Principal King of Arms is ex officio the senior officer of the College of Arms ( the heraldic authority of England ) , and is usually appointed from among the other officers of arms at the College . As the title suggests , Garter Principal King of Arms has specific duties as the Order 's officer of arms , attending to the companions ' crests and banners of arms , which are exhibited in the chapel . The Secretary , who acts as deputy to Garter in the ceremonial aspects of the Order , has since 1952 also been selected from the other officers of the College of Arms . The office of Usher is held by the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod , who is also the Serjeant-at-Arms of the United Kingdom House of Lords ( although his functions are more often performed there by his deputy , the Yeoman Usher ) . Military Knights of Windsor At the founding of the Order of the Garter , 26 `` poor knights '' were appointed and attached to the Order and its chapel . This number was not always maintained , and by the 17th century , there were only thirteen such knights . King Charles II increased the number to 18 ( in large part because of funds allocated from Sir Francis Crane 's will ) after his coronation in 1660 . After the knights objected to being termed `` poor '' , King William IV redesignated them in the 19th century as the Military Knights of Windsor . The poor knights were impoverished military veterans , required to pray daily for the Knights Companion . In return , they received a salary and lodging in Windsor Castle . The knights are no longer necessarily poor , but are still military pensioners . They participate in the Order 's processions , escorting the members , and in the chapel services . However , they are not considered members of the Order . The poor knights originally wore red mantles , each of which bore St George 's Cross , but did not depict the Garter . Queen Elizabeth I replaced the mantles in the 16th and 17th centuries with blue and purple gowns , but the red mantles returned in the 17th century under King Charles I . When the knights were renamed , the mantles were abandoned . The military knights now wear the old military uniform of an `` army officer on the unattached list '' : black trousers with red stripe , a red double-breasted swallow-tailed coat , gold epaulets and brushes , a cocked hat with a plume , and a sword on a white sash . Habit and insignia Members Order 's ceremonial occasions For the Order 's ceremonial occasions , such as the annual Garter Day , the members wear elaborate vestments and accoutrements , which include : * The mantle is a vestment or robe worn by members since the 15th century . Once made of wool , by the 16th century it was made of velvet . The mantle was originally purple , but varied during the 17th and 18th centuries between celestial blue , pale blue , royal blue , dark blue , violet , and ultramarine . Mantles are now dark blue and lined with white taffeta . The mantles of the Sovereign , the Prince of Wales , and Royal Knights and Ladies end in trains . The heraldic shield of St. George 's Cross encircled by the Garter is sewn onto the left shoulder of the mantle , but the Sovereign 's mantle instead has the star of the Order . Attached to the mantle over the right shoulder are a dark red velvet hood and surcoat , which have lost all function over time and appear to the modern observer simply as a splash of colour . * The hat is a Tudor bonnet of black velvet with a plume of white ostrich and black heron feathers . * The collar is an accessory worn around the neck , over the mantle and secured with white ribbons tied in bows on the shoulders . Like the mantle , it was introduced in the 15th and 16th centuries . Made of pure gold , it weighs 30 troy ounces ( 0.933 kg ) . The collar is composed of gold knots alternating with enamelled medallions showing a rose encircled by the Garter . During King Henry VII 's reign , each garter surrounded two roses—one red and one white—but he changed the design such that each garter encircled the Tudor rose . * The George ( Great George ) , which is worn suspended from the collar , is a colourfully enamelled ( sometimes jewelled ) three-dimensional figure of St. George the Martyr on horseback slaying a dragon . * The Garter is worn on ceremonial occasions around the left calf by knights and around the left arm by ladies , and is depicted on several insignia . The Garter is a buckled dark-blue ( originally light-blue ) velvet strap , and bears the motto in gold letters . The garters of Stranger Knights and Ladies were once set with several jewels . Two styles have been used : one is a working garter where the end slips through the buckle and then is tucked in a specific way and the other style is a 'pre-made ' one that has the buckled and tucked end pre-fashioned and is fastened with a clip attachment . Up until the middle part of the 20th century , it was customary to wear Tudor style under-dress , consisting of white silk embroidered doublet , breeches , full hose , white doeskin pumps with satin bows and a sword belt with sword , under the robes . Nowadays , morning dress or a lounge suit is worn , except for coronations when Tudor under-dress is worn by the canopy-bearers . Other occasions On other occasions when decorations are worn , the members wear simpler insignia : * The collar is worn on designated collar days over military uniform or morning dress by members attending formal events . The collar is fastened to the shoulders with silk ribbons ( or gold safety pins when worn with morning dress ) . Since the collar signifies the Order of the Garter , members can then wear the riband of any other order to which they belong . The collar is only worn at specific occasions that warrant it . * The star , which is worn pinned to the left breast , was introduced in the 17th century by King Charles I and is a colourfully enamelled depiction of the heraldic shield of St. George 's Cross , encircled by the Garter , which is itself encircled by an eight-point silver badge . Each point is depicted as a cluster of rays , with the four points of the cardinal directions longer than the intermediate ones . The stars of Stranger Knights and Ladies were once set with several jewels . Since the Order of the Garter is the senior order of the United Kingdom , a member will wear its star above the others ( up to three ) that he or she holds . * The riband is a four-inch ( 10.16 cm ) -wide sash worn over the left shoulder , or pinned beneath it , to the right hip , and was introduced in the 17th century by King Charles I . The riband 's colour has varied over the years : it was originally light blue , but was a dark shade under the Hanoverian monarchs . In 1950 , the colour was fixed as `` kingfisher blue '' . A member will wear only one riband , even if he or she belongs to several orders . The riband is not used when the collar is worn . * The badge is worn suspended from a small gold link from the riband at the right hip , and is sometimes known as `` the Lesser George '' . Like the Great George , the badge shows St. George the Martyr on horseback slaying a dragon , but it is flatter and gold . In earlier times , the badge was worn from a ribbon tied around the neck . On the death of a member , the Lesser George and breast star are returned personally to the Sovereign by the former member 's nearest male relative , and the other insignia to the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood , save the riband , mantle and hat . Officers For ceremonial occasions of the Order , the officers wear the following garments and accessories : * The mantles for the prelate and chancellor are dark blue like those of the members ( as a member , the chancellor wears a member 's mantle ) , but the mantles for the other officers are dark red . All mantles are embroidered with a heraldic shield of St George 's Cross . For Garter ceremonies , Garter Principal King of Arms wears this red mantle rather than the tabard of the royal arms worn for other State ceremonial occasions . * Officers wear badges of office suspended from a chain worn around the neck . The badge for the prelate shows the Lesser George encircled by the Garter , which is surmounted by a bishop 's mitre . The badge for the chancellor is a rose encircled by the Garter . The badge for the register is two crossed quills over a book encircled by the Garter surmounted by a crown . The badge for Garter Principal King of Arms is the royal arms impaled with St George 's Cross encircled by the Garter and surmounted by a crown . The badge for the usher is a knot ( like those on the collars of the companions of the order ) encircled by the Garter and surmounted by a crown . The badge for the secretary shows two crossed quills in front of a rose and encircled by the Garter surmounted by a crown . The chancellor carries a purse , which is embroidered with the royal arms impaled by the Cross of St. George . The purse contains the seal of the Order . Garter Principal King of Arms carries his baton of office . The usher carries his staff of office , the Black Rod . Heraldry Heraldry plays an important role in the Order of the Garter . This is reflected in the fact that the order has its own King of Arms . The position of Garter King of Arms has existed since 1415 . The incumbent of this office ranks as the senior Officer of Arms at the College of Arms , the heraldic authority with jurisdiction over England , Wales and Northern Ireland . Achievements In their heraldic achievements , members of the Order of the Garter may encircle their escutcheon with the Garter , and , if they wish , with a depiction of the collar as well . However , the Garter is normally used alone ; the more elaborate version is seldom seen . Stranger Knights and Ladies do not embellish the arms they use in their countries with English decorations . Knights and Ladies Companion are also entitled to receive heraldic supporters , a privilege granted to few other private individuals . While some families claim supporters by ancient use , and others have been granted them as a special reward , only members of the Royal Family , peers , Knights and Ladies Companion of the Garter , Knights and Ladies of the Thistle , and Knights and Dames Grand Cross

dpql_6139--Order_of_the_Garter.txt

The Most Noble Order of the Garter was established during the reign of which King?

Beaujolais nouveau is a red wine made from Gamay grapes produced in the Beaujolais region of France . It is the most popular vin de primeur , fermented for just a few weeks before being released for sale on the third Thursday of November . This `` Beaujolais Nouveau Day '' used to see heavy marketing , with races to get the first bottles to different markets around the globe . The current release practice is to ship the wine ahead of the third Thursday of November , and release it to the local markets at 12:01 a.m. local time . History Beaujolais had always made a vin de l'année to celebrate the end of the harvest , but until WWII it was only for local consumption . In fact , once the Beaujolais AOC was established in 1937 , AOC rules meant that Beaujolais wine could only be officially sold after 15 December in the year of harvest . Warning - plays music by default These rules were relaxed on 13 November 1951 , and the Union Interprofessionnelle des Vins du Beaujolais ( UIVB ) formally set 15 November as the release date for what would henceforth be known as Beaujolais nouveau . A few members of the UIVB saw the potential for marketing Beaujolais nouveau . Not only was it a way to clear lots of vin ordinaire at a good profit , but selling wine within weeks of the harvest was great for cash flow . Hence the idea was born of a race to Paris carrying the first bottles of the new vintage . This attracted a lot of media coverage , and by the 1970s had become a national event . The races spread to neighbouring countries in Europe in the 1980s , followed by North America , and in the 1990s to Asia . In 1985 , the date was changed to the third Thursday in November to take best advantage of marketing in the following weekend . Production Beaujolais nouveau is made from the Gamay noir à Jus blanc grape , better known simply as Gamay . The grapes must come from the Beaujolais AOC , with those of the ten `` cru '' appellations excluded . They are grown in `` stony , schistous soils '' . Both Beaujolais Nouveau and Beaujolais-Villages Nouveau are produced ; the latter comes from the ~ 30 non-cru villages in the region . By law , all grapes in the region must be harvested by hand . The wine is made using carbonic maceration , whole berry anaerobic fermentation which emphasizes fruit flavors without extracting bitter tannins from the grape skins . Grapes are loaded into a large ( think 20,000 gallon ) sealed container that is filled with carbon dioxide . Grapes that are gently crushed at the bottom of the container by the weight of the grapes start to ferment , emitting more CO2 . All this carbon dioxide causes fermentation to take place inside the uncrushed grapes ( without access to oxygen , hence `` anaerobic fermentation '' ) . The resulting wine is fresh , fruity , and very low in tannins . Celebration This `` Beaujolais Day '' is accompanied by publicity events and heavy advertising . The traditional slogan , even in English-speaking countries , was `` Le Beaujolais nouveau est arrivé ! '' ( literally , `` The new Beaujolais has arrived ! `` ) , but in 2005 this was changed to `` It 's Beaujolais Nouveau Time ! `` . In the United States , it is promoted as a drink for Thanksgiving , which always falls exactly one week after the wine is released ( on the fourth Thursday of November ) . Many producers release the nouveau with colourful or abstract design that changes every year , usually as an evolution from the previous year 's design . Duboeuf has silk ties made each year with their label 's abstract design , and releases them through select wholesalers and distributors . Style Beaujolais nouveau is a purple-pink wine reflecting its youth , bottled only 6-8 weeks after harvest . The method of production means that there is very little tannin , and the wine can be dominated by such fruity ester flavours as banana , grape , strawberry , fig and pear drop . The wine is recommended to be slightly chilled to 13°C ( 55°F ) . Beaujolais nouveau is intended for immediate drinking . While some nouveau can be kept for a few years , there 's no real reason to , as it does n't improve with age . For comparison , standard Beaujolais AOC wines are released the following year and can be stored for one or more years before consuming . The wines show definite variation between vintages , and as such are considered to be an early indicator of the quality of the year 's regional wine harvest . For a period around the late 90s some wine critics criticized Beaujolais nouveau as simple or immature . For example , the prominent wine critic Karen MacNeil wrote that `` Drinking it gives you the same kind of silly pleasure as eating cookie dough . '' Another well-known wine critic Robert M. Parker , Jr. disagrees , calling those opinions `` ludicrous '' and describing the better vintages as `` delicious , zesty , exuberant , fresh , vibrantly fruity '' wines . Similar wines The commercial success of Beaujolais nouveau led to the development of other `` primeur '' wines in other parts of France , such as the Gaillac AOC near Toulouse . These wines are typically released on the third Thursday of November , just like their counterparts in Beaujolais . The practice has spread to other wine producing countries such as Italy ( `` Vino Novello '' ) , Spain ( `` vino nuevo '' ) , and the US ( `` nouveau wine '' ) . In the United States , a number of vintners have produced Nouveau-style wines , using various grapes such as Gamay , Zinfandel , Tempranillo , Pinot noir , and even Riesling .

bb_4656--Beaujolais_nouveau.txt

What product 'brand' from the Gamay is traditionally released the third Thursday of November each year?

Fountains Abbey is one of the largest and best preserved ruined Cistercian monasteries in England . It is located approximately 3 mi south-west of Ripon in North Yorkshire , near to the village of Aldfield . Founded in 1132 , the abbey operated for over 400 years , until 1539 , when Henry VIII ordered the Dissolution of the Monasteries . The abbey is a Grade I listed building owned by the National Trust and part of the designated Studley Royal Park including the Ruins of Fountains Abbey UNESCO World Heritage Site . History After a dispute and riot in 1132 at the Benedictine house of St Mary 's Abbey , in York , 13 monks were expelled ( among them Saint Robert of Newminster ) and , after unsuccessfully attempting to return to the early 6th-century Rule of St Benedict , were taken into the protection of Thurstan , Archbishop of York . He provided them with land in the valley of the River Skell , a tributary of the Ure . The enclosed valley had all the natural features needed for the creation of a monastery , providing shelter from the weather , stone and timber for building , and a supply of running water . After enduring a harsh winter in 1133 , the monks applied to join the Cistercian order and in 1135 became the second house of that order in northern England , after Rievaulx . The monks subjected themselves to Clairvaux Abbey , in Burgundy which was under the rule of St Bernard . Under the guidance of Geoffrey of Ainai , a monk sent from Clairvaux , the group learned how to celebrate the seven Canonical Hours and were shown how to construct wooden buildings in accordance with Cistercian practice . After Henry Murdac was elected to the abbacy in 1143 , the small stone church and timber claustral buildings were replaced . Within three years , an aisled nave had been added to the stone church , and the first permanent claustral buildings built in stone and roofed in tile had been completed . In 1146 an angry mob , displeased with Murdac 's role in opposing the election of William FitzHerbert to the archbishop of York , attacked the abbey and burnt down all but the church and some surrounding buildings . The community recovered swiftly from the attack and founded four daughter houses . Henry Murdac resigned the abbacy in 1147 to become the Archbishop of York and was replaced first by Maurice , Abbot of Rievaulx then , on the resignation of Maurice , by Thorald . Thorald was forced by Henry Murdac to resign after two years in office . The next abbot , Richard , held the post until his death in 1170 and restored the abbey 's stability and prosperity . In 20 years as abbot , he supervised a huge building programme which involved completing repairs to the damaged church and building more accommodation for the increasing number of recruits . Only the chapter house was completed before he died and the work was ably continued by his successor , Robert of Pipewell , under whose rule the abbey gained a reputation for caring for the needy . The next abbot was William who presided over the abbey from 1180 to 1190 and he was succeeded by Ralph Haget , who had entered Fountains at the age of 30 as a novice , after pursuing a military career . During the European famine of 1194 Haget ordered the construction of shelters in the vicinity of the abbey and provided daily food rations to the poor enhancing the abbey 's reputation for caring for the poor and attracting more grants from wealthy benefactors . In the first half of the 13th century Fountains increased in reputation and prosperity under the next three abbots , John of York ( 1203–1211 ) , John of Hessle ( 1211–1220 ) and John of Kent ( 1220–1247 ) . They were burdened with an inordinate amount of administrative duties and increasing demands for money in taxation and levies but managed to complete another massive expansion of the abbey 's buildings . This included enlarging the church and building an infirmary . In the second half of the 13th century the abbey was in more straitened circumstances . It was presided over by eleven abbots , and became financially unstable largely due to forward selling its wool crop , and the abbey was criticised for its dire material and physical state when it was visited by Archbishop John Romeyn in 1294 . The run of disasters that befell the community continued into the early 14th century when northern England was invaded by the Scots and there were further demands for taxes . The culmination of these misfortunes was the Black Death of 1348–1349 . The loss of manpower and income due to the ravages of the plague was almost ruinous . A further complication arose as a result of the Papal Schism of 1378–1409 . Fountains Abbey along with other English Cistercian houses was told to break off any contact with the mother house of Citeaux , which supported a rival pope . This resulted in the abbots forming their own chapter to rule the order in England and consequently they became increasingly involved in internecine politics . In 1410 , following the death of Abbott Burley of Fountains , the community was riven by several years of turmoil over the election of his successor . Contending candidates John Ripon , Abbot of Meaux , and Roger Frank , a monk of Fountains were locked in discord until 1415 when Ripon was finally appointed and presided until his death in 1434 . Under abbots John Greenwell ( 1442–1471 ) , Thomas Swinton ( 1471–8 ) , John Darnton ( 1478–95 ) , who undertook some much needed restoration of the fabric of the abbey including notable work on the church , and Marmaduke Huby ( 1495–1526 ) Fountains regained stability and prosperity . When Marmaduke Huby died he was succeeded by William Thirsk who was accused by the royal commissioners of immorality and inadequacy and dismissed from the abbacy and replaced by Marmaduke Bradley , a monk of the abbey who had reported Thirsk 's supposed offences , testified against him and offered the authorities six hundred marks for the abbacy . In 1539 Bradley surrendered the abbey when Henry VIII ordered the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Abbots of Fountains Architecture The abbey precinct covered 70 acre surrounded by an 11 ft wall built in the 13th century , some parts of which are visible to the south and west of the abbey . The area consists of three concentric zones cut by the River Skell flowing from west to east across the site . The church and claustral buildings stand at the centre of the precinct north of the Skell , the inner court containing the domestic buildings stretches down to the river and the outer court housing the industrial and agricultural buildings lies on the river 's south bank . The early abbey buildings were added to and altered over time , causing deviations from the strict Cistercian type . Outside the walls were the abbey 's granges . The original abbey church was built of wood and `` was probably '' two-stories high ; it was , however , quickly replaced in stone . The church was damaged in the attack on the abbey in 1146 and was rebuilt , in a larger scale , on the same site . Building work was completed c.1170 . This structure , completed around 1170 , was 300 ft long and had 11 bays in the side aisles . A lantern tower was added at the crossing of the church in the late 12th century . The presbytery at the eastern end of the church was much altered in the 13th century . The church 's greatly lengthened choir , commenced by Abbot John of York , 1203–11 , and carried on by his successor terminates , like that of Durham Cathedral , in an eastern transept , the work of Abbot John of Kent , 1220–47 . The 160 ft tower , which was added not long before the dissolution , by Abbot Huby , 1494–1526 , is in an unusual position at the northern end of the north transept and bears Huby 's motto 'Soli Deo Honor et Gloria ' . The sacristry adjoined the south transept . The cloister , which had arcading of black marble from Nidderdale and white sandstone , is in the centre of the precinct and to the south of the church . The three-aisled chapter-house and parlour open from the eastern walk of the cloister and the refectory , with the kitchen and buttery attached , are at right angles to its southern walk . Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructure serving as cellars and store-rooms , which supported the dormitory of the conversi ( lay brothers ) above . This building extended across the river and at its south-west corner were the latrines , built above the swiftly flowing stream . The monks ' dormitory was in its usual position above the chapter-house , to the south of the transept . Peculiarities of this arrangement include the position of the kitchen , between the refectory and calefactory , and of the infirmary above the river to the west , adjoining the guest-houses . The abbot 's house , one of the largest in all of England , is located to the east of the latrine block , where portions of it are suspended on arches over the River Skell . It was built in the mid-twelfth-century as a modest single-storey structure , then , from the fourteenth-century , underwent extensive expansion and remodelling to end up in the 16th century as a grand dwelling with fine bay windows and grand fireplaces . The great hall was an expansive room 52 by . Among other apartments , for the designation of which see the ground-plan , was a domestic oratory or chapel , , and a kitchen , 50 by . Endowments and economy Medieval monasteries were sustained by landed estates that were given to them as endowments and from which they derived an income from rents . They were the gifts of the founder and subsequent patrons , but some were purchased from cash revenues . At the outset , the Cistercian order rejected gifts of mills and rents , churches with tithes and feudal manors as they did not accord with their belief in monastic purity , because they involved contact with laymen . When Archbishop Thurstan founded the abbey he gave the community 260 acre of land at Sutton north of the abbey and 200 acre at Herleshowe to provide support while the abbey became established . In the early years the abbey struggled to maintain itself because further gifts were not forthcoming and Thurstan could not help further because the lands he administered were not his own , but part of the diocesan estate . After a few years of impoverished struggle to establish the abbey , the monks were joined by Hugh , a former dean of York Minster , a rich man who brought a considerable fortune as well as furniture and books to start the library . By 1135 the monks had acquired only another 260 acre at Cayton , given by Eustace fitzJohn of Knaresborough `` for the building of the abbey '' . Shortly after the fire of 1146 , the monks had established granges at Sutton , Cayton , Cowton Moor , Warsill , Dacre and Aldburgh all within 6 mi of Fountains . In the 1140s the water mill was built on the abbey site making it possible for the grain from the granges to be brought to the abbey for milling . Tannery waste from this time has been excavated on the site . Further estates were assembled in two phases , between 1140 and 1160 then 1174 and 1175 , from piecemeal acquisitions of land . Some of the lands were grants from benefactors but others were purchased from gifts of money to the abbey . Roger de Mowbray granted vast areas of Nidderdale and William de Percy and his tenants granted substantial estates in Craven which included Malham Moor and the fishery in Malham Tarn . After 1203 the abbots consolidated the abbey 's lands by renting out more distant areas that the monks could not easily farm themselves , and exchanging and purchasing lands that complemented their existing estates . Fountains ' holdings both in Yorkshire and beyond had reached their maximum extent by 1265 , when they were an efficient and very profitable estate . Their estates were linked in a network of individual granges which provided staging posts to the most distant ones . They had urban properties in York , Yarm , Grimsby , Scarborough and Boston from which to conduct export and market trading and their other commercial interests included mining , quarrying , iron-smelting , fishing and milling . The Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 was a factor that led to a downturn in the prosperity of the abbey in the early fourteenth century . Areas of the north of England as far south as York were looted by the Scots . Then the number of lay-brothers being recruited to the order reduced considerably . The abbey chose to take advantage of the relaxation of the edict on leasing property that had been enacted by the General Chapter of the order in 1208 and leased some of their properties . Others were staffed by hired labour and remained in hand under the supervision of bailiffs . In 1535 Fountains had an interest in 138 vills and the total taxable income of the Fountains estate was £1,115 , making it the richest Cistercian monastery in England . Post-monastic development The Abbey buildings and over 500 acre of land were sold by the Crown , on 1 October 1540 , to Sir Richard Gresham , the London merchant , father of the founder of the Royal Exchange , Sir Thomas Gresham . Gresham sold some of the fabric of the site , stone , timber , lead , as building materials to help to defray the cost of purchase . The site was acquired in 1597 by Sir Stephen Proctor , who used stone from the monastic complex to build Fountains Hall . Between 1627 and 1767 the estate was owned by the Messenger family who sold it to William Aislaby who was responsible for combining it with the Studley Royal Estate . The archaeological excavation of the site was begun under the supervision of John Richard Walbran , a Ripon antiquary who , in 1846 , had published a paper On the Necessity of clearing out the Conventual Church of Fountains . In 1966 the Abbey was placed in the guardianship of the Department of the Environment and the estate was purchased by the West Riding County Council who transferred ownership to the North Yorkshire County Council in 1974 . The National Trust bought the 674 acre Fountains Abbey and Studley Royal estate from North Yorkshire County Council in 1983 . World Heritage Site In 1986 the parkland in which the abbey is situated and the abbey was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . It was recognised for fulfilling the criteria of being a masterpiece of human creative genius , and an outstanding example of a type of building or architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates significant stages in human history . Fountains Abbey is owned by the National Trust and maintained by English Heritage . The trust owns Studley Royal Park , Fountains Hall , to which there is partial public access , and St Mary 's Church , designed by William Burges and built around 1873 , all of which are significant features of the World Heritage Site . The Porter 's Lodge , which was once the gatehouse to the abbey , houses a modern exhibition area with displays about the history of Fountains Abbey and how the monks lived . In January 2010 , Fountains Abbey and Studley Royal became two of the first National Trust properties to be included in Google Street View , using the Google Trike . Film location Fountains Abbey was used as a film location by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark for their single Maid of Orleans ( The Waltz Joan of Arc ) during the cold winter of December 1981 . In 1980 , Hollywood also came to the site to film the final scenes to the film Omen III : The Final Conflict . Other productions filmed on location at the abbey are the films The Secret Garden , The History Boys , TV series Flambards , A History of Britain , Terry Jones ' Medieval Lives , Cathedral , Antiques Roadshow and the game show Treasure Hunt . Gallery File : Fountains Abbey view02 2005-08-27.jpg|Viewed from the west File : Fountains Abbey.jpg|Exterior of Fountains Abbey from the north-west facing the south-east File : StudleyAbbey2.JPG|Exterior of Fountains Abbey , with focus on tower File : Stone Mason marks as seen in the Chapter House of Fountains Abbey.jpg|Stonemason marks in the Chapter House File : Monks ' cellarium , Fountains Abbey.jpg|The monks ' cellarium ( where food was stored ) File : Cloister portal at Founain Abbey.JPG|Cloister portal at Founain Abbey File : Fountain Abbey grounds from the Infirmary.JPG|Fountain Abbey grounds from the Infirmary File : Cellarium.JPG|thumb|Vaulted cellarium used as food storage File : East end of the Abbey church.JPG|thumb|Remains of the east end of the Abbey church

dpql_5553--Fountains_Abbey.txt

In which county will you find Fountains abbey and Studley Water Gardens?

Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. ( born Leslie Lynch King Jr. ; July 14 , 1913 – December 26 , 2006 ) was an American politician who served as the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977 . Prior to this he was the 40th Vice President of the United States , serving from 1973 until President Richard Nixon 's resignation in 1974 . He was the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment , following the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew on October 10 , 1973 . Becoming president upon Richard Nixon 's departure on August 9 , 1974 , he claimed the distinction as the first and to date the only person to have served as both Vice President and President of the United States without being elected to either office . As he was appointed to fill a vacancy and then succeeded to the presidency , Ford also earned the distinction of being the only person in American history to neither begin nor finish either a presidential or vice presidential term on the date of a regularly-scheduled inauguration . Before ascending to the vice presidency , Ford served 25 years as Representative from Michigan 's 5th congressional district , the final 9 of them as the House Minority Leader . As President , Ford signed the Helsinki Accords , marking a move toward détente in the Cold War . With the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency , U.S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended . Domestically , Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression , with growing inflation and a recession during his tenure . One of his more controversial acts was to grant a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal . During Ford 's presidency , foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play , and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the President . In the GOP presidential primary campaign of 1976 , Ford defeated then-former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination . He narrowly lost the presidential election to the Democratic challenger , then-former Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter , on November 2 . Following his years as President , Ford remained active in the Republican Party . After experiencing health problems , he died in his home on December 26 , 2006 . Ford lived longer than any other U.S. president , 93 years and 165 days , while his 895-day presidency remains the shortest term of all presidents who did not die in office . As of 2016 , he is also the most recent former president and vice president to die . Early life Gerald Rudolph Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. , on July 14 , 1913 , at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha , Nebraska , where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents . His mother was Dorothy Ayer Gardner , and his father was Leslie Lynch King Sr. , a wool trader and a son of prominent banker Charles Henry King and Martha Alicia King ( née Porter ) . Dorothy separated from King just sixteen days after her son 's birth . She took her son with her to the Oak Park , Illinois , home of her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law , Clarence Haskins James . From there , she moved to the home of her parents , Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer , in Grand Rapids , Michigan . Dorothy and King divorced in December 1913 ; she gained full custody of her son . Ford 's paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930 . Ford later said his biological father had a history of hitting his mother . James M. Cannon , a member of the Ford administration , wrote in a biography of Ford that the Kings ' separation and divorce were sparked when , a few days after Ford 's birth , Leslie King took a butcher knife and threatened to kill his wife , his infant son , and Ford 's nursemaid . Ford later told confidantes that his father had first hit his mother on their honeymoon for smiling at another man . After two and a half years with her parents , on February 1 , 1916 , Dorothy married Gerald Rudolff Ford , a salesman in a family-owned paint and varnish company . They then called her son Gerald Rudolff Ford Jr . The future president was never formally adopted , and did not legally change his name until December 3 , 1935 ; he also used a more conventional spelling of his middle name . He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mother 's second marriage : Thomas Gardner `` Tom '' Ford ( 1918–1995 ) , Richard Addison `` Dick '' Ford ( 1924–2015 ) , and James Francis `` Jim '' Ford ( 1927–2001 ) . Ford also had three half-siblings from the second marriage of Leslie King Sr. , his biological father : Marjorie King ( 1921–1993 ) , Leslie Henry King ( 1923–1976 ) , and Patricia Jane King ( born 1925 ) . They never saw one another as children and he did not know them at all . Ford was not aware of his biological father until he was 17 , when his parents told him about the circumstances of his birth . That year his biological father , whom Ford described as a `` carefree , well-to-do man who did n't really give a damn about the hopes and dreams of his firstborn son '' , approached Ford while he was waiting tables in a Grand Rapids restaurant . The two `` maintained a sporadic contact '' until Leslie King Sr. 's death in 1941 . Ford said that `` My stepfather was a magnificent person and my mother equally wonderful . So I could n't have written a better prescription for a superb family upbringing . '' Ford was involved in the Boy Scouts of America , and earned that program 's highest rank , Eagle Scout . He is the only Eagle Scout to have ascended to the U.S. presidency . Ford attended Grand Rapids South High School , where he was a star athlete and captain of his football team . In 1930 , he was selected to the All-City team of the Grand Rapids City League . He also attracted the attention of college recruiters . College and law school Attending the University of Michigan as an undergraduate , Ford became a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity ( Omicron chapter ) and washed dishes at his fraternity house to earn money for college expenses . Ford played center , linebacker and long snapper for the school 's football team , and helped the Wolverines to undefeated seasons and national titles in 1932 and 1933 . The team suffered a steep decline in his 1934 senior year , however , winning only one game . Ford was the team 's star nonetheless . After a game during which Michigan held heavily favored Minnesota ( the eventual national champion ) to a scoreless tie in the first half , assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan later said , `` When I walked into the dressing room at halftime , I had tears in my eyes I was so proud of them . Ford and [ Cedric ] Sweet played their hearts out . They were everywhere on defense . '' Ford later recalled , `` During 25 years in the rough-and-tumble world of politics , I often thought of the experiences before , during , and after that game in 1934 . Remembering them has helped me many times to face a tough situation , take action , and make every effort possible despite adverse odds . '' His teammates later voted Ford their most valuable player , with one assistant coach noting , `` They felt Jerry was one guy who would stay and fight in a losing cause . '' During Ford 's senior year a controversy developed when the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets refused to play a scheduled game if a black player named Willis Ward took the field . Even after protests from students , players and alumni , university officials opted to keep Ward out of the game . Ford was Ward 's best friend on the team and they roomed together while on road trips . Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university 's decision , but eventually agreed to play against Georgia Tech when Ward personally asked him to play . During the same season , in a game against the University of Chicago , Ford became the only future U.S. president to tackle a future Heisman Trophy winner when he brought down running back Jay Berwanger , who won the Heisman Trophy the following year . In 1934 , Ford was selected for the Eastern Team on the Shriner 's East West Crippled Children game at San Francisco ( a benefit for crippled children ) , played on January 1 , 1935 . As part of the 1935 Collegiate All-Star football team , Ford played against the Chicago Bears in the Chicago College All-Star Game at Soldier Field . In honor of his athletic accomplishments and his later political career , the University of Michigan retired Ford 's No . 48 jersey in 1994 . With the blessing of the Ford family , it was placed back into circulation in 2012 as part of the Michigan Football Legends program and issued to sophomore linebacker Desmond Morgan before a home game against Illinois on October 13 . Ford remained interested in football and his school throughout life , occasionally attending games . Ford also visited with players and coaches during practices , at one point asking to join the players in the huddle . Ford often had the Naval band play the University of Michigan fight song , The Victors , before state events instead of Hail to the Chief . Following his graduation in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics , Ford turned down contract offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers of the National Football League . Instead , in September 1935 he took job as the boxing coach and assistant varsity football coach at Yale University , and applied to its law school . Ford hoped to attend Yale 's law school beginning in 1935 . Yale officials at first denied his admission to the law school because of his full-time coaching responsibilities . He spent the summer of 1937 as a student at the University of Michigan Law School and was eventually admitted in the spring of 1938 to Yale Law School . Ford earned his LL.B . degree in 1941 ( later amended to Juris Doctor ) , graduating in the top 25 percent of his class . While attending Yale Law School , Ford joined a group of students led by R. Douglas Stuart Jr. , and signed a petition to enforce the 1939 Neutrality Act . The petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for the America First Committee , a group determined to keep the U.S. out of World War II . In the summer of 1940 he worked in Wendell Willkie 's presidential campaign . Ford graduated from law school in 1941 and was admitted to the Michigan bar shortly thereafter . In May 1941 , he opened a Grand Rapids law practice with a friend , Philip W. Buchen , who would later serve as Ford 's White House counsel . U.S. Navy Reserve : World War II Ford responded to the December 7 , 1941 , attack on Pearl Harbor by enlisting in the Navy . He received a commission as ensign in the U.S . Naval Reserve on April 13 , 1942 . On April 20 , he reported for active duty to the V-5 instructor school at Annapolis , Maryland . After one month of training , he went to Navy Preflight School in Chapel Hill , North Carolina , where he was one of 83 instructors and taught elementary navigation skills , ordnance , gunnery , first aid , and military drill . In addition , he coached in all nine sports that were offered , but mostly in swimming , boxing and football . During the year he was at the Preflight School , he was promoted to Lieutenant , Junior Grade , on June 2 , 1942 , and to Lieutenant , in March 1943 . Sea duty After applying for sea duty , Ford was sent in May 1943 to the pre-commissioning detachment for the new aircraft carrier , at New York Shipbuilding Corporation , Camden , New Jersey . From the ship 's commissioning on June 17 , 1943 , until the end of December 1944 , Ford served as the assistant navigator , Athletic Officer , and antiaircraft battery officer on board the Monterey . While he was on board , the carrier participated in many actions in the Pacific Theater with the Third and Fifth Fleets in late 1943 and 1944 . In 1943 , the carrier helped secure Makin Island in the Gilberts , and participated in carrier strikes against Kavieng , New Ireland in 1943 . During the spring of 1944 , the Monterey supported landings at Kwajalein and Eniwetok and participated in carrier strikes in the Marianas , Western Carolines , and northern New Guinea , as well as in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . After an overhaul , from September to November 1944 , aircraft from the Monterey launched strikes against Wake Island , participated in strikes in the Philippines and Ryukyus , and supported the landings at Leyte and Mindoro . Although the ship was not damaged by Japanese forces , the Monterey was one of several ships damaged by the typhoon that hit Admiral William Halsey 's Third Fleet on December 18–19 , 1944 . The Third Fleet lost three destroyers and over 800 men during the typhoon . The Monterey was damaged by a fire , which was started by several of the ship 's aircraft tearing loose from their cables and colliding on the hangar deck . During the storm , Ford narrowly avoided becoming a casualty himself . As he was going to his battle station on the bridge of the ship in the early morning of December 18 , the ship rolled twenty-five degrees , which caused Ford to lose his footing and slide toward the edge of the deck . The two-inch steel ridge around the edge of the carrier slowed him enough so he could roll , and he twisted into the catwalk below the deck . As he later stated , `` I was lucky ; I could have easily gone overboard . '' Ford , serving as General Quarters Officer of the Deck , was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire . He did so safely , and reported his findings back to the ship 's commanding officer , Captain Stuart Ingersoll . The ship 's crew was able to contain the fire , and the ship got underway again . After the fire , the Monterey was declared unfit for service , and the crippled carrier reached Ulithi on December 21 before continuing across the Pacific to Bremerton , Washington where it underwent repairs . On December 24 , 1944 , at Ulithi , Ford was detached from the ship and sent to the Navy Pre-Flight School at Saint Mary 's College of California , where he was assigned to the Athletic Department until April 1945 . One of his duties was to coach football . From the end of April 1945 to January 1946 , he was on the staff of the Naval Reserve Training Command , Naval Air Station , Glenview , Illinois , as the Staff Physical and Military Training Officer . On October 3 , 1945 , he was promoted to Lieutenant Commander . Ford received the following military awards : the American Campaign Medal , the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with nine `` bronze stars ( for operations in the Gilbert Islands , Bismarck Archipelago , Marshall Islands , Asiatic and Pacific carrier raids , Hollandia , Marianas , Western Carolines , Western New Guinea , and the Leyte Operation ) , the Philippine Liberation Medal with two `` bronze stars ( for Leyte and Mindoro ) , and the World War II Victory Medal . Post-war In January 1946 , Ford was sent to the Separation Center , Great Lakes to be processed out . He was released from active duty under honorable conditions on February 23 , 1946 . On June 28 , 1946 , the Secretary of the Navy accepted Ford 's resignation from the Naval Reserve . Ford was a member of several civic organizations , including the Junior Chamber of Commerce ( Jaycees ) , American Legion , AMVETS , Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks , Sons of the Revolution , and Veterans of Foreign Wars . Ford was initiated into Freemasonry on September 30 , 1949 . He later said in 1975 , `` When I took my obligation as a master mason—incidentally , with my three younger brothers—I recalled the value my own father attached to that order . But I had no idea that I would ever be added to the company of the Father of our Country and 12 other members of the order who also served as Presidents of the United States . '' Marriage and children On October 15 , 1948 , at Grace Episcopal Church in Grand Rapids , Ford married Elizabeth Bloomer Warren ( 1918–2011 ) , a department store fashion consultant . Warren had been a John Robert Powers fashion model and a dancer in the auxiliary troupe of the Martha Graham Dance Company . She had previously been married to and divorced from William G. Warren . At the time of his engagement , Ford was campaigning for what would be his first of thirteen terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives . The wedding was delayed until shortly before the elections because , as The New York Times reported in a 1974 profile of Betty Ford , `` Jerry was running for Congress and was n't sure how voters might feel about his marrying a divorced ex-dancer . '' The couple had four children : * Michael Gerald , born in 1949 * John Gardner , known as Jack , born in 1951 * Steven Meigs , born in 1956 * Susan Elizabeth , born in 1958 House of Representatives After returning to Grand Rapids in 1946 , Ford became active in local Republican politics , and supporters urged him to take on Bartel J. Jonkman , the incumbent Republican congressman . Military service had changed his view of the world . `` I came back a converted internationalist '' , Ford wrote , `` and of course our congressman at that time was an avowed , dedicated isolationist . And I thought he ought to be replaced . Nobody thought I could win . I ended up winning two to one . '' During his first campaign in 1948 , Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked . Ford also visited local farms where , in one instance , a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory . Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years , holding the Grand Rapids congressional district seat from 1949 to 1973 . It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty . As an editorial in The New York Times described him , Ford `` saw himself as a negotiator and a reconciler , and the record shows it : he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career . '' Appointed to the House Appropriations Committee two years after being elected , he was a prominent member of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee . Ford described his philosophy as `` a moderate in domestic affairs , an internationalist in foreign affairs , and a conservative in fiscal policy . '' Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a `` Congressman 's Congressman '' . In the early 1950s , Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship . Rather , his ambition was to become Speaker of the House . Warren Commission On November 29 , 1963 , Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the Warren Commission , a special task force set up to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy . Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of Lee Harvey Oswald , the accused assassin . According to a 1963 FBI memo released in 2008 , Ford was in contact with the FBI throughout his time on the Warren Commission and relayed information to the deputy director , Cartha DeLoach , about the panel 's activities . In the preface to his book , A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission , Ford defended the work of the commission and reiterated his support of its conclusions . House Minority Leader In 1964 , Lyndon Johnson led a landslide victory for his party , securing another term as president and taking 36 seats from Republicans in the House of Representatives . Following the election , members of the Republican caucus looked to select a new Minority Leader . Three members approached Ford to see if he would be willing to serve ; after consulting with his family , he agreed . After a closely contested election , Ford was chosen to replace Charles Halleck of Indiana as Minority Leader . In January 1965 , the Republicans had 140 seats in the House compared with the 295 seats held by the Democrats . With that large majority , and a majority in the U.S. Senate , the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the `` Great Society . '' During the first session of the Eighty-ninth Congress alone , the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress , and Johnson signed 84 , or 96 % , arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history . In 1966 , criticism over the Johnson Administration 's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow , with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States was not doing what was necessary to win the war . Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson , and the 1966 midterm elections saw a 47-seat swing in favor of the Republicans . This was not enough to give Republicans a majority in the House , but the victory gave Ford the opportunity to prevent the passage of further Great Society programs . Ford 's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public following a speech from the floor of the House , in which he questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion . The speech angered President Johnson , who accused Ford of playing `` too much football without a helmet '' . As Minority Leader in the House , Ford appeared in a popular series of televised press conferences with Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen , in which they proposed Republican alternatives to Johnson 's policies . Many in the press jokingly called this `` The Ev and Jerry Show . '' Johnson said at the time , `` Jerry Ford is so dumb he ca n't fart and chew gum at the same time . '' The press , used to sanitizing LBJ 's salty language , reported this as `` Gerald Ford ca n't walk and chew gum at the same time . '' After President Nixon was elected in November 1968 , Ford 's role shifted to being an advocate for the White House agenda . Congress passed several of Nixon 's proposals , including the National Environmental Policy Act and the Tax Reform Act of 1969 . Another high-profile victory for the Republican minority was the State and Local Fiscal Assistance act . Passed in 1972 , the act established a Revenue Sharing program for state and local governments . Ford 's leadership was instrumental in shepherding revenue sharing through Congress , and resulted in a bipartisan coalition that supported the bill with 223 votes in favor ( compared with 185 against ) . During the eight years ( 1965–1973 ) that Ford served as Minority Leader , he won many friends in the House because of his fair leadership and inoffensive personality . Vice presidency ( 1973–74 ) On October 10 , 1973 , Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned and then pleaded no contest to criminal charges of tax evasion and money laundering , part of a negotiated resolution to a scheme in which he accepted $ 29,500 in bribes while governor of Maryland . According to The New York Times , Nixon `` sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement . The advice was unanimous . 'We gave Nixon no choice but Ford , ' House Speaker Carl Albert recalled later '' . Ford was nominated to take Agnew 's position on October 12 , the first time the vice-presidential vacancy provision of the 25th Amendment had been implemented . The United States Senate voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27 . Only three Senators , all Democrats , voted against Ford 's confirmation : Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin , Thomas Eagleton of Missouri and William Hathaway of Maine . On December 6 , 1973 , the House confirmed Ford by a vote of 387 to 35 . One hour after the confirmation vote in the House , Ford took the oath of office as Vice President of the United States . Ford became Vice President as the Watergate scandal was unfolding . On Thursday , August 1 , Chief of Staff Alexander Haig contacted Ford to tell him that `` smoking gun '' evidence had been found . The evidence left little doubt that President Nixon had been a part of the Watergate cover-up . At the time , Ford and his wife , Betty , were living in suburban Virginia , waiting for their expected move into the newly designated vice president 's residence in Washington , D.C . However , `` Al Haig [ asked ] to come over and see me , '' Ford later said , `` to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday , and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or a resignation . And he said , ' I 'm just warning you that you 've got to be prepared , that things might change dramatically and you could become President . ' And I said , 'Betty , I do n't think we 're ever going to live in the vice president 's house . Presidency ( 1974–77 ) Swearing-in When Nixon resigned on August 9 , 1974 , Ford assumed the presidency , making him the only person to assume the presidency without having been previously voted into either the presidential or vice presidential office . Immediately after taking the oath of office in the East Room of the White House , he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech broadcast live to the nation . Ford noted the peculiarity of his position : `` I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your president by your ballots , and so I ask you to confirm me as your president with your prayers . '' He went on to state : He also stated : A portion of the speech would later be memorialized with a plaque at the entrance to his presidential museum . On August 20 , Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to fill the vice presidency he had vacated . Rockefeller 's top competitor had been George H. W. Bush . Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress , which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides , such as Henry Kissinger . Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked , most of them voted for his confirmation , and his nomination passed both the House and Senate . Some , including Barry Goldwater , voted against him . Pardon of Nixon On September 8 , 1974 , Ford issued Proclamation 4311

qw_12041--Gerald_Ford.txt

What was the name of the operation whereby 1,373 U.S. citizens and 5,595 Vietnamese and foreign nationals were evacuated from the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon on 29 and 30 April 1975?

A golf course is the grounds where the game of golf is played . It comprises a series of holes , each consisting of a teeing ground , a fairway , the rough and other hazards , and a green with a flagstick ( `` pin '' ) and hole ( `` cup '' ) . A standard round of golf consists of eighteen holes . Most courses contain eighteen holes ; some share fairways or greens , and a subset has nine holes , played twice per round . Par-3 courses consist of nine or eighteen holes all of which have a par of three strokes . Many older courses are links , often coastal . Courses are private , public , and municipally owned , and typically feature a pro shop . Many private courses are found at country clubs . Design Although a specialty within landscape design or landscape architecture , golf course architecture is considered a separate field of study . Some golf course architects become celebrities in their own right , such as Robert Trent Jones , Jr. ; others are professional golfers of high standing and demonstrated appreciation for golf course composition , notably Jack Nicklaus . The field is partially represented by the American Society of Golf Course Architects , the European Institute of Golf Course Architects , and the Society of Australian Golf Course Architects , though many of the finest golf course architects in the world choose not to become members of any such group , as associations of architects are not government-sanctioned licensing bodies , but private groups . While golf courses often follow the original landscape , some modification is unavoidable . This is increasingly the case as new courses are more likely to be sited on less optimal land . Bunkers and sand traps are almost always artificial , although other hazards may be natural . The layout of a fairway follows certain traditional principles , such as the number of holes ( nine and eighteen being most common ) , their par values , and the number of holes of each par value per course . It is also preferable to arrange greens to be close to the tee box of the next playable hole , to minimize travel distance while playing a round , and to vary the mix of shorter and longer holes . Combined with the need to package all the fairways within what is frequently a compact square or rectangular plot of land , the fairways of a course tend to form an oppositional tiling pattern . In complex areas , two holes may share the same tee box , fairway , or even green . It is also common for separate tee-off points to be positioned for men , women , and amateurs , each one respectively lying closer to the green . Eighteen-hole courses are traditionally broken down into a `` front 9 '' ( holes 1-9 ) and a `` back 9 '' ( holes 10-18 ) . On older courses ( especially links courses , like the Old Course at St. Andrews ) , the holes may be laid out in one long loop , beginning and ending at the clubhouse , and thus the front 9 is referred to on the scorecard as `` out '' ( heading out away from clubhouse ) and the back 9 as `` in '' ( heading back in toward the clubhouse ) . More recent courses ( and especially inland courses ) tend to be designed with the front 9 and the back 9 each constituting a separate loop beginning and ending at the clubhouse . This is partly for the convenience of the players and the club , as then it is easier to play just a 9-hole round , if preferred , or stop at the clubhouse for a snack between the front 9 and the back 9 . A successful design is as visually pleasing as it is playable . With golf being a form of outdoor recreation , the strong designer is an adept student of natural landscaping who understands the aesthetic cohesion of vegetation , water bodies , paths , grasses , stonework , and woodwork , among other elements . Par Most golf courses have only par-3 , -4 , and -5 holes , though some courses include par-6 holes . ( The Ananti CC and the Satsuki golf course in Sano , Japan are the only courses with par 7 holes . Typical distances for the various holes from standard tees are as follows . Men * Par 3 – 250 yd and below * Par 4 – 251 - * Par 5 – 451 - * Par 6 – 691 yd or more Women * Par 3 – 210 yd and below * Par 4 – 211 - * Par 5 – 401 - * Par 6 – 575 yd or more Harder or easier courses may have longer- or shorter-distance holes , respectively . Terrain can also be a factor , so that a long downhill hole might be rated par 4 , but a shorter uphill or notably treacherous hole might be rated par 5 . Tournament players will usually play from a longer-distance tee box ( the Championship or Tournament tee ) that is behind the standard men 's tee , which increases the typical distance of each par ; a par-3 hole can be up to 290 yd , and longer par-4 holes can measure up to 520 yd , which can also be accomplished by converting a par-5 hole into a long par-4 hole for tournament players . This compensates for the generally longer distance pro players can put on tee and fairway shots as compared to the average `` bogey golfer '' . Parts Teeing area The game of golf is played in what is called a `` round '' . This consists of playing a set number of holes in an order predetermined by the course . When playing on an 18 hole course , each hole is played once ; whereas , on a nine-hole course each hole can be played twice to complete a round . To begin a hole , players start by striking the ball off of a tee . Playing the ball off a tee can only be used on the first shot of every hole although it is not required to use a tee on the first shot . Tees are a small wooden or plastic peg used to hold the ball up , so that when hit by the club the ball travels as far as possible . The first section of every hole consists of the teeing ground , or tee-box . There is typically more than one available box where a player places his ball , each one a different distance from the hole ( and possibly with a different angle of approach to the green or fairway ) to provide differing difficulty . The teeing ground is generally as level as feasible , with closely mown grass very similar to that of a putting green , and most are slightly raised from the surrounding fairway . Each tee box has two markers showing the bounds of the legal tee area . The teeing area spans the distance between the markers , and extends two-club lengths behind the markers . A golfer may play the ball standing outside the teeing area , but the ball itself must be placed and struck from within the area . A golfer may place his ball directly on the surface of the teeing ground ( called hitting it `` off the deck '' ) , or the ball may be supported by a manufactured tee ( limited to a height of four inches ) , or by any natural substance , such as a mound of sand placed on the teeing surface The tee markers are often color-coded for easy identification of the tee box ; the order of colors , their names where appropriate , and the distance of each tee to the hole is provided on the scorecard and/or on signs identifying each hole . Most U.S. courses have four tee boxes : * Red - Closest to the hole and often placed to minimize the influence of major hazards like water ; typically used by ladies of all ages , juniors ( up to age 12 ) , and novice players of any age/gender . * Gold- Next farthest , typically used by teenage boys , low-handicap ladies , and senior or high-handicap men . * White - Farther still , typically used by low-to-average-handicap men and low-handicap teenage boys . * Black or Blue - The farthest tee from the hole and with the most exposure to any major hazards ; typically used only during tournaments or by zero-handicap ( `` scratch '' ) male players . There may be additional tees available , depending on the course , and they may be labeled or colored differently depending on the club and its normal patronage . A club catering to senior players , for instance , may offer an additional tee further forward of the ladies ' tee , labeled for `` senior ladies '' . A municipal course may label a similarly placed tee the `` junior '' or `` novice '' tees . Silver and gold may be used to denote senior ladies ' and men 's tees , with the regular men 's tee being white and the tournament tee being blue . In casual play , the tee a player hits from is usually their prerogative ( there is no rule prohibiting a man from hitting off the closest tee box , nor any prohibiting a woman from using the tournament tee ) , but players will generally gravitate toward the traditional tee for their gender and/or age , as this will provide the best results given a player 's nominal drive distance . Groups are often encouraged to compromise on one tee box , as this speeds the group 's play . In tournaments , golfers generally tee off from the box one level further from the `` normal '' box for their class ( men use the tournament tee , ladies use the senior or men 's tee , and juniors use the ladies ' tee ) . Fairway and rough After the first shot from the tee ( `` teeing off '' ) , the player toward the green hits the ball - from where it came to rest , known as its `` lie '' . The area between the tee box and the putting green where the grass is cut even and short is called the ' . The area between the fairway and the out-of-bounds markers , and also between a mowed apron surrounding the green and out of bounds , is the rough ; the grass there is cut higher and is often of a coarser strain than on the fairways , making roughs disadvantageous areas from which to hit . On par-3 holes , the player is expected to be able to drive the ball to the green on the first shot from the tee box . On holes longer than par 3 , players are expected to require at least one additional shot to reach their greens . While many holes are designed with a direct line-of-sight from the teeing ground to the green , a hole may bend either to the left or to the right . This is called a `` dogleg '' , in reference to the similarity to a dog 's ankle . The hole is called a `` dogleg left '' if the hole angles leftwards , and a `` dogleg right '' if the hole angles rightwards . A hole 's direction may bend twice , which is called a `` double dogleg '' . Just as there are good-quality grasses for putting greens , there are good-quality grasses for the fairway and rough . The quality of grass influences the roll of the ball as well as the ability of the player to `` take a divot '' ( effectively , the ability to hit down into the ball , hitting the ball first , then hitting the turf and removing a portion of it as the club continues its arc ) . Fairways on prestigious tours , like the PGA Tour , are cut low . Mowing heights influence the play of the course . For example , the grass heights at U.S. Open events are alternated from one hole to the next in order to make the course more difficult . One example of this is the infamous roughs at U.S . Opens , which are often 3 to 5 inches high , depending on how close to the fairway or green the section of grass will be . This makes it difficult for a player to recover after a bad shot . Variants of grass used for fairways and roughs include bent grass , Tifway 419 Bermuda grass , rye grass , Kentucky bluegrass , and Zoysiagrass . As in putting-green grass types , not every grass type works equally well in all climate types . Greens The putting green , or simply the green , is an area of very closely trimmed grass on relatively even , smooth ground surrounding the hole , allowing players to make precision strokes on it . To `` putt '' is to play a stroke on this surface , usually with the eponymous `` putter '' club , which has very low loft so that the ball rolls smoothly along the ground , and hopefully into the cup . The shape and topology of the green can vary almost without limit , but for practical purposes the green is usually flatter than other areas of the course , though gentle slopes and undulations can add extra challenge to players who must account for these variations in their putting line . The green typically does not include any fully enclosed hazards such as sand or water ; however , these hazards can be – and often are – placed adjacent to the green , and depending on the shape of the green and surrounding hazards , and the location of the hole ( which often changes from day to day to promote even wear of the turf of the green ) , there may not be a direct putting line from a point on the green to the cup . Golfers use a method known as `` reading '' the green to enhance their chances of making a putt . Reading a green involves determining the speed , grain , incline , decline and tilt of the green on the line of the putt . Most putts are not struck directly at the hole , instead they must be struck to take into account the characteristics of the green to arrive at the hole at the proper angle and speed . The best players will read the green by walking around the green and studying the characteristics of the green before addressing the ball . Reading the green and putting are considered by many golfers to be the most difficult part of the game . The green is typically surrounded by slightly higher grass , cut at a height between that of the green and fairway , and then by the fairway and/or rough . This longer grass surrounding the green is known as the fringe and is designed to slow and stop balls rolling along the green from an approach shot or errant putt , preventing them from exiting the green . Though putting strokes can be made on it , the higher grass can interfere with the path of the ball , so players often choose to use a lofted club such as an iron to make a `` chip shot '' or a `` bump and run '' , where the ball carries in the air for a few yards and then rolls along the green like a normal putt . The grass of the putting green ( more commonly just `` green '' ) is cut very short so that a ball can roll for a long distance . The most common types of greens for cold winter , but warmer summer regions ( i.e. , not extremely warm , as in the Southern and Southwestern United States ) are bent grass greens . A green may consist of a thin carpet so that bad weather is not allowed to become a serious factor in maintaining the course . These are considered the best greens because they may be cut to an extremely low height , and because they may be grown from seed . Bent grass does not have grain , which makes it superior as a putting surface . However , bent grass may become infested with poa annua , a costly and time-consuming weed . Augusta National is one of many golf courses to use this type of green . The original design of Augusta National did not include bent grass greens , but in the 1980s the controversial decision was made to convert the greens from Bermuda to bent grass . This has affected the speed and playing of Augusta National . Many other golf courses subsequently made the decision to change from Bermuda to bent grass when they observed increased business at courses that had already changed over . Another type of grass common for greens is TifDwarf Hybrid Bermuda ( other variants exist , but TifDwarf is one of the most common ) , or simply Bermuda grass . Bermuda is more common in regions that have very warm summers and mild winters , such as the Southern and Southwestern United States . Red Bridge Golf Course was the first course in North Carolina to utilize a special Bermuda called Mini Verde . A green is generally established from sod which has had the soil washed off of it ( to avoid soil compatibility problems ) and which is then laid tightly over the green , then rolled and topdressed with fine sand . Another common and more economical approach for establishing a putting green is to introduce hybrid Bermuda spriggs ( the stolon of the grass which are raked out at the sod farm ) , which are laid out on the green . The best greens are always established vegetatively and never from seed . Two downside factors of Bermuda greens are cost of maintenance , and also the existence of grain ( the growth direction of the blades of grass ) , which affects the ball 's roll and which is called `` the grain of the green . '' The slope or break of the green also affects the roll of the ball . The hole , or cup , is always found within the green and must have a diameter of 108 mm and a depth of at least 10 cm . Its position on the green is not fixed and typically is changed daily by a greenskeeper in order to prevent excessive localized wear and damage to the turf . A new hole will be cut by a device that removes a plug of the turf from the ground , and the reinforced cup is then moved , before the old hole is filled in with the plug cut from the new hole and levelled . The hole has a flag on a metal pole positioned in it so that it may be seen from a distance , but not necessarily from the tee . This location marker is officially called the `` flagstick '' but is also commonly referred to as the `` pin . `` . Putting greens are not all of the same quality . The finest-quality greens are well-kept so that a ball will roll smoothly over the closely mowed grass . Excess water can be removed from a putting green using a machine called a water hog . Golfers describe a green as fast if a light stroke on the ball makes it roll a long distance ; conversely , on a slow green a stronger stroke is necessary to roll the ball the same distance . The exact speed of a green can be determined with a stimp meter . By collecting sample measurements , golf courses can be compared in terms of average green speed . It is , however , illegal by the Rules of Golf to test the speed of a green while playing by rolling a ball on it , or by feeling or rubbing the green . Hazards Holes often include hazards , which are special areas that have additional rules for play , and are generally of two types : ( 1 ) water hazards , such as ponds , lakes , and rivers ; and ( 2 ) bunkers , or sand traps . Special rules apply to playing a ball that falls in a hazard . For example , a player may not touch the ground or water with his club before playing the ball , not even for a practice swing . A ball in any hazard may be played as it lies without penalty . If it can not be played from the hazard , the ball may be hit from another location , generally with a penalty of one stroke . The Rules of Golf specify exactly the point from which the ball may be played outside a hazard . Bunkers are small to medium areas , usually lower than the fairway but of varying topology , that are filled with sand and generally incorporate a raised lip or barrier . It is more difficult to play the ball from sand than from grass , as the ball may embed itself into the sand , and the loose nature of the sand and more severe sloping of many bunkers make taking one 's stance more difficult . As in any hazard , a ball in a bunker must be played without touching the sand with the club except during the stroke , and loose impediments ( leaves , stones , twigs ) must not be moved before making the stroke . Courses may also have other design features which the skilled player will avoid ; there are earth bunkers ( pits or depressions in the ground that are not filled with sand but require a lofted shot to escape ) , high grass and other dense vegetation , trees or shrubs , ravines and other rocky areas , steep inclines , etc . ; while disadvantageous to play from , these are typically not considered `` hazards '' unless specifically designated so by the course ( a ravine or creekbed may be termed a `` water hazard '' even if completely dry ) Driving range Often , a golf course will include among its facilities a practice range or driving range , usually with practice greens , bunkers , and driving areas . Markers showing distances are usually included on a practice range for the golfer 's information . Driving ranges are also commonly found as separate facilities , unattached to a golf course , where players may simply hit balls into the range for practice or enjoyment . There may even be a practice course ( often shorter and easier to play than a full-scale course ) , where players may measure the distance they can obtain with a specific club , or in order to improve their swing technique . Practice courses often consist of old holes of a previous design that are kept and maintained for practice purposes or as substitute holes if one or more holes become unplayable ; a 21-hole golf course , for instance , will have three additional holes that can be used for practice or as substitutes for a flooded or otherwise damaged hole . Types Links Links is a Scottish term , from the Old English word hlinc : `` rising ground , ridge '' , describing coastal sand dunes and sometimes similar areas inland . It is on links land near the towns of central eastern Scotland that golf has been played since the 15th century . The shallow top soil and sandy subsoil made links land unsuitable for the cultivation of crops or for urban development and was of low economic value . The links were often treated as common land by the residents of the nearby towns and were used by them for recreation , animal grazing and other activities such as laundering clothes . The closely grazed turf and naturally good drainage of the links was ideal for golf , and areas of longer grass , heather , low growing bushes and exposed sand provided the hazards that are familiar on modern courses . Although early links courses were often close to the sea it was rarely used as a hazard , perhaps due to the instability of the dunes closest to the water and the high cost of hand-made golf balls precluding anything that could result in their irrecoverable loss . The land is naturally treeless and this combined with their coastal location makes wind and weather an important factor in links golf . Traditional links courses are often arranged with holes in pairs along the coastline ; players would play `` out '' from the town through a series of holes to the furthest point of the course , and then would return `` in '' along the second set of holes . The holes may share fairways ( and most notably at St Andrews , greens ) to economize on land use , but in modern times this is rare as the potential for injury from balls coming the other way is quite high . Famous links courses include the Old Course at St. Andrews , often described as the `` Home of Golf '' , and Musselburgh Links , which is generally regarded as the first recorded golf course . The Open Championship , the oldest of golf ’ s major championships , is always played on a links course . Links and links-style golf courses have been developed throughout the world , reproducing the broken , treeless terrain with deep bunkers of their Scottish prototypes . Executive An executive course or short course is a course with a total par significantly less than that of a typical 18-hole course . Two main types exist : * A `` 9-hole course '' , typically the type referred to as an `` executive course '' , has only 9 holes instead of 18 , but with the otherwise normal mix of par-3 , par-4 and par-5 holes ( typically producing a par score of between 34 and 36 ) , and the course can be played through once for a short game , or twice for a full round . * A `` par-3 '' course has either 9 or 18 holes , and the distance of each hole is a par 3 rating ( typically 240 yards or less from the `` men 's '' tee ) , with no par-4 or par-5 holes mandating shots through the green ( though , occasionally , a `` par-3 '' course may feature a par-4 or even a par-5 hole ) . As a result , the total par for 18 holes of a par-3 course would be 54 instead of a typical 68-72 . Some par-3 courses still require the use of a wood on some tee shots , and thus a `` complete '' set of clubs is used . * * A common standardized type of par-3 course is the `` Pitch and Putt '' course , where each of the 9 or 18 holes has a distance from tee to cup of less than 100 yards , with an overall 18-hole course distance no more than 1,200 yards ( so each hole averages 67 yards ) . This allows the course to be played without a full set of clubs ; typically only wedges are needed , possibly a 9-iron for the longest holes , along with a putter , to play the course . The rules for formal Pitch and Putt competitions mandate a three-club limit , consisting of two irons and one putter . These types of courses provide a faster pace of play than a standard course , and get their name from their target patronage of business executives who would play the course on a long lunch or as part of a meeting . They are also popular with young professionals , because during the normal golf season , the course can usually be played in the time between the end of the work day and sundown . The popularity of the 9-hole course has waned in recent decades ; a full 18-hole course still allows for the player to play only the `` front nine ''

qb_6291--Golf_course.txt

What, generally, is the par on a 300 yard golf hole?

There was once four direct railway routes between Liverpool and Manchester in the North West of England . There are now only two remaining direct railway routes between the two cities . One line , the now northern route , is fully electric and the other , the southern route , is a diesel only line . A third line has been split into one part electric and the other part diesel operation , requiring a passenger change between the two cities . The fourth route is largely abandoned east of Warrington with the remaining section mostly catering for freight trains . The remaining two direct routes are : * The northern route from terminus station via and to either , or . This line follows the route of the original 1830 Liverpool and Manchester Railway . * The southern route from terminus via to Manchester Piccadilly operates on lines formerly owned by the Cheshire Lines Committee . Northern route The northern route runs from Liverpool Lime Street station , via and , and continues to either or . The line follows George Stephenson 's original 32-mile ( 51.5 km ) Liverpool and Manchester Railway of 1830 , which was the world 's first inter-city passenger railway and the first to have run 'scheduled ' services . Many early steam locomotives were initially used on this line including Stephenson 's Rocket , which won the Rainhill Trials in 1829 ( see List of Liverpool and Manchester Railway locomotives ) . The line also includes a number of listed structures including stations and bridges , particularly the Rainhill Skew Bridge and the nine-arch Sankey Viaduct . Current services Following completion of electrification in May 2015 , services to and Manchester Victoria are now usually operated by Class 319 4-Car Electric Multiple Units ( EMUs ) . An hourly semi-fast service is operated by Northern , from to , usually calling at , , , and , and continuing to Manchester Airport . Northern also operates an hourly service calling at all stations along the line between Liverpool Lime Street and . This 'stopping service ' is supplemented by an additional all-stations service between Liverpool Lime Street and , which continues along the West Coast Main Line to . Between Earlestown and Manchester Piccadilly , there are additional hourly services operated by Arriva Trains Wales , which originate from via the North Wales Coast Line and . On Sundays there is one train per hour along the line , calling at all stations to Manchester Piccadilly except and . It is operated by Northern and continues to Manchester Airport . Northern is the dominant operator on the route , and its services are operated with Class 319 4-Car EMUs or Class 150 , Class 156 and Class 142 Diesel Multiple Units ( DMUs ) . Arriva Trains Wales services between Earlestown and Manchester Piccadilly are usually operated by Class 175 DMUs , but Class 158 units may be substituted on occasions . From the May 2014 timetable change , a new hourly First TransPennine Express service from Newcastle Central to Liverpool Lime Street via York , Leeds , Huddersfield and Manchester Victoria was introduced . This service is operated by Class 185 DMUs and runs non-stop between Manchester Victoria and Liverpool Lime Street ( 32 minutes ) . The northern Liverpool to Manchester route is also used by First TransPennine Express and East Midlands Trains for empty coaching stock ( ECS ) movements , and as a diversionary route when the southern route is closed . In past years , the line has been used by many express services which included through trains to , and Newcastle ( via ) , and to , and Edinburgh ( diverging on to the West Coast Main Line at Newton-le-Willows ) . Local trains also ran to Manchester via Leigh , but these services ceased in 1969 when the Eccles-Tyldesley-Leigh-Kenyon branch was closed as a result of the Beeching Axe . The northern Liverpool to Manchester line has also seen regular use over the years for diverted services from the West Coast Main Line when parts of the latter have been closed for engineering work , but diversions via Manchester instead have now become more common as they do not involve the train reversing , as would be necessary at Edge Hill , following the electrification of the route . Technical details The key junctions on this route are : * Edge Hill West Jn ( to CLC line via Warrington Central ) * Edge Hill East Jn ( to Edge Hill CS ) * Bootle Branch Jn ( to Canada Dock Branch , leading to the docks ) * Olive Mount Jn ( Olive Mount Jn Chat Moss to Regent Rd ) * Huyton Jn ( to Wigan line ) * Earlestown West Jn ( West Coast Main Line Southbound via Warrington Bank Quay ) * Earlestown East Jn ( West Coast Main Line Southbound via Warrington Bank Quay ) * Newton-le-Willows Jn ( for daily Wigan via Golborne Junction services ) * Parkside Jn ( for daily Wigan via Golborne Junction services ) * Eccles Station Jn ( to the Weaste branch towards the Manchester Ship Canal ) * Ordsall Lane Jn ( separates Chat Moss line ( to Victoria ) from Bolton lines ( to Piccadilly ) During a journey trains are controlled by : * Lime Street control ( LS ) ( Lime Street and the Lime Street tunnels ) * Edge Hill signal box ( LE ) ( Edge Hill to Edge Hill junction ) * Sandhills IECC ( ML ) ( Olive Mount Jn To Regent Rd ) * Huyton signal box ( HN ) ( Edge Hill to Huyton ) - now dedicated desk at new Manchester Rail Operating Centre ( LL ) * Warrington signal box ( WN ) * Astley signal box ( AY ) * Eccles signal box ( ES ) * Manchester Piccadilly control ( MP ) The above is likely to change in the future as various sections are migrated over to the control of the new Manchester Rail Operating Centre at Ashburys . Electrification From 5 March 2015 , Class 319 trains started electric operation on this route from Liverpool to Manchester Airport via the Oxford Road viaduct . Manchester Victoria station itself is now electrified and at the new timetable changeover on 17 May 2015 Liverpool to Manchester Victoria stopping services also began electric operation using the same rolling stock . As a result of completion of the Manchester Castlefield Junction to Newton-le-Willows Junction electrification , TransPennine Express services between and / now use new Class 350 EMUs and are re-routed along a portion of the northern Liverpool to Manchester route before joining the West Coast Main Line at Golborne Junction . TransPennine Express Class 185 DMUs which formerly operated the Manchester Airport - Glasgow/Edinburgh service are now being redeployed to other routes . The Department for Transport initially announced in July 2009 that the northern route of the Manchester to Liverpool line was to be electrified with 25 kV , 50 Hz AC , overhead line . The electrification process was originally due to be completed by 2013 however , following a change of government in 2010 , the work was delayed by the government meaning that , while the Manchester to Newton-le-Willows section was completed by December 2013 to enable Manchester - Scotland electric services , the remaining section to Liverpool was not completed until 5 March 2015 . Now that the electrification of the line is complete and electric services are running , the journey time between Liverpool and Manchester has been reduced from around 45 minutes today , to 30 minutes due to the greater acceleration achieved by electric trains and the raising of the speed limit along the line from 75 to 90 mph . Class 319 EMUs have been fully refurbished and transferred from the Thameslink route to operate between Liverpool and Manchester , while Thameslink services will be operated by new energy-efficient trains , which were originally due to be delivered between 2011 and 2013 . Electrification also offers electric haulage options for freight trains , giving a secondary route to the West Coast Main Line from Liverpool . Southern route ( old Cheshire Lines Committee line ) The southern route runs from Liverpool Lime Street via to . There are four passenger trains per hour ( tph ) in each direction between Liverpool and Manchester , which are usually operated by a variety of Class 185 , Class 150 , Class 156 , Class 158 and Class 142 Diesel Multiple Units . These services are run by a number of rail companies and the time intervals are not evenly spaced out ; there are large gaps between some services , and at other times trains leave within minutes of each other . First TransPennine Express uses modern Class 185 trains , while other operators run a mixture of older rolling stock . While TransPennine Express ' once per hour service generally take 45 minutes to reach Manchester from Liverpool Lime Street , some Northern services take an hour and ten minutes to cover the 35 miles . The line 's newest station is Liverpool South Parkway which opened in June 2006 after its estimated construction cost of £16 million had doubled to £32 million by the time it was completed . This station replaced and Garston stations and has frequent bus links to Liverpool John Lennon Airport . This route is busier than the northern route in terms of service frequency ( 2 express & 2 stopping trains per hour each way over the entire route , compared to 1 express , 1 semi-fast and 1 through stopping train via Earlestown , though additional Arriva Trains Wales and TransPennine Express services use the eastern end of the northern route ) . Originally this line ran from High Level terminus station to terminus station built by the Cheshire Lines Committee ( CLC ) in 1873 . High Level station was demolished in 1973 due to all the long haul distance services on Merseyside being concentrated at with Merseyrail operating the local urban services with underground stations in Liverpool and Birkenhead centres . Manchester Central closed in 1969 and is now the Manchester Central Convention Complex . At the Liverpool end , the line from Hunts Cross to Central High Level station—which accessed the station via a tunnel—was given over to the Northern Line of the electric Merseyrail services and the line from Hunts Cross diverted in 1966 onto the short section of the West Coast Main Line to Lime Street station . The divergence is at Allerton Junction to the immediate south east of . In 1977-8 the original line in the tunnel approaching Liverpool Central High Level terminus was dropped into a new lower level tunnel immediately south of the station to enter Liverpool Central underground station becoming a through line continuing underground to the north of Liverpool and onto Southport . The Low Level underground station and tunnel was built in 1890 to align with the approach tunnel to the High Level station if in the future the need was there . Victorian foresight was utilised nearly 80 years later . At the Manchester end the line was diverted to and Manchester Piccadilly after Manchester Central was closed . The Liverpool to Warrington section of this line was initially scheduled to be on the Merseyrail electric urban network . The Strategic Plan for the North West , the SPNW , in 1973 envisaged that the Outer Loop which was to be an orbital line circling the city of Liverpool , the Edge Hill Spur which is a tunnel connecting the east of Liverpool to the central underground sections , and the lines to St. Helens , Wigan and Warrington would be electrified and all integrated into Merseyrail by 1991 . This meant that trains from Warrington would access Liverpool city centre 's underground stations via the Northern Line and Liverpool Central underground station , giving access to Liverpool 's shopping and business quarters . This never transpired , however is a long term aspiration of Merseytravel . Current services Presently ( 2009 ) , a half-hourly fast service operates between Liverpool Lime Street and Manchester Piccadilly , calling at Warrington Central and Manchester Oxford Road . Of the two trains per hour , one is operated by East Midlands Trains and the other by First TransPennine Express . East Midlands Trains ' services usually also stop at Liverpool South Parkway and , and continue beyond Manchester to via Sheffield and , while the First TransPennine Express services do not call at Widnes , but call instead at and usually continue to via and , although some trains also operate to Hull , , or . There is also a half-hourly local service operated by Northern along the southern route to Manchester Oxford Road . Many intermediate stations are served by both of these trains , although some just by one per hour , while , and are served only occasionally outside peak periods . On Sundays this service only operates once per hour , and several stations along the route receive no Sunday service . The majority of the First TransPennine Express Services are operated by Class 185 trains , although once each weekday evening a Class 170 works along the line from Liverpool Lime Street to Hull via Manchester and operates in the opposite direction each Saturday evening . East Midlands Trains mainly use Class 158s along the line , and as of August 2009 , the fleet of 27 units are currently undergoing a thorough refurbishment programme . As on the northern route via Newton-le-Willows , Northern operate a mixture of Class 156 , Class 150 and Class 142 units along the line . In the past , the CLC route was used by a variety of local services in addition to limited-stop expresses between the two cities . These included trains between Warrington Central and , Liverpool and Manchester to and even Liverpool to via , although the latter route was closed as long ago as 1952 . The diversion of Liverpool-bound trains to Lime Street in 1966 and the closure of Manchester Central in 1969 ( all trains subsequently running to Oxford Road and Piccadilly ) saw the route downgraded in importance and from then until the mid-1980s it was operated as a self-contained route due to congestion issues at the Manchester end . The service frequency was also lower than at present , for example the British Rail 1985 timetable had one semi-fast and one stopping train per hour in each direction on weekdays ( excluding the weekday peaks periods ) . Through running to destinations east of Manchester via this route only began on a regular basis in 1986 , when the opening of a new connection at allowed trains from the Sheffield direction to run via Stockport and thus avoid conflicting movements across the station throat at Piccadilly . Technical details The key junctions on this route are : * Lime Street ( used to move trains onto appropriate platform ) * Edge Hill East Junction ( for the Huyton line ) * Allerton West Junction ( to West Coast Main Line , known as Allerton junction ) * Hunts Cross Junction ( to Merseyrail Northern Line ) * Glazebrook East Junction ( formerly for Warrington-Stockport services , but now used as a passing point ) * Trafford Park Junction ( for Euroterminal freight terminal ) * Castlefield Junction ( where lines to Manchester converge ) . During a journey trains are controlled by : * Lime Street control ( LS ) ( Lime Street and the Lime Street tunnels ) * Edge Hill signal box ( LE ) ( Edge Hill to Edge Hill junction ) * Allerton signal box ( AN ) ( Edge Hill junction to Liverpool South Parkway ) * Hunts Cross signal box ( HC ) ( Allerton junction to Widnes Station ) * Warrington Central signal box ( WC ) ( Widnes station to Padgate station ) * Glazebrook East signal box ( GE ) ( Birchwood station to Urmston ) * Manchester Piccadilly control ( MP ) ( Urmston to route terminus ) The above is likely to change in the future as various sections are migrated over to the control of the new Manchester Rail Operating Centre at Ashburys . Other routes It is possible to travel between Liverpool and Manchester , with a change of train from underground station via Kirkby and Wigan Wallgate to . However this line requires a change at Kirkby , using the same platform , to change from the Merseyrail electric Northern Line trains to the Northern diesel trains . Sections of this route were built by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway and their acquired railways , such as the Liverpool and Bury Railway and the Manchester and Southport Railway . This line was partially built by the Liverpool and Bury Railway , opening in 1848 , which later merged into the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway who on acquisition owned the Manchester and Southport Railway which formed the complete continuous line from Liverpool into Manchester . The route was continuous from Liverpool Exchange terminus to . With the creation of the electric Merseyrail urban network the line was effectively cut into two with two modes of traction . The Liverpool half is fast third rail electric and the Manchester side slower diesel traction . The point at which the two modes meet is Kirkby which functions as a terminus for the electric and diesel services . The Merseyrail terminus at the Liverpool end of the line was extended from Liverpool Exchange to underground Liverpool Central . With the closure of Liverpool Exchange terminus station in 1977 , the terminus at the Liverpool end of the diesel service was cut back to Kirkby station . Passengers from Manchester alight at Kirkby walk down the same platform boarding a Liverpool bound electric train terminating at Liverpool 's underground Central station . The diesel train from Manchester is scheduled to meet a Merseyrail electric train from Liverpool at Kirkby for ease of passenger transfers . A new underground through station was built at Moorfields replacing some of the services of nearby Liverpool Exchange terminus station . At 37 miles ( 59.5 km ) this route is longer than either of the two direct routes . According to [ http : //www.nationalrail.co.uk/ National Rail Enquires website ] the travelling time from end to end would be 1 hour 38 minutes , including the change , compared with less than 50 minutes from Lime Street to Manchester Piccadilly and the projected 30 minutes when the northern direct route is electrified . However , for passengers who live near to the stations in the middle section of the line it may prove a quicker journey into Liverpool or Manchester . A further southerly route , using what was St Helens and Runcorn Gap Railway and Warrington and Stockport Railway , connected Liverpool Lime Street with Manchester Oxford Road via Ditton Junction , Warrington Bank Quay ( low level platforms ) and Timperley . Part of this route is still used for coal and limestone traffic to Fiddlers Ferry Power Station , but east of Warrington it has been abandoned and now forms part of the Trans Pennine Trail . Timings and line speeds , the fastest journey times are around half an hour , which is little better than over a century earlier . The fastest recorded run was from Manchester Exchange to Liverpool Lime St in 30 minutes 46 seconds by a 1936 built Jubilee 5707 with 7 coaches . An 1882-built compound steam locomotive was timed on the same route in 38 minutes 18 seconds . Until 1968 trains from Liverpool to Manchester by all 3 routes were scheduled to take 40 minutes and often took less . The southern route via Warrington is now restricted to 85 mph and the northern route via Earlestown to 90 mph , with 75 mph over Chat Moss . Work is under way to four-track the line between Huyton and Roby which is scheduled for completion in December 2017 .

qz_2379--Liverpool_to_Manchester_Lines.txt

The age of the railway began in which year with the introduction of the Liverpool-Manchester line?

`` Love & Monsters '' is the tenth episode of the second series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 17 June 2006 . It was written by executive producer and lead writer Russell T Davies and directed by Dan Zeff . The series typically follows alien time traveller the Doctor ( in his tenth incarnation , played by David Tennant ) and his companion ( s ) ( at this time Rose Tyler , played by Billie Piper ) , who travel around time and space in a machine called the TARDIS . However , `` Love & Monsters '' follows a contemporary ordinary man named Elton Pope ( Marc Warren ) who becomes obsessed with a man called the Doctor and his strange blue box , and joins a group of like-minded people in hopes of finding him . But when the mysterious Victor Kennedy ( Peter Kay ) joins the group , the fun stops and Elton discovers a darker side to his interests . Kennedy ultimately turns out to be a creature called the Abzorbaloff . Due to the addition of a Christmas special in the production schedule , an episode had to be `` double banked '' with another story ( in this case `` The Impossible Planet '' and `` The Satan Pit '' ) for production to finish on time . With `` Love & Monsters '' , Davies was able to tell a story from a different character 's point of view to allow for only a small appearance by Tennant and Piper . The `` Doctor-lite '' and `` companion-lite '' structure has since continued in the programme . The Abzorbaloff was also incorporated into the episode by necessity , as it was the winner of a Blue Peter children 's competition to design a Doctor Who monster . `` Love & Monsters '' was watched by 6.66 million viewers in the United Kingdom and was met with divisive reception by critics and fans . Some praised the complexities of the script , while others felt it was a parody or strayed into offensive humour . Kay and the Abzorbaloff also attracted divided opinions . Plot The episode is presented as an excerpt from the video diary of Elton Pope ( Marc Warren ) , a young man who is describing his encounters with the Doctor . Elton 's on-camera narration forms a present-day frame story to a series of flashbacks related to the Doctor . Elton recalls a chance meeting with the Doctor and remembers having seen the same man as a child in his living room one night . On the internet he discovers others , including Ursula Blake ( Shirley Henderson ) , who have also reported similar experiences with the Doctor . Elton and Ursula form a group known as LINDA , the `` London Investigation 'N ' Detective Agency '' . They are joined by three other people : Bridget ( Moya Brady ) , Bliss ( Kathryn Drysdale ) , and Mr Skinner ( Simon Greenall ) . LINDA meets in a library basement to discuss their experiences , but soon their meetings become more social in nature . One day a man by the name of Victor Kennedy ( Peter Kay ) interrupts a meeting and points out that LINDA has lost focus . He reinvigorates the group 's efforts to locate the Doctor by teaching them spying techniques . Elton is given the task of getting close to Rose Tyler 's mother Jackie ( Camille Coduri ) . He manages to meet Jackie at a laundrette and is invited to her apartment . She tries and fails to seduce him , but when she finds a picture of Rose in Elton 's jacket she demands that he leave her alone . Meanwhile , Bridget and Bliss disappear from the group unexpectedly . Victor explains their absence by saying that they quit to move on with their lives . After a meeting Elton , Ursula and Mr Skinner stage a walkout . Victor persuades Mr Skinner to remain behind , but Elton and Ursula leave . Ursula realises she forgot her phone , and she returns with Elton only to discover that Victor is an alien being known as the Abzorbaloff . They see the faces of the former LINDA members and other victims protruding from Victor 's body . Victor manages to absorb Ursula , but Elton gets away from him . Victor chases Elton into a dead end alley . Before the Abzorbaloff can touch him , the TARDIS materializes and the Doctor and Rose step out . Rose begins to chastise Elton for disturbing her mother Jackie before she sees that something is wrong . The Abzorbaloff tries to absorb Elton but the already absorbed members of LINDA use their willpower to hold back the Abzorbaloff 's body . The Abzsorbaloff drops its cane , which Elton breaks at Ursula 's instruction . The cane contained a field generator that kept the Abzorbaloff in control of its body , without it the creature dissolves into the Earth . The Doctor explains that he was at Elton 's house years ago tracking an elemental shade , but he was too late and the shade killed Elton 's mother . In Elton 's concluding narrative , Ursula 's voice is heard and it is revealed that the Doctor was able to use his sonic screwdriver to keep Ursula 's essence alive . Ursula 's face is alive in a piece of paving stone that Elton keeps in his room . Elton explains that he and Ursula have an unconventional relationship and even have a love life . Continuity This episode contains flashbacks to the events of `` Rose '' , `` Aliens of London '' , and `` The Christmas Invasion '' ; some footage was reused , but most was restaged to be from Elton 's point of view . Rose remarks on the Abzorbaloff as being a little bit Slitheen-ish in appearance ; the Abzorbaloff states that he comes from Clom , the sister planet of the Slitheen homeworld Raxacoricofallapatorius . Victor Kennedy mentions that Rose 's Torchwood files are missing because they were corrupted by a `` Bad Wolf virus '' , referencing both the recurring phrases of the first and second series . This line was included to establish why Torchwood does not know what Rose looks like later in `` Army of Ghosts '' . The copy of The Daily Telegraph that the Abzorbaloff reads has the headline `` Saxon leads polls with 64 percent '' . This is the first appearance of the name of `` Mr Saxon '' , a feature of a story arc in the third series . `` That LINDA lot '' is later mentioned by the Fifth Doctor in the Children in Need special `` Time Crash '' . Production Unlike the vast majority of Doctor Who stories , `` Love & Monsters '' has only nominal appearances by the TARDIS crew , and is not from their point of view . This was a production necessity because the Christmas special had increased the number of episodes to produce from 13 to 14 . As such , the production was `` double banked '' with `` The Impossible Planet '' / '' The Satan Pit '' so Tennant and Piper could film those episodes while another unit worked on `` Love & Monsters '' . The `` Doctor-lite '' ( and sometimes `` companion-lite '' ) structure has continued as a tradition , producing episodes such as `` Blink '' ( 2007 ) , `` Turn Left '' ( 2008 ) , and `` The Girl Who Waited '' ( 2011 ) . As such , executive producer and writer Russell T Davies had to come up with a story that had a good reason to keep the Doctor and Rose out . Davies was inspired by the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode `` The Zeppo '' and the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode `` Lower Decks '' , both of which focused on atypical characters . Davies described the episode , `` It 's an experimental script . Not so experimental that people will run away screaming from Saturday-night BBC1 , because you can experiment too much . People still want a bit of a monster and a bit of a thrill and a bit of the Doctor , so it still delivers as normal Doctor Who . But just as you think you know everything this programme can do , this puts a little bit of spin on it . '' The episode had the working title of `` I Love the Doctor '' . The acronym `` LINDA '' was previously used on the British children 's television programme Why Do n't You ? , which featured the `` Liverpool Investigation 'N ' Detective Agency '' . Russell T Davies worked on the series for some years . According to Davies , in an early draft , Elton would have been witness to more events in Doctor Who history : in this draft , Elton 's third birthday party was evacuated because of the Dalek invasion of Shoreditch ( Remembrance of the Daleks ) , his mother was killed by a plastic daffodil ( Terror of the Autons ) instead of an elemental shade , and he also would have been one of those who saw the Loch Ness Monster rising from the Thames ( Terror of the Zygons ) . Prior to the revival of Doctor Who , Davies had considered pitching this story idea to Doctor Who Magazine as a comics story . Davies had also considered making the viewpoint character of the story a woman but felt that he already had enough focus on female guest characters that series . Davies wanted Elton to be a `` normal guy '' and not geeky with a `` funny voice '' . It is noted Elton 's memory may not be entirely reliable , so whether events in the episode happened the way he remembers them is debatable . Another necessity the episode had to fulfill was to include the winner of Blue Peter `` Design a Doctor Who Monster '' competition . The winner , the Abzorbaloff was designed by nine-year-old William Grantham . Davies said of the monster , `` I thought the Abzorbaloff was brilliant . It touches people , absorbs them and their face actually appears in the body — terrifying . '' According to producer Phil Collinson , William was disappointed with the rendering of the monster because he had envisaged it being `` the size of a double-decker bus '' , but the production team was never informed of this . Peter Kay had written a letter to Davies after the new series began in June 2005 , and Davies replied to him in September offering a guest spot in an episode . Kay was originally offered the part of Elton , but he felt the `` UFO-spotter type '' was too similar to his character on Coronation Street and much preferred playing the `` baddie '' . The creature that Elton sees at the start of the episode is credited as the `` Hoix '' . Davies notes in the commentary that the name was invented only after the episode was shot and a name was needed for the credits . Director Dan Zeff said of the tone the production team wished to capture , `` Working with an inspirational design team , we wanted to emphasise a melancholy feel , an emptiness in the world around our characters – big urban spaces that once may have been full of life , but now lay abandoned , rusting , decayed . Amidst this , Elton and his fragile group of friends would almost feel cast adrift – increasingly vulnerable as they are led astray by the sinister Victor Kennedy . '' The episode features the songs `` Mr. Blue Sky '' , `` Do n't Bring Me Down '' , and `` Turn to Stone '' by Electric Light Orchestra ( ELO ) , Elton 's favorite band . Broadcast and reception `` Love & Monsters '' was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 17 June 2006 . Overnight ratings for the UK were 6.22 million , a 38.3 % audience share . Its final audience figure was 6.66 million making it the 15th most watched programme of the week . The episode gained an Appreciation Index score of 76 . This episode was released on a basic DVD together with `` The Impossible Planet '' and `` The Satan Pit '' on 7 August 2006 . It was then rereleased as part of the Complete Second Series boxset on 20 November 2006 . `` Love & Monsters '' is noted for having a divided reception . Nick Setchfield of SFX rated the episode 4.5 out of 5 , noting how it `` finally gives Doctor Who a whole new vocabulary as a television programme . '' He wrote , `` This may be Russell T Davies ’ s smartest , funniest script . It ’ s certainly the warmest , and somehow it feels like the most personal . '' While Setchfield was not a fan of Kay , he found his performance in this episode funny . IGN 's Ahsan Haque gave the episode a score of 9.5 out of 10 , particularly praising the dialogue . However , he felt that some of the sadder aspects `` seemed out of place in what should have been a purely light-hearted comedic episode '' . Slant Magazine reviewer Ross Ruediger was positive towards `` Love & Monsters '' , saying that `` there 's no reason the series ca n't do something this quirky and beautiful when an inspired mind conjures up such a scenario . '' Ruediger commented on the truths of meeting other fans on the Internet and praised the depth of Jackie 's character . In 2011 , SFX named `` Love & Monsters '' as one of the best Sci-Fi TV Mockumentaries , saying that it worked as an example of the genre and was not too bad on rewatch . The article noted that criticisms of the episode ranged from `` Kay 's overacting and the silly Slitheen-esque monster to annoyance at how , well , lame the members of LINDA are . '' Louisa Pearson of The Scotsman noted that hardcore fans would dislike the comedy and the `` panto '' performance of Kay , but commented , `` It 's true , this episode came close to being a spoof , but it was actually quite nice to have a rest from the Doctor . Even saving the world gets boring sometimes . '' Arnold T Blumburg of Now Playing gave the episode a grade of D- . He was positive towards the first 30 minutes , which he described as a `` touching little tale '' with interesting characters , but called the final 10 minutes `` juvenile attack on the audience 's intelligence and emotions '' that ruined the episode with `` a laughable monster and offensive humor at exactly the wrong moment '' . Digital Spy 's Dek Hogan criticised Kay 's performance , calling the Abzorbaloff `` a marvellous idea and it 's a pity his creativity was absorbed by a turn from a visiting comedian '' . In a review of the series , Stephen Brook of The Guardian stated that he `` hated '' the episode , describing it as a `` parody of Doctor Who fans '' . The scene where Elton says he and Ursula have `` a bit of a love life '' was criticised by some commentators , who felt that the resultant implication of having oral sex with a paving slab was unsuitable for Doctor Whos large family audience ; others , however , dismissed this dialogue as a harmless joke that children would not understand . `` Love & Monsters '' was placed in 153rd position in Doctor Who Magazine Mighty 200 reader survey in 2009 , which ranked every Doctor Who story to that point in order of preference .

qb_10292--Love_&_Monsters.txt

Which comedian/actor played the Doctor Who monster Abzorbaloff, which appeared in the 2006 episode ‘Love and Monsters’?

A mosque ( ; from Al-masjid ) is a place of worship for followers of Islam . There are strict and detailed requirements in Sunni fiqh for a place of worship to be considered a masjid , with places that do not meet these requirements regarded as musallas . There are stringent restrictions on the uses of the area formally demarcated as the mosque ( which is often a small portion of the larger complex ) , and , in the Islamic Sharia law , after an area is formally designated as a mosque , it remains so until the Last Day . Many mosques have elaborate domes , minarets , and prayer halls , in varying styles of architecture . Mosques originated on the Arabian Peninsula , but are now found in all inhabited continents . The mosque serves as a place where Muslims can come together for salat ( ṣalāt , meaning `` prayer '' ) as well as a center for information , education , social welfare , and dispute settlement . The imam leads the congregation in prayer . Etymology The word entered English from a French word that probably derived from Italian moschea , a variant of Italian moscheta , from either Middle Armenian մզկիթ ( mzkit ‘ ) or Medieval Greek μασγίδιον ( masgídion ) or Spanish mezquita , from the Arabic masjid meaning `` place of worship '' or `` prostration in prayer '' , either from Nabataean masgĕdhā́ or from Arabic sajada meaning `` to bow down in prayer '' , probably ultimately from Aramaic sĕghēdh.For the word 's origin from French and probable origin from Italian moscheta , see `` mosque , n. '' . OED Online . December 2011 . Oxford University Press . [ http : //www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/122562 ] . For the derivation of moscheta from Arabic sajada see `` mesquita , n. '' . OED Online . December 2011 . Oxford University Press . [ http : //www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/117089 ] . For the probable origin of `` sajada '' from Aramaic , and the meanings of sajada and masjid in Arabic , see `` masjid , n. '' . OED Online . December 2011 . Oxford University Press . [ http : //www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/114605 ] . For the inclusion of Spanish mesquita , possible derivation from Nabataean masgĕdhā́ , and the Aramaic sĕghēdh , see Klein , E. , A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language ( Elsevier Publishing , 1966 ) , p. 1007 . History The first mosque in the world is often considered to be the area around the Kaaba in Mecca now known as the Masjid al-Haram . Since as early as 638 AD , the Masjid al-Haram has been expanded on several occasions to accommodate the increasing number of Muslims who either live in the area or make the annual pilgrimage known as hajj to the city . Others regard the first mosque in history to be the Quba Mosque in present-day Medina since it was the first structure built by Muhammad upon his emigration from Mecca in 622 . The Islamic Prophet Muhammad went on to establish another mosque in Medina , which is now known as the Masjid an-Nabawi , or the Prophet 's Mosque . Built on the site of his home , Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer the concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city . The Masjid al-Nabawi introduced some of the features still common in today 's mosques , including the niche at the front of the prayer space known as the mihrab and the tiered pulpit called the minbar . The Masjid al-Nabawi was also constructed with a large courtyard , a motif common among mosques built since then . Diffusion and evolution Mosques had been built in Iraq and North Africa by the end of the 7th century , as Islam spread outside the Arabian Peninsula with early caliphates . The Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala is reportedly one of the oldest mosques in Iraq , although its present form - typical of Persian architecture - only goes back to the 11th century . The shrine , while still operating as a mosque , remains one of the holiest sites for Shia Muslims , as it honors the death of the third Shia imam , and Prophet Muhammad 's grandson , Hussein ibn Ali . The Mosque of Amr ibn al-As was reportedly the first mosque in Egypt , serving as a religious and social center for Fustat ( present-day Cairo ) during its prime . Like the Imam Husayn Shrine , though , nothing of its original structure remains . With the later Shia Fatimid Caliphate , mosques throughout Egypt evolved to include schools ( known as madrasas ) , hospitals , and tombs . The Great Mosque of Kairouan in present-day Tunisia was reportedly the first mosque built in northwest Africa , with its present form ( dating from the 9th century ) serving as a model for other Islamic places of worship in the Maghreb . It was the first to incorporate a square minaret ( as opposed to the more common circular minaret ) and includes naves akin to a basilica . Those features can also be found in Andalusian mosques , including the Grand Mosque of Cordoba , as they tended to reflect the architecture of the Moors instead of their Visigoth predecessors . Still , some elements of Visigothic architecture , like horseshoe arches , were infused into the mosque architecture of Spain and the Maghreb . The first mosque in East Asia was reportedly established in the 8th century in Xi'an . However , the Great Mosque of Xi'an , whose current building dates from the 18th century , does not replicate the features often associated with mosques elsewhere . Indeed , minarets were initially prohibited by the state . Following traditional Chinese architecture , the Great Mosque of Xi'an , like many other mosques in eastern China , resembles a pagoda , with a green roof instead of the yellow roof common on imperial structures in China . Mosques in western China were more likely to incorporate elements , like domes and minarets , traditionally seen in mosques elsewhere . A similar integration of foreign and local influences could be seen on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java , where mosques , including the Demak Great Mosque , were first established in the 15th century . Early Javanese mosques took design cues from Hindu , Buddhist , and Chinese architectural influences , with tall timber , multi-level roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples ; the ubiquitous Islamic dome did not appear in Indonesia until the 19th century . In turn , the Javanese style influenced the styles of mosques in Indonesia 's Austronesian neighbors—Malaysia , Brunei , and the Philippines . Muslim empires were instrumental in the evolution and spread of mosques . Although mosques were first established in India during the 7th century , they were not commonplace across the subcontinent until the arrival of the Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries . Reflecting their Timurid origins , Mughal-style mosques included onion domes , pointed arches , and elaborate circular minarets , features common in the Persian and Central Asian styles . The Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore , built in a similar manner in the mid-17th century , remain two of the largest mosques on the Indian subcontinent . The Umayyad Caliphate was particularly instrumental in spreading Islam and establishing mosques within the Levant , as the Umayyads constructed among the most revered mosques in the region—the al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus . The designs of the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque were influenced by Byzantine architecture , a trend that continued with the rise of the Ottoman Empire . Several of the early mosques in the Ottoman Empire were originally churches or cathedrals from the Byzantine Empire , with the Hagia Sophia ( one of those converted cathedrals ) informing the architecture of mosques from after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople . Still , the Ottomans developed their own architectural style characterized by large central rotundas ( sometimes surrounded by multiple smaller domes ) , pencil-shaped minarets , and open facades . Mosques from the Ottoman period are still scattered across Eastern Europe , but the most rapid growth in the number of mosques in Europe has occurred within the past century as more Muslims have migrated to the continent . Many major European cities are home to mosques , like the Grand Mosque of Paris , that incorporate domes , minarets , and other features often found with mosques in Muslim-majority countries . The first mosque in North America was founded by Albanian Americans in 1915 , but the continent 's oldest surviving mosque , the Mother Mosque of America , only dates back to the 1930s . As in Europe , the number of American mosques has rapidly increased in recent decades as Muslim immigrants , particularly from South Asia , have come in the United States . Greater than forty percent of mosques in the United States were constructed after 2000 . Conversion of places of worship According to early Muslim historians , towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with the Muslims gave the Muslims permission to take their churches and synagogues . One of the earliest examples of these kinds of conversions was in Damascus , Syria , where in 705 Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I bought the church of St. John from the Christians and had it rebuilt as a mosque in exchange for building a number of new churches for the Christians in Damascus . Overall , Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ( Al-Waleed 's father ) is said to have transformed 10 churches in Damascus into mosques . The process of turning churches into mosques was especially intensive in the villages where most of the inhabitants converted to Islam . The Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun turned many churches into mosques . Ottoman Turks converted nearly all churches , monasteries , and chapels in Constantinople , including the famous Hagia Sophia , into mosques immediately after capturing the city in 1453 . In some instances mosques have been established on the places of Jewish or Christian sanctuaries associated with Biblical personalities who were also recognized by Islam . Mosques have also been converted for use by other religions , notably in southern Spain , following the conquest of the Moors in 1492 . The most prominent of them is the Great Mosque of Cordoba . Outside of the Iberian Peninsula , such instances also occurred in southeastern Europe once regions were no longer under Muslim rule . Religious functions The masjid jāmi , a central mosque , can play a role in religious activities such as teaching the Quran and educating future imams . Prayers There are two holidays ( Eids ) in the Islamic calendar , Eid ul-Fitr and Eid al-Adha , during which there are special prayers held at mosques in the morning . These Eid prayers are supposed to be offered in large groups , and so , in the absence of an outdoor eidgah larger mosques will normally host them for their congregants as well as the congregants of smaller local mosques . Some mosques will even rent convention centers or other large public buildings to hold the large number of Muslims who attend . Mosques , especially those in countries where Muslims are the majority , will also host Eid prayers outside in courtyards , town squares or on the outskirts of town in an Eidgah . Ramadan events Islam 's holiest month , Ramadan , is observed through many events . As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan , mosques will host iftar dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day , maghrib . Food is provided , at least in part , by members of the community , thereby creating nightly potluck dinners . Because of the community contribution necessary to serve iftar dinners , mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the iftar dinners daily . Some mosques will also hold suhoor meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day , fajr . As with iftar dinners , congregants usually provide the food for suhoor , although able mosques may provide food instead . Mosques will often invite poorer members of the Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts , as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable . Following the last obligatory daily prayer ( Isha ' ) special , optional tarawih prayers are offered in larger mosques . During each night of prayers , which can last for up to two hours each night , usually one member of the community who has memorized the entire Quran ( a Hafiz ) will recite a segment of the book . Sometimes , several such people ( not necessarily of the local community ) take turns to do this . During the last ten days of Ramadan , larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe Laylat al-Qadr , the night Muslims believe that Muhammad first received Quranic revelations . On that night , between sunset and sunrise , mosques employ speakers to educate congregants in attendance about Islam . Mosques or the community usually provide meals periodically throughout the night During the last ten days of Ramadan , larger mosques within the Muslim community will host Iʿtikāf , a practice in which at least one Muslim man from the community must participate . Muslims performing itikaf are required to stay within the mosque for ten consecutive days , often in worship or learning about Islam . As a result , the rest of the Muslim community is responsible for providing the participants with food , drinks , and whatever else they need during their stay . Charity The third of the Five Pillars of Islam states that Muslims are required to give approximately one-fortieth of their wealth to charity as zakat . Since mosques form the center of Muslim communities , they are where Muslims go to both give zakat and , if necessary , collect it . Before the holiday of Eid ul-Fitr , mosques also collect a special zakat that is supposed to assist in helping poor Muslims attend the prayers and celebrations associated with the holiday . Contemporary political roles The late 20th century saw an increase in the number of mosques used for political purposes . Today , civic participation is commonly promoted in mosques in the Western world . Because of the importance in the community , mosques are used for preaching peaceful coexistence with non-believers , even in times of adversity . Large mosques sometimes play a political role as well . In Islamic countries like Bangladesh , Pakistan , Iran , and Saudi Arabia , political subjects are preached by imams at Friday congregations on a regular basis . In other Islamic countries , imams are usually banned from mentioning political issues . Advocacy Countries with a minority Muslim population are more likely than Muslim-majority countries of the Greater Middle East to use mosques as a way to promote civic participation . American mosques host voter registration and civic participation drives that promote involving Muslims , who are often first- or second-generation immigrants , in the political process . As a result of these efforts as well as attempts at mosques to keep Muslims informed about the issues facing the Muslim community , regular mosque attendants are more likely to participate in protests , sign petitions , and otherwise be involved in politics . Nevertheless , a link between political views and mosque attendance can still be seen in other parts of the world . Following the al-Askari Mosque bombing in February 2006 , imams and other Islamic leaders used mosques and Friday prayers as vehicles to call for calm and peace in the midst of widespread violence . Social conflict As they are considered important to the Muslim community , mosques , like other places of worship , can be at the heart of social conflicts . The Babri Mosque was the subject of such a conflict up until the early 1990s when it was demolished . Before a mutual solution could be devised , the mosque was destroyed on December 6 , 1992 as the mosque was built by Babur allegedly on the site of a previous Hindu temple marking the birthplace of Rama . The controversy surrounded the mosque was directly linked to rioting in Bombay ( present-day Mumbai ) as well as bombings in 1993 that killed 257 people . Bombings in February 2006 and June 2007 seriously damaged Iraq 's al-Askari Mosque and exacerbated existing tensions . Other mosque bombings in Iraq , both before and after the February 2006 bombing , have been part of the conflict between the country 's groups of Muslims . However , mosque bombings have not been exclusive to Iraq ; in June 2005 , a suicide bomber killed at least 19 people at an Afghan Shia mosque near Jade Maivand . In April 2006 , two explosions occurred at India 's Jama Masjid . Following the September 11 attacks , several American mosques were targeted in attacks ranging from simple vandalism to arson . Furthermore , the Jewish Defense League was suspected of plotting to bomb the King Fahd Mosque in Culver City , California . Similar attacks occurred throughout the United Kingdom following the 7 July 2005 London bombings . Outside the Western world , in June 2001 , the Hassan Bek Mosque was the target of vandalism and attacks by hundreds of Israelis after a suicide bomber killed 19 people in a night club in Tel Aviv . Although mosquegoing is highly encouraged for men , it is permitted to stay at home when one feels at risk from Islamophobic persecution . Saudi influence Although the Saudi involvement in Sunni mosques around the world can be traced back to the 1960s , it was not until later in the 20th century that the government of Saudi Arabia became a large influence in foreign Sunni mosques . Beginning in the 1980s , the Saudi Arabian government began to finance the construction of Sunni mosques in countries around the world . An estimated US $ 45 billion has been spent by the Saudi Arabian government financing mosques and Sunni Islamic schools in foreign countries . Ain al-Yaqeen , a Saudi newspaper , reported in 2002 that Saudi funds may have contributed to building as many as 1,500 mosques and 2,000 other Islamic centers . Saudi citizens have also contributed significantly to mosques in the Islamic world , especially in countries where they see Muslims as poor and oppressed . Following the fall of the Soviet Union , in 1992 , mosques in war-torn Afghanistan saw many contributions from Saudi citizens . The King Fahd Mosque in Culver City , California and the Islamic Cultural Center of Italy in Rome represent two of Saudi Arabia 's largest investments in foreign mosques as former Saudi king Fahd bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud contributed US $ 8 million and US $ 50 million to the two mosques , respectively . Architecture Styles Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques , pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty . These mosques have square or rectangular plans with an enclosed courtyard and covered prayer hall . Historically , in the warm Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates , the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers . Most early hypostyle mosques had flat roofs on prayer halls , which required the use of numerous columns and supports . One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain , the building being supported by over 850 columns . Frequently , hypostyle mosques have outer arcades so that visitors can enjoy the shade . Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties ; subsequently , however , the simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further development , the mosques consequently losing popularity . The first separate brand within mosque designs started appearing in Persia ( Iran ) . The Persians had inherited a rich architectural legacy from the earlier Persian dynasties , and they started incorporating elements from earlier Parthian and Sassanid palace-designs into their mosques , influenced by buildings such as the Palace of Ardashir and the Sarvestan Palace . Thus , Islamic architecture started witnessing the introduction of such structures as domes and large , arched entrances , referred to as iwans . During Seljuq rule , as Islamic mysticism was on the rise , the four-iwan arrangement took form . The four-iwan format , finalized by the Seljuqs , and later inherited by the Safavids , firmly established the courtyard facade of such mosques , with the towering gateways at every side , as more important than the actual buildings themselves , and they typically took the form of a square-shaped , central courtyard with large entrances at each side , giving the impression of being gateways to the spiritual world . Soon , a distinctly Persian style of mosques started appearing that would significantly influence the designs of later Timurid , and also Mughal , mosque designs . The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century . These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall . In addition to having a large central dome , a common feature is smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque , where prayer is not performed . This style was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture with its use of large central domes . Hajja Soad 's mosque took a pyramid shape that is a creative style in Islamic architecture . The Faisal Mosque in Islamabad , Pakistan in a relatively unusual design fuses contemporary lines with the more traditional look of an Arab Bedouin 's tent , with its large triangular prayer hall and four minarets . However , unlike traditional mosque design , it lacks a dome . The mosque 's architecture is a departure from the long history of South Asian Islamic architecture . It is one of the most outstanding and modern Islamic architecture examples in the world . Mosques built in Southeast Asia often represent the Indonesian-Javanese style architecture , which are different from the ones found throughout the Greater Middle East . The ones found in Europe and North America appear to have various styles but most are built on Western artchitectural designs , some are former churches or other buildings that were used by non-Muslims . In Africa , most mosques are old but the new ones are built to give it a look of the Greater Middle East . This can be seen in the Abuja National Mosque in Nigeria and others . Minarets A common feature in mosques is the minaret , the tall , slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure . The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one , and often the highest point in the immediate area . The tallest minaret in the world is located at the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca , Morocco . It has a height of 210 m and completed in 1993 , it was designed by Michel Pinseau . The first mosques had no minarets , and even nowadays the most conservative Islamic movements , like Wahhabis , avoid building minarets , seeing them as ostentatious and hazardous in case of collapse . The first minaret was constructed in 665 in Basra during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I. Muawiyah encouraged the construction of minarets , as they were supposed to bring mosques on par with Christian churches with their bell towers . Consequently , mosque architects borrowed the shape of the bell tower for their minarets , which were used for essentially the same purpose—calling the faithful to prayer . The oldest standing minaret in the world is the minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia , built between the 8th and the 9th century , it is a massive square tower consisting of three superimposed tiers of gradual size and decor . Before the five required daily prayers , a muezzin calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret . In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not the majority , mosques are prohibited from loudly broadcasting the call to prayer ( adhan ) , although it is supposed to be said loudly to the surrounding community . The adhan is required before every prayer . However , nearly every mosque assigns a muezzin for each prayer to say the adhan as it is a recommended practice or sunnah of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . At mosques that do not have minarets , the adhan is called instead from inside the mosque or somewhere else on the ground . The iqama , which is similar to the adhan and said immediately before the start of prayer , is usually not said from the minaret even if a mosque has one . Mihrab A mihrab , also spelled as mehrab is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla . That is , the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and hence the direction that Muslims should face when praying . The wall in which a mihrab appears is thus the `` qibla wall . '' Mihrabs should not be confused with the minbar , which is the raised platform from which an Imam ( leader of prayer ) addresses the congregation . Domes The domes , often placed directly above the main prayer hall , may signify the vaults of heaven and the sky . As time progressed , domes grew , from occupying a small part of the roof near the mihrab to encompassing the whole roof above the prayer hall . Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere , the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia . Some mosques have multiple , often smaller , domes in addition to the main large dome that resides at the center . Prayer hall The prayer hall , also known as the musallah , rarely has furniture ; chairs and pews are generally absent from the prayer hall so as to allow as many worshipers as possible to line the room . Some mosques have Islamic calligraphy and Quranic verses on the walls to assist worshippers in focusing on the beauty of Islam and its holiest book , the Quran , as well as for decoration . Often , a limited part of the prayer hall is sanctified formally as a masjid in the sharia sense ( although the term masjid is also used for the larger mosque complex as well ) . Once designated , there are onerous limitations on the use of this formally designated masjid , and it may not be used for any purpose other than worship ; restrictions that do not necessarily apply to the rest of the prayer area , and to the rest of the mosque complex ( although such uses may be restricted by the conditions of the waqf that owns the mosque ) . In many mosques , especially the early congregational mosques , the prayer hall is in the hypostyle form ( the roof held up by a multitude of columns ) . One of the finest examples of the hypostyle-plan mosques is the Great Mosque of Kairouan ( also known as the Mosque of Uqba ) in Tunisia . Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the qiblah wall , the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall . The qiblah wall should , in a properly oriented mosque , be set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca , the location of the Kaaba . Congregants pray in rows parallel to the qiblah wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca . In the qiblah wall , usually at its center , is the mihrab , a niche or depression indicating the direction of Mecca . Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either . Sometimes , especially during Friday prayers , a raised minbar or pulpit is located to the side of the mihrab for a khatib or some other speaker to offer a sermon ( khutbah ) . The mihrab serves as the location where the imam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis . Ablution facilities As ritual purification precedes all prayers

jp_1236--Mosque.txt

What type of tower is the Muslim version of a steeple?

Benin ( or ; ) , officially the Republic of Benin ( ) and formerly Dahomey , is a country in West Africa . It is bordered by Togo to the west , Nigeria to the east , and Burkina Faso and Niger to the north . A majority of the population live on its small southern coastline on the Bight of Benin , part of the Gulf of Guinea in the northernmost tropical portion of the Atlantic Ocean . The capital of Benin is Porto-Novo , but the seat of government is in Cotonou , the country 's largest city and economic capital . Benin covers an area of 114,763 square kilometers and its population in 2015 was estimated to be approximately 10.88 million . Benin is a tropical , sub-Saharan nation , highly dependent on agriculture , with substantial employment and income arising from subsistence farming . The official language of Benin is French . However , indigenous languages such as Fon and Yoruba are commonly spoken . The largest religious group in Benin is Roman Catholicism , followed closely by Islam , Vodun and Protestantism . Benin is a member of the United Nations , the African Union , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone , La Francophonie , the Community of Sahel-Saharan States , the African Petroleum Producers Association and the Niger Basin Authority . From the 17th to the 19th century , the main political entities in the area were the Kingdom of Dahomey along with the city-state of Porto-Novo and a large area with many different tribes to the north . This region was referred to as the Slave Coast from as early as the 17th century due to the large number of slaves shipped to the New World during the Trans-Atlantic slave trade . After slavery was abolished , France took over the country and renamed it French Dahomey . In 1960 , Dahomey gained full independence from France , and had a tumultuous period with many different democratic governments , many military coups and military governments . A Marxist–Leninist state called the People 's Republic of Benin existed between 1975 and 1990 . In 1991 , it was replaced by the current multi-party Republic of Benin . Etymology During the colonial period and at independence , the country was known as Dahomey . On 30 November 1975 it was renamed to Benin , after the body of water on which the country lies—the Bight of Benin—which , in turn , had been named after the Benin Empire ( nowadays Nigeria ) . The country of Benin has no connection to Benin City in modern Nigeria , nor to the Benin bronzes . The new name , Benin , was chosen for its neutrality . Dahomey was the name of the former Kingdom of Dahomey , which covered only most of the southern third of the present country and therefore did not represent Porto-Novo ( a rival state in the south ) , the northwestern sector Atakora , nor the kingdom of Borgu , which covered the northeastern third . History Precolonial history The current country of Benin combines three areas which had different political and ethnic systems prior to French colonial control . Before 1700 , there were a few important city states along the coast ( primarily of the Aja ethnic group , but also including Yoruba and Gbe peoples ) and a mass of tribal regions inland ( composed of Bariba , Mahi , Gedevi , and Kabye peoples ) . The Oyo Empire , located primarily to the east of modern Benin , was the most significant large-scale military force in the region and it would regularly conduct raids and exact tribute from the coastal kingdoms and the tribal regions . The situation changed in the 1600s and early 1700s as the Kingdom of Dahomey , which was of Fon ethnicity , was founded on the Abomey plateau and began taking over areas along the coast . By 1727 , king Agaja of the Kingdom of Dahomey had conquered the coastal cities of Allada and Whydah , but it had become a tributary of the Oyo empire and did not directly attack the Oyo allied city-state of Porto-Novo . The rise of the kingdom of Dahomey , the rivalry between the kingdom and the city of Porto-Novo , and the continued tribal politics of the northern region , persisted into the colonial and post-colonial periods . The Dahomey Kingdom was known for its culture and traditions . Young boys were often apprenticed to older soldiers , and taught the kingdom 's military customs until they were old enough to join the army . Dahomey was also famous for instituting an elite female soldier corps , called Ahosi i.e . the king 's wives or Mino , `` our mothers '' in the Fon language Fongbe , and known by many Europeans as the Dahomean Amazons . This emphasis on military preparation and achievement earned Dahomey the nickname of `` black Sparta '' from European observers and 19th century explorers like Sir Richard Burton . Portuguese Empire The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery ; otherwise the captives would have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs . By about 1750 , the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling Africans to the European slave-traders . Though the leaders of Dahomey appeared initially to resist the slave trade , it flourished in the region of Dahomey for almost three hundred years , beginning in 1472 with a trade agreement with Portuguese merchants , leading to the area 's being named `` the Slave Coast '' . Court protocols , which demanded that a portion of war captives from the kingdom 's many battles be decapitated , decreased the number of enslaved people exported from the area . The number went from 102,000 people per decade in the 1780s to 24,000 per decade by the 1860s . The decline was partly due to the banning of the trans-Atlantic slave trade by Britain and other countries . This decline continued until 1885 , when the last slave ship departed from the coast of the present-day Benin Republic bound for Brazil , a former Portuguese colony that had yet to abolish slavery . The capital 's name Porto-Novo is of Portuguese origin , meaning `` New Port '' . It was originally developed as a port for the slave trade . Colonial period ( 1900 until 1958 ) By the middle of the nineteenth century , Dahomey had begun to lose its status as the regional power . This enabled the French to take over the area in 1892 . In 1899 , the French included the land called French Dahomey within the larger French West Africa colonial region . In 1958 , France granted autonomy to the Republic of Dahomey , and full independence on 1 August 1960 . The president who led them to independence was Hubert Maga . Post-colonial period For the next twelve years after 1960 , ethnic strife contributed to a period of turbulence . There were several coups and regime changes , with the figures of Hubert Maga , Sourou Apithy , Justin Ahomadegbé , and Emile Derlin Zinsou dominating ; the first three each represented a different area and ethnicity of the country . These three agreed to form a Presidential Council after violence marred the 1970 elections . On 7 May 1972 , Maga ceded power to Ahomadegbe . On 26 October 1972 , Lt. Col. Mathieu Kérékou overthrew the ruling triumvirate , becoming president and stating that the country would not `` burden itself by copying foreign ideology , and wants neither Capitalism , Communism , nor Socialism '' . On 30 November 1974 however , he announced that the country was officially Marxist , under control of the Military Council of the Revolution ( CNR ) , which nationalized the petroleum industry and banks . On 30 November 1975 , he renamed the country to the People 's Republic of Benin . The CNR was dissolved in 1979 , and Kérékou arranged show elections where he was the only allowed candidate . Establishing relations with China , North Korea , and Libya , he put nearly all businesses and economic activities under state control , causing foreign investment in Benin to dry up . Kérékou attempted to reorganize education , pushing his own aphorisms such as `` Poverty is not a fatality '' , resulting in a mass exodus of teachers , along with a large number of other professionals . The regime financed itself by contracting to take nuclear waste first from the Soviet Union and later from France . In 1980 , Kérékou converted to Islam and changed his first name to Ahmed , then changed his name back after claiming to be a born-again Christian . In 1989 , riots broke out after the regime did not have money to pay its army . The banking system collapsed . Eventually Kérékou renounced Marxism and a convention forced Kérékou to release political prisoners and arrange elections . Marxism-Leninism was also abolished as the nation 's form of government . The country 's name was officially changed to the Republic of Benin on 1 March 1990 , after the newly formed government 's constitution was complete . In a 1991 election , Kérékou lost to Nicéphore Soglo . Kérékou returned to power after winning the 1996 vote . In 2001 , a closely fought election resulted in Kérékou winning another term , after which his opponents claimed election irregularities . In 1999 , Kérékou issued a national apology for the substantial role Africans had played in the Atlantic slave trade . Kérékou and former president Soglo did not run in the 2006 elections , as both were barred by the constitution 's restrictions on age and total terms of candidates . On 5 March 2006 , an election was held that was considered free and fair . It resulted in a runoff between Yayi Boni and Adrien Houngbédji . The runoff election was held on 19 March and was won by Boni , who assumed office on 6 April . The success of the fair multi-party elections in Benin won praise internationally . Boni was reelected in 2011 , taking 53.18 % of the vote in the first round—enough to avoid a runoff election , becoming the first president to win an election without a runoff since the restoration of democracy in 1991 . In the March 2016 presidential elections , in which Boni Yayi was barred by the constitution from running for a third term , businessman Patrice Talon won the second round with 65.37 % of the vote , defeating investment banker and former Prime Minister Lionel Zinsou . Talon was sworn in on 6 April 2016 . Speaking on the same day that the Constitutional Court confirmed the results , Talon said that he would `` first and foremost tackle constitutional reform '' , discussing his plan to limit presidents to a single term of five years in order to combat `` complacency '' . He also said that he planned to slash the size of the government from 28 to 16 members . Politics Benin 's politics take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic , where the President of Benin is both head of state and head of government , within a multi-party system . Executive power is exercised by the government . Legislative power is vested in both the government and the legislature . The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature . The political system is derived from the 1990 Constitution of Benin and the subsequent transition to democracy in 1991 . Benin scored highly in the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance , which comprehensively measures the state of governance across the continent . Benin was ranked 18th out of 52 African countries , and scored best in the categories of Safety & Rule of Law and Participation & Human Rights . In its 2007 Worldwide Press Freedom Index , Reporters Without Borders ranked Benin 53rd out of 169 countries . Benin has been rated equal-88th out of 159 countries in a 2005 analysis of police , business and political corruption . Departments and communes File : Benin departments named.png|thumb|right|Departments of Benin . poly 452.13 201.00 432.37 175.00 432.37 175.00 429.41 171.04 424.48 166.29 425.49 161.00 425.49 161.00 430.99 145.17 430.99 145.17 430.99 145.17 434.73 139.91 434.73 139.91 434.73 139.91 437.47 133.00 437.47 133.00 438.73 130.04 441.97 126.19 440.84 123.09 440.84 123.09 437.00 117.84 437.00 117.84 437.00 117.84 435.46 114.25 435.46 114.25 435.46 114.25 427.78 103.48 427.78 103.48 423.94 99.85 421.52 100.59 418.00 99.08 418.00 99.08 412.00 95.94 412.00 95.94 407.56 94.53 403.87 97.80 399.21 93.69 393.54 88.68 389.49 74.63 388.41 73.22 386.74 71.06 384.29 70.27 382.33 68.51 382.33 68.51 376.63 61.45 376.63 61.45 376.63 61.45 367.91 53.63 367.91 53.63 367.91 53.63 361.27 49.37 361.27 49.37 358.02 46.48 356.56 40.31 353.39 37.60 350.60 35.21 347.18 36.57 343.28 33.20 338.92 29.44 339.95 23.09 331.00 19.63 323.94 16.91 317.88 24.78 310.00 24.00 310.00 24.00 305.70 33.03 305.70 33.03 305.70 33.03 294.00 34.21 294.00 34.21 294.00 34.21 286.00 36.09 286.00 36.09 286.00 36.09 281.00 36.67 281.00 36.67 281.00 36.67 274.00 39.28 274.00 39.28 274.00 39.28 261.00 42.00 261.00 42.00 264.45 68.19 264.13 56.05 268.00 73.00 275.10 74.53 277.32 79.66 270.00 82.00 268.11 85.35 267.76 85.37 264.00 86.00 264.82 97.35 264.58 93.94 261.00 104.00 259.83 107.27 259.88 108.74 257.86 112.00 257.86 112.00 251.03 121.00 251.03 121.00 248.70 125.78 252.41 127.54 246.93 131.96 232.52 143.59 230.29 142.17 216.58 158.00 214.22 160.72 209.02 165.50 208.65 169.00 208.26 172.72 216.24 185.20 218.42 189.00 218.42 189.00 235.30 219.00 235.30 219.00 240.56 228.57 243.98 230.73 244.00 242.00 244.00 242.00 244.00 291.00 244.00 291.00 244.00 292.99 243.77 296.81 245.02 298.40 246.38 300.12 260.71 301.03 263.00 300.38 266.22 299.47 267.09 297.41 272.00 297.06 280.71 296.45 282.90 301.51 287.17 303.70 289.24 304.76 293.61 305.42 296.00 305.53 298.65 306.04 301.42 306.13 304.00 305.53 308.54 303.99 312.26 300.21 316.00 298.52 319.81 296.63 330.39 296.04 333.86 298.52 335.71 299.95 336.06 301.09 337.00 303.00 337.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 373.00 301.00 373.00 301.00 373.00 301.00 404.00 292.44 404.00 292.44 404.00 292.44 431.00 290.00 431.00 290.00 431.00 290.00 445.00 288.21 445.00 288.21 445.00 288.21 460.00 288.82 460.00 288.82 460.00 288.82 474.00 284.78 474.00 284.78 474.00 284.78 483.00 283.00 483.00 283.00 482.50 274.60 480.55 277.64 476.39 273.57 474.00 271.25 473.50 268.53 471.93 266.37 470.45 264.35 468.05 263.00 467.11 260.90 465.21 256.64 470.40 249.79 470.70 245.00 470.84 242.80 468.02 232.09 467.01 230.00 465.75 227.38 464.06 226.13 463.31 223.00 462.41 219.20 463.69 215.50 465.00 212.00 458.09 210.88 456.07 206.26 452.13 201.00 Alibori poly 37.46 246.00 37.46 252.00 37.46 252.00 37.46 252.00 35.31 258.00 35.31 258.00 35.31 258.00 34.40 265.00 34.40 265.00 32.65 269.76 26.21 273.58 24.01 278.00 22.52 281.03 24.08 291.52 24.01 296.00 23.82 305.84 20.15 302.44 20.00 313.00 20.00 313.00 20.00 323.00 20.00 323.00 20.00 325.41 19.78 328.58 21.02 330.70 22.40 333.07 26.70 335.76 29.00 337.42 29.00 337.42 45.00 349.37 45.00 349.37 45.00 349.37 82.00 373.20 82.00 373.20 82.00 373.20 107.00 388.27 107.00 388.27 111.81 390.32 114.39 389.60 118.00 390.63 130.19 394.14 122.76 395.20 140.00 395.00 145.96 394.93 151.03 393.89 156.00 390.36 160.95 386.85 170.76 377.10 176.00 375.13 180.62 373.39 183.60 376.89 194.00 376.76 194.00 376.76 214.00 376.76 214.00 376.76 219.13 375.48 220.35 373.34 230.00 371.40 233.97 370.60 241.83 370.30 243.98 366.77 245.17 364.82 245.08 361.23 244.82 359.00 244.34 354.97 239.47 338.13 237.30 335.17 234.48 331.32 229.02 329.01 229.16 323.00 229.33 316.13 237.71 311.47 240.40 307.72 242.31 305.05 241.99 302.12 241.84 299.00 241.84 299.00 241.84 241.00 241.84 241.00 242.00 238.76 242.09 236.16 241.83 234.00 240.65 230.85 237.02 225.12 235.30 222.00 235.30 222.00 222.42 199.00 222.42 199.00 222.42 199.00 211.72 180.00 211.72 180.00 210.41 177.70 207.70 172.35 205.61 171.02 203.63 169.77 200.33 170.06 198.00 169.83 198.00 169.83 179.00 168.01 179.00 168.01 172.75 168.17 171.85 169.55 167.00 170.24 167.00 170.24 159.00 170.24 159.00 170.24 154.87 170.68 148.54 174.29 145.00 173.97 140.61 173.58 139.06 169.50 137.20 167.84 135.56 166.35 130.21 164.35 128.00 163.80 124.03 162.80 116.29 163.66 113.75 167.22 112.30 169.25 112.92 171.08 110.65 173.37 108.55 175.49 104.72 176.40 103.92 180.04 103.92 180.04 105.00 189.00 105.00 189.00 105.00 189.00 95.00 188.00 95.00 188.00 95.20 190.02 95.78 192.77 94.31 194.45 91.55 197.61 77.91 193.83 74.00 193.00 74.12 200.87 77.74 199.74 75.00 211.00 69.72 208.52 68.74 210.16 64.00 213.00 66.47 221.45 72.00 221.45 70.00 232.00 70.00 232.00 63.00 228.56 63.00 228.56 63.00 228.56 57.00 226.73 57.00 226.73 57.00 226.73 49.00 223.00 49.00 223.00 46.19 229.10 45.52 230.06 49.00 236.00 49.00 236.00 40.00 237.00 40.00 237.00 40.00 237.00 37.46 246.00 37.46 246.00 Atakora poly 457.00 290.83 444.00 290.06 444.00 290.06 444.00 290.06 435.00 291.86 435.00 291.86 435.00 291.86 425.00 291.21 425.00 291.21 425.00 291.21 410.00 293.79 410.00 293.79 410.00 293.79 402.00 294.46 402.00 294.46 390.01 296.62 381.24 303.72 369.00 302.73 362.03 302.17 363.46 303.89 358.00 304.89 358.00 304.89 344.00 304.89 344.00 304.89 338.12 304.96 336.10 304.95 334.00 299.00 330.07 299.00 319.10 298.57 316.00 299.74 311.61 301.39 307.49 307.15 301.00 307.70 297.78 307.97 288.94 306.59 286.17 304.93 282.96 303.00 281.61 300.23 277.00 299.28 267.48 297.31 266.77 302.05 261.99 302.66 261.99 302.66 244.00 302.00 244.00 302.00 243.08 313.35 229.57 314.00 231.24 325.00 232.04 330.24 236.64 331.99 239.44 336.01 241.19 338.53 242.02 342.05 242.86 345.00 244.32 350.15 247.94 360.01 246.57 364.98 244.30 373.20 230.96 372.34 224.00 374.25 215.51 376.59 216.42 381.17 221.00 387.00 215.50 390.69 219.79 394.05 219.41 399.00 219.07 403.42 213.76 408.39 216.95 418.00 221.36 431.25 229.17 432.89 228.89 442.00 228.89 442.00 225.42 471.00 225.42 471.00 224.95 474.53 225.04 479.91 223.07 482.85 220.31 486.96 210.88 486.90 206.10 489.56 200.51 492.67 199.71 502.20 200.09 508.00 200.34 511.83 201.45 517.74 203.85 520.78 206.80 524.50 211.02 524.42 212.39 530.00 213.73 535.43 206.59 553.24 211.74 560.95 217.97 570.28 236.41 563.79 236.00 577.00 236.00 577.00 310.00 577.00 310.00 577.00 312.73 576.99 316.25 577.33 318.43 575.40 320.92 573.20 320.80 569.99 321.32 567.00 322.73 558.85 321.71 561.34 322.24 556.00 322.24 556.00 323.91 547.00 323.91 547.00 324.35 540.98 322.25 532.46 331.00 531.69 332.81 531.53 334.28 532.10 336.00 532.28 341.27 532.85 343.12 529.82 349.00 529.06 353.86 528.43 354.56 530.23 358.00 530.54 361.32 530.83 370.70 528.20 372.73 525.49 374.30 523.40 376.92 513.91 377.58 511.00 377.58 511.00 381.66 497.83 381.66 497.83 381.66 497.83 380.98 486.00 380.98 486.00 380.68 476.61 375.81 477.30 379.29 470.00 383.12 461.98 385.40 466.33 391.98 456.00 396.68 448.63 393.76 447.02 397.31 443.39 401.48 439.14 406.55 441.71 408.94 436.93 410.67 433.46 407.81 429.38 406.94 426.00 405.90 421.94 407.23 418.17 410.22 415.27 412.84 412.73 424.28 408.25 428.00 407.56 433.00 406.65 435.16 409.44 439.24 404.85 441.02 402.86 448.74 392.17 449.44 390.00 452.26 381.29 445.08 373.83 458.00 370.00 458.00 366.84 458.47 359.88 456.98 357.32 455.80 355.29 446.60 348.06 445.26 343.00 444.26 339.23 447.43 333.31 449.10 330.00 452.77 322.74 449.55 322.09 458.00 317.29 459.54 316.42 461.17 315.40 463.00 315.34 465.90 315.25 472.14 319.47 475.00 321.00 475.00 321.00 477.68 312.00 477.68 312.00 477.68 312.00 478.63 305.00 478.63 305.00 478.63 305.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 285.00 483.05 285.00 483.05 285.00 457.00 290.83 457.00 290.83 Borgou poly 204.00 378.09 198.00 378.82 198.00 378.82 195.22 379.01 189.99 378.26 187.00 377.91 183.64 377.52 180.15 375.88 177.00 376.43 168.76 377.87 159.89 391.57 150.00 395.14 145.58 396.38 131.55 396.56 127.00 395.14 119.22 393.40 119.53 391.49 109.00 391.00 109.00 391.00 109.00 409.00 109.00 409.00 109.00 409.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 444.00 110.00 444.00 109.87 453.63 106.71 453.36 105.91 458.00 105.45 460.61 107.25 464.32 108.00 467.00 114.17 468.97 113.93 474.31 114.00 480.00 114.03 482.98 113.74 487.26 114.72 490.00 116.12 493.90 128.70 508.73 132.09 511.78 135.10 514.48 137.49 514.98 139.44 517.27 139.44 517.27 145.51 528.00 145.51 528.00 147.02 531.73 147.68 545.12 148.17 550.00 148.17 550.00 149.00 608.00 149.00 608.00 152.74 607.83 162.55 606.68 166.00 605.70 170.07 604.54 173.60 601.66 178.00 602.89 181.90 603.99 184.73 607.28 188.00 608.84 191.81 610.65 193.97 609.29 198.00 611.73 201.82 614.05 205.90 619.16 213.00 621.59 221.08 624.36 228.08 622.78 236.00 621.00 236.00 621.00 236.86 599.00 236.86 599.00 236.86 599.00 234.51 587.04 234.51 587.04 234.51 587.04 233.07 582.58 233.07 582.58 232.54 579.04 234.93 575.89 233.77 573.14 232.45 570.01 227.92 569.43 225.00 568.79 219.30 567.55 214.40 566.93 210.64 561.96 202.86 551.69 211.67 541.18 209.85 530.04 208.90 524.19 203.33 524.76 199.99 517.00 196.43 508.71 197.14 494.28 205.04 488.70 209.60 485.47 216.59 484.97 222.00 484.00 222.00 484.00 225.28 454.00 225.28 454.00 225.75 450.23 227.35 441.23 226.58 438.00 224.89 430.85 215.61 424.73 214.21 414.00 213.33 407.25 216.93 404.33 217.52 400.00 217.95 396.84 216.60 394.67 216.66 392.00 216.29 389.21 217.38 387.80 216.66 385.00 216.46 382.76 215.64 382.31 215.00 378.09 208.25 379.58 209.49 378.17 204.00 378.09 Donga poly 318.42 730.00 311.02 715.00 311.02 715.00 311.02 715.00 313.71 704.00 313.71 704.00 313.71 704.00 314.30 696.00 314.30 696.00 314.30 696.00 315.83 688.00 315.83 688.00 315.83 688.00 316.39 680.00 316.39 680.00 316.39 680.00 319.72 668.00 319.72 668.00 319.72 668.00 313.56 646.00 313.56 646.00 313.56 646.00 315.37 640.00 315.37 640.00 315.37 640.00 316.64 633.00 316.64 633.00 316.64 633.00 320.82 619.00 320.82 619.00 320.82 619.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 603.00 320.00 603.00 320.00 603.00 319.00 591.00 319.00 591.00 319.00 591.00 317.98 580.60 317.98 580.60 317.98 580.60 310.00 579.00 310.00 579.00 310.00 579.00 235.00 579.00 235.00 579.00 235.26 586.63 236.56 584.73 237.67 590.00 239.34 597.46 238.85 605.57 237.67 613.00 237.01 616.76 238.31 618.16 237.10 620.07 234.94 623.47 229.59 623.95 226.00 624.00 221.06 624.06 215.54 624.49 211.00 622.33 205.31 619.62 201.44 614.89 198.00 613.17 194.55 611.45 192.14 612.51 188.00 610.16 184.89 608.40 182.82 605.80 179.00 604.65 173.86 603.11 169.76 606.21 165.00 607.51 158.90 609.18 155.15 609.00 149.00 609.00 149.00 609.00 153.66 623.42 153.66 623.42 153.66 623.42 148.64 636.00 148.64 636.00 148.64 636.00 151.00 649.00 151.00 649.00 151.00 649.00 151.00 722.00 151.00 722.00 151.00 722.00 152.00 735.00 152.00 735.00 152.00 735.00 152.00 755.94 152.00 755.94 166.40 753.42 176.18 756.23 181.00 755.94 187.22 755.43 189.92 751.17 198.00 754.13 201.28 755.33 204.30 757.44 206.59 760.08 208.54 762.34 209.03 764.62 212.12 765.57 217.89 767.35 223.35 763.69 226.00 763.61 228.52 763.53 229.97 765.05 233.00 765.70 235.57 766.25 238.37 765.71 240.90 766.73 240.90 766.73 255.70 777.45 255.70 777.45 257.51 779.06 259.10 781.50 261.30 782.43 263.15 783.21 267.83 783.00 270.00 783.00 272.03 774.71 276.57 773.19 278.40 768.00 279.76 764.17 277.20 755.85 284.10 752.02 286.30 750.80 289.53 751.00 292.00 751.00 292.00 751.00 319.00 751.00 319.00 751.00 319.00 751.00 318.42 730.00 318.42 730.00 Collines poly 292.30 753.00 286.57 752.61 284.39 754.02 281.46 755.92 281.10 759.84 281.08 763.00 281.04 774.80 270.91 774.76 272.27 785.00 272.27 785.00 273.76 791.00 273.76 791.00 275.77 801.74 275.37 806.88 280.47 817.96 283.01 823.47 285.98 822.81 287.98 826.21 288.89 827.76 289.44 832.73 290.00 835.00 292.46 844.84 293.99 846.60 294.00 857.00 294.00 857.00 286.00 857.00 286.00 857.00 286.23 859.87 287.62 869.61 289.01 871.72 290.95 874.68 294.33 874.42 296.69 876.56 298.98 878.65 298.94 881.14 299.00 884.00 299.00 884.00 299.00 913.00 299.00 913.00 299.00 913.00 315.00 912.00 315.00 912.00 315.76 917.70 316.21 927.45 321.00 931.00 321.00 931.00 322.37 924.00 322.37 924.00 322.93 917.23 320.61 905.79 329.00 903.00 329.00 903.00 328.00 894.00 328.00 894.00 318.78 891.20 322.04 885.32 322.64 880.00 322.64 880.00 322.64 872.01 322.64 872.01 322.64 866.54 319.80 866.88 319.03 862.96 317.84 856.92 322.79 851.79 328.00 850.00 326.01 846.41 321.84 843.26 321.74 840.00 321.64 836.40 325.42 834.71 325.69 830.00 325.69 830.00 323.14 814.00 323.14 814.00 323.14 814.00 323.14 796.00 323.14 796.00 323.04 790.35 322.85 788.03 329.00 787.00 329.00 787.00 328.02 776.51 328.02 776.51 328.02 776.51 319.58 765.91 319.58 765.91 319.58 765.91 319.00 753.00 319.00 753.00 319.00 753.00 295.00 753.00 295.00 753.00 Plateau poly 206.34 763.93 205.43 757.98 198.00 755.65 191.50 753.61 187.31 756.49 184.00 757.05 184.00 757.05 174.00 757.05 174.00 757.05 174.00 757.05 169.00 757.05 169.00 757.05 164.61 756.98 153.74 754.41 152.33 760.22 151.73 762.72 153.77 772.55 154.89 775.00 154.89 775.00 158.36 781.00 158.36 781.00 158.36 781.00 166.66 799.00 166.66 799.00 167.87 801.99 168.54 806.16 170.20 808.63 170.20 808.63 174.52 813.21 174.52 813.21 174.52 813.21 183.37 825.01 183.37 825.01 187.45 831.76 184.90 833.76 187.92 839.99 187.92 839.99 197.31 852.00 197.31 852.00 198.71 854.11 208.31 865.01 210.09 865.98 211.94 866.98 213.96 866.99 216.00 866.83 216.00 866.83 238.00 863.41 238.00 863.41 240.99 862.91 246.45 862.26 249.00 861.03 251.65 859.76 254.75 856.94 257.00 855.00 261.30 861.61 263.82 856.19 272.00 851.00 272.00 851.00 272.00 855.00 272.00 855.00 272.00 855.00 292.00 855.00 292.00 855.00 292.00 855.00 288.00 835.00 288.00 835.00 288.00 835.00 286.41 827.21 286.41 827.21 286.41 827.21 279.70 819.96 279.70 819.96 279.70 819.96 274.37 806.00 274.37 806.00 274.37 806.00 269.43 786.60 269.43 786.60 269.43 786.60 260.30 783.98 260.30 783.98 260.30 783.98 253.83 777.87 253.83 777.87 253.83 777.87 241.55 769.00 241.55 769.00 241.55 769.00 233.00 767.69 233.00 767.69 233.00 767.69 226.00 764.00 226.00 764.00 221.54 767.25 214.37 769.95 209.30 766.15 Zou poly 153.00 804.00 153.00 859.00 153.00 859.00 153.00 859.00 139.00 859.00 139.00 859.00 140.12 869.52 144.79 869.08 146.70 874.04 146.70 874.04 148.00 891.00 148.00 891.00 148.00 891.00 167.00 887.01 167.00 887.01 173.25 884.66 179.78 879.51 187.00 881.43 192.57 882.92 192.27 886.99 195.43 890.37 199.86 895.12 204.70 896.92 211.00 897.00 211.10 886.84 212.56 890.16 215.29 883.00 215.29 883.00 217.11 877.00 217.11 877.00 218.73 873.21 219.32 873.47 220.00 869.07 220.00 869.07 213.00 869.07 213.00 869.07 206.74 868.26 197.27 854.10 193.37 849.09 190.23 845.06 187.66 844.48 185.56 839.00 183.47 833.53 184.76 830.30 182.35 826.01 182.35 826.01 168.00 807.99 168.00 807.99 168.00 807.99 160.57 789.00 160.57 789.00 160.57 789.00 155.00 778.00 155.00 778.00 151.88 784.13 153.00 796.83 153.00 804.00 Couffo poly 257.00 858.00 248.00 863.30 248.00 863.30 248.00 863.30 222.00 868.00 222.00 868.00 221.30 877.09 214.05 887.68 213.30 891.00 213.30 891.00 212.78 897.00 212.78 897.00 212.78 897.00 210.56 904.00 210.56 904.00 210.56 904.00 210.03 909.00 210.03 909.00 209.27 912.47 207.53 913.55 207.11 918.00 206.62 923.23 208.88 928.13 207.61 934.00 206.40 939.60 201.12 945.73 201.38 952.00 201.38 952.00 206.00 968.00 206.00 968.00 222.41 965.82 240.46 961.05 257.00 961.00 262.31 950.04 272.23 953.79 277.61 950.02 281.43 947.33 282.20 940.30 281.95 936.00 281.83 933.85 281.57 933.02 281.00 931.00 274.36 932.39 273.12 930.44 273.00 924.00 273.00 924.00 273.00 901.00 273.00 901.00 273.00 901.00 271.88 889.00 271.88 889.00 271.88 889.00 271.88 880.00 271.88 880.00 270.65 874.76 266.10 871.72 265.57 868.00 265.10 864.74 268.71 860.40 270.00 855.00 262.76 858.36 261.92 862.80 257.00 858.00 Atlantique poly 265.94 871.63 272.70 873.14 274.03 882.00 274.03 882.00 276.00 930.06 276.00 930.06 277.77 929.74 280.02 929.17 281.69 930.06 286.93 933.10 282.45 945.82 281.00 950.00 290.46 952.22 290.49 955.31 294.09 956.25 296.22 956.80 307.99 954.73 311.00 954.27 312.59 954.03 315.15 953.84 316.43 952.83 318.46 951.21 317.93 947.36 318.04 945.00 318.18 941.90 319.74 936.26 319.27 934.17 318.66 931.45 316.47 930.61 315.04 925.00 314.39 922.44 314.16 916.52 312.26 915.00 309.68 912.91 300.38 914.73 297.00 915.00 297.00 915.00 297.00 885.00 297.00 885.00 297.00 885.00 295.98 878.56 295.98 878.56 295.98 878.56 286.74 871.95 286.74 871.95 286.74 871.95 284.00 857.00 284.00 857.00 276.19 857.00 270.53 855.71 267.85 865.00 Ouémé poly 190.28 887.88 191.51 885.48 187.86 884.18 179.49 881.23 172.19 887.47 165.00 890.03 161.26 891.37 159.48 890.71 156.00 891.21 156.00 891.21 149.00 893.00 149.00 893.00 149.00 893.00 144.00 907.00 144.00 907.00 150.92 912.00 146.25 912.89 149.18 917.78 150.76 920.42 153.53 920.93 155.83 922.69 160.20 926.05 161.69 929.71 162.00 935.00 172.27 940.14 174.95 959.54 178.00 970.00 178.00 970.00 161.00 974.00 161.00 974.00 157.16 974.77 154.35 974.62 152.00 978.00 152.00 978.00 204.00 968.00 204.00 968.00 204.00 968.00 199.26 951.00 199.26 951.00 199.26 951.00 205.79 933.00 205.79 933.00 205.79 933.00 205.06 919.00 205.06 919.00 205.06 919.00 210.00 900.00 210.00 900.00 204.65 899.12 198.01 895.52 194.14 891.70 Mono poly 278.09 952.30 265.26 954.83 262.14 957.00 260.19 958.36 260.03 959.06 259.00 961.00 259.00 961.00 274.00 960.00 274.00 960.00 274.00 960.00 275.00 956.00 275.00 956.00 275.00 956.00 275.00 960.00 275.00 960.00 275.00 960.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 955.00 290.00 955.00 287.42 953.90 284.83 952.87 282.00 952.63 Littoral Benin is divided into twelve departments ( French : départements ) which , in turn , are subdivided into 77 communes . In 1999 , the previous six departments were each split into two halves , forming the current twelve . The six new departments were assigned official capitals in 2008 . Geography Benin , a narrow , north–south strip of land in West Africa , lies between latitudes 6° and 13°N , and longitudes 0° and 4°E . Benin is bounded by Togo to the west , Burkina Faso and Niger to the north , Nigeria to the east , and the Bight of Benin to the south . The distance from the Niger River in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the south is about 650 km . Although the coastline measures 121 km the country measures about 325 km at its widest point . Benin shows little variation in elevation and can be divided into four areas from the south to the north , starting with the low-lying , sandy , coastal plain ( highest elevation 10 m ) which is , at most , 10 km wide . It is marshy and dotted with lakes and lagoons communicating with the ocean . Behind the coast lies the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic-covered plateaus of southern Benin ( altitude between 20 and ) , which are split by valleys running north to south along the Couffo , Zou , and Oueme Rivers . Then an area of flat lands dotted with rocky hills whose altitude seldom reaches 400 m extends around Nikki and Save . Finally , a range of mountains extends along the northwest border and

odql_3280--Benin.txt

Which African country is bordered to the east by Chad, to the south by Nigeria and Benin, to west by Mali, and to the north by Algeria and Libya?

Ketchum is a city in Blaine County , Idaho , United States , in the central part of the state . The population was 2,689 at the 2010 census , down from 3,003 in 2000 . Located in the Wood River Valley , Ketchum is adjacent to Sun Valley and the communities share many resources ; both sit in the same valley beneath Bald Mountain , with its world-famous skiing . The city also draws tourists from around the world to enjoy its fishing , hiking , trail riding , tennis , shopping , art galleries , and more . The airport for Ketchum , Friedman Memorial Airport , is approximately 15 mi south in Hailey . History Originally the smelting center of the Warm Springs mining district , the town was first named Leadville in 1880 . The postal department decided that was too common and renamed it for David Ketchum , a local trapper and guide who had staked a claim in the basin a year earlier . Smelters were built in the 1880s , with the Philadelphia Smelter , located on Warm Springs Road , processing large amounts of lead and silver for about a decade . After the mining boom subsided in the 1890s , sheepmen from the south drove their herds north through Ketchum in the summer , to graze in the upper elevation areas of the Pioneer , Boulder , and Sawtooth mountains . By 1920 , Ketchum had become the largest sheep-shipping center in the West . In the fall , massive herds of sheep flowed south into the town 's livestock corrals at the Union Pacific Railroad 's railhead , which connected to the main line at Shoshone . After the development of Sun Valley by the Union Pacific Railroad in 1936 , Ketchum became popular with celebrities , including Gary Cooper and Ernest Hemingway . Hemingway loved the surrounding area ; he fished , hunted , and in the late 1950s bought a home overlooking the Wood River in nearby Warm Springs . It was there he committed suicide ; he and his granddaughter , model and actress Margaux Hemingway , are buried in the Ketchum Cemetery . Every Labor Day weekend , Ketchum hosts the Wagon Days festival , a themed carnival featuring Old West wagon trains , narrow ore wagons , a parade , and simulated street gunfights . Geography Ketchum is located at an elevation of 5853 ft above sea level . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of , of which , is land and is water . However , two mountain streams , Trail Creek and Warm Springs Creek , join the Big Wood River in Ketchum . Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010 , there were 2,689 people , 1,431 households , and 583 families residing in the city . The population density was . There were 3,564 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 90.9 % White , 0.1 % African American , 0.1 % Native American , 1.3 % Asian , 6.5 % from other races , and 1.0 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.1 % of the population . There were 1,431 households of which 15.7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 33.2 % were married couples living together , 5.0 % had a female householder with no husband present , 2.6 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 59.3 % were non-families . 44.1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11.5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 1.88 and the average family size was 2.63 . The median age in the city was 44 years . 14.3 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 5.8 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 31.4 % were from 25 to 44 ; 32.3 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 16.3 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 52.0 % male and 48.0 % female . 2000 census As of the census of 2000 , there were 3,003 people , 1,582 households , and 607 families residing in the city . The population density was 991.4 people per square mile ( 382.7/km² ) . There were 2,920 housing units at an average density of 964.0 per square mile ( 372.1/km² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 94.74 % White , 0.27 % Native American , 0.57 % Asian , 0.17 % Pacific Islander , 2.33 % from other races , and 1.93 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.90 % of the population . There were 1,582 households out of which 14.2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 30.1 % were married couples living together , 5.6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 61.6 % were non-families . 42.2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6.8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 1.90 and the average family size was 2.60 . In the city the population was spread out with 12.5 % under the age of 18 , 9.4 % from 18 to 24 , 37.6 % from 25 to 44 , 31.1 % from 45 to 64 , and 9.4 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 39 years . For every 100 females there were 116.2 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 117.1 males . The median income for a household in the city was $ 45,457 , and the median income for a family was $ 73,750 . Males had a median income of $ 31,712 versus $ 27,857 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 41,798 . About 3.5 % of families and 8.9 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 10.9 % of those under age 18 and 6.6 % of those age 65 or over . Points of interest * Sawtooth Botanical Garden * Ketchum Sun Valley Historical Society Heritage & Ski Museum * Sawtooth National Recreation Area * Sun Valley 's Bald Mountain or `` Baldy '' has 13 chairlifts and 65 runs . It covers 2054 acre and has 3400 ft of vertical from top to bottom . Special events * Trailing of the Sheep Notable people * Melissa Arnot - mountain guide * Bowe Bergdahl , United States Army soldier captured by the Taliban * Peter Cetera - singer-songwriter , Chicago * Christin Cooper - alpine ski racer * Dick Fosbury - 1968 Olympic gold medalist in the high jump * Karl Fostvedt - professional skier * Tom Hanks - Academy Award ( 5 nominations , 2 wins ) actor * Ernest Hemingway - Nobel Prize-winning author , committed suicide in Ketchum * Mariel Hemingway - Academy Award-nominated actress , granddaughter of Ernest Hemingway * Cody Lampl ( born 1986 ) - professional ice hockey defenseman * Steve Miller - musician * Tim Ryan - sportscaster * Ann Sothern - Academy Award–nominated film and television actress * Tisha Sterling - actress * Picabo Street - Olympic and world champion ski racer * Adam West - actor * Van Williams - actor Sister cities * Lignano Sabbiadoro , Italy * Tegernsee , Germany

qg_2074--Ketchum,_Idaho.txt

July 2, 1961 saw what Nobel Prize winning author take his own life in Ketchum, Idaho, who once stated that every boy must Plant a tree, Fight a bull, Write a novel, and Father a son in order to be a man?

Harry Potter is a series of fantasy novels written by British author J. K. Rowling . The novels chronicle the life of a young wizard , Harry Potter , and his friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley , all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . The main story arc concerns Harry 's struggle against Lord Voldemort , a dark wizard who intends to become immortal , overthrow the wizard governing body known as the Ministry of Magic , and subjugate all wizards and non-magical people ( Muggles ) . Since the release of the first novel , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , on 30 June 1997 , the books have found immense popularity , critical acclaim and commercial success worldwide . They have attracted a wide adult audience as well as younger readers , and are often considered cornerstones of modern young adult literature . The series has also had its share of criticism , including concern about the increasingly dark tone as the series progressed , as well as the often gruesome and graphic violence it depicts . , the books have sold more than 450 million copies worldwide , making them the best-selling book series in history , and have been translated into seventy-three languages . The last four books consecutively set records as the fastest-selling books in history , with the final instalment selling roughly eleven million copies in the United States within twenty-four hours of its release . The series was originally published in English by two major publishers , Bloomsbury in the United Kingdom and Scholastic Press in the United States . A play , Harry Potter and the Cursed Child , based on a story by Rowling , premiered in London on 30 July 2016 at the Palace Theatre , and its script was published by Little , Brown as the eighth book in the series . The original seven books were adapted into an eight-part film series by Warner Bros. Pictures , which has become the second highest-grossing film series of all time . The franchise has also generated much tie-in merchandise , making the Harry Potter brand worth in excess of $ 15 billion . A series of many genres , including fantasy , drama , coming of age and the British school story ( which includes elements of mystery , thriller , adventure , horror and romance ) , the world of Harry Potter explores numerous themes and includes many cultural meanings and references . According to Rowling , the main theme is death . Other major themes in the series include prejudice , corruption , and madness . The success of the books and films has ensured that the Harry Potter franchise continues to expand , with numerous derivative works , a travelling exhibition that premièred in Chicago in 2009 , a studio tour in London that opened in 2012 , a digital platform on which J.K. Rowling updates the series with new information and insight , and a trilogy of spin-off films premièring in November 2016 , among many other developments . Most recently , themed attractions , collectively known as The Wizarding World of Harry Potter , have been built at several Universal Parks & Resorts amusement parks around the world . Plot The central character in the series is Harry Potter , an English orphan who discovers , at the age of eleven , that he is a wizard , though he lives in the ordinary world of non-magical people known as Muggles . The wizarding world exists parallel to the Muggle world , albeit hidden and in secrecy . His magical ability is inborn and children with such abilities are invited to attend exclusive magic schools that teach the necessary skills to succeed in the wizarding world . Harry becomes a student at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry , a wizarding academy in Scotland and it is here where most of the events in the series take place . As Harry develops through his adolescence , he learns to overcome the problems that face him : magical , social and emotional , including ordinary teenage challenges such as friendships , infatuation , romantic relationships , schoolwork and exams , anxiety , depression , stress , and the greater test of preparing himself for the confrontation , that lies ahead , in wizarding Britain 's increasingly-violent second wizarding war . Each novel chronicles one year in Harry 's life during the period from 1991 to 1998 . The books also contain many flashbacks , which are frequently experienced by Harry viewing the memories of other characters in a device called a Pensieve . The environment Rowling created is intimately connected to reality . The British magical community of the Harry Potter books is inspired by 1990s British culture , European folklore , classical mythology and alchemy , incorporating objects and wildlife such as magic wands , magic plants , potions , spells , flying broomsticks , centaurs and other magical creatures , the Deathly Hallows , and the Philosopher 's Stone , beside others invented by Rowling . While the fantasy land of Narnia is an alternate universe and the Lord of the Rings Middle-earth a mythic past , the wizarding world of Harry Potter exists in parallel within the real world and contains magical versions of the ordinary elements of everyday life , with the action mostly set in Scotland ( Hogwarts ) , the West Country , Devon , London and Surrey in southeast England . The world only accessible to wizards and magical beings comprises a fragmented collection of overlooked hidden streets , ancient pubs , lonely country manors and secluded castles invisible to the Muggle population . Early years When the first novel of the series , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( published in America and other countries as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone ) opens , it is apparent that some significant event has taken place in the wizarding world – an event so very remarkable , even the Muggles ( non-magical people ) notice signs of it . The full background to this event and Harry Potter 's past is revealed gradually through the series . After the introductory chapter , the book leaps forward to a time shortly before Harry Potter 's eleventh birthday , and it is at this point that his magical background begins to be revealed . Harry 's first contact with the wizarding world is through a half-giant , Rubeus Hagrid , keeper of grounds and keys at Hogwarts . Hagrid reveals some of Harry 's history . Harry learns that , as a baby , he witnessed his parents ' murder by the power-obsessed Dark wizard Lord Voldemort , who subsequently attempted to kill him as well . For reasons not revealed until the fifth book , the spell with which Voldemort tried to kill Harry , rebounded . Harry survived with only a lightning-shaped scar on his forehead as a memento of the attack and Voldemort disappeared afterwards . As its inadvertent saviour from Voldemort 's reign of terror , Harry has become a living legend in the wizarding world . However , at the orders of the venerable and well-known wizard Albus Dumbledore , the orphaned Harry had been placed in the home of his unpleasant Muggle relatives , the Dursleys , who kept him safe but treated him poorly , having him live in a cupboard and do chores while doting on their spoiled son Dudley . Petunia Dursley was jealous of her sister 's magical abilities as a child , and later came to believe that all wizards were freaks . Therefore , the Dursleys hated wizards , so they hid Harry 's true heritage from him , saying his parents died in a car crash in the hope that he would grow up `` normal '' . With Hagrid 's help , Harry prepares for and undertakes his first year of study at Hogwarts . As Harry begins to explore the magical world , the reader is introduced to many of the primary locations used throughout the series . Harry meets most of the main characters and gains his two closest friends : Ron Weasley , a fun-loving member of an ancient , large , happy , but poor wizarding family , and Hermione Granger , a gifted and very hardworking witch of non-magical parentage . Harry also encounters the school 's potions master , Severus Snape , who displays a conspicuously deep and abiding dislike for him , and the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher , Quirinus Quirrell , who later turns out to be controlled by Lord Voldemort . The first book concludes with Harry 's second confrontation with Lord Voldemort , who , in his quest for immortality , yearns to gain the power of the Philosopher 's Stone , a substance that bestows everlasting life . The series continues with Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , describing Harry 's second year at Hogwarts . He and his friends investigate a 50-year-old mystery that appears uncannily related to recent sinister events at the school . Ron 's younger sister , Ginny Weasley , enrolls in her first year at Hogwarts , and finds an old notebook which turns out to be Voldemort 's diary from his school days . Ginny becomes possessed by Voldemort through the diary and unconsciously opens the `` Chamber of Secrets '' , unleashing an ancient monster , later revealed to be a basilisk , which begins attacking students at Hogwarts . The novel delves into the history of Hogwarts and a legend revolving around the Chamber that soon frightened everyone in the school . The book also introduces a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher , Gilderoy Lockhart , a highly cheerful , self-conceited wizard who goes around as if he is the most wonderful person who ever existed , who knows absolutely every single thing there is to know about everything , who later turns out to be a fraud . Harry discovers that prejudice exists in the wizarding world , and learns that Voldemort 's reign of terror was often directed at wizards who were descended from Muggles . Harry also learns that his ability to speak the snake language Parseltongue is rare and often associated with the Dark Arts . The novel ends after Harry saves Ginny 's life by destroying the basilisk and the enchanted diary which has been the source of the problems . The third novel , Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban , follows Harry in his third year of magical education . It is the only book in the series which does not feature Lord Voldemort . Instead , Harry must deal with the knowledge that he has been targeted by Sirius Black , his father 's best friend , and , according to the Wizarding World , an escaped mass murderer who assisted in the deaths of Harry 's parents . As Harry struggles with his reaction to the dementors – dark creatures with the power to devour a human soul , which feed on despair – which are ostensibly protecting the school , he reaches out to Remus Lupin , a Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher who is eventually revealed to be a werewolf . Lupin teaches Harry defensive measures which are well above the level of magic generally executed by people his age . Harry came to know that both Lupin and Black were best friends of his father and that Black was framed by their fourth friend , Peter Pettigrew . In this book , a recurring theme throughout the series is emphasised – in every book there is a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher , none of whom lasts more than one school year . Voldemort returns During Harry 's fourth year of school ( detailed in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire ) , Harry is unwillingly entered as a participant in the Triwizard Tournament , a dangerous contest where three `` champions '' , one from each participating school , must compete with each other in three tasks in order to win the triwizard cup . This year , Harry must compete against a witch and a wizard `` champion '' from visiting schools Beauxbatons and Durmstrang , as well as another Hogwarts student , causing Harry 's friends to distance themselves from him . Harry is guided through the tournament by their new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor , Alastor `` Mad-Eye '' Moody , who turns out to be an impostor – one of Voldemort 's supporters named Barty Crouch , Jr. in disguise . The point at which the mystery is unravelled marks the series ' shift from foreboding and uncertainty into open conflict . Voldemort 's plan to have Crouch use the tournament to bring Harry to Voldemort succeeds . Although Harry manages to escape , Cedric Diggory , the other Hogwarts champion in the tournament , is killed by Peter Pettigrew and Voldemort re-enters the wizarding world with a physical body . In the fifth book , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , Harry must confront the newly resurfaced Voldemort . In response to Voldemort 's reappearance , Dumbledore re-activates the Order of the Phoenix , a secret society which works from Sirius Black 's dark family home to defeat Voldemort 's minions and protect Voldemort 's targets , especially Harry . Despite Harry 's description of Voldemort 's recent activities , the Ministry of Magic and many others in the magical world refuse to believe that Voldemort has returned . In an attempt to counter and eventually discredit Dumbledore , who along with Harry is the most prominent voice in the wizarding world attempting to warn of Voldemort 's return , the Ministry appoints Dolores Umbridge as the High Inquisitor of Hogwarts and the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher . She transforms the school into a dictatorial regime and refuses to allow the students to learn ways to defend themselves against dark magic . With Ron and Hermione 's suggestion , Harry forms `` Dumbledore 's Army '' , a secret study group aimed to teach his classmates the higher-level skills of Defence Against the Dark Arts that he has learned from his previous encounters with Dark wizards . An important prophecy concerning Harry and Lord Voldemort is revealed , and Harry discovers that he and Voldemort have a painful connection , allowing Harry to view some of Voldemort 's actions telepathically . In the novel 's climax , Harry and his friends face off against Voldemort 's Death Eaters at the Ministry of Magic . Although the timely arrival of members of the Order of the Phoenix saves the children 's lives , Sirius Black is killed in the conflict . In the sixth book , Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince , Voldemort begins waging open warfare . Harry and his friends are relatively protected from that danger at Hogwarts . They are subject to all the difficulties of adolescence – Harry eventually begins dating Ginny , Ron establishes a strong infatuation with fellow Hogwarts student Lavender Brown , and Hermione starts to develop romantic feelings toward Ron . Near the beginning of the novel , lacking his own book , Harry is given an old potions textbook filled with many annotations and recommendations signed by a mysterious writer ; `` the Half-Blood Prince . '' This book is a source of scholastic success and great recognition from their new potions master , Horace Slughorn , but because of the potency of the spells that are written in it , becomes a source of concern . Harry takes private lessons with Dumbledore , who shows him various memories concerning the early life of Voldemort in a device called a Pensieve . These reveal that in order to preserve his life , Voldemort has split his soul into pieces , creating a series of horcruxes – evil enchanted items hidden in various locations , one of which was the diary destroyed in the second book . Harry 's snobbish adversary , Draco Malfoy , attempts to attack Dumbledore , and the book culminates in the killing of Dumbledore by Professor Snape , the titular Half-Blood Prince . Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , the last book in the series , begins directly after the events of the sixth book . Lord Voldemort has completed his ascension to power and gained control of the Ministry of Magic . Harry , Ron and Hermione drop out of school so that they can find and destroy Voldemort 's remaining horcruxes . To ensure their own safety as well as that of their family and friends , they are forced to isolate themselves . As they search for the horcruxes , the trio learns details about Dumbledore 's past , as well as Snape 's true motives – he had worked on Dumbledore 's behalf since the murder of Harry 's mother . Snape is killed by Voldemort out of paranoia . The book culminates in the Battle of Hogwarts . Harry , Ron and Hermione , in conjunction with members of the Order of the Phoenix and many of the teachers and students , defend Hogwarts from Voldemort , his Death Eaters , and various dangerous magical creatures . Several major characters are killed in the first wave of the battle , including Remus Lupin and Fred Weasley . After learning that he himself is a horcrux , Harry surrenders himself to Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest , who casts a killing curse ( Avada Kedavra ) at him . The defenders of Hogwarts do not surrender after learning of Harry 's presumed death and continue to fight on . Harry awakens and faces Voldemort , whose horcruxes have all been destroyed . In the final battle , Voldemort 's killing curse rebounds off Harry 's defensive spell ( Expelliarmus ) killing Voldemort . Harry Potter marries and has children with Ginny Weasley and Hermione Granger marries and has children with Ronald Weasley . An epilogue describes the lives of the surviving characters and the effects of Voldemort 's death on the wizarding world . It also introduces the children of all the characters . Supplementary works Harry Potter and the Cursed Child Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is a two-part West End stage play , and the official eighth Harry Potter story . It was written by Jack Thorne and based on a story by author J. K. Rowling , Thorne and director John Tiffany . The play opened on July 30 , 2016 at the Palace Theatre , London , England . The script was released July 31 , 2016 . The story is set nineteen years after the ending of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and follows Harry Potter , now a Ministry of Magic employee , and his youngest son Albus Severus Potter . The play 's official synopsis was released on 23 October 2015 : In-universe books Rowling has expanded the Harry Potter universe with several short books produced for various charities . In 2001 , she released Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them ( a purported Hogwarts textbook ) and Quidditch Through the Ages ( a book Harry reads for fun ) . Proceeds from the sale of these two books benefited the charity Comic Relief . In 2007 , Rowling composed seven handwritten copies of The Tales of Beedle the Bard , a collection of fairy tales that is featured in the final novel , one of which was auctioned to raise money for the Children 's High Level Group , a fund for mentally disabled children in poor countries . The book was published internationally on 4 December 2008 . Rowling also wrote an 800-word prequel in 2008 as part of a fundraiser organised by the bookseller Waterstones . All three of these books contain extra information about the wizarding world not included in the original novels . Pottermore website In 2011 , Rowling launched a new website announcing an upcoming project called Pottermore . Pottermore opened to the general public on 14 April 2012 . Pottermore allows users to be sorted , be chosen by their wand and play various minigames . The main purpose of the website was to allow the user to journey though the story with access to content not revealed by JK Rowling previously , with over 18,000 words of additional content . In September 2015 the website was completely overhauled and most of the features were removed . The site has been redesigned and it mainly focuses on the information already available , rather than exploration . Structure and genre The Harry Potter novels are mainly directed at a young adult audience as opposed to an audience of middle grade readers , children , or adults . The novels fall within the genre of fantasy literature , and qualify as a unique type of fantasy called `` urban fantasy '' , `` contemporary fantasy '' , or `` low fantasy '' . They are mainly dramas , and maintain a fairly serious and dark tone throughout , though they do contain some notable instances of tragicomedy and black humour . In many respects , they are also examples of the bildungsroman , or coming of age novel , and contain elements of mystery , adventure , horror , thriller , and romance . They can be considered part of the British children 's boarding school genre , which includes Rudyard Kipling 's Stalky & Co. , Enid Blyton 's Malory Towers , St. Clare 's and the Naughtiest Girl series , and Frank Richards 's Billy Bunter novels : the Harry Potter books are predominantly set in Hogwarts , a fictional British boarding school for wizards , where the curriculum includes the use of magic . In this sense they are `` in a direct line of descent from Thomas Hughes 's Tom Brown 's School Days and other Victorian and Edwardian novels of British public school life '' , though they are , as many note , more contemporary , grittier , darker , and more mature than the typical boarding school novel , addressing serious themes of death , love , loss , prejudice , coming-of-age , and the loss of innocence in a 1990 's British setting . The books are also , in the words of Stephen King , `` shrewd mystery tales '' , and each book is constructed in the manner of a Sherlock Holmes-style mystery adventure . The stories are told from a third person limited point of view with very few exceptions ( such as the opening chapters of Philosopher 's Stone , Goblet of Fire and Deathly Hallows and the first two chapters of Half-Blood Prince ) . In the middle of each book , Harry struggles with the problems he encounters , and dealing with them often involves the need to violate some school rules . If students are caught breaking rules , they are often disciplined by Hogwarts professors . However , the stories reach their climax in the summer term , near or just after final exams , when events escalate far beyond in-school squabbles and struggles , and Harry must confront either Voldemort or one of his followers , the Death Eaters , with the stakes a matter of life and death–a point underlined , as the series progresses , by one or more characters being killed in each of the final four books . In the aftermath , he learns important lessons through exposition and discussions with head teacher and mentor Albus Dumbledore . In the final novel , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , Harry and his friends spend most of their time away from Hogwarts , and only return there to face Voldemort at the dénouement . Themes According to Rowling , a major theme in the series is death : `` My books are largely about death . They open with the death of Harry 's parents . There is Voldemort 's obsession with conquering death and his quest for immortality at any price , the goal of anyone with magic . I so understand why Voldemort wants to conquer death . We 're all frightened of it . '' Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books , some more complex than others , and some including political subtexts . Themes such as normality , oppression , survival , and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series . Similarly , the theme of making one 's way through adolescence and `` going over one 's most harrowing ordeals – and thus coming to terms with them '' has also been considered . Rowling has stated that the books comprise `` a prolonged argument for tolerance , a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry '' and that they also pass on a message to `` question authority and ... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth '' . While the books could be said to comprise many other themes , such as power/abuse of power , violence and hatred , love , loss , prejudice , and free choice , they are , as Rowling states , `` deeply entrenched in the whole plot '' ; the writer prefers to let themes `` grow organically '' , rather than sitting down and consciously attempting to impart such ideas to her readers . Along the same lines is the ever-present theme of adolescence , in whose depiction Rowling has been purposeful in acknowledging her characters ' sexualities and not leaving Harry , as she put it , `` stuck in a state of permanent pre-pubescence '' . Rowling has also been praised for her nuanced depiction of the ways in which death and violence affects youth , and humanity as a whole . Rowling said that , to her , the moral significance of the tales seems `` blindingly obvious '' . The key for her was the choice between what is right and what is easy , `` because that … is how tyranny is started , with people being apathetic and taking the easy route and suddenly finding themselves in deep trouble . '' Origins In 1990 , Rowling was on a crowded train from Manchester to London when the idea for Harry suddenly `` fell into her head '' . Rowling gives an account of the experience on her website saying : Rowling completed Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone in 1995 and the manuscript was sent off to several prospective agents . The second agent she tried , Christopher Little , offered to represent her and sent the manuscript to Bloomsbury . Publishing history After eight other publishers had rejected Philosopher 's Stone , Bloomsbury offered Rowling a £2,500 advance for its publication . Despite Rowling 's statement that she did not have any particular age group in mind when beginning to write the Harry Potter books , the publishers initially targeted children aged nine to eleven . On the eve of publishing , Rowling was asked by her publishers to adopt a more gender-neutral pen name in order to appeal to the male members of this age group , fearing that they would not be interested in reading a novel they knew to be written by a woman . She elected to use J. K. Rowling ( Joanne Kathleen Rowling ) , using her grandmother 's name as her second name because she has no middle name . Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was published by Bloomsbury , the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom , on 30 June 1997 . It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic – the American publisher of the books – as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone , after Rowling had received US $ 105,000 for the American rights – an unprecedented amount for a children 's book by a then-unknown author . Fearing that American readers would not associate the word `` philosopher '' with a magical theme ( although the Philosopher 's Stone is alchemy-related ) , Scholastic insisted that the book be given the title Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone for the American market . The second book , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999 . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999 . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages

qf_3758--Harry_Potter.txt

Who is the author of the 'Harry Potter' books?

Lawrence Sheriff ( or Sheriffe ) ( c. 1510-1567 ) was an Elizabethan gentleman and grocer to Elizabeth I who endowed Rugby School . Not much is known about Lawrence Sheriff 's early life , but it thought that he was born near St. Andrew 's Church in Rugby , Warwickshire . ( Another theory places the location as an extant house in the nearby village of Brownsover . ) Sheriff was apprenticed by his father to a London grocer named William Walcott , at which point he went to London . His apprenticeship ended in 1541 , and he became a London grocer during the reign of King Henry VIII . In 1554 he was elected to the 'Worshipful Company of Grocers ' . Sheriff became grocer to many of the great and good of the day including Princess ( later Queen ) Elizabeth . He became trusted by the Queen and rose to the rank of gentleman , whereupon he was granted a coat of arms , the main feature of which is a griffin , the traditional guardian of treasures . He bought extensive property near London and in the area of Rugby and Brownsover . He earned a great fortune through his life , but remained childless , and upon his death in 1567 , he stipulated in his will that his fortune should be used to found almshouses and a school `` to serve chiefly for the children of Rugby and Brownsover ... and next for such as be of other places hereunto adjoyneing . '' This endowment was not fully realized , however , for some time , due to a challenge over the provisions of the will from the Howkins family , to whom Sheriff was related through his sister , Bridget . He was buried at the old Grey Friars Church in Newgate Street , London . However no trace remains : the church and all its monuments were destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 . He is remembered today by the Lawrence Sheriff School in Rugby . Both Rugby School and the Lawrence Sheriff School use versions of the coat of arms granted to Lawrence Sheriff in 1559 .

odql_15063--Lawrence_Sheriff.txt

Lawrence Sheriff founded which famous school in 1567?

The Second Boer War ( , , literally `` Second Freedom War '' ) otherwise known as the Second Anglo-Boer War or the South African War , started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902 . The United Kingdom fought the South African Republic ( Transvaal Republic ) and the Orange Free State . The British war effort was supported by troops from several regions of the British Empire , including Southern Africa , the Australian colonies , Canada , Newfoundland , British India , and New Zealand . The war ended in victory for the British and the annexation of both republics . Both would eventually be incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910 . Name The conflict is commonly referred to as simply the Boer War , since the First Boer War ( December 1880 to March 1881 ) is much less well known . `` Boer '' was the common term for Afrikaans-speaking settlers in southern Africa at the time . It is also known as the South African War outside South Africa and as the ( Second ) Anglo-Boer War among South Africans . In Afrikaans it may be called the Anglo-Boereoorlog ( `` Anglo-Boer War '' ) , Tweede Boereoorlog ( `` Second Boer War '' ) , Tweede Vryheidsoorlog ( `` Second Freedom War '' , i.e. , a war of liberation ) or Engelse oorlog ( `` English War '' ) . In South Africa it is officially called the South African War . Origins The complex origins of the war resulted from more than a century of conflict between the Boers and the British Empire , but of particular immediate importance was the question as to which nation would control and benefit most from the very lucrative Witwatersrand gold mines . During the Napoleonic Wars , a British military expedition landed in the Cape Colony and defeated the defending Dutch forces at the Battle of Blaauwberg ( 1806 ) . After the war , the British formally acquired the colony ( 1814 ) , and encouraged immigration by British settlers who were largely at odds with the Dutch settlers . Many Boers who were dissatisfied with aspects of British administration , in particular with Britain 's abolition of slavery on 1 December 1834 , elected to migrate away from British rule in what became known as the Great Trek . The Trekkers initially followed the eastern coast towards Natal and then , after Britain annexed the Natal in 1843 , journeyed northwards towards the interior . There they established two independent Boer republics : the South African Republic ( 1852 ; also known as the Transvaal Republic ) and the Orange Free State ( 1854 ) . The British recognised the two Boer republics in 1852 and 1854 , but attempted British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 led to the First Boer War in 1880–81 . After the British suffered defeats , particularly at the Battle of Majuba Hill ( 1881 ) , the independence of the two republics was restored subject to certain conditions ; relations , however , remained uneasy . In 1866 Erasmus Jacobs discovered diamonds at Kimberley , prompting a diamond rush and a massive influx of foreigners to the borders of the Orange Free State . Then in 1886 , an Australian discovered gold in the Witwatersrand area of the South African Republic . Gold made the Transvaal the richest and potentially the most powerful nation in southern Africa ; however , the country had neither the manpower nor the industrial base to develop the resource on its own . As a result , the Transvaal reluctantly acquiesced to the immigration of uitlanders ( foreigners ) , mainly from Britain , who came to the Boer region in search of fortune and employment . This resulted in the number of uitlanders in the Transvaal potentially exceeding the number of Boers , and precipitated confrontations between the earlier-arrived Boer settlers and the newer , non-Boer arrivals . British expansionist ideas ( notably propagated by Cecil Rhodes ) as well as disputes over uitlander political and economic rights resulted in the failed Jameson Raid of 1895 . Dr. Leander Starr Jameson , who led the raid , intended to encourage an uprising of the uitlanders in Johannesburg . However , the uitlanders did not take up arms in support , and Transvaal government forces surrounded the column and captured Jameson 's men before they could reach Johannesburg . As tensions escalated , political manoeuvrings and negotiations attempted to reach compromise on the issues of the rights of the uitlanders within the South African Republic , control of the gold mining industry , and the British desire to incorporate the Transvaal and the Orange Free State into a federation under British control . Given the British origins of the majority of uitlanders and the ongoing influx of new uitlanders into Johannesburg , the Boers recognised that granting full voting rights to the uitlanders would eventually result in the loss of ethnic Boer control in the South African Republic . The June 1899 negotiations in Bloemfontein failed , and in September 1899 British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain demanded full voting rights and representation for the uitlanders residing in the Transvaal . Paul Kruger , the President of the South African Republic , issued an ultimatum on 9 October 1899 , giving the British government 48 hours to withdraw all their troops from the borders of both the Transvaal and the Orange Free State , albeit Kruger had ordered Commandos to the Natal border in early September and the British only had troops in garrison towns far from the border , failing which the Transvaal , allied to the Orange Free State , would declare war on the British government . The British government rejected the South African Republic 's ultimatum , resulting in the South African Republic and Orange Free State declaring war on Britain . Phases The war had three distinct phases . In the first phase , the Boers mounted pre-emptive strikes into British-held territory in Natal and the Cape Colony , besieging the British garrisons of Ladysmith , Mafeking and Kimberley . The Boers then won a series of tactical victories at Colenso , Magersfontein and Spionkop . In the second phase , after the introduction of greatly increased British troop numbers under the command of Lord Roberts , the British launched another offensive in 1900 to relieve the sieges , this time achieving success . After Natal and the Cape Colony were secure , the British were able to invade the Transvaal , and the republic 's capital , Pretoria , was ultimately captured in June 1900 . In the third and final phase , beginning in March 1900 , the Boers launched a protracted hard-fought guerrilla war against the British forces , lasting a further two years , during which the Boers raided targets such as British troop columns , telegraph sites , railways and storage depots . In an effort to cut off supplies to the raiders , the British , now under the leadership of Lord Kitchener , responded with a scorched earth policy of destroying Boer farms and moving civilians into concentration camps . Some parts of the British press and British government expected the campaign to be over within months , and the protracted war gradually became less popular , especially after revelations about the conditions in the concentration camps ( where as many as 26,000 Afrikaner women and children died of disease and malnutrition ) . The Boer forces finally surrendered on Saturday , 31 May 1902 , with 54 of the 60 delegates from the Transvaal and Orange Free State voting to accept the terms of the peace treaty . This was known as the Treaty of Vereeniging , and under its provisions , the two republics were absorbed into the British Empire , with the promise of self-government in the future . This promise was fulfilled with the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910 . The war had a lasting effect on the region and on British domestic politics . For Britain , the Second Boer War was the longest , the most expensive ( £200 million , almost £22 billion as at 2015 ) , and the bloodiest conflict between 1815 and 1914 , lasting three months longer and resulting in higher British casualties than the Crimean War ( 1853–56 ) ( although more soldiers died from disease in the Crimean War ) . Background The southern part of the African continent was dominated in the 19th century by a set of struggles to create within it a single unified state . While the Berlin Conference of 1884–5 sought to draw boundaries between the European powers ' African possessions , it also set the stage for further scrambles . The British attempted to annex first the South African Republic in 1880 , and then , in 1899 , both the South African Republic and the Orange Free State . In 1868 , the British annexed Basutoland in the Drakensberg Mountains following an appeal from Moshesh , the leader of a mixed group of African refugees from the Zulu wars , who sought British protection against the Boers . In the 1880s , Bechuanaland ( modern Botswana , located north of the Orange River ) became the object of a dispute between the Germans to the west , the Boers to the east , and the British Cape Colony to the south . Although Bechuanaland had no economic value , the `` Missionaries Road '' passed through it towards territory farther north . After the Germans annexed Damaraland and Namaqualand ( modern Namibia ) in 1884 , the British annexed Bechuanaland in 1885 . In the First Boer War of 1880–81 the Boers of the Transvaal Republic had proved skilful fighters in resisting the British attempt at annexation , causing a series of British defeats . The British government of William Ewart Gladstone had been unwilling to become mired in a distant war , requiring substantial troop reinforcement and expense , for what was at the time perceived to be a minimal return . An armistice followed , ending the war , and subsequently a peace treaty was signed with the Transvaal President Paul Kruger . However , when , in 1886 , a major gold field was discovered at an outcrop on a large ridge some sixty kilometres south of the Boer capital at Pretoria , it reignited British imperial interests . The ridge , known locally as the `` Witwatersrand '' ( literally `` white water ridge '' –a watershed ) contained the world 's largest deposit of gold-bearing ore. With the 1886 discovery of gold in the Transvaal , the resulting gold rush brought thousands of British and other prospectors and settlers from across the globe and over the border from the Cape Colony ( under British control since 1806 ) . The city of Johannesburg sprang up as a shanty town nearly overnight as the uitlanders ( `` foreigners , '' meaning non-Boer whites ) poured in and settled around the mines . The influx was such that the uitlanders quickly outnumbered the Boers in Johannesburg and along the Rand , although they remained a minority in the Transvaal as a whole . The Boers , nervous and resentful of the uitlanders ' growing presence , sought to contain their influence through requiring lengthy residential qualifying periods before voting rights could be obtained , by imposing taxes on the gold industry , and by introducing controls through licensing , tariffs and administrative requirements . Among the issues giving rise to tension between the Transvaal government on the one hand , and the uitlanders and British interests on the other , were : # Established uitlanders , including the mining magnates , wanted political , social , and economic control over their lives . These rights included a stable constitution , a fair franchise law , an independent judiciary , and a better educational system . The Boers , for their part , recognised that the more concessions they made to the uitlanders the greater the likelihood–with approximately 30,000 white male Boer voters and potentially 60,000 white male uitlanders–that their independent control of the Transvaal would be lost and the territory absorbed into the British Empire . # The uitlanders resented the taxes levied by the Transvaal government , particularly when this money was not spent on Johannesburg or uitlander interests , but diverted to projects elsewhere in the Transvaal . For example , as the gold-bearing ore sloped away from the outcrop underground to the south , more and more blasting was necessary for extraction , and mines consumed vast quantities of explosives . A box of dynamite costing five pounds included five shillings tax . Not only was this tax perceived as exorbitant , but British interests were offended when President Paul Kruger gave monopoly rights for the manufacture of the explosive to a non-British branch of the Nobel company , which infuriated the British . The so-called `` dynamite monopoly '' became a major pretext for war . # British imperial interests were alarmed when in 1894–95 Kruger proposed building a railway through Portuguese East Africa to Delagoa Bay , bypassing British controlled ports in Natal and Cape Town and avoiding British tariffs . At the time the Prime Minister of the Cape Colony was Cecil Rhodes , a man driven by a vision of a British controlled Africa extending from Cape to Cairo . Certain self-appointed uitlanders representatives and British mine owners became increasingly angered and frustrated by their dealings with the Transvaal government . A Reform Committee ( Transvaal ) was formed to represent the uitlanders . Jameson Raid In 1895 , a plan was hatched with the connivance of the Cape Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes and Johannesburg gold magnate Alfred Beit to take Johannesburg , ending the control of the Transvaal government . A column of 600 armed men ( mainly made up of his Rhodesian and Bechuanaland policemen ) was led by Dr. Leander Starr Jameson ( the Administrator in Rhodesia of the British South Africa Company ( or `` Chartered Company '' ) of which Cecil Rhodes was the chairman ) over the border from Bechuanaland towards Johannesburg . The column was equipped with Maxim machine guns , and some artillery pieces . The plan was to make a three-day dash to Johannesburg before the Boer commandos could mobilise , and once there , trigger an uprising by the primarily British expatriate workers ( uitlanders ) organised by the Reform Committee . However , the Transvaal authorities had advance warning of the Jameson Raid and tracked it from the moment it crossed the border . Four days later , the weary and dispirited column was surrounded near Krugersdorp within sight of Johannesburg . After a brief skirmish in which the column lost 65 killed and wounded—while the Boers lost but one man—Jameson 's men surrendered and were arrested by the Boers . The botched raid resulted in repercussions throughout southern Africa and in Europe . In Rhodesia , the departure of so many policemen enabled the Matabele and Mashona tribes to rise up against the Chartered Company , and the rebellion , known as the Second Matabele War , was suppressed only at great cost . A few days after the raid , the German Kaiser sent a telegram ( `` Kruger telegram '' ) congratulating President Kruger and the government of the South African Republic on their success , and when the text of this telegram was disclosed in the British press , it generated a storm of anti-German feeling . In the baggage of the raiding column , to the great embarrassment of the British , the Boers found telegrams from Cecil Rhodes and the other plotters in Johannesburg . Joseph Chamberlain , the British Colonial Secretary , quickly moved to condemn the raid , despite previously having approved Rhodes ' plans to send armed assistance in the case of a Johannesburg uprising . Subsequently , Rhodes was severely censured at the Cape inquiry and the London parliamentary inquiry , and forced to resign as Prime Minister of the Cape and as Chairman of the Chartered Company for having sponsored the failed coup d'état . The Boer government handed their raid prisoners over to the British for trial . Dr. Jameson was tried in England for leading the raid . However , the British press and London society inflamed by anti-Boer and anti-German feeling and in a frenzy of jingoism , lionised Dr. Jameson and treated him as a hero . Although sentenced to 15 months imprisonment ( which he served in Holloway ) , Jameson was later rewarded by being named Prime Minister of the Cape Colony ( 1904–08 ) and ultimately anointed as one of the founders of the Union of South Africa . For conspiring with Jameson , the uitlander members of the Reform Committee ( Transvaal ) were tried in the Transvaal courts and found guilty of high treason . The four leaders were sentenced to death by hanging , but this sentence was next day commuted to 15 years ' imprisonment ; and in June 1896 , the other members of the Committee were released on payment of £2,000 each in fines , all of which were paid by Cecil Rhodes . One Reform Committee member , Frederick Gray , had committed suicide while in Pretoria gaol , on 16 May , and his death was a factor in softening the Transvaal government 's attitude to the remaining prisoners . Jan C. Smuts wrote in 1906 , `` The Jameson Raid was the real declaration of war ... And that is so in spite of the four years of truce that followed ... [ the ] aggressors consolidated their alliance ... the defenders on the other hand silently and grimly prepared for the inevitable . '' Escalation and war The Jameson Raid alienated many Cape Afrikaners from the British , and united the Transvaal Boers behind President Kruger and his government . It also had the effect of drawing the Transvaal and the Orange Free State ( led by President Martinus Theunis Steyn ) together in opposition to perceived British imperialism . In 1897 , a military pact was concluded between the two republics . President Paul Kruger proceeded to re-equip the Transvaal army , and imported 37,000 of the latest Mauser Model 1895 rifles , and some 40 to 50 million rounds of ammunition . The best modern European artillery was also purchased . By October 1899 the Transvaal State Artillery had 73 guns , of which 59 were new , including four 155-mm Creusot fortress guns , and 25 37mm Maxim Nordenfeldt guns . The Transvaal army had been transformed ; approximately 25,000 men equipped with modern rifles and artillery could mobilise within two weeks . However , President Kruger 's victory in the Jameson Raid incident did nothing to resolve the fundamental problem ; the impossible dilemma continued , namely how to make concessions to the uitlanders without surrendering the independence of the Transvaal . The failure to gain improved rights for uitlanders became a pretext for war and a justification for a major military buildup in the Cape Colony . The case for war was developed and espoused as far away as the Australian colonies . Several key British colonial leaders favoured annexation of the independent Boer republics . These figures included Cape Colony Governor Sir Alfred Milner , Cape Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes , British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain , and mining syndicate owners or Randlords ( nicknamed the gold bugs ) , such as Alfred Beit , Barney Barnato , and Lionel Phillips . Confident that the Boers would be quickly defeated , they planned and organised a short war , citing the uitlanders ' grievances as the motivation for the conflict . Their influence with the British government was , however , limited . Lord Salisbury , the Prime Minister , despised jingoism and jingoists . He also distrusted the abilities of the British Army . Yet he led Britain into war for three main reasons : because he believed the British government had an obligation to British South Africans ; because he thought that the Transvaal , the Orange Free State , and the Cape Boers aspired to a Dutch South Africa , and that the achievement of such a state would damage Britain 's imperial prestige around the world ; and because of the Boers ' treatment of black South Africans ( Salisbury had referred to the London Convention of 1884 , after the British defeat , as an agreement 'really in the interest of slavery ' ) . Salisbury was not alone in this concern over the treatment of black South Africans ; Roger Casement , already well on the way to becoming an Irish Nationalist , was nevertheless happy to gather intelligence for the British against the Boers because of their treatment of black Africans . Given this sense of caution among key members of the British cabinet and of the army , it is even harder to understand why the British government went against the advice of its generals ( such as Wolseley ) to send substantial reinforcements to South Africa before war broke out . One strong argument is that Lansdowne , Secretary of State for War , did not believe the Boers were preparing for war , and also believed that if Britain were to send large numbers of troops , it would strike too aggressive a posture and so prevent a negotiated settlement being reached or even encourage a Boer attack . President Steyn of the Orange Free State invited Milner and Kruger to attend a conference in Bloemfontein . The conference started on 30 May 1899 , but negotiations quickly broke down , despite Kruger 's offer of concessions . In September 1899 , Chamberlain sent an ultimatum demanding full equality for British citizens resident in Transvaal . Kruger , seeing that war was inevitable , simultaneously issued his own ultimatum prior to receiving Chamberlain 's . This gave the British 48 hours to withdraw all their troops from the border of Transvaal ; otherwise the Transvaal , allied with the Orange Free State , would declare war . News of the ultimatum reached London on the day it expired . Outrage and laughter were the main responses . The editor of the Times laughed out loud when he read it , saying 'an official document is seldom amusing and useful yet this was both . ' The Times denounced the ultimatum as an 'extravagant farce . ' The Globe denounced this 'trumpery little state . ' Most editorials were similar to the Daily Telegraph , which declared : 'of course there can only be one answer to this grotesque challenge . Kruger has asked for war and war he must have ! ' Such views were far from those of the British government , and from those in the army . To most sensible observers , army reform had been a matter of pressing concern from the 1870s , constantly put off because the British public did not want the expense of a larger , more professional army , and because a large home army was not politically welcome . Lord Salisbury , the Prime Minister , then had to explain to a surprised Queen Victoria that : 'We have no army capable of meeting even a second-class Continental Power . ' First phase : The Boer offensive ( October – December 1899 ) War was declared on 11 October 1899 with a Boer offensive into the British-held Natal and Cape Colony areas . The Boers had no problems with mobilisation , since the fiercely independent Boers had no regular army units , apart from the Staatsartillerie ( Afrikaans for 'States Artillery ' ) of both republics . As with the First Boer War , since the Boers were civilian militia , each man wore what he wished , usually his everyday dark-grey , light-grey , neutral-coloured , or earthtone khaki farming clothes—often a jacket , trousers and slouch hat . Only the members of the Staatsartillerie wore light green uniforms . When danger loomed , all the burghers ( citizens ) in a district would form a military unit called a commando and would elect officers . A full-time official titled a Veldkornet maintained muster rolls , but had no disciplinary powers . Each man brought his own weapon , usually a hunting rifle , and his own horse . Those who could not afford a gun were given one by the authorities . ( See also the arms procurement mentioned above . ) The Presidents of the Transvaal and Orange Free State simply signed decrees to concentrate within a week and the Commandos could muster between 30,000–40,000 men . The average Boer nevertheless was not thirsty for war . Many did not look forward to fighting against fellow Christians and , by and large , fellow Christian Protestants . Many may have had an overly optimistic sense of what the war would involve , imagining that victory could be won as easily as in the First South African War . Many , including many generals , also had a sense that their cause was holy and just , and blessed by God . It rapidly became clear that the Boer forces presented the British forces with a severe tactical challenge . What the Boers presented was a mobile and innovative approach to warfare , drawing on their experiences from the First Boer War . The average Boers who made up their Commandos were farmers who had spent almost all their working life in the saddle , both as farmers and hunters . They depended on the pot , horse and rifle ; they were also skilled stalkers and marksmen . As hunters they had learned to fire from cover ; from a prone position and to make the first shot count , knowing that if they missed , the game would either be long gone or could charge and potentially kill them . At community gatherings , target shooting was a major sport ; they practised shooting at targets such as hens ' eggs perched on posts 100 m away . They made expert mounted infantry , using every scrap of cover , from which they could pour in a destructive fire using modern , smokeless , Mauser rifles . Furthermore , in preparation for hostilities , the Boers had acquired around one hundred of the latest Krupp field guns , all horse-drawn and dispersed among the various Kommando groups , and several Le Creusot `` Long Tom '' siege guns . The Boers ' skill in adapting themselves to become first-rate artillerymen shows them to have been a versatile adversary . The Transvaal also had an intelligence service that stretched across South Africa , and of whose extent and efficiency the British were as yet unaware . The Boers struck first on 12 October at Kraaipan , an attack that heralded the invasion of the Cape Colony and Colony of Natal between October 1899 and January 1900 . With elements of both speed and surprise the Boer drove quickly towards the major British garrison at Ladysmith and the smaller ones at Mafeking and Kimberley . The quick Boer mobilisation resulted in early military successes against scattered British forces . Sir George Stuart White , commanding the British division at Ladysmith , had unwisely allowed Major-General Penn Symons to throw a brigade forward to the coal-mining town of Dundee ( also reported as Glencoe ) , which was surrounded by hills . This became the site of the first engagement of the war , the Battle of Talana Hill . Boer guns began shelling the British camp from the summit of Talana Hill at dawn on 20 October . Penn Symons immediately counter-attacked : his infantry drove the Boers from the hill , but at the cost of 446 British casualties including Penn Symons himself . Another Boer force occupied Elandslaagte , which lay between Ladysmith and Dundee . The British under Major General John French and Colonel Ian Hamilton attacked to clear the line of communications to Dundee . The resulting Battle of Elandslaagte was a clear-cut British tactical victory , but Sir George White feared that more Boers were about to attack his main position and so ordered a chaotic retreat from Elandslaagte , throwing away any advantage gained . The detachment from Dundee was compelled to make an exhausting cross-country retreat to rejoin White 's main force . As Boers surrounded Ladysmith and opened fire on the town with siege guns , White ordered a major sortie against their artillery positions . The result was a disaster , with 140 men killed and over 1,000 captured . The Siege of Ladysmith began , and was to last several months . Meanwhile , to the north-west at Mafeking , on the border with Transvaal , Colonel Robert Baden-Powell had

sfq_1703--Second_Boer_War.txt

Which South African soldier / statesman fought against the British in the Boer War, then on the side of the allies in both World Wars, and was instrumental in the founding of the League of Nations in 1919?

Hero and Leander is the Greek myth relating the story of Hero ( , Hērṓ ; pron . like `` hero '' in English ) , a priestess of Aphrodite who dwelt in a tower in Sestos on the European side of the Hellespont ( today 's Dardanelles ) , and Leander ( , Léandros ) , a young man from Abydos on the opposite side of the strait . Leander fell in love with Hero and would swim every night across the Hellespont to be with her . Hero would light a lamp at the top of her tower to guide his way . Succumbing to Leander 's soft words and to his argument that Aphrodite , as the goddess of love , would scorn the worship of a virgin , Hero allowed him to make love to her . These trysts lasted through the warm summer . But one stormy winter night , the waves tossed Leander in the sea and the breezes blew out Hero 's light ; Leander lost his way and was drowned . When Hero saw his dead body , she threw herself over the edge of the tower to her death to be with him . Cultural references The myth of Hero and Leander has been used extensively in literature and the arts : * Ancient Roman coins of Abydos ( Troas ) : Septimius Severus ( [ http : //www.asiaminorcoins.com/gallery/displayimage.php ? pid5140 coin1 ] , [ http : //www.asiaminorcoins.com/gallery/displayimage.php ? pid 11690 coin2 ] ) Caracalla ( [ http : //www.asiaminorcoins.com/gallery/displayimage.php ? pid=5186 coin ] ) * The narrative is treated in the Double Heroides ( attributed to Ovid ) , 18 and 19 , an exchange of letters between the lovers . Leander has been unable to swim across to Hero in her tower because of bad weather ; her summons to him to make the effort will prove fatal to her lover . * Francisco Quevedo mentions Leander in `` En crespa tempestad del oro undoso '' * Byzantine poet Musaeus also wrote a poem ; Aldus Manutius made it one of his first publications ( c. 1493 ) after he set up his famous printing press in Venice ( his humanistic aim was to make Ancient Greek Literature available to scholars ) . Musaeus 's poem had early translations into European languages by Bernardo Tasso ( Italian ) , Boscán ( Spanish ) and Clément Marot ( French ) . This poem was widely believed in the Renaissance to have been pre-Homeric : George Chapman reflects at the end of his completion of Marlowe 's version that the dead lovers had the honour of being 'the first that ever poet sung ’ . Chapman 's 1616 translation has the title The divine poem of Musaeus . First of all bookes . Translated according to the original , by Geo : Chapman . Staplyton , the mid-17th century translator , had read Scaliger 's repudiation of this mistaken belief , but still could not resist citing Virgil 's 'Musaeum ante omnes ' ( Aeneid VI , 666 ) on the title page of his translation ( Virgil 's reference was to an earlier Musaeus ) . * Renaissance poet Christopher Marlowe began an expansive version of the narrative . His story does not get as far as Leander 's nocturnal swim , and the guiding lamp that gets extinguished , but ends after the two have become lovers ( Hero and Leander ( poem ) ) ; * George Chapman completed Marlowe 's poem after Marlowe 's death ; this version was often reprinted in the first half of the 17th century , with editions in 1598 ( Linley ) ; 1600 and 1606 ( Flasket ) ; 1609 , 1613 , 1617 , 1622 ( Blount ) ; 1629 ( Hawkins ) ; and 1637 ( Leake ) . * Sir Walter Ralegh alludes to the story , in his 'The Ocean 's Love to Cynthia ' , in which Hero has fallen asleep , and fails to keep alight the lamp that guides Leander on his swim ( more kindly versions , like Chapman 's , have her desperately struggling to keep the lamp burning ) . * Shakespeare also mentions this story in the opening scene of Two Gentlemen of Verona , in a dialogue between Valentine and Proteus ( the two gentlemen in the play ) : VALENTINE : And on a love-book pray for my success ? PROTEUS : Upon some book I love I 'll pray for thee . VALENTINE : That 's on some shallow story of deep love : How young Leander cross 'd the Hellespont . PROTEUS : That 's a deep story of a deeper love : For he was more than over shoes in love . VALENTINE : 'T is true ; for you are over boots in love , And yet you never swum the Hellespont . Hero and Leander are again mentioned in Two Gentlemen of Verona in Act III Scene I when Valentine is tutoring the Duke of Milan on how to woo the lady from Milan . The story has also been alluded to in Shakespeare 's Much Ado About Nothing , both when Benedick states that Leander was `` never so truly turned over and over as my poor self in love '' and in the name of the character Hero , who , despite accusations to the contrary , remains chaste before her marriage . It was also briefly alluded to in Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream in the form of a malapropism accidentally using the names Helen and Limander in the place of Hero and Leander , as well as in Edward III ( Act II , Scene II ) , Othello ( Act III , Scene III ) , and Romeo and Juliet ( Act II , Scene IV ) . The most famous Shakespearean allusion is the debunking one by Rosalind , in Act IV scene I of As You Like It : `` Leander , he would have lived many a fair year , though Hero had turned nun , if it had not been for a hot midsummer night ; for , good youth , he went but forth to wash him in the Hellespont and being taken with the cramp was drowned and the foolish coroners of that age found it was 'Hero of Sestos . ' But these are all lies : men have died from time to time and worms have eaten them , but not for love . '' * Ben Jonson 's play Bartholomew Fair features a puppet show of Hero and Leander in Act V , translated to London , with the Thames serving as the Hellespont between the lovers . * It is also the subject of a novel by Milorad Pavić , Inner Side of the Wind ; * Leander is also the subject of Sonnet XXIX by Spanish poet Garcilaso de la Vega of the 16th Century ; * In the collection of short stories and essays by Lafcadio Hearn , In Ghostly Japan , the author is told the popular story of a girl that swims to her lover guided by a lantern , and he comments on the similarities with the western story : `` — '' So , '' I said to myself , `` in the Far East , it is poor Hero that does the swimming . And what , under such circumstances , would have been the Western estimate of Leander ? '' `` ; * John Donne has an elegant Epigram summing up the story in two lines : Both robbed of air , we both lie in one ground , Both whom one fire had burnt , one water drowned . * Leander is mentioned in Dion Boucicault 's play 'The Colleen Bawn ' . Corrigan refers to Hardress Cregan and his nocturnal boat rides to his secret wife as being , 'like Leander , barring the wetting ' * The myth is central to John Keats ' 1817 sonnet , `` On an Engraved Gem of Leander . '' * Myths and Hymns , by Adam Guettel , contains a song titled after the pair . * Robert Schumann is said to have perceived his `` In der Nacht '' from Phantasiestücke as depicting the story of Hero and Leandros . * Lord Byron references Leander in `` Written After Swimming From Sestos To Abydos . `` ; the myth of Hero and Leander inspired his own swim across the Hellespont ( i.e. , the Dardanelles ) in May , 1810 . Byron also alludes to his feat , with further reference to Leander , in Don Juan , canto II , stanza 105 . * Franz Grillparzer 's 1831 tragedy Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen is based on the tale . * Friedrich Schiller wrote the ballad Hero und Leander based on the tale . * Georg Friedrich Handel 's 1707 solo cantata in Italian , Ero e Leandro ( HWV 150 ) , is based on the tale . * Alfredo Catalani composed a tone-poem , Ero e Leandro , based on the tale . * Arrigo Boito composed an opera , Ero e Leandro , but destroyed it . * Diana Wynne Jones 's meta-fantasy novel Fire and Hemlock makes an early reference to Hero and Leander , both to foreshadow the plot and as a namesake for the heroine 's alter-ego . * Rudyard Kipling started his poem `` A Song of Travel '' with words : `` Where 's the lamp that Hero lit / Once to call Leander home ? '' * Alfred Tennyson 's poem `` Hero to Leander '' has Hero begging her lover not to leave until the morning when the sea has calmed `` Thou shalt not wander hence to-night , I 'll stay thee with my kisses '' * Poem XV of A.E . Housman 's More Poems ( 1936 ) is devoted to the myth . It describes how , `` [ b ] y Sestos town , in Hero 's tower | On Hero 's heart Leander lies ... '' * '' The Ballad of the Oysterman '' , by Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. , has a reference to the myth . The titular oysterman comments that `` [ he ] read it in the story-book , that , for to kiss his dear , / Leander swam the Hellespont ... '' * '' Les Misérables '' , by Victor Hugo , has a reference to the myth in Jean Valjean , Book V. Referring to the reaction of a duchess when she heard of the fate of her lover who died by drowning in the quicksand in Paris ' sewers , Hugo comments that `` Hero refuses to wash Leander 's corpse . ''

sfq_1118--Hero_and_Leander.txt

Who swam the Hellespont every night to meet Hero?

The City of New York , often called New York City or simply New York , is the most populous city in the United States . Located at the southern tip of the state of New York , the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area , one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world . With a U.S. Census Bureau-estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over a land area of just 305 sqmi , New York is also the most densely populated major city in the United States . A global power city , New York City exerts a significant impact upon commerce , finance , media , art , fashion , research , technology , education , and entertainment , its fast pace defining the term New York minute . Home to the headquarters of the United Nations , New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has been described as the cultural and financial capital of the world . Situated on one of the world 's largest natural harbors , New York City consists of five boroughs , each of which is a separate county of New York State . The five boroughs – Brooklyn , Queens , Manhattan , The Bronx , and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898 . The city and its metropolitan area constitute the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States , and as many as 800 languages are spoken in New York , making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world . By 2015 estimates , the New York City metropolitan region remains by a significant margin the most populous in the United States , as defined by both the Metropolitan Statistical Area ( 20.2 million residents ) and the Combined Statistical Area ( 23.7 million residents ) . In 2013 , the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product ( GMP ) of nearly US $ 1.39 trillion , while in 2012 , the CSA generated a GMP of over US $ 1.55 trillion , both ranking first nationally by a wide margin and behind the GDP of only twelve and eleven countries , respectively . New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626 . The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 . New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790 . It has been the country 's largest city since 1790 . The Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy . In the 21st century , New York has emerged as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship , social tolerance , and environmental sustainability . Many districts and landmarks in New York City have become well known , and the city received a record of nearly 60 million tourists in 2015 , hosting three of the world 's ten most visited tourist attractions in 2013 . Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world . Times Square , iconic as the world 's `` heart '' and its `` Crossroads '' , is the brightly illuminated hub of the Broadway Theater District , one of the world 's busiest pedestrian intersections , and a major center of the world 's entertainment industry . The names of many of the city 's bridges , skyscrapers , and parks are known around the world . Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan , New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world , and the city is home to the world 's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization , the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ . Manhattan 's real estate market is among the most expensive in the world . Manhattan 's Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere , with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city . Providing continuous 24/7 service , the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide , with stations in operation . New York City 's higher education network comprises over 120 colleges and universities , including Columbia University , New York University , and Rockefeller University , which have been ranked among the top 35 in the world . History Etymology and early history During the Wisconsinan glaciation , the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth . The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil , leaving the bedrock that serves as the geologic foundation for much of New York City today . Later on , movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island . In the precolonial era , the area of present-day New York City was inhabited by various bands of Algonquian tribes of Native Americans , including the Lenape , whose homeland , known as Lenapehoking , included Staten Island ; the western portion of Long Island , including the area that would become Brooklyn and Queens ; Manhattan ; the Bronx ; and the Lower Hudson Valley . The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano , a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown , who sailed his ship La Dauphine into New York Harbor . He claimed the area for France and named it `` Nouvelle Angoulême '' ( New Angoulême ) . A Spanish expedition led by captain Estêvão Gomes , a Portuguese sailing for Emperor Charles V , arrived in New York Harbor in January 1525 aboard the purpose-built caravel La Anunciada and charted the mouth of the Hudson River , which he named Rio de San Antonio . Heavy ice kept him from further exploration , and he returned to Spain in August . The Padrón Real of 1527 , the first scientific map to show North America 's east coast continuously , was informed by Gomes ' expedition and labeled the Northeastern U.S. as Tierra de Esteban Gómez in his honor . In 1609 , the English explorer Henry Hudson re-discovered the region when he sailed his ship the Halve Maen ( `` Half Moon '' in Dutch ) into New York Harbor while searching for the Northwest Passage to the Orient for the Dutch East India Company . He proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River ( now the Hudson River ) , named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice , Prince of Orange . Hudson 's first mate described the harbor as `` a very good Harbour for all windes '' and the river as `` a mile broad '' and `` full of fish . '' Hudson sailed roughly 150 miles north , past the site of the present-day Albany , in the belief that it might be an oceanic tributary before the river became to shallow to continue . He made a ten-day exploration of the area and claimed the region for the Dutch East India Company . In 1614 , the area between Cape Cod and Delaware Bay would be claimed by the Netherlands and called Nieuw-Nederland ( New Netherland ) . The first non-Native American inhabitant of what would eventually become New York City was Dominican trader Juan Rodriguez ( transliterated to Dutch as Jan Rodrigues ) . Born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent , he arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613–1614 , trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the Dutch . Broadway , from 159th Street to 218th Street , is named Juan Rodriguez Way in his honor . A permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 – making New York the 12th oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the continental United States – with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island . In 1625 , construction was started on a citadel and Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island , later called New Amsterdam ( Nieuw Amsterdam ) . [ http : //tolerancepark.org/_wsn/page5.html Tolerance Park Historic New Amsterdam on Governors Island ] , Tolerance Park . Accessed May 12 , 2007 . See Legislative Resolutions Senate No . 5476 and Assembly No . 2708 . The colony of New Amsterdam was centered at the site which would eventually become Lower Manhattan . In 1626 , the Dutch colonial Director-General Peter Minuit , acting as charged by the Dutch West India Company , purchased the island of Manhattan from the Canarsie , a small Lenape band , for 60 guilders ( about $ 1,000 in 2006 ) . A disproved legend claims that Manhattan was purchased for $ 24 worth of glass beads . Following the purchase , New Amsterdam grew slowly . To attract settlers , the Dutch instituted the patroon system in 1628 , whereby wealthy Dutchmen ( `` patroons '' , or patrons ) who brought 50 colonists to New Netherland would be awarded swathes of land in New Netherland , along with local political autonomy and rights to participate in the lucrative fur trade . This program had little success . Since 1621 , the Dutch West India Company had operated as a monopoly in New Netherland , on authority granted by the Dutch States General . In 1639–1640 , in an effort to bolster economy growth , the Dutch West India Company relinquished its monopoly over the fur trade in New Netherland , leading to growth in the production and trade of food , timber , tobacco , and slaves ( particularly with the Dutch West Indies ) . In 1647 , Peter Stuyvesant began his tenure as the last Director-General of New Netherland . Over his term , the population of New Amsterdam grew from 2,000 to 8,000 , and Stuyvesant has been credited with improving law and order in the colony . However , Stuyvesant also earned a reputation as a despotic leader . He instituted regulations on liquor sales , attempted to assert control over the Dutch Reformed Church , and blocked other religious groups ( including Quakers , Jews , and Lutherans ) from establishing houses of worship . The Dutch West India Company would eventually attempt to ease tensions between Stuyvesant and residents of New Amsterdam . In 1664 , unable to summon any significant resistance , Stuyvesant surrendered New Amsterdam to English troops led by Colonel Richard Nicolls without bloodshed . The terms of the surrender permitted Dutch residents to remain in the colony and allowed for religious freedom . The English promptly renamed the fledgling city `` New York '' after the Duke of York ( the future King James II of England ) . The transfer was confirmed in 1667 by the Treaty of Breda , which concluded the Second Anglo-Dutch War . On August 24 , 1673 , during the Third Anglo-Dutch War , Dutch captain Anthony Colve seized the colony of New York from England at the behest of Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and rechristened it `` New Orange '' after William III , the Prince of Orange . However , the Dutch would soon return the island to England under the Treaty of Westminster of November 1674 . Several intertribal wars among the Native Americans and some epidemics brought on by contact with the Europeans caused sizable population losses for the Lenape between the years 1660 and 1670 . By 1700 , the Lenape population had diminished to 200 . New York experienced several yellow fever epidemics in the 18th century , losing ten percent of its population to the disease in 1702 . New York grew in importance as a trading port while under British rule in the early 1700s . It also became a center of slavery , with 42 % of households holding slaves by 1730 , more than any other city other than Charleston , South Carolina . Most slaveholders held a few or several domestic slaves , but others hired them out to work at labor . Slavery became integrally tied to New York 's economy through the labor of slaves throughout the port , and the banks and shipping tied to the American South . Discovery of the African Burying Ground in the 1990s , during construction of a new federal courthouse near Foley Square , revealed that tens of thousands of Africans had been buried in the area in the colonial years . The 1735 trial and acquittal in Manhattan of John Peter Zenger , who had been accused of seditious libel after criticizing colonial governor William Cosby , helped to establish the freedom of the press in North America . In 1754 , Columbia University was founded under charter by King George II as King 's College in Lower Manhattan . The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in October 1765 as the Sons of Liberty organized in the city , skirmishing over the next ten years with British troops stationed there . The Battle of Long Island , the largest battle of the American Revolutionary War , was fought in August 1776 entirely within the modern-day borough of Brooklyn . After the battle , in which the Americans were defeated , the British made the city their military and political base of operations in North America . The city was a haven for Loyalist refugees , as well as escaped slaves who joined the British lines for freedom newly promised by the Crown for all fighters . As many as 10,000 escaped slaves crowded into the city during the British occupation . When the British forces evacuated at the close of the war in 1783 , they transported 3,000 freedmen for resettlement in Nova Scotia . They resettled other freedmen in England and the Caribbean . The only attempt at a peaceful solution to the war took place at the Conference House on Staten Island between American delegates , including Benjamin Franklin , and British general Lord Howe on September 11 , 1776 . Shortly after the British occupation began , the Great Fire of New York occurred , a large conflagration on the West Side of Lower Manhattan , which destroyed about a quarter of the buildings in the city , including Trinity Church . In 1785 , the assembly of the Congress of the Confederation made New York the national capital shortly after the war . New York was the last capital of the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation and the first capital under the Constitution of the United States . In 1789 , the first President of the United States , George Washington , was inaugurated ; the first United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States each assembled for the first time , and the United States Bill of Rights was drafted , all at Federal Hall on Wall Street . By 1790 , New York had surpassed Philadelphia as the largest city in the United States . Under New York State 's gradual abolition act of 1799 , children of slave mothers were born to be eventually liberated but were held in indentured servitude until their mid-to-late twenties . Together with slaves freed by their masters after the Revolutionary War and escaped slaves , a significant free-black population gradually developed in Manhattan . Under such influential United States founders as Alexander Hamilton and John Jay , the New York Manumission Society worked for abolition and established the African Free School to educate black children . It was not until 1827 that slavery was completely abolished in the state , and free blacks struggled afterward with discrimination . New York interracial abolitionist activism continued ; among its leaders were graduates of the African Free School . The city 's black population reached more than 16,000 in 1840 . In the 19th century , the city was transformed by development relating to its status as a trading center , as well as by European immigration . The city adopted the Commissioners ' Plan of 1811 , which expanded the city street grid to encompass all of Manhattan . The 1825 completion of the Erie Canal through central New York connected the Atlantic port to the agricultural markets and commodities of the North American interior via the Hudson River and the Great Lakes . Local politics became dominated by Tammany Hall , a political machine supported by Irish and German immigrants . Several prominent American literary figures lived in New York during the 1830s and 1840s , including William Cullen Bryant , Washington Irving , Herman Melville , Rufus Wilmot Griswold , John Keese , Nathaniel Parker Willis , and Edgar Allan Poe . Public-minded members of the contemporaneous business elite lobbied for the establishment of Central Park , which in 1857 became the first landscaped park in an American city . Modern history The Great Irish Famine brought a large influx of Irish immigrants . Over 200,000 were living in New York by 1860 , upwards of a quarter of the city 's population . There was also extensive immigration from the German provinces , where revolutions had disrupted societies , and Germans comprised another 25 % of New York 's population by 1860 . Democratic Party candidates were consistently elected to local office , increasing the city 's ties to the South and its dominant party . In 1861 , Mayor Fernando Wood called on the aldermen to declare independence from Albany and the United States after the South seceded , but his proposal was not acted on . Anger at new military conscription laws during the American Civil War ( 1861–1865 ) , which spared wealthier men who could afford to pay a $ 300 ( ) commutation fee to hire a substitute , led to the Draft Riots of 1863 , whose most visible participants were ethnic Irish working class . The situation deteriorated into attacks on New York 's elite , followed by attacks on black New Yorkers and their property after fierce competition for a decade between Irish immigrants and blacks for work . Rioters burned the Colored Orphan Asylum to the ground , but more than 200 children escaped harm due to efforts of the New York City Police Department , which was mainly made up of Irish immigrants . According to historian James M. McPherson ( 2001 ) , at least 120 people were killed . In all , eleven black men were lynched over five days , and the riots forced hundreds of blacks to flee the city for Williamsburg , Brooklyn , as well as New Jersey ; the black population in Manhattan fell below 10,000 by 1865 , which it had last been in 1820 . The white working class had established dominance . Violence by longshoremen against black men was especially fierce in the docks area . It was one of the worst incidents of civil unrest in American history . In 1898 , the modern City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn ( until then a separate city ) , the County of New York ( which then included parts of the Bronx ) , the County of Richmond , and the western portion of the County of Queens . The opening of the subway in 1904 , first built as separate private systems , helped bind the new city together . Throughout the first half of the 20th century , the city became a world center for industry , commerce , and communication . In 1904 , the steamship General Slocum caught fire in the East River , killing 1,021 people on board . In 1911 , the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire , the city 's worst industrial disaster , took the lives of 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the International Ladies ' Garment Workers ' Union and major improvements in factory safety standards . New York 's non-white population was 36,620 in 1890 . New York City was a prime destination in the early twentieth century for African Americans during the Great Migration from the American South , and by 1916 , New York City was home to the largest urban African diaspora in North America . The Harlem Renaissance of literary and cultural life flourished during the era of Prohibition . The larger economic boom generated construction of skyscrapers competing in height and creating an identifiable skyline . New York became the most populous urbanized area in the world in the early 1920s , overtaking London . The metropolitan area surpassed the 10 million mark in the early 1930s , becoming the first megacity in human history . The difficult years of the Great Depression saw the election of reformer Fiorello La Guardia as mayor and the fall of Tammany Hall after eighty years of political dominance . Returning World War II veterans created a post-war economic boom and the development of large housing tracts in eastern Queens . New York emerged from the war unscathed as the leading city of the world , with Wall Street leading America 's place as the world 's dominant economic power . The United Nations Headquarters was completed in 1952 , solidifying New York 's global geopolitical influence , and the rise of abstract expressionism in the city precipitated New York 's displacement of Paris as the center of the art world . The Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28 , 1969 , at the Stonewall Inn in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan . They are widely considered to constitute the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for LGBT rights in the United States . In the 1970s , job losses due to industrial restructuring caused New York City to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates . While a resurgence in the financial industry greatly improved the city 's economic health in the 1980s , New York 's crime rate continued to increase through that decade and into the beginning of the 1990s . By the mid 1990s , crime rates started to drop dramatically due to revised police strategies , improving economic opportunities , gentrification , and new residents , both American transplants and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America . Important new sectors , such as Silicon Alley , emerged in the city 's economy . New York 's population reached all-time highs in the 2000 Census and then again in the 2010 Census . The city and surrounding area suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the September 11 , 2001 attacks when 10 of the 19 terrorists associated with Al-Qaeda piloted American Airlines Flight 11 into the North Tower of the World Trade Center and United Airlines Flight 175 into the South Tower of the World Trade Center , and later destroyed them , killing 2,192 civilians , 343 firefighters , and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area . The rebuilding of the area , has created a new One World Trade Center , and a 9/11 memorial and museum along with other new buildings and infrastructure . The World Trade Center PATH station , which opened on July 19 , 1909 as the Hudson Terminal , was also destroyed in the attack . A temporary station was built and opened on November 23 , 2003 . A permanent station , the World Trade Center Transportation Hub , is currently under construction . The new One World Trade Center is the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere and the fourth-tallest building in the world by pinnacle height , with its spire reaching a symbolic 1776 ft in reference to the year of American independence . The Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan began on September 17 , 2011 , receiving global attention and spawning the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide . Geography New York City is situated in the Northeastern United States , in southeastern New York State , approximately halfway between Washington , D.C. and Boston . The location at the mouth of the Hudson River , which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the Atlantic Ocean , has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port . Most of New York City is built on the three islands of Long Island , Manhattan , and Staten Island . The Hudson River flows through the Hudson Valley into New York Bay . Between New York City and Troy , New York , the river is an estuary . The Hudson River separates the city from the U.S. state of New Jersey . The East River—a tidal strait—flows from Long Island Sound and separates the Bronx and Manhattan from Long Island . The Harlem River , another tidal strait between the East and Hudson Rivers , separates most of Manhattan from the Bronx . The Bronx River , which flows through the Bronx and Westchester County , is the only entirely fresh water river in the city . The city 's land has been altered substantially by human intervention , with considerable land reclamation along the waterfronts since Dutch colonial times ; reclamation is most prominent in Lower Manhattan , with developments such as Battery Park City in the 1970s and 1980s . Some of the natural relief in topography has been evened out , especially in Manhattan . The city 's total area is . of this is water and is land . The highest point in the city is Todt Hill on Staten Island , which , at above sea level , is the highest point on the Eastern Seaboard south of Maine . The summit of the ridge is mostly covered in woodlands as part of the Staten Island Greenbelt . Cityscape Architecture New York has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods , from the saltbox style Pieter Claesen Wyckoff House in Brooklyn , the oldest section of which dates to 1656 , to the modern One World Trade Center , the skyscraper at Ground Zero in Lower Manhattan and the most expensive office tower in the world by construction cost . Manhattan 's skyline , with its many skyscrapers , is universally recognized , and the city has been home to several of the tallest buildings in the world . , New York City had 5,937 high-rise buildings , of which 550 completed structures were at least 330 ft high , both second in the world after Hong Kong , with over 50 completed skyscrapers taller than 656 ft . These include the Woolworth Building ( 1913 ) , an early gothic revival skyscraper built with massively scaled gothic detailing . The 1916 Zoning Resolution required setbacks in new buildings and restricted towers to a percentage of the lot size , to allow sunlight to reach the streets below . The Art Deco style of the Chrysler Building ( 1930 ) and Empire State Building ( 1931 ) , with their tapered tops and steel spires , reflected the zoning requirements . The buildings have distinctive ornamentation , such as the eagles at the corners of the 61st floor on the Chrysler Building , and are considered some of the finest examples of the Art Deco style . A highly influential example of the international style in the United States is the Seagram Building ( 1957 ) , distinctive for its façade using visible bronze-toned I-beams to evoke the building 's structure . The Condé Nast Building ( 2000 ) is a prominent example of green design in American skyscrapers and has received an award from the American Institute of Architects as well as AIA New York State for its design . The character of New York 's large residential districts is often defined by the elegant brownstone rowhouses and townhouses and shabby tenements that were built during a period of rapid expansion from 1870 to 1930 . In contrast , New York City also has neighborhoods that are less densely populated and feature free-standing dwellings . In neighborhoods such as Riverdale ( in the Bronx ) , Ditmas Park ( in Brooklyn ) , and Douglaston ( in Queens ) , large single-family homes are common in various architectural styles such as Tudor Revival and Victorian . Stone and brick became the city 's building materials of choice after the construction of wood-frame houses was limited in the

qb_4294--New_York_City.txt

Which is the largest borough in New York City?

Boudica ( ; alternative spellings : Boudicca , Boudicea , also known as Boadicea and in Welsh as ) ( d. AD 60 or 61 ) was a queen of the British Celtic Iceni tribe who led an uprising against the occupying forces of the Roman Empire . Boudica 's husband Prasutagus ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome and left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman emperor in his will . However , when he died his will was ignored , and the kingdom was annexed . Boudica was flogged , her daughters raped , and Roman financiers called in their loans . In AD 60 or 61 , when the Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was campaigning on the island of Anglesey off the northwest coast of Wales , Boudica led the Iceni , the Trinovantes , and others in revolt . They destroyed ( modern Colchester ) , earlier the capital of the Trinovantes but at that time a ' , a settlement for discharged Roman soldiers and site of a temple to the former Emperor Claudius . Upon hearing of the revolt , Suetonius hurried to ( modern London ) , the 20-year-old commercial settlement that was the rebels ' next target . The Romans , having concluded that they lacked sufficient numbers to defend the settlement , evacuated and abandoned . Boudica led 100,000 Iceni , Trinovantes , and others to fight , and burned and destroyed , and ( modern-day St Albans ) . An estimated 70,000–80,000 Romans and British were killed in the three cities by those led by Boudica . Suetonius , meanwhile , regrouped his forces in the West Midlands , and , despite being heavily outnumbered , defeated the Britons in the Battle of Watling Street . The crisis caused Nero to consider withdrawing all Roman forces from Britain , but Suetonius ' eventual victory over Boudica confirmed Roman control of the province . Boudica then either killed herself to avoid capture , or died of illness . The extant sources , Tacitus and Cassius Dio , differ . Interest in these events revived in the English Renaissance and led to Boudica 's fame in the Victorian era . Boudica has remained an important cultural symbol in the United Kingdom . However , the absence of native British literature during the early part of the first millennium means that knowledge of Boudica 's rebellion comes solely from the writings of the Romans . Name Boudica has been known by several versions of her name . Raphael Holinshed calls her Voadicia , while Edmund Spenser calls her Bunduca , a version of the name that was used in the popular Jacobean play Bonduca , in 1612 . William Cowper 's poem , Boadicea , an ode ( 1782 ) popularised an alternative version of the name . From the 19th century and much of the late 20th century , Boadicea was the most common version of the name , which is probably derived from a mistranscription when a manuscript of Tacitus was copied in the Middle Ages . Her name was clearly spelled Boudicca in the best manuscripts of Tacitus , but also , , and in the ( later and probably secondary ) epitome of Cassius Dio . The name is attested in inscriptions as Boudica in Lusitania , Boudiga in Bordeaux , and Bodicca in Algeria . Kenneth Jackson concludes , based on later development of Welsh and Irish , that the name derives from the Proto-Celtic feminine adjective * boudīkā , `` victorious '' , that in turn is derived from the Celtic word * boudā , `` victory '' ( cf . Irish ' ( Classical Irish ' ) , Buaidheach , Welsh ' ) , and that the correct spelling of the name in Common Brittonic ( the British Celtic language ) is Boudica , pronounced . The closest English equivalent to the vowel in the first syllable is the ow in `` bow-and-arrow '' . The modern English pronunciation is , and it has been suggested that the most comparable English name , in meaning only , would be `` Victoria '' . History Background Tacitus and Cassius Dio agree that Boudica was of royal descent . Dio describes her as `` possessed of greater intelligence than often belongs to women . '' He also describes her as tall , with tawny hair hanging down to below her waist , a harsh voice and a piercing glare . He notes that she habitually wore a large golden necklace ( perhaps a torc ) , a colourful tunic , and a thick cloak fastened by a brooch . Boudicca ’ s husband , Prasutagus , was the king of the Iceni , a people who inhabited roughly what is now Norfolk . The Iceni initially voluntarily allied with Rome following Claudius 's conquest of Southern Britain AD 43 . They were proud of their independence , and had revolted in AD 47 when the then Roman governor Publius Ostorius Scapula planned to disarm all the peoples in the area of Britain under Roman control following a number of local uprisings . Ostorius defeated them and went on to put down other uprisings around Britain . The Iceni remained independent . Tacitus first mentioned Prasutagus when he wrote about Boudica ’ s rebellion . We do not know whether he became the king after the mentioned defeat of the Iceni . We do not have any record as to whether the Iceni at that point were still Roman allies or had become a client kingdom . Tacitus wrote `` The Icenian king Prasutagus , celebrated for his long prosperity , had named the emperor his heir , together with his two daughters ; an act of deference which he thought would place his kingdom and household beyond the risk of injury . The result was contrary — so much so that his kingdom was pillaged by centurions , his household by slaves ; as though they had been prizes of war . '' He added that Boudica was lashed and her two daughters were raped and that the estates of the leading Iceni men were confiscated . Cassius Dio wrote : `` An excuse for the war was found in the confiscation of the sums of money that Claudius had given to the foremost Britons ; for these sums , as Decianus Catus , the procurator of the island maintained , were to be paid back . '' He also said that another reasons was `` the fact that Seneca , in the hope of receiving a good rate of interest , had lent to the islanders 40,000,000 sesterces that they did not want , and had afterwards called in this loan all at once and had resorted to severe measures in exacting it . '' Tacitus did not say why Prasutagus ’ naming the emperor as his heir as well as his daughters was meant to avert the risk of injury . He did not explain why the Romans pillaged the kingdom , why they took the lands of the chiefs or why Boudica was flogged and her daughters were raped . Cassius Dio did not mention any of this . He said that the cause of the rebellion was the decision of the procurator of Britain ( the chief financial officer ) and Seneca ( an advisor of the emperor Nero ) to call in Prasutagus ’ debts and the harsh measures which were taken to collect them . Tacitus does not mention these events . However , he wrote : `` Alarmed by this disaster and by the fury of the province which he had goaded into war by his rapacity , the procurator Catus crossed over into Gaul . '' It has to be noted that this was happening while the governor of Britain , Gaius Suetonius Paulinus , was away fighting in North Wales . We do not know whether he approved of these actions . We do not know who the centurions who pillaged the kingdom were and who sent them . The text of Cassius Dio seems to suggest that Seneca , who was a private citizen , was responsible for the violence . It is unlikely that a legion was sent to land of the Iceni as two of them were fighting at the island of Anglesey and the other two were stationed at their garrisons . Tacitus said that `` It was against the veterans that their hatred was most intense . For these new settlers in the colony of Camulodunum drove people out of their houses , ejected them from their farms , called them captives and slaves … '' Boudica 's uprising In AD 60 or 61 , while the current governor , Gaius Suetonius Paulinus , was leading a campaign against the island of ( modern Anglesey ) in the north of Wales , which was a refuge for British rebels and a stronghold of the druids , the Iceni conspired with their neighbours the Trinovantes , amongst others , to revolt . Boudica was chosen as their leader . According to Tacitus , they drew inspiration from the example of Arminius , the prince of the Cherusci who had driven the Romans out of Germany in AD 9 , and their own ancestors who had driven Julius Caesar from Britain . Dio says that at the outset Boudica employed a form of divination , releasing a hare from the folds of her dress and interpreting the direction in which it ran , and invoked Andraste , a British goddess of victory . The rebels ' first target was ( Colchester ) , the former Trinovantian capital and , at that time , a Roman ' . The Roman veterans who had been settled there mistreated the locals and a temple to the former emperor Claudius had been erected there at local expense , making the city a focus for resentment . The Roman inhabitants sought reinforcements from the procurator , Catus Decianus , but he sent only two hundred auxiliary troops . Boudica 's army fell on the poorly defended city and destroyed it , besieging the last defenders in the temple for two days before it fell . Archaeologists have shown that the city was methodically demolished . The future governor Quintus Petillius Cerialis , then commanding the Legio IX Hispana , attempted to relieve the city , but suffered an overwhelming defeat . His infantry was wiped out—only the commander and some of his cavalry escaped . The location of this famous destruction of the is now claimed by some to be the village of Great Wratting , in Suffolk , which lies in the Stour Valley on the Icknield Way West of Colchester , and by a village in Essex . After this defeat , Catus Decianus fled to Gaul . When news of the rebellion reached him , Suetonius hurried along Watling Street through hostile territory to . was a relatively new settlement , founded after the conquest of AD 43 , but it had grown to be a thriving commercial centre with a population of travellers , traders , and , probably , Roman officials . Suetonius considered giving battle there , but considering his lack of numbers and chastened by Petillius 's defeat , decided to sacrifice the city to save the province . Alarmed by this disaster and by the fury of the province which he had goaded into war by his rapacity , the procurator Catus crossed over into Gaul . Suetonius , however , with wonderful resolution , marched amidst a hostile population to Londinium , which , though undistinguished by the name of a colony , was much frequented by a number of merchants and trading vessels . Uncertain whether he should choose it as a seat of war , as he looked round on his scanty force of soldiers , and remembered with what a serious warning the rashness of Petilius had been punished , he resolved to save the province at the cost of a single town . Nor did the tears and weeping of the people , as they implored his aid , deter him from giving the signal of departure and receiving into his army all who would go with him . Those who were chained to the spot by the weakness of their sex , or the infirmity of age , or the attractions of the place , were cut off by the enemy.— Tacitus Londinium was abandoned to the rebels who burnt it down , slaughtering anyone who had not evacuated with Suetonius . Archaeology shows a thick red layer of burnt debris covering coins and pottery dating before AD 60 within the bounds of Roman Londinium ; while Roman-era skulls found in the Walbrook in 2013 were potentially linked to victims of the rebels . ( St Albans ) was next to be destroyed . In the three settlements destroyed , between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed . Tacitus says that the Britons had no interest in taking or selling prisoners , only in slaughter by gibbet , fire , or cross . Dio 's account gives more detail ; that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn to their mouths , `` to the accompaniment of sacrifices , banquets , and wanton behaviour '' in sacred places , particularly the groves of Andraste . Romans rally While Boudica 's army continued their assault in Verulamium ( St. Albans ) , Suetonius regrouped his forces . According to Tacitus , he amassed a force including his own Legio XIV Gemina , some vexillationes ( detachments ) of the XX Valeria Victrix , and any available auxiliaries . The prefect of , Poenius Postumus , stationed near Exeter , ignored the call , and a fourth legion , , had been routed trying to relieve , but nonetheless the governor was able to call on almost ten thousand men . Suetonius took a stand at an unidentified location , probably in the West Midlands somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street , in a defile with a wood behind him — but his men were heavily outnumbered . Dio says that , even if they were lined up one deep , they would not have extended the length of Boudica 's line . By now the rebel forces were said to have numbered 230,000 . However , this number should be treated with scepticism — Dio 's account is known only from a late epitome , and ancient sources commonly exaggerate enemy numbers . Boudica exhorted her troops from her chariot , her daughters beside her . Tacitus gives her a short speech in which she presents herself not as an aristocrat avenging her lost wealth , but as an ordinary person , avenging her lost freedom , her battered body , and the abused chastity of her daughters . She said their cause was just , and the deities were on their side ; the one legion that had dared to face them had been destroyed . She , a woman , was resolved to win or die ; if the men wanted to live in slavery , that was their choice . However , the lack of manoeuvrability of the British forces , combined with lack of open-field tactics to command these numbers , put them at a disadvantage to the Romans , who were skilled at open combat due to their superior equipment and discipline . Also , the narrowness of the field meant that Boudica could put forth only as many troops as the Romans could at a given time . First , the Romans stood their ground and used volleys of ' ( heavy javelins ) to kill thousands of Britons who were rushing toward the Roman lines . The Roman soldiers , who had now used up their ' , were then able to engage Boudica 's second wave in the open . As the Romans advanced in a wedge formation , the Britons attempted to flee , but were impeded by the presence of their own families , whom they had stationed in a ring of wagons at the edge of the battlefield , and were slaughtered . This is not the first instance of this tactic — the women of the Cimbri , in the Battle of Vercellae against Gaius Marius , were stationed in a line of wagons and acted as a last line of defence . Ariovistus of the Suebi is reported to have done the same thing in his battle against Julius Caesar . Tacitus reports that `` according to one report almost eighty thousand Britons fell '' compared with only four hundred Romans . According to Tacitus in his Annals , Boudica poisoned herself , though in the ' which was written almost twenty years prior he mentions nothing of suicide and attributes the end of the revolt to ' ( `` indolence '' ) ; Dio says she fell sick and died and then was given a lavish burial ; though this may be a convenient way to remove her from the story . Considering Dio must have read Tacitus , it is worth noting he mentions nothing about suicide ( which was also how Postumus and Nero ended their lives ) . Postumus , on hearing of the Roman victory , fell on his sword . Catus Decianus , who had fled to Gaul , was replaced by Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus . Suetonius conducted punitive operations , but criticism by Classicianus led to an investigation headed by Nero 's freedman Polyclitus . Fearing Suetonius 's actions would provoke further rebellion , Nero replaced the governor with the more conciliatory Publius Petronius Turpilianus . The historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain . Location of her defeat The location of Boudica 's defeat is unknown . Most historians favour a site in the West Midlands , somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street . Kevin K. Carroll suggests a site close to High Cross in Leicestershire , on the junction of Watling Street and the Fosse Way , which would have allowed the , based at Exeter , to rendezvous with the rest of Suetonius 's forces , had they not failed to do so . Manduessedum ( Mancetter ) , near the modern town of Atherstone in Warwickshire , has also been suggested , as has `` The Rampart '' near Messing in Essex , according to legend . More recently , a discovery of Roman artefacts in Kings Norton close to Metchley Camp has suggested another possibility , and a thorough examination of a stretch of Watling Street between St. Albans , Boudica 's last known location , and the Fosse Way junction has suggested the Cuttle Mill area of Paulerspury in Northamptonshire , which has topography very closely matching that described by Tacitus of the scene of the battle . In 2009 it was suggested that the Iceni were returning to East Anglia along the Icknield Way when they encountered the Roman army in the vicinity of Arbury Bank , Hertfordshire . In March 2010 , evidence was published suggesting the site may be located at Church Stowe , Northamptonshire . Historical sources Tacitus , the most important Roman historian of this period , took a particular interest in Britain as his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola served there three times ( and was the subject of his first book ) . Agricola was a military tribune under Suetonius Paulinus , which almost certainly gave Tacitus an eyewitness source for Boudica 's revolt . Cassius Dio 's account is only known from an epitome , and his sources are uncertain . He is generally agreed to have based his account on that of Tacitus , but he simplifies the sequence of events and adds details , such as the calling in of loans , that Tacitus does not mention . Gildas , in his 6th century ' , may have been alluding to Boudica when he wrote `` A treacherous lioness butchered the governors who had been left to give fuller voice and strength to the endeavours of Roman rule '' . Cultural depictions Boudica and King 's Cross The area of King 's Cross , London was previously a village known as Battle Bridge which was an ancient crossing of the River Fleet . The original name of the bridge was Broad Ford Bridge . The name `` Battle Bridge '' led to a tradition that this was the site of a major battle between the Romans and the Iceni tribe led by Boudica . The tradition is not supported by any historical evidence and is rejected by modern historians . However , Lewis Spence 's 1937 book Boadicea — warrior queen of the Britons went so far as to include a map showing the positions of the opposing armies . There is a belief that she was buried between platforms 9 and 10 in King 's Cross station in London , England . There is no evidence for this and it is probably a post-World War II invention . History and literature By the Middle Ages Boudica was forgotten . She makes no appearance in Bede 's work , the ' , the ' or Geoffrey of Monmouth 's History of the Kings of Britain . But the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus during the Renaissance allowed Polydore Vergil to reintroduce her into British history as `` Voadicea '' in 1534 . Raphael Holinshed also included her story in his Chronicles ( 1577 ) , based on Tacitus and Dio , and inspired Shakespeare 's younger contemporaries Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher to write a play , Bonduca , in 1610 . William Cowper wrote a popular poem , `` Boadicea , an ode '' , in 1782 . It was in the Victorian era that Boudica 's fame took on legendary proportions as Queen Victoria came to be seen as Boudica 's `` namesake '' , their names being identical in meaning . Victoria 's Poet Laureate , Alfred , Lord Tennyson , wrote a poem , `` Boadicea '' , and several ships were named after her . Art * The artwork The Dinner Party by Judy Chicago features a place setting for Boudica . Audio dramas * The Big Finish Productions Doctor Who audio play The Wrath of the Iceni ( 2012 ) , starring Tom Baker , takes place during Boudica 's uprising against the Romans . Boudica is portrayed by British actress Ella Kenion . * Heirloom Audio Productions ' audio theater adaption of G.A . Henty 's novel , Beric the Briton , starring Brian Blessed , Brian Cox , and John Rhys-Davies features Queen Boadicea during the first portion of the drama . Her character is played by British actress , Honeysuckle Weeks . Comics She has also appeared in several comic book series , including : * ' , which featured two runs , titled `` Demon Killer '' and `` Queen of Witches '' giving a free interpretation of Boudica 's story * Other comic appearances include Witchblade .. * The DC Comics character Boodikka , a member of the Green Lantern Corps , was named after Boudica . Films Boudica has been the subject of multiple films : * Boadicea ( 1927 ) is a feature film , wherein she was portrayed by Phyllis Neilson-Terry , * The Viking Queen ( 1967 ) is a Hammer Films adventure movie set in ancient Britain , in which the role of Queen Salina is based upon the historical figure of Boudica . * Boudica ( 2003 ; Warrior Queen in the US ) is a UK TV film written by Andrew Davies and starring Alex Kingston as Boudica . * A History Channel documentary production is entitled Warrior Queen Boudica ( 2006 ) . Games * In Civilization II , Civilization IV : Beyond the Sword and Civilization V : Gods & Kings , Boudicca is leader of the Celtic tribe . * She appears as a Rider-class Servant in the mobile game Fate/Grand Order ( 2015 ) . * She appears as a character in the heavily fictionalized 2013 video game Ryse : Son of Rome . * She appears as a playable character in real-time strategy mobile game World of Warriors . Multimedia fiction * In the fictional world of Ghosts of Albion , Queen Bodicea is one of three Ghosts who once were mystical protectors of Albion and assists the current protectors with advice and knowledge . Music and theatre * Boudica has been the primary subject of songs by English metal band Bal-Sagoth , Dutch soprano Petra Berger , Scottish singer/songwriter Steve McDonald , the American gothic rock/darkwave band Faith and the Muse , and Dreams in the Witching House . * The Irish singer/songwriter Enya recorded a song entitled `` Boadicea '' for her LP Enya ( 1987 ) . * Mason and collaborated on the track `` Boadicea '' released in 2011 , featuring lyrics about the rise and fall of a female warrior . * Henry Purcell 's last major work , composed in 1695 , was music for play entitled Bonduca , or the British Heroine ( Z . 574 ) . Selections include `` To Arms '' , `` Britons , Strike Home '' , and `` O lead me to some peaceful gloom '' . * The lyrics of the song `` The Good Old Days '' , written by Pete Doherty and Carl Barat for British rock band The Libertines , refer to her under the alternative spelling ( `` If Queen Boadicea is long dead and gone , Still then the spirit in her children 's children 's children , it lives on '' ) . Novels Boudica 's story is the subject of several novels , including books by J. F. Broxholme ( a pseudonym of Duncan Kyle ) , Pauline Gedge , Alan Gold , Mary Mackie , Diana L. Paxson , Simon Scarrow , Manda Scott , George Shipway , Rosemary Sutcliff , and David Wishart . * In Chapter XXI of Lindsey Davis ' first Falco mystery , The Silver Pigs , Falco briefly recounts the story of the rebellion from his perspective , having served in the Second legion of the Roman army , under the `` peabrained '' Camp Prefect , Poenius Postumus . Throughout the book , he references the shame of having served under that illustrious leader and of being involved in that event . * She plays a central role in the first part of G. A. Henty 's novel Beric the Briton * In The Mauritius Command by Patrick O'Brian , the fourth novel of the Aubrey-Maturin series , Jack Aubrey is given command of the . * Tim Powers ' vampire novel Hide Me Among the Graves ( 2012 ) depicts Boadicea as one of the two head vampires menacing Victorian Europe . * Henry Treece 's children 's novel , The Queen 's Brooch , is set during her rebellion . * One of the viewpoint characters of Ian Watson 's novel Oracle is an eyewitness to her defeat . * In Harry Turtledove 's alternate history novel Ruled Britannia , Boudicca is the subject of a play written by William Shakespeare to incite the people of Britain to revolt against Spanish conquerors . Statue A statue of Boudica with her daughters in her war chariot ( ahistorically furnished with scythes after the Persian fashion ) was executed by Thomas Thornycroft over the 1850s and 1860s with the encouragement of Prince Albert , who lent his horses for use as models . Thornycroft exhibited the head separately in 1864 . It was cast in bronze in 1902 , 17 years after Thornycroft 's death , by his son Sir John , who presented it to the London County Council . They erected it on a plinth on the Victoria Embankment next to Westminster Bridge and the Houses of Parliament , inscribed with the following lines from Cowper 's poem : Regions Caesar never knew Thy posterity shall sway . Ironically , the great anti-imperialist rebel was now identified with the head of the British Empire , and her statue stood guard over the city she razed to the ground . Television Series * Boudicca is a character in the animated series Gargoyles . * She was the subject of a 1978 British TV series , Warrior Queen , starring

qw_15213--Boudica.txt

Where is the homeland of Queen Boudica (also Boudicca or Boadicea), who led a revolt against the Romans in England in the first century CE?

`` Whole Again '' is the fifth single released from British pop girl group Atomic Kitten 's debut album , Right Now ( 2000 ) . It is the group 's biggest selling single to date and was the final single to feature founding member Kerry Katona , who left the group mid-way through promoting the single . `` Whole Again '' was the first single released from the album in Europe , Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . It was a massive success , reaching number one in several countries , and sold 1 million copies in the UK alone . Among the song 's writers was OMD frontman and Atomic Kitten founder Andy McCluskey , who achieved his only UK number one single with the track . Following the departure of Katona , she was replaced a few days later by Jenny Frost , just after the single reached number one in the UK . As a result , the music video was reshot and Frost 's vocals appeared on the reissue of Right Now . Background Following the failures of previous single `` Follow Me '' and the initial release of their debut album , Right Now , Atomic Kitten persuaded Virgin Records to release the single as a last-ditch attempt to keep their record deal . They were given a shoe-string budget for the single 's release with a basic video and previous photo shoots used for cover artwork . During promotion for the single , band member Kerry Katona announced her pregnancy and subsequent decision to leave the group . With the single 's release imminent , the group opted to recruit Jenny Frost as a replacement and continued their promotional campaign . Surprisingly the single was a massive success , beating U2 to the number one spot on the UK Singles Chart and remaining there for four consecutive weeks . .In a rare Asian pressing of their Right Now album , the song `` Whole Again '' features all lines spoken by Katona with only the chorus sung by the girls which was taken from the Japanese version of Right Now . The original version of Right Now features Katona 's vocals ; however , the reissue of the album features new vocals by Jenny Frost . This version has since replaced Katona 's version for radio airplay , and it was subsequently issued as a bonus track on international versions of the group 's second album , Feels So Good . The first line of the song is identical to that of `` Walk on By '' by Bacharach and David . Music video The music video for `` Whole Again '' was filmed on a very small budget due to the commercial failure of previous single `` Follow Me '' . It features the girls singing in front of a plain white background – similar to the video for the Sugababes ' debut single `` Overload '' . The original version of the video includes Kerry Katona , who had left the group just before the song 's release . Much of the video was subsequently reshot to feature new member Jenny Frost . As a result of the single 's huge success in many international markets , a second music video was filmed for the U.S. release with a much larger budget . This version features the three girls walking through the streets in Downtown Los Angeles and walking out into the countryside , gradually picking up more people along the way . The video ends with the camera zooming out on the field for Atomic Kitten 's old logo is invisible in a shape of a kitten . The U.S. single release never materialised in the wake of the September 11 attacks , but the video can often be seen on British music television channels . Track listing UK CD1 # `` Whole Again '' – 3:03 # `` Holiday '' – 3:13 # `` Whole Again '' ( Whirlwind Mix ) – 3:05 UK CD2 # `` Whole Again '' – 3:03 # `` Whole Again '' ( Original Version ) – 3:19 # `` Locomotion '' – 3:32 UK Cassette # `` Whole Again '' – 3:03 # `` Locomotion '' – 3:32 Official versions * Whole Again ( Original Japanese Album Version ) - 3:18 * Whole Again ( 2000 UK Album Version ) - 3:06 * Whole Again ( 2001 UK Album Version ) - 3:06 * Whole Again ( `` Feels So Good '' Version , 2002 ) - 3:06 * Whole Again ( Whirlwind Mix ) - 3:06 * Whole Again ( M * A * S * H Radio Mix ) - 3:51 * Whole Again ( M * A * S * H Master Mix ) - 7:16 Credits and personnel Chart performance The single debuted at number one in the United Kingdom with first week sales of 69,286 copies , and since gone on to sell 1,000,000 copies in the UK alone . It stayed atop the UK Singles Chart for four weeks , becoming the longest-charting number one since Westlife at Christmas 1999 , and the only single which increased on weekly sales during each week at number 1 . It is the fourth best-selling single by a girl group of all time , after `` Wannabe '' and `` 2 Become 1 '' by the Spice Girls , and `` Never Ever '' by All Saints , as well as being the best-selling girl group single of the decade . It also became the thirteenth overall best-selling single of the decade . In Australia , it peaked at number two in the charts , being certified double platinum for sales of over 140,000 copies . The single was also released in Germany and New Zealand , where it secured a number one position for six consecutive weeks on both countries . In Germany , the single was certified platinum , one of three singles by a girl group to ever be certified Platinum ; the others being `` Daylight in Your Eyes '' by No Angels and Shame by Monrose . The single was certified double platinum in New Zealand , one of the best selling singles by a girl group of all time there . The song achieved the most success in the UK , Germany , New Zealand , Austria , the Netherlands , Ireland , Turkey , Singapore and South Africa and has sold 2 million copies worldwide . Charts and certifications Charts End-of-decade positions Year-end charts Certifications Covers Play version Swedish girl group Play covered `` Whole Again '' , which they released on the album Replay in 2003 , as well as a CD and cassette single also in 2003 . It contains covers from British artists such as Billie Piper , Liberty X , and Atomic Kitten . The song failed to chart on the Swedish Singles Chart as well as on other charts . Background and promotion Play was a Swedish pop girl group , consisting of , in total , seven young women . Faye Hamlin , Anna Sundstrand , Anaïs Lameche , and Rosanna `` Rosie '' Munter formed Play 's original line-up from the band 's formation from 2001 until late 2003 . Play made several appearances to promote the album , including a guest spot on popular daytime talk show Live with Regis and Kelly . During the Replay era , Faye emerged as the group 's lead singer . The album debuted at number sixty-seven and managed to stay in the top 200 albums for a seven weeks . The group released two singles from the album : coming-of-age song `` I Must Not Chase the Boys '' and `` Whole Again '' . Music video A music video was released . The video theme was set in 1957 with the group wearing dresses from the 1950s . No Secrets version No Secrets was an American-British girl group with five members : Angel Faith , Carly Lewis , Erin Tanner , Jessica Fried and Jade Ryusaki . No Secrets recorded a remake of Atomic Kitten 's hit `` Whole Again , '' excluding ( and unbeknownst to ) Angel . Soon after singing the majority of leads in the band , Angel left the group to pursue a solo career , releasing the album Believe in Angels ... Believe in Me in 2004 , just as the finishing touches were being put on the second album Friends Forever . No Secrets went ahead of releasing the single `` Whole Again '' but it did not chart . Due to the contents of Angel Faith 's contract , Friends Forever , was no longer able to be sold in stores . The Sick Anchors version In 2002 Arab Strap vocalist Aiden Moffat and Mogwai guitarist Stuart Braithwaite released a cover of Whole Again under the name `` The Sick Anchors ''

odql_14833--Whole_Again.txt

Whole Again and Eternal Flame were Number Ones for which girl group in 2001?

In classical mythology , Cupid ( Latin Cupido , meaning `` desire '' ) is the god of desire , erotic love , attraction and affection . He is often portrayed as the son of the love goddess Venus and the war god Mars , and is known in Latin also as Amor ( `` Love '' ) . His Greek counterpart is Eros.Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia , The Book People , Haydock , 1995 , p. 215 . Although Eros is in Classical Greek art as a slender winged youth , during the Hellenistic period , he was increasingly portrayed as a chubby boy . During this time , his iconography acquired the bow and arrow that represent his source of power : a person , or even a deity , who is shot by Cupid 's arrow is filled with uncontrollable desire . In myths , Cupid is a minor character who serves mostly to set the plot in motion . He is a main character only in the tale of Cupid and Psyche , when wounded by his own weapons he experiences the ordeal of love . Although other extended stories are not told about him , his tradition is rich in poetic themes and visual scenarios , such as `` Love conquers all '' and the retaliatory punishment or torture of Cupid . In art , Cupid often appears in multiples as the Amores , or amorini in the later terminology of art history , the equivalent of the Greek erotes . Cupids are a frequent motif of both Roman art and later Western art of the classical tradition . In the 15th century , the iconography of Cupid starts to become indistinguishable from the putto . Cupid continued to be a popular figure in the Middle Ages , when under Christian influence he often had a dual nature as Heavenly and Earthly love . In the Renaissance , a renewed interest in classical philosophy endowed him with complex allegorical meanings . In contemporary popular culture , Cupid is shown drawing his bow to inspire romantic love , often as an icon of Valentine 's Day . Origins and birth The Romans reinterpreted myths and concepts pertaining to the Greek Eros for Cupid in their own literature and art , and medieval and Renaissance mythographers conflate the two freely . In the Greek tradition , Eros had a dual , contradictory genealogy . He was among the primordial gods who came into existence asexually ; after his generation , deities were begotten through male-female unions . In Hesiod 's Theogony , only Chaos and Gaia ( Earth ) are older . Before the existence of gender dichotomy , Eros functioned by causing entities to separate from themselves that which they already contained . At the same time , the Eros who was pictured as a boy or slim youth was regarded as the child of a divine couple , the identity of whom varied by source . The influential Renaissance mythographer Natale Conti began his chapter on Cupid/Eros by declaring that the Greeks themselves were unsure about his parentage : Heaven and Earth , Ares and Aphrodite , Night and Ether , or Strife and Zephyr . The Greek travel writer Pausanias , he notes , contradicts himself by saying at one point that Eros welcomed Aphrodite into the world , and at another that Eros was the son of Aphrodite and the youngest of the gods . In Latin literature , Cupid is usually treated as the son of Venus without reference to a father . Seneca says that Vulcan , as the husband of Venus , is the father of Cupid . Cicero , however , says that there were three Cupids , as well as three Venuses : the first Cupid was the son of Mercury and Diana , the second of Mercury and the second Venus , and the third of Mars and the third Venus . This last Cupid was the equivalent of Anteros , `` Counter-Love , '' one of the Erotes , the gods who embody aspects of love . The multiple Cupids frolicking in art are the decorative manifestation of these proliferating loves and desires . During the English Renaissance , Christopher Marlowe wrote of `` ten thousand Cupids '' ; in Ben Jonson 's wedding masque Hymenaei , `` a thousand several-coloured loves ... hop about the nuptial room '' . In the later classical tradition , Cupid is most often regarded as the son of Venus and Mars , whose love affair represented an allegory of Love and War . The duality between the primordial and the sexually conceived Eros accommodated philosophical concepts of Heavenly and Earthly Love even in the Christian era . Attributes and themes Cupid is winged , allegedly , because lovers are flighty and likely to change their minds , and boyish because love is irrational . His symbols are the arrow and torch , `` because love wounds and inflames the heart . '' These attributes and their interpretation were established by late antiquity , as summarized by Isidore of Seville ( d. 636 AD ) in his Etymologiae . Cupid is also sometimes depicted blindfolded and described as blind , not so much in the sense of sightless—since the sight of the beloved can be a spur to love—as blinkered and arbitrary . As described by Shakespeare in A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1590s ) : In Botticelli 's Allegory of Spring ( 1482 ) , also known by its Italian title La Primavera , Cupid is shown blindfolded while shooting his arrow , positioned above the central figure of Venus . Particularly in ancient Roman art , cupids may also carry or be surrounded by fruits , animals , or attributes of the Seasons or the wine-god Dionysus , symbolizing the earth 's generative capacity . Cupid 's arrows Cupid carries two kinds of arrows , one with a sharp golden point , and the other with a blunt tip of lead . A person wounded by the golden arrow is filled with uncontrollable desire , but the one struck by the lead feels aversion and desires only to flee . The use of these arrows is described by the Latin poet Ovid in the first book of his Metamorphoses . When Apollo taunts Cupid as the lesser archer , Cupid shoots him with the golden arrow , but strikes the object of his desire , the nymph Daphne , with the lead . Trapped by Apollo 's unwanted advances , Daphne prays to her father , the river god Peneus , who turns her into a laurel , the tree sacred to Apollo . It is the first of several unsuccessful or tragic love affairs for Apollo . A variation is found in The Kingis Quair , a 15th-century poem attributed to James I of Scotland , in which Cupid has three arrows : gold , for a gentle `` smiting '' that is easily cured ; the more compelling silver ; and steel , for a love-wound that never heals . Cupid and the bees In the tale of Cupid the honey thief , the child-god is stung by bees when he steals honey from their hive . He cries and runs to his mother Venus , complaining that so small a creature should n't cause such painful wounds . Venus laughs , and points out the poetic justice : he too is small , and yet delivers the sting of love . The story was first told about Eros in the Idylls of Theocritus ( 3rd century BC ) . It was retold numerous times in both art and poetry during the Renaissance . The theme brought the Amoretti poetry cycle ( 1595 ) of Edmund Spenser to a conclusion , and furnished subject matter for at least twenty works by Lucas Cranach the Elder and his workshop . The German poet and classicist Karl Philipp Conz ( 1762–1827 ) framed the tale as Schadenfreude ( `` taking pleasure in someone else 's pain '' ) in a poem by the same title . In a version by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing , a writer of the German Enlightenment , the incident prompts Cupid to turn himself into a bee : Through this sting was Amor made wiser.The untiring deceiverconcocted another battle-plan : he lurked beneath the carnations and rosesand when a maiden came to pick them , he flew out as a bee and stung her . The image of Cupid as bee is part of a complex tradition of poetic imagery involving the flower of youth , the sting of love as a deflowering , and honey as a secretion of love . Cupid and dolphins In both ancient and later art , Cupid is often shown riding a dolphin . On ancient Roman sarcophagi , the image may represent the soul 's journey , originally associated with Dionysian religion . A mosaic from late Roman Britain shows a procession emerging from the mouth of the sea god Neptune , first dolphins and then sea birds , ascending to Cupid . One interpretation of this allegory is that Neptune represents the soul 's origin in the matter from which life was fashioned , with Cupid triumphing as the soul 's desired destiny . In other contexts , Cupid with a dolphin recurs as a playful motif , as in garden statuary at Pompeii that shows a dolphin rescuing Cupid from an octopus , or Cupid holding a dolphin . The dolphin , often elaborated fantastically , might be constructed as a spout for a fountain . On a modern-era fountain in the Palazzo Vecchio , Florence , Italy , Cupid seems to be strangling a dolphin . Dolphins were often portrayed in antiquity as friendly to humans , and the dolphin itself could represent affection . Pliny records a tale of a dolphin at Puteoli carrying a boy on its back across a lake to go to school each day ; when the boy died , the dolphin grieved itself to death . In erotic scenes from mythology , Cupid riding the dolphin may convey how swiftly love moves , or the Cupid astride a sea beast may be a reassuring presence for the wild ride of love . A dolphin-riding Cupid may attend scenes depicting the wedding of Neptune and Amphitrite or the Triumph of Neptune , also known as a marine thiasos . Demon of fornication To adapt myths for Christian use , medieval mythographers interpreted them morally . In this view , Cupid might be seen as a `` demon of fornication '' . The innovative Theodulf of Orleans , who wrote during the reign of Charlemagne , reinterpreted Cupid as a seductive but malicious figure who exploits desire to draw people into an allegorical underworld of vice . To Theodulf , Cupid 's quiver symbolized his depraved mind , his bow trickery , his arrows poison , and his torch burning passion . It was appropriate to portray him naked , so as not to conceal his deception and evil . Sleeping Cupid Cupid sleeping became a symbol of absent or languishing love in Renaissance poetry and art , including a Sleeping Cupid ( 1496 ) by Michelangelo that is now lost . The ancient type was known at the time through descriptions in classical literature , and at least one extant example had been displayed in the sculpture garden of Lorenzo de ' Medici since 1488 . In the 1st century AD , Pliny had described two marble versions of a Cupid ( Eros ) , one at Thespiae and a nude at Parium , where it was the stained object of erotic fascination . Michelangelo 's work was important in establishing the reputation of the young artist , who was only twenty at the time . At the request of his patron , he increased its value by deliberately making it look `` antique '' , thus creating `` his most notorious fake '' . After the deception was acknowledged , the Cupid Sleeping was displayed as evidence of his virtuosity alongside an ancient marble , attributed to Praxiteles , of Cupid asleep on a lion skin . In the poetry of Giambattista Marino ( d. 1625 ) , the image of Cupid or Amore sleeping represents the indolence of Love in the lap of Idleness . A madrigal by his literary rival Gaspare Murtola exhorted artists to paint the theme . A catalogue of works from antiquity collected by the Mattei family , patrons of Caravaggio , included sketches of sleeping cupids based on sculpture from the Temple of Venus Erycina in Rome . Caravaggio , whose works Murtola is known for describing , took up the challenge with his 1608 Sleeping Cupid , a disturbing depiction of an unhealthy , immobilized child with `` jaundiced skin , flushed cheeks , bluish lips and ears , the emaciated chest and swollen belly , the wasted muscles and inflamed joints . '' The model is thought to have suffered from juvenile rheumatoid arthritis . Caravaggio 's sleeping Cupid was reconceived in fresco by Giovanni da San Giovanni , and the subject recurred throughout Roman and Italian work of the period . Love Conquers All Earlier in his career , Caravaggio had challenged contemporary sensibilities with his `` sexually provocative and anti-intellectual '' Victorious Love , also known as Love Conquers All ( Amor Vincit Omnia ) , in which a brazenly naked Cupid tramples on emblems of culture and erudition representing music , architecture , warfare , and scholarship . The motto comes from the Augustan poet Vergil , writing in the late 1st century BC . His collection of Eclogues concludes with what might be his most famous line : Omnia vincit Amor : et nos cedamus Amori.Love conquers all , and so let us surrender ourselves to Love . The theme was also expressed as the triumph of Cupid , as in the Triumphi of Petrarch . Roman Cupid The ancient Roman Cupid was a god who embodied desire , but he had no temples or religious practices independent of other Roman deities such as Venus , whom he often accompanies as a side figure in cult statues . A Cupid might appear among the several statuettes for private devotion in a household shrine , but there is no clear distinction between figures for veneration and those displayed as art or decoration . Roman temples often served a secondary purpose as art museums , and Cicero mentions a statue of `` Cupid '' ( Eros ) by Praxiteles that was consecrated at a sacrarium and received religious veneration jointly with Hercules . An inscription from Cártama in Roman Spain records statues of Mars and Cupid among the public works of a wealthy female priest ( sacerdos perpetua ) , and another list of benefactions by a procurator of Baetica includes statues of Venus and Cupid . Cupid became more common in Roman art from the time of Augustus , the first Roman emperor . After the Battle of Actium , when Antony and Cleopatra were defeated , Cupid transferring the weapons of Mars to his mother Venus became a motif of Augustan imagery . In the Aeneid , the national epic of Rome by the poet Vergil , Cupid disguises himself as Iulus , the son of Aeneas who was in turn the son of Venus herself , and in this form he beguiles Queen Dido of Carthage to fall in love with the hero . She gives safe harbor to Aeneas and his band of refugees from Troy , only to be abandoned by him as he fulfills his destiny to found Rome . Iulus ( also known as Ascanius ) becomes the mythical founder of the Julian family from which Julius Caesar came . Augustus , Caesar 's heir , commemorated a beloved great-grandson who died as a child by having him portrayed as Cupid , dedicating one such statue at the Temple of Venus on the Capitoline Hill , and keeping one in his bedroom where he kissed it at night . A brother of this child became the emperor Claudius , whose mother Antonia appears in a surviving portrait-sculpture as Venus , with Cupid on her shoulder . The Augustus of Prima Porta is accompanied by a Cupid riding a dolphin . Cupids in multiples appeared on the friezes of the Temple of Venus Genetrix ( Venus as `` Begetting Mother '' ) , and influenced scenes of relief sculpture on other works such as sarcophagi , particularly those of children . As a winged figure , Cupido shared some characteristics with the goddess Victoria . On coinage issued by Sulla the dictator , Cupid bears the palm branch , the most common attribute of Victory . `` Desire '' in Roman culture was often attached to power as well as to erotic attraction . Roman historians criticize cupido gloriae , `` desire for glory , '' and cupido imperii , `` desire for ruling power '' . In Latin philosophical discourse , cupido is the equivalent of Greek pothos , a focus of reflections on the meaning and burden of desire . In depicting the `` pious love '' ( amor pius ) of Nisus and Euryalus in the Aeneid , Vergil has Nisus wonder : Is it the gods who put passion in men 's mind , Euryalus , or does each person 's fierce desire ( cupido ) become his own God ? In Lucretius ' physics of sex , cupido can represent human lust and an animal instinct to mate , but also the impulse of atoms to bond and form matter . An association of sex and violence is found in the erotic fascination for gladiators , who often had sexualized names such as Cupido . Cupid was the enemy of chastity , and the poet Ovid opposes him to Diana , the virgin goddess of the hunt who likewise carries a bow but who hates Cupid 's passion-provoking arrows . Cupid is also at odds with Apollo , the archer-brother of Diana and patron of poetic inspiration whose love affairs almost always end disastrously . Ovid blames Cupid for causing him to write love poetry instead of the more respectable epic . Cupid and Psyche The story of Cupid and Psyche appears in Greek art as early as the 4th century BC , but the most extended literary source of the tale is the Latin novel Metamorphoses , also known as The Golden Ass , by Apuleius ( 2nd century AD ) . It concerns the overcoming of obstacles to the love between Psyche ( `` Soul '' or `` Breath of Life '' ) and Cupid , and their ultimate union in marriage . The fame of Psyche 's beauty threatens to eclipse that of Venus herself , and the love goddess sends Cupid to work her revenge . Cupid , however , becomes enamored of Psyche , and arranges for her to be taken to his palace . He visits her by night , warning her not to try to look upon him . Psyche 's envious sisters convince her that her lover must be a hideous monster , and she finally introduces a lamp into their chamber to see him . Startled by his beauty , she drips hot oil from the lamp and wakes him . He abandons her . She wanders the earth looking for him , and finally submits to the service of Venus , who tortures her . The goddess then sends Psyche on a series of quests . Each time she despairs , and each time she is given divine aid . On her final task , she is to retrieve a dose of Proserpina 's beauty from the underworld . She succeeds , but on the way back ca n't resist opening the box in the hope of benefitting from it herself , whereupon she falls into a torpid sleep . Cupid finds her in this state , and revives her by returning the sleep to the box . Cupid grants her immortality so the couple can be wed as equals . The story 's Neoplatonic elements and allusions to mystery religions accommodate multiple interpretations , and it has been analyzed as an allegory and in light of folktale , Märchen or fairy tale , and myth . Often presented as an allegory of love overcoming death , the story was a frequent source of imagery for Roman sarcophagi and other extant art of antiquity . Since the rediscovery of Apuleius 's novel in the Renaissance , the reception of Cupid and Psyche in the classical tradition has been extensive . The story has been retold in poetry , drama , and opera , and depicted widely in painting , sculpture , and various media . Depictions On gems and other surviving pieces , Cupid is usually shown amusing himself with adult play , sometimes driving a hoop , throwing darts , catching a butterfly , or flirting with a nymph . He is often depicted with his mother ( in graphic arts , this is nearly always Venus ) , playing a horn . In other images , his mother is depicted scolding or even spanking him due to his mischievous nature . He is also shown wearing a helmet and carrying a buckler , perhaps in reference to Virgil 's Omnia vincit amor or as political satire on wars for love or love as war . File : Lucas Cranach the Elder - Venus with Cupid Stealing Honey - Google Art Project.jpg|Lucas Cranach the Elder - Venus with Cupid Stealing Honey File : Målning . Venus . Frans Floris - Hallwylska museet - 86707.tif|thumb|200px|Venus och Amor by Frans Floris , Hallwyl Museum File : Albrecht Dürer - Cupid the Honey Thief - WGA07372.jpg|Cupid the Honey Thief ( 1514 ) by Dürer File : Nicolas Poussin - Apollo and Daphne - WGA18261.jpg|Cupid draws his bow as the river god Peneus averts his gaze in Apollo and Daphne ( 1625 ) by Poussin File : Guercino - cena mitologica ( venus , marte , cupido e o tempo ) , c.1624-27.jpg|Allegory with Venus , Mars , Cupid and Time ( ca . 1625 ) : in the unique interpretation of Guercino , winged Time points an accusing finger at baby Cupid , held in a net that evokes the snare in which Venus and Mars were caught by her betrayed husband Vulcan File : Erasmus Quellinus ( II ) - Cupido navegando sobre un delfín , 1630.jpg|Cupid Riding on a Dolphin ( 1630 ) by Erasmus Quellinus II File : Jean-Jacque-François le Barbier - Cupid in a Tree - Google Art Project.jpg|Cupid in a Tree ( 1795/1805 ) by Jean-Jacques-François Le Barbier File : Benjamin west omnia vincit amor 1809.jpg|Omnia Vincit Amor ( 1809 ) by Benjamin West File : Bouguereau , William Adolphe - Putto sur un monstre marin.png|Cupid on a sea monster ( c. 1857 ) by William Adolphe Bouguereau , File : Antique Valentine 1909 01.jpg|A Valentine greeting card ( 1909 ) In popular culture * In the 1936 Rainbow Parade cartoon Cupid Gets His Man , he appears as a cartoon , and his voice sounded like Our Gang kid Carl `` Alfalfa '' Switzer 's voice , but not voiced by him . It is known that Switzer was not an American voice actor because he was an American actor and singer . * Cupid appears in The Santa Clause 2 and The Santa Clause 3 : The Escape Clause portrayed by Kevin Pollak . He is seen as a member of the Council of Legendary Figures alongside Santa Claus , the Easter Bunny , the Sandman , Mother Nature , Father Time , the Tooth Fairy , and Jack Frost . * Cupid/Eros makes an appearance in the The Heroes of Olympus book The House of Hades . * In the video game Smite , Cupid appears as a child , known as `` The God of Love '' . * In the tabletop roleplaying game Rifts , one of the many monsters is an evil version of Cupid , which resembles the classical Cupid , but uses its powers to induce people to fall in love with people who would make awful matches , and to cause love rivals to appear should they start making it work all the same , as it revels in the misery of those victimised . * In the 1995 American TV series , Hercules : The Legendary Journeys , Cupid is portrayed by actor Karl Urban , and while depicted as the son of the goddess of love , Aphrodite , ( his better-known Roman name being used instead of his Greek name , Eros ) , his father 's identity is left blank . As the god of love , he often works for his mother , but he wishes to step out of her shadow and be his-own man . First appearing in the season 3 episode , The Green-Eyed Monster , Cupid was under orders by his jelous mother to make the beautiful mortal girl Psyche fall in love with any ugly man , but Cupid keeps deliberately botching the job , being in love with Psyche himself ( the other reason why Aphrodite wants Cupid to do this job , believing that a love between a god and a mortal would not work out ) . Aphrodite appeals to Hercules , as Cupid 's favourite uncle ( who Cupid thinks is `` almost cool '' ) , to talk him into getting back to work . Later , inadvertently thanks to Aphrodite a misfire with one of Cupid 's arrows ends-up hitting Hercules , causing Hercules to fall in love with Psyche instead , who is already very taken with Hercules , who at that point was the only man she 'd met , sans her father , who was treating her like a human being ( having known her father for years and remembers her as a little girl ) . It is then revealed that Cupid is himself under a spell , a curse placed-upon him by his grandmother Hera , which cause him to transform into a literal green-eyed monster if he fell in love with a mortal who did not return his love , in retaliation for an earlier action of Aphrodite 's against Hera . Though the spell on Hercules is removed and Psyche realizes her feelings for Cupid , Aphrodite is convinced by Hercules to make Psyche immortal to break the curse on Cupid , after having realized the sincerity of Cupid and Psyche 's feelings for one another . Cupid and Psyche later have a son , Bliss , who inherits a number of his father 's traits ( i.e . wings ) , and once as a baby went on a spree with his father 's magic crossbow . * Sam Cooke 's 1961 song `` Cupid '' calls on its subject to shoot his arrow toward the girl the singer is in love with to arouse her affection for him : Cupid , draw back your bowAnd let your arrow goStraight to my lover 's heart for me , for me.Cupid , please hear my cryAnd let your arrow flyStraight to my lover 's heart for me ...

qg_482--Cupid.txt

What arrow-toting Roman god is now most commonly seen around Valentine's Day?

Norway ( ; Norwegian : ( Bokmål ) or ( Nynorsk ) ) , officially the Kingdom of Norway , is a sovereign and unitary monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula plus the island Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard . The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom . Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land . Until 1814 , the Kingdom included the Faroe Islands ( since 1035 ) , Greenland ( 1261 ) , and Iceland ( 1262 ) . It also included Shetland and Orkney until 1468 . Norway has a total area of 385252 km2 and a population of 5 213 985 ( May 2016 ) . The country shares a long eastern border with Sweden ( 1,619 km or 1,006 mi long ) . Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east , and the Skagerrak Strait to the south , with Denmark on the other side . Norway has an extensive coastline , facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea . King Harald V of the German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway . Erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013 , replacing Jens Stoltenberg . A constitutional monarchy , Norway divides state power between the Parliament , the Cabinet , and the Supreme Court , as determined by the 1814 Constitution . The Kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms . By the traditional count from the year 872 the Kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years , and the list of Norwegian monarchs includes over sixty kings and earls . Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels : counties and municipalities . The Sámi people have a certain amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament and the Finnmark Act . Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States . Norway is a founding member of the United Nations , NATO , the Council of Europe , the Antarctic Treaty and the Nordic Council ; a member of the European Economic Area , the WTO and the OECD ; and is also a part of the Schengen Area . The country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system . Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum , natural gas , minerals , lumber , seafood , fresh water , and hydropower . The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) . On a per-capita basis , Norway is the world 's largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East . The country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists . On the CIA 's GDP ( PPP ) per capita list ( 2015 estimate ) which includes territories and some regions , Norway ranks as number eleven . From 2001 to 2006 , and then again from 2009 to 2015 , Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world . Norway has topped the Legatum Prosperity Index for seven years in a row as of 2015 . Norway ranks also first on the OECD Better Life Index , the Index of Public Integrity , and the Democracy Index . Etymology Norway has two official names : Noreg in Nynorsk ( Old Norse : Noregr ) and Norge in Bokmål ( Old Norse : Noregi , dative of Noregr ) . The name Norway comes from the Old Norse word norðrvegr , `` northern way '' or `` way leading to the north '' , which the Geats and the Danes named the coastline of western Norway , contrasting with suðrvegar `` southern way '' for Germany , and austrvegr `` eastern way '' for the Baltic . Philology professor Magnus Olsen wrote that norðrvegr refers to the inner-archipelago sailing route of southwestern Norway , the home area of Harald Fairhair , the first king of Norway , and that because of him , the name was extended to the entire country . The newer interpretation of the syllable is Norvegr , where nor ( ve ) - means narrow ( ) and - ( ve ) gr ( ) means way that refers to the sailing routes through the straits of Norway . The old meaning of the word is interpreted as `` The narrow way through the strait '' . In a Latin manuscript of 849 , the name Northuagia is mentioned , while a French chronicle of c. 900 uses the names Northwegia and Norwegia . When Ohthere of Hålogaland visited King Alfred the Great in England in the end of the 9th century , the land was called Norðwegr ( lit . Northway ) and norðmanna land ( lit . Northmen 's land ) . Old Norse norðmaðr was Latinized as Nortmannus in the 9th century to mean `` Norseman , Viking '' , giving rise to the name of the Normans . After Norway had become Christian , Noregr and Noregi had become the most common forms , but during the 15th century the newer forms Noreg ( h ) and Norg ( h ) e , found in medieval Icelandic manuscripts , took over and have survived until modern day . The Old Norse name was borrowed into Old English , as Norðweg , Norweg , giving rise to modern Norway by regular development via Middle English Norwey , Norwei . The adjective Norwegian , on the other hand , recorded from c. 1600 , is derived from the latinization of the name as Norwegia . In the adjective Norwegian , the Old English spelling '-weg ' has survived . History Prehistory The first inhabitants were the Ahrensburg culture ( 11th to 10th millennia BC ) , which was a late Upper Paleolithic culture during the Younger Dryas , the last period of cold at the end of the Weichsel glaciation . The culture is named after the village of Ahrensburg , 25 km north-east of Hamburg in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein , where wooden arrow shafts and clubs have been excavated . The earliest traces of human occupation in Norway are found along the coast , where the huge ice shelf of the last ice age first melted between 11,000 and 8,000 BC . The oldest finds are stone tools dating from 9,500 to 6,000 BC , discovered in Finnmark ( Komsa culture ) in the north and Rogaland ( Fosna culture ) in the south-west . However , theories about two altogether different cultures ( the Komsa culture north of the Arctic Circle being one and the Fosna culture from Trøndelag to Oslo Fjord being the other ) were rendered obsolete in the 1970s . More recent finds along the entire coast revealed to archaeologists that the difference between the two can simply be ascribed to different types of tools and not to different cultures . Coastal fauna provided a means of livelihood for fishermen and hunters , who may have made their way along the southern coast about 10,000 BC when the interior was still covered with ice . It is now thought that these so-called `` Arctic '' peoples came from the south and followed the coast northward considerably later . In the southern part of the country are dwelling sites dating from about 5,000 BC . Finds from these sites give a clearer idea of the life of the hunting and fishing peoples . The implements vary in shape and mostly are made of different kinds of stone ; those of later periods are more skilfully made . Rock carvings ( i.e . petroglyphs ) have been found , usually near hunting and fishing grounds . They represent game such as deer , reindeer , elk , bears , birds , seals , whales , and fish ( especially salmon and halibut ) , all of which were vital to the way of life of the coastal peoples . The carvings at Alta in Finnmark , the largest in Scandinavia , were made at sea level continuously from 4,200 to 500 BC and mark the progression of the land as it rose from the sea after the last ice age ( Rock carvings at Alta ) . Bronze Age Between 3000 and 2500 BC new settlers ( Corded Ware culture ) arrived in eastern Norway . They were Indo-European farmers who grew grain and kept cows and sheep . The hunting-fishing population of the west coast was also gradually replaced by farmers , though hunting and fishing remained useful secondary means of livelihood . From about 1500 BC bronze was gradually introduced , but the use of stone implements continued ; Norway had few riches to barter for bronze goods , and the few finds consist mostly of elaborate weapons and brooches that only chieftains could afford . Huge burial cairns built close to the sea as far north as Harstad and also inland in the south are characteristic of this period . The motifs of the rock carvings differ from those typical of the Stone Age . Representations of the Sun , animals , trees , weapons , ships , and people are all strongly stylised . Thousands of rock carvings from this period depict ships , and the large stone burial monuments known as stone ships , suggest that ships and seafaring played an important role in the culture at large . The depicted ships , most likely represent sewn plank built canoes used for warfare , fishing and trade . These ship types may have their origin as far back as the neolithic period and they continue into the Pre-Roman Iron Age , as exemplified by the Hjortspring boat . Iron Age Little has been found dating from the early Iron Age ( the last 500 years BC ) . The dead were cremated , and their graves contain few burial goods . During the first four centuries AD the people of Norway were in contact with Roman-occupied Gaul . About 70 Roman bronze cauldrons , often used as burial urns , have been found . Contact with the civilised countries farther south brought a knowledge of runes ; the oldest known Norwegian runic inscription dates from the 3rd century . At this time the amount of settled area in the country increased , a development that can be traced by coordinated studies of topography , archaeology , and place-names . The oldest root names , such as nes , vik , and bø ( `` cape , '' `` bay , '' and `` farm '' ) , are of great antiquity , dating perhaps from the Bronze Age , whereas the earliest of the groups of compound names with the suffixes vin ( `` meadow '' ) or heim ( `` settlement '' ) , as in Bjorgvin ( Bergen ) or Saeheim ( Seim ) , usually date from the 1st century AD . Archaeologists first made the decision to divide the Iron Age of Northern Europe into distinct pre-Roman and Roman Iron Ages after Emil Vedel unearthed a number of Iron Age artifacts in 1866 on the island of Bornholm . They did not exhibit the same permeating Roman influence seen in most other artifacts from the early centuries AD , indicating that parts of northern Europe had not yet come into contact with the Romans at the beginning of the Iron Age . Migration Age The destruction of the Western Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes ( 5th century ) is characterised by rich finds , including chieftains ' graves containing magnificent weapons and gold objects . Hill forts were built on precipitous rocks for defence . Excavation has revealed stone foundations of farmhouses 18 to long—one even 46 m long—the roofs of which were supported on wooden posts . These houses were family homesteads where several generations lived together , with people and cattle under one roof . These states were based on either clans or tribes ( e.g. , the Horder of Hordaland in western Norway ) . By the 9th century each of these small states had things , or tings ( local or regional assemblies ) , for negotiating and settling disputes . The thing meeting places , each eventually with a horg ( open-air sanctuary ) or a hov ( temple ; literally `` hill '' ) , were usually situated on the oldest and best farms , which belonged to the chieftains and wealthiest farmers . The regional things united to form even larger units : assemblies of deputy yeomen from several regions . In this way , the lagting ( assemblies for negotiations and lawmaking ) developed . The Gulating had its meeting place by Sognefjord and may have been the centre of an aristocratic confederation along the western fjords and islands called the Gulatingslag . The Frostating was the assembly for the leaders in the Trondheimsfjord area ; the earls Jarls of Lade , near Trondheim , seem to have enlarged the Frostatingslag by adding the coastland from Romsdalsfjord to the Lofoten Islands . Viking Age From the 8th to the 10th century , the wider Scandinavian region was the source of Vikings . The looting of the monastery at Lindisfarne in Northeast England in 793 by Norse people has long been regarded as the event which marked the beginning of the Viking Age . This age was characterised by expansion and emigration by Viking seafarers . They colonised , raided , and traded in all parts of Europe . Norwegian Viking explorers first discovered Iceland by accident in the 9th century when heading for the Faroe Islands , and eventually came across Vinland , known today as Newfoundland , in Canada . The Vikings from Norway were most active in the northern and western British Isles and eastern North America isles . According to tradition , Harald Fairhair unified them into one in 872 after the Battle of Hafrsfjord in Stavanger , thus becoming the first king of a united Norway . Harald 's realm was mainly a South Norwegian coastal state . Fairhair ruled with a strong hand and according to the sagas , many Norwegians left the country to live in Iceland , the Faroe Islands , Greenland , and parts of Britain and Ireland . The modern-day Irish cities of Dublin , Limerick and Waterford were founded by Norwegian settlers . Norse traditions were slowly replaced by Christian ones in the late 10th and early 11th centuries . This is largely attributed to the missionary kings Olav Tryggvasson and St. Olav . Haakon the Good was Norway 's first Christian king , in the mid-10th century , though his attempt to introduce the religion was rejected . Born sometime in between 963–969 , Olav Tryggvasson set off raiding in England with 390 ships . He attacked London during this raiding . Arriving back in Norway in 995 , Olav landed in Moster . There he built a church which became the first Christian church ever built in Norway . From Moster , Olav sailed north to Trondheim where he was acclaimed King of Norway by the Eyrathing in 995 . Feudalism never really developed in Norway or Sweden , as it did in the rest of Europe . However , the administration of government took on a very conservative feudal character . The Hanseatic League forced the royalty to cede to them greater and greater concessions over foreign trade and the economy . The League had this hold over the royalty because of the loans the Hansa had made to the royalty and the large debt the kings were carrying . The League 's monopolistic control over the economy of Norway put pressure on all classes , especially the peasantry , to the degree that no real burgher class existed in Norway . Kalmar Union Upon the death of Haakon V , King of Norway , in 1319 , Magnus Erikson , at just three years old , inherited the throne as King Magnus VII of Norway . At the same time a movement to make Magnus King of Sweden proved successful . ( At this time both the kings of Sweden and of Denmark were elected to the throne by their respective nobles . ) Thus , with his election to the throne of Sweden , both Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus VII.Larsen , p. 192 . In 1349 , the Black Death radically altered Norway , killing between 50 % and 60 % of its population and leaving it in a period of social and economic decline . The plague left Norway very poor . Although the death rate was comparable with the rest of Europe , economic recovery took much longer because of the small , scattered population . Before the plague , the population was only about 500,000 people.Larsen , pp . 202–203 . After the plague , many farms lay idle while the population slowly increased . However , the few surviving farms ' tenants found their bargaining positions with their landlords greatly strengthened . King Magnus VII ruled Norway until 1350 , when his son , Haakon , was placed on the throne as Haakon VI.Larsen , p. 195 In 1363 , Haakon VI married Margaret , the daughter of King Valdemar IV of Denmark . Upon the death of Haakon VI , in 1379 , his son , Olaf IV , was only 10 years old . Olaf had already been elected to the throne of Denmark on 3 May 1376 . Thus , upon Olaf 's accession to the throne of Norway , Denmark and Norway entered personal union.Larsen , p. 197 Olaf 's mother and Haakon 's widow , Queen Margaret , managed the foreign affairs of Denmark and Norway during the minority of Olaf IV . Margaret was working toward a union of Sweden with Denmark and Norway by having Olaf elected to the Swedish throne . She was on the verge of achieving this goal when Olaf IV suddenly died . However , Denmark made Margaret temporary ruler upon the death of Olaf . On 2 February 1388 Norway followed suit and crowned Margaret . Queen Margaret knew that her power would be more secure if she were able to find a king to rule in her place . She settled on Eric of Pomerania , grandson of her sister . Thus at an all-Scandinavian meeting held at Kalmar , Erik of Pomerania was crowned king of all three Scandinavian countries . Thus , royal politics resulted in personal unions between the Nordic countries , eventually bringing the thrones of Norway , Denmark , and Sweden under the control of Queen Margaret when the country entered into the Kalmar Union . Union with Denmark After Sweden broke out of the Kalmar Union in 1521 , Norway tried to follow suit , but the ensuing rebellion was defeated , and Norway remained in a union with Denmark until 1814 , a total of 434 years . During the national romanticism of the 19th century , this period was by some referred to as the `` 400-Year Night '' , since all of the kingdom 's royal , intellectual , and administrative power was centred in Copenhagen in Denmark . In fact , it was a period of great prosperity and progress for Norway , especially in terms of shipping and foreign trade , and it also secured the country 's revival from the demographic catastrophe it suffered in the Black Death . Based on the respective natural resources , Denmark–Norway was in fact a very good match , since Denmark supported Norway 's needs for grain and food supplies , and Norway supplied Denmark with timber , metal , and fish . With the introduction of Protestantism in 1536 , the archbishopric in Trondheim was dissolved , and Norway lost its independence , and effectually became a colony of Denmark . The Church 's incomes and possessions were instead redirected to the court in Copenhagen . Norway lost the steady stream of pilgrims to the relics of St. Olav at the Nidaros shrine , and with them , much of the contact with cultural and economic life in the rest of Europe . Eventually restored as a kingdom ( albeit in legislative union with Denmark ) in 1661 , Norway saw its land area decrease in the 17th century with the loss of the provinces Båhuslen , Jemtland , and Herjedalen to Sweden , as the result of a number of disastrous wars with Sweden . In the north , however , its territory was increased by the acquisition of the northern provinces of Troms and Finnmark , at the expense of Sweden and Russia . The famine of 1695–96 killed roughly 10 % of Norway 's population . The harvest failed in Scandinavia at least nine times between 1740 and 1800 , with great loss of life . Union with Sweden After Denmark–Norway was attacked by the United Kingdom at the Battle of Copenhagen , it entered into an alliance with Napoleon , with the war leading to dire conditions and mass starvation in 1812 . As the Danish kingdom found itself on the losing side in 1814 , it was forced , under terms of the Treaty of Kiel , to cede Norway to the king of Sweden , while the old Norwegian provinces of Iceland , Greenland , and the Faroe Islands remained with the Danish crown . Norway took this opportunity to declare independence , adopted a constitution based on American and French models , and elected the Crown Prince of Denmark and Norway , Christian Frederick , as king on 17 May 1814 . This is the famous Syttende Mai ( Seventeenth of May ) holiday celebrated by Norwegians and Norwegian-Americans alike . Syttende Mai is also called Norwegian Constitution Day . Norwegian opposition to the great powers ' decision to link Norway with Sweden caused the Norwegian-Swedish War to break out as Sweden tried to subdue Norway by military means . As Sweden 's military was not strong enough to defeat the Norwegian forces outright and Norway 's treasury was not large enough to support a protracted war , and as British and Russian navies blockaded the Norwegian coast , the belligerents were forced to negotiate the Convention of Moss . According to the terms of the convention , Christian Frederik abdicated the Norwegian throne and authorised the Parliament of Norway to make the necessary constitutional amendments to allow for the personal union that Norway was forced to accept . On 4 November 1814 the Parliament ( Storting ) elected Charles XIII of Sweden as king of Norway , thereby establishing the union with Sweden . Under this arrangement , Norway kept its liberal constitution and its own independent institutions , except for the foreign service . Following the recession caused by the Napoleonic Wars , economic development of Norway remained slow until economic growth began around 1830 . This period also saw the rise of the Norwegian romantic nationalism , as Norwegians sought to define and express a distinct national character . The movement covered all branches of culture , including literature ( Henrik Wergeland [ 1808–1845 ] , Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson [ 1832–1910 ] , Peter Christen Asbjørnsen [ 1812–1845 ] , Jørgen Moe [ 1813–1882 ] ) , painting ( Hans Gude [ 1825–1903 ] , Adolph Tidemand [ 1814–1876 ] ) , music ( Edvard Grieg [ 1843–1907 ] ) , and even language policy , where attempts to define a native written language for Norway led to today 's two official written forms for Norwegian : Bokmål and Nynorsk . King Charles III John , who came to the throne of Norway and Sweden in 1818 , was the second king following Norway 's break from Denmark and the union with Sweden . Charles John was a complex man whose long reign extended to 1844 . He protected the constitution and liberties of Norway and Sweden during the age of Metternich . As such , he was regarded as a liberal monarch for that age . However , he was ruthless in his use of paid informers , the secret police and restrictions on the freedom of the press to put down public movements for reform—especially the Norwegian national independence movement . The Romantic Era that followed the reign of King Charles III John brought some significant social and political reforms . In 1854 , women won the right to inherit property in their own right just like men . In 1863 , the last trace of keeping unmarried women in the status of minors was removed . Furthermore , women were then eligible for different occupations , particularly the common school teacher . However , by mid-century , Norway was still far from a `` democracy '' . Voting was limited to officials , property owners , leaseholders , and burghers of incorporated towns . There was some dissatisfaction with this system . Still Norway remained a conservative society . Life in Norway ( especially economic life ) was `` dominated by the aristocracy of professional men who filled most of the important posts in the central government . '' There was no strong bourgeosie class in Norway to demand a breakdown of this aristocratic control of the economy . Thus , even while revolution swept over most of the countries of Europe in 1848 , Norway was largely unaffected by revolts that year . Marcus Thrane was a Utopian socialist . He made his appeal to the labouring classes urging a change of social structure `` from below upwards . '' In 1848 , he organised a labour society in Drammen . In just a few months this society had a membership of 500 and was publishing its own newspaper . Within two years 300 societies had been organised all over Norway with a total membership of 20,000 persons . The membership was drawn from the lower classes of both urban and rural areas ; for the first time these two groups felt they had a common cause . In the end , the revolt was easily crushed ; Thrane was captured and in 1855 , after four years in jail , was sentenced to three additional years for crimes against the safety of the state . Upon his release , Marcus Thrane attempted unsuccessfully to revitalize his movement but , after the death of his wife , migrated to the United States . In 1898 , all men were granted universal suffrage , followed by all women in 1913 . Dissolution of the union Christian Michelsen , a shipping magnate and statesman , and Prime Minister of Norway from 1905 to 1907 , played a central role in the peaceful separation of Norway from Sweden on 7 June 1905 . A national referendum confirmed the people 's preference for a monarchy over a republic . No Norwegian could legitimately claim the throne because none was able to prove relationship to medieval royalty and in European tradition royal or `` blue '' blood is a precondition for laying claim to the throne . The government offered the throne of Norway to a prince of the German royal house of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg . Prince Carl of Denmark was unanimously elected king by the Norwegian Parliament , the first king of a fully independent Norway in 508 years ( 1397 : Kalmar Union ) ; he took the name Haakon VII . In 1905 , the country welcomed the prince from neighboring Denmark , his wife Maud of Wales and their young son to re-establish Norway 's royal house . Following centuries of close ties between Norway and Denmark , a prince from the latter was the obvious choice for a European prince who could best relate to the Norwegian people . First and Second World Wars Throughout the First World War , Norway was in principle a neutral country . In reality , however , Norway had been pressured by the British to hand over increasingly large parts of its large merchant fleet to the British at low rates , as well as to join the trade blockade against Germany . Norwegian merchant marine ships , often with Norwegian sailors still on board , were then sailing under the British flag and at risk of being sunk by German submarines . Thus , many Norwegian sailors and ships were lost . Thereafter , the world ranking of the Norwegian merchant navy fell from fourth place to sixth in the world . Norway also proclaimed its neutrality during the Second World War , but despite this it was invaded by German forces on 9 April 1940 . Although Norway was unprepared for the German surprise attack (

odql_10502--Norway.txt

Of which European country did Gro Harlem Bruntland become the first female Prime Minister in 1981, serving three terms between 1981 and 1996?

A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government . Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government , Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside . State citizenship and residency are flexible , and no government approval is required to move between states , except for persons covered by certain types of court orders ( e.g. , paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody ) . States range in population from just under 600,000 ( Wyoming ) to over 38 million ( California ) , and in area from ( Rhode Island ) to ( Alaska ) . Four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names . States are divided into counties or county-equivalents , which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign . County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state . State governments are allocated power by the people ( of each respective state ) through their individual constitutions . All are grounded in republican principles , and each provides for a government , consisting of three branches : executive , legislative , and judicial . States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution ; among them ratifying constitutional amendments . Historically , the tasks of local law enforcement , public education , public health , regulating intrastate commerce , and local transportation and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities , although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well . Over time , the U.S. Constitution has been amended , and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed . The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation , with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did . There is a continuing debate over states ' rights , which concerns the extent and nature of the states ' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals . States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress , a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives . Each state is represented by two Senators , and at least one Representative , while additional representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census . Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College , the body that elects the President of the United States , equal to the total of Representatives and Senators from that state . The Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union . Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 , the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50 . Alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted , both in 1959 . The Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede ( withdraw from ) from the Union . Shortly after the Civil War , the U.S. Supreme Court , in Texas v. White , held that a state can not unilaterally do so . States of the United States The 50 U.S. states ( in alphabetical order ) , along with state flag and date each joined the union : Governments As each state is itself a sovereign entity , it reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way ( within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution ) deemed appropriate by its people . As a result , while the governments of the various states share many similar features , they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance . No two state governments are identical . Constitutions The government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution . Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborate than their federal counterpart . The Constitution of Alabama , for example , contains 310,296 words — more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution . In practice , each state has adopted a three-branch system of government , modeled after the federal government , and consisting of three branches ( although the three-branch structure is not required ) : executive , legislative , and judicial . Executive In each state , the chief executive is called the governor , who serves as both head of state and head of government . The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature , as well as push for the passage of bills supported by the party of the Governor . In 43 states , governors have line item veto power . Most states have a `` plural executive '' in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people . Such additional elected officials serve as members of the executive branch , but are not beholden to the governor and the governor can not dismiss them . For example , the attorney general is elected , rather than appointed , in 43 of the 50 U.S. states . Legislative The legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two chambers : a lower house ( termed the House of Representatives , State Assembly , General Assembly or House of Delegates ) and a smaller upper house , always termed the Senate . The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature , which is composed of only a single chamber . Most states have part-time legislatures , while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures . However , several states with high population have short legislative sessions , including Texas and Florida . In Baker v. Carr ( 1962 ) and Reynolds v. Sims ( 1964 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation ( the one person , one vote standard ) . In practice , most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts , each of which has approximately the same population . Some states , such as Maryland and Vermont , divide the state into single- and multi-member districts , in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations , e.g. , a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one . If the governor vetoes legislation , all legislatures may override it , usually , but not always , requiring a two-thirds majority . In 2013 , there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies . They earned from $ 0 annually ( New Mexico ) to $ 90,526 ( California ) . There were various per diem and mileage compensation . Judicial States can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary , as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process . Most have a trial level court , generally called a District Court or Superior Court , a first-level appellate court , generally called a Court of Appeal ( or Appeals ) , and a Supreme Court . However , Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals . In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court ; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court 's Appellate Division , and from there to the Court of Appeals . Most states base their legal system on English common law ( with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations ) , with the notable exception of Louisiana , a former French colony , which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law . Only a few states choose to have the judges on the state 's courts serve for life terms . In most of the states the judges , including the justices of the highest court in the state , are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years , and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment . Relationships Among states Each state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original States in all respects . With the growth of states ' rights advocacy during the antebellum period , the Supreme Court asserted , in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan ( 1845 ) , that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality . Under Article Four of the United States Constitution , which outlines the relationship between the states , each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other 's legislatures and courts , which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts and criminal judgments , and before 1865 , slavery status . Regardless of the Full Faith and Credit Clause , some legal arrangements , such as professional licensure and marriages , may be state-specific , and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states . Such legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity . States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights , under the Privileges and Immunities Clause . Under the Extradition Clause , a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of `` treason , felony , or other crimes '' in another state if the other state so demands . The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state . With the consent of Congress , states may enter into interstate compacts , agreements between two or more states . Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource , such as transportation infrastructure or water rights . With the federal government Every state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles , such as the consent of the governed . This guarantee has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government . States are also guaranteed protection from invasion , and , upon the application of the state legislature ( or executive , if the legislature can not be convened ) , from domestic violence . This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot , but was not invoked . Since the early 20th century , the Supreme Court has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States to allow greatly expanded scope of federal power over time , at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states ' matters . The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says , `` On the whole , especially after the mid-1880s , the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power . '' In Wickard v. Filburn , the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern . For example , Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines , but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state , based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce . In recent years , the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison . Another example of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and distribute the resulting revenue back to the states ( subject to conditions set by Congress ) . An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways , which include the Interstate Highway System . The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government , and also serves the interests of the states . By threatening to withhold federal highway funds , Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws . An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21 , enacted by each state , brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act . Although some objected that this infringes on states ' rights , the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution 's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole . Admission into the Union Article IV , Section 3 , Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union . Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 , the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50 . Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states . It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress . This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims ( there were 4 in 1787 ) , to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states , and has served this same function since , whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress . Most of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 have been created from organized territories established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV , Section 3 , Clause 2 . The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance ( 1787 ) , which predates the ratification of the Constitution . In some cases , an entire territory has become a state ; in others some part of a territory has . When the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government , Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step towards admission to the Union . Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers . Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice , a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted . Upon acceptance of that constitution , and upon meeting any additional Congressional stipulations , Congress has always admitted that territory as a state . In addition to the original 13 , six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government , or part of one , before being admitted to the Union . Three were set off from an already existing state , two entered the Union after having been sovereign states , and one was established from unorganized territory : * California , 1850 , from land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . * Kentucky , 1792 , from Virginia ( District of Kentucky : Fayette , Jefferson , and Lincoln counties ) Michael P. Riccards , `` Lincoln and the Political Question : The Creation of the State of West Virginia '' Presidential Studies Quarterly , Vol . 27 , 1997 [ http : //www.questia.com/PM.qst ? a o & d=5000522904 online edition ] * Maine , 1820 , from Massachusetts ( District of Maine ) * Texas , 1845 , previously the Republic of Texas * Vermont , 1791 , previously the Vermont Republic ( also known as the New Hampshire Grants and claimed by New York ) * West Virginia , 1863 , from Virginia ( Trans-Allegheny region counties ) during the Civil War Congress is under no obligation to admit states , even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood . Such has been the case numerous times during the nation 's history . In one instance , Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849 . It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress . In another , leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes ( Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek , and Seminole ) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905 , as a means to retain control of their lands . The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress . Instead , the Indian Territory , along with Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907 . The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation . The State of Franklin existed for several years , not long after the end of the American Revolution , but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress , which ultimately recognized North Carolina 's claim of sovereignty over the area . The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory , and ultimately the state of Tennessee . Additionally , the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors . Among them , Michigan Territory , which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835 , was not admitted to the Union until 1837 , due to a boundary dispute the adjoining state of Ohio . The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837 , but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years . Also , statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years ( 1854–61 ) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions . Possible new states Puerto Rico Puerto Rico referred to itself as the `` Commonwealth of Puerto Rico '' in the English version of its constitution , and as `` Estado Libre Asociado '' ( literally , Associated Free State ) in the Spanish version . As with any non-state territory of the United States , its residents do not have voting representation in the federal government . Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. Congress in the form of a Resident Commissioner , a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union , and no voting rights otherwise . A non-binding referendum on statehood , independence , or a new option for an associated territory ( different from the current status ) was held on November 6 , 2012 . Sixty one percent ( 61 % ) of voters chose the statehood option , while one third of the ballots were submitted blank . On December 11 , 2012 , the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico , held on November 6 , 2012 , to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State . Washington , D.C . The intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site , not giving favor to any existing state ; as a result , the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government . The inhabitants of the District do not have full representation in Congress or a sovereign elected government ( they were allotted presidential electors by the 23rd amendment , and have a non-voting delegate in Congress ) . Some residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction—either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part , with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction . Others Various proposals to divide California , usually involving splitting the south half from the north or the urban coastline from the rest of the state , have been advanced since the 1850s . Similarly , numerous proposals to divide New York , all of which involve to some degree the separation of New York City from the rest of the state , have been promoted over the past several decades . The partitioning of either state is , at the present , highly unlikely . Other even less likely possible new states are Guam and the Virgin Islands , both of which are unincorporated organized territories of the United States . Also , either the Northern Mariana Islands or American Samoa , an unorganized , unincorporated territory , could seek statehood . Secession from the Union The Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union . However , its predecessor document , the Articles of Confederation , stated that the United States `` shall be perpetual . '' The question of whether or not individual states held the right to unilateral secession remained a difficult and divisive one until the American Civil War . In 1860 and 1861 , eleven southern states seceded , but following their defeat in the American Civil War were brought back into the Union during the Reconstruction Era . The federal government never recognized the secession of any of the rebellious states . Following the Civil War , the United States Supreme Court , in Texas v. White , held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void . Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution , which states that the Constitution was intended to `` form a more perfect union '' and speaks of the people of the United States in effect as a single body politic , as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation , the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede . However , the court 's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring `` through revolution , or through consent of the States , '' essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union . Commonwealths Four states—Kentucky , Massachusetts , Pennsylvania , and Virginia —adopted Constitutions early in their post-colonial existence identifying themselves as commonwealths , rather than states . These commonwealths are states , but legally , each is a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution . As a result , `` commonwealth '' is used in all public and other state writings , actions or activities within their bounds . The term , which refers to a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people , was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum , the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament 's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England . Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660 , and the word was dropped from the full title . When Virginia adopted its first constitution on June 29 , 1776 , it was reintroduced . Pennsylvania followed suit when it drew up a constitution later that year , as did Massachusetts , in 1780 , and Kentucky , in 1792 . The U.S. territories of the Northern Marianas and Puerto Rico are also referred to as commonwealths . This designation does have a legal status different from that of the 50 states . Both of these commonwealths are unincorporated territories of the United States . Origins of states ' names The 50 states have taken their names from a wide variety of languages . Twenty-four state names originate from Native American languages . Of these , eight are from Algonquian languages , seven are from Siouan languages , three are from Iroquoian languages , one is from Uto-Aztecan languages and five others are from other indigenous languages . Hawaii 's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language . Of the remaining names , 22 are from European languages : Seven from Latin ( mainly Latinized forms of English names ) , the rest are from English , Spanish and French . Eleven states are named after individual people , including seven named for royalty and one named after an American president . The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed . Several of the states that derive their names from ( corrupted ) names used for Native peoples , have retained the plural ending of `` s '' . Geography Borders The borders of the 13 original states were largely determined by colonial charters . Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s . Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories , divided them , and over time , created states within them . Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features ( such as rivers or mountain range peaks ) , and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns . At various times , national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries ( British North America , New France , New Spain including Spanish Florida , and Russian America ) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states . In the West , relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail , due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River . Once established , most state borders have , with few exceptions , been generally stable . Only two states , Missouri ( Platte Purchase ) and Nevada , grew appreciably after statehood . Several of the original states ceded land , over a several year period , to the Federal government , which in turn became the Northwest Territory , Southwest Territory , and Mississippi Territory . In 1791 Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create the District of Columbia ( Virginia 's portion was returned in 1847 ) . In 1850 , Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government . Additionally , Massachusetts and Virginia ( on two occasions ) , have lost land , in each instance to form a new state . There have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys , resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions , or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes . Occasionally the United States Congress or the United States Supreme Court have settled state border disputes . One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York , in which New Jersey won roughly 90 % of Ellis Island from New York in 1998 . Regional grouping States may be grouped in regions ; there are endless variations and possible groupings . Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government . For example , the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions , with nine divisions . The Census Bureau region definition is `` widely used … for data collection and analysis , '' '' The National Energy Modeling System : An Overview 2003 '' ( Report # : DOE/EIA-0581 , October 2009 ) . United States Department of Energy , Energy Information Administration . and is the most commonly used classification system . Other multi-state regions are unofficial , and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines .

odql_1565--U.S._state.txt

Which US state is called 'Old Dominion'?

Travelocity is an online travel agency and was founded and owned by Sabre Corporation . It is now wholly owned by Expedia . Travelocity is based in Dallas , Texas , in the United States . lastminute.com in Europe was a sister site of Travelocity , sold to Swiss-based Bravofly Rumbo in December 2014 . In recent years , businesses and sites once owned and operated by Travelocity , including Travelocity Business , Zuji and IgoUgo , were sold or shut down as Travelocity focused on its core consumer travel business . History American Airlines began offering customer access to its electronic reservation system , Sabre , in 1978 to travel agencies , and in the mid-1980s on the CompuServe Information Service and GEnie to consumers under the `` eAAsySabre '' brand name . This service was extended to America Online in the 1990s . The CEO of the eAAsySabre was Kathy Misunas . Travelocity was created in 1996 as a subsidiary of Sabre Holdings , itself a subsidiary of American Airlines , and was run by long-time Sabre information technology executive Terry Jones . As one of the pioneers of web-based disintermediation , Travelocity.com was the first website that allowed consumers themselves not only to access Sabre 's fare and schedule information , but also to reserve , book , and purchase tickets without the help of a travel agent or broker . In addition to airfares , the site also permits consumers to book hotel rooms , rental cars , cruises and packaged vacations . Travelocity gained momentum after AOL 's travel portal became associated with the brand in 1999 . In 2000 , Sabre negotiated a merger of Travelocity with another early web travel company , Preview Travel . The resulting company was independently quoted on the NASDAQ exchange , with Sabre continuing to own around 70 percent of the combined company 's outstanding stock . In 2002 , with Travelocity 's fortunes suffering from competition including Expedia and Orbitz , Sabre consummated a tender offer for the remainder of the outstanding shares in Travelocity and remerged the business into Sabre as a subsidiary . Jones left the company shortly afterward . Also in March 2002 , Travelocity acquired last minute travel specialist Site59.com . Site59 ’ s CEO and founder , Michelle Peluso joined Travelocity with the acquisition as senior vice president , product strategy and distribution . Peluso became Travelocity ’ s COO in April 2003 and was then named president and chief executive officer of Travelocity in December 2003 . In 2004 , Travelocity introduced `` The Roaming Gnome '' . Voiced by Harry Enfield , the Gnome has been a staple in Travelocity 's advertising ever since . The original campaign was invented by Lisa Shimotakahara and Philip Marchington of McKinney & Silver , an advertising agency in Durham , North Carolina . The tagline , `` You 'll never roam alone '' , was written by John Guynn , a copywriter at the same agency . Avant Garde Studio , with lead artists , Amy Medford and Leonid Siveriver , worked with Philip Marchington to design/create the unique look of `` The Roaming Gnome '' . Avant Garde Studio is also responsible for sculpting and painting the original 3d sculpture prototypes . In 2005 , Travelocity acquired lastminute.com to take in excess of 30 more brands under its banner in the UK . Travelocity has a program called Travel for Good that offers a $ 5000 grant for a selected volunteer to participate in volunteer travel programs with various nonprofit organizations , including Habitat for Humanity , Globe Aware , and the American Hiking Society . Under Peluso ’ s leadership , Travelocity has developed and launched a merchant hotel business , dynamic packaging functionality , and a private-label ( ASP ) distribution network , the Travelocity Partner Network . Many members of Peluso ’ s former management team at Site59 held senior management positions at Travelocity ; namely , Jeffrey Glueck ( Chief Marketing Officer ) , Tracey Weber ( President , North America ) , Josh Hartmann ( Chief Technology Officer ) and Jonathan Perkel ( Senior Vice President and General Counsel ) . On January 8 , 2009 , the company announced that its CEO , Michelle Peluso would tender her resignation in order to get married and focus on bringing up a family , and that she is being replaced by long-time Sabre Sr. Executive , Hugh Jones . In 2011 , president and CEO Hugh Jones moved to sister company Sabre Airline Solutions , and Gilt Groupe president Carl Sparks was brought in as president and CEO of Travelocity . Sparks had been general manager of Hotels.com and before that was chief marketing officer at Expedia . In August 2013 , Expedia Inc. announced it had signed a marketing agreement with Travelocity , where Expedia would power Travelocity 's United States and Canadian points of sale , and Travelocity would focus solely on advertising their website . Beginning in November 2013 , Expedia 's hotel supply began flowing into Travelocity , with expected completion to take place in early 2014 . In May 2014 , CEO Carl Sparks stepped down from his position as CEO of Travelocity . After the departure of Sparks , Roshan Mendis , President of Travelocity was named to manage operations of Travelocity 's operations in the Americas , while Matthew Crummack , CEO of lastminute.com was named to manage operations in Europe . In January 2015 , Travelocity was sold by Sabre Corporation to Expedia , Inc. for $ 280 million . In November 2015 , Travelocity hired Assembly in New York to handle US media . Until then , media had been handled by Publics Groupe 's Zenith Media . Controversies In July 2012 , the U.S. Department of Transportation fined Travelocity $ 180,000 after discovering that Travelocity ’ s “ flexible dates tool ” did not always include fuel surcharges that were part of many international airfares in violation of the Department ’ s rules requiring all carrier-imposed surcharges and fees to be included in every advertised fare . In addition , the DOT found that the customer was informed only on the final page before purchasing the ticket that some itineraries required a paper ticket with a minimum additional delivery fee of $ 29.95 . In August 2012 , Travelocity faced a viral controversy when it offered a $ 200 coupon code to attendees at the National Federation of the Blind annual conference in Dallas . After the NFB posted the code on Twitter without mentioning the attendee restriction , Travelocity retweeted it without noticing the error but deleted the tweet a day later . After some travel blogs and message boards resposted the code , many ineligible travelers used the code . Travelocity responded by cancelling all trips that used the code who were n't on the list of attendees at the NFB annual conference . This resulted in a barrage of complaints from customers angry to see their trips suddenly cancelled . AllHotels AllHotels.com was an online hotel reservation site owned by Travelocity . The site was founded in 1997 by Richard Irwin , acquired by Online Travel Corporation ( OTC ) in 2002 , and later acquired by lastminute.com in 2004 . AllHotels joined the Travelocity portfolio of companies through Travelocity 's acquisition of lastminute.com in 2005 . AllHotels was a hotel only site where customers book online , but pay the hotel at checkout . Travelocity Business Travelocity Business was a full-service corporate travel agency that allowed companies to plan , buy and manage their travel through its online and offline capabilities . Travelocity Business was sold to Atlanta , Georgia-based BCD Travel on June 18 , 2013 and to Bellevue , Washington-based Expedia on January 23 , 2015 .

qg_4434--Travelocity.txt

What online travel agency uses The Roaming Gnome as its' TV spokesperson?

Hopes and Fears is the debut studio album by English alternative rock band Keane . It was released on 10 May 2004 in the United Kingdom and topped the UK Albums Chart upon release . It was the second best-selling British album of 2004 , behind Scissor Sisters ' self-titled album , and has since been certified 9× Platinum by BPI . The album returned to the top of the charts after winning a Brit Award for Best Album in February 2005 . With more than 2.7 million copies sold in the UK , Hopes and Fears ranked the 11th-best-selling album of the 2000s in the UK . In July 2011 , it was ranked the 9th biggest-selling album of the 21st century in the UK . Worldwide , the album had sold over 5.8 million copies as of November 2009 . Album information Unlike with their follow up album , most songs were already composed by the album 's conception date ; the track `` She Has No Time '' was composed circa 1999 , making it the earliest composed song appearing on the album , and the remaining were composed just after former member Dominic Scott 's departure in July 2001 . The tracks `` On a Day Like Today '' and `` We Might As Well Be Strangers '' became the last to be composed , circa 2003 . The album was recorded at Helioscentric Studios in Peasmarsh , Rye by Andy Green and the band between September and Christmas 2003 . James Sanger did not attend any recording sessions post his involvement with the band in 2001 . The album takes its name from the song `` Snowed Under '' , released as a B-side on the single for `` Somewhere Only We Know '' . Hal Leonard music published two versions of the official score book for Hopes and Fears , designed for differing skill levels . The Music Sales Group also published a book , including two demo CDs with accompanying bass and drum tracks , along with scores for the B-side songs `` Snowed Under '' , `` Walnut Tree '' and `` Fly to Me '' . The objects on the cover of Hopes and Fears are piano hammers in allusion to the band 's characteristic piano sound . The many different versions of the album can be distinguished by the colour of the artwork . The original UK version has a dark green cover , the European version a black one , the US version white ; the international version has a red-brown scheme , and the Japanese version is blue . The original British one includes the track `` On a Day Like Today '' and the tracklist order differs from the European version . The Japanese version includes `` Allemande '' . The typeface selected for this , and for all Keane releases off the album was the font Cochin , designed originally in 1912 . The modern italic design of the letters was also followed with similar fonts by some fansites , such as former British site [ http : //www.keaneshaped.co.uk Keaneshaped ] . The cover single `` The Sun Ai n't Gon na Shine Anymore '' was , however , released with a different font , as it was released by the War Child website , not by Island . Singles Critical reception Hopes and Fears received generally positive reviews from critics . Review aggregating website Metacritic , which reports a normalized score of 61/100 , based on 18 reviews , indicating `` generally favourable '' reviews . Playlouder was very positive , calling it `` one of the best albums you 'll hear this year '' , as was Q magazine , which gave it four out of five stars and said that `` as a debut album , its confidence is right up there with [ Oasis 's ] Definitely Maybe . '' AllMusic , giving the album three and a half out of five stars , praised its `` beautiful , emotive dalliance of instrumentation '' , singer Tom Chaplin 's `` rich vocals '' and the band 's `` open-hearted ambition ... audible on every song '' , while Rolling Stone noted that the album `` contains more hooks than most pop groups manage in their careers . '' In a mixed 3-star review , The Guardian criticised the first half the album for `` rely [ ing ] too heavily on Chaplin 's show-stopping vocals '' and for the `` radio-friendly simplicity of the lyrics '' , while praising 'Ca n't Stop Now ' as a `` swooning , epic pop song '' and 'Untitled 1 's `` booming drum and bass '' on the second half . Drowned in Sound gave it 5 out of 10 , accusing Keane of excessively imitating Coldplay ( specifically comparing 'Your Eyes Open ' and 'On a Day Like Today ' with , respectively , 'Daylight ' and 'Politik ' on the band 's album A Rush of Blood to the Head ) , criticising the album as being `` stylistically all over the place '' and its lyrics as being `` immature '' and `` cringe-worthy '' . However , it gave credit to the album 's `` fine moments '' , praising lead single 'Somewhere Only We Know ' , for example , as `` breathtaking '' . Legacy In 2006 , British Hit Singles & Albums and NME organised a poll in which 40,000 people worldwide voted for the 100 best albums ever and Hopes and Fears was placed at # 51 on the list . The album too ranked # 5 in Amazon.co.uk 's Best Selling Album of the Decade . In 2005 the album won the BRIT Awards of best album In 2010 the album was nominated for Brit awards in the category Album of 30 Years ; however , it lost to Oasis 's ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? In 2011 , Q magazine made a list called 250 Best Albums of Q 's Lifetime 1986-2010 and the album appeared at number 34 . Track listing Deluxe edition Issued in 2009 . The first CD includes the original tracklist , as seen above , plus tracks 13-19 . The second CD presents B-sides , early singles and other rare tracks . Personnel Keane * Tom Chaplin – lead vocals * Tim Rice-Oxley – piano , keyboards , bass , vocals * Richard Hughes – drums Additional personnel * Andy Green – programming and production * Mark `` Spike '' Stent - Mixing Charts and certifications Charts Certifications | } Bonus DVD A CD+DVD version was released internationally over the course of 2005 . This version included two bonus tracks , `` Snowed Under '' and a remix dance version of `` We Might as Well Be Strangers '' by DJ Shadow . The DVD contained the four international videos for `` Somewhere Only We Know '' , `` Everybody 's Changing '' , `` Bedshaped '' and `` This is the Last Time '' , and the US video for `` Somewhere Only We Know '' . This version of Hopes and Fears featured also a different box cover design ; white and with Keane 's `` Everybody 's Changing '' promotional image . The inner 2-CD box had the same cover as the international version . Track listing # '' Somewhere Only We Know '' ( international version video ) # '' Somewhere Only We Know '' ( US version video ) # '' Everybody 's Changing '' ( version 1 video ) # '' Bedshaped '' ( video ) # '' This Is the Last Time '' ( version 4 video ) Japanese version # Keane 30-second TV advertisement # '' Somewhere Only We Know '' ( live ) # '' She Has No Time '' ( live ) # '' This Is the Last Time '' ( live ) # '' We Might As Well Be Strangers '' ( live ) # '' Everybody 's Changing '' ( live ) # '' Bedshaped '' ( live ) # '' Somewhere Only We Know '' ( international version video )

sfq_1192--Hopes_and_Fears.txt

Which group has had hits with the albums 'Hopes and Fears', and `Under the Iron Sea'?

Jack Daniel 's is a brand of Tennessee whiskey and the top selling American whiskey in the world . It is produced in Lynchburg , Tennessee , by the Jack Daniel Distillery , which has been owned by the Brown-Forman Corporation since 1956 . Despite being the location of a major operational distillery , Jack Daniel 's home county of Moore is a dry county , so the product is not available for consumption at stores or restaurants within the county . The product meets the regulatory criteria for classification as a straight bourbon , though the company disavows this classification and markets it simply as Tennessee whiskey rather than as Tennessee bourbon.Cowdery , Charles K. , [ http : //chuckcowdery.blogspot.com/2009/12/favorite-whiskey-myths-debunked.html Favorite whiskey myths debunked ] , The Chuck Cowdery Blog , December 16 , 2009 . ( Accessed January 2011 . ) Cowdery , Charles K. , [ http : //chuckcowdery.blogspot.com/2009/02/tennessee-whiskey-versus-bourbon.html Tennessee Whiskey Versus Bourbon Whiskey ] , The Chuck Cowdery Blog , February 21 , 2009 . ( Accessed January 2011 . ) As defined in the North American Free Trade Agreement , Tennessee Whiskey is classified as a straight bourbon authorized to be produced in the state of Tennessee.North American Free Trade Agreement [ http : //www.nafta-sec-alena.org/Default.aspx ? tabid 97 & ctlSectionView & mid 1588 & sid2d3a1faf-08c1-4bec-81e3-dce96918011b & language en-US # An313 Chapter Three : National Treatment and Market Access for Goods ] , NAFTA , January 1 , 1994 . Packaged in distinctive square bottles , a total of 11 million cases of the flagship `` Black Label '' product were sold in the company 's fiscal year ended April 30 , 2013 . Early history The Jack Daniel 's brand 's official website suggests that its founder , Jasper Newton `` Jack '' Daniel , was born in 1850 ( and his tombstone bears that date ) , but says his exact birth date is unknown . The company website says it is customary to celebrate his birthday in September . [ http : //www.jackdaniels.com/ `` People '' section of Jack Daniel 's website ] . Retrieved : March 20 , 2014 . The Tennessee state library website said in 2013 that records list his birth date as September 5 , 1846 , and that the 1850 birth date seems impossible since his mother died in 1847 . In the 2004 biography Blood & Whiskey : The Life and Times of Jack Daniel , author Peter Krass said his investigation showed that Daniel was born in January 1849 ( based on Jack 's sister 's diary , census records and the date of death of Jack 's mother ) . [ http : //www.c-span.org/video/ ? 182362-1/book-discussion-blood-whiskey-jack-daniel Book Discussion : Blood & Whiskey : The Life and Times of Jack Daniel ] , C-SPAN . Jack was one of 13 children fathered by Calaway Daniel and was the youngest of his mother 's 10 children . After Daniel 's mother , Lucinda Cook Daniel , died , his father remarried and had several more children . Jack Daniel 's grandfather , Joseph `` Job '' Daniel , emigrated from Wales along with his Scottish wife , Elizabeth Calaway , to the United States.Jeanne Ridgway Bigger , `` Jack Daniel 's Distillery and Lynchburg : A Visit to Moore County , Tennessee '' , Tennessee Historical Quarterly , Vol . 31 , No . 1 ( Spring 1972 ) , pp . 3-21 . He was of Welsh , Scottish , English , and Scots-Irish descent . Daniel 's father died in the Civil War , and he despised his step-mother , and as a result he ran away from home and was essentially orphaned at a young age . Daniel was taken in by a local lay preacher and moonshine distiller named Dan Call and began learning the distilling trade as a teenager from Call and Call 's Master Distiller Nearis , sometimes spelled Nearest , Green , an enslaved African American man , who continued to work with Call after emancipation . In 1875 , on receiving an inheritance from his father 's estate ( following a long dispute with his siblings ) , Daniel founded a legally registered distilling business with Call . He took over the distillery shortly afterward when Call quit for religious reasons . The brand label on the product says `` Est . & Reg . in 1866 '' , but his biographer has cited official registration documents to assert that the business was not established until 1875 . ( page 7 saying `` after he was born in 1849 '' , and page 19 saying `` By the time Jack was born in January 1849 , ... '' ) After taking over the distillery , in 1884 Daniel purchased the hollow and land where the distillery is now located . By the 1880s , Jack Daniel 's was one of 15 distilleries operating in Moore County , and the second-most productive behind Tom Eaton 's Distillery.Carroll Van West , Megan Dobbs , and Brian Eades , [ http : //digital.mtsu.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15838coll4/id/2273/rec/94 National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form for Lynchburg Historic District ] , Southern Places Database ( MTSU Center for Historic Preservation ) , 1995 . He began using square-shaped bottles in 1897 , with the square shape of the bottle intended to convey a sense of fairness and integrity . According to Daniel 's biographer , the origin of the `` Old No . 7 '' brand name was the number assigned to Daniel 's distillery for government registration . He was forced to change the registration number when the federal government redrew the district and he became Number 16 in district 5 instead of No . 7 in district 4 . However , he continued to use his original number as a brand name , since his brand reputation already had been established . Jack Daniel 's experienced a surge in popularity after the whiskey received the gold medal for the finest whiskey at the 1904 St. Louis World 's Fair , although his local reputation was suffering as the temperance movement was gaining strength . Jack Daniel never married and did not have any children . However , he took his nephews under his wing – one of whom was Lemuel `` Lem '' Motlow ( 1869–1947 ) . Lem , a son of Daniel 's sister , Finetta , was skilled with numbers and was soon doing all of the distillery 's bookkeeping . In 1907 , due to failing health , Jack Daniel gave the distillery to two of his nephews . Motlow soon bought out the other nephew and went on to operate the distillery for about 40 years . Tennessee passed a statewide prohibition law in 1910 , effectively barring the legal distillation of Jack Daniel 's within the state . Motlow challenged the law in a test case that eventually worked its way to the Tennessee Supreme Court . The court upheld the law as constitutional , however . Daniel died in 1911 from blood poisoning . An oft-told tale is that the infection began in one of his toes , which Daniel injured one early morning at work by kicking his safe in anger when he could not get it open ( he was said to always have had trouble remembering the combination ) . However , Daniel 's modern biographer has asserted that the story is not true . Because of the prohibition in Tennessee , the company began distilling operations in St Louis , Missouri , and Birmingham , Alabama , though none of the production from these locations was ever sold due to quality problems . The Alabama operation was halted following a similar statewide prohibition law in that state , and the St. Louis operation was halted by the onset of nationwide prohibition following passage of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1920 . While the passage of the Twenty-first Amendment in 1933 repealed prohibition at the federal level , state prohibition laws ( including Tennessee 's ) remained in effect , thus preventing the Lynchburg distillery from reopening . Motlow , who had become a Tennessee state senator , led efforts to repeal these laws , allowing production to restart in 1938 . The five-year gap between national repeal and Tennessee repeal was commemorated in 2008 with a gift pack of two bottles , one for the 75th anniversary of the end of prohibition and a second commemorating the 70th anniversary of the reopening of the distillery . The Jack Daniel 's distillery ceased operations from 1942 to 1946 when the U.S. government banned the manufacture of whiskey due to World War II . Motlow resumed production of Jack Daniel 's in 1947 after good-quality corn was again available . Motlow died the same year . He bequeathed the distillery to his children , Robert , Reagor , Dan , Conner and Mary , upon his death . The company was later incorporated as `` Jack Daniel Distillery , Lem Motlow , Prop. , Inc. '' This has allowed the company to continue to include Lem Motlow , who died in 1947 , in its marketing , since mentioning him in the advertising is technically just citing the full corporate name . Likewise , the advertisements continue to use Lynchburg 's 1960s-era population figure of 361 , though the city has since formed a consolidated city-county government with Moore County , and its official population had thus grown to over 6,000 by the 2010 census . The company was sold to the Brown-Forman Corporation in 1956 . The Jack Daniel 's Distillery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 . In 2012 , a Welshman , Mark Evans , claimed to have discovered the original recipe for Daniel 's whiskey , in a book written in 1853 by his great-great-grandmother , whose brother-in-law emigrated to Tennessee . Moore County , where the Jack Daniel 's distillery is located , is one of the state 's many dry counties . Therefore , while it is legal to distill the product within the county , it is illegal to purchase it there . However , a state law has provided one exception : a distillery may sell one commemorative product , regardless of county statutes . Jack Daniel 's now sells Gentleman Jack , Jack Daniel 's Single Barrel , the original No . 7 blend ( in a commemorative bottle ) , and a seasonal blend ( on rotation ) at the distillery 's White Rabbit Bottle Shop . Recent history Lowering to 80 proof Until 1987 , Jack Daniel 's black label was historically produced at 90 U.S. proof ( 45 % alcohol by volume ) . The lower-end green label product was 80 proof . However , starting in 1987 , the other label variations also were reduced in proof . This began with black label being initially reduced to 86 proof . Both the black and green label expressions are made from the same ingredients ; the difference is determined by professional tasters , who decide which of the batches would be sold under the `` premium '' black label , with the rest being sold as `` standard '' green label . A further dilution began in 2002 when all generally available Jack Daniel 's products were reduced to 80 proof ( including the black label , which had been 86 proof since 1987 and was 90 proof before that ) , thus further lowering production costs and excise taxes . [ http : //adage.com/article/news/weaker-jack-daniel-s-spirits-strongman/103213/ `` Weaker Jack Daniel 's Becomes Spirits Strongman '' ] , Advertising Age , May 16 , 2005 . This reduction in alcohol content , which was done without any announcement , publicity or change of logo or packaging , was noticed and condemned by Modern Drunkard Magazine , and the magazine formed a petition drive for drinkers who disagreed with the change . The company countered that they believed consumers preferred lower-proof products , and said that the change had not hurt the sales of the brand . The petition effort garnered some publicity and collected more than 13,000 signatures , but the company held firm with its decision . [ http : //drunkard.com/archive/editors_archive/jack_news_front.html `` A Legacy Betrayed '' ] , Modern Drunkard Magazine , 2002 . A few years later , Advertising Age said in 2005 that `` virtually no one noticed '' the change , and confirmed that sales of the brand had actually increased since the dilution began ( though it does not suppose any causes for that increase ) . Jack Daniel 's has also produced higher-proof special releases and premium-brand expressions at times . A one-time limited run of 96 proof , the highest proof Jack Daniel 's had ever bottled at that time , was bottled for the 1996 Tennessee Bicentennial in a decorative bicentennial bottle . The distillery debuted its 94 proof `` Jack Daniel 's Single Barrel '' in February 1997 . The Silver Select Single Barrel was the company 's highest proof at 100 , but is available only in duty-free shops . Now , there are 'single barrel barrel proof editions , ranging from 125-140 proof . Sales and brand value status Jack Daniel 's Black Label Tennessee Whiskey remains the flagship product of the Brown-Forman Corporation . In the fiscal year ended April 30 , 2013 , the company sold a total of 11 million cases of the beverage . In the IWSR 2013 World Class Brands rankings of wine and spirits brands , Jack Daniel 's was ranked third on the global level . In 2014 , the brand evaluation consultancy Intangible Business ranked Jack Daniel 's fourth on its global list of top wine and spirits brands . Sponsorships From 2006 until 2015 , Jack Daniel 's sponsored V8 Supercar teams Perkins Engineering and Kelly Racing . Jack Daniel 's also sponsored the Richard Childress Racing 07 car ( numbered after the `` Old No . 7 '' ) in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series from 2005 to 2009 . Jack Daniel 's also sponsors Zac Brown Bands Tour . Master distillers Jeff Arnett , a company employee since 2001 , became Jack Daniel 's master distiller in 2008 . He is the seventh person to hold the position in the distillery 's history . His predecessor , Jimmy Bedford , held the position for 20 years . Bedford retired in mid-2008 after being the subject of a $ 3.5 million sexual harassment lawsuit against the company that ended in an out-of-court settlement , and he died on August 7 , 2009 , after suffering a heart attack at his home in Lynchburg.Hevesi , Dennis . [ http : //www.nytimes.com/2009/08/11/business/11bedford.html `` Jimmy Bedford , Guardian of Jack Daniel ’ s , Dies at 69 '' ] , The New York Times , August 10 , 2009 . Accessed August 11 , 2009 . Other former Master Distillers include Jess Motlow ( 1911–41 ) , Lem Tolley ( 1941–64 ) , Jess Gamble ( 1964–66 ) and Frank Bobo ( 1966–92 ) . Tennessee Squires A Tennessee Squire is a member of the Tennessee Squire Association , which was formed in 1956 to honor special friends of the Jack Daniel 's distillery . Many prominent business and entertainment professionals are included among the membership , which is obtained only through recommendation of a current member . Squires receive a wallet card and deed certificate proclaiming them as `` owner '' of an unrecorded plot of land at the distillery and an honorary citizen of Moore County , Tennessee . Production process The mash for Jack Daniel 's is made from corn , rye and malted barley , and is distilled in copper stills . It is then filtered through 10 ft stacks of sugar maple charcoal . The company refers to this filtering step as `` mellowing '' . This extra step , known as the Lincoln County Process , removes impurities and the taste of corn . The company argues this extra step makes the product different from bourbon . However , Tennessee whiskey is required to be `` a straight Bourbon Whiskey '' under terms of the North American Free Trade Agreement and Canadian law . [ http : //laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/C.R.C.-C.870/page-1.html # anchorbo-ga : l_B-gb : l_2 Canada Food and Drug regulations , C.R.C . C.870 , provision B.02.022.1 ] After the filtering , the whiskey is stored in newly handcrafted oak barrels , which give the whiskey its color and most of its flavor . A distinctive aspect of the filtering process is that the Jack Daniel 's brand grinds its charcoal before using it for filtering . The product label mentions that it is a `` sour mash '' whiskey , which means that when the mash is prepared , some of the wet solids from a previously used batch are mixed in to help make the fermentation process operate more consistently . This is common practice in American whiskey production . ( , all currently produced straight bourbon is produced using the sour mash process . ) After being used for the aging of Jack Daniel 's whiskey , many barrels go to Scotland to be used in the production of Scotch whisky . Some barrels are leased from Glenmorangie distillery . Some of the barrels are sold to McIlhenny Company of Avery Island , Louisiana , for production of Tabasco sauce and to both the Mount Gay Rum company of Barbados and Appleton Estate of Jamaica for use in the aging process of their distinctively flavored rums . Some barrels are also cut in half and shipped to Lowe 's Home Centers to be used as planter pots . They retain the whiskey smell for some time after arriving there and must be watered every couple of days to keep them intact before they are sold and filled with soil . Legal status On a state level , Tennessee has imposed stringent requirements . To be labeled as Tennessee Whiskey , it is not enough under state law that the whiskey be produced in Tennessee ; it must meet quality and production standards . These are the same standards used by Jack Daniel 's Distillery , and some other distillers are displeased with the requirements being enshrined into law . On May 13 , 2013 , Tennessee Governor Bill Haslam signed House Bill 1084 , requiring the Lincoln County process to be used for products produced in the state labeling themselves as `` Tennessee Whiskey '' , with a particular exception tailored to exempt Benjamin Prichard 's , and including the existing requirements for bourbon . As federal law requires statements of origin on labels to be accurate , the Tennessee law effectively gives a firm definition to Tennessee whiskey , requiring Tennessee origin , maple charcoal filtering by the Lincoln County process prior to aging , and the basic requirements of bourbon ( at least 51 % corn , new oak barrels , charring of the barrels and limits on alcohol by volume concentration for distillation , aging and bottling ) . In 2014 , legislation was introduced in the Tennessee legislature that would modify the 2013 law to allow the reuse of oak barrels in the Tennessee whiskey aging process . Jack Daniel 's Master Distiller Jeff Arnett vehemently opposed the legislation , arguing the reuse of barrels would require the use of artificial colorings and flavorings , and would render Tennessee whiskey an inferior product to scotches and bourbons . The company also has been the subject of a proposal to locally surtax its product . It is claimed that the distillery , which is the main employer in a company town , has capitalized on the bucolic image of Lynchburg , Tennessee , and it ought to pay a tax of $ 10 per barrel . The company responded that such a tax is a confiscatory imposition penalizing it for the success of the enterprise . The proposed tax faced a vote by the Metro Lynchburg-Moore County Council and was defeated 10-5 . Labels * Old No . 7 : Also known as Black Label , this is the original Jack Daniel 's ( 80 proof/40 % ABV ) * Gentleman Jack : Charcoal filtered twice , compared to once with Old No . 7 ( 80 proof/40 % ABV ) . * Single Barrel : Whiskey sourced from a single barrel in the company 's warehouse ( 94 proof/47 % ABV ) . * Tennessee Honey : Honey liqueur blended with less than 20 % whiskey ( 70 proof/35 % ABV ) . * Tennessee Fire : Cinnamon liqueur blended with less than 20 % whiskey ( 70 proof/35 % ABV ) . * Green Label : A lighter-bodied bottling of Old No . 7 , not available everywhere ( 80 proof/40 % ABV ) . * 1907 : A lighter , slightly sweeter bottling of Old No . 7 , from the cooler area 's of the warehouse and sold in the Australian market ( 74 proof/37 % ABV ) . * Silver Select : For export only ( 100 proof/50 % ABV ) . * Winter Jack : Seasonal blend of apple cider liqueur and spices ( 30 proof/15 % ABV ) . * No . 27 Gold : Limited release ( 80 proof/40 % ABV ) * Sinatra Select : Tribute to Jack ’ s biggest fan : Mr. Frank Sinatra ( 90 proof / 45 % ABV ) * Sinatra Century : Honors the 100th birthday of Frank Sinatra ( 100 proof / 50 % ABV ) ; Limited Edition * Single Barrel Barrel Proof ( 125 - 140 proof / 62.5 - 70 % ABV , depending on the bottle you get ) * Single Barrel Rye : a permanent line extension and the brand 's first fully matured rye whiskey , launched 2016 ( 94 proof/47 % ABV ) Special bottlings The company has done special bottlings , sometimes to commemorate special events . 1970s and 1980s * Maxwell House ( 1971 ) : The Maxwell House Hotel in Nashville , Tennessee , was famous for more than just its coffee . This decanter is a replica of a bottle originally designed by Lem Motlow . In 1905 , Motlow filled the bottle with Jack Daniel 's whiskey and sent it to the hotel . * Belle of Lincoln ( 1979 ) : Before 1871 , the area that comprises Lynchburg and portions of Moore County was part of the larger Lincoln County , and “ Belle of Lincoln ” was one of the earliest names under which Jack Daniel sold his whiskey . This commemorative bottle was personally created by Jack Daniel himself 90 proof . * Tribute to Tennessee ( 1982 ) : This was released for the 1982 World 's Fair in Knoxville , Tennessee . * Inaugural ( 1984 ) : In 1907 , Jack Daniel traveled to Nashville to hear President Theodore Roosevelt speak . The `` Inaugural '' decanter was released on the 80th anniversary of Roosevelt 's presidency . It would commemorate Jack Daniel 's admiration of the 26th president . 90 proof . * Silver Cornet ( 1986 ) : When Jack Daniel opened The White Rabbit and Red Dog saloons in Lynchburg in 1892 , he thought of a novel way to attract people to the town square . Daniel recruited townspeople and distillery workers as musicians for his new band . * Riverboat Captain ( 1987 ) : In Daniel 's day , the Cumberland River was a major thoroughfare for riverboats hauling cotton , tobacco and passengers , with Nashville being a major port of call 90 proof and 86 proof . 1990s * 125th Anniversary ( 1990 ) : Because the company claims the distillery was established in 1866 , it issued a 125th anniversary commemorative bottling in 1990 . * 1895 Replica ( 1992 ) : The first official square bottle was released in 1895 and embossed with the words “ Old Time Distillery No . 7 Jack Daniel Distiller Lynchburg , Tenn. ” To pay tribute to this original square bottle , the distillery released an exact replica in 1992 . * Barrelhouse No . 1 ( 1994 ) : Barrelhouse 1 is one of the oldest warehouses at the Distillery . This bottle commemorates one of the oldest aging houses on the grounds of the distillery . The barrelhouses were built in 1912 . These buildings are seven stories tall and have proven ideal for aging whiskey . 94 proof . * Tennessee Bicentennial ( 1996 ) : A one-time limited run of 96 proof , the highest proof Jack Daniel 's had ever bottled at that time , was bottled for the 1996 celebration in a decorative bicentennial bottle . * Jack Daniels Monogram ( 1998 , 2004 , 2009 ) : Jack Daniels Monogram is a whiskey that the company used to make for the Asian Markets . The bottle was sold with a leather sleeve . It has the JD monogram in gold in the middle of the bottle . 94 proof . When it was introduced in 2009 , the Monogram bottle was a limited release for the state of Tennessee only . However , even though 2009 was the first year this bottle was available in the United States , it actually was released internationally in 1998 and then again in 2004 . 2000s * 75th Anniversary ( 2008 ) : Released for the 75th anniversary of the 21st Amendment of the U.S. Constitution , which repealed national prohibition . 90 proof . * 70th Anniversary ( 2008 ) : Twenty-eight years after Prohibition closed the doors to the Jack Daniel Distillery , the distillery returned to making whiskey the way Jack Daniel did . This bottle celebrates the repeal of prohibition and to the reopening of the distillery . 90 proof . * Oregon 's 150th Birthday ( 2009 ) : ... It was to celebrate the 150th birthday of this diverse and beautiful state that Jack Daniel ’ s released a special commemorative bottle in 2009 . This 750 ml bottle was very limited in its release ... 86 proof . 2010s * American Forests ( 2010 ) : To celebrate the 40th anniversary of Earth Day in 2010 , Jack Daniel ’ s and American Forests partnered to help restore damaged ecosystems by planting one tree for every limited edition bottle sold . * Gentleman 's Jack Limited Edition ( 2010 ) : Even though twice-filtered Gentleman Jack whiskey has risen in popularity since its introduction in 1988 , the company had not issued any special bottlings of it until 2010 when the first Limited Edition Gentleman Jack Commemorative Bottle was released . Using the design of the current 4th Generation Gentleman Jack bottle , the distillery produced this commemorative bottle with an image on the back rather than on the more commonly used front . * Mr. Jack ’ s 160th Birthday ( 2010 ) : This is packaged in a special black bottle . 80 proof . * Mr. Jack 's 161st Birthday ( 2011 ) : The special edition of Jack Daniel 's , bottled in honor of Daniel 's 161st birthday . This has a modified bottle shape with a black wrap . 80 proof . * Angelo Lucchesi 90th Birthday ( 2011 ) : Angelo Lucchesi began working for the Jack Daniel 's in 1953 as the distillery ’ s first salesman . 90 proof . * Old No . 7 : 1 Million Cases ( UK ) ( 2011 ) : An incredibly rare bottle of Jack Daniel 's . This was produced to celebrate the sale of 1 million cases of JD in the UK in 2011 . Only a handful of these were produced - a real collector 's item . 80 proof . * White Rabbit Saloon ( 2012 ) : This commemorates the 120th anniversary of the opening of Jack Daniel 's saloon of the same name . 86 proof . * Unaged Tennessee Rye ( 2013 ) : Jack Daniel 's first new grain bill since the lift of Prohibition , rye is featured predominantly in the mash of this product rather than corn . The first batch is the run straight from the still and has not been kept in barrels . Only unaged corn spirits may be called whiskey , thus unaged Tennessee Rye is labeled as `` Spirits Distilled From Rye . 80 proof . * Sinatra Select ( 2013 ) : A Tennessee whiskey sourced from deeply charred oak barrels and bottled at 90 proof . Meant to tribute Frank Sinatra , it comes with a private invitation to Jack Daniel 's Country Club . * Rested Tennessee Rye ( 2014 ) : From

sfq_17193--Jack_Daniel's.txt

Lynchburg the home of Jack Daniels whisky is in which US State?

The Muppet Movie is a 1979 musical road comedy film and the first theatrical film featuring the Muppets . Directed by James Frawley and produced by Jim Henson , the film 's screenplay was written by The Muppet Show writers Jerry Juhl and Jack Burns . An American and British venture produced by Henson Associates and ITC Entertainment between the third and fourth seasons of The Muppet Show , the film depicts Kermit the Frog as he embarks on a cross-country trip to Hollywood , California . Along the way , he encounters several of the Muppets—who all share the same ambition of finding success in professional show business—while being pursued by Doc Hopper , a relentless restaurateur with intentions of employing Kermit as a spokesperson for his frog legs business . Notable for its surreal humour , meta-references and prolific use of cameos , The Muppet Movie was released in the United Kingdom on May 31 , 1979 and in the United States on June 22 , 1979 , and received critical praise ; including two Academy Award nominations for Paul Williams and Kenneth Ascher 's musical score and their song , `` Rainbow Connection '' . In 2009 , The Muppet Movie was deemed `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry . Plot The Muppets have gathered in a theatre , in a Hollywood movie studio , to screen their new biographical film , The Muppet Movie . In the film-within-a-film , Kermit the Frog enjoys a relaxing afternoon in a Florida swamp , strumming his banjo and singing `` Rainbow Connection '' , when he is approached by Bernie , a Hollywood agent who encourages Kermit to pursue a career in show business . Inspired by the idea of `` making millions of people happy '' , Kermit sets off on a cross-country trip to Los Angeles , but is soon pursued by entrepreneur Doc Hopper and his shy assistant Max in an attempt to convince Kermit to be the new spokesman of his struggling French-fried frog legs restaurant franchise , to Kermit 's horror . As Kermit continuously declines Doc 's offers , Hopper resorts to increasingly vicious means of persuasion . Meeting Fozzie Bear , who works as a hapless comedian in the El Sleezo Cafe , Kermit invites Fozzie to accompany him . The two set out in a 1951 Studebaker loaned to Fozzie by his hibernating uncle . The duo ’ s journey includes misadventures which introduce them to a variety of eccentric human and Muppet characters , including Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem and their manager Scooter , who receives a copy of the script from the pair ( one of a number of self-references ) at an old Presbyterian church ; Gonzo , who works as a plumber , and his girlfriend Camilla the Chicken ; Sweetums , who runs after them after they mistakenly think that he has turned them down at a used car lot ; and the immediately love-stricken Miss Piggy at a fair . While Kermit and Miss Piggy form a relationship over dinner that night , Doc Hopper and Max kidnap Miss Piggy to lure Kermit into a trap . Using an electronic cerebrectomy device , scientist Professor Krassman ( decides to brainwash Kermit in an attempt to force Kermit to perform in Doc ’ s commercials until an infuriated Miss Piggy knocks out Doc Hopper 's henchmen and causes the scientist to be brainwashed by his own device . After receiving a job offer , however , she promptly abandons a devastated Kermit . After an incident in the theater where the projector briefly breaks down , with film tangled around the Swedish Chef , who was the projectionist , the film starts up again . Having been joined by Rowlf the Dog and reunited with Miss Piggy , the Muppets continue their journey . Fozzie 's 1946 Ford Woodie station wagon trade-in breaks down in the New Mexico desert . During a campfire that night , the group sadly considers that they may miss the audition tomorrow , and Kermit wanders off , ashamed of himself for seemingly bringing his friends on a fruitless journey . Upon consulting a more optimistic vision of himself , Kermit remembers that it was not just his friends ' belief in the dream that brought them this far , but also his own faith in himself . Reinvigorated , he returns to camp to find that the Electric Mayhem and Scooter have read the script in advance , and arrived to help them the rest of the way . Just as it seems they are finally on their way , the group is warned by Max that Doc Hopper has hired an assassin named Snake Walker to kill Kermit . Kermit decides he will not be hunted down by a bully any longer and proposes a Western-style showdown in a nearby ghost town occupied by Dr. Bunsen Honeydew and his assistant Beaker , who invent materials that have yet to be tested . While confronting Hopper , Kermit explains his motivations , attempting to appeal to Hopper ’ s own hopes and dreams , but Hopper is unmoved and orders his henchmen to kill him and all his friends . They are saved only when one of Dr. Bunsen 's inventions , `` insta-grow '' pills , temporarily turns Animal into a giant , causing Hopper and his men to flee . The Muppets proceed to Hollywood , and after getting by his secretary , Miss Tracy , via causing her allergic reactions to their dander and fur , are hired by producer and studio executive Lew Lord . The Muppets attempt to make their first movie involving a surreal pastiche of their experiences . The first take goes awry when Gonzo , holding pastiche versions of the balloons he flew away on earlier , crashes into the rainbow , breaking it in half and sending it falling onto the rest of the set , bringing it down as well , then Crazy Harry pulls two levers in the control room , which overloads the electricity circuits and causes enough of an explosion to blow a hole in the roof of the studio . However , in their stunned silence of the whole chain of events , a rainbow suddenly shines through the hole into the studio right onto the Muppets . The Muppets , joined by the characters from The Muppet Show , Sesame Street , Emmet Otter 's Jug-Band Christmas , and the `` The Land of Gorch '' segment of Saturday Night Live , sing the final verses of `` Rainbow Connection '' . As the screening ends , Sweetums jumps through the theater 's screen , having finally caught up with the other Muppets . Cast * Charles Durning as Doc Hopper , a businessman , entrepreneur , and restaurateur . * Austin Pendleton as Max , Doc Hopper 's shy assistant . * Scott Walker as Snake Walker , an assassin who specializes in killing frogs . * Hard Boiled Haggerty as Lumberjack * Bruce Kirby as Gate Guard * Tommy Madden as One-Eyed Midget * James Frawley as El Sleezo Café Waiter * Melinda Dillon as a Woman with Balloon Muppet performers * Jim Henson as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Swedish Chef * Frank Oz as Miss Piggy , Fozzie Bear , Animal , Sam Eagle , Marvin Suggs * Jerry Nelson as Floyd Pepper , Crazy Harry , Robin the Frog , Lew Zealand , Camilla the Chicken * Richard Hunt as Scooter , Statler , Janice , Sweetums , Beaker * Dave Goelz as The Great Gonzo , Zoot , Dr. Bunsen Honeydew , Doglion * Caroll Spinney as Big Bird Frank Oz appears in a cameo as a biker who beats up Fozzie Bear while Steve Whitmire appears as a man in the Bogen County Fair . Cameo guest stars * Edgar Bergen as Himself and Charlie McCarthy , playing judges at the Bogen County Fair . This would be Bergen 's final film role , as he died the year before . * Milton Berle as Mad Man Mooney , a used car salesman that Sweetums ( as Jack Job ) worked for . * Mel Brooks as Professor Max Krassman , a mad scientist who is hired by Doc Hopper . * James Coburn as El Sleezo Café Owner * Dom DeLuise as Bernie , a Hollywood agent that meets Kermit in the swamp . * Elliott Gould as Compère * Bob Hope as Ice Cream Vendor * Madeline Kahn as an El Sleazo Patron , with the same rhotacism and personality Kahn used for Lili von Shtupp in Blazing Saddles * Carol Kane as `` Myth '' ( summoned by name ) * Cloris Leachman as Miss Tracy , Lew Lord 's secretary who is allergic to animals . * Steve Martin as Insolent Waiter , a sarcastic waiter that works at the motel that Rowlf used to work at . * Richard Pryor as Balloon Vendor , a man who sells balloons to Gonzo at the Bogen County Fair . * Telly Savalas as El Sleazo Tough * Orson Welles as Lew Lord , a Hollywood producer and studio executive . * Paul Williams as El Sleazo Pianist Production The main obstacle the filmmakers were faced with during the development of The Muppet Movie was whether the Muppets would transition seamlessly from television to film . In 1978 , director James Frawley , Jim Henson , and Frank Oz filmed several camera tests outside London to test how the characters would appear in real-world locations . To perform Kermit static on a log , Henson squeezed into a specially designed metal container complete with an air hose ( to breathe ) , a rubber sleeve which came out of the top to perform Kermit and a monitor to see his performance , and placed himself under the water , log , and the Kermit puppet . He was also assisted in this operation by Kathryn Mullen and Steve Whitmire . This scene took five days to film . Before this , no film had a hand puppet act with its entire body appearing on-screen . That is , hand puppets were only seen from the waist up , and it became a major plot point to show Kermit with legs . To have Kermit ride a bicycle in a full-body shot , a Kermit puppet with legs was posed onto the seat and his legs and arms were attached to the pedals and handlebars . An overhead crane with a marionette system held the bicycle through strong strings invisible to the camera , guiding the bicycle forward . The crane and system was out of the camera 's frame of vision . Other shots required Muppets standing and acting in a full-body shot . Specially-made , remote-controlled puppets were placed on the set and controlled by puppeteers out of the frame . A dancing Kermit and Fozzie Bear were operated by Henson and Frank Oz in front of a blue screen , and were composited onto a separate reel of the stage . Both of these effects and the bicycle effect would be used again , and refined , in subsequent Muppet films . Austin Pendleton recalled that the film was shot on `` a very unhappy set , because Jim [ Frawley ] was very unhappy directing that movie . And I noticed that was the only time the Muppet people used an outside person to direct a Muppet movie . They never did that again . After that , it was either Jim Henson or Frank Oz . And I would have liked to have been in one of those , because those sets were very harmonious . But this was not . '' Filming locations included Albuquerque , New Mexico . The closing reprise of `` Rainbow Connection '' featured a crowd of more than 250 Muppet characters—virtually every Muppet that had been created up to that point in time . According to Henson Archivist Karen Falk : `` 137 puppeteers were enlisted from the Puppeteers of America ( along with the regular Muppet performers ) to perform every Muppet extant . Prior to the day-long filming of the shot , Jim Henson gave the enthusiastic participants a lesson in the art of cinematic puppetry . Amazingly , it did take just one day . '' The Muppet Show Fan Club newsletter answered the question of `` How did they do it ? '' They response was `` There are 250 puppets in the last shot of the film , and they 're all moving . How ? 150 puppeteers in a 6 ' deep , 17 ' wide pit , that 's how . They were recruited through the Los Angeles Guild of The Puppeteers of America and almost every puppeteer west of the Rockies reported for pit duty . '' The film is dedicated to ventriloquist Edgar Bergen who appears in the movie in a cameo role and died during production in September 1978 . Style The Muppet Movie uses meta-references as a source of humor , as characters occasionally break the fourth wall to address the audience or comment on their real-life circumstances . In one scene , Kermit and Fozzie encounter Big Bird on the road , offering him a lift to Hollywood , but he declines , heading to New York City to break into public television , referencing the character 's role in Sesame Street . In a particularly meta-fictional plot twist , Kermit and Fozzie actually give the screenplay to Dr. Teeth , who later uses it to find and rescue them after they have been stranded in the desert . Prop vehicles Several classic cars were specially selected by Henson for appearances in the film . The most prominent were a pair of 1951 Studebaker Commander Coupes driven by Fozzie Bear in the film . One car was painted but unmodified and driven by a person in the front seat . It was used for long , traveling shots . The second car was driven by a person in the trunk , who viewed the road through a TV set . The television received its image from a camera located in the center nose of the car 's front grille . This made it possible for Frank Oz to perform Fozzie Bear in the front seat , and have the character seemingly drive the car in close-up shots . This car is now on display at the Studebaker Museum in South Bend , Indiana . Doc Hopper is chauffeured throughout the movie by Max in a 1959 Cadillac Fleetwood Limousine . The final car driven by the Muppets is a 1946 Ford Woodie station wagon , famous for its wood panel siding and is a valuable collectible . Music The film 's music was written by Kenneth Ascher and Paul Williams . Regarding the music 's composition , Williams said ; `` Jim Henson gave you more [ creative ] freedom than anybody I 've ever worked with in my life . I said , 'You want to hear the songs as we 're writing them ? ' He said , 'No . I 'll hear them in the studio . I know I 'm gon na love them . ' You just do n't get that kind of freedom on a project these days . '' `` Movin ' Right Along '' , `` Never Before , Never Again '' , and `` I Hope That Somethin ' Better Comes Along '' were shortened in the film , compared to their soundtrack versions , for continuity purposes . The latter , a duet between Rowlf and Kermit , contained references that the studio considered too mature for children , although the song appeared complete in the British theatrical and home video debut versions . In `` Finale : The Magic Store '' , a line performed by Kermit in the film is sung by Fozzie on the soundtrack recording . Release Box office The film proved to be a huge hit at the box office during the summer of 1979 and ended up grossing $ 76,657,000 domestically ( adjusted for inflation , this would equal $ 265,703,546 in 2016 dollars ) , making it the seventh highest-grossing film of 1979 and also , the second highest-grossing Muppet film after the release of The Muppets in 2011 . The success of the film gave Jim Henson Productions an opportunity to release more Muppet productions theatrically . The film 's successful theatrical release encouraged Lew Grade into furthering his own film distribution company , which later backfired with the massive box office failures of Ca n't Stop the Music and Raise the Titanic , both released by ITC Entertainment just a year later . Critical reception The Muppet Movie received positive reviews . The film holds an 87 % approval rating on aggregate review site Rotten Tomatoes with an average score of 8/10 , based on 47 reviews . The site 's consensus says `` The Muppet Movie , the big-screen debut of Jim Henson 's plush creations , is smart , lighthearted , and fun for all ages . '' Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars . In his favorable review , he was fascinated that `` The Muppet Movie not only stars the Muppets but , for the first time , shows us their feet . '' Vincent Canby of The New York Times offered equal praise , stating that the film `` demonstrates once again that there 's always room in movies for unbridled amiability when it 's governed by intelligence and wit . '' In 2009 , it was named to the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being “ culturally , historically or aesthetically ” significant and will be preserved for all time . ; American Film Institute Lists : * AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs – Nominated * AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs : * * `` Rainbow Connection '' – # 74 * AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals – Nominated Home media The Muppet Movie was the first film released by ITC Entertainment to be released on home video when Magnetic Video released it in January 1 , 1980 , having bought the video rights to ITC 's films . It was reissued a few times more by CBS/Fox before it was released by Jim Henson Video in 1993 . The film was first released on VHS by Columbia Tristar Home Video on June 1 , 1999 . The film was first released on DVD by Sony Pictures Entertainment on June 5 , 2001 . The film was re-released by Walt Disney Home Entertainment on DVD and reissued as a Walt Disney Pictures release on November 29 , 2005 as Kermit 's 50th Anniversary Edition . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released The Muppet Movie as the Nearly 35th Anniversary Edition on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on August 13 , 2013 . Accolades Footnotes # The film 's distribution rights were transferred to Walt Disney Studios in 2004 , and was subsequently reissued in home media formats as a Walt Disney Pictures release in 2005 .

qw_2557--The_Muppet_Movie.txt

"Which American comedian who died on 4 May 2009 became famous as an inept magician on Dean Martin's TV show in the 1960s and appeared in ""Cannonball Run"", ""Blazing Saddles"" and ""The Muppet Movie"" ?"

Gambas is the name of an object-oriented dialect of the BASIC programming language as well as the integrated development environment that accompanies it . Designed to run on Linux and other Unix-like computer operating systems , its name is a recursive acronym for Gambas Almost Means Basic . Gambas is also the word for prawns in the Spanish and Portuguese language , from which the project 's logos are derived . History Gambas was developed by the French programmer Benoît Minisini with its first release coming in 1999 . Benoît had grown up with the BASIC language , and decided to make a free software development environment that could quickly and easily make programs with user interfaces . The Gambas 1.x versions featured an interface made up of several different separate windows for forms and IDE dialogues in a similar fashion to the interface of the GIMP . It could also only develop applications using Qt and was more oriented towards the development of applications for KDE . The last release of the 1.x versions was Gambas 1.0.19 . The first of the 2.x versions was released on January 2 , 2008 after three to four years of development . It featured a major redesign of the interface , now with all forms and functions embedded in a single window , as well as some changes to the Gambas syntax , although for the most part code compatibility was kept . It featured major updates to existing Gambas components as well as the addition of some new ones , such as new components that could use GTK+ or SDL for drawing or utilize OpenGL acceleration . Gambas 2.x versions can load up and run Gambas 1.x projects , with occasional incompatibilities . The next major iteration of Gambas , the 3.x versions , was released on December 31 , 2011 . Early benchmarks of the Gambas 3 development versions showed its Gambas scripting being significantly faster than Perl and Python equivalents . Features Gambas is designed to build graphical applications programs using the Qt ( currently QT 4.x ) or the GTK+ toolkit ( GTK 3.x also supported as of 3.6.0 ) ; the Gambas IDE is written in Gambas itself . Gambas includes a GUI designer to aid in creating user interfaces , but can also make command line applications . The Gambas runtime environment is needed to run executables . Functionality is provided by a variety of components , each of which can be selected to provide additional features . Drawing can be provided either through Qt and GTK+ toolkits , with an additional component which is designed to switch between them . Drawing can also be provided through the Simple DirectMedia Layer ( currently version 1.x , with 2.x support in the works ) , which can also be utilized for audio playback through a separate sound component ( a component for the OpenAL specification has also been added ) . GPU acceleration support is available through an OpenGL component , as well as other hardware functionally provided by various other components . There are also components for handling other specialized tasks . With Gambas , developers can also use databases such as MySQL or PostgreSQL , build KDE ( Qt ) and GNOME GTK+ applications with DCOP , translate Visual Basic programs to Gambas and run them under Linux , build network solutions , and create CGI web applications . The IDE also includes a tool for the creation of installation packages , supporting GNU Autotools , slackpkg , pacman , RPM , and debs ( the latter two then tailored for specific distributions such as Fedora/RHEL/CentOS , Mageia , Mandriva , OpenSUSE and Debian , Ubuntu/Mint ) . Gambas since version 3.2 IDE has integrated profiler and it started to use Just-in-time compilation technology . Differences from Visual Basic Gambas is intended to provide a similar experience as developing in Microsoft Visual Basic , but it is not a free software clone of the popular proprietary program . The author of Gambas makes it clear that there are similarities to Visual Basic , such as syntax for BASIC programs and the integrated development environment ; Gambas was written from the start to be a development environment of its own and seeks to improve on the formula . Its object model and each class being represented in a file , the archiver to package the program is inspired by the Java programming language . Gambas is intended to be an alternative for former Visual Basic developers who have decided to migrate to Linux . There are also other important distinctions between the Gambas and Visual Basic . One notable example is that in Gambas array indexes always start with 0 , whereas Visual Basic indexes can start with 0 or 1 . Adoption Several programs and many forms of example code have been written using and for Gambas . , Freshmeat listed 23 applications that were developed using Gambas , while the Gambas wiki listed 70 ; several other specialized sites list Gambas applications and code . There is even a Gambas written application , named Gambas3 ShowCase , that acts as a software center to download or install Gambas 3 applications . Several community sites , including community forums and mailing lists , also exist for Gambas . Gambas Guru offers project hosting , program listing , forums and more for Gambas users . Availability Gambas is included in the repositories of a number of Linux distributions , such as Debian , Fedora , Mandriva Linux and Ubuntu . A Microsoft Windows version of Gambas can run under the Cygwin environment , although this version is significantly less tested than its Linux counterparts and is command-line only ; Cooperative Linux and derivatives have also been used , as well as specialized Linux virtual machines . An independent contributor , François Gallo , also worked on porting Gambas 3.x to Mac OS X and FreeBSD , based on using local versions of the X11 system . Gambas from version 3.2 can run on Raspberry Pi , but offers no just-in-time compilation there . In November 2013 , the future portability of Gambas was discussed , listing the main concerns being Linux kernel features utilized in the interpreter , components using Linux specific software and libraries , and primarily X11-tying in the Qt , GTK+ and desktop integration components . However , partly due to the need to upgrade to newer toolkits such as GTK 3 ( added as of 3.6.0 ) and Qt 5 ( as of 3.8.0 ) , future versions might be less X11 tied , making projects like Cygwin or utterly native versions on other platforms more possible . Benoît Minisini has stated that he intends to `` encapsulate '' X11 specific code to aid in any attempt to replace it , with the X11 support in the desktop component moved to its own component as of 3.6.0 . Example code Hello world program with GUI . Public Sub Main ( ) Message ( `` Hello World ! '' ) End Program that computes a 100-term polynomial 500000 times , and repeats it ten times ( used for benchmarking ) . Private Sub Test ( X As Float ) As Float Dim Mu As Float = 10.0 Dim Pu , Su As Float Dim I , J , N As Integer Dim aPoly As New Float [ 100 ] N = 500000 For I = 0 To N - 1 For J = 0 To 99 Mu = ( Mu + 2.0 ) / 2.0 aPoly [ J ] = Mu Next Su = 0.0 For J = 0 To 99 Su = X * Su + aPoly [ J ] Next Pu += Su Next Return Pu End Public Sub Main ( ) Dim I as Integer For I = 1 To 10 Print Test ( 0.2 ) Next End

odql_3603--Gambas.txt

If you order 'Gambas' in a Spanish restaurant what will you get?

`` La Vie en rose '' was the signature song of French popular singer Édith Piaf , written in 1945 , popularized in 1946 , and released as a single in 1947 . A cover version in 1977 by Jamaican singer Grace Jones was also a successful international hit . `` La Vie en rose '' has been covered by several artists over the years , including a 1950 version by Louis Armstrong and a 1993 version by American singer Donna Summer . Harry James recorded a version in 1950 on Columbia 38768 . Édith Piaf version Background and release The song 's title can be translated as `` Life in Rosy Hues '' or `` Life Through Rose-Tinted Glasses '' ; its literal meaning is `` Life in Pink '' . The lyrics and melody of the song were written by Édith Piaf herself , but the melody was said officially to have been composed and registered by Louiguy only , since at the time , due to the stringent registration requirements of SACEM , Piaf did not have the necessary qualifications to be able to copyright her work with SACEM . Piaf offered the song to Marianne Michel , who slightly modified the lyrics , changing `` les choses '' ( `` things '' ) for `` la vie '' ( `` life '' ) . In 1943 , Piaf had performed at a nightclub/bordello called `` La Vie en Rose '' . Initially , Piaf 's peers and songwriting team did not think the song would be successful , finding it weaker than the rest of her repertoire . Heeding their advice , the singer put the song aside , only to change her mind the next year . The song was performed live in concert for the first time in 1946 . It became a favorite with audiences . `` La Vie en rose '' was the song that made Piaf internationally famous , with its lyrics telling about the joy of finding true love and appealing to those who had survived the difficult wartime . `` La Vie en rose '' was released on a 10 '' single in 1947 by Columbia Records , a division of EMI , with `` Un refrain courait dans la rue '' making the B-side . It met with a warm reception and sold a million copies in the USA . It was the biggest-selling single of 1948 in Italy , and the ninth biggest-selling single in Brazil in 1949 . Piaf performed the song in the 1948 French movie Neuf garçons , un coeur . The first of her albums to include `` La Vie en rose '' was the 10 '' Chansons parisiennes , released in 1950 . The song appeared on most of Piaf 's subsequent albums , and on numerous greatest hits compilations . It went on to become her signature song and her trademark hit , sitting with `` Milord '' and `` Non , je ne regrette rien '' among her best-known and most recognizable tunes . Encouraged by its success , Piaf wrote 80 more songs in her career . June 26 , 1950 , Louis Armstrong record C'est si bon and La Vie en rose in New York with Sy Oliver and his Orchestra . The English lyrics were written by Mack David . The song received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award in 1998 . Track listings * 10 '' Single ( 1947 ) A . `` La Vie en rose '' B . `` Un refrain courait dans la rue '' Chart performance References in popular culture Two films about Piaf named after the song 's title have been produced . The first one , a 1998 documentary , used archive footage and interviews with Raquel Bitton , and was narrated by Bebe Neuwirth . The 2007 biographical feature film La Vie en rose won Marion Cotillard an Academy Award for Best Actress for portraying Piaf in the film from childhood until her death at 47 . As music in films As music in other media * In the 2006 Egyptian film The Yacoubian Building , chanteuse Christine ( Yousra ) includes `` La Vie en rose '' in her repertoire , singing it on at least one occasion for Zaki el Dessouki ( Adel Emam ) . * In the 1954 movie Sabrina this song is mentioned and played many times throughout the movie , including a partial rendition by Audrey Hepburn . * In the season 4 I Love Lucy episode `` Hollywood Anniversary '' , the song is played by a band in the final scene . * Steampunk chanteuse Veronique Chevalier does a parody version – which turns out to be about a battle with slugs . * In the 2003 romantic comedy Something 's Got ta Give , the song is played several times during scenes of Paris , and actor Jack Nicholson ( Harry Sanborn ) sings it during the closing credit roll . * Cristin Milioti performed the song in `` How Your Mother Met Me '' , an episode of How I Met Your Mother . * It is used prominently multiple times in BioShock Infinites DLC BioShock Infinite : Burial at Sea . Other mentions * Raquel Bitton sings Edith Piaf ( CD ) ( 2000 ) * Ian Fleming references the song in his first James Bond novel Casino Royale , when Bond is eating with Vesper Lynd , and again in his fourth novel Diamonds Are Forever , when Bond chooses to skip it on the record player as it has `` painful memories '' . * The Avengers TV series used this song as an episode title . It was played repeatedly in a house in which Emma Peel was held against her will by an enemy agent she had seduced and betrayed by utilizing the song . * Lyrics from the song are quoted in Albert Cohen 's 1968 novel Belle du Seigneur ( chapter LVI ) . * La Vie en Rose was the name of a spaceship in Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam and Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ , as well as an episode title of Mobile Suit Gundam 0083 : Stardust Memory . * In the 1990s anime Di Gi Charat , the name Rabi~en~Rose is based in `` La Vie en rose '' . * La Vie en rose is mentioned in John Boyne 's 2006 novel The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas . * Scottish singer/songwriter KT Tunstall recorded a cover , included as a digital bonus track of her second studio album Drastic Fantastic . * Canadian singer/songwriter Avril Lavigne has a tattoo reading 'La Vie en rose ' . * American singer/songwriter Lady Gaga performed 'La Vie en Rose ' during her Cheek to Cheek Tour with Tony Bennett in 2015 . * American singer/songwriter Madonna performed 'La Vie en Rose ' during her Rebel Heart Tour in 2015-2016 . * Marina Prior and Mark Vincent covered the song on their album Together in 2016 . Grace Jones version Background and release Jamaican singer Grace Jones covered `` La Vie en rose '' in 1977 for her debut studio album Portfolio . It was the third and the last single off that album , and at the same time , her first single release on Island Records after having signed with the label . The single version was heavily edited from its original album version being more than seven minutes long to a 3.5-minute track . Jones ' fairly radical bossa nova/disco interpretation of Édith Piaf 's signature tune became her first international hit single and a staple of her repertoire . It was later performed as part of her 1981 A One Man Show , then the only track from her disco era to be included in the show . In Spain and Mexico the track was billed as `` La Vida en rosa '' on the 7 '' single release , although it was not a Spanish version of the song . Jones ' recording of `` La Vie en rose '' was later re-released a number of times in the early 1980s and finally reached # 12 in the UK charts when re-released as a double A-side with `` Pull Up to the Bumper '' in 1985 . The single was certified Gold in France and Italy . Grace Jones about the song : `` That 's a very special song to me . Oh God , I cry every time I sing it . I had quite a few French lovers , so every time I sing it I think about them . '' Music video The music video for the song was made using the chroma key technique . It presents Grace dancing and singing the song with the famous 1978 montage picture of herself in the background , which was later used for the cover of her 1985 Island Life compilation . The video begins with Grace wearing a rose-patterned coat . Having removed it , the singer dances in a scant gold dress which reveals her right nipple as well as black underwear . Track listings Chart performance Donna Summer version Background and release American singer Donna Summer covered `` La Vie en rose '' in 1993 for the tribute album called Tribute to Edith Piaf or Edith Piaf Tribute , on which several contemporary stars recorded interpretations of some of Piaf 's best known songs . Released on both vinyl and CD , the American release of the album and single contain a different mix of Summer 's synth-driven performance than the French release . These releases are among the most sought after of Summer 's collectables . The U.S. single features a variety of remixes by DJ Chris Cox . Track listings

qw_12670--La_Vie_en_rose.txt

"Who was the subject of the 2007 film ""La Vie En Rose""?"

Bletchley Park was the central site for Britain 's codebreakers during World War II . Run by the Government Code and Cypher School ( GC & CS ) , it regularly penetrated the secret communications of the Axis Powersmost importantly the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers . The official historian of World War II British Intelligence has written that the `` Ultra '' intelligence produced at Bletchley shortened the war by two to four years , and that without it the outcome of the war would have been uncertain . Located in Milton Keynes , Buckinghamshire , England , Bletchley Park is now a flourishing heritage attraction . Open seven days a week , it is popular with individuals and families , as well as school groups and tour parties . Site Bletchley Park is opposite Bletchley railway station . It is close to junctions 13 and 14 of the M1 . Located 50 mi northwest of London , the site appears in the Domesday Book as part of the Manor of Eaton . Browne Willis built a mansion there in 1711 , but after Thomas Harrison purchased the property in 1793 this was pulled down . It was first known as Bletchley Park after its purchase by Samuel Lipscomb Seckham in 1877 . The estate of 581 acres was bought in 1883 by Sir Herbert Samuel Leon , who expanded the then-existing farmhouse into the present `` maudlin and monstrous pile '' combining Victorian Gothic , Tudor , and Dutch Baroque styles . In 1938 , the mansion and much of the site was bought by a builder planning a housing estate , but in May 1938 Admiral Sir Hugh Sinclair , head of the Secret Intelligence Service ( SIS or MI6 ) , bought the mansion and 58 acre for use by GC & CS and SIS in the event of war . A key advantage seen by Sinclair and his colleagues ( inspecting the site under the cover of `` Captain Ridley 's shooting party '' ) was Bletchley 's geographical centrality . It was almost immediately adjacent to Bletchley railway station , where the `` Varsity Line '' between Oxford and Cambridgewhose universities were expected to supply many of the code-breakersmet the main West Coast railway line connecting London , Birmingham , Manchester , Liverpool , Glasgow and Edinburgh . Watling Street , the main road linking London to the north-west ( now the A5 ) was close by , and high-volume communication links were available at the telegraph and telephone repeater station in nearby Fenny Stratford . Bletchley Park was known as `` B.P . '' to those who worked there . `` Station X '' ( X = Roman numeral ten ) , `` London Signals Intelligence Centre '' , and `` Government Communications Headquarters '' were all cover names used during the war . ( The formal posting of the many `` Wrens '' members of the Women 's Royal Naval Serviceworking there was to HMS Pembroke V . ) Personnel In January 1945 , at the peak of codebreaking efforts , some 10,000 personnel were working at Bletchley and its outstations . A substantial percentage of personnel at Bletchley Park , 75 % , were women ; among them were Mavis Batey and Margaret Rock , who were credited for the Abwehr break . Their work achieved official recognition only in 2009 . Many of the women came from middle-class backgrounds and held degrees in the areas of mathematics , physics and engineering ; they were given entry into STEM programs due to the lack of men , who had been sent to war . They performed complex calculation and coding and hence were integral to the computing processes —Jennifer S. Light writes that they Women were indeed the first computers . Commander Alastair Denniston was operational head of GC & CS from 1919 to 1942 , beginning with its formation from the Admiralty 's Room 40 ( NID25 ) and the War Office 's MI1b . Key GC & CS cryptanalysts who moved from London to Bletchley Park included John Tiltman , Dillwyn `` Dilly '' Knox , Josh Cooper , and Nigel de Grey . These people had a variety of backgroundslinguists , chess champions , and crossword experts were common , and in Knox 's case papyrology . The British War Office recruited top solvers of cryptic crossword puzzles , as these individuals had strong lateral thinking skills . On the day Britain declared war on Germany , Denniston wrote to the Foreign Office about recruiting `` men of the professor type '' . Personal networking drove early recruitments , particularly of men from the universities of Cambridge and Oxford . Trustworthy women were similarly recruited for administrative and clerical jobs . In one 1941 recruiting stratagem The Daily Telegraph was asked to organise a crossword competition , after which promising contestants were discreetly approached about `` a particular type of work as a contribution to the war effort '' . Denniston recognised , however , that the enemy 's use of electromechanical cipher machines meant that formally trained mathematicians would also be needed ; Oxford 's Peter Twinn joined GC & CS in February 1939 ; Cambridge 's Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman began training in 1938 and reported to Bletchley the day after war was declared , along with John Jeffreys . Later-recruited cryptanalysts included the mathematicians Derek Taunt , Jack Good , Bill Tutte , and Max Newman ; historian Harry Hinsley , and chess champions Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry . Joan Clarke ( eventually deputy head of Hut 8 ) was one of the few women employed at Bletchley as a full-fledged cryptanalyst . This eclectic staff of `` Boffins and Debs '' caused GC & CS to be whimsically dubbed the `` Golf , Cheese and Chess Society '' , with the female staff in Dilwyn Knox 's section sometimes termed `` Dilly 's Fillies '' . These `` Dilly 's girls '' included Margaret Rock , Jean Perrin , Clare Harding , Rachel Ronald , Elisabeth Granger ; and Mavis Lever – who made the first break into the Italian naval traffic and later , along with Margaret Rock , solved a German code . During a September 1941 morale-boosting visit , Winston Churchill reportedly remarked to Denniston : `` I told you to leave no stone unturned to get staff , but I had no idea you had taken me so literally . '' Six weeks later , having failed to get sufficient typing and unskilled staff to achieve the productivity that was possible , Turing , Welchman , Alexander and Milner-Barry wrote directly to Churchill . His response was `` Action this day make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done . '' After initial training at the Inter-Service Special Intelligence School set up by John Tiltman ( initially at an RAF depot in Buckingham and later in Bedfordwhere it was known locally as `` the Spy School '' ) staff worked a six-day week , rotating through three shifts : 4p.m . to midnight , midnight to 8a.m . ( the most disliked shift ) , and 8a.m . to 4p.m. , each with a half-hour meal break . At the end of the third week , a worker went off at 8a.m . and came back at 4p.m. , thus putting in sixteen hours on that last day . The irregular hours affected workers ' health and social life , as well as the routines of the nearby homes at which most staff lodged . The work was tedious and demanded intense concentration ; staff got one week 's leave four times a year , but some `` girls '' collapsed and required extended rest . A small number of men ( e.g . Post Office experts in Morse code or German ) worked part-time . In January 1945 , at the peak of codebreaking efforts , some 9,000 personnel were working at Bletchley ; over 12,000 different people ( some 80 % of them women , primarily seconded from Britain 's armed forces and Civil Service ) were assigned there at various points throughout the war . Rozanne Colchester was a translator at Bletchley Park . She worked there from April 1942 until January 1945 mainly for the Italian air forces Section . Like most of the 'Bletchleyettes ' , she came from the higher middle class , her father , Air Vice-Marshal Sir Charles Medhurst , being an air attaché in Rome . Before joining the Workforce of the Park , Colchester was moving in high circles “ she had met Hitler and been flirted with by Mussolini at an embassy party ” writes Sarah Rainey . She joined the Park because she found it thrilling to 'fight'/work for her country . Cicely Mayhew was recruited straight from university , having graduated from Lady Margaret Hall , Oxford in 1944 with a First in French and German , after only two years . She worked in Hut 8 , translating decoded German Navy signals . Ruth Briggs ( later called Mrs. Oliver Churchill ) worked within the Naval Section and was known as one of the best cryptographers . She was also a German scholar . Secrecy Properly used , the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers should have been virtually unbreakable , but flaws in German cryptographic procedures , and poor discipline among the personnel carrying them out , created vulnerabilities that made Bletchley 's attacks just barely feasible . These vulnerabilities , however , could have been remedied by relatively simple improvements in enemy procedures , and such changes would certainly have been implemented had Germany any hint of Bletchley 's success . Thus the intelligence Bletchley produced was considered wartime Britain 's `` Ultra secret '' higher even than the normally highest classification Most and security was paramount . All staff signed the Official Secrets Act ( 1939 ) and a 1942 security warning emphasised the importance of discretion even within Bletchley itself : `` Do not talk at meals . Do not talk in the transport . Do not talk travelling . Do not talk in the billet . Do not talk by your own fireside . Be careful even in your Hut ... '' Nevertheless , there were security leaks . Jock Colville , the Assistant Private Secretary to Winston Churchill , recorded in his diary on 31 July 1941 , that the newspaper proprietor Lord Camrose had discovered Ultra and that security leaks `` increase in number and seriousness '' . Without doubt , the most serious of these was that Bletchley Park had been infiltrated by John Cairncross , the notorious Soviet mole and member of the Cambridge Spy Ring , who leaked Ultra material to Moscow . Early work The first personnel of the Government Code and Cypher School ( GC & CS ) moved to Bletchley Park on 15 August 1939 . The Naval , Military , and Air Sections were on the ground floor of the mansion , together with a telephone exchange , teleprinter room , kitchen , and dining room ; the top floor was allocated to MI6 . Construction of the wooden huts began in late 1939 , and Elmers School , a neighbouring boarding school , was acquired for the Commercial and Diplomatic Sections . After the United States joined the war , a number of American cryptographers were posted to Hut 3 , and from May 1943 onwards there was close co-operation between British and American intelligence . ( See 1943 BRUSA Agreement . ) In contrast , the Soviet Union was never officially told of Bletchley Park and its activities a reflection of Churchill 's distrust of the Soviets even during the US-UK-USSR alliance imposed by the Nazi threat . The only direct enemy damage to the site was done 2021November 1940 by three bombs probably intended for Bletchley railway station ; Hut4 , shifted two feet off its foundation , was winched back into place as work inside continued . Intelligence reporting Non-naval Enigma messages were deciphered in Hut 6 , followed by translation , indexing and cross-referencing , in Hut 3 . Only then was it sent out to the Secret Intelligence Service ( MI6 ) , the intelligence chiefs in the relevant ministries , and later on to high-level commanders in the field . Naval Enigma deciphering was in Hut 8 , with translation in Hut 4 . Verbatim translations were sent only to the Naval Intelligence Division ( NID ) of the Admiralty 's Operational Intelligence Centre ( OIC ) , supplemented by information from indexes as to the meaning of technical terms and cross-references from a knowledge store of German naval technology . Hut 4 also decoded a manual system known as the dockyard cipher , which sometimes carried messages that were also sent on an Enigma network . Feeding these back to Hut8 provided excellent `` cribs '' for Known-plaintext attacks on the daily naval Enigma key . Listening stations Initially , a wireless room was established at Bletchley Park . It was set up in the mansion 's water tower under the code name `` Station X '' , a term now sometimes applied to the codebreaking efforts at Bletchley as a whole . The `` X '' is the Roman numeral `` ten '' , this being the Secret Intelligence Service 's tenth such station . Due to the long radio aerials stretching from the wireless room , the radio station was moved from Bletchley Park to nearby Whaddon Hall to avoid drawing attention to the site . Subsequently , other listening stationsthe Y-stations , such as the ones at Chicksands in Bedfordshire , Beaumanor Hall , Leicestershire ( where the headquarters of the War Office `` Y '' Group was located ) and Beeston Hill Y Station in Norfolkgathered raw signals for processing at Bletchley . Coded messages were taken down by hand and sent to Bletchley on paper by motorcycle despatch riders or ( later ) by teleprinter . Additional buildings The wartime needs required the building of additional accommodation . Huts Often a hut 's number became so strongly associated with the work performed inside that even when the work was moved to another building it was still referred to by the original `` Hut '' designation . * Hut 1 : The first hut , built in 1939 used to house the Wireless Station for a short time , later administrative functions such as transport , typing , and Bombe maintenance . The first Bombe , `` Victory '' , was initially housed here . * Hut 2 : A recreational hut for `` beer , tea , and relaxation '' . * Hut 3 : Intelligence : translation and analysis of Army and Air Force decrypts * Hut 4 : Naval intelligence : analysis of Naval Enigma and Hagelin decrypts * Hut 5 : Military intelligence including Italian , Spanish , and Portuguese ciphers and German police codes . * Hut 6 : Cryptanalysis of Army and Air Force Enigma * Hut 7 : Cryptanalysis of Japanese naval codes and intelligence . * Hut 8 : Cryptanalysis of Naval Enigma . * Hut 9 : ISOS ( Intelligence Section Oliver Strachey ) . * Hut 10 : Secret Intelligence Service ( SIS or MI6 ) codes , Air and Meteorological sections . * Hut 11 : Bombe building . * Hut 14 : Communications centre . * Hut 15 : SIXTA ( Signals Intelligence and Traffic Analysis ) . * Hut 16 : ISK ( Intelligence Service Knox ) Abwehr ciphers . * Hut 18 : ISOS ( Intelligence Section Oliver Strachey ) . * Hut 23 : Primarily used to house the engineering department . After February 1943 , Hut 3 was renamed Hut 23 . Blocks In addition to the wooden huts , there were a number of brick-built `` blocks '' . * Block A : Naval Intelligence . * Block B : Italian Air and Naval , and Japanese code breaking . * Block C : Stored the substantial punch-card index . * Block D : Enigma work , extending that in huts 3 , 6 , and 8 . * Block E : Incoming and outgoing Radio Transmission and TypeX . * Block F : Included the Newmanry and Testery , and Japanese Military Air Section . It has since been demolished . * Block G : Traffic analysis and deception operations . * Block H : Tunny and Colossus ( now The National Museum of Computing ) . Work on specific countries ' signals German signals Most German messages decrypted at Bletchley were produced by one or another version of the Enigma cipher machine , but an important minority were produced by the even more complicated twelve-rotor Lorenz SZ42 on-line teleprinter cipher machine . Five weeks before the outbreak of war , Warsaw 's Cipher Bureau revealed its achievements in breaking Enigma to astonished French and British personnel . The British used the Poles ' information and techniques , and the Enigma clone sent to them in August 1939 , which greatly increased their ( previously very limited ) success in decrypting Enigma messages . The bombe was an electromechanical device whose function was to discover some of the daily settings of the Enigma machines on the various German military networks . Its pioneering design was developed by Alan Turing ( with an important contribution from Gordon Welchman ) and the machine was engineered by Harold 'Doc ' Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company . Each machine was about 7 ft high and wide , 2 ft deep and weighed about a ton . At its peak , GC & CS was reading approximately 4,000 messages per day . As a hedge against enemy attack most bombes were dispersed to installations at Adstock and Wavendon ( both later supplanted by installations at Stanmore and Eastcote ) , and Gayhurst . Luftwaffe messages were the first to be read in quantity . The German navy had much tighter procedures , and the capture of code books was needed before they could be broken . When , in February 1942 , the German navy introduced the four-rotor Enigma for communications with its Atlantic U-boats , this traffic became unreadable for a period of ten months . Britain produced modified bombes , but it was the success of the US Navy bombe that was the main source of reading messages from this version of Enigma for the rest of the war . Messages were sent to and fro across the Atlantic by enciphered teleprinter links . The Lorenz messages were codenamed Tunny at Bletchley Park . They were only sent in quantity from mid-1942 . The Tunny networks were used for high-level messages between German High Command and field commanders . With the help of German operator errors , the cryptanalysts in the Testery ( named after Ralph Tester , its head ) worked out the logical structure of the machine despite not knowing its physical form . They devised automatic machinery to help with decryption , which culminated in Colossus , the world 's first programmable digital electronic computer . This was designed and built by Tommy Flowers and his team at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill . The prototype first worked in December 1943 , was delivered to Bletchley Park in January and first worked operationally on 5 February 1944 . Enhancements were developed for the Mark 2 Colossus , the first of which was working at Bletchley Park on the morning of 1 June in time for D-day . Flowers then produced one Colossus a month for the rest of the war , making a total of ten with an eleventh part-built . The machines were operated mainly by Wrens in a section named the Newmanry after its head Max Newman . Bletchley 's work was essential to defeating the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic , and to the British naval victories in the Battle of Cape Matapan and the Battle of North Cape . In 1941 , Ultra exerted a powerful effect on the North African desert campaign against German forces under General Erwin Rommel . General Sir Claude Auchinleck wrote that were it not for Ultra , `` Rommel would have certainly got through to Cairo '' . While not changing the events , `` Ultra '' decrypts featured prominently in the story of Operation SALAM , László Almásy 's daring mission across the Libyan Desert behind enemy lines in 1942 . Prior to the Normandy landings on D-Day in June 1944 , the Allies knew the locations of all but two of Germany 's fifty-eight Western-front divisions . Italian signals Italian signals had been of interest since Italy 's attack on Abyssinia in 1935 . During the Spanish Civil War the Italian Navy used the K model of the commercial Enigma without a plugboard ; this was solved by Knox in 1937 . When Italy entered the war in 1940 an improved version of the machine was used , though little traffic was sent by it and there were `` wholesale changes '' in Italian codes and cyphers . Knox was given a new section for work on Enigma variations , which he staffed with women ( `` Dilly 's girls '' ) , who included Margaret Rock , Jean Perrin , Clare Harding , Rachel Ronald , Elisabeth Granger ; and Mavis Lever . Mavis Lever solved the signals revealing the Italian Navy 's operational plans before the Battle of Cape Matapan in 1941 , leading to a British victory . Although most Bletchley staff did not know the results of their work , Admiral Cunningham visited Bletchley in person a few weeks later to congratulate them . On entering World War II in June 1940 , the Italians were using book codes for most of their military messages . The exception was the Italian Navy , which after the Battle of Cape Matapan started using the C-38 version of the Boris Hagelin rotor-based cipher machine , particularly to route their navy and merchant marine convoys to the conflict in North Africa . As a consequence , JRM Butler recruited his former student Bernard Willson to join a team with two others in Hut4 . In June 1941 , Willson became the first of the team to decode the Hagelin system , thus enabling military commanders to direct the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force to sink enemy ships carrying supplies from Europe to Rommel 's Afrika Korps . This led to increased shipping losses and , from reading the intercepted traffic , the team learnt that between May and September 1941 the stock of fuel for the Luftwaffe in North Africa reduced by 90 % . After an intensive language course , in March 1944 Willson switched to Japanese language-based codes . A Middle East Intelligence Centre ( MEIC ) was set up in Cairo in 1939 . When Italy entered the war in June 1940 , delays in forwarding intercepts to Bletchley via congested radio links resulted in cryptanalysts being sent to Cairo . A Combined Bureau Middle East ( CBME ) was set up in November , though the Middle East authorities made `` increasingly bitter complaints '' that GC & CS was giving too little priority to work on Italian cyphers . However , the principle of concentrating high-grade cryptanalysis at Bletchley was maintained . John Chadwick started cryptanalysis work in 1942 on Italian signals at the naval base 'HMS Nile ' in Alexandria . Later , he was with GC & CS ; in the Heliopolis Museum , Cairo and then in the Villa Laurens , Alexandria . Soviet signals Soviet signals had been studied since the 1920s . In 193940 , John Tiltman ( who had worked on Russian Army traffic from 1930 ) set up two Russian sections at Wavendon ( a country house near Bletchley ) and at Sarafand in Palestine . Two Russian high-grade army and navy systems were broken early in 1940 . Tiltman spent two weeks in Finland , where he obtained Russian traffic from Finland and Estonia in exchange for radio equipment . In June 1941 , when the Soviet Union became an ally , Churchill ordered a halt to intelligence operations against it . In December 1941 , the Russian section was closed down , but in late summer 1943 or late 1944 , a small GC & CS Russian cypher section was set up in London overlooking Park Lane then in Sloane Square . Japanese signals An outpost of the Government Code and Cypher School had been set up in Hong Kong in 1935 , the Far East Combined Bureau ( FECB ) . The FECB naval staff moved in 1940 to Singapore , then Colombo , Ceylon , then Kilindini , Mombasa , Kenya . They succeeded in deciphering Japanese codes with a mixture of skill and good fortune . The Army and Air Force staff went from Singapore to the Wireless Experimental Centre at Delhi , India . In early 1942 , a six-month crash course in Japanese , for 20 undergraduates from Oxford and Cambridge , was started by the Inter-Services Special Intelligence School in Bedford , in a building across from the main Post Office . This course was repeated every six months until war 's end . Most of those completing these courses worked on decoding Japanese naval messages in Hut 7 , under John Tiltman . By mid-1945 , well over 100 personnel were involved with this operation , which co-operated closely with the FECB and the US Signal intelligence Service at Arlington Hall , Virginia . In 1999 , Michael Smith wrote that : `` Only now are the British codebreakers ( like John Tiltman , Hugh Foss , and Eric Nave ) beginning to receive the recognition they deserve for breaking Japanese codes and cyphers '' . Post war Continued secrecy After the War , the secrecy imposed on Bletchley staff remained in force , so that most relatives never knew more than that a child , spouse , or parent had done some kind of secret war work . Churchill referred to the Bletchley staff as `` the geese that laid the golden eggs and never cackled '' . That said , occasional mentions of the work performed at Bletchley Park slipped the censor 's net and appeared in print . With the publication of F.W . Winterbotham 's The Ultra Secret ( 1974 ) public discussion of Bletchley 's work finally became possible ( though even today some former staff still consider themselves bound to silence ) and in July 2009 the British government announced that Bletchley personnel would be recognised with a commemorative badge . Site After the war , the site passed through a succession of hands and saw a number of uses , including as a teacher-training college and local GPO headquarters . By 1991 , the site was nearly empty and the buildings were at risk of demolition for redevelopment . In February 1992 , the Milton Keynes Borough Council declared most of the Park a conservation area , and the Bletchley Park Trust was formed to maintain the site as a museum . The site opened to visitors in 1993 , and was formally inaugurated by HRH The Duke of Kent as Chief Patron in July 1994 . In 1999 the land owners , the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate and BT , granted a lease the Trust giving the Trust control over most of the site . Bletchley Park as a heritage attraction June 2014 saw the completion of an £8 million restoration project , which was marked by a visit from Catherine , Duchess of Cambridge . The Duchess ' paternal grandmother , Valerie , and Valerie 's twin sister , Mary ( née Glassborow ) , both worked at Bletchley Park during the war . The twin sisters worked as Foreign Office Civilians in Hut 6 , where they managed the interception of enemy and neutral diplomatic signals for decryption . Valerie married Catherine 's grandfather , Captain Peter Middleton . Exhibitions * Block C Visitor Centre * * Secrets Revealed introduction * * The Road to Bletchley Park . Codebreaking in World War One . * * Intel Security Cybersecurity exhibition . Online security and privacy in the 21st Century . * Block B * * Operational Bombe Rebuild * * Lorenz Cipher * * Alan

wh_3778--Bletchley_Park.txt

What was the name of the German encryption machine whose code was deciphered at Bletchley Park during World War II ?

Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea ( , literally Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas : An Underwater Tour of the World ) is a classic science fiction novel by French writer Jules Verne published in 1870 . The novel was originally serialized from March 1869 through June 1870 in Pierre-Jules Hetzel 's periodical , the Magasin d ’ Éducation et de Récréation . The deluxe illustrated edition , published by Hetzel in November 1871 , included 111 illustrations by Alphonse de Neuville and Édouard Riou . The book was highly acclaimed when released and still is now ; it is regarded as one of the premiere adventure novels and one of Verne 's greatest works , along with Around the World in Eighty Days and Journey to the Center of the Earth . The description of Nemo 's ship , called the Nautilus , was considered ahead of its time , as it accurately describes features on submarines , which at the time were very primitive vessels . Thus , the book has been able to age well because of its scientific theories , unlike some of Verne 's other works , like Journey to the Center of the Earth , which are not scientifically accurate and serve more simply as adventure novels . Title The title refers to the distance traveled while under the sea and not to a depth , as 20,000 leagues is over six times the diameter , and nearly three times the circumference of the Earth . The greatest depth mentioned in the book is four leagues . ( The book uses metric leagues , which are four kilometres each . ) A literal translation of the French title would end in the plural `` seas '' , thus implying the `` seven seas '' through which the characters of the novel travel ; however , the early English translations of the title used `` sea '' , meaning the ocean in general . Plot During the year 1866 , ships of several nations spot a mysterious sea monster , which some suggest to be a giant narwhal . The United States government assembles an expedition in New York City to find and destroy the monster . Professor Pierre Aronnax , a French marine biologist and narrator of the story , who happens to be in New York at the time , receives a last-minute invitation to join the expedition which he accepts . Canadian whaler and master harpoonist Ned Land and Aronnax 's faithful servant Conseil are also brought aboard . The expedition departs Brooklyn aboard the United States Navy frigate Abraham Lincoln and travels south around Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean . The ship finds the monster after a long search and then attacks the beast , which damages the ship 's rudder . The three protagonists are then hurled into the water and grasp hold of the `` hide '' of the creature , which they find , to their surprise , to be a submarine very far ahead of its era . They are quickly captured and brought inside the vessel , where they meet its enigmatic creator and commander , Captain Nemo . The rest of the story follows the adventures of the protagonists aboard the creature—the submarine , the Nautilus—which was built in secrecy and now roams the seas free from any land-based government . Captain Nemo 's motivation is implied to be both a scientific thirst for knowledge and a desire for revenge on ( and self-imposed exile from ) civilization . Nemo explains that his submarine is electrically powered and can perform advanced marine biology research ; he also tells his new passengers that although he appreciates conversing with such an expert as Aronnax , maintaining the secrecy of his existence requires never letting them leave . Aronnax and Conseil are enthralled by the undersea adventures , but Ned Land can only think of escape . They visit many places under the oceans , some real-life places , others completely fictional . Thus , the travelers witness the real corals of the Red Sea , the wrecks of the battle of Vigo Bay , the Antarctic ice shelves , the Transatlantic telegraph cable and the fictional submerged land of Atlantis . The travelers also use diving suits to hunt sharks and other marine life with air-guns and have an underwater funeral for a crew member who died when an accident occurred under mysterious—and unknown to the reader—conditions inside the Nautilus . When the Nautilus returns to the Atlantic Ocean , a pack of `` poulpes '' ( usually translated as a giant squid , although in French `` poulpe '' means `` octopus '' ) attacks the vessel and kills a crew member . Throughout the story Captain Nemo is suggested to have exiled himself from the world after an encounter with the forces that occupied his country that had devastating effects on his family . Not long after the incident of the poulpes , Nemo suddenly changes his behavior toward Aronnax , avoiding him . Aronnax no longer feels the same and begins to sympathize with Ned Land . Near the end of the book , the Nautilus is attacked by a warship of some nation that made Nemo suffer . Filled with hatred and revenge , Nemo ignores Aronnax 's pleas for mercy . Nemo—nicknamed angel of hatred by Aronnax—destroys the ship , ramming it just below the waterline , sinking it into the bottom of the sea , much to Aronnax 's horror , as he watches the ship plunge into the abyss . Nemo bows before the pictures of his wife and children and is plunged into deep depression after this encounter . For several days after this , the protagonists ' situation changes . No one seems to be on board any longer . And the Nautilus apparently now moves about randomly . Ned Land is even more depressed than ever , Conseil fears for Ned 's life , and Aronnax , horrified at what Nemo had done to the ship , can no longer stand the situation either . Then one evening , Ned Land announces an opportunity to escape . Although Aronnax wants to leave Nemo , whom he now holds in horror , he still wishes to see him for the last time . But he knows that Nemo would never let him escape , so he has to avoid meeting him . Before the escape , however , he sees him one last time ( although secretly ) , and hears him say `` Almighty God ! Enough ! Enough ! `` . Aronnax immediately goes to his companions and they are ready to escape . But while they loosen the dinghy , they discover that the Nautilus has wandered into the Moskenstraumen , more commonly known as the `` Maelstrom '' . They manage to escape the danger and find refuge on a nearby island off the coast of Norway , but the fate of Nautilus is unknown . Themes and subtext Captain Nemo 's name is an allusion to Homer 's Odyssey , a Greek epic poem . In The Odyssey , Odysseus meets the monstrous cyclops Polyphemus during the course of his wanderings . Polyphemus asks Odysseus his name , and Odysseus replies that his name is `` Utis '' ( ουτις ) , which translates as `` No-man '' or `` No-body '' . In the Latin translation of the Odyssey , this pseudonym is rendered as `` Nemo '' , which in Latin also translates as `` No-man '' or `` No-body '' . Similarly to Nemo , Odysseus must wander the seas in exile ( though only for 10 years ) and is tormented by the deaths of his ship 's crew . Jules Verne several times mentions Commander Matthew Fontaine Maury , `` Captain Maury '' in Verne 's book , a real-life oceanographer who explored the winds , seas , currents , and collected samples of the bottom of the seas and charted all of these things . Verne would have known of Matthew Maury 's international fame and perhaps Maury 's French ancestry . References are made to other such Frenchmen as Jean-François de Galaup , comte de Lapérouse , a famous explorer who was lost while circumnavigating the globe ; Dumont D'Urville , the explorer who found the remains of Lapérouse 's ship ; and Ferdinand Lesseps , builder of the Suez Canal and the nephew of the sole survivor of Lapérouse 's expedition . The Nautilus seems to follow the footsteps of these men : she visits the waters where Lapérouse was lost ; she sails to Antarctic waters and becomes stranded there , just like D'Urville 's ship , the Astrolabe ; and she passes through an underwater tunnel from the Red Sea into the Mediterranean . The most famous part of the novel , the battle against a school of giant cuttlefish , begins when a crewman opens the hatch of the boat and gets caught by one of the monsters . As the tentacle that has grabbed him pulls him away , he yells `` Help ! '' in French . At the beginning of the next chapter , concerning the battle , Aronnax states , `` To convey such sights , one would take the pen of our most famous poet , Victor Hugo , author of The Toilers of the Sea . '' The Toilers of the Sea also contains an episode where a worker fights a giant octopus , wherein the octopus symbolizes the Industrial Revolution . It is probable that Verne borrowed the symbol , but used it to allude to the Revolutions of 1848 as well , in that the first man to stand against the `` monster '' and the first to be defeated by it is a Frenchman . In several parts of the book , Captain Nemo is depicted as a champion of the world 's underdogs and downtrodden . In one passage , Captain Nemo is mentioned as providing some help to Greeks rebelling against Ottoman rule during the Cretan Revolt of 1866–1869 , proving to Arronax that he had not completely severed all relations with mankind outside the Nautilus after all . In another passage , Nemo takes pity on a poor Indian pearl diver who must do his diving without the sophisticated diving suit available to the submarine 's crew , and who is doomed to die young due to the cumulative effect of diving on his lungs . Nemo approaches him underwater and gives him a whole pouch full of pearls , more than he could have acquired in years of his dangerous work . Nemo remarks that the diver as an inhabitant of British Colonial India , `` is an inhabitant of an oppressed country '' . Verne took the name `` Nautilus '' from one of the earliest successful submarines , built in 1800 by Robert Fulton , who later invented the first commercially successful steamboat . Fulton 's submarine was named after the paper nautilus because it had a sail . Three years before writing his novel , Jules Verne also studied a model of the newly developed French Navy submarine Plongeur at the 1867 Exposition Universelle , which inspired him for his definition of the Nautilus . The breathing apparatus used by Nautilus divers is depicted as an untethered version of underwater breathing apparatus designed by Benoit Rouquayrol and Auguste Denayrouze in 1865 . They designed a diving set with a backpack spherical air tank that supplied air through the first known demand regulator . The diver still walked on the seabed and did not swim . This set was called an aérophore ( Greek for `` air-carrier '' ) . Air pressure tanks made with the technology of the time could only hold 30 atmospheres , and the diver had to be surface supplied ; the tank was for bailout . The durations of 6 to 8 hours on a tankful without external supply recorded for the Rouquayrol set in the book are greatly exaggerated . No less significant , though more rarely commented on , is the very bold political vision ( indeed , revolutionary for its time ) represented by the character of Captain Nemo . As revealed in the later Verne book The Mysterious Island , Captain Nemo is a descendant of Tipu Sultan , a Muslim ruler of Mysore who resisted the expansionism of the British East India Company . Nemo took to the underwater life after the suppression of the Indian Mutiny of 1857 , in which his close family members were killed by the British . This change was made at the request of Verne 's publisher , Pierre-Jules Hetzel , who is known to be responsible for many serious changes in Verne 's books . In the original text the mysterious captain was a Polish nobleman , avenging his family who were killed by the Russians in retaliation for the captain 's taking part in the Polish January Uprising of 1863 . As France was at the time allied with the Russian Empire , the target for Nemo 's wrath was changed to France 's old enemy , the British Empire , to avoid political trouble . It is no wonder that Professor Pierre Aronnax does not suspect Nemo 's origins , as these were explained only later , in Verne 's next book . What remained in the book from the initial concept is a portrait of Tadeusz Kościuszko , a Polish national hero , leader of the uprising against Russia in 1794 , with an inscription in Latin : `` Finis Poloniae ! '' ( `` The end of Poland ! `` ) . Margaret Drabble argues that Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea anticipated the ecology movement and shaped the French avant-garde . Recurring themes in later books Jules Verne wrote a sequel to this book : L'Île mystérieuse ( The Mysterious Island , 1874 ) , which concludes the stories begun by Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea and In Search of the Castaways . While The Mysterious Island seems to give more information about Nemo ( or Prince Dakkar ) , it is muddied by the presence of several irreconcilable chronological contradictions between the two books and even within The Mysterious Island . Verne returned to the theme of an outlaw submarine captain in his much later Facing the Flag . That book 's main villain , Ker Karraje , is a completely unscrupulous pirate acting purely and simply for gain , completely devoid of all the saving graces which gave Nemo—for all that he , too , was capable of ruthless killings—some nobility of character . Like Nemo , Ker Karraje plays `` host '' to unwilling French guests—but unlike Nemo , who manages to elude all pursuers , Karraje 's career of outlawry is decisively ended by the combination of an international task force and the rebellion of his French captives . Though also widely published and translated , it never attained the lasting popularity of Twenty Thousand Leagues . More similar to the original Nemo , though with a less finely worked-out character , is Robur in Robur the Conqueror—a dark and flamboyant outlaw rebel using an aircraft instead of a submarine—later used as a basis for the movie Master of the World . English translations The novel was first translated into English in 1873 by Reverend Lewis Page Mercier ( aka `` Mercier Lewis '' ) . Mercier cut nearly a quarter of Verne 's original text and made hundreds of translation errors , sometimes dramatically changing the meaning of Verne 's original intent ( including uniformly mistranslating French scaphandre — properly `` diving apparatus '' — as `` cork-jacket '' , following a long-obsolete meaning as `` a type of lifejacket '' ) . Some of these mistranslations have been done for political reasons , such as Nemo 's identity and the nationality of the two warships he sinks , or the portraits of freedom fighters on the wall of his cabin which originally included Daniel O'Connell . Nonetheless , it became the standard English translation for more than a hundred years , while other translations continued to draw from it and its mistakes ( especially the mistranslation of the title ; the French title actually means Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas ) . In the Argyle Press/Hurst and Company 1892 Arlington Edition , the translation and editing mistakes attributed to Mercier are missing . Scaphandre is correctly translated as `` diving apparatus '' and not as `` cork-jackets '' . Although the book cover gives the title as Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea , the title page titles the book Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas ; Or , The Marvelous and Exciting Adventures of Pierre Arronax , Conseil His Servant , and Ned Land a Canadian Harpooner . A modern translation was produced in 1966 by Walter James Miller and published by Washington Square Press . Many of Mercier 's changes were addressed in the translator 's preface , and most of Verne 's text was restored . In the 1960s , Anthony Bonner published a translation of the novel for Bantam Classics . A specially written introduction by Ray Bradbury , comparing Captain Nemo and Captain Ahab of Moby-Dick , was also included . Many of Mercier 's errors were again corrected in a from-the-ground-up re-examination of the sources and an entirely new translation by Walter James Miller and Frederick Paul Walter , published in 1993 by Naval Institute Press in a `` completely restored and annotated edition '' . It was based on Walter 's own 1991 public-domain translation , which is available from a number of sources , notably a recent edition with the title Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Seas ( ISBN 978-1-904808-28-2 ) . In 2010 Walter released a fully revised , newly researched translation with the title 20,000 Leagues Under the Seas — part of an omnibus of five of his Verne translations titled Amazing Journeys : Five Visionary Classics and published by State University of New York Press . In 1998 William Butcher issued a new , annotated translation from the French original , published by Oxford University Press , ISBN 0-19-953927-8 , with the title Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Seas . He includes detailed notes , an extensive bibliography , appendices and a wide-ranging introduction studying the novel from a literary perspective . In particular , his original research on the two manuscripts studies the radical changes to the plot and to the character of Nemo forced on Verne by the first publisher , Jules Hetzel . One or more of these recent English translations uses the word `` frogman '' uniformly and wrongly to mean a diver in standard diving dress or similar , to translate French scaphandrier . Adaptations and variations The national origin of Captain Nemo was changed in most movie realizations ; in nearly all picture-based works following the book Nemo was made into a European . However , he was represented as an Indian by Omar Sharif in the 1973 European miniseries The Mysterious Island . Nemo is also depicted as Indian in a silent film version of the story released in 1916 and later in both the graphic novel and the movie The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen . In Walt Disney 's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea ( 1954 ) , a live-action Technicolor film version of the novel , Captain Nemo is a European , bitter because his wife and son were tortured to death by those in power in the fictional prison camp of Rura Penthe , in an effort to get Nemo to reveal his scientific secrets . This is Nemo 's motivation for sinking warships in the film . He is played in this version by the British actor James Mason , with an English accent . No mention is made of any Indians in the film . Trivia Since the beginning of Professor Pierre Aronnax 's containment in the Nautilus , he noticed the crewmen , who were noticeably of different nationalities , spoke an unfamiliar language . Though unlikely , it is possible the crewmen aboard the Nautilus spoke an auxiliary language , such as Esperanto and Volapük , while also retaining their native language .

qw_1265--Twenty_Thousand_Leagues_Under_the_Sea.txt

"Who was the author of ""Around The World In 80 Days"" and ""20,000 Leagues Under The Sea""?"

Mel Colmcille Gerard Gibson ( born January 3 , 1956 ) is an American actor and filmmaker ( screenwriter , producer , and director ) . Gibson was born in Peekskill , New York , and moved with his parents to Sydney , Australia , when he was 12 years old . Gibson is most well known as an action hero , for roles such as Martin Riggs in the Lethal Weapon buddy cop film series , and Max Rockatansky in the first three films in the Mad Max post-apocalyptic action series . Gibson studied acting at the Australian National Institute of Dramatic Art . During the 1980s , Gibson founded Icon Entertainment , a production company which independent film director Atom Egoyan has called , `` an alternative to the studio system . '' Director Peter Weir cast Gibson as one of the leads in the critically acclaimed World War I drama Gallipoli ( 1981 ) , which earned Gibson a Best Actor Award from the Australian Film Institute . The film also helped to earn Gibson the reputation of a serious , versatile actor . In 1995 , Gibson produced , directed , and starred in the epic historical drama film Braveheart , for which he won the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Director , along with the Academy Award for Best Picture . In 2004 , Gibson directed and produced the financially successful and controversial , biblical drama film The Passion of the Christ . Gibson received further critical notice for his directorial work of the 2006 action-adventure film Apocalypto , which is set in Mesoamerica during the early 16th century . Early life Gibson was born in Peekskill , New York , the sixth of eleven children , and the second son of Hutton Gibson , a writer , and Irish-born Anne Patricia ( née Reilly , died 1990 ) . Gibson 's paternal grandmother was opera contralto Eva Mylott ( 1875–1920 ) , who was born in Australia , to Irish parents , while his paternal grandfather , John Hutton Gibson , was a millionaire tobacco businessman from the American South . One of Gibson 's younger brothers , Donal , is also an actor . Gibson 's first name is derived from Saint Mel , fifth-century Irish saint , and founder of Gibson 's mother 's native diocese , Ardagh , while his second name , Colmcille , is also shared by an Irish saint and is the name of the Aughnacliffe parish in County Longford where Gibson 's mother was born and raised . Because of his mother and his father 's mother who immigrated to Australia from Ireland , Gibson retains dual Irish and American citizenship . Gibson 's father was awarded US $ 145,000 in a work-related-injury lawsuit against the New York Central Railroad on February 14 , 1968 , and soon afterwards relocated his family to West Pymble , Sydney , Australia . Mel Gibson was 12 years old at the time . The move to his grandmother 's native Australia was for economic reasons , and his father 's expectation that the Australian Defence Forces would reject his eldest son for the draft during the Vietnam War . Gibson was educated by members of the Congregation of Christian Brothers at St Leo 's Catholic College in Wahroonga , New South Wales , during his high school years . Career Overview Gibson gained very favorable notices from film critics when he first entered the cinematic scene , as well as comparisons to several classic movie stars . In 1982 , Vincent Canby wrote that `` Mr. Gibson recalls the young Steve McQueen ... I ca n't define `` star quality , '' but whatever it is , Mr. Gibson has it . '' Gibson has also been likened to `` a combination Clark Gable and Humphrey Bogart . '' Gibson 's roles in the Mad Max series of films , Peter Weir 's Gallipoli , and the Lethal Weapon series of films earned him the label of `` action hero '' . Later , Gibson expanded into a variety of acting projects including human dramas such as Hamlet , and comedic roles such as those in Maverick and What Women Want . He expanded beyond acting into directing and producing , with : The Man Without a Face , in 1993 ; Braveheart , in 1995 ; The Passion of the Christ , in 2004 ; and Apocalypto , in 2006 . Jess Cagle of Time compared Gibson with Cary Grant , Sean Connery , and Robert Redford . Connery once suggested Gibson should play the next James Bond to Connery 's M. Gibson turned down the role , reportedly because he feared being typecast . Stage Gibson studied at the National Institute of Dramatic Art ( NIDA ) in Sydney . The students at NIDA were classically trained in the British-theater tradition rather than in preparation for screen acting . As students , Gibson and actress Judy Davis played the leads in Romeo and Juliet , and Gibson played the role of Queen Titania in an experimental production of A Midsummer Night 's Dream . After graduation in 1977 , Gibson immediately began work on the filming of Mad Max , but continued to work as a stage actor , and joined the State Theatre Company of South Australia in Adelaide . Gibson 's theatrical credits include the character Estragon ( opposite Geoffrey Rush ) in Waiting for Godot , and the role of Biff Loman in a 1982 production of Death of a Salesman in Sydney . Gibson 's most recent theatrical performance , opposite Sissy Spacek , was the 1993 production of Love Letters by A. R. Gurney , in Telluride , Colorado . Australian television and cinema While a student at NIDA , Gibson made his film debut in the 1977 film Summer City , for which he was paid $ 400 . Gibson then played the title character in the film Mad Max ( 1979 ) . He was paid $ 15,000 for this role . Shortly after making the film he did a season with the South Australian Theatre Company . During this period he shared a $ 30 a week apartment in Adelaide with his future wife Robyn . After Mad Max , Gibson also played a mentally slow youth in the film Tim . During this period Gibson also appeared in Australian television series guest roles . He appeared in serial The Sullivans as naval lieutenant Ray Henderson , in police procedural Cop Shop , and in the pilot episode of prison serial Punishment which was produced in 1980 , screened 1981 . Gibson joined the cast of the World War II action film Attack Force Z , which was not released until 1982 when Gibson had become a bigger star . Director Peter Weir cast Gibson as one of the leads in the critically acclaimed World War I drama Gallipoli , which earned Gibson another Best Actor Award from the Australian Film Institute . The film Gallipoli also helped to earn Gibson the reputation of a serious , versatile actor and gained him the Hollywood agent Ed Limato . The sequel Mad Max 2 was his first hit in America ( released as The Road Warrior ) . In 1982 Gibson again attracted critical acclaim in Peter Weir 's romantic thriller The Year of Living Dangerously . Following a year hiatus from film acting after the birth of his twin sons , Gibson took on the role of Fletcher Christian in The Bounty in 1984 . Gibson earned his first million dollar salary for playing Max Rockatansky for the third time , in Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome in 1985 . Hollywood Early Hollywood years Mel Gibson 's first American film was Mark Rydell 's 1984 drama The River , in which he and Sissy Spacek played struggling Tennessee farmers . Gibson then starred in the Gothic romance Mrs. Soffel for Australian director Gillian Armstrong . He and Matthew Modine played condemned convict brothers opposite Diane Keaton as the warden 's wife who visits them to read the Bible . In 1985 , after working on four films in a row , Gibson took almost two years off at his Australian cattle station . He returned to play the role of Martin Riggs in Lethal Weapon , a film which helped to cement his status as a Hollywood `` leading man '' . Gibson 's next film was Robert Towne 's Tequila Sunrise , followed by Lethal Weapon 2 , in 1989 . Gibson next starred in three films back-to-back : Bird on a Wire , Air America , and Hamlet ; all were released in 1990 . 1990s During the 1990s , Gibson alternated between commercial and personal projects . His films in the first half of the decade were Forever Young , Lethal Weapon 3 , Maverick , and Braveheart . He then starred in Ransom , Conspiracy Theory , Lethal Weapon 4 , and Payback . Gibson also served as the speaking and singing voice of John Smith in Disney 's Pocahontas . After 2000 In 2000 , Gibson acted in three films that each grossed over $ 100 million : The Patriot , Chicken Run , and What Women Want . In 2002 , Gibson appeared in the Vietnam War drama We Were Soldiers and M. Night Shyamalan 's Signs , which became the highest-grossing film of Gibson 's acting career . While promoting Signs , Gibson said that he no longer wanted to be a movie star and would only act in film again if the script were truly extraordinary . In 2010 , Gibson appeared in Edge of Darkness , which marked his first starring role since 2002 and was an adaptation of the BBC miniseries , Edge of Darkness . In 2010 , following an outburst at his ex-girlfriend that was made public , Gibson was dropped from the talent agency of William Morris Endeavor . Gibson most recently played two villains : Voz in Machete Kills in 2013 , opposite Danny Trejo , and Conrad Stonebanks in The Expendables 3 opposite Sylvester Stallone in 2014 . Producer After his success in Hollywood with the Lethal Weapon series , Gibson began to move into producing and directing . With partner Bruce Davey , Gibson formed Icon Productions in 1989 in order to make Hamlet . In addition to producing or co-producing many of Gibson 's own star vehicles , Icon has turned out many other small films , ranging from Immortal Beloved to An Ideal Husband . Gibson has taken supporting roles in some of these films , such as The Million Dollar Hotel and The Singing Detective . Gibson has also produced a number of projects for television , including a biopic on The Three Stooges and the 2008 PBS documentary Carrier . Icon has grown from being just a production company to also be an international distribution company and film exhibitor in Australia and New Zealand . In June 2010 , Gibson was in Brownsville , Texas , filming scenes for the movie , How I Spent My Summer Vacation , about a career criminal put in a tough prison in Mexico . In October 2010 , it was reported that Gibson would have a small role in The Hangover : Part II , but he was removed from the film after the cast and crew objected to his involvement . Director Mel Gibson has credited his directors , particularly George Miller , Peter Weir , and Richard Donner , with teaching him the craft of filmmaking and influencing him as a director . According to Robert Downey , Jr. , studio executives encouraged Gibson in 1989 to try directing , an idea he rebuffed at the time . Gibson made his directorial debut in 1993 with The Man Without a Face , followed two years later by Braveheart , which earned Gibson the Academy Award for Best Director . Gibson had long planned to direct a remake of Fahrenheit 451 , but in 1999 the project was indefinitely postponed because of scheduling conflicts . Gibson was scheduled to direct Robert Downey , Jr. in a Los Angeles stage production of Hamlet in January 2001 , but Downey 's drug relapse ended the project . In 2002 , while promoting We Were Soldiers and Signs to the press , Gibson mentioned that he was planning to pare back on acting and return to directing . In September 2002 , Gibson announced that he would direct a film called The Passion in Aramaic and Latin with no subtitles because he hoped to `` transcend language barriers with filmic storytelling . '' In 2004 , he released the controversial film The Passion of the Christ , with subtitles , which he co-wrote , co-produced , and directed . The film went on to become the highest grossing rated R film of all time with $ 370,782,930 in U.S. box office sales . Gibson directed a few episodes of Complete Savages for the ABC network . In 2006 , he directed the action-adventure film Apocalypto , his second film to feature sparse dialogue in a non-English language . Film work Gibson 's acting career began in 1976 , with a role on the Australian television series The Sullivans . In his career , Gibson has appeared in 43 films , including the Mad Max and Lethal Weapon film series . In addition to acting , Gibson has also directed four films , including Braveheart and The Passion of the Christ ; produced 11 films ; and written two films . Films either starring or directed by Mel Gibson have earned over US $ 2.5 billion , in the United States alone . Gibson 's filmography includes television series , feature films , television films , and animated films . Mad Max series Gibson got his breakthrough role as the leather-clad post-apocalyptic survivor in George Miller 's Mad Max . The independently financed blockbuster helped to make him an international star . In the United States , the actors ' Australian accents were dubbed with American accents . The original film spawned two sequels : Mad Max 2 ( known in North America as The Road Warrior ) , and Mad Max 3 ( known in North America as Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome ) . A fourth movie , Mad Max : Fury Road ( 2015 ) , was made with Tom Hardy in the title role . Gallipoli The 1981 Peter Weir film , Gallipoli is about a group of young men from rural Western Australia who enlist in the Australian Imperial Force during World War I . They are sent to invade the Ottoman Empire , where they take part in the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign . During the course of the movie , the young men slowly lose their innocence about the war . The climax of the movie centers on the catastrophic AIF offensive known as the Battle of the Nek . Peter Weir cast Gibson in the role of Frank Dunne , an Irish-Australian drifter with an intense cynicism about fighting for the British Empire . Newcomer Mark Lee was recruited to play the idealistic Archy Hamilton after participating in a photo session for the director . Gibson later recalled : `` I 'd auditioned for an earlier film and he told me right up front , ' I 'm not going to cast you for this part . You 're not old enough . But thanks for coming in , I just wanted to meet you . ' He told me he wanted me for Gallipoli a couple of years later because I was n't the archetypal Australian . He had Mark Lee , the angelic-looking , ideal Australian kid , and he wanted something of a modern sensibility . He thought the audience needed someone to relate to of their own time . '' Gibson later said that Gallipoli is , `` Not really a war movie . That 's just the backdrop . It 's really the story of two young men . '' The critically acclaimed film helped to further launch Gibson 's career . He won the award for Best Actor in a Leading Role from the Australian Film Institute . The Year of Living Dangerously Gibson played a naïve but ambitious journalist opposite Sigourney Weaver and Linda Hunt in Peter Weir 's atmospheric 1982 film The Year of Living Dangerously , based on the novel of the same name by Christopher Koch . The movie was both a critical and commercial success , and the upcoming Australian actor was heavily marketed by MGM studio . In his review of the film , Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote , `` If this film does n't make an international star of Mr. Gibson , then nothing will . He possesses both the necessary talent and the screen presence . '' According to John Hiscock of The Daily Telegraph , the film did , indeed , establish Gibson as an international talent . Gibson was initially reluctant to accept the role of Guy Hamilton . `` I did n't necessarily see my role as a great challenge . My character was , like the film suggests , a puppet . And I went with that . It was n't some star thing , even though they advertised it that way . '' Gibson saw some similarities between himself and the character of Guy . `` He 's not a silver-tongued devil . He 's kind of immature and he has some rough edges and I guess you could say the same for me . '' Gibson has cited this screen performance as his personal favorite . The Bounty Gibson followed the footsteps of Errol Flynn , Clark Gable , and Marlon Brando by starring as Fletcher Christian in a cinematic retelling of the Mutiny on the Bounty . The resulting 1984 film The Bounty is considered to be the most historically accurate version . However , Gibson has expressed a belief that the film 's revisionism did not go far enough . He has stated that his character should have been portrayed as the film 's antagonist . He has further praised Anthony Hopkins 's performance as Lieutenant William Bligh as the best aspect of the film . Lethal Weapon series Gibson moved into more mainstream commercial filmmaking with the popular buddy cop Lethal Weapon series , which began with the 1987 original . In the films he played LAPD Detective Martin Riggs , a recently widowed Vietnam veteran with a death wish and a penchant for violence and gunplay . In the films , he is partnered with a reserved family man named Roger Murtaugh ( Danny Glover ) . Following the success of Lethal Weapon , director Richard Donner and principal cast revisited the characters in three sequels , Lethal Weapon 2 ( 1989 ) , Lethal Weapon 3 ( 1993 ) , and Lethal Weapon 4 ( 1998 ) . With its fourth installment , the Lethal Weapon series embodied `` the quintessence of the buddy cop pic '' . Hamlet Gibson made the unusual transition from action to classical drama , playing William Shakespeare 's Danish prince in Franco Zeffirelli 's Hamlet . Gibson was cast alongside experienced Shakespearean actors Ian Holm , Alan Bates , and Paul Scofield . He compared working with Scofield to being `` thrown into the ring with Mike Tyson '' . Scofield said of Gibson `` Not the sort of actor you 'd think would make an ideal Hamlet , but he had enormous integrity and intelligence . '' Braveheart In 1995 , Mel Gibson directed , produced , and starred in Braveheart , a biographical film of Sir William Wallace , a Scottish nationalist who was executed in 1305 for `` high treason '' against King Edward I of England . Gibson received two Academy Awards , Best Director and Best Picture , for his second directorial effort . In winning the Academy Award for Best Director , Gibson became only the sixth actor-turned-filmmaker to do so . Braveheart influenced the Scottish nationalist movement and helped to revive the film genre of the historical epic ; the Battle of Stirling Bridge sequence is considered by critics to be one of the all-time-best-directed battle scenes . The film 's depiction of the Prince of Wales as an effeminate homosexual caused the film to be attacked by the Gay Alliance . The Gay Alliance was especially enraged by a scene in which King Edward I murders his son 's male lover by throwing him out of a castle window . Gibson , who had previously been reported making several homophobic statements , now replied , `` The fact that King Edward throws this character out a window has nothing to do with him being gay ... He 's terrible to his son , to everybody . '' Gibson asserted that the reason that king Edward I kills his son 's lover is because the king is a `` psychopath '' . Gibson also expressed bewilderment that some filmgoers laughed at this murder : The Passion of the Christ Gibson directed , produced , co-wrote , and funded the 2004 film The Passion of the Christ , which chronicled the passion and death of Jesus ( Jim Caviezel ) . The film was shot exclusively in Aramaic , Latin , and Hebrew . Although Gibson originally intended to release the film without subtitles ; he eventually relented for theatrical exhibition . The film sparked divergent reviews , ranging from high praise to criticism of the violence . The Anti-Defamation League accused Gibson of anti-semitism over the film 's unflattering depiction of Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin . In The Nation , reviewer Katha Pollitt said , `` Gibson has violated just about every precept of the ( United States Conference of Catholic Bishops ) conference 's own 1988 'Criteria ' for the portrayal of Jews in dramatizations of the Passion ( no bloodthirsty Jews , no rabble , no use of Scripture that reinforces negative stereotypes of Jews , etc . ) ... The priests have big noses and gnarly faces , lumpish bodies , yellow teeth ; Herod Antipas and his court are a bizarre collection of oily-haired , epicene perverts . The 'good Jews ' look like Italian movie stars ( Italian sex symbol Monica Bellucci is Mary Magdalene ) ; Mary , who would have been around 50 and appeared 70 , could pass for a ripe 35 . '' Among those to defend Gibson were Orthodox Jewish Rabbi Daniel Lapin and radio personality Michael Medved . Referring to ADL National Director Abraham Foxman , Rabbi Lapin said that by calling The Passion of the Christ anti-Semitic , `` what he is saying is that the only way ( for Christians ) to escape the wrath of Foxman is to repudiate ( their own ) faith . '' In an interview with the Globe and Mail , Gibson stated , `` If anyone has distorted Gospel passages to rationalize cruelty towards Jews or anyone , it 's in defiance of repeated Papal condemnation . The Papacy has condemned racism in any form ... Jesus died for the sins of all times , and I 'll be the first on the line for culpability '' . Eventually , the continued media attacks began to anger Gibson . After his father 's Holocaust denial was sharply criticized in print by The New York Times writer Frank Rich , Gibson retorted , `` I want to kill him . I want his intestines on a stick .... I want to kill his dog . '' Gibson 's Traditionalist Catholic upbringing was also the target of criticism . In a 2006 interview with Diane Sawyer , Gibson stated that he feels that his `` human rights were violated '' by the often vitriolic attacks on his person , his family , and his religious beliefs which were sparked by The Passion . The movie grossed US $ 611,899,420 worldwide and $ 370,782,930 in the US alone , surpassing any motion picture starring Gibson . [ http : //boxofficemojo.com/people/chart/ ? viewActor & id melgibson.htm Mel Gibson Movie Box Office Results ] In US box offices , it became the eighth ( at the time ) highest-grossing film in history and the highest-grossing rated R film of all time . The film was nominated for three Academy Awards and won the People 's Choice Award for Favorite Dramatic Motion Picture . Apocalypto Gibson received further critical acclaim for his directing of the 2006 action-adventure film Apocalypto . Gibson 's fourth directorial effort is set in Mesoamerica during the early 16th century against the turbulent end times of a Maya civilization . The sparse dialogue is spoken in the Yucatec Maya language by a cast of Native American descent . Gibson himself has stated that the film is an attempt at making a deliberate point about great civilizations and what causes them to decline and disintegrate . Gibson said , `` People think that modern man is so enlightened , but we 're susceptible to the same forces – and we are also capable of the same heroism and transcendence . '' This theme is further explored by a quote from Will Durant , which is superimposed at the very beginning of the film : `` A great civilization is not conquered from without until it has destroyed itself from within . '' The Beaver Gibson starred in The Beaver , a domestic drama about a depressed alcoholic directed by former Maverick co-star Jodie Foster . The Beaver premiered at The South by Southwest Festival in Austin , TX on March 16 , 2011 . The opening weekend in 22 theaters was considered a flop : it made $ 104,000 which comes to a per-theater average of $ 4,745 . The film 's distributor , Summit Entertainment , had originally planned for a wide release of The Beaver for the weekend of 20 May , but after the initial box-office returns for the film , the company changed course and decided instead to give the film a `` limited art-house run '' . Michael Cieply of The New York Times observed on June 5 , 2011 , that the film had cleared just about $ 1 million , making it a certified `` flop '' . Director Jodie Foster opined that the film did not do well with American audiences because it was a dramedy , and `` very often Americans are not comfortable with [ that ] '' . Before its release , much of the coverage focussed on the unavoidable association between the protagonist 's issues and Mel Gibson 's own well-publicized personal and legal problems ( see ) , including a conviction of battery of his ex-girlfriend . Wrote Time magazine : `` The Beaver is a somber , sad domestic drama featuring an alcoholic in acute crisis ... It ’ s hard to separate Gibson ’ s true-life story from what ’ s happening onscreen . '' Prospective films As of 2013 , Gibson 's cancelled projects included a film about the writing of the Oxford English Dictionary ( OED ) , and a Richard Donner-helmed film with the working title Sam and George . Asked in 2007 if he planned to return to acting and specifically to action roles , Gibson said : `` I think I 'm too old for that , but you never know . I just like telling stories . Entertainment is valid and I guess I 'll probably do it again before it 's over . You know , do something that people wo n't get mad with me for . '' He has also expressed an intention to direct a movie set during the Viking Age , starring Leonardo DiCaprio . Like The Passion of the Christ and Apocalypto , he wants this speculative film to feature dialogue in period languages . However , DiCaprio ultimately opted out of the project . In a 2012 interview , Gibson announced that the project , which he has titled Berserker , was still moving forward . In 2011 , it was announced that Gibson had commissioned a screenplay from Joe Eszterhas about the Maccabees . The film is to be distributed by Warner Brothers Pictures . The announcement generated significant controversy . In April 2012 , Eszterhas wrote a letter to Gibson accusing him of sabotaging their movie about the Maccabees because he `` hates Jews '' , and citing a series of private incidents during which he allegedly heard Gibson express extremely racist views . Although written as a private letter , it was subsequently published on a film industry website . In response

qg_2079--Mel_Gibson.txt

Pre restraining order(s), who did People magazine name as their first "Sexiest Man Alive", in 1985?

The England cricket team is the team that represents England and Wales ( and until 1992 also Scotland ) in international cricket . Since 1 January 1997 it has been governed by the England and Wales Cricket Board ( ECB ) , having been previously governed by Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) from 1903 until the end of 1996 . England and Australia were the first teams to play a Test match ( between 15–19 March 1877 ) , and these two countries together with South Africa formed the Imperial Cricket Conference ( predecessor to today 's International Cricket Council ) on 15 June 1909 . England and Australia also played the first One Day International ( ODI ) on 5 January 1971 . England 's first Twenty20 International ( T20I ) was played on 13 June 2005 , once more against Australia . As of 25 July 2016 , England has played 974 Test matches , winning 349 and losing 283 ( with 342 draws ) . The team has won The Ashes on 32 occasions , the same number as their opponents Australia . The team has played 666 ODIs , winning 321 , and its record in major ODI tournaments includes finishing as runners-up in three Cricket World Cups ( 1979 , 1987 and 1992 ) , and also in two ICC Champions Trophys ( 2004 and 2013 ) . The team has played 86 T20Is , winning 42 . They won the ICC World Twenty20 in 2010 , and were runners-up in 2016 . England are currently ranked fourth in Tests , fifth in ODIs and fifth in T20Is by the ICC . History The first recorded incidence of a team with a claim to represent England comes from 9 July 1739 when an `` All-England '' team , which consisted of 11 gentlemen from any part of England exclusive of Kent , played against `` the Unconquerable County '' of Kent and lost by a margin of `` very few notches '' . Such matches were repeated on numerous occasions for the best part of a century . In 1846 William Clarke formed the All-England Eleven . This team would eventually compete against a United All-England Eleven with annual matches occurring between 1847 and 1856 . These matches were arguably the most important contest of the English season if judged by the quality of the players . Early tours The first overseas tour occurred in September 1859 with England touring North America . This team had six players from the All-England Eleven , six from the United All-England Eleven and was captained by George Parr . With the outbreak of the American Civil War , attention turned elsewhere . English tourists visited Australia in 1861-62 with this first tour organised as a commercial venture by Messrs Spiers and Pond , restaurateurs of Melbourne . Most matches played during tours prior to 1877 were `` against odds '' , with the opposing team fielding more than 11 players to make for a more even contest . This first Australian tour were mostly against odds of at least 18/11 . The tour was so successful that George Parr led a second tour in 1863–64 . James Lillywhite led a subsequent England team which sailed on the P & O steamship Poonah on 21 September 1876 . They would play a combined Australian XI , for once on even terms of 11 a side . The match , starting on 15 March 1877 at the Melbourne Cricket Ground came to be regarded as the inaugural Test match . The combined Australian XI won this Test match by 45 runs with Charles Bannerman of Australia scoring the first Test century . At the time , the match was promoted as James Lillywhite 's XI v Combined Victoria and New South Wales . The teams played a return match on the same ground at Easter , 1877 , when Lillywhite 's team avenged their loss with a victory by four wickets . The first Test match on English soil occurred in 1880 with England victorious ; this was the first time England fielded a fully representative side with W.G . Grace included in the team . The Ashes England lost their first home series 1–0 in 1882 with The Sporting Times printing an obituary on English cricket : As a result of this loss the tour of 1882–83 was dubbed by England captain Ivo Bligh as `` the quest to regain the ashes '' . England with a mixture of amateurs and professionals won the series 2–1 . Bligh was presented with an urn that contained some ashes , which have variously been said to be of a bail , ball or even a woman 's veil and so The Ashes was born . A fourth match was then played which Australia won by 4 wickets but the match was not considered part of the Ashes series . England would dominate many of these early contests with England winning the Ashes series 10 times between 1884 and 1898 . During this period England also played their first Test match against South Africa in 1889 at Port Elizabeth . The 1899 Ashes series was the first tour where the MCC and the counties appointed a selection committee . There were three active players : Lord Hawke , W. G. Grace and Herbert Bainbridge who was the captain of Warwickshire . Prior to this , England teams for home Tests had been chosen by the club on whose ground the match was to be played . The start of the 20th century saw mixed results for England as they lost four of the eight Ashes series between 1900 and 1914 . During this period England would lose their first series against South Africa in the 1905–06 season 4–1 as their batting faltered . The 1912 season saw England take part in a unique experiment . A nine Test triangular tournament involving England , South Africa and Australia was set up . The series was hampered by a very wet summer and player disputes however and the tournament was considered a failure with the Daily Telegraph stating : With Australia sending a weakened team and the South African bowlers being ineffective England dominated the tournament winning four of their six matches . The Australia v South Africa match , at Lord 's , was notable for a visit by King George V , the first time a reigning monarch had watched Test cricket . England would go on one more tour against South Africa before the outbreak of World War I . Inter-war period England 's first match after the war was in the 1920–21 season against Australia . Still feeling the effects of the war England went down to a series of crushing defeats and suffered their first whitewash losing the series 5–0 . Six Australians scored hundreds while Mailey spun out 36 English batsmen . Things were no better in the next few Ashes series losing the 1921 Ashes series 3–0 and the 1924–5 Ashes 4–1 . England 's fortunes were to change in 1926 as they regained the Ashes and were a formidable team during this period dispatching Australia 4–1 in the 1928–29 Ashes tour . On the same year the West Indies became the fourth nation to be granted Test status and played their first game against England . England won each of these three Tests by an innings , and a view was expressed in the press that their elevation had proved a mistake although Learie Constantine did the double on the tour . In the 1929–30 season England went on two concurrent tours with one team going to New Zealand ( who were granted Test status earlier that year ) and the other to the West Indies . Despite sending two separate teams England won both tours beating New Zealand 1–0 and the West Indies 2–1 . The 1930 Ashes series saw a young Don Bradman dominate the tour , scoring 974 runs in his seven Test innings . He scored 254 at Lord 's , 334 at Headingley and 232 at the Oval . Australia regained the Ashes winning the series 3–1 . As a result of Bradman 's prolific run-scoring the England captain Douglas Jardine chose to develop the already existing leg theory into fast leg theory , or bodyline , as a tactic to stop Bradman . Fast leg theory involved bowling fast balls directly at the batsman 's body . The batsman would need to defend himself , and if he touched the ball with the bat , he risked being caught by one of a large number of fielders placed on the leg side . Using his fast leg theory England won the next Ashes series 4–1 . But complaints about the Bodyline tactic caused crowd disruption on the tour , and threats of diplomatic action from the Australian Cricket Board , which during the tour sent the following cable to the MCC in London : Later , Jardine was removed from the captaincy and the laws of cricket changed so that no more than one fast ball aimed at the body was permitted per over , and having more than two fielders behind square leg was banned . England 's following tour of India in the 1933–34 season was the first Test match to be staged in the subcontinent . The series was also notable for Morris Nichols and Nobby Clark bowling so many bouncers that the Indian batsman wore solar topees instead of caps to protect themselves . Australia won the 1934 Ashes series 2–1 and would keep the urn for the following 19 years . Many of the wickets of the time were friendly to batsmen resulting in a large proportion of matches ending in high scoring draws and many batting records being set . The 1938–39 tour of South Africa saw another experiment with the deciding Test being a timeless Test that was played to a finish . England lead 1–0 going into the final timeless match at Durban . Despite the final Test being 'timeless ' , the game ended in a draw after 10 days as England had to catch the train to catch the boat home . A record 1,981 runs were scored , and the concept of timeless Tests was abandoned . England would go in one final tour of the West Indies in 1939 before World War II , although a team for an MCC tour of India was selected more in hope than expectation of the matches being played . Post-war period After World War II , England fell under difficult times suffering a heavy defeat 3–0 to Australia . This was followed by a 4–0 loss to Bradman 's 'invincibles ' and a stunning 2–0 loss to the West Indies . These losses were tempered by victories against India and South Africa . Their fortunes would change in the 1953 Ashes tour as they won the series 1–0 . England would not lose a series between their 1950–51 and 1958–59 tours of Australia and secured famous victory in 1954–55 thanks to Typhoon Tyson whose 6–85 at Sydney and 7–27 at Melbourne are remembered as the fastest bowling ever seen in Australia . The 1956 series was remembered for the bowling of Jim Laker who took 46 wickets at 9.62 which included bowling figures of 19/90 at Old Trafford . After drawing to South Africa , England defeated the West Indies and New Zealand comfortably . The England team would then leave for Australia in the 1958–59 season with a team that had been hailed as the strongest ever to leave on an Ashes tour but lost the series 4–0 as Richie Benaud 's revitalised Australians were too strong . The early and middle 1960s were poor periods for English cricket . Despite England 's strength on paper , Australia held the Ashes and the West Indies dominated England in the early part of the decade . However , from 1968 to 1971 they played 27 consecutive Test matches without defeat , winning 9 and drawing 18 ( including the abandoned Test at Melbourne in 1970–71 ) . The sequence began when they drew with Australia at [ http : //www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/29/29502.html Lords ] in the Second Test of the 1968 Ashes series and ended in 1971 when India won the Third Test at [ http : //www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/31/31968.html the Oval ] by 4 wickets . They played 13 Tests with only one defeat immediately beforehand and so played a total of 40 consecutive Tests with only one defeat , dating from their innings victory over the West Indies at [ http : //www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/28/28408.html The Oval ] in 1966 . During this period they beat New Zealand , India , the West Indies , Pakistan and , under Ray Illingworth 's determined leadership , regained The Ashes from Australia in 1970–71 . 1971 to 2000 The 1970s , for the England team , can be largely split into three parts . The early 70s saw Ray Illingworth 's side dominate world cricket winning the Ashes away in 1971 and then retaining them at home in 1972 . The same side beat Pakistan at home in 1971 and played by far the better cricket against India that season . However , England were largely helped by the rain to sneak the Pakistan series 1–0 but the same rain saved India twice and one England collapse saw them lose to India . This was , however , one of ( if not the ) strongest England team ever with Boycott , Edrich , D'Oliveira , Amiss , Illingworth , Knott , Snow , Underwood amongst its core . The mid-1970s were more turbulent . Illingworth and several others had refused to tour India in 1972–73 which led to a clamour for Illingworth 's job by the end of that summer – England had just been thrashed 2–0 by a flamboyant West Indies side – with several England players well over 35 . Mike Denness was the surprising choice but only lasted 18 months ; his results against poor opposition were good , but England were badly exposed as ageing and lacking in good fast bowling against the 1974–75 Australians , losing that series 4–1 to lose the Ashes . Denness was replaced in 1975 by Tony Greig . While he managed to avoid losing to Australia , his side were largely thrashed the following year by the young and very much upcoming West Indies for whom Greig 's infamous `` grovel '' remark acted as motivation . Greig 's finest hour was probably the 1976–77 win over India in India . When Greig was discovered as being instrumental in World Series Cricket , he was sacked , and replaced by Mike Brearley . Brearley 's side showed again the hyperbole that is often spoken when one side dominates in cricket . While his side of 1977–80 contained some young players who went on to become England greats , most notably future captains Ian Botham , David Gower and Graham Gooch , their opponents were often very much weakened by the absence of their World Series players , especially in 1978 , when England beat New Zealand 3–0 and Pakistan 2–0 before thrashing what was probably Australia 's 3rd XI 5–1 in 1978–79 . The England team , with Brearley 's exit in 1980 , was never truly settled throughout the 1980s , which will probably be remembered as a low point for the team . While some of the great players like Botham , Gooch and Gower had fine careers , the team seldom succeeded in beating good opposition throughout the decade and did not score a home Test victory ( except against minnows Sri Lanka ) between September 1985 and July 1990 . In this time , undoubted highlights were the Ashes victories of 1981 `` Botham 's Ashes '' , 1985 and 1986–87 . The 1985 and 1986–87 victories , while sweet for the team , exposed more Australia 's weakness than England 's strength . If the 1980s were a low point for English Test cricket then the 1990s were only a slight improvement . The arrival of Graham Gooch as captain in 1990 forced a move toward more professionalism and especially fitness though it took some time for old habits to die . Even in 2011 , one or two successful county players have been shown up as physically unfit for international cricket . Creditable performances against India and New Zealand in 1990 were followed by a hard fought draw against the 1991 West Indies , but landmark losses against Australia in 1990–91 and especially Pakistan in 1992 showed England up badly in terms of bowling . So bad was England 's bowling in 1993 that Rodney Marsh described England 's pace attack at one point as `` pie throwers '' . Having lost three of the first four Tests played in England in 1993 Graham Gooch resigned to be replaced by Mike Atherton . More selectorial problems abounded during Atherton 's reign as new chairman of selectors / coach Ray Illingworth ( then into his 60s ) assumed almost sole responsibility for the team off the field . The youth policy which had seen England emerge from the West Indies tour of 1993–94 with some credit ( though losing to a seasoned Windies team ) was abandoned and players such as Gatting and Gooch were persisted with when well into their 30s and 40s . England duly continued to do well at home against weaker opponents such as India , New Zealand and a West Indies side beginning to fade but struggled badly against improving sides like Pakistan and South Africa . Atherton had offered his resignation after losing the 1997 Ashes series 3–2 having been 1–0 up after 2 matches – eventually to resign one series later in early 1998 . England , looking for talent , went through a whole raft of new players during this period , such as Ronnie Irani , Adam Hollioake , Craig White , Graeme Hick , Mark Ramprakash . At this time , there were two main problems : * The lack of a genuine all-rounder to bat at 6 , Ian Botham having left a huge gap in the batting order when he had retired from Tests in 1992 . * Alec Stewart , a sound wicket-keeper and an excellent player of quick bowling , could not open and keep wicket , hence his batting down the order , where he was often exposed to spin which he did n't play as well . Alec Stewart took the reins as captain in 1998 , but another losing Ashes series and early World Cup exit cost him Test and ODI captaincy in 1999 . This should not detract from the 1998 home Test series where England showed great fortitude to beat a powerful South African side 2–1 . Another reason for their poor performances were the demands of County Cricket teams on their players , meaning that England could rarely field a full strength team on their tours . This would eventually lead to the ECB taking over the MCC as the governing body of England and the implementation of central contracts . 1992 also saw Scotland sever ties with the England and Wales team , and begin to compete independently as the Scotland national cricket team . By 1999 , with coach David Lloyd resigning after the World Cup exit and new captain Nasser Hussain just appointed , England hit rock bottom ( literally ranked as lowest-rated Test nation ) after losing in shambolic fashion to New Zealand 2–1 . Hussain was booed on the Oval balcony as the crowd jeered `` We 've got the worst team in the world '' to the tune of `` He 's Got the Whole World in His Hands '' . 2000 to 2010 One year later , with central contracts now installed reducing players workloads and the arrival of Zimbabwean coach Duncan Fletcher , England had thrashed the fallen West Indies 3–1 . England 's results in Asia improved markedly that winter with series wins against both Pakistan and Sri Lanka though one-day success still eluded them . England 's fortunes improved under the new management – not without the occasional `` blip '' particularly against Australia but home Test wins became commonplace . Hussain 's side had a far harder edge to it , even managing to avoid the anticipated `` Greenwash '' in the 2001 Ashes series against the all-powerful Australian team . The nucleus of a side of fighters was slowly coming together as players such as Hussain himself , Graham Thorpe , Darren Gough and Ashley Giles began to be regularly selected . By 2003 though , having endured another Ashes drubbing as well as another first-round exit from the World Cup , Hussain felt he could not continue and resigned after one Test against South Africa , though carried on as a batsman until 2004 . Michael Vaughan took over and , while keeping the emphasis as Hussain on fitness and control , encouraged players to express themselves . This especially brought the best out of Andrew Flintoff who , in a career blighted by serious injury managed a real purple patch of 18 months from 2004 to 2005 in which England won five consecutive test series prior to facing Australia in the 2005 Ashes series , taking the team to second place in the ICC Test Championship table . During this period England defeated the West Indies home and away , New Zealand , and Bangladesh at home , and South Africa in South Africa . In June 2005 , England played its first ever T20 international match , defeating Australia by 100 runs . Later that year , England defeated Australia 2–1 in a thrilling series to regain the Ashes for the first time in 16 years having lost them in 1989 . Following the 2005 Ashes win , the team suffered from a spate of serious injuries to key players such as Vaughan , Flintoff , Giles and Simon Jones . As a result , the team underwent an enforced period of transition . A 2–0 defeat in Pakistan was followed by two drawn away series with India and Sri Lanka . In the home Test series victory against Pakistan in July and August 2006 , several promising new players emerged . Most notable were the left-arm orthodox spin bowler Monty Panesar , the first Sikh to play Test cricket for England , and left-handed opening batsman Alastair Cook . Meanwhile , England 's injury problems allowed previously marginal Test players such as Paul Collingwood and Ian Bell to consolidate their places in the team . The 2006–07 Ashes series was keenly anticipated and was expected to provide a level of competition comparable to the 2005 series . In the event , England , captained by Flintoff who was deputising for the injured Vaughan , lost all five Tests to concede the first Ashes whitewash in 86 years . England 's form in ODIs had been consistently poor . They only narrowly avoided the ignominy of having to play in the qualifying rounds of the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy . Despite this , in the ODI triangular in Australia , England recorded its first ODI tournament win overseas since 1997 . But , in the 2007 Cricket World Cup , England lost to most of the Test playing nations they faced , beating only the West Indies and Bangladesh , although they also avoided defeat by any of the non-Test playing nations . Even so , the unimpressive nature of most of their victories in the tournament , combined with heavy defeats by New Zealand , Australia and South Africa , left many commentators criticising the manner in which the England team approached the one-day game . Coach Duncan Fletcher resigned after eight years in the job as a result and was succeeded by former Sussex coach Peter Moores . Afterwards , England 's Test record was indifferent and the team slumped to fifth in the ICC rankings . There was a convincing 3–0 Test series win over West Indies in 2007 but it was followed in the second half of the summer by a 1–0 loss to India , although England did defeat India 4–3 in the ODI series . In 2007–08 , England toured Sri Lanka and New Zealand , losing the first series 1–0 and winning the second 2–1 . They followed up at home in May 2008 with a 2–0 home series win against New Zealand , these results easing the pressure on Moores , who was not at ease with his team , particularly star batsman Kevin Pietersen , who succeeded Vaughan as captain in June 2008 , after England had been well beaten by South Africa at home . The poor relationship between Moores and Pietersen came to a head in India on the 2008–09 tour . England lost the series 1–0 and both men resigned their positions , although Pietersen remained a member of the England team . Moores was replaced as coach by Zimbabwean Andy Flower . Against this background , England toured the West Indies under the captaincy of Andrew Strauss and , in a disappointing performance , lost the Test series 1–0 . The second Twenty20 World Cup was held in England in 2009 but England suffered an opening day defeat to the Netherlands . They recovered to defeat both eventual champions Pakistan and reigning champions India but were then knocked out by West Indies . This was followed by the 2009 Ashes series which featured the first Test match played in Wales , at Sophia Gardens , Cardiff . England drew that match thanks to a last wicket stand by bowlers James Anderson and Monty Panesar . A victory for each team followed before the series was decided at The Oval . Thanks to fine bowling by Stuart Broad and Graeme Swann and a debut century by Jonathan Trott , England regained the Ashes . Since 2010 After a drawn Test series in South Africa , England won their first ever ICC world championship , the 2010 World Twenty20 , with a seven-wicket win over Australia in Barbados . The following winter in the 2010-11 Ashes , they thrashed Australia 3-1 to retain the urn and record their first series win in Australia for 24 years . Furthermore , all three of their wins were innings victories - the first time a touring side had ever recorded three innings victories in a single Test series . Alastair Cook earned Man of the Series with 766 runs . England struggled to match their Test form in the 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup . Despite beating South Africa and tying with eventual winners India , England suffered shock losses to Ireland and Bangladesh before losing in the quarter-finals to Sri Lanka . However the team 's excellent form in the Test match arena continued and they became the world 's top-ranked Test team after comfortably whitewashing India 4–0 , their sixth consecutive series victory and eighth in the past nine series . However , this status only lasted a year – having lost 3–0 to Pakistan over the winter , England were beaten 2–0 by South Africa , who replaced them at the top of the rankings . It was their first home series loss since 2008 , against the same opposition . This loss saw the resignation of Strauss as captain ( and his retirement from cricket ) . His replacement , Alastair Cook , who was already in charge of the ODI side , led England to a 2–1 victory in India – their first in the country since 1984–85 . In doing so , Cook became the first ever captain to score centuries in his first five Tests as captain and became England 's leading century-maker with 23 centuries to his name . After finishing as runners-up in the ICC Champions Trophy , England faced Australia in back-to-back Ashes series . A 3–0 home win secured England the urn for the fourth time in five series . However , in the return series , they found themselves utterly demolished in a 5–0 defeat , their second Ashes whitewash in under a decade . Their misery was compounded by batsman Jonathan Trott leaving the tour early due to a stress-related illness and the mid-series retirement of spinner Graeme Swann . Following the tour , head coach Andy Flower resigned his post whilst batsman Kevin Pietersen was dropped indefinitely from the England team . Flower was replaced by his predecessor , Peter Moores , but he was sacked for a second time after a string of disappointing results including failing to advance from the group stage at the 2015 World Cup . He was replaced by Australian Trevor Bayliss who oversaw an upturn of form in the ODI side , including series victories against New

bb_8833--England_cricket_team.txt

Who was the first professional cricketer to captain England?

Captain Pugwash is a fictional pirate in a series of British children 's comic strips and books created by John Ryan . The character 's adventures were adapted into a TV series , using cardboard cut-outs filmed in live-action ( the first series was performed and broadcast live ) , also called Captain Pugwash , first shown on the BBC in 1957 , a later colour series , first shown in 1974–75 , and a traditional animation series , The Adventures of Captain Pugwash , first aired in 1998 . The eponymous hero – Captain Horatio Pugwash – sails the high seas in his ship called the Black Pig , ably assisted by cabin boy Tom , pirates Willy and Barnabas , and Master Mate . His mortal enemy is Cut-Throat Jake , captain of the Flying Dustman . History Captain Horatio Pugwash made his debut in a comic-strip format in the first issue of The Eagle in 1950 , then appeared regularly as a strip in Radio Times . In 1957 the BBC commissioned a series of short cartoon films produced by Gordon Murray . Ryan produced a total of 86 five-minute-long episodes for the BBC , shot in black-and-white film , but later transferring to colour . Ryan used a real-time technique of animation in which cardboard cutouts of the characters were laid on painted backgrounds and moved with levers . The characters ' voices were provided by Peter Hawkins . The last series of Pugwash shorts by Ryan was produced in 1975 . Although there are many anachronisms in the series , the book The Battle of Bunkum Bay gives some useful clues as to the era in which the stories are set . In this book , the King of Great Britain strongly resembles George I and the King of France resembles Louis XIV , suggesting that this story took place in 1714–15 . However , one of the few direct references to a date is in the original TV series is the episode 'Pirate of the Year ' where Pugwash enters the `` Pirate of the Year contest 1775 '' A number of spin-off books were written by John Ryan , who in the 1980s drew three new Pugwash comic-strip storybooks : The Secret of the San Fiasco , The Battle of Bunkum Bay and The Quest for the Golden Handshake . A related book by John Ryan was Admiral Fatso Fitzpugwash , in which it is revealed that Pugwash had a medieval ancestor who was First Sea Lord , but who was terrified of water . Episodes Prior to the 1974–1975 series , the first generation of Captain Pugwash episodes were filmed in black and white and were first shown on British TV , between 1957 and 1966 . These early episodes , numbering a total of 87 episodes , with the producers using the production codes of CP001 to CP087 . These earlier episodes are in addition to the later 30 episodes , from the second generation of the series , which was produced in colour , between 16 September 1974 and 11 July 1975 . Captain Pugwash also sold overseas , to various TV stations , including Australia 's ABC Television . There the show was screened during weekday afternoons , in the 1970s and '80s . The rights to Captain Pugwash were purchased by The Britt Allcroft Company , who since 1997 have issued a number of digital and part computer-animated cartoon films based on the Pugwash character , set on the island of `` Montebuffo '' , `` somewhere in the Spanish Main '' . Peter Hawkins did not provide the voices , HIT Entertainment instead employing character actor James Saxon . A DVD containing , 'All 30 heroic high sea adventures from the second-generation colour 1974–1975 , series , ( 156 minutes running time ) was given away with the Sunday Times on 20 January 2008 . Characters Captain Pugwash The pompous but likeable captain of the Black Pig . Although he boasts of being the `` bravest buccaneer '' , he is actually quite cowardly and stupid . His greed often gets him into trouble . Nevertheless , he usually wins the day – either with the help of Tom the Cabin Boy or by sheer luck . Despite being a pirate , he is rarely seen committing any acts of piracy . Master Mate A somewhat dopey character , who has a tendency to use malapropisms and to mispronounce common words . He has a teddy bear in his bunk and is quite mild-mannered . It is not entirely clear why he is the mate , as he does not appear to have any authority over the rest of the crew . He was present in the first ever Pugwash story , in which he was depicted as being constantly sleepy . Pugwash 's adenoidal pronunciation of this character 's name appears to be the main source of the urban legend about characters ' sexually suggestive names . Barnabas The most aggressive of the pirates , but in reality just as harmless . He is quite rebellious and grumpy , and is perhaps marginally more intelligent than Willy , the Mate or the Captain . He was not present in the 1997 series . Willy A simple sailor from Wigan . He appears to be the youngest crew member ( apart from Tom ) . He is a gentle soul , and is against using violence . He does , however , have the occasional brainwave and has been the crew 's saviour ( admittedly sometimes more by luck than by design ) . `` Just you wait till we get back to Wigan – we wo n't half have a 'tail ' to tell ! '' Tom the Cabin Boy It might be argued that without Tom , Pugwash would have been sunk long ago . He is the most intelligent and resourceful member of the crew , the only one who can cook and the only one who can actually sail a ship . Although Pugwash would never admit it , Tom 's ability to think up schemes is probably the only thing that prevents him from being a total failure as a pirate . The rest of the crew also found they were unable to operate without Tom , after he left with the captain when the crew mutinied . Tom is an expert concertina player , despite this being a 19th-century anachronism for an 18th-century pirate , and part of his repertoire is The Trumpet Hornpipe ( the Captain Pugwash theme ) . He was portrayed with a Home Counties accent in the first television adaptation , and with an Irish accent in the 1997 series . Cut-Throat Jake Captain Pugwash 's fearsome arch-enemy , captain of the Flying Dustman ( a pun on the Flying Dutchman combined with a reference to the occupation of dustman ) . When he is not scheming to bring about Pugwash 's downfall , he is a rather more competent pirate than his enemy , and always seems to have plenty of treasure . He speaks with a stereotypical West Country accent , and is easily recognisable by his eye patch and enormous black beard . Characters added in the later series * Jonah This character replaced pirate Barnabas , who featured in the earlier series . His catchphrase is `` No good will come of this , mark my words ! '' Jonah appears to be of a Jamaican origin . He is the tallest of the crew as he often hits his head on the ceiling of the ship 's lower deck . He is also one of the strongest of the crew as he serves as the Black Pig 's carpenter . * Governor of Portobello This character lives at the top of the island in a mansion covered in vines . He talks very quietly and his head of guard , Lt. Scratchwood , usually acts as a megaphone . He is deeply in love with Donna Bonanza and attends to her every need . * Maggie Lafayette This pirate queen appeared in the second series when she hijacked the captain 's ship to escape from the authorities . * Swine An Australian pirate who works for Jake . He almost always has a mug of grog in his hand . This character appeared in the original series , but never spoke , nor was he named . * Stinka A Mexican who works for Jake who speaks little English . He repeats everything that Jake says , annoying him greatly . Again , this character was an unnamed , unspeaking character in the earlier series . * Lieutenant Scratchwood The voice for the governor and the law for the town of Portobello . In charge of the guard and collecting taxes , he also spends his time chasing thieves . Pugwashisms Captain Pugwash is renowned for his exclamations , owing something to the style of Captain Haddock in The Adventures of Tintin : * `` Dolloping doubloons/dolphins ! '' * `` Coddling catfish ! '' * `` Lolloping landlubbers ! '' * `` Suffering seagulls ! '' * `` Staggering stalactites ! '' * `` Nautical nitwits ! '' * `` Plundering porpoises ! '' * `` Kipper me capstans ! '' * `` Tottering turtles ! '' * `` Dithering dogfish ! '' * `` Scuttling cuttlefish ! '' * `` Stuttering starfish ! '' * `` Blistering barnacles ! '' * `` Shuddering sharks ! '' Cut-Throat Jake has occasionally been known to utter the similar exclamation , `` Scupper me skull-and-crossbones ! '' Theme The series had a memorable signature tune The Trumpet Hornpipe which was played by accordionist Tom Edmundson and arranged by Philip Lane . He had learned the tune from Jimmy Shand . The tune appears to have been popular from the mid-19th century , but its composer and country of origin are unknown . In the United States it is known as the Thunder Hornpipe . Other background music was provided by BBC music arranger and pianist Johnny Pearson . Captain Pugwash books * Captain Pugwash : A Pirate Story ( 1957 ) * Pugwash Aloft ( 1960 ) * Pugwash and the Ghost Ship ( 1962 ) * Pugwash in the Pacific ( 1963 ) * Pugwash and the Sea Monster ( 1976 ) * Captain Pugwash and the Ruby ( 1976 ) * Captain Pugwash and the Treasure Chest ( 1976 ) * Captain Pugwash and the New Ship ( 1976 ) * Captain Pugwash and the Elephant ( 1976 ) * The Captain Pugwash Cartoon Book ( 1977 ) * Pugwash and the Buried Treasure ( 1980 ) * Pugwash the Smuggler ( 1982 ) * Captain Pugwash and the Fancy Dress Party ( 1982 ) * Captain Pugwash and the Mutiny ( 1982 ) * Pugwash and the Wreckers ( 1984 ) * Pugwash and the Midnight Feast ( 1984 ) * The Secret of the San Fiasco ( 1985 ) * The Battle of Bunkum Bay ( 1985 ) * The Quest of the Golden Handshake ( 1985 ) * Captain Pugwash and the Pigwig ( 1991 ) * Captain Pugwash and the Huge Reward ( 1991 ) * The books were 32 pages each , alternating two pages full colour and two pages black , blue and white , by Puffin Books . Television episodes 1974–75 series # Down The Hatch # Cannon Ball # Monster Ahoy # Mouse Amidships # Showboat # Flood Tide # Pirate Picnic # Fishmeal # Mutiny On The Black Pig # The Great Bank Robbery # A Shot Across The Bows # Wedding Bells # Stung ! # The Golden Trail # Diamonds On Ice # Birthday Cake # Witches Brew # Six Foot Deep # Riddle Of The Rubies # Pirate Of The Year # Easy Money # The Plank # A Fair Exchange # Voyage Of Discovery # Smugglers Cove # The Flying Buccaneer # Island Of The Dodos # Caught In The Act # A Tell Tale Tail # Off With His Head 1997 series # The Stowaway Sheep # The Portobello Plague # The Doubledealing Duchess # The Emperor 's New Clothes # The Boat Race # The Dingly Dangly Crab # Chest Of Drawers # The Vanishing Ship # Hot Chocolate # The Fat Cat # The Pandemonium Parrot # The Brush With Art # A Hair-Raising Day # Fiddle De Diamonds # The Melodious Mermaid # The Titanic Teapot # The New Cabin Boy # Treasure Trail # Peppercorn Pistols # Sticky Moments # Muddling Monsters # The Megamango Monkeys # King Pugwash # The Devil 's Dog # Perfumes Of Arabia # The Admiral 's Fireworks Libel case regarding double entendres There is a persistent urban legend , repeated by the now defunct UK newspaper the Sunday Correspondent , that ascribes sexually suggestive names – such as Master Bates , Seaman Staines , and Roger ( meaning `` have sex with '' ) the Cabin Boy – to Captain Pugwashs characters , and indicating that the captain 's name was a slang Australian term for oral sex . The origin of this myth is likely due to student rag mags from the 1970s and the character Master Mate , whose name when spoken by Pugwash occasionally sounded something like `` Master Bate '' . However none of the other characters ever featured in the show . Interestingly , although there was a real character called Willy , which is an inoffensive British slang term for penis , this character is never cited as an example of the double entendres . John Ryan successfully sued both the Sunday Correspondent and The Guardian newspapers in 1991 for printing this legend as fact .

dpql_2241--Captain_Pugwash.txt

Who was Captain Pugwash’s bitter enemy?

In computing , a computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as a mechanical lever or electronic switch . Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape , interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the main input device for computers . A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol . However , to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence . While most keyboard keys produce letters , numbers or signs ( characters ) , other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands . Despite the development of alternative input devices , such as the mouse , touchscreen , pen devices , character recognition and voice recognition , the keyboard remains the most commonly used device for direct ( human ) input of alphanumeric data into computers . In normal usage , the keyboard is used as a text entry interface to type text and numbers into a word processor , text editor or other programs . In a modern computer , the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software . A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all key presses to the controlling software . Keyboards are also used for computer gaming , either with regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming features , which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations . A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer , such as Windows ' Control-Alt-Delete combination , which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine . A command-line interface is a type of user interface operated entirely through a keyboard , or another device doing the job of one . History While typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key-based text entry devices , the computer keyboard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication derives largely from the utility of two devices : teleprinters ( or teletypes ) and keypunches . It was through such devices that modern computer keyboards inherited their layouts . As early as the 1870s , teleprinter-like devices were used to simultaneously type and transmit stock market text data from the keyboard across telegraph lines to stock ticker machines to be immediately copied and displayed onto ticker tape . The teleprinter , in its more contemporary form , was developed from 1907 to 1910 by American mechanical engineer Charles Krum and his son Howard , with early contributions by electrical engineer Frank Pearne . Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed . Earlier , Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices , which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s . The keyboard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication for most of the 20th century , while the keyboard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long . The development of the earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter keyboards : the development of the ENIAC computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and paper-based output device , while the BINAC computer also made use of an electromechanically controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape ( instead of paper ) and data output . From the 1940s until the late 1960s , typewriters were the main means of data entry and output for computing , becoming integrated into what were known as computer terminals . Because of the limitations of terminals based upon printed text in comparison to the growth in data storage , processing and transmission , a general move toward video-based computer terminals was effected by the 1970s , starting with the Datapoint 3300 in 1967 . The keyboard remained the primary , most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a consumer device in 1984 . By this time , text-only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively graphics-rich icons on screen . However , keyboards remain central to human-computer interaction to the present , even as mobile personal computing devices such as smartphones and tablets adapt the keyboard as an optional virtual , touchscreen-based means of data entry . Keyboard types One factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys , such as a separate numeric keyboard , for convenience . Further the keyboard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a single action is produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes ( with modifier keys , see below ) , or multiple pressing of a single key . A keyboard with few keys is called a keypad . See also text entry interface . Another factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys . Reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers . Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys . Standard Standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers ( 0.750 inches , 19.05 mm ) , and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches ( 3.81 mm ) . Desktop computer keyboards , such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards , include alphabetic characters , punctuation symbols , numbers and a variety of function keys . The internationally common 102/104 key keyboards have a smaller left shift key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right ( usually Z or Y ) . Also the enter key is usually shaped differently . Computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys , such as the command or Windows keys . There is no standard computer keyboard , although many manufacture imitate the keyboard of PCs . There are actually three different PC keyboard : the original PC keyboard with 84 keys , the AT keyboard also with 84 keys and the enhanced keyboard with 101 keys . The three differ some what in the placement of function keys , the control keys , the return key , and the shift key . Laptop-size Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke , shorter over travel distance , and a reduced set of keys . They may not have a numerical keypad , and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard , full-sized keyboard . The switch mechanism for a laptop keyboard is more likely to be a scissor switch than a rubber dome ; this is opposite the trend for full-size keyboards . Flexible keyboards Flexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards , normal from the full arrangement of keys , and laptop from the sort key distance , additionally the flexibility it allows the user to fold/roll the keyboard for better storage / transfer , however for typing , the keyboard must be resting on a hard surface . The vast majority of flexible keyboards in market are made from silicone , this material makes it water and dust proof , a very pleasant feature especially in hospitals where keyboards are subjected to frequent washing . For connection with the computer , the keyboards having USB cable and the support of operating systems reach far back as the Windows 2000 . Handheld Handheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like a game controller , and can be used as such , instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface . Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric keys and symbols that a standard keyboard would have , yet only be accessed by pressing two sets of keys at once ; one acting as a function key similar to a 'Shift ' key that would allow for capital letters on a standard keyboard . Handheld keyboards allow the user the ability to move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away from the computer . Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device . Thumb-sized Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built-in keyboard , such as PDAs , and smartphones . Small keyboards are also useful where there is a limited workspace . A chorded keyboard allows users to press several keys simultaneously . For example , the GKOS keyboard has been designed for small wireless devices . Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a game controller , such as the AlphaGrip , are also used to input data and text . A thumb keyboard ( thumb board ) is used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO . Numeric keyboards contain only numbers , mathematical symbols for addition , subtraction , multiplication , and division , a decimal point , and several function keys . They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad , commonly those of laptop computers . These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad , numeric keys , or a numeric keypad , and it can consist of the following types of keys : Arithmetic operators , numbers , arrow keys , Navigation keys , Num Lock and Enter key . Multifunctional Multifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard . Many are programmable , configurable computer keyboards and some control multiple PCs , workstations ( incl . SUN ) and other information sources ( incl . Thomson Reuters FXT/Eikon , Bloomberg , EBS , etc . ) usually in multi-screen work environments . Users have additional key functions as well as the standard functions and can typically use a single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources . Multifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads , fully programmable function or soft keys for macros/pre-sets , biometric or smart card readers , trackballs , etc . New generation multifunctional keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream video , control audio visual media and alarms , execute application inputs , configure individual desktop environments , etc . Multifunctional keyboards may also permit users to share access to PCs and other information sources . Multiple interfaces ( serial , USB , audio , Ethernet , etc . ) are used to integrate external devices . Some multifunctional keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls . Common environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex , high-performance workplaces for financial traders and control room operators ( emergency services , security , air traffic management ; industry , utilities management , etc . ) . Non-standard layout and special-use types Chorded While other keyboards generally associate one action with each key , chorded keyboards associate actions with combinations of key presses . Since there are many combinations available , chorded keyboards can effectively produce more actions on a board with fewer keys . Court reporters ' stenotype machines use chorded keyboards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time . The fastest typists ( as of 2007 ) use a stenograph , a kind of chorded keyboard used by most court reporters and closed-caption reporters . Some chorded keyboards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable , such as on devices that can be used with only one hand , and on small mobile devices that do n't have room for larger keyboards . Chorded keyboards are less desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization of the combinations to become proficient . Software Software keyboards or on-screen keyboards often take the form of computer programs that display an image of a keyboard on the screen . Another input device such as a mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text . Software keyboards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones , due to the additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware keyboards . Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , and some varieties of Linux include on-screen keyboards that can be controlled with the mouse . In software keyboards , the mouse has to be maneuvered onto the on-screen letters given by the software . On the click of a letter , the software writes the respective letter on the respective spot . Projection ( as by laser ) Projection keyboards project an image of keys , usually with a laser , onto a flat surface . The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to `` watch '' where the user 's fingers move , and will count a key as being pressed when it `` sees '' the user 's finger touch the projected image . Projection keyboards can simulate a full size keyboard from a very small projector . Because the `` keys '' are simply projected images , they can not be felt when pressed . Users of projected keyboards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips because of the lack of `` give '' when typing . A flat , non-reflective surface is also required for the keys to be projected . Most projection keyboards are made for use with PDAs and smartphones due to their small form factor . Optical keyboard technology Also known as photo-optical keyboard , light responsive keyboard , photo-electric keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology . An optical keyboard technology utilizes light emitting devices and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys . Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter , mounted on a small PCB . The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys . Most optical keyboards require at least 2 beams ( most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam ) to determine the actuated key . Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern , allowing only one beam per row of keys ( most commonly horizontal beam ) . Layout Alphabetic There are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic , numeric , and punctuation symbols on keys . These different keyboard layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols , either because they are inputting text in different languages , or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics , accounting , computer programming , or other purposes . The United States keyboard layout is used as default in the currently most popular operating systems : Windows , Mac OS X and Linux . The common QWERTY-based layout was designed early in the era of mechanical typewriters , so its ergonomics were compromised to allow for the mechanical limitations of the typewriter . As the letter-keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely , inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming . With the advent of computers , lever jams are no longer an issue , but nevertheless , QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic keyboards because they were widely used . Alternative layouts such as the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard are not in widespread use . The QWERTZ layout is widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe . The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped , and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters . Another situation takes place with `` national '' layouts . Keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted , to release the space for Ñ ñ ; similarly , those for Portuguese , French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç . The AZERTY layout is used in France , Belgium and some neighbouring countries . It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped , the Z and W are swapped , and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L ( where colon/semicolon is on a US keyboard ) . The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys , but to be typed the shift key must be pressed . The unshifted positions are used for accented characters . Keyboards in many parts of Asia may have special keys to switch between the Latin character set and a completely different typing system . Japanese layout keyboards can be switched between various Japanese input methods and the Latin alphabet by signaling the operating system 's input interpreter of the change , and some operating systems ( namely the Windows family ) interpret the character `` \ '' as `` ¥ '' for display purposes without changing the bytecode which has led some keyboard makers to mark `` \ '' as `` ¥ '' or both . In the Arab world , keyboards can often be switched between Arabic and Latin characters . In bilingual regions of Canada and in the French-speaking province of Québec , keyboards can often be switched between an English and a French-language keyboard ; while both keyboards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout , the French-language keyboard enables the user to type accented vowels such as `` é '' or `` à '' with a single keystroke . Using keyboards for other languages leads to a conflict : the image on the key does not correspond to the character . In such cases , each new language may require an additional label on the keys , because the standard keyboard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages ( see the example in the figure above ) . Key types Alphanumeric Alphabetical , numeric , and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program , text editor , data spreadsheet , or other program . Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed . The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed . The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed . The alphabetical , numeric , and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys . The Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row , which is significantly wider than other keys . Like the alphanumeric characters , it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter . Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing . It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily . Depending on the operating system , when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key , it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window , half-spacing , or backspacing . In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing , such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes . In certain programs for playback of digital video , the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback . Modifier keys Modifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key , when the two are pressed in combination . For example , + in Microsoft Windows will close the program in an active window . In contrast , pressing just will probably do nothing , unless assigned a specific function in a particular program . By themselves , modifier keys usually do nothing . The most widely used modifier keys include the Control key , Shift key and the Alt key . The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys that have three symbols printed on them . On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards , the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key , respectively . On MIT computer keyboards , the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows keyboards , there is a Windows key . Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn key . `` Dead keys '' allow placement of a diacritic mark , such as an accent , on the following letter ( e.g. , the Compose key ) . The Enter/Return key typically causes a command line , window form or dialog box to operate its default function , which is typically to finish an `` entry '' and begin the desired process . In word processing applications , pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one . Cursor keys Navigation keys or cursor keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen . Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction ; page scroll keys , such as the Page Up and Page Down keys , scroll the page up and down . The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located ; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line . The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop . The Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode , in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location , and insert mode , where the cursor inserts a character at its current position , forcing all characters past it one position further . The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor 's position , moving all following characters one position `` back '' towards the freed place . On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete ( sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key ) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key . The Backspace key deletes the preceding character . Lock keys lock part of a keyboard , depending on the settings selected . The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard . Most styles of keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled , in the upper right corner above the numeric pad . The lock keys include Scroll lock , Num lock ( which allows the use of the numeric keypad ) , and Caps lock . System commands The SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key . SysRq was used in earlier computers as a `` panic '' button to recover from crashes ( and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel ; see Magic SysRq key ) . The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer , but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard . The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose . Its origins go back to teleprinter users , who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line . The Break key can be used by software in several different ways , such as to switch between multiple login sessions , to terminate a program , or to interrupt a modem connection . In programming , especially old DOS-style BASIC , Pascal and C , Break is used ( in conjunction with Ctrl ) to stop program execution . In addition to this , Linux and variants , as well as many DOS programs , treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C . On modern keyboards , the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break . In most Windows environments , the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties . The Escape key ( often abbreviated Esc ) is used to initiate an escape sequence . As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer 's peripherals , the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed , the escape key was appropriated by application programmers , most often to `` escape '' or back out of a mistaken command . This use continues today in Microsoft Windows 's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No , Quit , Exit , Cancel , or Abort . A common application today of the Esc key is as a shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers . On machines running Microsoft Windows , prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards , the typical practice for invoking the `` start '' button was to hold down the control key and press escape . This process still works in Windows 2000 , XP , Vista , 7 , 8 , and 10 . The Enter key is located : One in the alphanumeric keys and the other one is in the numeric keys . When one worked something on their computer and wanted to do something with their work , pressing the enter key would do the command they ordered . Another function is to create a space for next paragraph . When one typed and finished typing a paragraph and they wanted to have a second paragraph , they could press enter and it would do spacing . Shift key : when one presses shift and a letter , it will capitalize the letter pressed with the shift key . Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available , for instance the apostrophe key is accompanied with a quotation mark on the top . If one wants to type the quotation mark but pressed that key alone , the symbol that would appear would be the apostrophe . The quotation mark will only appear if both the required key and the Shift key are pressed . The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards . It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button . The key 's symbol is usually a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu . On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present , showing the menu only . This key was created at the same time as the Windows key . This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse . Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking ( however , in many Windows applications , a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut ) . Miscellaneous Many , but not all , computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic keyboard which contains numbers , basic mathematical symbols ( e.g. , addition , subtraction , etc . ) , and a few function keys . On Japanese/Korean keyboards , there may be Language input keys for changing the language to use . Some keyboards have power management keys ( e.g. , power key , sleep key and wake key ) ; Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail ; and/or multimedia keys , such as volume controls or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified software or command like launching a game or minimize all windows . Numeric keys When we calculate , we use these numeric keys to type numbers . Symbols concerned with calculations such as addition , subtraction , multiplication and division symbols are located in this group of keys . The enter key in this keys indicate the equal sign . Multiple layouts It is possible to install multiple keyboard layouts within an operating system and switch between them , either through features implemented within the OS , or through an external application . Microsoft Windows , Linux , and Mac provide support to add keyboard layouts and choose from them . Layout changing software The character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver software . A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function . Depending

sfq_1529--Computer_keyboard.txt

On a computer keyboard you need to press 'shift' and which number to produce the £ sign?

Anna-Lou `` Annie '' Leibovitz ( ; born October 2 , 1949 ) is an American portrait photographer . She photographed John Lennon on the day he was assassinated , and her work was used on two record albums by Joan Armatrading . She is the only woman to have held an exhibition at London ’ s National Portrait Gallery . Leibovitz is much influenced by Richard Avedon , and his ‘ personal reportage ’ , developing close rapport with her subjects . Early life Born in Waterbury , Connecticut , on October 2 , 1949 , Anna-Lou Leibovitz is the third of six children of Marilyn Edith ( née Heit ) and Samuel Leibovitz . She is a third-generation American ; her father 's parents were Romanian Jews . Her mother was a modern dance instructor of Estonian Jewish heritage . Her father was a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Air Force . The family moved frequently with her father 's duty assignments , and she took her first pictures when he was stationed in the Philippines during the Vietnam War . At Northwood High School in Silver Spring , Maryland , she became interested in various artistic endeavors and began to write and play music . She attended the San Francisco Art Institute , where she studied painting . For several years , she continued to develop her photography skills while holding various jobs , including a stint on a kibbutz in Amir , Israel , for several months in 1969 . Career Rolling Stone When Leibovitz returned to the United States in 1970 , she started her career as staff photographer , working for Rolling Stone magazine . In 1973 , publisher Jann Wenner named Leibovitz chief photographer of Rolling Stone , a job she would hold for 10 years . Leibovitz worked for the magazine until 1983 , and her intimate photographs of celebrities helped define the Rolling Stone look . While working for Rolling Stone , Leibovitz became more aware of the other magazines and learned that she could work for magazines and still create personal work , which for her was the most important . She sought intimate moments with her subjects , who `` open their hearts and souls and lives to you '' . She was awarded The Royal Photographic Society 's Centenary Medal and Honorary Fellowship ( HonFRPS ) in recognition of a sustained , significant contribution to the art of photography in 2009 . Inspirations Photographers such as Robert Frank and Henri Cartier-Bresson influenced her during her time at the San Francisco Art Institute . `` Their style of personal reportagetaken in a graphic waywas what we were taught to emulate . '' Leibovitz has also cited Richard Avedon 's portraits as an important and powerful example in her life . The Rolling Stones Leibovitz photographed the Rolling Stones in San Francisco in 1971 and 1972 , and served as the concert-tour photographer for the Rolling Stones ' Tour of the Americas '75 . Her favorite photo from the tour was a photo of Mick Jagger in an elevator . Joan Armatrading In 1978 Leibovitz became the first woman to photograph Joan Armatrading for an album . She did the photography for Armatrading 's fifth studio album To the Limit , spending four days at her house capturing the images . Leibovitz also did the photography for Armatrading 's live album , Steppin ' Out . John Lennon On December 8 , 1980 , Leibovitz had a photo shoot with John Lennon for Rolling Stone , and she promised him he would make the cover . She had initially tried to get a picture with just Lennon alone , as Rolling Stone wanted , but Lennon insisted that both he and Yoko Ono be on the cover . Leibovitz then tried to re-create something like the kissing scene from the couple 's Double Fantasy 1980 album cover , a picture Leibovitz loved , and she had John remove his clothes and curl up next to Yoko on the floor . Leibovitz recalls , `` What is interesting is she said she 'd take her top off and I said , 'Leave everything on'not really preconceiving the picture at all . Then he curled up next to her and it was very , very strong . You could n't help but feel that he was cold and he looked like he was clinging on to her . I think it was amazing to look at the first Polaroid and they were both very excited . John said , 'You 've captured our relationship exactly . Promise me it 'll be on the cover . ' I looked him in the eye and we shook on it . '' Leibovitz was the last person to professionally photograph Lennonhe was shot and killed five hours later . The photograph was subsequently re-created in 2009 by John and Yoko 's son Sean Lennon , posing with his girlfriend Charlotte Kemp Muhl , with male/female roles reversed ( Sean clothed , Kemp naked ) , and by Henry Bond and Sam Taylor-Wood in their YBA pastiche October 26 , 1993 . In 2011 , Leibovitz was nominated alongside Singaporean photographer Dominic Khoo and Wing Shya for Asia Pacific Photographer of the Year . Other projects * In the 1980s , Leibovitz 's new style of lighting and use of bold colors and poses got her a position with Vanity Fair magazine . * Leibovitz photographed celebrities for an international advertising campaign for American Express charge cards , which won a Clio award in 1987 . * In 1991 , Leibovitz mounted an exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery . She was the second living portraitist and first woman to show there . * In 1991 , Leibovitz had been made Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Government . * Also in 1991 , Leibovitz emulated Margaret Bourke-White 's feat by mounting one of the eagle gargoyles on the 61st floor of the Chrysler Building in Manhattan , where she photographed the dancer David Parsons cavorting on another eagle gargoyle . Noted Life photographer and picture editor John Loengard made a gripping photo of Leibovitz at the climax of her danger . ( Loengard was photographing Leibovitz for The New York Times that day ) . * In 2007 , major retrospective of Leibovitz 's work was held at the Brooklyn Museum , The retrospective was based on her book , Annie Leibovitz : A Photographer 's Life , 1990–2005 and included many of her professional ( celebrity ) photographs as well as numerous personal photographs of her family , children , and partner Susan Sontag . This show , which was expanded to include three of the official portraits of Queen Elizabeth II , then went on the road for seven stops . It was on display at the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , from October 2007 to January 2008 and at the Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco from March 2008 to May 2008 . In February 2009 , the exhibition was moved to Berlin , Germany . The show included 200 photographs . At the exhibition , Leibovitz showed that she does n't have two lives , career and personal , but has one wherein assignments and personal pictures are all part of her works . This exhibition and her talk focused on her personal photographs and life . * In 2007 , The BBC misrepresented Leibovitz 's portrait shooting of Queen Elizabeth II , to take the Queen 's official picture for her state visit to Virginia . This was filmed for the BBC documentary A Year with the Queen . A promotional trailer for the film showed the Queen reacting angrily to Leibovitz 's suggestion ( `` less dressy '' ) that she remove her tiara , then a scene of the Queen walking down a corridor , telling an aide `` I 'm not changing anything . I 've had enough dressing like this , thank you very much . '' The BBC later apologized and admitted that the sequence of events had been misrepresented , as the Queen was in fact walking to the sitting in the second scene . This led to a BBC scandal and a shake-up of ethics training . However a 2015 London Times article published just ahead of the Queen 's reign exceeding that of Queen Victoria contradicts this story . It stated that the Queen was both incredulous at being asked to remove her crown as `` no-one tells her what to do '' and insulted as the item was only a tiara . * In 2007 , The Walt Disney Company hired her to do a series of photographs with celebrities in various roles and scenes for the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts `` Year of a Million Dreams '' campaign . Leibovitz claims she never liked the word `` celebrity '' . `` I 've always been more interested in what they do than who they are , I hope that my photographs reflect that . '' She tries to receive a little piece of each subject 's personality in the photos . * On April 25 , 2008 , Entertainment Tonight reported that 15-year-old Miley Cyrus had posed topless for a photo shoot with Vanity Fair . The photograph and subsequently released behind-the-scenes photographs show Cyrus topless , her bare back exposed but her front covered with a bedsheet . The photo was taken by Leibovitz . The full photograph was published with an accompanying story on The New York Times website on April 27 , 2008 . On April 29 , 2008 , The New York Times clarified : though the pictures left an impression that she was bare-breasted , Cyrus was wrapped in a bedsheet and was actually not topless . Some parents expressed outrage at the nature of the photograph , which a Disney spokesperson described as `` a situation [ that ] was created to deliberately manipulate a 15-year-old in order to sell magazines '' . In response to the Internet circulation of the photo and ensuing media attention , Cyrus released a statement of apology on April 27 : I took part in a photo shoot that was supposed to be 'artistic ' and now , seeing the photographs and reading the story , I feel so embarrassed . I never intended for any of this to happen and I apologize to my fans who I care so deeply about . Leibovitz also released a statement saying : I 'm sorry that my portrait of Miley has been misinterpreted . ... The photograph is a simple , classic portrait , shot with very little makeup , and I think it is very beautiful . * In October 2011 , Leibovitz had an exhibit in Moscow . In an interview with Rossiya 24 , she explained her photography style . * In 2014 , the New-York Historical Society mounted an exhibit of Leibovitz 's work , based on her 2011 book , Pilgrimages . Archive Since 1977 , Leibovitz licensing images have been represented by Contact Press Images , a photojournalism agency based in New York City . She ceased to be represented by Jim Moffat at [ http : //www.artandcommerce.com/ A Corporation for Art & Commerce ] in 2009 . Pirelli calendar In 2015 , Leibovitz was the principal photographer for the 2016 Pirelli calendar . Leibovitz took a drastic shift from the calendar traditional style by focusing on admirable women as opposed to sexuality . The 2016 calendar included Amy Schumer , Serena Williams and Patti Smith . Leibovitz previously worked on the 2000 calendar . Personal life Children Leibovitz has three children . Her daughter Sarah Cameron Leibovitz was born in October 2001 when Leibovitz was 52 years old . Her twins ( two girls ) , Susan and Samuelle , were born to a surrogate mother in May 2005 . Relationships Leibovitz had a close relationship with writer and essayist Susan Sontag from 1989 until Sontag 's death in 2004 . During Sontag 's lifetime , neither woman publicly disclosed whether the relationship was a platonic friendship or romantic . Newsweek magazine in 2006 made reference to Leibovitz 's decade-plus relationship with Sontag , stating , `` The two first met in the late '80s , when Leibovitz photographed her for a book jacket . They never lived together , though they each had an apartment within view of the other 's . '' Leibovitz , when interviewed for her autobiography A Photographer 's Life : 19902005 , said the book told a number of stories , and `` with Susan , it was a love story . '' While The New York Times in 2009 referred to Sontag as Leibovitz 's `` companion '' , Leibovitz wrote in A Photographer 's Life that , `` Words like 'companion ' and 'partner ' were not in our vocabulary . We were two people who helped each other through our lives . The closest word is still 'friend ' . '' That same year , Leibovitz said the descriptor `` lover '' was accurate . She later reiterated , `` Call us 'lovers ' . I like 'lovers . ' You know , 'lovers ' sounds romantic . I mean , I want to be perfectly clear . I love Susan . '' Religion Despite being raised in a Jewish home , Leibovitz no longer practices Judaism . When asked if being Jewish is important to her , Leibovitz replied , `` I 'm not a practicing Jew , but I feel very Jewish . '' Financial troubles In February 2009 , Leibovitz borrowed , after having experienced financial challenges , putting up several houses as well as the rights to all of her photographs as collateral . The New York Times noted that `` one of the world 's most successful photographers essentially pawned every snap of the shutter she had made or will make until the loans are paid off , '' and that , despite a archive , Leibovitz had a `` long history of less than careful financial dealings '' and `` a recent series of personal issues '' including the loss of her parents and the 2004 death of Sontag , as well as the addition of two children to her family , and controversial renovation of three Greenwich Village properties . The Greenwich Village properties , at 755757 Greenwich Street , are part of the Greenwich Village Historic District , and thus the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission must review and approve any work done to the buildings . However , work initiated on the buildings in October 2002 , without a permit , began a chain of destruction of those buildings and the neighbor 's at 311West11th Street . Due to pressure from the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation and other groups , the buildings were finally stabilized , though the preservation group criticized the eventual repairs as shoddy and historically insensitive . In July 2009 , the Art Capital Group filed a breach of contract lawsuit against Leibovitz for regarding repayment of these loans . In a follow-up article dated September 5 , 2009 , an Associated Press story quoted legal experts as saying that filing for bankruptcy reorganization might offer Leibovitz her best chance to control and direct the disposition of her assets to satisfy debts . On September 11 , Art Capital Group withdrew its lawsuit against Leibovitz and extended the due date for repayment of the loan . Under the agreement , Leibovitz retains control over her work and will be the `` exclusive agent in the sale of her real property ( land ) and copyrights '' . In March 2010 , Colony Capital concluded a new financing and marketing agreement with Leibovitz , paying off Art Capital and removing or reducing the risks to Leibovitz of losing her artistic and real estate . The following month , Brunswick Capital Partners sued Leibovitz , claiming it was owed several hundred thousand dollars for helping her restructure her debt . That December 2012 , Leibovitz listed her West Village townhouse for sale at , stating she wanted to move closer to her daughter . Examples of photographs * John Lennon and Yoko Ono for the Jan. 22 , 1981 , Rolling Stone cover , taken the day Lennon was murdered . * Prisoners at Soledad State Prison in California , each hugging a visiting family member , with each couple standing a few feet from the next , taken on Christmas 1971 . * Linda Ronstadt in a red slip , on her bed , reaching for a glass of water in a 1976 cover story for Rolling Stone magazine . * Demi Moore has been the subject of two highly publicized Vanity Fair covers taken by Leibovitz : More Demi Moore ( Aug. 1991 ) featuring Moore pregnant and nude , and Demi 's Birthday Suit ( Aug 1992 ) , showing Moore nude with a suit painted on her body . * Marion Cotillard for the Autumn/Winter 2009 collection of the Lady Dior - Lady Rouge handbag campaign and for the November 2009 cover of Vogue with the cast of Nine . * Fleetwood Mac for a 1977 issue of Rolling Stone magazine . Stevie Nicks and Mick Fleetwood are shown lying together , as are Christine McVie and Lindsey Buckingham at the opposite end of the bed . John McVie is shown reading Playboy magazine . * Whoopi Goldberg lying in a bathtub full of milk , shot from above . * Christo , fully wrapped so the viewer must take the artist 's word that Christo is actually under the wrapping . * David Cassidy on the Rolling Stone cover depicting him naked from his head to his waist . * Dolly Parton vamping for the camera while Arnold Schwarzenegger flexes his biceps behind her , featured in an August 25 , 1977 , Rolling Stone photo spread . * Dan Aykroyd and John Belushi as The Blues Brothers , with their faces painted blue . * Keira Knightley and Scarlett Johansson , both nude , with a fully clothed Tom Ford , for the cover of Vanity Fairs March 2006 Hollywood Issue . * Knut with Leonardo DiCaprio , a 2007 Vanity Fair cover . * Queen Elizabeth II on occasion of her state visit in United States in 2007 , and in 2016 at Windsor Castle to mark her 90th birthday . * Jackie and Joan Collins in a limo , Los Angeles 1987 . * Sting , with whom she shares a birthday , naked in the desert , covered in mud to blend in with the scenery . * Closeup portrait of Pete Townshend framed by his bleeding hand dripping real blood down the side of his face . * `` Fire '' portrait and caption `` Patti Smith Catches Fire . '' * Cyndi Lauper , She 's So Unusual and True Colors album covers * Bruce Springsteen , Born in the U.S.A. and Tunnel of Love album cover . [ http : //www.discogs.com/Bruce-Springsteen-Tunnel-Of-Love/release/386066 Bruce Springsteen - Tunnel Of Love ( Vinyl , LP , Album ) at Discogs ] * Gisele Bündchen and LeBron James on the April 2008 cover of Vogue America . * Miley Cyrus ' Vanity Fair photo in which the child star appeared semi-nude , leading to a controversy . * Michael Jackson twice for the cover of Vanity Fair magazine , including other additional photographs of him that were not featured on the cover of the magazine . * Bill Gates for the cover of Gates ' book `` The Road Ahead . '' * Family of Barack Obama in the White House . * Johnny Depp and Kate Moss at the Royalton Hotel , New York in 1994 . A nude Moss laying on a bed while fully clothed Depp is lying between her legs , covering her abdomen . * Lance Armstrong riding his Trek Madone bicycle in the buff in the rain . It was shown in Vanity Fairs 1999 December issue . * Lady Gaga for Vogue and Vanity Fair . * Rihanna for Vogue in 2011 and 2012 . * The cast of Les Misérables ( Hugh Jackman , Russell Crowe , Anne Hathaway , Amanda Seyfried , Eddie Redmayne , Helena Bonham Carter and Sacha Baron Cohen ) for Vogue in 2012 . * Benedict Cumberbatch for Vogue in 2013 * Kim Kardashian , Kanye West and their daughter North for Vogue in 2014 . * Dane DeHaan for Prada . * Amy Van Dyken posing underwater with a milk mustache as part of the 1996 Milk Mustache campaign . * The cast of Star Wars : The Force Awakens for Vanity Fair in 2015 . * Caitlyn Jenner for Vanity Fair . in 2015 . * Mark Zuckerberg and his pregnant wife Priscilla Chan in 2015 . * Adele for Vogue in 2016 . Awards * 2013 Prince of Asturias Award for Communication . * The Royal Photographic Society 's Centenary Medal and Honorary Fellowship ( HonFRPS ) in recognition of a sustained , significant contribution to the art of photography in 2009 . Bibliography * Photographs * Photographs 1970–1990 * `` Dancers : Photographs by Annie Leibovitz '' * `` White Oak Dance Project : Photographs by Annie Leibovitz '' * Olympic Portraits * Women * American Music * A Photographer 's Life 1990–2005 ( catalog for a traveling exhibit that debuted at the Brooklyn Museum in October 2006 ) * Annie Leibovitz : At Work * Pilgrimage * '' Annie Leibovitz '' ( SUMO-sized book with 250 photographs with a supplementary book featuring essays by Annie Leibovitz , Graydon Carter , Hans Ulrich Obrist , and Paul Roth )

sfq_6987--Annie_Leibovitz.txt

In which field of the arts has American born Annie Leibovitz achieved fame?

Curling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice towards a target area which is segmented into four concentric circles . It is related to bowls , boules and shuffleboard . Two teams , each with four players , take turns sliding heavy , polished granite stones , also called rocks , across the ice curling sheet towards the house , a circular target marked on the ice . Each team has eight stones . The purpose is to accumulate the highest score for a game ; points are scored for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the conclusion of each end , which is completed when both teams have thrown all of their stones . A game usually consists of eight or ten ends . The curler can induce a curved path by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides , and the path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms who accompany it as it slides down the sheet , using the brooms to alter the state of the ice in front of the stone . A great deal of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each situation , and the skills of the curlers determine how close to the desired result the stone will achieve . This gives curling its nickname of `` chess on ice '' . Origins and history Curling was invented in medieval Scotland , with the first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of Paisley Abbey , Renfrewshire , in February 1541 . Two paintings , `` Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap '' and `` The Hunters in the Snow '' ( both dated 1565 ) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depict Flemish peasants curling—Scotland and the Low Countries had strong trading and cultural links during this period , which is also evident in the history of golf . Evidence that curling existed in Scotland in the early 16th century includes a curling stone inscribed with the date 1511 uncovered ( along with another bearing the date 1551 ) when an old pond was drained at Dunblane , Scotland . Kilsyth Curling Club claims to be the first club in the world , having been formally constituted in 1716 ; it is still in existence today . Kilsyth also claims the oldest purpose-built curling pond in the world at Colzium , in the form of a low dam creating a shallow pool some 100 × 250 metres in size . The word curling first appears in print in 1620 in Perth , Scotland , in the preface and the verses of a poem by Henry Adamson . The game was ( and still is , in Scotland and Scottish-settled regions like southern New Zealand ) also known as `` the roaring game '' because of the sound the stones make while traveling over the pebble ( droplets of water applied to the playing surface ) . The verbal noun curling is formed from the Scots ( and English ) verb curl , which describes the motion of the stone . In the early history of curling , the playing stones were simply flat-bottomed river stones , which were of inconsistent size , shape and smoothness . Unlike today , the thrower had little control over the 'curl ' or velocity and relied more on luck than on precision , skill and strategy . In Darvel , East Ayrshire , the weavers relaxed by playing curling matches using the heavy stone weights from the looms ' warp beams , fitted with a detachable handle for the purpose . Many a wife would keep her husband 's brass curling stone handle on the mantelpiece , brightly polished until the next time it was needed . Central Canadian curlers often used 'irons ' rather than stones until the early 1900s , Canada is the only country known to have done so , while others experimented with wood or ice-filled tins . Outdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and 19th centuries because the climate provided good ice conditions every winter . Scotland is home to the international governing body for curling , the World Curling Federation , Perth , which originated as a committee of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club , the mother club of curling . Today , the game is most firmly established in Canada , having been taken there by Scottish emigrants . The Royal Montreal Curling Club , the oldest established sports club still active in North America , was established in 1807 . The first curling club in the United States was established in 1830 , and the game was introduced to Switzerland and Sweden before the end of the 19th century , also by Scots . Today , curling is played all over Europe and has spread to Brazil , Japan , Australia , New Zealand , China , and Korea . The first world championship for curling was limited to men and was known as the Scotch Cup , held in Falkirk and Edinburgh , Scotland , in 1959 . The first world title was won by the Canadian team from Regina , Saskatchewan , skipped by Ernie Richardson . ( The skip is the team member who calls the shots ; see below . ) Olympic curling Curling has been an official sport in the Winter Olympic Games since the 1998 Winter Olympics . It currently includes men 's and women 's tournaments . A mixed doubles Olympic event was considered but rejected for the 2010 Winter Olympic Games . Mixed doubles has now been added to the Olympics in the most upcoming Olympic Games in 2018 . In February 2002 , the International Olympic Committee retroactively decided that the curling competition from the 1924 Winter Olympics ( originally called Semaine des Sports d'Hiver , or International Winter Sports Week ) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be considered demonstration events . Thus , the first Olympic medals in curling , which at the time was played outside , were awarded for the 1924 Winter Games , with the gold medal won by Great Britain and Ireland , two silver medals by Sweden , and the bronze by France . A demonstration tournament was also held during the 1932 Winter Olympic Games between four teams from Canada and four teams from the United States , with Canada winning 12 games to 4 . Since the 1998 Olympics , Canada has dominated the sport with their men 's teams winning gold in 2006 , 2010 , and 2014 , and silver in 1998 and 2002 . The women 's team won gold in 1998 and 2014 , a silver in 2010 , and a bronze in 2002 and 2006 . Equipment Curling sheet The playing surface or curling sheet is defined by the World Curling Federation Rules of Curling . It is a rectangular area of ice , carefully prepared to be as flat and level as possible , 146 to in length by in width . The shorter borders of the sheet are called the backboards . Because of the elongated shape , several sheets may be laid out side by side in the same arena , allowing multiple games to be played simultaneously . A target , the house , is centred on the intersection of the centre line , drawn lengthwise down the centre of the sheet and the tee line , drawn 16 ft from , and parallel to , the backboard . These lines divide the house into quarters . The house consists of a centre circle ( the button ) and three concentric rings , of diameters 4 , 8 and 12 feet , formed by painting or laying coloured vinyl sheet under the ice and are usually distinguished by colour . A stone must at least touch the outer ring in order to score ( see Scoring below ) , otherwise the rings are merely a visual aid for aiming and judging which stone is closer to the button . Two hog lines , are drawn 37 ft from , and parallel to , the backboard . The hacks are fixed 12 ft behind each button ; a hack gives the thrower something to push against when making the throw . On indoor rinks , there are usually two fixed hacks , rubber-lined holes , one on each side of the centre line , with the inside edge no more than 3 in from the centre line and the front edge on the hack line . A single moveable hack may also be used . The ice may be natural but is usually frozen by a refrigeration plant pumping a brine solution through numerous pipes fixed lengthwise at the bottom of a shallow pan of water . Most curling clubs have an ice maker whose main job is to care for the ice . At the major curling championships , ice maintenance is extremely important . Large events , such as the Brier or other national/international championships , are typically held in an arena that presents a challenge to the ice maker , who must constantly monitor and adjust the ice and air temperatures as well as air humidity levels to ensure a consistent playing surface . It is common for each sheet of ice to have multiple sensors embedded in order to monitor surface temperature , as well as probes set up in the seating area ( to monitor humidity ) and in the compressor room ( to monitor brine supply and return temperatures ) . The surface of the ice is maintained at a temperature of around 23 °F . A key part of the preparation of the playing surface is the spraying of water droplets onto the ice , which form pebble on freezing . The pebbled ice surface resembles an orange peel , and the stone moves on top of the pebbled ice . As the stone moves over the pebble , any rotation of the stone causes it to curl to the inside or outside . The amount of curl ( commonly referred to as the feet of curl ) can change during a game as the pebble wears ; the ice maker must monitor this and be prepared to scrape and re-pebble the surface prior to each game . Curling stone The curling stone ( also sometimes called a rock in North America ) is made of granite and is specified by the World Curling Federation , which requires a weight between 38 and a maximum circumference of 36 in and a minimum height of . The only part of the stone in contact with the ice is the running surface , a narrow , flat annulus or ring , wide and about 5 in in diameter ; the sides of the stone bulge convex down to the ring and the inside of the ring is hollowed concave to clear the ice . This concave bottom was first proposed by J. S. Russell of Toronto , Canada sometime after 1870 , and was subsequently adopted by Scottish stone manufacturer Andrew Kay . The granite for the stones comes from two sources : Ailsa Craig , an island off the Ayrshire coast of Scotland , and the Trefor Granite Quarry in Wales . Ailsa Craig is the traditional source and produces two types of granite , Blue Hone and Ailsa Craig Common Green . Blue Hone has very low water absorption , which prevents the action of repeatedly freezing water from eroding the stone . Ailsa Craig Common Green is a lesser quality granite than Blue Hone . In the past , most curling stones were made from Blue Hone but the island is now a wildlife reserve and the quarry is restricted by environmental conditions that exclude blasting . Kays of Scotland has been making curling stones since 1851 and has the exclusive rights to the Ailsa Craig granite , granted by the Marquess of Ailsa , whose family has owned the island since 1560 . The last harvest of Ailsa Craig granite by Kays took place in 2013 , after a hiatus of 11 years ; 2,000 tons were harvested , sufficient to fill anticipated orders through at least 2020 . Kays has been the exclusive manufacturer of curling stones for the Olympics since the 2006 Winter Olympics . Trefor granite comes from the Yr Eifl or Trefor Granite Quarry in the village of Trefor on the north coast of the Llŷn Peninsula in Gwynedd , Wales and has produced granite since 1850 . Trefor granite comes in shades of pink , blue and grey . The quarry supplies curling stone granite exclusively to the Canadian , Canada Curling Stone Co. , which has been producing stones since 1992 and supplied the stones for the 2002 Winter Olympics . A handle is attached by a bolt running vertically through a hole in the centre of the stone . The handle allows the stone to be gripped and rotated upon release ; on properly prepared ice the rotation will bend ( curl ) the path of the stone in the direction in which the front edge of the stone is turning , especially as the stone slows . Handles are coloured to identify each team ; two popular colours in major tournaments being red and yellow . In competition , an electronic handle known as the eye on the hog may be fitted to detect hog line violations . This electronically detects whether the thrower 's hand is in contact with the handle as it passes the hog line and indicates a violation by lights at the base of the handle . The eye on the hog eliminates human error and the need for hog line officials . It is mandatory in high-level national and international competition , but its cost , around US $ 650 each , currently puts it beyond the reach of most club curling . Curling broom The curling broom , or brush , is used to sweep the ice surface in the path of the stone , ( see sweeping ) , and is also often used as a balancing aid during delivery of the stone . Prior to the 1950s , most curling brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household brooms of the day . In 1958 , Fern Marchessault of Montreal inverted the corn straw in the centre of the broom . This style of corn broom was referred to as the Blackjack . Artificial brooms made from man-made fabrics , rather than corn , such as the Rink Rat , also became common later during this time period . Prior to the late sixties , Scottish curling brushes were used primarily by some of the Scots , as well as by recreational and elderly curlers as a substitute for corn brooms , since the technique was easier to learn . In the late sixties , competitive curlers from Calgary , such as John Mayer , Bruce Stewart , and , later , the world junior championship teams skipped by Paul Gowsell , proved that the curling brush could be just as ( or more ) effective without all the blisters common to corn broom use . During that time period , there was much debate in competitive curling circles as to which sweeping device was more effective : brush or broom . Eventually , the brush won out with the majority of curlers making the switch to the less costly and more efficient brush . Today , brushes have replaced traditional corn brooms at every level of curling ; it is rare now to see a curler using a corn broom on a regular basis . Curling brushes may have fabric , hog hair , or horsehair heads . Modern curling brush handles are usually hollow tubes made of fibreglass or carbon fibre instead of a solid length of wooden dowel . These hollow tube handles are lighter and stronger than wooden handles , allowing faster sweeping and also enabling more downward force to be applied to the broom head with reduced shaft flex . New , `` directional fabric '' brooms , which players are worried will alter the fundamentals of the sport by reducing the level skill required , have been accused of giving players an unfair advantage . The new brooms were temporarily banned by the World Curling Federation and Curling Canada for the 2015-2016 season . The new brooms `` isolate the friction caused by brushing only where the running surface of the rock has contact with ice––on top of the pebble––with little resistance '' , which makes sweepers have unprecedented control over the direction the stone goes . Shoes Curling shoes are similar to ordinary athletic shoes except that they have dissimilar soles ; the slider shoe ( usually known as a `` slider '' ) is designed for the sliding foot and the `` gripper shoe '' ( usually known as a gripper ) for the hack foot . The slider is designed to slide and typically has a Teflon sole . It is worn by the thrower during delivery from the hack and by sweepers or the skip to glide down the ice when sweeping or otherwise traveling down the sheet quickly . Stainless steel was once common for slider soles , and `` red brick '' sliders with lateral blocks of PVC on the sole are also available . Most shoes have a full-sole sliding surface , but some shoes have a sliding surface covering only the outline of the shoe and other enhancements with the full-sole slider . Some shoes have small disc sliders covering the front and heel portions or only the front portion of the foot , which allow more flexibility in the sliding foot for curlers playing with tuck deliveries . When a player is not throwing , the player 's slider shoe can be temporarily rendered non-slippery by using a slip-on gripper . Ordinary athletic shoes may be converted to sliders by using a step-on or slip-on Teflon slider or by applying electrical or gaffer tape directly to the sole or over a piece of cardboard . This arrangement often suits casual or beginning players . The gripper is worn by the thrower on the hack foot during delivery and is designed to grip the ice . It may have a normal athletic shoe sole or a special layer of rubbery material applied to the sole of a thickness to match the sliding shoe . The toe of the hack foot shoe may also have a rubberised coating on the top surface or a flap that hangs over the toe to reduce wear on the top of the shoe as it drags on the ice behind the thrower . Other equipment Other types of equipment include : * Curling pants , made to be stretchy to accommodate the curling delivery . * A stopwatch to time the stones over a fixed distance to calculate their speed . Stopwatches can be attached either to clothing or the broom . * Curling gloves and mittens , to keep the hands warm and improve grip on the broom . Gameplay The purpose of the game is to score points by getting stones closer to the house center , or the `` button '' , than the other team 's stones . Players from either team alternate in taking shots from the far side of the sheet . An end is complete when all eight rocks from each team have been delivered , a total of sixteen stones . If the teams are tied at the end of the game , play continues for as many ends as may be required to break the tie . The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have been completed ( see Scoring below ) . A game may be conceded if considered unwinnable . International competitive games are generally ten ends , so most of the national championships that send a representative to the World Championships or Olympics also play ten ends . However , there is a movement on the World Curling Tour to make the games only eight ends . Most tournaments on that tour are eight ends , as are the vast majority of recreational games . In international competition , each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of its throws . Each team is also allowed two minute-long timeouts per 10-end game . If extra ends are required , each team is allowed 10 minutes of playing time to complete its throws and one added 60-second timeout for each extra end . However , the `` thinking time '' system , in which the delivering team 's game timer stops as soon as the shooter 's rock crosses the t-line during the delivery , is becoming more popular , especially in Canada . This system allows each team 38 minutes per 10 ends , or 30 minutes per 8 ends , to make strategic and tactical decisions , with 4 minutes and 30 seconds an end for extra ends . The `` thinking time '' system was implemented after it was recognized that teams playing aggressively ( using draws and other low-weight shots which take more time for the stones to come to rest ) were essentially being penalized in terms of the time they had available compared to teams which primarily use hits which require far less time per shot . Delivery The process of sliding a stone down the sheet is known as the delivery . The skip , or the captain of the team , will usually determine the required weight , turn , and line of the stone . These will be influenced by the tactics at this point in the game , which may involve taking-out , blocking or tapping another stone . * The weight of the stone is its velocity , which depends on the leg drive of the delivery rather than the arm . * The turn , or curl is the rotation of the stone , which gives it a curved trajectory . * The line is the direction of the throw ignoring the effect of the turn . The skip may communicate the weight , turn , line , and other tactics by calling or tapping a broom on the ice . In the case of a takeout , guard , or a tap , the skip will indicate the stones involved . Before delivery , the running surface of the stone is wiped clean and the path across the ice swept with the broom if necessary , because any dirt on the bottom of a stone or in its path can alter the trajectory and ruin the shot . Intrusion by a foreign object is called a pick up or pick . The thrower throws from the hack . Another player , usually the skip , is stationed behind the button to determine the tactics , weight , turn , and line , and the other two may sweep in front of the stone to influence the trajectory ( see Sweeping , below ) . The players , with the exception of the skip , take turns throwing and sweeping ; when one player ( e.g. , the lead ) throws , the players not throwing ( the second and third ) sweep . When the skip throws , the third , or vice-skip , takes his role . The thrower 's gripper shoe ( with the non-slippery sole ) is positioned against one of the hacks ; for a right-handed curler the right foot is placed against the left hack and vice versa for a left-hander . The thrower , now in the hack , lines the body up with shoulders square to the skip 's broom at the far end for line . The stone is placed in front of the foot now in the hack . Rising slightly from the hack , the thrower pulls the stone back ( some older curlers may actually raise the stone in this backward movement ) then lunges smoothly out from the hack pushing the stone ahead while the slider foot is moved in front of the gripper foot , which trails behind . The thrust from this lunge determines the weight and hence the distance the stone will travel . While not compulsory , most curlers deliver the stone while sliding out from the hack . Balance may be assisted by a broom held in the free hand with the back of the broom down so that it slides . There are two current types of delivery , the common flat-foot deliver as well as the Manitoba tuck delivery where the curler slides on the front ball of his foot . The stone is released as the thrower approaches the hog line , at which point the turn is imparted by a slight clockwise or anti-clockwise twist of the handle from around the two or ten o'clock position to the twelve o'clock on release . A typical rate of turn is about 2½ rotations before coming to a rest . The stone must be released before its front edge crosses the near hog line , and it must clear the far hog line or else be removed from play ( hogged ) ; an exception is made if a stone fails to come to rest beyond the far hog line after rebounding from a stone in play just past the hog line . The release rule is rarely enforced in club play unless abuse is suspected . However , in major tournaments it is strictly enforced ; the `` eye on the hog '' sensor in the stone will indicate whether the stone has been legally thrown or not . The lights on the stone handle will either light up green , indicating that the stone has been legally thrown , or red , in which case the illegally thrown stone will be immediately pulled from play instead of waiting for the stone to come to rest . Sweeping After the stone is delivered , its trajectory is still influenced by the two sweepers under instruction from the skip . Sweeping is done for several reasons : to reduce friction underneath the stone , to decrease the amount of curl , and to clean debris from the stone 's path . The stones curl more as they slow down , so sweeping early in travel tends to increase distance as well as straighten the path , and sweeping after sideways motion is established can increase the sideways distance . When sweeping , pressure and speed of the brush head are key in slightly increasing the layer of moisture that builds up under the stone . One of the basic technical aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep . When the ice in front of the stone is swept , a stone will usually travel both farther and straighter . In some situations , one of the two alterations in path is not desirable . For example , a stone may have too much weight , but require sweeping to prevent curling into a guard . The team must decide which is better : getting by the guard but traveling too far , or hitting the guard . Much of the yelling that goes on during a curling game is the skip calling the line of the shot and the sweepers calling the weight . The skip evaluates the path of the stone and calls to the sweepers to sweep as necessary to maintain the intended track . The sweepers themselves are responsible for judging the weight of the stone , ensuring the length of travel is correct and communicating the weight of the stone back to the skip . Some teams use stopwatch timing , from back line to the nearest hog line as a sweeping aid . Many teams use the Number System to communicate in which of 10 playable zones it is estimated the stone will stop . Usually , the two sweepers will be on opposite sides of the stone 's path , although depending on which side the sweepers ' strengths lie this may not always be the case . Speed and pressure are vital to sweeping . In gripping the broom , one hand should be one third of the way from the top ( non-brush end ) of the handle while the other hand should be one third of the way from the head of the broom . The angle of the broom to the ice should be so that the most force possible can be exerted on the ice . The precise amount of pressure may vary from relatively light brushing

odql_6772--Curling.txt

How many players are there in a Curling team?

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ( ) , administered by the Nobel Foundation , is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine . It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel , the inventor of dynamite , in his will . Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories . The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient ( s ) at an annual ceremony on 10 December , the anniversary of Nobel 's death , along with a diploma and a certificate for the monetary award . The front side of the medal provides the same profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics , Chemistry , and Literature ; its reverse side is unique to this medal . As of 2015 , 106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women . The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring , for his work on serum therapy and the development of a vaccine against diphtheria . The first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , Gerty Cori , received it in 1947 for her role in elucidating the metabolism of glucose , important in many aspects of medicine , including treatment of diabetes . Some awards have been controversial . This includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy , bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment . Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award . The 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court , and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize . The 1962 prize awarded to James D. Watson , Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins for their work on DNA structure and properties did not acknowledge the contributing work from others , such as Oswald Avery and Rosalind Franklin who had died by the time of the nomination . Since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased , longevity is an asset , one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery . Also forbidden is awarding any one prize to more than three recipients , and since in the last half century there has been an increasing tendency for scientists to work as teams , this rule has resulted in controversial exclusions . Background Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm , Sweden into a family of engineers . He was a chemist , engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime , most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous . He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France and Italy to conduct experiments in blood transfusions . Keeping abreast of scientific findings , he was generous in his donations to Ivan Pavlov 's laboratory in Russia , and was optimistic about the progress resulting from scientific discoveries made in laboratories . In 1888 , Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary , titled `` The merchant of death is dead '' , in a French newspaper . As it happened , it was Nobel 's brother Ludvig who had died , but Nobel , unhappy with the content of the obituary and concerned that his legacy would reflect poorly on him , was inspired to change his will . In his last will , Nobel requested that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the `` greatest benefit on mankind '' in physics , chemistry , peace , physiology or medicine , and literature . Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime , the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63 . Because his will was contested , it was not approved by the Storting ( Norwegian Parliament ) until 26 April 1897 . After Nobel 's death , the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest . In 1900 , the Nobel Foundation 's newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II . According to Nobel 's will , the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden , a medical school and research center , is responsible for the Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Today , the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine . Nomination and selection It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a `` discovery '' and that it was of `` greatest benefit on mankind '' . Per the provisions of the will , only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award . These include members of academies around the world , professors of medicine in Sweden , Denmark , Norway , Iceland , and Finland , as well as professors of selected universities and research institutions in other countries . Past Nobel laureates may also nominate . Until 1977 , all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . That year , changes in Swedish law forced the Institute to make any documents pertaining to the Nobel Prize public and it was considered necessary to establish a legally independent body for the Prize work . Therefore , the Nobel Assembly was constituted , consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet . It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees , the Secretary who is in charge of the organization , and each year 10 adjunct members to assist in the evaluation of candidates . In 1968 , a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize . True to its mandate , the Committee has selected researchers working in the basic sciences over those who have made applied contributions . Harvey Cushing , a pioneering American neurosurgeon who identified Cushing 's syndrome never was awarded the prize , nor was Sigmund Freud , as his psychoanalysis lacks hypotheses that can be tested experimentally . The public expected Jonas Salk or Albert Sabin to receive the prize for their development of the polio vaccines , but instead the award went to John Enders , Thomas Weller , and Frederick Robbins whose basic discovery that the polio virus could reproduce in monkey cells in laboratory preparations was a fundamental finding that led to the elimination of the disease of polio . Through the 1930s , there were frequent prize laureates in classical physiology , but after that the field began dissolving into specialties . The last classical physiology laureates were John Eccles , Alan Hodgkin , and Andrew Huxley in 1963 for their findings regarding `` unitary electrical events in the central and peripheral nervous system . '' Prizes A Medicine or Physiology Nobel Prize laureate earns a gold medal , a diploma bearing a citation , and a sum of money . These are awarded at the Nobel Banquet . Medals The Nobel Prize medals , minted by Myntverket in Sweden , are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation . Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse ( front side of the medal ) . The Nobel Prize medals for Physics , Chemistry , Physiology or Medicine , and Literature have identical obverses , showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death ( 1833–1896 ) . Before 1980 , the medals were made of 23K gold ; since then the medals are of 18K green gold , plated with 23K gold . The medal awarded by the Karolinska Institute displays an image of `` the Genius of Medicine holding an open book in her lap , collecting the water pouring out from a rock in order to quench a sick girl 's thirst . '' The medal is inscribed with words taken from Virgil 's Aeneid and reads : Inventas vitam juvat excoluisse per artes , which translates to `` inventions enhance life which is beautified through art . '' Diplomas Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the King of Sweden . Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureate that receives it . In the case of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , that is the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute . Well-known artists and calligraphers from Sweden are commissioned to create it . The diploma contains a picture and text which states the name of the laureate and a citation as to why they received the prize . Award money The amount of prize money fluctuates depending on how much money the Nobel Foundation can award that year , and is awarded in Swedish kronor ( SEK ) . The first award in 1901 was for 150,782 kronor ( 7,872,648 kronor in 2009 value ) . In 2009 , the prize money totaled 10,000,000 kronor . Due to budget cuts , in 2012 , the amount for each Nobel prize was 8 million Swedish Krona , or US $ 1.1 million . If there are two laureates in a particular category , the award grant is divided equally between the recipients . If there are three , the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally , or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others . Ceremony and banquet The awards are bestowed at a gala ceremony followed by a banquet . The Nobel Banquet is an extravagant affair with the menu , planned months ahead of time , kept secret until the day of the event . The Nobel Foundation chooses the menu after tasting and testing selections submitted by selected chefs of international repute . Currently it is a three course dinner , although it was originally six courses when it began in 1901 . Every Nobel Prize laureate is allowed to bring up to 16 guests , and Sweden 's royal family is always there . Typically , the Prime Minister and other members of the government attend as well as representatives of the Nobel family . Laureates The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil Adolf von Behring . Behring 's discovery of serum therapy in the development of the diphtheria and tetanus vaccines put `` in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths '' . In 1902 , the award went to Ronald Ross for his work on malaria , `` by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it '' . He identified the mosquito as the transmitter of malaria , and worked tirelessly on measures to prevent malaria worldwide . The 1903 prize was awarded to Niels Ryberg Finsen , the first Danish laureate , `` in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases , especially lupus vulgaris , with concentrated light radiation , whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science '' . He died within a year after receiving the prize at the age of 43 . Ivan Pavlov , whose work Nobel admired and supported , received the prize in 1904 for his work on the physiology of digestion . Subsequently , those selecting the recipients have exercised wide latitude in determining what falls under the umbrella of Physiology or Medicine . The awarding of the prize in 1973 to Nikolaas Tinbergen , Konrad Lorenz , and Karl von Frisch for their observations of animal behavioral patterns could be considered a prize in the behavioral sciences rather than medicine or physiology . Tinbergen expressed surprise in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech at `` the unconventional decision of the Nobel Foundation to award this year 's prize 'for Physiology or Medicine ' to three men who had until recently been regarded as 'mere animal watchers ' '' . Laureates have been awarded the Nobel Prize in a wide range of fields that relate to physiology or medicine . , eight Prizes have been awarded for contributions in the field of signal transduction through G proteins and second messengers . 13 have been awarded for contributions in the field of neurobiology and 13 have been awarded for contributions in Intermediary metabolism . The 100 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 195 individuals through 2009 . Ten women have received the prize : Gerty Cori ( 1947 ) , Rosalyn Yalow ( 1977 ) , Barbara McClintock ( 1983 ) , Rita Levi-Montalcini ( 1986 ) , Gertrude B. Elion ( 1988 ) , Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard ( 1995 ) , Linda B. Buck ( 2004 ) , Françoise Barré-Sinoussi ( 2008 ) , Elizabeth H. Blackburn ( 2009 ) , and Carol W. Greider ( 2009 ) . Only one woman , Barbara McClintock , has received an unshared prize in this category , for the discovery of genetic transposition . Mario Capecchi , Martin Evans , and Oliver Smithies was awarded the prize in 2007 for the discovery of a gene targeting procedure ( a type of genetic recombination ) for introducing homologous recombination in mice , employing embryonic stem cells through the development of the knockout mouse . There have been 37 times when the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to a single individual , 31 times when it was shared by two , and 33 times there were three laureates ( the maximum allowed ) . In 2009 , the Nobel Prize was awarded to Elizabeth Blackburn , Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak of the United States for discovering the process by which chromosomes are protected by telomeres ( regions of repetitive DNA at the ends of chromosomes ) and the enzyme telomerase ; they shared the prize of 10,000,000 SEK ( slightly more than €1 million , or US $ 1.4 million ) . Rita Levi-Montalcini , an Italian neurologist , who together with colleague Stanley Cohen , received the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of Nerve growth factor ( NGF ) , was the first Nobel laureate to reach the 100th birthday . Time factor and death Because of the length of time that may pass before the significance of a discovery becomes apparent , some prizes are awarded many years after the initial discovery . Barbara McClintock made her discoveries in 1944 , before the structure of the DNA molecule was known ; she was not awarded the prize until 1983 . Similarly , in 1916 Peyton Rous discovered the role of tumor viruses in chickens , but was not awarded the prize until 50 years later , in 1966 . Nobel laureate Carol Greider 's research leading to the prize was conducted over 20 years before . She noted that the passage of time is an advantage in the medical sciences , as it may take many years for the significance of a discovery to become apparent . The 2009 award in medicine was the first in the Nobel Prize 's history that more than one woman has been the recipient of the Nobel Prize in a single year . It is also the first time two women have been awarded the Physiology or Medicine prize . In 2011 , Canadian immunologist Ralph M. Steinman was awarded the prize ; however , unknown to the committee , he had died three days before the announcement . The committee decided that since the prize was awarded `` in good faith , '' it would be allowed to stand . Controversial inclusions and exclusions Some of the awards have been controversial . The person who was deserving of the 1923 prize for the discovery of insulin as a central hormone for controlling diabetes ( awarded only a year after its discovery ) has been heatedly debated . It was shared between Frederick Banting and John Macleod ; this infuriated Banting who regarded Macleod 's involvement as minimal . Macleod was the department head at the University of Toronto but otherwise was not directly involved in the findings . Banting thought his laboratory partner Charles Best , who had shared in the laboratory work of discovery , should have shared the prize with him as well . In fairness , he decided to give half of his prize money to Best . Macleod on his part felt the biochemist James Collip , who joined the laboratory team later , deserved to be included in the award and shared his prize money with him . Some maintain that Nicolae Paulescu , a Romanian professor of physiology at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Bucharest , was the first to isolate insulin , in 1916 , although his pancrein was an impure aqueous extract unfit for human treatment similar to the one used previously by Israel Kleiner . In the paper that brought him the Nobel , Paulescu already held a patent for his discovery ( 10 April 1922 , patent no . 6254 ( 8322 ) `` Pancreina şi procedeul fabricaţiei ei '' / '' Pancrein and the process of making it '' , from the Romanian Ministry of Industry and Trade ) . In 1949 , despite protests from the medical establishment , the Portuguese neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy , which he promoted by declaring the procedure 's success just 10 days postoperative . Due largely to the publicity surrounding the award , it was prescribed without regard for modern medical ethics . Favorable results were reported by such publications as The New York Times . It is estimated that around 40,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States before the procedure 's popularity faded . Joseph Kennedy , the father of John Kennedy , subjected his daughter , Rosemary , to the procedure which incapacitated her to the degree that she needed to be institutionalized for the rest of her life . The 1952 prize , awarded solely to Selman Waksman for his discovery of streptomycin , omitted the recognition some felt due to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz . There was litigation brought by Schatz against Waksman over the details and credit of the streptomycin discovery ; Schatz was awarded a substantial settlement , and , together with Waksman , Schatz was to be officially recognized as a co-discoverer of streptomycin as concerned patent rights . However , he is not recognized as a Nobel Prize laureate . The 1962 Prize awarded to James D. Watson , Francis Crick , and Maurice Wilkins—for their work on DNA structure and properties—did not recognize contributing work from others , such as Alec Stokes and Herbert Wilson . In addition , Erwin Chargaff , Oswald Avery , and Rosalind Franklin ( whose key DNA x-ray crystallography work was the most detailed yet least acknowledged among the three ) contributed directly to the ability of Watson and Crick to solve the structure of the DNA molecule—but Avery died in 1955 , and Franklin in 1958 and posthumous nominations for the Nobel Prize are not permitted . However , recently unsealed files of the Nobel Prize nominations reveal that no one ever nominated Franklin for the prize when she was alive . Wilkins ' only contribution was to show Rosalind Franklin 's key x-ray photos to Watson . As a result of Watson 's misrepresentations of Franklin and her role in the discovery of the double helix in his controversial book The Double Helix , Franklin has come to be portrayed as a classic victim of sexism in science . Chargaff , for his part , was not quiet about his exclusion from the prize , bitterly writing to other scientists about his disillusionment regarding the field of molecular biology . The 2008 award went to Harald zur Hausen in recognition of his discovery that human papillomavirus ( HPV ) can cause cervical cancer , and to Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier for discovering the human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) . Whether Robert Gallo or Luc Montagnier deserved more credit for the discovery of the virus that causes AIDS has been a matter of considerable controversy . As it was , Gallo was left out and not awarded a prize . Additionally , there was scandal when it was learned that Harald zur Hausen was being investigated for having a financial interest in vaccines for the cervical cancer that HPV can cause . AstraZeneca , who with a stake in two lucrative HPV vaccines could benefit financially from the prize , had agreed to sponsor Nobel Media and Nobel Web . According to Times Online , two senior figures in the selection process that chose zur Hausen also had strong links with AstraZeneca . Limits on number of awardees The provision that restricts the maximum number of nominees to three for any one prize , introduced in 1968 , has caused considerable controversy . From the 1950s onward , there has been an increasing trend to award the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to more than one person . There were 59 people who received the prize in the first 50 years of the last century , while 113 individuals received it between 1951 and 2000 . This increase could be attributed to the rise of the international scientific community after World War II , resulting in more persons being responsible for the discovery , and nominated for , a particular prize . Also , current biomedical research is more often carried out by teams rather than by scientists working alone , making it unlikely that any one scientist , or even a few , is primarily responsible for a discovery ; this has meant that a prize nomination that would have to include more than three contributors is automatically excluded from consideration . Also , deserving contributors may not be nominated at all because the restriction results in a cut off point of three nominees per prize , leading to controversial exclusions . Years without awards There have been nine years in which the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was not awarded ( 1915–1918 , 1921 , 1925 , 1940–1942 ) . Most of these occurred during either World War I ( 1914–1918 ) or World War II ( 1939–1945 ) . In 1939 , Adolf Hitler 's Third Reich forbade Gerhard Domagk to accept his prize . He was later able to receive the diploma and medal but not the money .

sfq_3290--Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine.txt

For which scientific discovery did Crick and Watson receive the 1962 Nobel Prize for Medicine?

Computer animation , or CGI animation , is the process used for generating animated images . The more general term computer-generated imagery encompasses both static scenes and dynamic images , while computer animation only refers to the moving images . Modern computer animation usually uses 3D computer graphics , although 2D computer graphics are still used for stylistic , low bandwidth , and faster real-time renderings . Sometimes , the target of the animation is the computer itself , but sometimes film as well . Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the stop motion techniques used in traditional animation with 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations . Computer-generated animations are more controllable than other more physically based processes , constructing miniatures for effects shots or hiring extras for crowd scenes , and because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other technology . It can also allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without the use of actors , expensive set pieces , or props . To create the illusion of movement , an image is displayed on the computer monitor and repeatedly replaced by a new image that is similar to it , but advanced slightly in time ( usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second ) . This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures . For 3D animations , objects ( models ) are built on the computer monitor ( modeled ) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton . For 2D figure animations , separate objects ( illustrations ) and separate transparent layers are used with or without that virtual skeleton . Then the limbs , eyes , mouth , clothes , etc . of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames . The differences in appearance between key frames are automatically calculated by the computer in a process known as tweening or morphing . Finally , the animation is rendered . For 3D animations , all frames must be rendered after the modeling is complete . For 2D vector animations , the rendering process is the key frame illustration process , while tweened frames are rendered as needed . For pre-recorded presentations , the rendered frames are transferred to a different format or medium , like digital video . The frames may also be rendered in real time as they are presented to the end-user audience . Low bandwidth animations transmitted via the internet ( e.g . Adobe Flash , X3D ) often use software on the end-users computer to render in real time as an alternative to streaming or pre-loaded high bandwidth animations . Explanation To trick the eye and the brain into thinking they are seeing a smoothly moving object , the pictures should be drawn at around 12 frames per second or faster . ( A frame is one complete image . ) With rates above 75-120 frames per second , no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye and the brain both process images . At rates below 12 frames per second , most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images that detracts from the illusion of realistic movement . Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames per second in order to save on the number of drawings needed , but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons . To produce more realistic imagery , computer animation demands higher frame rates . Films seen in theaters in the United States run at 24 frames per second , which is sufficient to create the illusion of continuous movement . For high resolution , adapters are used . History Early digital computer animation was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1960s by Edward E. Zajac , Frank W. Sinden , Kenneth C. Knowlton , and A. Michael Noll . Other digital animation was also practiced at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . An early step in the history of computer animation was the sequel to the 1973 film Westworld , a science-fiction film about a society in which robots live and work among humans . The sequel , Futureworld ( 1976 ) , used the 3D wire-frame imagery , which featured a computer-animated hand and face both created by University of Utah graduates Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke . This imagery originally appeared in their student film A Computer Animated Hand , which they completed in 1971 . Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at SIGGRAPH , an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques that is attended by thousands of computer professionals each year . Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation . With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality , artists began to use game engines to render non-interactive movies , which led to the art form Machinima . The very first full length computer animated television series was ReBoot , which debuted in September 1994 ; the series followed the adventures of characters who lived inside a computer . The first feature-length computer animated film was Toy Story ( 1995 ) , which was made by Pixar . It followed an adventure centered around toys and their owners . This groundbreaking film was also the first of many fully computer-animated movies . Computer animation helped to create blockbuster films , Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) , Avatar ( 2009 ) , Shrek 2 ( 2004 ) , Cars 2 ( 2011 ) , Life of Pi ( 2012 ) , Frozen ( 2013 ) , and Inside Out ( 2015 ) . Animation methods In most 3D computer animation systems , an animator creates a simplified representation of a character 's anatomy , which is analogous to a skeleton or stick figure . The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables , or Avars for short . In human and animal characters , many parts of the skeletal model correspond to the actual bones , but skeletal animation is also used to animate other things , with facial features ( though other methods for facial animation exist ) . The character `` Woody '' in Toy Story , for example , uses 700 Avars ( 100 in the face alone ) . The computer does n't usually render the skeletal model directly ( it is invisible ) , but it does use the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of that certain character , which is eventually rendered into an image . Thus by changing the values of Avars over time , the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame . There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion . Traditionally , animators manipulate the Avars directly . Rather than set Avars for every frame , they usually set Avars at strategic points ( frames ) in time and let the computer interpolate or tween between them in a process called keyframing . Keyframing puts control in the hands of the animator and has roots in hand-drawn traditional animation . In contrast , a newer method called motion capture makes use of live action footage . When computer animation is driven by motion capture , a real performer acts out the scene as if they were the character to be animated . His/her motion is recorded to a computer using video cameras and markers and that performance is then applied to the animated character . Each method has its advantages and as of 2007 , games and films are using either or both of these methods in productions . Keyframe animation can produce motions that would be difficult or impossible to act out , while motion capture can reproduce the subtleties of a particular actor . For example , in the 2006 film Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest , Bill Nighy provided the performance for the character Davy Jones . Even though Nighy does n't appear in the movie himself , the movie benefited from his performance by recording the nuances of his body language , posture , facial expressions , etc . Thus motion capture is appropriate in situations where believable , realistic behavior and action is required , but the types of characters required exceed what can be done throughout the conventional costuming . Modeling 3D computer animation combines 3D models of objects and programmed or hand `` keyframed '' movement . These models are constructed out of geometrical vertices , faces , and edges in a 3D coordinate system . Objects are sculpted much like real clay or plaster , working from general forms to specific details with various sculpting tools . Unless a 3D model is intended to be a solid color , it must be painted with `` textures '' for realism . A bone/joint animation system is set up to deform the CGI model ( e.g. , to make a humanoid model walk ) . In a process known as rigging , the virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling movement . Animation data can be created using motion capture , or keyframing by a human animator , or a combination of the two . 3D models rigged for animation may contain thousands of control points — for example , `` Woody '' from Toy Story uses 700 specialized animation controllers . Rhythm and Hues Studios labored for two years to create Aslan in the movie The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , which had about 1,851 controllers ( 742 in the face alone ) . In the 2004 film The Day After Tomorrow , designers had to design forces of extreme weather with the help of video references and accurate meteorological facts . For the 2005 remake of King Kong , actor Andy Serkis was used to help designers pinpoint the gorilla 's prime location in the shots and used his expressions to model `` human '' characteristics onto the creature . Serkis had earlier provided the voice and performance for Gollum in J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings trilogy . Equipment Computer animation can be created with a computer and an animation software . Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs ; however , the rendering can take a lot of time on an ordinary home computer . Professional animators of movies , television and video games could make photorealistic animation with high detail . This level of quality for movie animation would take hundreds of years to create on a home computer . Instead , many powerful workstation computers are used . Graphics workstation computers use two to four processors , and they are a lot more powerful than an actual home computer and are specialized for rendering . A large number of workstations ( known as a `` render farm '' ) are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer . The result is a computer-animated movie that can be completed in about one to five years ( however , this process is not composed solely of rendering ) . A workstation typically costs $ 2,000-16,000 with the more expensive stations being able to render much faster due to the more technologically-advanced hardware that they contain . Professionals also use digital movie cameras , motion/performance capture , bluescreens , film editing software , props , and other tools used for movie animation . Facial animation The realistic modeling of human facial features is both one of the most challenging and sought after elements in computer-generated imagery . Computer facial animation is a highly complex field where models typically include a very large number of animation variables . Historically speaking , the first SIGGRAPH tutorials on State of the art in Facial Animation in 1989 and 1990 proved to be a turning point in the field by bringing together and consolidating multiple research elements and sparked interest among a number of researchers . The Facial Action Coding System ( with 46 `` action units '' , `` lip bite '' or `` squint '' ) , which had been developed in 1976 , became a popular basis for many systems . As early as 2001 , MPEG-4 included 68 Face Animation Parameters ( FAPs ) for lips , jaws , etc. , and the field has made significant progress since then and the use of facial microexpression has increased . In some cases , an affective space , the PAD emotional state model , can be used to assign specific emotions to the faces of avatars . In this approach , the PAD model is used as a high level emotional space and the lower level space is the MPEG-4 Facial Animation Parameters ( FAP ) . A mid-level Partial Expression Parameters ( PEP ) space is then used to in a two-level structure – the PAD-PEP mapping and the PEP-FAP translation model . Realism Realism in computer animation can mean making each frame look photorealistic , in the sense that the scene is rendered to resemble a photograph or make the characters ' animation believable and lifelike . Computer animation can also be realistic with or without the photorealistic rendering . One of the greatest challenges in computer animation has been creating human characters that look and move with the highest degree of realism . Part of the difficulty in making pleasing , realistic human characters is the uncanny valley , the concept where the human audience ( up to a point ) tends to have an increasingly negative , emotional response as a human replica looks and acts more and more human . Films that have attempted photorealistic human characters , such as The Polar Express , Beowulf , and A Christmas Carol have been criticized as `` creepy '' and `` disconcerting '' . The goal of computer animation is not always to emulate live action as closely as possible , so many animated films instead feature characters who are anthropomorphic animals ( Finding Nemo , Ice Age , Bolt , Madagascar , Over the Hedge , Rio , Kung Fu Panda , Alpha and Omega , Zootopia ) , machines ( Cars , WALL-E , Robots ) , insects ( Antz , A Bug 's Life , The Ant Bully , Bee Movie ) , fantasy creatures and characters ( Monsters , Inc. , Shrek , TMNT , Brave , Epic ) , or with non-realistic , cartoon-like proportions ( Despicable Me , The Nut Job , Megamind , Mr. Peabody & Sherman , The Peanuts Movie , Inside Out , Hotel Transylvania , Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs , Storks , Escape from Planet Earth , Trolls , Arthur Christmas , Wreck-It Ralph ) . Computer animation can also be tailored to mimic or substitute for other kinds of animation , traditional stop-motion animation ( as shown in Flushed Away or The Lego Movie ) . Some of the long-standing basic principles of animation , like squash & stretch , call for movement that is not strictly realistic , and such principles still see widespread application in computer animation . Notable examples * Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within : often cited as the first computer-generated movie to attempt to show realistic-looking humans * The Polar Express * Mars Needs Moms * L.A. Noire : received attention for its use of MotionScan technology * The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn * Heavy Rain * Beyond : Two Souls * Beowulf Films CGI short films have been produced as independent animation since 1976 , although the popularity of computer animation ( especially in the field of special effects ) skyrocketed during the modern era of U.S. animation . The first completely computer-animated television series was ReBoot in 1994 , and the first completely computer-animated movie was Toy Story ( 1995 ) , but VeggieTales is the 1st American fully 3-D Computer Animated christian direct-to-video series that started all in 1993 . Animation studios * Pixar Animation Studios - Notable for Toy Story ( 1995 ) , A Bug 's Life ( 1998 ) , Monsters , Inc. ( 2001 ) , Finding Nemo ( 2003 ) , The Incredibles ( 2004 ) , Cars ( 2006 ) , Ratatouille ( 2007 ) , WALL-E ( 2008 ) , Up ( 2009 ) , Brave ( 2012 ) , Inside Out ( 2015 ) , and The Good Dinosaur ( 2015 ) * Walt Disney Animation Studios - Notable for Dinosaur ( 2000 ) , Chicken Little ( 2005 ) , Meet the Robinsons ( 2007 ) , Bolt ( 2008 ) , Tangled ( 2010 ) , Wreck-It Ralph ( 2012 ) , Frozen ( 2013 ) , Big Hero 6 ( 2014 ) , and Zootopia ( 2016 ) * DreamWorks Animation - Notable for Antz ( 1998 ) , Shrek ( 2001 ) , Shark Tale ( 2004 ) , Madagascar ( 2005 ) , Over the Hedge ( 2006 ) , Flushed Away ( 2006 ) - with Aardman Animations , Bee Movie ( 2007 ) , Kung Fu Panda ( 2008 ) , Monsters vs. Aliens ( 2009 ) , How to Train Your Dragon ( 2010 ) , Megamind ( 2010 ) , Rise of the Guardians ( 2012 ) The Croods ( 2013 ) , Turbo ( 2013 ) , Mr. Peabody & Sherman ( 2014 ) , and Home ( 2015 ) * Blue Sky Studios - Notable for Ice Age ( 2002 ) , Robots ( 2005 ) , Horton Hears a Who ! ( 2008 ) , Rio ( 2011 ) , Epic ( 2013 ) , and The Peanuts Movie ( 2015 ) * Sony Pictures Animation - Notable for Open Season ( 2006 ) , Surf 's Up ( 2007 ) , Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs ( 2009 ) , The Smurfs ( 2011 ) , Arthur Christmas ( 2011 ) - with Aardman Animations , Hotel Transylvania ( 2012 ) , Goosebumps ( 2015 ) , Emojimovie : Express Yourself ( 2017 ) * Illumination Entertainment - Notable for Despicable Me ( 2010 ) , Hop ( 2011 ) , The Lorax ( 2012 ) , Minions ( 2015 ) and The Secret Life of Pets ( 2016 ) * Reel FX Animation Studios - Notable for Free Birds ( 2013 ) and The Book of Life ( 2014 ) * Laika Entertainment- Notable for Coraline ( 2009 ) , ParaNorman ( 2012 ) , The Boxtrolls ( 2014 ) and Kubo and the Two Strings ( 2016 ) * Industrial Light & Magic - Notable for Rango ( 2011 ) and Strange Magic ( 2015 ) , Notable for visual effects on live action films like Star Wars ( 1977 ) and Pirates of the Caribbean ( 2003 ) * Weta Digital - Notable for The Adventures of Tintin ( 2011 ) Notable for visual effects on live action films like The Lord of the Rings film series , The Hobbit film series , King Kong ( 2005 ) , Rise of the Planet of the Apes ( 2011 ) , and Avatar ( 2009 ) * Animal Logic - Notable for Happy Feet ( 2006 ) , Legend of the Guardians : The Owls of Ga'Hoole ( 2010 ) , Walking with Dinosaurs ( 2013 ) , and The Lego Movie ( 2014 ) Notable for visual effects on live action films like Moulin Rouge ! ( 2001 ) and The Great Gatsby ( 2013 ) Amateur animation The popularity of websites that allow members to upload their own movies for others to view has created a growing community of amateur computer animators . With utilities and programs often included free with modern operating systems , many users can make their own animated movies and shorts . Several free and open source animation software applications exist as well . A popular amateur approach to animation is via the animated GIF format , which can be uploaded and seen on the web easily . Detailed examples and pseudocode In 2D computer animation , moving objects are often referred to as `` sprites . '' A sprite is an image that has a location associated with it . The location of the sprite is changed slightly , between each displayed frame , to make the sprite appear to move . The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right : var int x :0 , y : screenHeight / 2 ; while x A few examples of computer-generated animation movies are Toy Story , Tangled , Frozen , Inside Out , Shrek , Finding Nemo , Ice Age , and Despicable Me .

qf_2709--Computer_animation.txt

What won the Oscar for Best Animated Film in 2005?

The history of the camera can be traced much further back than the introduction of photography . Cameras evolved from the camera obscura , and continued to change through many generations of photographic technology , including daguerreotypes , calotypes , dry plates , film , and digital cameras . Camera obscura Photographic cameras were a development of the camera obscura , a device possibly dating back to the ancient Chinese and ancient Greeks , which uses a pinhole or lens to project an image of the scene outside upside-down onto a viewing surface . An Arab physicist , Ibn al-Haytham , published his Book of Optics in 1021 AD . He created the first pinhole camera after observing how light traveled through a window shutter . Ibn al-Haytham realized that smaller holes would create sharper images . Ibn al-Haytham is also credited with inventing the first camera obscura . On 24 January 1544 mathematician and instrument maker Reiners Gemma Frisius of Leuven University used one to watch a solar eclipse , publishing a diagram of his method in De Radio Astronimica et Geometrico in the following year . In 1558 Giovanni Batista della Porta was the first to recommend the method as an aid to drawing . Before the invention of photographic processes there was no way to preserve the images produced by these cameras apart from manually tracing them . The earliest cameras were room-sized , with space for one or more people inside ; these gradually evolved into more and more compact models such as that by Niépce 's time portable handheld cameras suitable for photography were readily available . The first camera that was small and portable enough to be practical for photography was envisioned by Johann Zahn in 1685 , though it would be almost 150 years before such an application was possible . Early fixed images The first partially successful photograph of a camera image was made in approximately 1816 by Nicéphore Niépce , using a very small camera of his own making and a piece of paper coated with silver chloride , which darkened where it was exposed to light . No means of removing the remaining unaffected silver chloride was known to Niépce , so the photograph was not permanent , eventually becoming entirely darkened by the overall exposure to light necessary for viewing it . In the mid-1820s , Niépce used a sliding wooden box camera made by Parisian opticians Charles and Vincent Chevalier to experiment with photography on surfaces thinly coated with Bitumen of Judea . The bitumen slowly hardened in the brightest areas of the image . The unhardened bitumen was then dissolved away . One of those photographs has survived . Daguerreotypes and calotypes After Niépce 's death in 1833 , his partner Louis Daguerre continued to experiment and by 1837 had created the first practical photographic process , which he named the daguerreotype and publicly unveiled in 1839 . Daguerre treated a silver-plated sheet of copper with iodine vapor to give it a coating of light-sensitive silver iodide . After exposure in the camera , the image was developed by mercury vapor and fixed with a strong solution of ordinary salt ( sodium chloride ) . Henry Fox Talbot perfected a different process , the calotype , in 1840 . As commercialized , both processes used very simple cameras consisting of two nested boxes . The rear box had a removable ground glass screen and could slide in and out to adjust the focus . After focusing , the ground glass was replaced with a light-tight holder containing the sensitized plate or paper and the lens was capped . Then the photographer opened the front cover of the holder , uncapped the lens , and counted off as many seconds—or minutes—as the lighting conditions seemed to require before replacing the cap and closing the holder . Despite this mechanical simplicity , high-quality achromatic lenses were standard . Dry plates Collodion dry plates had been available since 1855 , thanks to the work of Désiré van Monckhoven , but it was not until the invention of the gelatin dry plate in 1871 by Richard Leach Maddox that the wet plate process could be rivaled in quality and speed . The 1878 discovery that heat-ripening a gelatin emulsion greatly increased its sensitivity finally made so-called `` instantaneous '' snapshot exposures practical . For the first time , a tripod or other support was no longer an absolute necessity . With daylight and a fast plate or film , a small camera could be hand-held while taking the picture . The ranks of amateur photographers swelled and informal `` candid '' portraits became popular . There was a proliferation of camera designs , from single- and twin-lens reflexes to large and bulky field cameras , simple box cameras , and even `` detective cameras '' disguised as pocket watches , hats , or other objects . The short exposure times that made candid photography possible also necessitated another innovation , the mechanical shutter . The very first shutters were separate accessories , though built-in shutters were common by the end of the 19th century . Kodak and the birth of film The use of photographic film was pioneered by George Eastman , who started manufacturing paper film in 1885 before switching to celluloid in 1888-1889 . His first camera , which he called the `` Kodak , '' was first offered for sale in 1888 . It was a very simple box camera with a fixed-focus lens and single shutter speed , which along with its relatively low price appealed to the average consumer . The Kodak came pre-loaded with enough film for 100 exposures and needed to be sent back to the factory for processing and reloading when the roll was finished . By the end of the 19th century Eastman had expanded his lineup to several models including both box and folding cameras . In 1900 , Eastman took mass-market photography one step further with the Brownie , a simple and very inexpensive box camera that introduced the concept of the snapshot . The Brownie was extremely popular and various models remained on sale until the 1960s . Film also allowed the movie camera to develop from an expensive toy to a practical commercial tool . Despite the advances in low-cost photography made possible by Eastman , plate cameras still offered higher-quality prints and remained popular well into the 20th century . To compete with rollfilm cameras , which offered a larger number of exposures per loading , many inexpensive plate cameras from this era were equipped with magazines to hold several plates at once . Special backs for plate cameras allowing them to use film packs or rollfilm were also available , as were backs that enabled rollfilm cameras to use plates . Except for a few special types such as Schmidt cameras , most professional astrographs continued to use plates until the end of the 20th century when electronic photography replaced them . 35 mm A number of manufacturers started to use 35mm film for still photography between 1905 and 1913 . The first 35mm cameras available to the public , and reaching significant numbers in sales were the Tourist Multiple , in 1913 , and the Simplex , in 1914 . Oskar Barnack , who was in charge of research and development at Leitz , decided to investigate using 35 mm cine film for still cameras while attempting to build a compact camera capable of making high-quality enlargements . He built his prototype 35 mm camera ( Ur-Leica ) around 1913 , though further development was delayed for several years by World War I . It was n't until after World War I that Leica commercialized their first 35mm Cameras . Leitz test-marketed the design between 1923 and 1924 , receiving enough positive feedback that the camera was put into production as the Leica I ( for Leitz camera ) in 1925 . The Leica 's immediate popularity spawned a number of competitors , most notably the Contax ( introduced in 1932 ) , and cemented the position of 35 mm as the format of choice for high-end compact cameras . Kodak got into the market with the Retina I in 1934 , which introduced the 135 cartridge used in all modern 35 mm cameras . Although the Retina was comparatively inexpensive , 35 mm cameras were still out of reach for most people and rollfilm remained the format of choice for mass-market cameras . This changed in 1936 with the introduction of the inexpensive Argus A and to an even greater extent in 1939 with the arrival of the immensely popular Argus C3 . Although the cheapest cameras still used rollfilm , 35 mm film had come to dominate the market by the time the C3 was discontinued in 1966 . The fledgling Japanese camera industry began to take off in 1936 with the Canon 35 mm rangefinder , an improved version of the 1933 Kwanon prototype . Japanese cameras would begin to become popular in the West after Korean War veterans and soldiers stationed in Japan brought them back to the United States and elsewhere . TLRs and SLRs The first practical reflex camera was the Franke & Heidecke Rolleiflex medium format TLR of 1928 . Though both single- and twin-lens reflex cameras had been available for decades , they were too bulky to achieve much popularity . The Rolleiflex , however , was sufficiently compact to achieve widespread popularity and the medium-format TLR design became popular for both high- and low-end cameras . A similar revolution in SLR design began in 1933 with the introduction of the Ihagee Exakta , a compact SLR which used 127 rollfilm . This was followed three years later by the first Western SLR to use 135 film , the Kine Exakta ( World 's first true 35mm SLR was Soviet `` Sport '' camera , marketed several months before Kine Exakta , though `` Sport '' used its own film cartridge ) . The 35mm SLR design gained immediate popularity and there was an explosion of new models and innovative features after World War II . There were also a few 35mm TLRs , the best-known of which was the Contaflex of 1935 , but for the most part these met with little success . The first major post-war SLR innovation was the eye-level viewfinder , which first appeared on the Hungarian Duflex in 1947 and was refined in 1948 with the Contax S , the first camera to use a pentaprism . Prior to this , all SLRs were equipped with waist-level focusing screens . The Duflex was also the first SLR with an instant-return mirror , which prevented the viewfinder from being blacked out after each exposure . This same time period also saw the introduction of the Hasselblad 1600F , which set the standard for medium format SLRs for decades . In 1952 the Asahi Optical Company ( which later became well known for its Pentax cameras ) introduced the first Japanese SLR using 135 film , the Asahiflex . Several other Japanese camera makers also entered the SLR market in the 1950s , including Canon , Yashica , and Nikon . Nikon 's entry , the Nikon F , had a full line of interchangeable components and accessories and is generally regarded as the first Japanese system camera . It was the F , along with the earlier S series of rangefinder cameras , that helped establish Nikon 's reputation as a maker of professional-quality equipment . Instant cameras While conventional cameras were becoming more refined and sophisticated , an entirely new type of camera appeared on the market in 1948 . This was the Polaroid Model 95 , the world 's first viable instant-picture camera . Known as a Land Camera after its inventor , Edwin Land , the Model 95 used a patented chemical process to produce finished positive prints from the exposed negatives in under a minute . The Land Camera caught on despite its relatively high price and the Polaroid lineup had expanded to dozens of models by the 1960s . The first Polaroid camera aimed at the popular market , the Model 20 Swinger of 1965 , was a huge success and remains one of the top-selling cameras of all time . Automation The first camera to feature automatic exposure was the selenium light meter-equipped , fully automatic Super Kodak Six-20 pack of 1938 , but its extremely high price ( for the time ) of $ 225 ( $ in present terms ) kept it from achieving any degree of success . By the 1960s , however , low-cost electronic components were commonplace and cameras equipped with light meters and automatic exposure systems became increasingly widespread . The next technological advance came in 1960 , when the German Mec 16 SB subminiature became the first camera to place the light meter behind the lens for more accurate metering . However , through-the-lens metering ultimately became a feature more commonly found on SLRs than other types of camera ; the first SLR equipped with a TTL system was the Topcon RE Super of 1962 . Digital cameras Digital cameras differ from their analog predecessors primarily in that they do not use film , but capture and save photographs on digital memory cards or internal storage instead . Their low operating costs have relegated chemical cameras to niche markets . Digital cameras now include wireless communication capabilities ( for example Wi-Fi or Bluetooth ) to transfer , print or share photos , and are commonly found on mobile phones . Early development The concept of digitizing images on scanners , and the concept of digitizing video signals , predate the concept of making still pictures by digitizing signals from an array of discrete sensor elements . Early spy satellites used the extremely complex and expensive method of de-orbit and airborne retrieval of film canisters . Technology was pushed to skip these steps through the use of in-satellite developing and electronic scanning of the film for direct transmission to the ground . The amount of film was still a major limitation , and this was overcome and greatly simplified by the push to develop an electronic image capturing array that could be used instead of film . The first electronic imaging satellite was the KH-11 launched by the NRO in late 1976 . It had a charge-coupled device ( CCD ) array with a resolution of ( 0.64 megapixels ) . At Philips Labs in New York , Edward Stupp , Pieter Cath and Zsolt Szilagyi filed for a patent on `` All Solid State Radiation Imagers '' on 6 September 1968 and constructed a flat-screen target for receiving and storing an optical image on a matrix composed of an array of photodiodes connected to a capacitor to form an array of two terminal devices connected in rows and columns . Their US patent was granted on 10 November 1970 . Texas Instruments engineer Willis Adcock designed a filmless camera that was not digital and applied for a patent in 1972 , but it is not known whether it was ever built . The Cromemco CYCLOPS introduced as a hobbyist construction project in 1975 was the first digital camera to be interfaced to a microcomputer . The first recorded attempt at building a self-contained digital camera was in 1975 by Steven Sasson , an engineer at Eastman Kodak . It used the then-new solid-state CCD image sensor chips developed by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1973 . The camera weighed 8 pounds ( 3.6 kg ) , recorded black and white images to a compact cassette tape , had a resolution of 0.01 megapixels ( 10,000 pixels ) , and took 23 seconds to capture its first image in December 1975 . The prototype camera was a technical exercise , not intended for production . Analog electronic cameras Handheld electronic cameras , in the sense of a device meant to be carried and used like a handheld film camera , appeared in 1981 with the demonstration of the Sony Mavica ( Magnetic Video Camera ) . This is not to be confused with the later cameras by Sony that also bore the Mavica name . This was an analog camera , in that it recorded pixel signals continuously , as videotape machines did , without converting them to discrete levels ; it recorded television-like signals to a 2 × 2 inch `` video floppy '' . In essence it was a video movie camera that recorded single frames , 50 per disk in field mode and 25 per disk in frame mode . The image quality was considered equal to that of then-current televisions . Analog electronic cameras do not appear to have reached the market until 1986 with the Canon RC-701 . Canon demonstrated a prototype of this model at the 1984 Summer Olympics , printing the images in the Yomiuri Shinbun , a Japanese newspaper . In the United States , the first publication to use these cameras for real reportage was USA Today , in its coverage of World Series baseball . Several factors held back the widespread adoption of analog cameras ; the cost ( upwards of $ 20,000 ) , poor image quality compared to film , and the lack of quality affordable printers . Capturing and printing an image originally required access to equipment such as a frame grabber , which was beyond the reach of the average consumer . The `` video floppy '' disks later had several reader devices available for viewing on a screen , but were never standardized as a computer drive . The early adopters tended to be in the news media , where the cost was negated by the utility and the ability to transmit images by telephone lines . The poor image quality was offset by the low resolution of newspaper graphics . This capability to transmit images without a satellite link was useful during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and the first Gulf War in 1991 . US government agencies also took a strong interest in the still video concept , notably the US Navy for use as a real time air-to-sea surveillance system . The first analog electronic camera marketed to consumers may have been the Casio VS-101 in 1987 . A notable analog camera produced the same year was the [ http : //imaging.nikon.com/history/chronicle/cousins16-e/ Nikon QV-1000C ] , designed as a press camera and not offered for sale to general users , which sold only a few hundred units . It recorded images in greyscale , and the quality in newspaper print was equal to film cameras . In appearance it closely resembled a modern digital single-lens reflex camera . Images were stored on video floppy disks . Silicon Film , a proposed digital sensor cartridge for film cameras that would allow 35 mm cameras to take digital photographs without modification was announced in late 1998 . Silicon Film was to work like a roll of 35 mm film , with a 1.3 megapixel sensor behind the lens and a battery and storage unit fitting in the film holder in the camera . The product , which was never released , became increasingly obsolete due to improvements in digital camera technology and affordability . Silicon Films ' parent company filed for bankruptcy in 2001 . Arrival of true digital cameras By the late 1980s , the technology required to produce truly commercial digital cameras existed . The first true portable digital camera that recorded images as a computerized file was likely the Fuji DS-1P of 1988 , which recorded to a 2 MB SRAM memory card that used a battery to keep the data in memory . This camera was never marketed to the public . The first digital camera of any kind ever sold commercially was possibly the MegaVision Tessera in 1987 [ http : //www.mega-vision.com/why_Measured_Photography.html MegaVision Professional Camera Backs ] though there is not extensive documentation of its sale known . The first portable digital camera that was actually marketed commercially was sold in December 1989 in Japan , the DS-X by Fuji [ http : //www.digicammuseum.com/en/history 1988 ] The first commercially available portable digital camera in the United States was the Dycam Model 1 , first shipped in November 1990 . [ http : //business.highbeam.com/2025/article-1G1-11194804/digital-cameras-next-wave Digital cameras , the next wave . ( Electronic Imaging Issue ; includes related articles ) | HighBeam Business : Arrive Prepared ] It was originally a commercial failure because it was black and white , low in resolution , and cost nearly $ 1,000 ( about $ 2000 in 2014 ) . [ http : //books.google.com/books ? idlFAEAAAAMBAJ & lpg PA54 & otsTLyDqtLH2X & vq gizmos % 20 % 22dycam % 20model % 201 % 22 & dq % 22dycam % 20model % 201 % 22 & pg PA54 # vonepage & q & f false InfoWorld - Google Books ] It later saw modest success when it was re-sold as the Logitech Fotoman in 1992 . It used a CCD image sensor , stored pictures digitally , and connected directly to a computer for download . In 1991 , Kodak brought to market the Kodak DCS ( Kodak Digital Camera System ) , the beginning of a long line of professional Kodak DCS SLR cameras that were based in part on film bodies , often Nikons . It used a 1.3 megapixel sensor , had a bulky external digital storage system and was priced at $ 13,000 . At the arrival of the Kodak DCS-200 , the Kodak DCS was dubbed Kodak DCS-100 . The move to digital formats was helped by the formation of the first JPEG and MPEG standards in 1988 , which allowed image and video files to be compressed for storage . The first consumer camera with a liquid crystal display on the back was the Casio QV-10 developed by a team led by Hiroyuki Suetaka in 1995 . The first camera to use CompactFlash was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996 .. The first camera that offered the ability to record video clips may have been the Ricoh RDC-1 in 1995 . In 1995 Minolta introduced the RD-175 , which was based on the Minolta 500si SLR with a splitter and three independent CCDs . This combination delivered 1.75M pixels . The benefit of using an SLR base was the ability to use any existing Minolta AF mount lens . 1999 saw the introduction of the Nikon D1 , a 2.74 megapixel camera that was the first digital SLR developed entirely from the ground up by a major manufacturer , and at a cost of under $ 6,000 at introduction was affordable by professional photographers and high-end consumers . This camera also used Nikon F-mount lenses , which meant film photographers could use many of the same lenses they already owned . Digital camera sales continued to flourish , driven by technology advances . The digital market segmented into different categories , Compact Digital Still Cameras , Bridge Cameras , Mirrorless Compacts and Digital SLRs . One of the major technology advances was the development of CMOS sensors , which helped drive sensor costs low enough to enable the widespread adoption of camera phones . Since 2003 , digital cameras have outsold film cameras [ http : //www.macworld.com/article/1039455/digitalfilm.html Digital outsells film , but film still king to some | Macworld ] and Kodak announced in January 2004 that they would no longer sell Kodak-branded film cameras in the developed world - and 2012 filed for bankruptcy after struggling to adapt to the changing industry . Smartphones now routinely include high resolution digital cameras .

odql_14815--History_of_the_camera.txt

Who invented the first practical camera in 1839?