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There are eleven official languages of South Africa : Afrikaans , English , Ndebele , Northern Sotho , Sotho , Swazi , Tsonga , Tswana , Venda , Xhosa and Zulu . Fewer than two percent of South Africans speak a first language other than an official one . Most South Africans can speak more than one language . Dutch and English were the first official languages of South Africa from 1910 to 1925 . Afrikaans was added as a part of Dutch in 1925 , although in practice , Afrikaans effectively replaced Dutch , which fell into disuse . When South Africa became a republic in 1961 the official relationship changed such that Afrikaans was considered to include Dutch , and Dutch was dropped in 1984 , so between 1984 and 1994 , South Africa had two official languages : English and Afrikaans . Different government departments and official bodies use different terms to denote Northern Sotho . In South Africa , Southern Ndebele is known simply as Ndebele , as most speakers of Northern Ndebele live in Zimbabwe . Since taking power in the 1994 election , the ANC has promoted English as the main language of government , even if South Africans often take pride in using indigenous languages for any purpose . Afrikaans also features prominently in commerce together with English , as the languages with the highest number of fluent speakers are Afrikaans and English . In terms of linguistic classification , the official languages include two West Germanic languages ( English and Afrikaans ) and nine Bantu languages . Four of these are Nguni languages ( Zulu , Xhosa , Swati and Ndebele ) and three are Sotho–Tswana languages ( Northern Sotho , Southern Sotho and Tswana ) . Tsonga is a Tswa–Ronga language . South African Sign Language is understood across the country , though sometimes sign-language interpreters use manually coded language . Language demographics The most common language spoken as a first language by South Africans is Zulu ( 23 percent ) , followed by Xhosa ( 16 percent ) , and Afrikaans ( 14 percent ) . English is the fourth most common first language in the country ( 9.6 % ) , but is understood in most urban areas and is the dominant language in government and the media . The majority of South Africans speak a language from one of the two principal branches of the Bantu languages represented in South Africa : the Sotho–Tswana branch ( Sesotho , Northern Sotho , Tswana ) , or the Nguni branch ( Zulu , Xhosa , Swazi , Ndebele ) . For each of the two groups , the languages within that group are for the most part intelligible to a native speaker of any other language within that group . The nine indigenous African languages of South Africa can be divided into two geographical zones , with Nguni languages being predominant in the south-eastern third of the country ( Indian Ocean coast ) and Sesotho languages being predominant in the northern third of the country located further inland , as also in Botswana and Lesotho . Gauteng is the most linguistically heterogeneous province , with roughly equal numbers of Nguni , Sesotho and Indo-European language speakers . This has resulted in the spread of an urban argot , Tsotsitaal , in large urban townships in the province . Afrikaans , a language derived from Dutch , is the most widely spoken language in the western half of the country ( Western and Northern Cape ) . It is spoken as first language by approximately 61 percent of whites and 76 percent of Coloured ( multiracial ) people in the country . Afrikaans is also spoken widely across the centre and north of the country , as a second ( or third or even fourth ) language by Black South Africans living in farming areas . The 2011 census recorded the following distribution of first language speakers : Other significant languages spoken in South Africa Other languages spoken in South Africa , though not mentioned in the Constitution , include Fanagalo , Lobedu ( Khilobedu ) , Northern Ndebele ( Sindebele ) , Phuthi ( Siphuthi ) . Lobedu has been variously claimed to be a dialect of Northern Sotho and an autonomous language . Fanagalo is a pidgin often used as a mining lingua franca . Significant numbers of immigrants from Europe , elsewhere in Africa , and the Indian subcontinent means that a wide variety of other languages can also be found in parts of South Africa . In the older immigrant communities there are : Greek , Gujarati , Hindi , Portuguese , Tamil , Telugu , Urdu , Yiddish , Italian and smaller numbers of Dutch , French and German speakers . These non-official languages may be used in limited semi-official use where it has been determined that these languages are prevalent . More importantly , these languages have significant local functions in specific communities whose identity is tightly bound around the linguistic and cultural identity that these non-official SA languages signal . The fastest growing non-official language is Portuguese – first spoken by black and white settlers and refugees from Angola and Mozambique after they won independence from Portugal and now by more recent immigrants from those countries again – and increasingly French , spoken by immigrants and refugees from Francophone Central Africa . More recently , speakers of North , Central and West African languages have arrived in South Africa , mostly in the major cities , especially in Johannesburg and Pretoria , but also Cape Town and Durban . Constitutional provisions Chapter 1 ( Founding Provisions ) , Section 6 ( Languages ) of the Constitution of South Africa is the basis for government language policy . The English text of the constitution signed by president Nelson Mandela on 16 December 1996 uses ( mostly ) the names of the languages expressed in those languages themselves . Sesotho refers to Southern Sotho , and isiNdebele refers to Southern Ndebele . Controversy surrounds the designation of Northern Sesotho as Sepedi ( its main dialect ) instead of the comprehensive Sesotho sa Leboa ( which had been the wording in the Interim Constitution of 1993 ) . The spelling of Venda is also incorrectly rendered as Tshivenda instead of the correct Tshivenḓa . The constitution mentions `` sign language '' in the generic sense rather than , as is widely believed , South African Sign Language specifically .

jp_444--Languages_of_South_Africa.txt

What country has 11 official languages including Zulu, Xhosa, and English?

The pampero is a burst of cold polar air from the west , southwest or south on the pampas in the south of Brazil , Argentina and Uruguay . This wind ( often violently ) picks up during the passage of a cold front of an active low passing by . It takes the form of a squall line and there is a marked drop in temperature after its passing . The Pampero is most common at winter in the southern hemisphere ( principally between May and August ) . During the summers in the region around Buenos Aires , the pampero storms are a welcome feature marking the end of long periods of high humidity and extreme heat . Sources * [ http : //ggweather.com/winds.html Wind names ] at ggweather.com . Accessed Jan 2009 * Penguin Dictionary of Geography , W G Moore , 1949

sfq_18276--Pampero_(wind).txt

What in South America is a pampero?

Moses ( ; , Modern Tiberian ISO 259-3 ; Moushe ; ; in both the Septuagint and the New Testament ) is a prophet in Abrahamic religions . According to the Hebrew Bible , he was a former Egyptian prince who later in life became a religious leader and lawgiver , to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed . Also called Moshe Rabbenu in Hebrew ( , lit . `` Moses our Teacher '' ) , he is the most important prophet in Judaism . He is also an important prophet in Christianity , Islam , Baha'ism as well as a number of other faiths . According to the Book of Exodus , Moses was born in a time when his people , the Israelites , an enslaved minority , were increasing in numbers and the Egyptian Pharaoh was worried that they might ally themselves with Egypt 's enemies . Moses ' Hebrew mother , Jochebed , secretly hid him when the Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew boys to be killed in order to reduce the population of the Israelites . Through the Pharaoh 's daughter ( identified as Queen Bithia in the Midrash ) , the child was adopted as a foundling from the Nile river and grew up with the Egyptian royal family . After killing an Egyptian slavemaster ( because the slavemaster was smiting a Hebrew to death ) , Moses fled across the Red Sea to Midian , where he encountered The Angel of the Lord , speaking to him from within a burning bush on Mount Horeb ( which he regarded as the Mountain of God ) . God sent Moses back to Egypt to demand the release of the Israelites from slavery . Moses said that he could not speak with assurance or eloquence , so God allowed Aaron , his brother , to become his spokesperson . After the Ten Plagues , Moses led the Exodus of the Israelites out of Egypt and across the Red Sea , after which they based themselves at Mount Sinai , where Moses received the Ten Commandments . After 40 years of wandering in the desert , Moses died within sight of the Promised Land . According to archaeologist William G. Dever , scholarly consensus sees Moses as a legendary figure and not a historical person . Archaeological evidence does not support a mass-migration from Egypt , as described in the Bible . Rabbinical Judaism calculated a lifespan of Moses corresponding to 1391–1271 ( 120 years ) BCE ; Jerome gives 1592 BCE , and James Ussher 1571 BCE as his birth year . Name The Biblical account of Moses ' birth provides him with a folk etymology to explain the ostensible meaning of his name . He is said to have received it from the Pharaoh 's daughter : `` he became her son . She named him Moses ( Moshe ) , saying , `` I drew him out ( meshitihu ) of the water . '' Lorena Miralles Maciá , `` Judaizing a Gentile Biblical Character through Fictive Biographical Reports : The Case of Bityah , Pharaoh 's Daughter , Moses ' Mother , according to Rabbinic Interpretations , '' in Constanza Cordoni , Gerhard Langer ( eds . ) , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? idAWMIBAAAQBAJ & pg PA155 Narratology , Hermeneutics , and Midrash : Jewish , Christian , and Muslim Narratives from Late Antiquity through to Modern Times , ] Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht/University of Vienna Press , 2014 pp.145-175 p.155 . This explanation links it to a verb mashah , meaning `` to draw out '' , which makes the Pharaoh 's daughter 's declaration a play on words . The princess made a grammatical mistake which is prophetic of his role in his future life , as someone who will `` draw the people of Israel out of Egypt through the waters of the Red Sea . '' Several etymologies have been proposed . An Egyptian root msy , 'child of ' , has been considered as a possible etymology , arguably an abbreviation of a theophoric name , as for example in Egyptian names like Thutmoses ( Thoth created him ) and Ramesses ( Ra created him ) , Christopher B. Hays , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id r5W7BwAAQBAJ & pg=PA116 Hidden Riches : A Sourcebook for the Comparative Study of the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near East , ] Presbyterian Publishing Corp , 2014 p.116 . with the god 's name omitted . Abraham Yahuda , based on the spelling given in the Tanakh , argues that it combines 'water ' or 'seed ' and 'pond , expanse of water ' , thus yielding the sense of `` child of the Nile '' ( mw-še ) . The Hebrew etymology in the Biblical story may reflect an attempt to cancel out traces of Moses ' Egyptian origins . The Egyptian character of his name was recognized as such by ancient Jewish writers like Philo of Alexandria and Josephus.Franz V. Greifenhagen , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? idr1evAwAAQBAJ & pg PA63 Egypt on the Pentateuch 's Ideological Map : Constructing Biblical Israel 's Identity , ] Bloomsbury Publishing , 2003 pp.60ff.p.62 n.65.p.63 . Philo linked Mōēsēs ( ) to the Egyptian ( Coptic ) word for water ( mou/μῶυ ) , while Josephus , in his Antiquities of the Jews , claimed that the second element , -esês , meant 'those who are saved ' . The problem of how an Egyptian princess , known to Josephus as Thermutis ( identified as Tharmuth ) and in later Jewish tradition as Bithiah , could have known Hebrew puzzled medieval Jewish commentators like Abraham ibn Ezra and Hezekiah ben Manoah , known also as Hizkuni . Hizkuni suggested she either converted or took a tip from Jochebed.Jeffrey K. Salkin , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id-dzNOFuoEigC & pg PA54 Righteous Gentiles in the Hebrew Bible : Ancient Role Models for Sacred Relationships , ] Jewish Lights Publishing , 2008 pp.47 ff. , p.54 . Biblical narrative Prophet and deliverer of Israel The Israelites had settled in the Land of Goshen in the time of Joseph and Jacob , but a new pharaoh arose who oppressed the children of Israel . At this time Moses was born to his father Amram , son of Kehath the Levite , who entered Egypt with Jacob 's household ; his mother was Jochebed ( also Yocheved ) , who was kin to Kehath . Moses had one older ( by seven years ) sister , Miriam , and one older ( by three years ) brother , Aaron . The Pharaoh had commanded that all male Hebrew children born would be drowned in the river Nile , but Moses ' mother placed him in an ark and concealed the ark in the bulrushes by the riverbank , where the baby was discovered and adopted by Pharaoh 's daughter . One day after Moses had reached adulthood he killed an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew . Moses , in order to escape the Pharaoh 's death penalty , fled to Midian ( a desert country south of Judah ) . There , on Mount Horeb , God revealed to Moses his name YHWH ( probably pronounced Yahweh ) and commanded him to return to Egypt and bring his chosen people ( Israel ) out of bondage and into the Promised Land ( Canaan ) . Moses returned to carry out God 's command , but God caused the Pharaoh to refuse , and only after God had subjected Egypt to ten plagues did the Pharaoh relent . Moses led the Israelites to the border of Egypt , but there God hardened the Pharaoh 's heart once more , so that he could destroy the Pharaoh and his army at the Red Sea Crossing as a sign of his power to Israel and the nations . From Egypt , Moses led the Israelites to biblical Mount Sinai , where he was given the Ten Commandments from God , written on stone tablets . However , since Moses remained a long time on the mountain , some of the people feared that he might be dead , so they made a statue of a golden calf and worshiped it , thus disobeying and angering God and Moses . Moses , out of anger , broke the tablets , and later ordered the elimination of those who had worshiped the golden statue , which was melted down and fed to the idolaters . He also wrote the ten commandments on a new set of tablets . Later at Mount Sinai , Moses and the elders entered into a covenant , by which Israel would become the people of YHWH , obeying his laws , and YHWH would be their god . Moses delivered the laws of God to Israel , instituted the priesthood under the sons of Moses ' brother Aaron , and destroyed those Israelites who fell away from his worship . In his final act at Sinai , God gave Moses instructions for the Tabernacle , the mobile shrine by which he would travel with Israel to the Promised Land . From Sinai , Moses led the Israelites to the Desert of Paran on the border of Canaan . From there he sent twelve spies into the land . The spies returned with samples of the land 's fertility , but warned that its inhabitants were giants . The people were afraid and wanted to return to Egypt , and some rebelled against Moses and against God . Moses told the Israelites that they were not worthy to inherit the land , and would wander the wilderness for forty years until the generation who had refused to enter Canaan had died , so that it would be their children who would possess the land . When the forty years had passed , Moses led the Israelites east around the Dead Sea to the territories of Edom and Moab . There they escaped the temptation of idolatry , received God 's blessing through Balaam the prophet , and massacred the Midianites , who by the end of the Exodus journey had become the enemies of the Israelites . Moses was twice given notice that he would die before entry to the Promised Land : in Numbers 27:13 , once he had seen the Promised Land from a viewpoint on Mount Abarim , and again in Numbers 31:1 once battle with the Midianites had been won . On the banks of the Jordan River , in sight of the land , Moses assembled the tribes . After recalling their wanderings he delivered God 's laws by which they must live in the land , sang a song of praise and pronounced a blessing on the people , and passed his authority to Joshua , under whom they would possess the land . Moses then went up Mount Nebo to the top of Pisgah , looked over the promised land of Israel spread out before him , and died , at the age of one hundred and twenty . More humble than any other man ( Num . 12:3 ) , `` there hath not arisen a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses , whom YHWH knew face to face '' ( Deuteronomy 34:10 ) . The New Testament states that after Moses ' death , Michael the Archangel and the Devil disputed over his body ( Epistle of Jude 1:9 ) . Lawgiver of Israel Moses is honoured among Jews today as the `` lawgiver of Israel '' , and he delivers several sets of laws in the course of the four books . The first is the Covenant Code ( Exodus – ) , the terms of the covenant which God offers to the Israelites at biblical Mount Sinai . Embedded in the covenant are the Decalogue ( the Ten Commandments , Exodus 20:1–17 ) and the Book of the Covenant ( Exodus 20:22–23:19 ) . The entire Book of Leviticus constitutes a second body of law , the Book of Numbers begins with yet another set , and the Book of Deuteronomy another . Moses has traditionally been regarded as the author of those four books and the Book of Genesis , which together comprise the Torah , the first and most revered section of the Hebrew Bible . Historicity According to archaeologist William G. Dever , the scholarly consensus is that the figure of Moses is legendary , and not historical.William G. Dever 'What Remains of the House That Albright Built ? , ' in George Ernest Wright , Frank Moore Cross , Edward Fay Campbell , Floyd Vivian Filson ( eds . ) The Biblical Archaeologist , American Schools of Oriental Research , Scholars Press , Vol . 56 , No 1 , 2 March 1993 pp.25-35 , p.33 : 'the overwhelming scholarly consensus today is that Moses is a mythical figure . ' However , he concedes that a `` Moses-like figure '' may have existed somewhere in the southern Transjordan in the mid-13th century BC . Certainly no Egyptian sources mention Moses or the events of Exodus-Deuteronomy , nor has any archaeological evidence been discovered in Egypt or the Sinai wilderness to support the story in which he is the central figure . The story of his discovery picks up a familiar motif in ancient Near Eastern mythological accounts of the ruler who rises from humble origins : Thus Sargon of Akkad 's Sumerian account of his origins runs ; My mother , the high priestess , conceived ; in secret she bore me She set me in a basket of rushes , with bitumen she sealed my lid She cast me into the river which rose over me . The tradition of Moses as a lawgiver and culture hero of the Israelites may go back to the 7th-century BC sources of the Deuteronomist , which might conserve earlier traditions . Kenneth Kitchen , a solitary voice among British Egyptologists , argues that there is an historic core behind the Exodus , with Egyptian corvée labour exacted from Hebrews during the imperialist control exercised by the Egyptian Empire over Canaan from the time of the Thutmosides down to the revolt against Merneptah and Rameses III . William Albright believed in the essential historicity of the biblical tales of Moses and the Exodus , accepting however that the core narrative had been overlaid by legendary accretions . Biblical minimalists such as Philip R. Davies and Niels Peter Lemche regard all biblical books , and the stories of an Exodus , united monarchy , exile and return as fictions composed by a social elite in Yehud in the Persian period or even later , the purpose being to legitimize a return to indigenous roots . Despite the imposing fame associated with Moses , no source mentions him until he emerges in texts associated with the Babylonian exile.George W. Coats , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id bk7_CMIAQOsC & pgPA10 Moses : Heroic Man , Man of God , ] A & C Black , 1988 pp.10ff ( p.11 Albright ; pp.29-30 , Noth ) . A theory developed by Cornelius Tiele in 1872 , which had proved influential , and still held in regard by modern scholars , argued that Yahweh was a Midianite god , introduced to the Israelites by Moses , whose father-in-law Jethro was a Midianite priest . It was to such a Moses that Yahweh reveals his real name , hidden from the Patriarchs who knew him only as El Shaddai , Against this view is the modern consensus that most of the Israelites were native to Palestine . Martin Noth argued that the Pentateuch uses the figure of Moses , originally linked to legends of a Transjordan conquest , as a narrative bracket or late reductional device to weld together 4 of the 5 , originally independent , themes of that work . Manfred Görg , and Rolf Krauss the latter in a somewhat sensationalist manner , have suggested that the Moses story is a distortion or transmogrification of the historical pharaoh Amenmose ( ca . 1200 BCE ) , who was dismissed from office and whose name was later simplified to msy ( Mose ) . Aidan Dodson regards this hypothesis as `` intriguing , but beyond proof . '' The name King Mesha of Moab has been linked to that of Moses . Mesha also is associated with narratives of an exodus and a conquest , and several motifs in stories about him are shared with the Exodus tale and that regarding Israel 's war with Moab ( 2 Kings:3 ) . Moab rebels against oppression , like Moses , leads his people out of Israel , as Moses does from Egypt , and his first-born son is slaughtered at the wall of Kir-hareseth as the firstborn of Israel are condemned to slaughter in the Exodus story , `` an infernal passover that delivers Mesha while wrath burns against his enemies '' . An Egyptian version of the tale that crosses over with the Moses story is found in Manetho who , according to the summary in Josephus , wrote that a certain Osarseph , a Heliopolitan priest , became overseer of a band of lepers , when Amenophis , following indications by Amenhotep , son of Hapu , had all the lepers in Egypt quarantined in order to cleanse the land so that he might see the gods . The lepers are bundled into Avaris , the former capital of the Hyksos , where Osarseph prescribes for them everything forbidden in Egypt , while proscribing everything permitted in Egypt . They invite the Hyksos to reinvade Egypt , rule with them for 13 years – Osarseph then assumes the name Moses - and are then driven out . Exodus narrative The Exodus narrative , which in traditional chronology begins with the impossible date of 1496 BCE , itself has resisted numerous attempts to verify it or ground it in archaeological digs , which have been abandoned as a `` fruitless pursuit , '' since the evidence points to an indigenous origin for Israelites . Attempts to locate the Yam Suph ( Reed sea/Red Sea ) as described in Exodus have failed.Carol Meyers , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id0QHHITXsyskC & pg PA112 Exodus , ] Cambridge University Press 2005 p.112 ( population of 600,000 p.100 ) The figure of 600,000 adult males described in Exodus 12:37 , or 603,550 at Exodus 38:26 , would imply a total population of Israelites in flight through the desert for 40 years of 2 to 2.5 million people , when the total population of Egypt at the time was 3 to 4.5 million . Had such a catastrophic demographic outflow taken place , it would have been recorded in Egyptian writings.K . L. Noll , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id hMeRK7B1EsMC & pgPA97 Canaan and Israel in Antiquity : A Textbook on History and Religion , ] 2nd Edition A & C Black , 2012 pp.97-99 Sources Apart from a few scattered references elsewhere in the Jewish scriptures , all that is known about Moses comes from the books of Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers and Deuteronomy . The majority of scholars consider these books to go back to the Persian period , 538–332 BCE . Moses in Hellenistic literature Non-biblical writings about Jews , with references to the role of Moses , first appear at the beginning of the Hellenistic period , from 323 BCE to about 146 BCE . Shmuel notes that `` a characteristic of this literature is the high honour in which it holds the peoples of the East in general and some specific groups among these peoples . '' In addition to the Judeo-Roman or Judeo-Hellenic historians Artapanus , Eupolemus , Josephus , and Philo , a few non-Jewish historians including Hecataeus of Abdera ( quoted by Diodorus Siculus ) , Alexander Polyhistor , Manetho , Apion , Chaeremon of Alexandria , Tacitus and Porphyry also make reference to him . The extent to which any of these accounts rely on earlier sources is unknown . Moses also appears in other religious texts such as the Mishnah ( c. 200 CE ) , Midrash ( 200–1200 CE ) , and the Quran ( c. 610–53 ) . The figure of Osarseph in Hellenistic historiography is a renegade Egyptian priest who leads an army of lepers against the pharaoh and is finally expelled from Egypt , changing his name to Moses . In Hecataeus The earliest existing reference to Moses in Greek literature occurs in the Egyptian history of Hecataeus of Abdera ( 4th century BCE ) . All that remains of his description of Moses are two references made by Diodorus Siculus , wherein , writes historian Arthur Droge , `` he describes Moses as a wise and courageous leader who left Egypt and colonized Judaea . '' Among the many accomplishments described by Hecataeus , Moses had founded cities , established a temple and religious cult , and issued laws : Droge also points out that this statement by Hecataeus was similar to statements made subsequently by Eupolemus . In Artapanus The Jewish historian Artapanus of Alexandria ( 2nd century BCE ) , portrayed Moses as a cultural hero , alien to the Pharaonic court . According to theologian John Barclay , the Moses of Artapanus `` clearly bears the destiny of the Jews , and in his personal , cultural and military splendor , brings credit to the whole Jewish people . '' Artapanus goes on to relate how Moses returns to Egypt with Aaron , and is imprisoned , but miraculously escapes through the name of YHWH in order to lead the Exodus . This account further testifies that all Egyptian temples of Isis thereafter contained a rod , in remembrance of that used for Moses ' miracles . He describes Moses as 80 years old , `` tall and ruddy , with long white hair , and dignified . '' Some historians , however , point out the `` apologetic nature of much of Artapanus ' work , '' with his addition of extra-biblical details , such as his references to Jethro : the non-Jewish Jethro expresses admiration for Moses ' gallantry in helping his daughters , and chooses to adopt Moses as his son . In Strabo Strabo , a Greek historian , geographer and philosopher , in his Geographica ( c. 24 CE ) , wrote in detail about Moses , whom he considered to be an Egyptian who deplored the situation in his homeland , and thereby attracted many followers who respected the deity . He writes , for example , that Moses opposed the picturing of the deity in the form of man or animal , and was convinced that the deity was an entity which encompassed everything – land and sea : In Strabo 's writings of the history of Judaism as he understood it , he describes various stages in its development : from the first stage , including Moses and his direct heirs ; to the final stage where `` the Temple of Jerusalem continued to be surrounded by an aura of sanctity . '' Strabo 's `` positive and unequivocal appreciation of Moses ' personality is among the most sympathetic in all ancient literature . '' His portrayal of Moses is said to be similar to the writing of Hecataeus who `` described Moses as a man who excelled in wisdom and courage . '' Egyptologist Jan Assmann concludes that Strabo was the historian `` who came closest to a construction of Moses ' religion as monotheistic and as a pronounced counter-religion . '' It recognized `` only one divine being whom no image can represent ... [ and ] the only way to approach this god is to live in virtue and in justice . '' In Tacitus The Roman historian Tacitus ( c. 56–120 CE ) refers to Moses by noting that the Jewish religion was monotheistic and without a clear image . His primary work , wherein he describes Jewish philosophy , is his Histories ( c. 100 ) , where , according to Arthur Murphy , as a result of the Jewish worship of one God , `` pagan mythology fell into contempt . '' Tacitus states that , despite various opinions current in his day regarding the Jews ' ethnicity , most of his sources are in agreement that there was an Exodus from Egypt . By his account , the Pharaoh Bocchoris , suffering from a plague , banished the Jews in response to an oracle of the god Zeus-Amun . In this version , Moses and the Jews wander through the desert for only six days , capturing the Holy Land on the seventh.Tacitus , Cornelius . Tacitus , The Histories , Volume 2 , Book V. Chapters 5 , 6 p. 208 . In Longinus The Septuagint , the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible , influenced Longinus , who may have been the author of the great book of literary criticism , On the Sublime . The date of composition is unknown , but it is commonly assigned to the late Ist century C.E . The writer quotes Genesis in a `` style which presents the nature of the deity in a manner suitable to his pure and great being , '' however he does not mention Moses by name , calling him 'no chance person ' ( ) but `` the Lawgiver '' ( , thesmothete ) of the Jews , '' a term that puts him on a par with Lycurgus and Minos . Aside from a reference to Cicero , Moses is the only non-Greek writer quoted in the work , contextually he is put on a par with Homer , . and he is described `` with far more admiration than even Greek writers who treated Moses with respect , such as Hecataeus and Strabo . In Josephus In Josephus ' ( 37 – c. 100 CE ) Antiquities of the Jews , Moses is mentioned throughout . For example Book VIII Ch . IV , describes Solomon 's Temple , also known as the First Temple , at the time the Ark of the Covenant was first moved into the newly built temple : According to Feldman , Josephus also attaches particular significance to Moses ' possession of the `` cardinal virtues of wisdom , courage , temperance , and justice . '' He also includes piety as an added fifth virtue . In addition , he `` stresses Moses ' willingness to undergo toil and his careful avoidance of bribery . Like Plato 's philosopher-king , Moses excels as an educator . '' In Numenius Numenius , a Greek philosopher who was a native of Apamea , in Syria , wrote during the latter half of the 2nd century CE . Historian Kennieth Guthrie writes that `` Numenius is perhaps the only recognized Greek philosopher who explicitly studied Moses , the prophets , and the life of Jesus ... '' He describes his background : In Justin Martyr The Christian saint and religious philosopher Justin Martyr ( 103–165 CE ) drew the same conclusion as Numenius , according to other experts . Theologian Paul Blackham notes that Justin considered Moses to be `` more trustworthy , profound and truthful because he is older than the Greek philosophers . '' He quotes him : Moses in Abrahamic religions Judaism There is a wealth of stories and additional information about Moses in the Jewish apocrypha and in the genre of rabbinical exegesis known as Midrash , as well as in the primary works of the Jewish oral law , the Mishnah and the Talmud . Moses is also given a number of bynames in Jewish tradition . The Midrash identifies Moses as one of seven biblical personalities who were called by various names . Moses ' other names were : Jekuthiel ( by his mother ) , Heber ( by his father ) , Jered ( by Miriam ) , Avi Zanoah ( by Aaron ) , Avi Gedor ( by Kohath ) , Avi Soco ( by his wet-nurse ) , Shemaiah ben Nethanel ( by people of Israel ) . Moses is also attributed the names Toviah ( as a first name ) , and Levi ( as a family name ) ( Vayikra Rabbah 1:3 ) , Heman , Mechoqeiq ( lawgiver ) and Ehl Gav Ish ( Numbers 12:3 ) . Jewish historians who lived at Alexandria , such as Eupolemus , attributed to Moses the feat of having taught the Phoenicians their alphabet , similar to legends of Thoth . Artapanus of Alexandria explicitly identified Moses not only with Thoth/Hermes , but also with the Greek figure Musaeus ( whom he called `` the teacher of

qw_1116--Moses.txt

"In the 1956 film ""The Ten Commandments"", who played Moses?"

The Good Life is a British sitcom , produced by BBC television . It ran from 1975 to 1978 and was written by Bob Larbey and John Esmonde . Opening with the midlife crisis faced by Tom Good , a 40-year-old London plastics designer , it relates the joys and miseries he and his wife Barbara experience when they attempt to escape modern commercial living by `` becoming totally self-sufficient '' in their home in Surbiton . In 2004 , it came 9th in Britain 's Best Sitcom . In the United States , it aired on various PBS stations under the title Good Neighbors . Background The Good Life was written by John Esmonde and Bob Larbey for Richard Briers , the only cast member with a previously established high-profile . Larbey and Esmonde were inspired by Larbey attaining his 40th birthday , which seemed to them a milestone in most people 's lives . Their storyline has the Goods ' decision to pursue self-sufficiency conflicting sharply with the habits of the Leadbetters , who live next door . The conflict between neighbours balanced with an increasingly close friendship creates comic tension as that friendship is tried to its limits . Peter Bowles was originally cast to play the role of Jerry , but was unavailable . He later starred opposite Penelope Keith in To the Manor Born . Hannah Gordon was considered for the role of Barbara but ruled out , having recently played a similar role in the BBC sitcom My Wife Next Door . Esmonde and Larbey chose Felicity Kendal and Penelope Keith after seeing them on stage together in The Norman Conquests . The location filming was in the North London suburb of Northwood , although the series was set in Surbiton , southwest London . The producers searched extensively for a suitable pair of houses , eventually chancing on Kewferry Road , Northwood ( Google street view [ http : //maps.google.co.uk/maps ? f q & sources_q & hl en & geocode & q kewferry+road+northwood & sll51.616318 , -0.43253 & sspn 0.00022,0.000585 & ieUTF8 & hq & hnearKewferry+Rd , +Northwood+HA6 , +United+Kingdom & t h & layerc & cbll 51.618354 , -0.433914 & panoidRSHGEm-1Dj-sdktbwV94hw & ll 51.618354 , -0.433914 & spn0.000219,0.000585 & z 21 & cbp=12,291.07 , ,0,15.63 ] , the Leadbetters ' house to the left ) . The grounds of the Goods ' house were returned to their original state after the filming of each series ' inserts and all livestock removed at the end of each day 's filming . Cast * Richard Briers — Tom Good * Felicity Kendal — Barbara Good * Penelope Keith — Margo Leadbetter ( née Sturgess ) * Paul Eddington — Jeremy `` Jerry '' Leadbetter * Reginald Marsh — Andrew/Sir * Moyra Fraser — Felicity , Sir 's wife ( series 1 ) Plot On his 40th birthday , Tom Good is no longer able to take his job seriously and gives up work as a draughtsman for a company that makes plastic toys for breakfast cereal packets . Their house is paid for so he and his wife Barbara adopt a sustainable , simple and self-sufficient lifestyle while staying in their home in The Avenue , Surbiton . They turn their front and back gardens into allotments , growing soft fruit and vegetables . They introduce chickens , pigs ( Pinky and Perky ) , a goat ( Geraldine ) and a cockerel ( Lenin ) . They generate their own electricity , using methane from animal waste , and attempt to make their own clothes . They sell or barter surplus crops for essentials they can not make themselves . They cut their monetary requirements to the minimum with varying success . Their actions horrify their kindly but conventional neighbours , Margo and Jerry Leadbetter . Margo and Jerry were intended to be minor characters , but their relationship with one another and the Goods became an essential element . Under the influence of the Goods ' homemade wine , called `` peapod burgundy '' ( the strength of which becomes a running joke ) , their intermingled attractions for one another become apparent . Both couples are childless . Characters Tom Good Tom 's career has been as a draughtsman , a job he thoroughly dislikes . He feels his life is meaningless , nothing more than work and consumption . Becoming self-sufficient is his idea , but Barbara , after expressing concerns , supports him . Tom is determined to succeed at self-sufficiency , and is mostly cheerful about his new lifestyle . Tom is obstinate and pigheaded , often to Barbara 's detriment or irritation . On the few occasions that he is pessimistic , Barbara becomes the optimist . Barbara Good Barbara is a normal , middle-class housewife when the series begins . While she sometimes wilts under Tom 's determined and dominant nature , her sharp tongue puts her on an equal footing . She is the heart of the enterprise , while Tom 's engineering brain designs and builds what they need . She yearns for luxuries but her own determination to succeed , with Tom 's single-minded persuasion , keeps her going . Jerry Leadbetter Jerry works for JJM , having joined on the same day as Tom . Through cunning and self-promotion rather than talent , he has risen to senior management . He tells Tom he has only 10 % of Tom 's talent . As the series progresses , he moves within striking distance of the managing director 's job . He is convinced that the go-it-alone attempt would fail and on several occasions pleads with Tom to come back . However , he grows to appreciate the character it has taken for Tom to leave the system . He is henpecked at home but has the strength to make his case . Margo Leadbetter Margo can not understand her neighbours ' lifestyle , but their friendship is important to her . As a child , Margo Sturgess , she was bullied at school for having no sense of humour . A social climber , staunchly Conservative and unafraid to challenge anyone who gets on her nerves , Margo nevertheless reveals herself to have a heart of gold . She involves herself with organisations such as the Pony Club and the Music Society , always wishing to play the lead role . Margo is occasionally made aware of her faults by others , including her husband , and is not too proud to apologise . Andrew and Felicity Andrew , `` Andy '' or `` Sir '' , is managing director of JJM . He feigns ignorance of Tom 's existence ( `` Mr Ummm of the Fourth Floor '' ) , but once Tom leaves , Andy becomes desperate to bring Tom back . His wife , Felicity , is more relaxed . She is one of the few characters to support Tom and Barbara and believes trying to be self-sufficient is exciting . She says , `` I wanted to do something exciting when I was young , and then I met Andrew and that was the end of that . '' They have one son , unseen , called Martin . Andrew calls Tom and Barbara `` Tim and Fatima '' , making out he did not remember their names . However , in the episode `` Anniversary '' , he admits he has always known their names but pretends to forget — `` an old executive ploy to put people at a disadvantage . '' Andrew appears alone after series 1 with no further references to Felicity . Unseen characters Several characters are mentioned but unseen . Margo is at odds with Miss Dollie Mountshaft , dictatorial leading light of the Music Society . The overweight Mrs Dooms-Paterson is an equally dictatorial acquaintance and a fellow member of the Pony Club . Mr and Mrs. Pearson , the Leadbetters ' gardener and housekeeper , are mentioned in several episodes . Episodes The Good Life aired for four series and two specials from 4 April 1975 to 10 June 1978 . The final one-off episode , `` When I 'm Sixty-Five '' , was a Royal Command Performance in front of The Queen , The Duke of Edinburgh and senior BBC management . The cast and crew were presented to The Queen and Prince Philip after the recording . The episode was originally broadcast in a 45-minute slot with footage either side of the 30-minute episode showing the Royal Party entering and exiting . Novelisations Two novelisations of The Good Life were written , both by John Esmonde and Bob Larbey . The first , simply entitled The Good Life was published in 1976 by Penguin Books , and this novelised the first series . The second book , titled More of The Good Life , was published in 1977 also by Penguin , and featured three episodes from series two and four episodes from series three . Other countries In the United States The Good Life was retitled Good Neighbors , to avoid confusion with a short-lived American sitcom of the same name , and was shown by most PBS stations across the country starting in the early 1980s . By the late 1980s , it was rarely seen but returned to PBS stations after the release of select episodes on VHS by CBS/Fox Video in 1998 . The series also aired in Australia on ABCTV and in Canada on CBC under its original name . The series was also seen in South Africa , Rhodesia , New Zealand and many other Commonwealth countries . After The Good Life After the success of The Good Life , the three cast members who were little known beforehand were given their own `` vehicles '' commissioned by the then Head of Comedy and producer of The Good Life , John Howard Davies . Penelope Keith starred alongside Peter Bowles in To the Manor Born , which broadcast a year after The Good Life ended . Paul Eddington joined Nigel Hawthorne and Derek Fowlds in Yes Minister and its sequel Yes Prime Minister . Felicity Kendal , who had become something of a sex symbol with her tomboy character , complete with wellington boots , went on to join Elspet Gray in Solo , and Jane Asher in The Mistress . Richard Briers later starred alongside Penelope Wilton and Peter Egan in the popular sitcom Ever Decreasing Circles . In 1992 , Felicity Kendal and Paul Eddington reunited in the Channel Four adaptation of Mary Wesley 's The Camomile Lawn . In 2003 , the BBC broadcast a mockumentary entitled Life Beyond the Box : Margo Leadbetter , describing Margo 's life since the series had finished , although the original actors appear only in archive footage . In 2007 , Briers and Kendal were reunited on ITV1 series That 's What I Call Television in a mock-up of the Goods ' kitchen . In popular culture The Good Life features in an episode of The Young Ones titled `` Sick '' where Vyvyan ( played by Adrian Edmondson ) rips apart the title page after the first ten seconds of the opening credits of this show while criticising it as being too `` bloody nice '' and the actors being `` nothing but a couple of reactionary stereotypes confirming the myth that everyone in Britain is a lovable middle-class eccentric ! '' The growth of the hobby farm concept has by some been connected to the success of TV shows like The Good Life . Home video releases The complete series of The Good Life is available in the US ( Region 1 ) under the title Good Neighbors . Series 1 – 3 were released as a box set in 2005 ; Series 4 was released in 2006 and includes the Royal Command Performance . The first UK ( Region 2 ) DVD release omits two episodes ( the first episode from series 1 and one from series 3 ) . [ http : //www.bbcshop.com/Comedy/The-Good-Life-Series-1-DVD/invt/av9771 ] , All four complete series have been re-released in their entirety on 29 March , 24 May , 19 July and 20 September 2010 , the complete boxset has also been re-released . All four series have been released in their entirety in Australia ( Region 4 ) , albeit in NTSC format rather than the PAL format typical in Australia . The series 4 release ( on two DVDs ) also contains an interview with Richard Briers as well as the Royal Command Performance episode .

qw_520--The_Good_Life_(1975_TV_series).txt

"Which British sitcom was retitled ""Good Neighbors"" when it played in the United States?"

Shipyards and dockyards are places where ships are repaired and built . These can be yachts , military vessels , cruise liners or other cargo or passenger ships . Dockyards are sometimes more associated with maintenance and basing activities than shipyards , which are sometimes associated more with initial construction . The terms are routinely used interchangeably , in part because the evolution of dockyards and shipyards has often caused them to change or merge roles . Countries with large shipbuilding industries include Singapore , South Korea , Australia , Japan , China , Germany , Romania , Turkey , Poland and Croatia . The shipbuilding industry tends to be more fragmented in Europe than in Asia . In European countries there are a greater number of small companies , compared to the fewer , larger companies in the shipbuilding countries of Asia . Most shipbuilders in the United States are privately owned , the largest being Huntington Ingalls Industries , a multibillion-dollar defense contractor , and the oldest family owned shipyard being [ http : //www.colonnashipyard.com Colonna 's Shipyard ] in Norfolk , VA . The publicly owned shipyards in the US are Naval facilities providing basing , support and repair . Shipyards are constructed nearby the sea or tidal rivers to allow easy access for their ships . In the United Kingdom , for example , shipyards were established on the River Thames ( King Henry VIII founded yards at Woolwich and Deptford in 1512 and 1513 respectively ) , River Mersey , River Tees , River Tyne , River Wear and River Clyde – the latter growing to be the World 's pre-eminent shipbuilding centre . Sir Alfred Yarrow established his yard by the Thames in London 's Docklands in the late 19th century before moving it northwards to the banks of the Clyde at Scotstoun ( 1906–08 ) . Other famous UK shipyards include the Harland and Wolff yard in Belfast , Northern Ireland , where Titanic was built , and the naval dockyard at Chatham , England on the Medway in north Kent . The site of a large shipyard will contain many specialised cranes , dry docks , slipways , dust-free warehouses , painting facilities and extremely large areas for fabrication of the ships . After a ship 's useful life is over , it makes its final voyage to a shipbreaking yard , often on a beach in South Asia . Historically shipbreaking was carried on in drydock in developed countries , but high wages and environmental regulations have resulted in movement of the industry to developing regions . History The world 's earliest known dockyards were built in the Harappan port city of Lothal circa 2600 BC in Gujarat , India . Lothal 's dockyards connected to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert was a part of the Arabian Sea . Lothal engineers accorded high priority to the creation of a dockyard and a warehouse to serve the purposes of naval trade . The dock was built on the eastern flank of the town , and is regarded by archaeologists as an engineering feat of the highest order . It was located away from the main current of the river to avoid silting , but provided access to ships in high tide as well . The name of the ancient Greek city of Naupactus means `` shipyard '' ( combination of the Greek words ναύς naus ship , boat and πήγνυμι pêgnumi , pegnymi builder , fixer ) . Naupactus ' reputation in this field extends to the time of legend , where it is depicted as the place where the Heraclidae built a fleet to invade the Peloponnesus . In the Spanish city of Barcelona , the Drassanes shipyards were active from at least the mid-13th century until the 18th century , although it at times served as a barracks for troops as well as an arsenal . During its time of operation it was continuously changed , rebuilt and modified , but two original towers and part of the original eight construction naves remain today . It is currently a maritime museum . Ships were the first items to be manufactured in a factory , several hundred years before the Industrial Revolution , in the Venice Arsenal , Venice , Italy . The Arsenal apparently mass-produced nearly one ship every day using pre-manufactured parts , and assembly lines and , at its height , employed 16,000 people . Historic shipyards * Lothal in Gujarat , India circa 2600 BC to 1900 BC * Naupactus * Roman shipyard of Stifone ( Narni ) * Blackwall Yard 1614 to 1987 * Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company , Greenock , Scotland , 1711–1984 * Kraljevica Shipyard established on 28 April 1729 and still operating yard * Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Co. Ltd 1837 to 1912 * William Denny and Brothers , Dumbarton , Scotland 1840 to 1963 * John Brown & Company , Clydebank , Scotland 1851 to 1972 * Gdańsk Shipyard the birthplace of Solidarity Movement – ( still a working yard ) * Swan Hunter – ( closed in April 2006 and sold to Bharati Shipyards , India 's second largest private sector shipbuilder ) * Harland and Wolff – ( still a working yard ) * Cammell Laird – ( still a working repair yard ) * Blohm + Voss , where Bismarck was constructed ( still a major yard ) * Havana , long the only dockyard in the Caribbean during the colonial period , the Santísima Trinidad , largest warship of its time , was built there in 1769 . * Royal Naval Dockyards in the UK ( including Woolwich , Deptford , Chatham , Portsmouth and Devonport ) , Gibraltar , Bombay , Bermuda , Hong Kong and elsewhere worldwide * Bethlehem Steel Corporation had 15 shipyards during World War II * * [ http : //www.destroyers.org/How % 20Destroyers % 20Built/dd-bldg-images/bscsi-main.htm Staten Island Shipyard ] 1895 * Charlestown Navy Yard , later Boston Navy Yard , Boston , Massachusetts 1800 to 1974 * Ulstein Verft , Norway , established in 1917 ( still a working yard under the Ulstein Group ) * Navy Island , Ontario , Canada – French in the 18th century , then British 1763 to War of 1812 * Mare Island Naval Shipyard , Mare Island , California , 1854 to 1996 * New York Naval Shipyard ( NYNSY ) , also known as the Brooklyn Navy Yard , the New York Navy Yard , and United States Navy Yard , New York 1801 to 1966 * Philadelphia Naval Shipyard 1799 to 1995 , at two locations * San Francisco Naval Shipyard , later Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , then Treasure Island Naval Station Hunters Point Annex , 1941 to 1994 * [ http : //www.colonnaship.com/HISTORY.html Colonna 's Shipyard ] 1875 to present- just 10 years after the War Between the States ended . * Potrero Point , San Francisco , California , 1880s – still a working yard * Long Beach Naval Shipyard , 1943 to 1997 * Golden Horn Shipyard , ( Haliç Tersaneleri ) , Turkey , established in 1455 – still a working yard * Portsmouth Naval Shipyard , located on Maine-New Hampshire border ; Operational : 1800 to present , making it the oldest continuously-operating shipyard of the US Navy . * Chantiers de l'Atlantique ( STX France ) - established in 1861 ( still a working yard ) * Nantes-Indret , France - Establish in 1771 it built ships for the American Revolution including the Deane . * 3 . Maj – One of the largest shipyard in Mediterranean , established in 1892 in Rijeka ( still a working yard ) * SLKB Komarno ( Komárno ) – Slovak Shipyard Komárno – European shipyard on Danube , established in 1898 * Lindstrom Shipyard 1899–1918 – ( The shipyard was built in Aberdeen , Washington by John E. Lindstrom Jr. and associate Charles R. Green , Carl Almer Lindstrom ( Designer ) , Andrew P. Lindstrom , John `` Rigger '' Johnson ) . Prominent dockyards and shipyards North America * Newport News Shipbuilding , ( formerly Northrup Grumman Newport News ) is the largest private ship builder in the US and the one best known for its unique capacity to build the s . * Ingalls Shipbuilding , part of Huntington Ingalls Industries , located in Pascagoula , Mississippi repaired the USS Cole and builds offshore drilling rigs , cruise ships and naval vessels . * National Steel and Shipbuilding Company ( NASSCO ) shipyard in San Diego , California , part of General Dynamics ; is the primary shipbuilding location on the west coast of the United States . * Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth , Virginia , is one of the largest shipyards in the world ; specializing in repairing , overhauling and modernizing naval ships and submarines . It 's the oldest and largest industrial facility that belongs to the United States Navy * Electric Boat Division ( EBDiv ) of General Dynamics in Groton , Connecticut with an accessory facility in Quonset Point , Rhode Island , builder of many Naval submarines over the past 100 years , with some types built only here . * Bath Iron Works ( BIW ) , subsidiary of General Dynamics , is a major American shipyard located on the Kennebec River in Bath , Maine . * Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton , Washington , is also owned by the U.S. Navy . It services ships and submarines from the West Coast . * The Portland , Oregon shipyard , operated by Cascade General Ship Repair ( which is owned by Vigor Industrial ) is the largest such facility on the United States West Coast . * The Louisiana Port is along the Mississippi river . It involves the Bollinger company in St. Rose . * Talleres Navales del Golfo ( TNG ) at the Port of Veracruz , Mexico . Member of the Hutchison Port Holdings Group South America * The DIANCA shipyard in Puerto Cabello , Venezuela . * SCRA ( Construction Refurbishment and Armament Service ) with two dry docks , ready for naval and general vessel works . * * Punta de Lobos ( Wolves Point ) in west Montevideo , established in 1874 . * * Punta Maua ( Maua Point ) in east Montevideo , established in 1872 . * Tsakos Industrias Navales S.A . * Cotecmar shipyard in Cartagena , Colombia . [ http : //www.cotecmar.com/ Cotecmar ] * Enseada Industria Naval S.A. , Bahia and Rio de Janeiro , Brazil * The SIMA shipyard in Callao , Peru . * Asenabra , in Duran , Ecuador . Established in 1990 , more than 25 years of experience in naval repairs . 72.000m2 operating today , dry dock facilities will be available in 2016 . Europe * Ferguson Shipbuilders is in Port Glasgow in inverclyde Scotland on the River Clyde . The Ferguson yard has been building ships for over a 110 years * BAE Systems Surface Ships operates three shipbuilding yards in the United Kingdom ; Portsmouth , England and Scotstoun and Govan on the River Clyde in Glasgow , Scotland . Major projects include the Type 45 destroyer and the Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carriers . * BAE Systems Submarine Solutions operates a major shipyard at Barrow-in-Furness in Cumbria , England . It is one of the few yards in the world capable of building nuclear submarines such as the Royal Navy 's . Preceding companies such as Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering have constructed hundreds of surface ships and civilian vessels in Barrow since the late 19th century . * Fincantieri - Cantieri Navali Italiani S.p.A. is an Italian shipbuilding company based in Trieste , Italy . It was formed in 1959 and is the largest shipbuilder in Europe , and one of the largest in the world . The company has built both commercial and military vessels during its history . * Lürssen ( or Lürssen Werft ) is a German shipbuilding company based in Bremen-Vegesack . Lürssen designs and constructs yachts , naval ships and special vessels . Trading as Lürssen Yachts , it is one of the leading builders of custom superyachts . * The Meyer Werft GmbH is one of the major German shipyards , headquartered in Papenburg at the river Ems . Founded in 1795 and starting with small wooden vessels , today Meyer Werft is one of world´s leading builders of luxury passenger ships . Altogether about 700 ships of different types have been built at the yard . * Navantia is a Spanish shipbuilding firm , which offers its services to both military and civil sector . It is the fifth largest shipbuilder in Europe , and the ninth largest in the world with shipyards all over Spain . It is located at Ferrol . * Devonport Dockyard , located in the city of Plymouth , England in the county of Devon is the largest naval base in Western Europe . It has 15 dry docks , four miles ( 6 km ) of waterfront , 25 tidal berths , five basins and covers 650 acres ( 2.6 km² ) . It is the main refitting base for Royal Navy nuclear submarines and also handles work on frigates . It is the base for seven of the Trafalgar class nuclear-powered hunter-killer submarines and many frigates , exploiting its convenient access to the Atlantic Ocean . It supports the Vanguard class Trident missile nuclear ballistic missile submarines in a custom-built refitting dock . It houses , a nuclear-powered submarine used in the Falklands War and open to the general public . Facilities in the local area also include a major naval training establishment and a base for the Royal Marines . * Chatham Dockyard , located on the River Medway in Kent , was established as a royal dockyard by Queen Elizabeth I in 1567 . For 414 years , the Dockyard provided over 500 ships for the Royal Navy , and was forefront of shipbuilding , industrial and architectural technology . At its height , it employed over 10,000 skilled artisans and covered 400 acres ( 1.6 km² ) . The dockyard closed in 1984 , and most of the Georgian dockyard is now managed as a visitor attraction by the Chatham Historic Dockyard Trust . * Sobrena in Brest , France . It operates 3 drydocks , up to 420 by 80 metres . * [ http : //www.snc.ro Constanţa Shipyard ] ( Romanian : Şantierul Naval Constanţa ) is the largest shipyard in Romania and one of the largest in Europe having a market share of 20 % in the Black Sea basin . [ 1 ] The shipyard has two drydocks , one used for the construction of ships up to 150,000 tonnes deadweight ( DWT ) , and the second one used for the construction of ships up to 250,000 DWT , and two floating docks with a capacity of 8,000 tonnes and 15,000 tonnes . [ 2 ] History , The Constanţa Shipyard was first mentioned as the Craft Repair Shop within the Constanţa Harbour area in 1892 by the Ministry for Public Works . [ 3 ] The first ship ever constructed by the shipyard and launched to sea on May 31 , 1936 was a 12 metres ( 39 ft ) long yacht named Crai Nou , [ 3 ] designed and built by Alexandru Theodoru a student at the Naval School in Constanţa and graduate of the French Naval School . [ 4 ] In 1950 the shipyard began to construct ships , pontoons , tugboats and towboats . [ 4 ] In 1975 the shipyard constructed one bulk carrier of 54,200 DWT which was the first large ship ever constructed in Romania . [ 4 ] After the construction of a large bulk carrier Giuseppe Lembo in 1994 , the shipyard reprofiled its activity to construct only small ships . Only after the privatisation in 2002 the shipyard restarted to construct large scale ships . [ 4 ] In the 114 years of existence the Constanţa Shipyard constructed 432 ships , 365 for Romanian shipping companies and 67 for shipping companies from Egypt , Russia , Greece , Japan , Hong Kong , Liechtenstein , Czech Republic , South Africa , Belgium , Germany , Italy , Norway , France , Panama and Netherlands , which have a total of 4,128,143 DWT . [ 4 ] * [ http : //www.dmhi.ct.ro/ Daewoo-Mangalia Heavy Industries or DMHI is a large shipyard located 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) south of the Port of Constanţa , in Mangalia , Romania . It was formed in 1997 as a joint venture between South Korean company Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering and the 2 Mai Shipyard in Mangalia . [ 2 ] Since it was founded the company built over 127 new ships and repaired around 300 ships . The shipyard is spread over an area of 980,000 square metres ( 10,500,000 sq ft ) , has three dry docks with a total length of 982 metres ( 3,222 ft ) and 1.6 kilometres ( 0.99 mi ) of berths . [ 4 ] In 2002 the company delivered two tankers of 42,500 DWT to the Norwegian company Kleven Floro used for the transportation of orange juice . [ 5 ] One of the main customers of the shipyard is the German company Hamburg Süd which ordered six container ships of around 6,000 TEU each , and seven ships of 7,100 TEU each as well as four tugboats . [ 6 ] The company also signed in 2005 an agreement with Mediterranean Shipping Company S.A. , NSB Niederelbe , Gebab and Conti Reederei companies for the construction of 12 container ships of around 5,000 TEU each that will be delivered in stages until 2011 at a total cost of US $ 1.1 billion In 2008 the shipyard bought the largest gantry crane in North America , the Goliath Crane , formerly located in Quincy , Massachusetts from the General Dynamics company . [ 7 ] Built in 1975 , the crane , nicknamed Goliath , Big Blue , The Dog or Horse , has a height of 100 metres ( 330 ft ) , a span of 126 metres ( 413 ft ) , a weight of 3,000 tonnes ( 6,600,000 lb ) and a lifting capacity of 1,200 tonnes ( 2,600,000 lb ) . [ 8 ] The cranes 's re-assembly has been under way since March 2009 . * [ http : //rousseshipyardwest.bg/bg/index.php ROUSSE SHIPYARD WEST . ] The yard is located at the city of Ruse , Bulgaria , along the Danuve river . It is specialised in shipbuliding , shiprepair and manufacture of metal constructions . The yard owns the following main facilities : two piers with total length 605 meters ; 14 buildling berths , 6 of which covered ; traveling platform for shifting of the vessels ; launching arrangement with capacity 1800 tons ; additional floating arrangement for launching of vessels with weight up to 2200 t ; covered production area of 69 decares including : cutting workshop , section assembly workshop , technical workshop , assembly workshop , pipe workshop and outfitting and delivery Department . The capacity of the yard allows building of vessels with the following dimensions : Length - 140 m ; Breadth - 17 m ; Deadweight - up to 8000 tdw . East Asia * Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation 's Kobe Shipyard & Machinery Works in Japan builds oil tankers , LNG carriers , bulk carriers , container ships , Ro/Ro vessels , jetfoils and warships for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force * Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding 's Tamano Works builds bulk carriers , ore carriers , crude oil tankers , oil product carriers , LNG carriers , LPG carriers , reefers , container ships , pure car carriers , cargo ships , patrol vessels , ocean surveillance ships , training vessels , fishery patrol boats and fishing boats * Mitsubishi Heavy Industries 's Nagasaki Shipyard & Machinery Works primarily produces specialized commercial vessels , including LNG carriers , oil tankers and passenger cruise ships * Hyundai Heavy Industries Ulsan Shipyard & Gunsan shipyard , in South Korea , is currently the largest in the world and has the capability to build a variety of vessels including Commercial Cargo , FPSO offshore , container ship , LNG Carrier , Car carriers , Tankers like VLCC & ULCC , Iron ore carrier and Naval vessels like Aegis destroyers & submarines . * Hyundai Samho Heavy Industries Samho shipyard near Mokpo 4th largest South Korean shipyard for VLCC Oil tankers , container ships & LNG , Offshore , Subsidiary of Hyundai heavy industries . * Hyundai Mipo dockyard , Ulsan bay shipyard chemical ships , LPG carriers , Special ships . Subsidiary of Hyundai Heavy Industries * Yantai Raffles Shipyard , in Yantai , China , is that country 's largest offshore builder . It employs the 20,000 ton crane Taisun , the holder of the Heavy Lift World Record . Yantai Raffles ' portfolio includes offshore platforms , pipe lay and other specialized vessels . South East Asia * Keppel Shipyard ( Singapore ) * Jurong Shipyard Pte Ltd ( Singapore ) * Hanjin shipyard in Subic , Zambales , Philippines * Selat Melaka Shipbuilding Corporation ( Malaysia ) * PT Surya Prima Bahtera Heavy Industries , in Batam , Indonesia . * The Bangkok Dock Company Sattahip , Thailand * Marsun Company Limited ( MCL ) Samutprakarn , Thailand * Marine Acme Thai Dockyard ( MAT ) Samutprakarn , Thailand * Bason Shipyard , in Ho Chi Minh City , Vietnam , is a long-standing builder that was established by the French government in April , 1863 to repair warships and merchant vessels . Aside from its main function of building and repairing naval vessels , Bason also offers service to local and foreign customers from Southeast Asia and Europe . * PT . Dok Duasatu Nusantara in Jakarta , Indonesia . South Asia and the Middle East * Lavgan Dockyard Pvt . Ltd. India 's newest ship repair facility ( operational from June 2014 ) . 106m x 26m Syncrolift and side transfer system . * Western Marine Shipyard , a leading shipyard in Bangladesh based in Chittagong . The shipyard has been exporting ships and vessels to a number of European , Asian and African countries . * Khulna Shipyard is the oldest shipyard in Bangladesh , situated in Khulna . It mainly produces warships for Bangladesh Navy . Recently it also started to build commercial vessels like cargo ship , container , oil tanker for local buyers . * Ananda Shipyard and Shipways , one of the largest shipyards in Bangladesh , located in Narayanganj . It is a 100 % export oriented shipyard . * Pipavav Shipyard in Gujarat , India , is the leading , modern and largest engineering facility in the business of ships and offshore platforms construction , repair and conversion , heavy engineering and offshore engineering in South Asia . * Colombo Dockyard in Colombo , Sri Lanka , is the largest engineering facility in the business of ship repair , shipbuilding , heavy engineering and offshore engineering in Sri Lanka . * NorthStar Shipbuilding Pvt Limited in New Mumbai , India , is one of the leading shipyard in India for small and mid-size ships . * Sulkha Shipyard builds a wide variety of ships . It has been in operation for 500 years . * Cochin Shipyard in Kochi , India , is that country 's largest shipyard . It is * * building the Vikrant class aircraft carrier . * Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers is located in India . It is owned by the Government of India and is constructing the Shardul class Large landing ship tank for the Indian Navy . * Karachi Shipyard and Naval Dockyard in Karachi , Pakistan , is that country 's first and oldest yard . It constructs cargo ships , tugboats , support vessels , and warships . * Mazagaon Dockyard , operated by state-owned Mazagaon Dock Limited , is one of India 's largest shipyards . It constructs a variety of ships both for the defence and civilian sector . The dockyard is known for constructing Britain 's . Currently the shipyard is building three Shivalik class frigates and three Kolkata class destroyers for the Indian Navy . * The beach at Alang in the Indian state of Gujarat is the site of a large complex of shipbreaking yards . In 2010 , the yard dismantled 357 ships ; on average the yard processes 28-30 ships a month . * The Jebel Ali and Dubai ports in the UAE are capable of handling , constructing and repairing large ships . They also provide dry dock facilities . * The gate 7 of Shuwaikh port in the Kuwait has facility for repairing ships . They also provide dry dock facilities . * Lavgan Dockyard Pvt . Ltd. India 's newest ship repair facility ( operational from June 2014 ) . 106m x 26m Syncrolift and side transfer system .

sfq_2723--Shipyard.txt

Which shipyard built the 'Titanic'?

Monotremes are mammals that lay eggs ( Prototheria ) instead of giving birth to live young like marsupials ( Metatheria ) and placental mammals ( Eutheria ) . The only surviving examples of monotremes are all indigenous to Australia and New Guinea , although there is evidence that they were once more widespread . The existing monotreme species are the platypus and four species of echidnas . There is currently some debate regarding monotreme taxonomy . The word monotreme comes from the Greek μονός , monos ( `` single '' ) and τρῆμα , trema ( `` hole '' ) , referring to the cloaca . General characteristics Like other mammals , monotremes are warm-blooded with a high metabolic rate ( though not as high as other mammals ; see below ) ; have hair on their bodies ; produce milk through mammary glands to feed their young ; have a single bone in their lower jaw ; and have three middle-ear bones . In common with reptiles and marsupials , monotremes lack the connective structure ( corpus callosum ) which in placental mammals is the primary communication route between the right and left brain hemispheres . The anterior commissure does provide an alternate communication route between the two hemispheres , though , and in monotremes and marsupials it carries all the commissural fibers arising from the neocortex , whereas in placental mammals the anterior commissure carries only some of these fibers . Extant monotremes lack teeth as adults . Fossil forms and modern platypus young have a `` tribosphenic '' form of molars ( with the occlusal surface formed by three cusps arranged in a triangle ) , which is one of the hallmarks of extant mammals . Some recent work suggests that monotremes acquired this form of molar independently of placental mammals and marsupials , although this is not well established . Monotreme jaws are constructed somewhat differently from those of other mammals , and the jaw opening muscle is different . As in all true mammals , the tiny bones that conduct sound to the inner ear are fully incorporated into the skull , rather than lying in the jaw as in cynodonts and other premammalian synapsids ; this feature , too , is now claimed to have evolved independently in monotremes and therians , although , as with the analogous evolution of the tribosphenic molar , this is disputed . Nonetheless , findings on the extinct species Teinolophos confirm that suspended ear bones evolved independently among monotremes and therians . The external opening of the ear still lies at the base of the jaw . The sequencing of the platypus genome has also provided insight into the evolution of a number of monotreme traits , such as venom and electroreception , as well as showing some new unique features , such as the fact that monotremes possess 10 sex chromosomes and that their X chromosome resembles the sex chromosome of birds , suggesting that the two sex chromosomes of marsupial and placental mammals evolved more recently than the split from the monotreme lineage . This feature , along with some other genetic similarities with birds , such as shared genes related to egg-laying , is thought to provide some insight into the most recent common ancestor of the synapsid lineage leading to mammals and the sauropsid lineage leading to birds and modern reptiles , which are believed to have split about 315 million years ago during the Carboniferous . The presence of vitellogenin genes ( a protein necessary for egg shell formation ) is shared with birds , suggesting that when the common ancestor of mammals from ~225 million years ago split into monotremes , marsupials , and placental mammals , egg laying was retained in monotremes and lost in all other mammals . DNA suggests that while this trait is shared and is synapomorphic with birds , platypuses are still mammals and they evolved lactation with other mammals . L-ascorbic acid is synthesized only in the kidneys . The monotremes also have extra bones in the shoulder girdle , including an interclavicle and coracoid , which are not found in other mammals . Monotremes retain a reptile-like gait , with legs on the sides of , rather than underneath , their bodies . The monotreme leg bears a spur in the ankle region ; the spur is not functional in echidnas , but contains a powerful venom in the male platypus . This venom is derived from b-defensins , proteins that are present in mammals that create holes in viral and bacterial pathogens . Some reptile venom is also composed of different types of b-defensins , another trait shared with reptiles . It is thought to be an ancient mammalian characteristic , as many non-monotreme archaic mammal groups also possess venomous spurs . Reproductive system The key anatomical difference between monotremes and other mammals is what lends the animals their name ; monotreme means “ single opening ” in Greek , derived from the fact that their urinary , defecatory , and reproductive systems all open into a single duct , called the cloaca ; and this anatomical structure is very similar to the one found in reptiles . Monotremes and marsupials have a single cloaca ( though marsupial reproductive systems also have a separate genital tract ) , while most placental mammal females have separate openings for reproduction , urination , and defecation , being the vagina , the urethra , and the anus , respectively . The penis only carries semen , urine is excreted through the cloaca . Monotremes lay eggs . However , the egg is retained for some time within the mother , which actively provides the egg with nutrients , and generally hatches soon after birth , within the span of 10 days ( as opposed to eggs of sauropsids , which generally take much longer to incubate ) . Newborn monotremes are larval and fetus-like , much like those of marsupials ( and , indeed , perhaps all non-placental mammals ) , and like them also bear relatively well developed forelimbs to crawl around . Monotremes , like all mammals , lactate , but have no defined nipples , excreting the milk from their mammary glands via openings in their skin . All species are long-lived , with low rates of reproduction and relatively prolonged parental care of infants . Another noteworthy trait of monotremes involves their developmental characteristics , such as the zygotic development of platypuses : Most mammal zygotes go through holoblastic cleavage , meaning that following fertilization , the ovum is split due to cell divisions into multiple , divisible daughter cells . The zygotes of monotremes , however , undergo meroplastic division ( as in birds and reptiles ) , which causes the ovum to split but not completely . This means the cells at the edge of the yolk are cytoplasmically continuous with the egg 's cytoplasm , thereby allowing the yolk , which contains the embryo , to exchange waste and nutrients with the cytoplasm . Physiology Monotremes ' metabolic rate is remarkably low by mammalian standards . The platypus has an average body temperature of about 31 °C rather than the averages of 35 °C for marsupials and 37 °C for placental mammals . Research suggests this has been a gradual adaptation to harsh environmental conditions on the part of the small number of surviving monotreme species rather than a historical characteristic of monotremes . Monotremes may have less developed thermoregulation than other mammals , but recent research shows that they maintain a constant body temperature in a wide variety of circumstances without difficulty ( for example , the platypus while living in an icy mountain stream ) . Early researchers were misled by two factors : firstly , monotremes maintain a lower average temperature than most mammals ; secondly , the short-beaked echidna ( which is much easier to study than the reclusive platypus ) maintains normal temperature only when it is active ; during cold weather , it conserves energy by `` switching off '' its temperature regulation . Additional perspective came when reduced thermal regulation was observed in the hyraxes , which are placental mammals . The echidna was originally thought to not enter rapid eye movement sleep . However , a more recent study showed that REM sleep accounted for about 15 % of the total sleep time observed on subjects at an environmental temperature of 25 °C ( 77 °F ) . Surveying a range of environmental temperatures , the study observed very little REM at reduced temperatures of 15 °C ( 59 °F ) and 20 °C ( 68 °F ) , and also a substantial reduction at the elevated temperature of 28 °C ( 82 °F ) . Monotreme milk contains a highly expressed antibacterial protein not found in other mammals , perhaps to compensate for the less sterile manner of milk intake associated with the absence of nipples . Taxonomy Monotremes are conventionally treated as comprising a single order Monotremata , though a recent classification proposes to divide them into the orders Platypoda ( the platypus along with its fossil relatives ) and Tachyglossa ( the echidnas , or spiny anteaters ) . The entire grouping is also traditionally placed into a subclass Prototheria , which was extended to include several fossil orders , but these are no longer seen as constituting a group allied to monotreme ancestry . A controversial hypothesis now relates the monotremes to a different assemblage of fossil mammals in a clade termed Australosphenida . The traditional `` theria hypothesis '' states that the divergence of the monotreme lineage from the Metatheria ( marsupial ) and Eutheria ( placental mammal ) lineages happened prior to the divergence between marsupials and placental mammals , and this explains why monotremes retain a number of primitive traits presumed to have been present in the synapsid ancestors of later mammals , such as egg-laying . Most morphological evidence supports the theria hypothesis , but one possible exception is a similar pattern of tooth replacement seen in monotremes and marsupials , which originally provided the basis for the competing `` marsupionata hypothesis '' in which the divergence between monotremes and marsupials happened later than the divergence between these lineages and the placental mammals . An analysis by Van Rheede in 2005 concluded that the genetic evidence favors the theria hypothesis , and this hypothesis continues to be the more widely accepted one . The time when the monotreme line diverged from other mammalian lines is uncertain , but one survey of genetic studies gives an estimate of about 220 million years ago . Fossils of a jaw fragment 110 million years old were found at Lightning Ridge , New South Wales . These fragments , from the species Steropodon galmani , are the oldest known fossils of monotremes . Fossils from the genera Kollikodon , Teinolophos , and Obdurodon have also been discovered . In 1991 , a fossil tooth of a 61-million-year-old platypus was found in southern Argentina ( since named Monotrematum , though it is now considered to be an Obdurodon species ) . ( See fossil monotremes below . ) Molecular clock and fossil dating give a wide range of dates for the split between echidnas and platypuses , with one survey putting the split at 19–48 million years ago , but another putting it at 17–89 million years ago . All these dates are more recent than the oldest known platypus fossils , suggesting that both the short-beaked and long-beaked echidna species are derived from a platypus-like ancestor . The earliest echidna found to date is about 13 million years . The precise relationships between extinct groups of mammals and modern groups , such as monotremes , are somewhat uncertain , but cladistic analyses usually put the last common ancestor ( LCA ) of placentals and monotremes close to the LCA of placentals and multituberculates , with a number of analyses giving a more recent LCA for placentals and monotremes , but some also suggesting the LCA of placentals and multituberculates was more recent . * ORDER MONOTREMATA * * Suborder Platypoda * * * Family Ornithorhynchidae : platypus * * * * Genus Ornithorhynchus * * * * * Platypus , O. anatinus * * Suborder Tachyglossa * * * Family Tachyglossidae : echidnas * * * * Genus Tachyglossus * * * * * Short-beaked echidna , T. aculeatus * * * * * * T. a. aculeatus * * * * * * T. a. acanthion * * * * * * T. a. lawesii * * * * * * T. a. multiaculeatus * * * * * * T. a. setosus * * * * Genus Zaglossus * * * * * Sir David 's long-beaked echidna , Z. attenboroughi * * * * * Eastern long-beaked echidna , Z. bartoni * * * * * * Z. b. bartoni * * * * * * Z. b. clunius * * * * * * Z. b. diamondi * * * * * * Z. b. smeenki * * * * * Western long-beaked echidna , Z. bruijni Fossil monotremes The fossil record of monotremes is relatively sparse . The first Mesozoic monotreme to be discovered was Steropodon galmani from Lightning Ridge , New South Wales . Although biochemical and anatomical evidence suggests that the monotremes diverged from the mammalian lineage before the marsupials and placental mammals arose , only a handful of monotreme fossils are known from before the Miocene epoch . The known Mesozoic monotremes are Steropodon , Kollikodon , and Teinolophos , all from Australian deposits in the Cretaceous , suggesting monotremes had already diversified by that time . A platypus tooth has been found in the Palaeocene of Argentina , so Michael Benton suggests in Vertebrate Palaeontology monotremes arose in Australia in the Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous , and some subsequently migrated across Antarctica to reach South America , both of which were still united with Australia at that time . However , a number of genetic studies suggest a much earlier origin in the Triassic . Fossil species Excepting Ornithorhynchus anatinus , all the animals listed in this section are known only from fossils . * * Genus Kryoryctes * * * Species Kryoryctes cadburyi * Family Kollikodontidae * * Genus Kollikodon * * * Species Kollikodon ritchiei – ancient monotreme , 100–105 million years old * Family Steropodontidae – may be part of Ornithorhynchidae , closely related to modern platypus * * Genus Steropodon * * * Species Steropodon galmani * * Genus Teinolophos * * * Species Teinolophos trusleri – 123 million years old , oldest monotreme specimen * Family Ornithorhynchidae * * Genus Ornithorhynchus – oldest Ornithorhynchus specimen 9 million years old * * * Species Ornithorhynchus anatinus ( platypus ) – oldest specimen 10,000 years old * * Genus Obdurodon – includes a number of Miocene ( 5–24 million years ago ) platypuses * * * Species Obdurodon dicksoni ( Riversleigh platypus ) * * * Species Obdurodon insignis * * * Species Obdurodon tharalkooschild – middle and upper Miocene ( 15–5 mya ) * * * Species Monotrematum sudamericanum – 61 million years old , originally placed in separate genus , now thought an Obdurodon * Family Tachyglossidae * * Genus Zaglossus Upper Pleistocene ( 0.1–1.8 million years ago ) * * * Species Zaglossus hacketti * * * Species Zaglossus robustus * * Genus Megalibgwilia * * * Megalibgwilia ramsayi Late Pleistocene * * * Megalibgwilia robusta Miocene

dpql_2873--Monotreme.txt

Conventionally treated as comprising a single order, which order of mammals lay eggs?

Lebanon ( or ; or ; Lebanese Arabic : ; ) , officially the Lebanese RepublicRepublic of Lebanon is the most common phrase used by Lebanese government agencies . The phrase Lebanese Republic is a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today 's world . Lebanese Arabic is the most common language spoken among the citizens of Lebanon . ( ; Lebanese Arabic : ) , is a sovereign state in Western Asia . It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the southwest . Lebanon 's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity . The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years , predating recorded history . Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdom , a maritime culture that flourished for over a thousand years ( c. 1550–539 BC ) . In 64 BC , the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire , and eventually became one of the Empire 's leading centers of Christianity . In the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established . As the Arab Muslims conquered the region , the Maronites held onto their religion and identity . However , a new religious group , the Druze , established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well , generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries . During the Crusades , the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church and asserted their communion with Rome . The ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era . The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918 . Following the collapse of the empire after World War I , the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon . The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate , which was mostly populated by Maronites and Druze , to include more Muslims . Lebanon gained independence in 1943 , establishing a unique political system - confessionalism - a Consociationalism type of power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities . Bechara El Khoury , first Lebanese president , Riad El-Solh , first Lebanese prime minister and Emir Majid Arslan II , first Lebanese minister of defence , are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country 's independence . Foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946 . Lebanon has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie since 1973 . Before the Lebanese Civil War ( 1975–1990 ) , the country experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity , driven by tourism , agriculture , commerce , and banking . Because of its financial power and diversity in its heyday , Lebanon was referred to as the `` Switzerland of the East '' during the 1960s , and its capital , Beirut , attracted so many tourists that it was known as `` the Paris of the Middle East '' . At the end of the war , there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure . In spite of these troubles , Lebanon has the highest Human Development Index in the Arab world , to the exclusion of the oil-rich economies of the Persian Gulf . Etymology The name `` Lebanon '' originates from the Semitic root lbn ( ) , meaning `` white , '' which is likely a reference to the snow-capped peaks of Mount Lebanon . Occurrences of the name have been found in different texts from the library of Ebla , which date to the third millennium BC , nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible , and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh ( perhaps as early as 2100 BC ) . The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn , where R stood for Canaanite L . History Throughout the centuries leading up to recent times , the country became part of numerous succeeding empires , among them Egyptian Empire , Assyrian Empire , Achaemenid Persian , Hellenistic , Roman , Armenian , Sasanid Persian , Eastern Roman , Arab ( Umayyad , Abbasid , Fatimid ) , Seljuk , Mamluk , the Crusader 's state of County of Tripoli founded by Raymond IV of Toulouse that encompassed most of present-day Lebanon , and the Ottoman Empire . Uniquely , many of these empires left inscriptions in a single location , in the group of commemorative stela of Nahr el-Kalb . Ancient Lebanon Evidence of an early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos , which is considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world . The evidence dates back to earlier than 5000 BC . Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors , primitive weapons , and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago . Lebanon was a part of northern Canaan , and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants – the Phoenicians , a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great . Their most famous colonies were Carthage in what is present-day Tunisia and Cádiz in present-day Spain . The Canaanite-Phoenicians are also known as the inventors of the alphabet , among many other things . The area of present-day Lebanon and the wider Eastern Mediterranean were subjugated by Cyrus in 539 BCE . The Persians forced some of its population to migrate to Carthage , which remained a powerful nation until the Second Punic War . After two centuries of Persian rule , Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre , the most prominent Phoenician city . He conquered what is now Lebanon and other nearby regions of the Eastern Mediterranean in 332 BCE . Maronites , Druze , and the Crusades The region that is now Lebanon , as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia , became a major center of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the early spread of the religion . During the late 4th and early 5th century , a hermit named Maron established a monastic tradition , focused on the importance of monotheism and asceticism , near the Mediterranean mountain range known as Mount Lebanon . The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among Lebanese in the region . These Christians came to be known as Maronites and moved into mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities . During the frequent Roman-Persian Wars that lasted for many centuries , the Sassanid Persians occupied what is now Lebanon from 619 till 629 . During the 7th century the Muslim Arabs conquered Syria establishing a new regime to replace the Byzantines . Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant under this new regime , the general populace still took time to convert from Christianity and the Syriac language . The Maronite community in particular managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Lebanon and Syria . During the 11th century the Druze faith emerged from a branch of Shia Islam . The new faith gained followers in the southern portion of Mount Lebanon . The northern portion of Mount Lebanon was ruled by Druze feudal families to the early 14th century which was then brought to an end by the Mamluk invasion . The Maronite population increased gradually in Northern Mount Lebanon and the Druze have remained in Southern Mount Lebanon until the modern era . In the south of Lebanon , ( Jabal Amel ) , Baalbek and the Beqaa Valley was ruled by Shia feudal families under the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire . Major cities on the coast , Acre , Beirut , and others , were directly administered by the Muslim Caliphs and the people became more fully absorbed by the Arab culture . Following the fall of Roman Anatolia to the Muslim Turks , the Byzantines put out a call to the Pope in Rome for assistance in the 11th century . The result was a series of wars known as the Crusades launched by the Franks in Western Europe to reclaim the former Byzantine Christian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean , especially Syria and Palestine ( the Levant ) . The First Crusade succeeded in temporarily establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli as Roman Catholic Christian states along the coast . These crusader states made a lasting impact on the region , though their control was limited , and the region returned to full Muslim control after two centuries following the conquest by the Mamluks . One of the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the Franks ( i.e . the French ) and the Maronites . Unlike most other Christian communities in the Eastern Mediterranean , who swore allegiance to Constantinople or other local patriarchs , the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome . As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren . These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy , even after the fall of the Crusader states in the region . Ottoman Lebanon and French Mandate During this period Lebanon was divided into several provinces : Northern and Southern Mount Lebanon , Tripoli , Baalbek and Beqaa Valley and Jabal Amel . In southern Mount Lebanon in 1590 , Fakhr-al-Din II became the successor to Korkmaz . He soon established his authority as paramount prince of the Druze in the Shouf area of Mount Lebanon . Eventually , Fakhr-al-Din II was appointed Sanjakbey ( Governor ) of several Ottoman sub-provinces , with responsibility for tax-gathering . He extended his control over a substantial part of Mount Lebanon and its coastal area , even building a fort as far inland as Palmyra . This over-reaching eventually became too much for Ottoman Sultan Murad IV , who sent a punitive expedition to capture him in 1633 . He was taken to Istanbul , kept in prison for two years and then executed along with one of his sons in April 1635 . Surviving members of Fakhr al-Din 's family ruled a reduced area under closer Ottoman control until the end of the 17th century . On the death of the last Maan emir , various members of the Shihab clan ruled Mount Lebanon until 1830 . Approximately 10,000 Christians were killed by the Druzes during inter-communal violence in 1860 . Shortly afterwards , the Emirate of Mount Lebanon , which lasted about 400 years , was replaced by the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate , as a result of a European-Ottoman treaty called the Règlement Organique . The Baalbek and Beqaa Valley and Jabal Amel was ruled intermittently by various Shia feudal families , especially the Al Ali Alsagheer in Jabal Amel that remained in power until 1865 when Ottomans took direct ruling of the region . Youssef Bey Karam , a Lebanese nationalist played an influential role in Lebanon 's independence during this era . In 1920 , following WWI , the area of the Mutasarrifate , plus some surrounding areas which were predominantly Shia and Sunni , became a part of the state of Greater Lebanon under the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon . Around 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon died of starvation during World War I . In the first half of 1920 , Lebanese territory was claimed as part of the Arab Kingdom of Syria , but shortly the Franco-Syrian War resulted in Arab defeat and capitulation of the Hashemites . On 1 September 1920 , France reestablished Greater Lebanon after the Moutasarrifiya rule removed several regions belonging to the Principality of Lebanon and gave them to Syria . Lebanon was a largely Christian country ( mainly Maronite territory with some Greek Orthodox enclaves ) but it also included areas containing many Muslims and Druze . On 1 September 1926 , France formed the Lebanese Republic . A constitution was adopted on 25 May 1926 establishing a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government . Independence Lebanon gained a measure of independence while France was occupied by Germany . General Henri Dentz , the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon , played a major role in the independence of the nation . The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces . The United Kingdom , fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government , sent its army into Syria and Lebanon . After the fighting ended in Lebanon , General Charles de Gaulle visited the area . Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon , de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon . On 26 November 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government . Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate . The French reacted by imprisoning the new government . In the face of international pressure , the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943.The allies occupied the region until the end of World War II . Following the end of World War II in Europe the French mandate may be said to have been terminated without any formal action on the part of the League of Nations or its successor the United Nations . The mandate was ended by the declaration of the mandatory power , and of the new states themselves , of their independence , followed by a process of piecemeal unconditional recognition by other powers , culminating in formal admission to the United Nations . Article 78 of the UN Charter ended the status of tutelage for any member state : `` The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations , relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality . '' So when the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 , after ratification of the United Nations Charter by the five permanent members , as both Syria and Lebanon were founding member states , the French mandate for both was legally terminated on that date and full independence attained . The last French troops withdrew in December 1946 . Lebanon 's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian , its speaker of the parliament to be a Shiite Muslim , its prime minister be Sunni Muslim , and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister be Greek Orthodox . Lebanon 's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut 's position as a regional center for finance and trade . In May 1948 , Lebanon supported neighbouring Arab countries in a war against Israel . While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel , it was without the support of the Lebanese government , and Lebanese troops did not officially invade . Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire , armored cars , volunteers and logistical support . On 5–6 June 1948 , the Lebanese army – led by the then Minister of National Defence , Emir Majid Arslan – captured Al-Malkiyya . This was Lebanon 's only success in the war . 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon because of the war . Israel did not permit their return after the cease-fire . Today , more than 400,000 refugees remain in Lebanon , about half in camps . In 1958 , during the last months of President Camille Chamoun 's term , an insurrection broke out , instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic . Chamoun requested assistance , and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to Beirut on 15 July . After the crisis , a new government was formed , led by the popular former general Fuad Chehab . With the defeat of the PLO in Jordan , many Palestinian militants relocated to Lebanon , increasing their armed campaign against Israel . The relocation of Palestinian bases also led to increasing sectarian tensions between Palestinians versus the Maronites and other Lebanese factions . Civil war and occupation In 1975 , following increasing sectarian tensions , a full-scale civil war broke out in Lebanon . The Lebanese Civil War pitted a coalition of Christian groups against the joint forces of the PLO , left-wing Druze and Muslim militias . In June 1976 Lebanese President Elias Sarkis asked for the Syrian Army to intervene on the side of the Christians and help restore peace . In October 1976 the Arab League agreed to establish a predominantly Syrian Arab Deterrent Force , which was charged with restoring calm . In 1982 , the PLO attacks from Lebanon on Israel led to an Israeli invasion . A multinational force of American , French and Italian contingents ( joined in 1983 by a British contingent ) were deployed in Beirut after the Israeli siege of the city , to supervise the evacuation of the PLO . It returned in September 1982 after the assassination of Bashir Gemayel and subsequent fighting , during which a number of massacres were committed , such as in Damour , in Sabra and Shatila , and in several refugee camps . The multinational force was withdrawn in the spring of 1984 , following a devastating bombing attack during the previous year . In September 1988 , the Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Gemayel as a result of differences between the Christians , Muslims , and Syrians . The Arab League Summit of May 1989 led to the formation of a Saudi-Moroccan-Algerian committee to solve the crisis . On 16 September 1989 the committee issued a peace plan which was accepted by all . A ceasefire was established , the ports and airports were re-opened and refugees began to return . In the same month , the Lebanese Parliament agreed to the Taif Agreement , which included an outline timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and a formula for the de-confessionalisation of the Lebanese political system . The war ended at the end of 1990 after sixteen years , resulting in massive loss of human life and property , while devastating the country 's economy . It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded . Nearly a million civilians were displaced by the war , and some never returned . Parts of Lebanon were left in ruins . The Taif Agreement has still not been implemented in full and Lebanon 's political system continues to be divided along sectarian lines . Withdrawal and aftermath The internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in the early 2000s . After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of Hafez Al-Assad in 2000 , the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population . On 14 February 2005 , former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion . Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack , while the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials claimed that the Mossad was behind the assassination . The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassinations that resulted in the death of many prominent Lebanese figures.2005 : Bassel Fleihan , Lebanese legislator and Minister of Economy and Commerce ; Samir Kassir , Columnist and Democratic Left Movement leader ; George Hawi , former head of Lebanese Communist Party ; Gibran Tueni , Editor in Chief of `` An Nahar '' newspaper . 2006 : Pierre Gemayel , Minister of Industry . 2007 : Walid Eido , MP ; Antoine Ghanim , MP . The assassination triggered the Cedar Revolution , a series of demonstrations which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination . Under pressure from the West , Syria began withdrawing , and by 26 April 2005 all Syrian soldiers had returned to Syria . The UNSC Resolution 1595 called for an investigation into the assassination . The UN International Independent Investigation Commission published its preliminary findings on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report , which cited indications that the assassination was organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence services . On 12 July 2006 , Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli territory , where they killed three Israeli soldiers and captured a further two . Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon , and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon , resulting in the 2006 Lebanon War . The conflict was officially ended by the UNSC Resolution 1701 on 14 August 2006 , which ordered a ceasefire . Some 1,191 Lebanese and 160 Israelis were killed in the conflict . Beirut 's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes . In 2007 , the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp became the center of the 2007 Lebanon conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam . At least 169 soldiers , 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle . Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize . Between 2006 and 2008 , a series of protests led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister Fouad Siniora demanded the creation of a national unity government , over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power . When Émile Lahoud 's presidential term ended in October 2007 , the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached , leaving Lebanon without a president . On 9 May 2008 , Hezbollah and Amal forces , sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah 's communications network was illegal , seized western Beirut , leading to the 2008 conflict in Lebanon . The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt . At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias . On 21 May 2008 , the signing of the Doha Agreement ended the fighting . As part of the accord , which ended 18 months of political paralysis , Michel Suleiman became president and a national unity government was established , granting a veto to the opposition . The agreement was a victory for opposition forces , as the government caved in to all their main demands . In early January 2011 , the national unity government collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon , which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination . The parliament elected Najib Mikati , the candidate for the Hezbollah-led March 8 Alliance , Prime Minister of Lebanon , making him responsible for forming a new government . Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah insists that Israel was responsible for the assassination of Hariri . A report leaked by the Al-Akhbar newspaper in November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a takeover of the country in the event that the Special Tribunal for Lebanon issues an indictment against its members . In 2012 , the Syrian civil war threatened to spill over in Lebanon , causing more incidents of sectarian violence and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli . As of 6 August 2013 , more than 677,702 Syrian refugees are in Lebanon . As the number of Syrian refugees increases , the Lebanese Forces Party , the Kataeb Party , and the Free Patriotic Movement fear the country ’ s sectarian based political system is being undermined . Geography Lebanon is located in Western Asia between latitudes 33° and 35° N and longitudes 35° and 37° E. Its land straddles the `` northwest of the Arabian plate '' . The country 's surface area is 10452 sqkm of which 10230 sqkm is land . Lebanon has a coastline and border of 225 km on the Mediterranean sea to the west , a 375 km border shared with Syria to the north and east and a 79 km long border with Israel to the south . The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms . Lebanon is divided into four distinct physiographic regions : the coastal plain , the Lebanon mountain range , the Beqaa valley and the Anti-Lebanon mountains . The narrow and discontinuous coastal plain stretches from the Syrian border in the north where it widens to form the Akkar plain to Ras al-Naqoura at the border with Israel in the south . The fertile coastal plain is formed of marine sediments and river deposited alluvium alternating with sandy bays and rocky beaches . The Lebanon mountains rise steeply parallel to the Mediterranean coast and form a ridge of limestone and sandstone that runs for most of the country 's length . The mountain range varies in width between 10 km and 56 km ; it is carved by narrow and deep gorges . The Lebanon mountains peak at 3088 m above sea level in Qurnat as Sawda ' in North Lebanon and gradually slope to the south before rising again to a height of 2695 m in Mount Sannine . The Beqaa valley sits between the Lebanon mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon range in the east ; it 's a part of the Great Rift Valley system . The valley is 180 km long and 10 to wide , its fertile soil is formed by alluvial deposits . The Anti-Lebanon range runs parallel to the Lebanon mountains , its highest peak is in Mount Hermon at 2814 m . The mountains of Lebanon are drained by seasonal torrents and rivers foremost of which is the 145 km long Leontes that rises in the Beqaa Valley to the west of Baalbek and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre . Lebanon has 16 rivers all of which are non navigable ; 13 rivers originate on the western face of the Lebanon range and run through the steep gorges and into the Mediterranean Sea , the other three arise in the Beqaa Valley . Climate Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate . In coastal areas , winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid . In more elevated areas , temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops . Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall , when measured annually in comparison to its arid surroundings , certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little because of rain shadow created by the high peaks of the western mountain range . Environment In ancient times , Lebanon was covered by large forests of cedar trees , the national emblem of the country . Today , forests cover 13.4 % of the Lebanese land area ; they are under constant threat from wildfires caused by the long dry summer season . As a result of longstanding exploitation , few old cedar trees remain in pockets of forests in Lebanon , but there is an active program to conserve and regenerate the forests . The Lebanese approach has emphasized natural regeneration over planting by creating the right conditions for germination and growth . The Lebanese state has created several nature reserves that contain cedars , including the Shouf Biosphere Reserve , the Jaj Cedar Reserve , the Tannourine Reserve , the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district , and the Forest of the Cedars of God near Bsharri . In 2010 , the Environment Ministry set a 10-year plan to increase the national forest coverage by 20 % , which is equivalent to the planting of two million new trees each year . The plan , which was funded by the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) , and implemented by the U.S. Forest Service ( USFS ) , through the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative ( LRI ) , was inaugurated in 2011 by planting cedar , pine , wild almond , juniper , fir , oak and other seedlings , in ten regions around Lebanon . Environmental issues Beirut and Mount Lebanon have been facing a severe garbage crisis . After the closure of the Bourj Hammoud

qw_9959--Lebanon.txt

What ancient civilization was centred in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coastal regions of modern day Lebanon, Syria and Israel?

Reptiles are a group ( Reptilia ) of tetrapod animals comprising today 's turtles , crocodilians , snakes , amphisbaenians , lizards , tuatara , and their extinct relatives . The study of these traditional reptile groups , historically combined with that of modern amphibians , is called herpetology . The earliest known proto-reptiles originated around 312 million years ago during the Carboniferous period , having evolved from advanced reptiliomorph tetrapods that became increasingly adapted to life on dry land . Some early examples include the lizard-like Hylonomus and Casineria . In addition to the living reptiles , there are many diverse groups that are now extinct , in some cases due to mass extinction events . In particular , the K–Pg extinction wiped out the pterosaurs , plesiosaurs , ornithischians , and sauropods , as well as many species of theropods ( e.g . tyrannosaurids and dromaeosaurids ) , crocodyliforms , and squamates ( e.g . mosasaurids ) . Modern non-avian reptiles inhabit every continent with the exception of Antarctica ( If birds are classed as reptiles , then all continents are inhabited . ) Several living subgroups are recognized : Testudines ( turtles , terrapins and tortoises ) , approximately 400 species ; Sphenodontia ( tuatara from New Zealand ) , 1 species ; Squamata ( lizards , snakes , and worm lizards ) , over 9,600 species ; Crocodilia ( crocodiles , gavials , caimans , and alligators ) , 25 species ; and Aves ( birds ) , 10,000 species . Because some reptiles are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles ( crocodiles are more closely related to birds than they are to lizards ) , many modern scientists prefer to make Reptilia a monophyletic grouping and so also include the birds , which today contain over 10,000 species . Reptiles are tetrapod vertebrates , creatures that either have four limbs or , like snakes , are descended from four-limbed ancestors . Unlike amphibians , reptiles do not have an aquatic larval stage . Most reptiles are oviparous , although several species of squamates are viviparous , as were some extinct aquatic clades — the fetus develops within the mother , contained in a placenta rather than an eggshell . As amniotes , reptile eggs are surrounded by membranes for protection and transport , which adapt them to reproduction on dry land . Many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through various forms of placenta analogous to those of mammals , with some providing initial care for their hatchlings . Extant reptiles range in size from a tiny gecko , Sphaerodactylus ariasae , which can grow up to 17 mm to the saltwater crocodile , Crocodylus porosus , which may reach 6 m in length and weigh over 1000 kg . Classification Research history In the 18th century , the reptiles were , from the outset of classification , grouped with the amphibians . Linnaeus , working from species-poor Sweden , where the common adder and grass snake are often found hunting in water , included all reptiles and amphibians in class `` III – Amphibia '' in his Systema Naturæ . The terms `` reptile '' and `` amphibian '' were largely interchangeable , `` reptile '' ( from Latin repere , `` to creep '' ) being preferred by the French . Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti was the first to formally use the term `` Reptilia '' for an expanded selection of reptiles and amphibians basically similar to that of Linnaeus . Today , the two groups are still commonly treated under the same heading as herptiles . It was not until the beginning of the 19th century that it became clear that reptiles and amphibians are , in fact , quite different animals , and Pierre André Latreille erected the class Batracia ( 1825 ) for the latter , dividing the tetrapods into the four familiar classes of reptiles , amphibians , birds , and mammals . The British anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley made Latreille 's definition popular and , together with Richard Owen , expanded Reptilia to include the various fossil `` antediluvian monsters '' , including dinosaurs and the mammal-like ( synapsid ) Dicynodon he helped describe . This was not the only possible classification scheme : In the Hunterian lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1863 , Huxley grouped the vertebrates into mammals , sauroids , and ichthyoids ( the latter containing the fishes and amphibians ) . He subsequently proposed the names of Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida for the latter two groups . In 1866 , Haeckel demonstrated that vertebrates could be divided based on their reproductive strategies , and that reptiles , birds , and mammals were united by the amniotic egg . The terms `` Sauropsida '' ( `` lizard faces '' ) and `` Theropsida '' ( `` beast faces '' ) were used again in 1916 by E.S . Goodrich to distinguish between lizards , birds , and their relatives on the one hand ( Sauropsida ) and mammals and their extinct relatives ( Theropsida ) on the other . Goodrich supported this division by the nature of the hearts and blood vessels in each group , and other features , such as the structure of the forebrain . According to Goodrich , both lineages evolved from an earlier stem group , Protosauria ( `` first lizards '' ) in which he included some animals today considered reptile-like amphibians , as well as early reptiles . In 1956 , D.M.S . Watson observed that the first two groups diverged very early in reptilian history , so he divided Goodrich 's Protosauria between them . He also reinterpreted Sauropsida and Theropsida to exclude birds and mammals , respectively . Thus his Sauropsida included Procolophonia , Eosuchia , Millerosauria , Chelonia ( turtles ) , Squamata ( lizards and snakes ) , Rhynchocephalia , Crocodilia , `` thecodonts '' ( paraphyletic basal Archosauria ) , non-avian dinosaurs , pterosaurs , ichthyosaurs , and sauropterygians . In the late 19th century , a number of definitions of Reptilia were offered . The traits listed by Lydekker in 1896 , for example , include a single occipital condyle , a jaw joint formed by the quadrate and articular bones , and certain characteristics of the vertebrae . The animals singled out by these formulations , the amniotes other than the mammals and the birds , are still those considered reptiles today . The synapsid/sauropsid division supplemented another approach , one that split the reptiles into four subclasses based on the number and position of temporal fenestrae , openings in the sides of the skull behind the eyes . This classification was initiated by Henry Fairfield Osborn and elaborated and made popular by Romer 's classic Vertebrate Paleontology . Those four subclasses were : * Anapsida – no fenestrae – cotylosaurs and Chelonia ( turtles and relatives ) This taxonomy does not reflect modern molecular evidence , which places turtles within Diapsida . * Synapsida – one low fenestra – pelycosaurs and therapsids ( the 'mammal-like reptiles ' ) * Euryapsida – one high fenestra ( above the postorbital and squamosal ) – protorosaurs ( small , early lizard-like reptiles ) and the marine sauropterygians and ichthyosaurs , the latter called Parapsida in Osborn 's work . * Diapsida – two fenestrae – most reptiles , including lizards , snakes , crocodilians , dinosaurs and pterosaurs The composition of Euryapsida was uncertain . Ichthyosaurs were , at times , considered to have arisen independently of the other euryapsids , and given the older name Parapsida . Parapsida was later discarded as a group for the most part ( ichthyosaurs being classified as incertae sedis or with Euryapsida ) . However , four ( or three if Euryapsida is sunk into Diapsida ) subclasses remained more or less universal for non-specialist work throughout the 20th century . It has largely been abandoned by recent researchers : in particular , the anapsid condition has been found to occur so variably among unrelated groups that it is not now considered a useful distinction . Phylogenetics and modern definition By the early 21st century , vertebrate paleontologists were beginning to adopt phylogenetic taxonomy , in which all groups are defined in such a way as to be monophyletic ; that is , groups include all descendants of a particular ancestor . The reptiles as historically defined are paraphyletic , since they exclude both birds and mammals . These respectively evolved from dinosaurs and from early therapsids , which were both traditionally called reptiles . Birds are more closely related to crocodilians than the latter are to the rest of extant reptiles . Colin Tudge wrote : Mammals are a clade , and therefore the cladists are happy to acknowledge the traditional taxon Mammalia ; and birds , too , are a clade , universally ascribed to the formal taxon Aves . Mammalia and Aves are , in fact , subclades within the grand clade of the Amniota . But the traditional class Reptilia is not a clade . It is just a section of the clade Amniota : the section that is left after the Mammalia and Aves have been hived off . It can not be defined by synapomorphies , as is the proper way . Instead , it is defined by a combination of the features it has and the features it lacks : reptiles are the amniotes that lack fur or feathers . At best , the cladists suggest , we could say that the traditional Reptilia are 'non-avian , non-mammalian amniotes ' . Despite the early proposals for replacing the paraphyletic Reptilia with a monophyletic Sauropsida , which includes birds , that term was never adopted widely or , when it was , was not applied consistently . When Sauropsida was used , it often had the same content or even the same definition as Reptilia . In 1988 , Jacques Gauthier proposed a cladistic definition of Reptilia as a monophyletic node-based crown group containing turtles , lizards and snakes , crocodilians , and birds , their common ancestor and all its descendants . Because the actual relationship of turtles to other reptiles was not yet well understood at this time , Gauthier 's definition came to be considered inadequate . A variety of other definitions were proposed by other scientists in the years following Gauthier 's paper . The first such new definition , which attempted to adhere to the standards of the PhyloCode , was published by Modesto and Anderson in 2004 . Modesto and Anderson reviewed the many previous definitions and proposed a modified definition , which they intended to retain most traditional content of the group while keeping it stable and monophyletic . They defined Reptilia as all amniotes closer to Lacerta agilis and Crocodylus niloticus than to Homo sapiens . This stem-based definition is equivalent to the more common definition of Sauropsida , which Modesto and Anderson synonymized with Reptilia , since the latter is better known and more frequently used . Unlike most previous definitions of Reptilia , however , Modesto and Anderson 's definition includes birds , as they are within the clade that includes both lizards and crocodiles . Taxonomy Classification to order level of the reptiles , after Benton , 2014 . * Class Reptilia * * Subclass Parareptilia * * * Order Pareiasauromorpha * * Subclass Eureptilia * * * Infraclass Diapsida * * * * Order Younginiformes * * * * Infraclass Neodiapsida * * * * * Order Testudinata ( turtles ) * * * * * Infraclass Lepidosauromorpha * * * * * * Infrasubclass Unnamed * * * * * * * Infraclass Ichthyosauria * * * * * * * Order Thalattosauria * * * * * * * Superorder Lepidosauriformes * * * * * * * * Order Rhynchocephalia ( tuatara ) * * * * * * * * Order Squamata ( lizards & snakes ) * * * * * * Infrasubclass Sauropterygia * * * * * * * Order Placodontia * * * * * * * Order Eosauropterygia * * * * * * * Order Plesiosauria * * * * * Infraclass Archosauromorpha * * * * * * Order Rhynchosauria * * * * * * Order Protorosauria * * * * * * Division Archosauriformes * * * * * * * Subdivision Archosauria * * * * * * * * Infradivision Crurotarsi * * * * * * * * * Order Phytosauria * * * * * * * * * Superorder Crocodylomorpha * * * * * * * * * * Order Crocodilia * * * * * * * * Infradivision Avemetatarsalia * * * * * * * * * Infrasubdivision Ornithodira * * * * * * * * * * Order Pterosauria * * * * * * * * * * Superorder Dinosauria * * * * * * * * * * * Order Saurischia ( incl . Clade Aves ) * * * * * * * * * * * Order Ornithischia Phylogeny The cladogram presented here illustrates the `` family tree '' of reptiles , and follows a simplified version of the relationships found by M.S . Lee , in 2013 . All genetic studies have supported the hypothesis that turtles are diapsids ; some have placed turtles within archosauriformes , though a few have recovered turtles as lepidosauriformes instead . The cladogram below used a combination of genetic ( molecular ) and fossil ( morphological ) data to obtain its results . The position of turtles The placement of turtles has historically been highly variable . Classically , turtles were considered to be related to the primitive anapsid reptiles . Molecular work has usually placed turtles within the diapsids . So far three turtle genomes have been sequenced . The results place turtles as a sister clade to the archosaurs , the group that includes crocodiles , dinosaurs , and birds . Evolutionary history Origin of the reptiles The origin of the reptiles lies about 310–320 million years ago , in the steaming swamps of the late Carboniferous period , when the first reptiles evolved from advanced reptiliomorphs . The oldest known animal that may have been an amniote is Casineria ( though it may have been a temnospondyl ) . A series of footprints from the fossil strata of Nova Scotia dated to show typical reptilian toes and imprints of scales . These tracks are attributed to Hylonomus , the oldest unquestionable reptile known . It was a small , lizard-like animal , about 20 to long , with numerous sharp teeth indicating an insectivorous diet . Other examples include Westlothiana ( for the moment considered a reptiliomorph rather than a true amniote ) and Paleothyris , both of similar build and presumably similar habit . Rise of the reptiles The earliest amniotes , including stem-reptiles ( those amniotes closer to modern reptiles than to mammals ) , were largely overshadowed by larger stem-tetrapods , such as Cochleosaurus , and remained a small , inconspicuous part of the fauna until the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse . This sudden collapse affected several large groups . Primitive tetrapods were particularly devastated , while stem-reptiles fared better , being ecologically adapted to the drier conditions that followed . Primitive tetrapods , like modern amphibians , need to return to water to lay eggs ; in contrast , amniotes , like modern reptiles – whose eggs possess a shell that allows them to be laid on land – were better adapted to the new conditions . Amniotes acquired new niches at a faster rate than before the collapse and at a much faster rate than primitive tetrapods . They acquired new feeding strategies including herbivory and carnivory , previously only having been insectivores and piscivores . From this point forward , reptiles dominated communities and had a greater diversity than primitive tetrapods , setting the stage for the Mesozoic ( known as the Age of Reptiles ) . One of the best known early stem-reptiles is Mesosaurus , a genus from the early Permian that had returned to water , feeding on fish . Anapsids , synapsids , diapsids and sauropsids It was traditionally assumed that the first reptiles retained an anapsid skull inherited from their ancestors.Coven , R ( 2000 ) : History of Life . Blackwell Science , Oxford , UK . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id qvyBS4gwPF4C & lpgPA154 & ots CbCxyrJdo0 & dqdiapsids % 20ancestors % 20synapsids & pg PA154 # vonepage & q diapsids % 20ancestors % 20synapsids & ffalse p 154 ] from Google Books This type of skull has a skull roof with only holes for the nostrils , eyes and a pineal eye . The discoveries of synapsid-like openings ( see below ) in the skull roof of the skulls of several members of Parareptilia ( the clade containing most of the amniotes traditionally referred to as `` anapsids '' ) , including lanthanosuchoids , millerettids , bolosaurids , some nycteroleterids , some procolophonoids and at least some mesosaurs made it more ambiguous and it 's currently uncertain whether the ancestral amniote had an anapsid-like or synapsid-like skull . These animals are traditionally referred to as `` anapsids '' , and form a paraphyletic basic stock from which other groups evolved . Very shortly after the first amniotes appeared , a lineage called Synapsida split off ; this group was characterized by a temporal opening in the skull behind each eye to give room for the jaw muscle to move . These are the `` mammal-like amniotes '' , or stem-mammals , that later gave rise to the true mammals . Soon after , another group evolved a similar trait , this time with a double opening behind each eye , earning them the name Diapsida ( `` two arches '' ) . The function of the holes in these groups was to lighten the skull and give room for the jaw muscles to move , allowing for a more powerful bite . Turtles have been traditionally believed to be surviving parareptiles , on the basis of their anapsid skull structure , which was assumed to be primitive trait . The rationale for this classification has been disputed , with some arguing that turtles are diapsids that evolved anapsid skulls in order to improve their armor . Later morphological phylogenetic studies with this in mind placed turtles firmly within Diapsida . All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids , most commonly as a sister group to extant archosaurs . Permian reptiles With the close of the Carboniferous , the amniotes became the dominant tetrapod fauna . While primitive , terrestrial reptiliomorphs still existed , the synapsid amniotes evolved the first truly terrestrial megafauna ( giant animals ) in the form of pelycosaurs , such as Edaphosaurus and the carnivorous Dimetrodon . In the mid-Permian period , the climate became drier , resulting in a change of fauna : The pelycosaurs were replaced by the therapsids . The parareptiles , whose massive skull roofs had no postorbital holes , continued and flourished throughout the Permian . The pareiasaurian parareptiles reached giant proportions in the late Permian , eventually disappearing at the close of the period ( the turtles being possible survivors ) . Early in the period , the modern reptiles , or crown-group reptiles , evolved and split into two main lineages : the Archosauromorpha ( forebears of turtles , crocodiles , and dinosaurs ) and the Lepidosauromorpha ( predecessors of modern lizards and tuataras ) . Both groups remained lizard-like and relatively small and inconspicuous during the Permian . Mesozoic reptiles The close of the Permian saw the greatest mass extinction known ( see the Permian–Triassic extinction event ) , a prolonged event due to the accumulation of at least two distinct extinction pulses . Most of the earlier parareptile and synapsid megafauna disappeared , being replaced by the true reptiles , particularly archosauromorphs . These were characterized by elongated hind legs and an erect pose , the early forms looking somewhat like long-legged crocodiles . The archosaurs became the dominant group during the Triassic period , though it took 30 million years before their diversity was as great as the animals that lived in the Permian . Archosaurs developed into the well-known dinosaurs and pterosaurs , as well as the ancestors of crocodiles . Since reptiles , first rauisuchians and then dinosaurs , dominated the Mesozoic era , the interval is popularly known as the `` Age of Reptiles '' . The dinosaurs also developed smaller forms , including the feather-bearing smaller theropods . In the Cretaceous period , these gave rise to the first true birds . The sister group to Archosauromorpha is Lepidosauromorpha , containing lizards and tuataras , as well as their fossil relatives . Lepidosauromorpha contained at least one major group of the Mesozoic sea reptiles : the mosasaurs , which lived during the Cretaceous period . The phylogenetic placement of other main groups of fossil sea reptiles – the ichthyopterygians ( including ichthyosaurs ) and the sauropterygians , which evolved in the early Triassic – is more controversial . Different authors linked these groups either to lepidosauromorphs or to archosauromorphs , [ http : //www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/G331/lectures/331vertsII.html GEOL 331 Vertebrate Paleontology II : Fossil Tetrapods ] and ichthyopterygians were also argued to be diapsids that did not belong to the least inclusive clade containing lepidosauromorphs and archosauromorphs . Cenozoic reptiles The close of the Cretaceous period saw the demise of the Mesozoic era reptilian megafauna ( see the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event ) . Of the large marine reptiles , only sea turtles were left ; and of the non-marine large reptiles , only the semi-aquatic crocodiles and broadly similar choristoderes survived the extinction , with the latter becoming extinct in the Miocene . Of the great host of dinosaurs dominating the Mesozoic , only the small beaked birds survived . This dramatic extinction pattern at the end of the Mesozoic led into the Cenozoic . Mammals and birds filled the empty niches left behind by the reptilian megafauna and , while reptile diversification slowed , bird and mammal diversification took an exponential turn . However , reptiles were still important components of the megafauna , particularly in the form of giant tortoises . After the extinction of most archosaur and marine reptile lines by the end of the Cretaceous , reptile diversification continued throughout the Cenozoic . Squamates took a massive hit during the KT-event , only recovering ten million years after it , but they underwent a great radiation event once they recovered , and today squamates make up the majority of living reptiles ( > 95 % ) . Approximately 10,000 extant species of traditional reptiles are known , with birds adding about 10,000 more , almost twice the number of mammals , represented by about 5,700 living species ( excluding domesticated species ) . Morphology and physiology Circulation All squamates and turtles have a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria , one variably partitioned ventricle , and two aortas that lead to the systemic circulation . The degree of mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chambered heart varies depending on the species and physiological state . Under different conditions , deoxygenated blood can be shunted back to the body or oxygenated blood can be shunted back to the lungs . This variation in blood flow has been hypothesized to allow more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species , but has not been shown to be a fitness advantage . Crocodilians have an anatomically four-chambered heart , similar to birds , but also have two systemic aortas and are therefore capable of bypassing their pulmonary circulation . Also , some snake and lizard species ( e.g. , pythons and monitor lizards ) have three-chambered hearts that become functionally four-chambered hearts during contraction . This is made possible by a muscular ridge that subdivides the ventricle during ventricular diastole and completely divides it during ventricular systole . Because of this ridge , some of these squamates are capable of producing ventricular pressure differentials that are equivalent to those seen in mammalian and avian hearts . Metabolism Modern reptiles exhibit some form of cold-bloodedness ( i.e . some mix of poikilothermy , ectothermy , and bradymetabolism ) so that they have limited physiological means of keeping the body temperature constant and often rely on external sources of heat . Due to a less stable core temperature than birds and mammals , reptilian biochemistry requires enzymes capable of maintaining efficiency over a greater range of temperatures than in the case for warm-blooded animals . The optimum body temperature range varies with species , but is typically below that of warm-blooded animals ; for many lizards , it falls in the 24°–35 °C ( 75°–95 °F ) range , while extreme heat-adapted species , like the American desert iguana Dipsosaurus dorsalis , can have optimal physiological temperatures in the mammalian range , between 35° and 40 °C ( 95° and 104 °F ) . While the optimum temperature is often encountered when the animal is active , the low basal metabolism makes body temperature drop rapidly when the animal is inactive . As in all animals , reptilian muscle action produces heat . In large reptiles , like leatherback turtles , the low surface-to-volume ratio allows this metabolically produced heat to keep the animals warmer than their environment even though they do not have a warm-blooded metabolism . This form of homeothermy is called gigantothermy ; it has been suggested as having been common in large dinosaurs and other extinct large-bodied reptiles . The benefit of a low resting metabolism is that it requires far less fuel to sustain bodily functions . By using temperature variations in their surroundings , or by remaining cold when they do not need to move , reptiles can save considerable amounts of energy compared to endothermic animals of the same size . A crocodile needs from a tenth to a fifth of the food necessary for a lion of the same weight and can live half a year without eating . Lower food requirements and adaptive metabolisms allow reptiles to dominate the animal life in regions where net calorie availability is too low to sustain large-bodied mammals and birds . It is generally assumed that reptiles are unable to produce the sustained high energy output necessary for long distance chases or flying . Higher energetic capacity might have been responsible for the evolution of warm-bloodedness in birds and mammals . However , investigation of correlations between active capacity and thermophysiology show a weak relationship . Most extant reptiles are carnivores with a sit-and-wait feeding strategy ; whether reptiles are cold blooded due to their ecology is not clear . Energetic studies on some reptiles have shown active capacities equal to or greater than similar sized warm-blooded animals . Respiratory System All reptiles breathe using lungs . Aquatic turtles have developed more permeable skin , and some species have modified their cloaca to increase the area for gas exchange . Even with these adaptations , breathing is never fully accomplished without lungs . Lung ventilation is accomplished differently in each main reptile group . In squamates , the lungs are ventilated almost exclusively by the axial musculature . This is also the same musculature that is used during locomotion . Because of this constraint , most squamates are forced to hold their breath during intense runs . Some , however , have found a way around it . Varanids , and a few other lizard species , employ buccal pumping as a complement to their normal `` axial breathing '' . This allows the animals to completely fill their lungs during intense locomotion , and thus remain aerobically active for a long time . Tegu lizards are known to possess a proto-diaphragm , which separates the pulmonary cavity from the visceral cavity . While not actually capable of movement , it does allow for greater lung inflation , by taking the weight of the viscera off the lungs . Crocodilians actually have a muscular diaphragm that is analogous to the mammalian diaphragm . The difference is that the muscles for the crocodilian diaphragm pull the pubis ( part of the pelvis , which is movable in crocodilians ) back , which brings the liver down , thus freeing space for the lungs to expand . This type of diaphragmatic setup has been referred to as the `` hepatic piston '' . The airways bronchia form a number of double tubular chambers within each lung . On inhalation and exhalation air moves through the airways in the same direction

qw_875--Reptile.txt

What reptile, of which there are two living species, the American and the Chinese, got its name from the Spanish for lizard?

Ireland ( ; ) , also known as the Republic of Ireland ( ' ) , is a sovereign state in north-western Europe occupying about five-sixths of the island of Ireland . The capital and largest city is Dublin , which is located on the eastern part of the island , and whose metropolitan area is home to around a third of the country 's 4.75 million inhabitants . The state shares its only land border with Northern Ireland , a part of the United Kingdom . It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean , with the Celtic Sea to the south , Saint George 's Channel to the south-east and the Irish Sea to the east . It is a unitary , parliamentary republic . The legislature , the ' , consists of a lower house , ' , an upper house , ' , and an elected President ( ' ) who serves as the largely ceremonial head of state , but with some important powers and duties . The head of government is the ' ( Prime Minister , literally 'Chief ' , a title not used in English ) , who is elected by the Dáil and appointed by the President , and appoints other government ministers . The state was created as the Irish Free State in 1922 as a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty . It had the status of dominion until 1937 when a new constitution was adopted , in which the state was named `` Ireland '' and effectively became a republic , with an elected non-executive president as head of state . It was officially declared a republic in 1949 , following the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 . Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955 . It joined the European Economic Community ( EEC ) , the predecessor of the European Union , in 1973 . The state had no formal relations with Northern Ireland for most of the twentieth century , but during the 1980s and 1990s the British and Irish governments worked with the Northern Ireland parties towards a resolution to `` the Troubles '' . Since the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 , the Irish government and Northern Ireland Executive have co-operated on a number of policy areas under the North-South Ministerial Council created by the Agreement . Ireland ranks among the top twenty-five wealthiest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita , and as the tenth most prosperous country in the world according to The Legatum Prosperity Index 2015 . After joining the EEC , Ireland enacted a series of liberal economic policies that resulted in rapid economic growth . The country achieved considerable prosperity between the years of 1995 and 2007 , which became known as the Celtic Tiger period . This was halted by an unprecedented financial crisis that began in 2008 , in conjunction with the concurrent global economic crash . However , as the Irish economy was the fastest growing in the EU in 2015 Ireland is again quickly ascending league tables comparing wealth and prosperity internationally . For example , in 2015 , Ireland was ranked as the joint sixth ( with Germany ) most developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index . It also performs well in several national performance metrics , including freedom of the press , economic freedom and civil liberties . Ireland is a member of the European Union and is a founding member of the Council of Europe and the OECD . The Irish government has followed a policy of military neutrality through non-alignment since immediately prior to World War II and the country is consequently not a member of NATO , although it is a member in Partnership for Peace . Name The 1922 state , comprising 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland , was `` styled and known as the Irish Free State '' . The Constitution of Ireland , adopted in 1937 , provides that `` the name of the State is Éire , or , in the English language , Ireland '' . Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 states , `` It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland . '' The 1948 Act does not name the state as `` Republic of Ireland '' , because to have done so would have put it in conflict with the Constitution . The government of the United Kingdom used the name `` Eire '' ( without the diacritic ) , and , from 1949 , `` Republic of Ireland '' , for the state ; it was not until the 1998 Good Friday Agreement that it used the name `` Ireland '' . As well as `` Ireland '' , `` Éire '' or `` the Republic of Ireland '' , the state is also referred to as `` the Republic '' , `` Southern Ireland '' or `` the South '' . In an Irish republican context it is often referred to as `` the Free State '' or `` the 26 Counties '' . History Home-rule movement From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801 , until 6 December 1922 , the island of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . During the Great Famine , from 1845 to 1849 , the island 's population of over 8 million fell by 30 % . One million Irish died of starvation and/or disease and another 1.5 million emigrated , mostly to the United States . This set the pattern of emigration for the century to come , resulting in a constant population decline up to the 1960s . From 1874 , and particularly under Charles Stewart Parnell from 1880 , the Irish Parliamentary Party gained prominence . This was firstly through widespread agrarian agitation via the Irish Land League , that won land reforms for tenants in the form of the Irish Land Acts , and secondly through its attempts to achieve Home Rule , via two unsuccessful bills which would have granted Ireland limited national autonomy . These led to `` grass-roots '' control of national affairs , under the Local Government Act 1898 , that had been in the hands of landlord-dominated grand juries of the Protestant Ascendancy . Home Rule seemed certain when the Parliament Act 1911 abolished the veto of the House of Lords , and John Redmond secured the Third Home Rule Act in 1914 . However , the Unionist movement had been growing since 1886 among Irish Protestants after the introduction of the first home rule bill , fearing discrimination and loss of economic and social privileges if Irish Catholics achieved real political power . In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century unionism was particularly strong in parts of Ulster , where industrialisation was more common in contrast to the more agrarian rest of the island . It was feared that any tariff barriers would heavily affect that region . In addition , the Protestant population was more prominent in Ulster , with a majority in four counties . Under the leadership of the Dublin-born Sir Edward Carson of the Irish Unionist Party and the Ulsterman Sir James Craig of the Ulster Unionist Party , unionists became strongly militant in order to oppose `` the Coercion of Ulster '' . After the Home Rule Bill passed parliament in May 1914 , to avoid rebellion with Ulster , the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith introduced an Amending Bill reluctantly conceded to by the Irish Party leadership . This provided for the temporary exclusion of Ulster from the workings of the bill for a trial period of six years , with an as yet undecided new set of measures to be introduced for the area to be temporarily excluded . Revolution and steps to independence Though it received the Royal Assent and was placed on the statute books in 1914 , the implementation of the Third Home Rule Act was suspended until after the First World War which defused the threat of civil war in Ireland . With hope of ensuring the implementation of the Act at the end of the war through Ireland 's engagement in the war , Redmond and his Irish National Volunteers supported Britain and its Allies . 175,000 men joined Irish regiments of the 10th ( Irish ) and 16th ( Irish ) divisions of the New British Army , while Unionists joined the 36th ( Ulster ) divisions . The remainder of the Irish Volunteers , who opposed any support of Britain , launched an armed insurrection against British rule in the 1916 Easter Rising , together with the Irish Citizen Army . This commenced on 24 April 1916 with the declaration of independence . After a week of heavy fighting , primarily in Dublin , the surviving rebels were forced to surrender their positions . The majority were imprisoned but fifteen of the prisoners ( including most of the leaders ) were executed as traitors to Britain . This included Patrick Pearse , the spokesman for the rising and who provided the signal to the volunteers to start the rising , as well as James Connolly , socialist and founder of the Industrial Workers of the World union and both the Irish and Scottish Labour movements . These events , together with the Conscription Crisis of 1918 , had a profound effect on changing public opinion in Ireland . In January 1919 , after the December 1918 general election , 73 of Ireland 's 106 Members of Parliament ( MPs ) elected were Sinn Féin members who refused to take their seats in the British House of Commons . Instead , they set up an Irish parliament called Dáil Éireann . This first Dáil in January 1919 issued a Declaration of Independence and proclaimed an Irish Republic . The Declaration was mainly a restatement of the 1916 Proclamation with the additional provision that Ireland was no longer a part of the United Kingdom . The new Irish Republic was recognised internationally only by the Russian Soviet Republic . The Irish Republic 's ' ( Ministry ) sent a delegation under ' ( Head of Council , or Speaker , of the Daíl ) Seán T. O'Kelly to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , but it was not admitted . After the War of Independence and truce called in July 1921 , representatives of the British government and the Irish treaty delegates , led by Arthur Griffith , Robert Barton and Michael Collins , negotiated the Anglo-Irish Treaty in London from 11 October to 6 December 1921 . The Irish delegates set up headquarters at Hans Place in Knightsbridge and it was here in private discussions that the decision was taken on 5 December to recommend the treaty to Dáil Éireann . The Second Dáil Éireann narrowly ratified the Treaty . In accordance with the treaty , on 6 December 1922 the entire island of Ireland became a self-governing dominion called the Irish Free State ( Saorstát Éireann ) . Under the Constitution of the Irish Free State , the Parliament of Northern Ireland had the option to leave the Irish Free State one month later and return to the United Kingdom . During the intervening period , the powers of the Parliament of the Irish Free State and Executive Council of the Irish Free State did not extend to Northern Ireland . Northern Ireland exercised its right under the treaty to leave the new dominion and rejoined the United Kingdom on 8 December 1922 . It did so by making an address to the King requesting , `` that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland . '' The Irish Free State was a constitutional monarchy sharing a monarch with the United Kingdom and other dominions of the British Commonwealth . The country had a governor-general ( representing the monarch ) , a bicameral parliament , a cabinet called the `` Executive Council '' , and a prime minister called the President of the Executive Council . Irish Civil War The Irish Civil War was the consequence of the creation of the Irish Free State . Anti-treaty forces , led by Éamon de Valera , objected to the fact that acceptance of the treaty abolished the Irish Republic of 1919 to which they had sworn loyalty , arguing in the face of public support for the settlement that the `` people have no right to do wrong '' . They objected most to the fact that the state would remain part of the British Empire and that members of the Free State Parliament would have to swear what the Anti-treaty side saw as an oath of fidelity to the British King . Pro-treaty forces , led by Michael Collins , argued that the treaty gave `` not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire to and develop , but the freedom to achieve it '' . At the start of the war , the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) split into two opposing camps : a pro-treaty IRA and an anti-treaty IRA . The pro-treaty IRA disbanded and joined the new National Army . However , because the anti-treaty IRA lacked an effective command structure and because of the pro-treaty forces ' defensive tactics throughout the war , Michael Collins and his pro-treaty forces were able to build up an army with many tens of thousands of World War I veterans from the 1922 disbanded Irish regiments of the British Army , capable of overwhelming the anti-treatyists . British supplies of artillery , aircraft , machine-guns and ammunition boosted pro-treaty forces , and the threat of a return of Crown forces to the Free State removed any doubts about the necessity of enforcing the treaty . The lack of public support for the anti-treaty forces ( often called the Irregulars ) and the determination of the government to overcome the Irregulars contributed significantly to their defeat . 1937 Constitution Following a national referendum , on 29 December 1937 the new Constitution of Ireland ( Bunreacht na hÉireann ) came into force . This replaced the Constitution of the Irish Free State and called the state Ireland , or Éire in Irish.T . Garvin , 1922 : the birth of Irish democracy , Gill & Macmillan : Dublin , 2005.John T. Koch , Celtic culture : a historical encyclopedia , ABC-CLIO : Santa Barbara , 2006 . Articles 2 and 3 of the constitution asserted a nominal territorial claim over the whole island , considering the partition of Ireland under the 1922 Anglo-Irish Treaty illegitimate . The former Irish Free State government had taken steps to abolish the Office of Governor-General some months before the new Constitution came into force . Although the constitution established the office of President of Ireland , the question over whether Ireland was a republic remained open . Diplomats were accredited to the king , but the president exercised the internal functions of a head of state . For instance , the President gave assent to new laws with his own authority , without reference to King George VI . George VI was only an `` organ '' , that was provided for by statute law . Ireland remained neutral during World War II , a period it described as the Emergency . Ireland 's link with the Commonwealth was terminated with the passage of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 , which came into force on 18 April 1949 and declared that the state was a republic . At the time , a declaration of a republic terminated Commonwealth membership . This rule was changed 10 days after Ireland declared itself a republic , with the London Declaration of 28 April 1949 . Ireland did not reapply when the rules were altered to permit republics to join . Later , the Crown of Ireland Act was repealed in Ireland by the Statute Law Revision ( Pre-Union Irish Statutes ) Act , 1962 . Recent history Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955 , after having been denied membership because of its neutral stance during the Second World War and not supporting the Allied cause . At the time , joining the UN involved a commitment to using force to deter aggression by one state against another if the UN thought it was necessary . Interest towards membership of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) developed in Ireland during the 1950s , with consideration also given to membership of the European Free Trade Area . As the United Kingdom intended on EEC membership , Ireland applied for membership in July 1961 due to the substantial economic linkages with the United Kingdom . However , the founding EEC members remained skeptical regarding Ireland 's economic capacity , neutrality , and unattractive protectionist policy . Many Irish economists and politicians realised that economic policy reform was necessary . The prospect of EEC membership became doubtful in 1963 when French President General Charles de Gaulle stated that France opposed Britain 's accession , which ceased negotiations with all other candidate countries . However , in 1969 his successor , Georges Pompidou , was not opposed to British and Irish membership . Negotiations began and in 1972 the Treaty of Accession was signed . A referendum held in 1972 confirmed Ireland 's entry , and it finally joined the EEC in 1973 . The economic crisis of the late 1970s was fuelled by the Fianna Fáil government 's budget , the abolition of the car tax , excessive borrowing , and global economic instability including the 1979 oil crisis . There were significant policy changes from 1989 onwards , with economic reform , tax cuts , welfare reform , an increase in competition , and a ban on borrowing to fund current spending . This policy began in 1989–1992 by the Fianna Fáil/Progressive Democrat government , and continued by the subsequent Fianna Fáil/Labour government and Fine Gael/Labour/Democratic Left government . Ireland became one of the world 's fastest growing economies by the late 1990s in what was known as the Celtic Tiger period , which lasted until the global Financial crisis of 2007–08 . However , since 2014 , Ireland has experienced strong economic growth . In the Northern Ireland question , the British and Irish governments started to seek a peaceful resolution to the violent conflict involving many paramilitaries and the British Army in Northern Ireland known as `` The Troubles '' . A peace settlement for Northern Ireland , known as the Good Friday Agreement , was approved in 1998 in referendums north and south of the border . As part of the peace settlement , the territorial claim to Northern Ireland in Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland was removed by referendum . Geography The state extends over an area of about five-sixths ( 70273 km2 ) of the island of Ireland ( 84421 km2 ) , with Northern Ireland constituting the remainder . The island is bounded to the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean and to the northeast by the North Channel . To the east , the Irish Sea connects to the Atlantic Ocean via St George 's Channel and the Celtic Sea to the southwest . The western landscape mostly consists of rugged cliffs , hills and mountains . The central lowlands are extensively covered with glacial deposits of clay and sand , as well as significant areas of bogland and several lakes . The highest point is Carrauntoohil ( 1038 m ) , located in the Macgillycuddy 's Reeks mountain range in the southwest . The River Shannon , which traverses the central lowlands , is the longest river in Ireland at 386 km in length . The west coast is more rugged than the east , with numerous islands , peninsulas , headlands and bays . Before the arrival of the first settlers in Ireland about 9,000 years ago , the land was largely covered by forests of oak , ash , elm , hazel , yew , and other native trees . The growth of blanket bog and the extensive clearing of woodland to facilitate farming are believed to be the main causes of deforestation during the following centuries . Today , about 12 % of Ireland is forested , of which a significant majority is composed of mainly non-native coniferous plantations for commercial use . Ideal soil conditions , high rainfall and a mild climate give Ireland the highest growth rates for forests in Europe . Hedgerows , which are traditionally used to define land boundaries , are an important substitute for woodland habitat , providing refuge for native wild flora and a wide range of insect , bird and mammal species . Agriculture accounts for about 64 % of the total land area . This has resulted in limited land to preserve natural habitats , in particular for larger wild mammals with greater territorial requirements . The long history of agricultural production coupled with modern agricultural methods , such as pesticide and fertiliser use , has placed pressure on biodiversity . Climate The Atlantic Ocean and the warming influence of the Gulf Stream affect weather patterns in Ireland . Temperatures differ regionally , with central and eastern areas tending to be more extreme . However , due to a temperate oceanic climate , temperatures are seldom lower than in winter or higher than 26 °C in summer . The highest temperature recorded in Ireland was on 26 June 1887 at Kilkenny Castle in Kilkenny , while the lowest temperature recorded was at Markree Castle in Sligo . Rainfall is more prevalent during winter months and less so during the early months of summer . Southwestern areas experience the most rainfall as a result of south westerly winds , while Dublin receives the least . Sunshine duration is highest in the southeast of the country . The far north and west are two of the windiest regions in Europe , with great potential for wind energy generation . Ireland normally gets between 1100 and 1600 hours of sunshine each year , most areas averaging between 3.25 and 3.75 hours a day . The sunniest months are May and June , which average between 5 and 6.5 hours per day over most of the country . The extreme southeast gets most sunshine , averaging over 7 hours a day in early summer . December is the dullest month , with an average daily sunshine ranging from about 1 hour in the north to almost 2 hours in the extreme southeast . The sunniest summer in the 100 years from 1881 to 1980 was 1887 , according to measurements made at the Phoenix Park in Dublin ; 1980 was the dullest . Politics Ireland is a constitutional republic with a parliamentary system of government . The ' is the bicameral national parliament composed of the President of Ireland and the two Houses of the Oireachtas : ' ( Senate ) and ' ( House of Representatives ) . Áras an Uachtaráin is the official residence of the President of Ireland , while the houses of the Oireachtas meet at Leinster House in Dublin . The President serves as head of state , and is elected for a seven-year term and may be re-elected once . The President is primarily a figurehead , but is entrusted with certain constitutional powers with the advice of the Council of State . The office has absolute discretion in some areas , such as referring a bill to the Supreme Court for a judgment on its constitutionality . Michael D. Higgins became the ninth President of Ireland on 11 November 2011 . The ' ( Prime Minister ) serves as the head of government and is appointed by the President upon the nomination of the . Most ' have served as the leader of the political party that gains the most seats in national elections . It has become customary for coalitions to form a government , as there has not been a single-party government since 1989 . Enda Kenny assumed the office of Taoiseach on 9 March 2011 . The is composed of sixty members , with eleven nominated by the , six elected by two universities , and 43 elected by public representatives from panels of candidates established on a vocational basis . The has 158 members ( ' ) elected to represent multi-seat constituencies under the system of proportional representation and by means of the single transferable vote . The Government is constitutionally limited to fifteen members . No more than two members can be selected from the , and the , ' ( Deputy Prime Minister ) and Minister for Finance must be members of the . The Dáil must be dissolved within five years after its first meeting following the previous election , and a general election for members of the Dáil must take place no later than thirty days after the dissolution . According to the Constitution of Ireland , parliamentary elections must be held at least every seven years , though a lower limit may be set by statute law . The current government is a Fine Gael led minority government led by Enda Kenny as Taoiseach and Frances Fitzgerald as Tánaiste . It is supported by a number of Independents including Shane Ross and former Senator Katherine Zappone . The minority government is held in place by a confidence and supply deal with Fianna Fáil . Opposition parties in the current are Fianna Fáil , Sinn Féin , the Socialist Party , the PBPA and Anti-Austerity Alliance , the Labour Party , Social Democrats , the WUAG , the Green Party as well as a number of Independents . Ireland has been a member state of the European Union since 1973 , but has chosen to remain outside the Schengen Area . Citizens of the United Kingdom can freely enter the country without a passport due to the Common Travel Area , which is a passport-free zone comprising the islands of Ireland , Great Britain , the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands . However , some identification is required at airports and seaports . Local government The Local Government Act 1898 is the founding document of the present system of local government , while the Twentieth Amendment to the constitution of 1999 provided for its constitutional recognition . The twenty-six traditional counties of Ireland are not always coterminous with administrative divisions although they are generally used as a geographical frame of reference by the population of Ireland . The Local Government Reform Act 2014 provides for a system of thirty-one local authorities - twenty-six county councils , two city and county councils and three city councils . Below this ( with the exception of the Dublin Region and the three city councils ) are municipal districts , replacing a previous system of town councils . Local authorities are responsible for matters such as planning , local roads , sanitation , and libraries . Dáil constituencies are required to follow county boundaries as much as possible . Counties with greater populations have multiple constituencies , some of more than one county , but generally do not cross county boundaries . The counties are grouped into eight regions , each with a Regional Authority composed of members delegated by the various county and city councils in the region . The regions do not have any direct administrative role as such , but they serve for planning , coordination and statistical purposes . Law Ireland has a common law legal system with a written constitution that provides for a parliamentary democracy . The court system consists of the Supreme Court , the Court of Appeal , the High Court , the Circuit Court and the District Court , all of which apply the law of Ireland . Trials for serious offences must usually be held before a jury . The High Court and the Supreme Court have authority , by means of judicial review , to determine the compatibility of laws and activities of other institutions of the state with the constitution and the law . Except in exceptional circumstances , court hearings must occur in public . The Criminal Courts of Justice is the principal building for the criminal courts . It includes the Dublin Metropolitan District Court , Court of Criminal Appeal , Dublin Circuit Criminal Court and Central Criminal Court . Garda Síochána na hÉireann ( Guardians of the Peace of Ireland ) , more commonly referred to as the Gardaí , is the state 's civilian police force . The force is responsible for all aspects of civil policing , both in terms of territory and infrastructure . It is headed by the Garda Commissioner , who is appointed by the Government . Most uniformed members do not routinely carry firearms . Standard policing is traditionally carried out by uniformed officers equipped only with

qb_9646--Republic_of_Ireland.txt

In which year did divorce become officially legal in the Republic of Ireland?

Halloween is a 1978 American independent slasher film directed and scored by John Carpenter , co-written with producer Debra Hill , and starring Donald Pleasence and Jamie Lee Curtis in her film debut . The film was the first installment in what has become the Halloween franchise . The plot is set in the fictional Midwestern town of Haddonfield , Illinois . On Halloween night in 1963 , a six-year-old Michael Myers dressed in a clown costume murders his teenage sister by stabbing her with a kitchen knife . Fifteen years later , Michael Myers , age 21 , escapes from a psychiatric hospital , returns home , and stalks Laurie Strode and her friends . Michael 's psychiatrist Dr. Sam Loomis suspects Michael 's intentions , and follows him to Haddonfield to try to prevent him from killing . Halloween was produced on a budget of $ 300,000 and grossed $ 47 million at the box office in the United States , and $ 70 million worldwide , equivalent to $ 250 million as of 2014 , becoming one of the most profitable independent films . Many critics credit the film as the first in a long line of slasher films inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho ( 1960 ) . Halloween had many imitators and originated several clichés found in low-budget horror films of the 1980s and 1990s . Unlike many of its imitators , Halloween contains little graphic violence and gore . It was one of the first horror films to introduce the concept of the killer dying and coming back to life again within the same film . In 2006 , it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . Some critics have suggested that Halloween may encourage sadism and misogyny by audiences identifying with its villain . Other critics have suggested the film is a social critique of the immorality of youth and teenagers in 1970s America , with many of Myers ' victims being sexually promiscuous substance abusers , while the lone heroine is depicted as innocent and pure , hence her survival . Nevertheless , Carpenter dismisses such analyses . Several of Halloweens techniques and plot elements , although not founded in this film , have nonetheless become standard slasher movie tropes . Halloween spawned seven sequels and was rebooted by Rob Zombie in 2007 . The first sequel to the original movie , Halloween II , was released in 1981 , three years after its predecessor . Plot On Halloween night of 1963 , six-year-old Michael Myers , dressed in a clown costume , stabs his teenage sister Judith to death with a kitchen knife . Fifteen years later , on October 30 , 1978 , he escapes from Smith 's Grove Sanitarium in a car that was to take him to a court hearing , the verdict of which was for him to be locked up forever . The next day , 21-year-old Michael ( Nick Castle ) , now wearing a mechanic 's uniform and a white mask , returns to his hometown of Haddonfield , Illinois and begins stalking high school student Laurie Strode ( Jamie Lee Curtis ) after she drops off a key at his old house so her father can sell it . Her two best friends Annie Brackett ( Nancy Loomis ) and Lynda van der Klok ( P. J. Soles ) dismiss Laurie 's concerns that someone is following her . Michael 's psychiatrist , Dr. Sam Loomis ( Donald Pleasence ) having anticipated Michael 's return home , goes to the local cemetery and finds Judith Myers ' headstone missing . Loomis meets with Annie 's father , Sheriff Leigh Brackett ( Charles Cyphers ) and monitors the local neighborhood to keep an eye out for Michael . When Annie 's boyfriend Paul calls her to come pick him up , she takes Lindsey Wallace ( Kyle Richards ) to the Doyle house , just across the street , to spend the night with Laurie and Tommy Doyle ( Brian Andrews ) . After she gets into her car , Michael , who hid in the backseat , strangles Annie before slashing her throat . While playing hide-and-seek with Lindsey , Tommy sees Michael carrying Annie 's body into the Wallace house and thinks he is the `` boogeyman '' . He tries to tell a skeptical Laurie about what he saw . Later , Lynda and her boyfriend Bob enter the Wallace house to spend the night together . After having sex , Lynda asks Bob to go downstairs and get a beer , but Michael ambushes him and impales him with a kitchen knife . He then poses as Bob in a ghost costume and confronts Lynda , who kids around with him . After no response , she calls Laurie ; just as she answers the phone , Michael strangles Lynda with the telephone cord . Meanwhile , Dr. Loomis discovers the car Michael had stolen , confirming his beliefs that his former patient is in the neighborhood . Getting suspicious , Laurie goes over to the Wallace house to see what her friends are up to and is horrified after finding them dead in the upstairs bedroom . Michael suddenly appears and slashes her arm . She falls over the railing , down the stairs , but quickly recovers and barely escapes . Running back to the Doyle house in a panic , she finds that the keys are gone and the door is locked . When Laurie sees Michael coming , she throws a potted plant up at the window to wake Tommy up and desperately asks him to open the door quickly . He opens the door just in time and lets her in and she tells him to hide upstairs with Lindsey . When Tommy leaves , Laurie discovers an open window , indicating that Michael is inside the house . As she fearfully sits down by the couch , he attacks her , but she stabs him in the neck with a knitting needle and he collapses . Laurie goes upstairs and tells Tommy and Lindsey she killed the `` boogeyman '' , though Tommy says `` You ca n't kill the boogeyman '' as Michael reappears behind her . Tommy and Lindsey lock themselves in the bathroom while Laurie hides in a bedroom closet . Michael destroys the closet door to get to her , but she undoes a metal clothes hanger and sticks him in the eye with it . He drops the knife and she stabs him with it . As Michael collapses again , Laurie exits the closet and asks the kids to go to the neighbor 's house and have them call the police . Michael gets up again as they leave . Dr. Loomis sees Tommy and Lindsey flee the house , screaming in terror , and realizes that Michael is inside . He enters the house and finds him tussling with Laurie upstairs . Loomis shoots Michael six times and he falls over the second story balcony . Laurie , in shock , concludes `` It was the boogeyman . '' and Loomis replies : `` As a matter of fact , it was . '' Despite his fatal injuries , Michael is gone when Loomis looks down over the balcony . Places where Michael had been are shown as his breathing is heard , indicating he could be anywhere . Cast * Donald Pleasence as Dr. Sam Loomis * Jamie Lee Curtis as Laurie Strode * Nick Castle as Michael Myers ( credited as `` The Shape '' ) * * Tony Moran as Michael Myers ( unmasked ) * * Will Sandin as Michael Myers ( age 6 ) * Charles Cyphers as Sheriff Leigh Brackett * Nancy Kyes as Annie Brackett * P. J. Soles as Lynda Van Der Klok * Kyle Richards as Lindsey Wallace * Brian Andrews as Tommy Doyle * John Michael Graham as Bob Simms * Sandy Johnson as Judith Margaret Myers Production After viewing Carpenter 's film Assault on Precinct 13 ( 1976 ) at the Milan Film Festival , independent film producer Irwin Yablans and financier Moustapha Akkad sought out Carpenter to direct a film for them about a psychotic killer that stalked babysitters . In an interview with Fangoria magazine , Yablans stated , `` I was thinking what would make sense in the horror genre , and what I wanted to do was make a picture that had the same impact as The Exorcist . '' Carpenter and his then-girlfriend Debra Hill began drafting a story originally titled The Babysitter Murders , but , as Carpenter told Entertainment Weekly , Yablans suggested setting the movie on Halloween night and naming it Halloween instead . Akkad agreed to put up $ 300,000 for the film 's budget , which was considered low at the time ; ( Carpenter 's previous film , Assault on Precinct 13 , had an estimated budget of $ 100,000 ) . Akkad worried over the tight , four-week schedule , low budget , and Carpenter 's limited experience as a filmmaker , but told Fangoria , `` Two things made me decide . One , Carpenter told me the story verbally and in a suspenseful way , almost frame for frame . Second , he told me he did n't want to take any fees , and that showed he had confidence in the project '' . Carpenter received $ 10,000 for directing , writing , and composing the music , retaining rights to 10 percent of the film 's profits . Because of the low budget , wardrobe and props were often crafted from items on hand or that could be purchased inexpensively . Carpenter hired Tommy Lee Wallace as production designer , art director , location scout and co-editor . Wallace created the trademark mask worn by Michael Myers throughout the film from a Captain Kirk mask purchased for $ 1.98 . Carpenter recalled how Wallace `` widened the eye holes and spray-painted the flesh a bluish white . In the script it said Michael Myers 's mask had 'the pale features of a human face ' and it truly was spooky looking . I can only imagine the result if they had n't painted the mask white . Children would be checking their closet for William Shatner after Tommy got through with it . '' Hill adds that the `` idea was to make him almost humorless , faceless—this sort of pale visage that could resemble a human or not . '' Many of the actors wore their own clothes , and Curtis ' wardrobe was purchased at J. C. Penney for around a hundred dollars . The limited budget also dictated the filming location and time schedule . Halloween was filmed in 20 days in the spring of 1978 in South Pasadena , California , and the cemetery at Sierra Madre , California . An abandoned house owned by a church stood in as the Myers house . Two homes on Orange Grove Avenue ( near Sunset Boulevard ) in Hollywood were used for the film 's climax . The crew had difficulty finding pumpkins in the spring , and artificial fall leaves had to be reused for multiple scenes . Local families dressed their children in Halloween costumes for trick-or-treat scenes . In August 2006 , Fangoria reported that Synapse Films had discovered boxes of negatives containing footage cut from the film . One was labeled `` 1981 '' suggesting that it was additional footage for the television version of the film . Synapse owner Don May , Jr. said , `` What we 've got is pretty much all the unused original camera negative from Carpenter 's original Halloween . Luckily , Billy [ Kirkus ] was able to find this material before it was destroyed . The story on how we got the negative is a long one , but we 'll save it for when we 're able to showcase the materials in some way . Kirkus should be commended for pretty much saving the Holy Grail of horror films . '' It was later reported , `` We just learned from Sean Clark , long time Halloween genius , that the footage found is just that : footage . There is no sound in any of the reels so far , since none of it was used in the final edit . '' Writing It took approximately 10 days to write the script . Yablans and Akkad ceded most of the creative control to writers Carpenter and Hill ( whom Carpenter wanted as producer ) , but Yablans did offer several suggestions . According to a Fangoria interview with Hill , `` Yablans wanted the script written like a radio show , with 'boos ' every 10 minutes . '' Hill explained that the script took three weeks to write and much of the inspiration behind the plot came from Celtic traditions of Halloween such as the festival of Samhain . Although Samhain is not mentioned in the plot of the first film , Hill asserts that : Hill wrote most of the female characters ' dialogue , while Carpenter drafted Loomis ' speeches on the soullessness of Michael Myers . Many script details were drawn from Carpenter 's and Hill 's adolescence and early careers . The fictional town of Haddonfield , Illinois was derived from Haddonfield , New Jersey , where Hill grew up , and most of the street names were taken from Carpenter 's hometown of Bowling Green , Kentucky . Laurie Strode was the name of one of Carpenter 's old girlfriends and Michael Myers was the name of an English producer who had previously entered , with Yablans , Assault on Precinct 13 in various European film festivals . In Halloween , Carpenter pays homage to Alfred Hitchcock with two characters ' names : Tommy Doyle is named after Lt. Det . Thomas J. Doyle ( Wendell Corey ) from Rear Window ( 1954 ) , and Dr. Loomis ' name was taken from Sam Loomis ( John Gavin ) from Psycho , the boyfriend of Marion Crane ( Janet Leigh , who is the real-life mother of Jamie Lee Curtis ) . Sheriff Leigh Brackett shared the name of a Hollywood screenwriter . Casting The cast of Halloween included veteran actor Donald Pleasence and then-unknown actress Jamie Lee Curtis . The low budget limited the number of big names that Carpenter could attract , and most of the actors received very little compensation for their roles . Pleasence was paid the highest amount at $ 20,000 , Curtis received $ 8,000 , and Nick Castle earned $ 25 a day . The role of Dr. Loomis was offered to Peter Cushing and Christopher Lee ; both declined the part due to the low pay ( though Lee would later tell Carpenter that declining the role was his biggest career mistake ) . English actor Pleasence—Carpenter 's third choice—agreed to star . Pleasence has been called `` John Carpenter 's big landing . '' Americans were already acquainted with Pleasence as the villain Ernst Stavro Blofeld in the James Bond film You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) . In an interview , Carpenter admits that `` Jamie Lee was n't the first choice for Laurie . I had no idea who she was . She was 19 and in a TV show at the time , but I did n't watch TV . '' He originally wanted to cast Anne Lockhart , the daughter of June Lockhart from Lassie , as Laurie Strode . However , Lockhart had commitments to several other film and television projects . Hill says of learning that Jamie Lee was the daughter of Psycho actress Janet Leigh , `` I knew casting Jamie Lee would be great publicity for the film because her mother was in Psycho . '' Halloween was Curtis ' feature film debut and launched her career as a `` scream queen '' horror star . Another relatively unknown actress , Nancy Kyes ( credited in the film as Nancy Loomis ) was cast as Laurie 's friend Annie Brackett , daughter of Haddonfield sheriff Leigh Brackett ( Charles Cyphers ) . Kyes had previously starred in Assault on Precinct 13 ( as had Cyphers ) and happened to be dating Halloweens art director Tommy Lee Wallace when filming began . Carpenter chose P. J. Soles to play Lynda Van Der Klok , another friend of Laurie 's , best remembered in the film for dialogue peppered with the word `` totally . '' Soles was an actress known for her supporting role in Carrie ( 1976 ) and her minor part in The Boy in the Plastic Bubble ( 1976 ) . According to one source , `` Carpenter realized she had captured the aura of a happy go lucky teenage girl in the 70s . '' The role of `` The Shape '' —as the masked Michael Myers character was billed in the end credits—was played by Nick Castle , who befriended Carpenter while they attended the University of Southern California . After Halloween , Castle became a director , taking the helm of films such as The Last Starfighter ( 1984 ) , The Boy Who Could Fly ( 1986 ) , Dennis the Menace ( 1993 ) , and Major Payne ( 1995 ) . Direction Historian Nicholas Rogers notes that film critics contend that Carpenter 's direction and camera work made Halloween a `` resounding success '' . Roger Ebert remarks , `` It 's easy to create violence on the screen , but it 's hard to do it well . Carpenter is uncannily skilled , for example , at the use of foregrounds in his compositions , and everyone who likes thrillers knows that foregrounds are crucial .... '' The opening title , featuring a jack-o'-lantern placed against a black backdrop , sets the mood for the entire film . The camera slowly moves toward the jack-o'-lantern 's left eye as the main title theme plays . After the camera fully closes in , the jack-o'-lantern 's light dims and goes out . Film historian J.P. Telotte says that this scene `` clearly announces that [ the film 's ] primary concern will be with the way in which we see ourselves and others and the consequences that often attend our usual manner of perception '' . During the conception of the plot , Yablans instructed `` that the audience should n't see anything . It should be what they thought they saw that frightens them '' . Carpenter seemingly took Yablans ' advice literally , filming many of the scenes from Michael Myers 's point-of-view that allowed audience participation . Carpenter is not the first director to employ this method or use of a steadicam ; for instance , the first scene of Psycho offers a voyeuristic look at lovers in a seedy hotel . Telotte argues , `` As a result of this shift in perspective from a disembodied , narrative camera to an actual character 's eye ... we are forced into a deeper sense of participation in the ensuing action '' . Along with the 1974 Canadian horror film Black Christmas , Halloween made use of seeing events through the killer 's eyes . The first scene of the young Michael 's voyeurism is followed by the murder of Judith seen through the eye holes of Michael 's clown costume mask . According to one commentator , Carpenter 's `` frequent use of the unmounted first-person camera to represent the killer 's point of view ... invited [ viewers ] to adopt the murderer 's assaultive gaze and to hear his heavy breathing and plodding footsteps as he stalked his prey '' . Another technique that Carpenter adapted from Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho ( 1960 ) was suspense with minimal blood and gore . Hill comments , `` We did n't want it to be gory . We wanted it to be like a jack-in-the box . '' Film analysts refer to this as the `` false startle '' or `` the old tap-on-the-shoulder routine '' in which the stalkers , murderers , or monsters `` lunge into our field of vision or creep up on a person . '' Carpenter worked with the cast to create the desired effect of terror and suspense . According to Curtis , Carpenter created a `` fear meter '' because the film was shot out-of-sequence and she was not sure what her character 's level of terror should be in certain scenes . `` Here 's about a 7 , here 's about a 6 , and the scene we 're going to shoot tonight is about a 9½ '' , remembered Curtis . She had different facial expressions and scream volumes for each level on the meter . Carpenter 's direction for Castle in his role as Myers was minimal . For example , when Castle asked what Myers ' motivation was for a particular scene , Carpenter replied that his motivation was to walk from one set marker to another . The documentary titled Halloween Un-masked , featured in the 22nd anniversary DVD of Halloween , John Carpenter states he also instructed Castle to tilt his head a couple of times as if he was observing the corpse , particularly in the scene when Myers impaled one of his victims against a wall . Music Another major reason for the success of Halloween is the moody musical score , particularly the main theme . Lacking a symphonic soundtrack , the film 's score consists of a piano melody played in a 10/8 or `` complex 5/4 '' meter composed and performed by director John Carpenter . It took Carpenter three days to compose the entire score for the film . Critic James Berardinelli calls the score `` relatively simple and unsophisticated '' , but admits that `` Halloweens music is one of its strongest assets '' . Carpenter stated in an interview , `` I can play just about any keyboard , but I ca n't read or write a note . '' In the end credits , Carpenter bills himself as the `` Bowling Green Philharmonic Orchestra '' for performing the film 's score , but he did receive assistance from composer Dan Wyman , a music professor at San José State University . Some songs can be heard in the film , one being an untitled song performed by Carpenter and a group of his friends who formed a band called The Coupe DeVilles . The song is heard as Laurie steps into Annie 's car on her way to babysit Tommy Doyle . Another song , `` ( Do n't Fear ) The Reaper '' by classic rock band Blue Öyster Cult , appears in the film . The soundtrack was first released in the United States in October 1983 , by Varèse Sarabande/MCA . It was subsequently released on Compact Disc in 1985 , re-released in 1990 , and again in 2000 . Release Theatrical run Halloween premiered on October 25 , 1978 in Kansas City , Missouri ( at the AMC Midland/Empire ) and sometime afterward in Chicago , Illinois , and in New York City . It had its Los Angeles debut October 27 , 1978 . It opened in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , on November 22 , 1978 . The film grossed $ 47 million in the United States and an additional $ 23 million internationally , making the theatrical total $ 70 million . On September 7 , 2012 , the official Halloween Movies Facebook page announced that the original Halloween would be theatrically re-released starting October 25 , 2013 in celebration of the film 's 35th anniversary in 2013 . A new documentary was screened before the film at all locations , entitled , You Ca n't Kill the Boogeyman : 35 Years of Halloween , written and directed by HalloweenMovies.com webmaster Justin Beahm . Television rights In 1980 , the television rights to Halloween were sold to the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) for $ 4 million . After a debate among Carpenter , Hill and NBC 's Standards and Practices over censoring of certain scenes , Halloween appeared on television for the first time in October 1981 . To fill the two-hour time slot , Carpenter filmed twelve minutes of additional material during the production of Halloween II . The newly filmed scenes include Dr. Loomis at a hospital board review of Michael Myers and Dr. Loomis talking to a then-6-year-old Michael at Smith 's Grove , telling him , `` You 've fooled them , have n't you , Michael ? But not me . '' Another extra scene features Dr. Loomis at Smith 's Grove examining Michael 's abandoned cell after his escape and seeing the word `` Sister '' scratched into the door . Finally , a scene was added in which Lynda comes over to Laurie 's house to borrow a silk blouse before Laurie leaves to babysit , just as Annie telephones asking to borrow the same blouse . The new scene had Laurie 's hair hidden by a towel , since Curtis was by then wearing a much shorter hairstyle than she had worn in 1978 . The television scenes were released on a two-tape `` limited-edition '' VHS set of the film and the television version of the film was released on a second disc in the two-disc `` limited-edition '' DVD release of the film in 1999 , stand alone in 2001 as Halloween : Extended Edition on VHS and DVD as well as the Halloween : 30th Anniversary Commemorative Set along with the original Halloween on DVD and Blu-ray , disc one from the 25 Years of Terror documentary DVD and the Divimax editions of Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers and Halloween 5 : The Revenge of Michael Myers in 2008 and is featured on the bonus disc in the Halloween limited edition Blu-ray box set released in 2014 . Home video releases Since Halloweens premiere , it has been released in several home video formats , including VHS , LaserDisc , DVD , UMD and Blu-ray Disc . Early VHS versions were released by Media Home Entertainment and Blockbuster Video issued a commemorative edition in 1995 . Anchor Bay Entertainment ( succeder in-interest to Media Home Entertainment and Video Treasures ) has released several restored editions of Halloween on VHS and DVD , including `` Halloween : Unmasked '' ; a documentary produced and directed by Mark Cerulli which featured an array of interviews with original Halloween cast and crew including Jamie Lee Curtis , Debra Hill , John Carpenter , Nick Castle and others . The most recent release of the film is the 2007 single-disc restored version , with improved picture and sound quality . Anchor Bay has also released an `` extended edition '' of Halloween that features the original theatrical release with the scenes that were shot for the broadcast TV version edited in at their proper places . In 2003 , the film was released on a two-disc `` 25th Anniversary edition '' with improved DiviMax picture and audio , along with an audio commentary by John Carpenter , Jamie Lee Curtis and Debra Hill , the A Cut Above The Rest documentary , On Location : 25 Years Later featurette , the trailer , TV spots , radio spots , poster and still gallery , and DVD-ROM content . In 2007 , the movie was released on Blu-ray as well , marking the film 's first ever Blu-ray release . The Blu-ray features a commentary track by Carpenter , Hill and Curtis , the trailer , TV spots , radio spots , fast film facts and the documentary Halloween : A Cut Above the Rest . In 2008 , a `` 30th Anniversary commemorative set '' was released , containing the film on DVD and Blu-ray along with the `` extended edition '' , disc one of the 25 Years of Terror documentary DVD and the sequels : Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers and Halloween 5 : The Revenge of Michael Myers , including a replica Michael Myers mask . The DVD release was THX certified . The film has made $ 18,500,000 in home video rentals . On June 6 , 2013 , it was announced that a second , 35th anniversary , Blu-ray release for Halloween is in the works and that John Carpenter and Jamie Lee Curtis have recorded a new commentary . On June 11 , it was announced that Dean Cundey is supervising a new high-definition transfer . On July 22 , the official cover art for the 35th anniversary Blu-ray release was revealed including the new special features such as the all-new high definition transfer by Cundey , the new commentary track by Carpenter and Curtis

qw_14403--Halloween_(1978_film).txt

"In 1976 or 1977, John Carpenter and Debra Hill began drafting a story titled ""The Babysitter Murders"", which eventually became what film?"

The Hunting of the Snark ( An Agony in 8 Fits ) is typically categorized as a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll , the pen name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson . Written from 1874 to 1876 , the poem borrows the setting , some creatures , and eight portmanteau words from Carroll 's earlier poem `` Jabberwocky '' in his children 's novel Through the Looking Glass ( 1871 ) . Henry Holiday , the illustrator of the poem , thought of it as a `` tragedy '' . The plot follows a crew of ten trying to hunt the Snark , an animal which may turn out to be a highly dangerous Boojum . The only one of the crew to find the Snark quickly vanishes , leading the narrator to explain that it was a Boojum after all . The poem is dedicated to young Gertrude Chataway , whom Carroll met at the English seaside town Sandown in the Isle of Wight in 1875 . Included with many copies of the first edition of the poem was Carroll 's religious tract , An Easter Greeting to Every Child Who Loves `` Alice '' . The Hunting of the Snark was published by Macmillan in the United Kingdom in late March 1876 , with illustrations by Henry Holiday . It had mixed reviews from reviewers who found it strange . The first printing of The Hunting of the Snark consisted of 10,000 copies . There were two reprintings by the conclusion of the year ; in total , the poem was reprinted 17 times between 1876 and 1908 . Carroll often denied knowing the meaning behind the poem ; however , in an 1896 reply to one letter , he agreed with one interpretation of the poem as an allegory for the search for happiness . Scholars have found various meanings in the poem , among them existential angst , an allegory for tuberculosis , and a mockery of the Tichborne case . The Hunting of the Snark has been alluded to in various works and has been adapted for musicals , opera , plays , and music . Plot Setting The Hunting of the Snark shares its fictional setting with Lewis Carroll 's earlier poem `` Jabberwocky '' published in his children 's novel Through the Looking-Glass ( 1871 ) . Eight nonsense words from `` Jabberwocky '' appear in The Hunting of the Snark : bandersnatch , beamish , frumious , galumphing , jubjub , mimsiest ( which previously appeared as mimsy in `` Jabberwocky '' ) , outgrabe and uffish . In a letter to the mother of his young friend Gertrude Chataway , Carroll described the domain of the Snark as `` an island frequented by the Jubjub and the Bandersnatch—no doubt the very island where the Jabberwock was slain . '' Characters The crew consists of ten members , whose descriptions all begin with the letter B : a Bellman , the leader ; a `` Boots '' , who is the only member of the crew without an illustration ; a maker of Bonnets and Hoods ; a Barrister , who settles arguments among the crew ; a Broker , who can appraise the goods of the crew ; a Billiard-marker , who is greatly skilled ; a Banker , who possesses all of the crew 's money ; a Butcher , who can only kill beavers ; a Beaver , who makes lace and has saved the crew from disaster several times ; and a Baker , who can only bake wedding cake , forgets his belongings and his name , but possesses courage . File : Snark Bellman.jpg|Bellman File : Snark Bonnet Maker.jpg|maker of Bonnets File : Snark Barrister.jpg|Barrister File : Snark Broker.jpg|Broker File : Snark Billiard Marker.jpg|Billiard-Marker File : Snark Banker.jpg|Banker File : Snark Butcher.jpg|Butcher File : Snark Baker.jpg|Baker File : Snark Beaver.jpg|Beaver Summary After crossing the sea guided by the Bellman 's map of the Ocean—a blank sheet of paper—the hunting party arrive in a strange land , and the Bellman informs them of the five signs of a Snark : its `` meagre and hollow , but crisp '' taste ; a habit of rising late and taking breakfast during five o'clock tea ; `` its slowness in taking a jest '' ; a `` fondness for bathing-machines '' ; and its ambition . The Bellman warns them that some Snarks are highly dangerous Boojums , causing the Baker to faint . Once revived , the Baker recalls that his uncle warned him that if the Snark turns out to be a Boojum , the hunter will `` softly and suddenly vanish away , and never be met with again . '' The Baker confesses that the notion of this sudden vanishment brings him much distress . With this in mind , they split up to hunt the Snark : `` They sought it with thimbles , they sought it with care ; / They pursued it with forks and hope ; / They threatened its life with a railway-share ; / They charmed it with smiles and soap . '' Along the way , the Butcher and Beaver , previously mutually wary , become fast friends , after the Butcher teaches it more in ten minutes than it could learn from books in seventy years . The Barrister , meanwhile , dreams of the court trial of a pig accused of deserting its sty , whom the Snark is defending . The Snark , however , finds the pig guilty and sentences it to transportation and a fine of forty pound . His dream concludes with the jailer informing the court that the pig has actually been dead for years , to the judge 's disgust . During the hunt , the Banker finds himself attacked by a bandersnatch , and loses his sanity after trying to bribe the creature . At the conclusion of the poem , the Baker calls out that he has found a snark , but when the others arrive , he has mysteriously disappeared , leading the narrator to explain : `` For the Snark was a Boojum , you see . '' Development Two explanations of which event in Carroll 's life gave rise to The Hunting of the Snark have been offered . Biographer Morton N. Cohen connects the creation of The Hunting of the Snark with the illness of Carroll 's cousin and godson , the twenty-two-year-old Charlie Wilcox . On 17 July 1874 , Carroll travelled to Guildford , Surrey , to care for him for six weeks , while the young man struggled with tuberculosis . The next day , while taking a walk in the morning after only a few hours of sleep , Carroll thought of the poem 's final line : `` For the Snark was a Boojum , you see . '' Fuller Torrey and Judy Miller suggest that the event that inspired the poem was the sudden death of Carroll 's beloved uncle , Robert Wilfred Skeffington Lutwidge , caused by a violent mentally-ill patient in 1873 , during Lutwidge 's time as an inspector of lunatic asylums . They support their analysis with parts of the poem , such as the Baker 's uncle 's advice to seek the Snark with thimbles , forks , and soap , which , according to Torrey and Miller , were all items the lunatic asylum inspectors checked during their visits . To illustrate the poem Carroll chose Henry Holiday , whom he had met in 1869 or 1870 . At the time Carroll approached him to ask if he could create three illustrations for the poem , Carroll had three 'fits ' , as he called the parts of his poem—fit can mean either canto or convulsion—completed : `` The Landing '' , `` The Hunting '' , and `` The Vanishing '' . He intended to title it The Boojum and include it in his fantasy novel Sylvie and Bruno , which was unfinished at the time . However , in late October 1875 , Carroll thought about having it published during Christmas ; this proved impossible , as the wood engraving for the illustrations needed three months to be complete . By the time Holiday had completed the sketches and sent them to Carroll , Carroll had already created a new fit requiring an illustration . They worked this way until Holiday had created nine illustrations as well as the front cover and the back cover of the book . The completed poem comprised 141 stanzas of four lines each , with internal rhymes in the first and third lines of irregular stanzas appearing in the poem from the second fit onwards . Holiday and Carroll additionally had some disagreements on the artwork . Carroll initially objected to Holiday 's personification of hope and care , but agreed to the change , when Holiday explained that he had only intended to add another layer of meaning to the word `` with '' . However , Carroll refused his illustration of the Boojum , preferring that the creature go without a depiction , and made him change his initial portrayal of the Broker , as it could be perceived as anti-semitic . File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 1.jpg File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 2.jpg File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 3.jpg File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 4.jpg File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 5.jpg File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 6.jpg File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 7.jpg File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 8.jpg File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 9.jpg File : Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 10.jpg There is no depiction of the Snark . However , based on a draft by Lewis Carroll , the Snark was allowed to show up in an illustration by Henry Holiday , where it appeared in a dream of the Barrister . As for the word `` Snark '' , Carroll did not give it any meaning . The word `` snarking '' had been used in 1866 to describe a sound . First publishing Upon the printing of the book on 29 March 1876 , Carroll gave away eighty signed copies to his favourite young friends ; in a typical fashion , he signed them with short poems , many of them acrostics of the child 's name . He dedicated The Hunting of the Snark to Chataway , whom he had befriended in summer 1875 at the English seaside town Sandown on the Isle of Wight . He finished the dedication a month after befriending her , a double acrostic poem that not only spelled out her name , but contained a syllable of her name in the first line of each stanza . The stanza of his first draft concluded `` Rest on a friendly knee , the tale to ask / That he delights to tell . '' The poem was printed in The Hunting of the Snark with permission from Chataway 's mother . Included with many copies of the first edition of The Hunting of the Snark was Carroll 's three-page , religious tract to his young readers , An Easter Greeting to Every Child Who Loves `` Alice '' . Largely written on 5 February 1876 , An Easter Greeting explores the concept of innocence and eternal life through biblical allusions and literary allusions to Romantic writers William Blake and William Wordsworth . Gardner suggests that Carroll included the tract as a way of balancing the dark tone of the poem . Scholar Selwyn Goodacre speculates that , as many copies of first-edition of the poem contain the tract , there is a possibility that all first editions originally had a copy of An Easter Greeting . Reception and legacy The first printing of The Hunting of the Snark consisted of 10,000 copies . By the conclusion of 1876 , it had seen two reprints , with a total of 18,000 or 19,000 copies circulating . In total , the poem was reprinted seventeen times between 1876 and 1908 . The Hunting of the Snark received largely mixed reviews from Carroll 's contemporary reviewers . The Academys Andrew Lang criticised Carroll 's decision to use poetry instead of prose and its too appealing title . The Athenaeum described it as `` the most bewildering of modern poetry , '' wondering `` if he has merely been inspired to reduce to idiotcy as many readers and more especially reviewers , as possible . '' According to Vanity Fair , Carroll 's work had progressively worsened after Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland ( 1865 ) , with The Hunting of the Snark being the worst of his works and `` not worthy [ of ] the name of nonsense '' . While The Spectator wrote that the poem 's final line had the potential to become a proverb , it criticised the poem as `` a failure '' that might have succeeded with more work from the author . The Saturday Review wrote that the poem offered `` endless speculation '' as to the true identity of the snark , although the unnamed reviewer felt that the familiar nature of Carroll 's nonsense weakened its effect for the reader . Conversely , The Graphic praised the poem as a welcome departure from the Alice books , and called it `` a glorious piece of nonsense , '' that could appeal to all Alice fans . `` The Hunting of the Snark '' has in common some elements with Carroll 's other works . It shares its author 's love of puns on the word 'fit ' with Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , and mentions of `` candle-ends '' and `` toasted cheese '' with his supernatural poem Phantasmagoria . Additionally all three works include the number `` 42 '' . Another of Carroll 's children 's novels , Sylvie and Bruno Concluded ( 1893 ) makes a reference to the Boojum . Other illustrators of The Hunting of the Snark include Peter Newell ( 1903 ) , Edward A. Wilson ( 1932 ) , Mervyn Peake ( 1941 ) , Aldren Watson ( 1952 ) , Tove Jansson ( 1959 ) , Helen Oxenbury ( 1970 ) , Byron Sewell ( 1974 ) , John Minnion ( 1974 ) , Harold Jones ( 1975 ) , Ralph Steadman ( 1975 ) , Quentin Blake ( 1976 ) , Frank Hinder ( 1989 ) and Brian Puttock ( 1997 ) . Cultural impact The Hunting of the Snark has seen various adaptations into musicals , opera , theatre , plays , and music , including one for trombone by Norwegian composer Arne Nordheim ( 1975 ) and a jazz rendition ( 2009 ) The poem has also inspired literature , such as Jack London 's The Cruise of the Snark ( 1911 ) , the science-fiction short story `` Chaos , Coordinated '' ( 1947 ) by John MacDougal , and Elsabeth Huxley 's With Forks and Hope ( 1964 ) . American author Edith Wharton ( 1862-1937 ) was fond of the poem as a child . Additionally , it has also been alluded to in fiction , such as Perelandra ( 1943 ) by C.S . Lewis ; television , such as `` The Soul of Genius '' episode of the British TV crime drama Lewis ; court rulings , such as in Parhat v. Gates ( 2008 ) ; a phenomenon in superfluidity ; graph theory ; geography , as a Snark Island and Boojum Rock exist in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal ; Japanese animation , such as Ghost Hound ( 2007–08 ) ; and in video games , such as Half-Life ( 1998 ) and American McGee 's Alice ( 2000 ) . Analysis Various themes have been suggested by scholars . According to biographer Florence Becker Lennon , the poem 's `` motif of loss of name or identity '' is typical of Carroll 's work . Richard Kelly writes that the poem contains a `` theme of annihilation . '' Furthermore , Edward Guiliano feels that the Snark is within the nonsense tradition of Thomas Hood and , especially , W. S. Gilbert , the librettist of the famous Gilbert and Sullivan team . According to him , a case can be made for a direct influence of Gilbert 's Bab Ballads on The Hunting of the Snark , based on the fact that Carroll was well-acquainted with the comic writing and the theatre of his age . In response to various letters asking for the meaning of the poem , Carroll often replied that he did not know . However , in an 1896 reply to one letter , he agreed with one interpretation of the poem as an allegory for the search for happiness . Widely varying interpretations of The Hunting of the Snark have been suggested : an allegory for tuberculosis , a mockery of the Tichborne case , a satire of the controversies between religion and science , the repression of Carroll 's sexuality , and a piece against vivisection , among others . According to Cohen , the poem represents a `` voyage of life '' , with the Baker 's disappearance caused by his violation of the laws of nature by hoping to unravel its mysteries . Lennon sees The Hunting of the Snark as `` a tragedy of frustration and bafflement , '' comparable to British actor Charlie Chaplin 's early comedies . According to Kelly , The Hunting of the Snark is `` Carroll 's comic rendition of his fears of disorder and chaos , with the comedy serving as a psychological defense against the devastating idea of personal annihilation . '' Kelly writes that the Bellman 's Rule of Three and starting each character 's name with the letter B are `` notable attempts to create a sense of order and meaning out of chaos . '' Martin Gardner sees the poem as dealing with existential angst , and states that the Baker may be Carroll 's satire of himself , pointing to the fact that the Baker was named after a beloved uncle , as was Carroll , and that the two were around the same age at the time of the writing of the poem . Alternatively , Larry Shaw of the fan magazine Inside and Science Fiction Advertiser suggests that the Boots , being the Snark , actually murdered the Baker .

tc_397--The_Hunting_of_the_Snark.txt

In Lewis Carroll's poem The Hunting of the Snark, what did the elusive, troublesome snark turn into to fool hunters?

The Philippines ( ; ) , officially the Republic of the Philippines ( ) , is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean . It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south : Luzon , Visayas , and Mindanao . The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City , both part of Metro Manila . The Philippines ' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons , but also endows it with abundant natural resources and some of the world 's greatest biodiversity . The Philippines has an area of approximately 300000 km2 , and a population of more than 100 million with faster growth than any other east Asian country . It is the seventh-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world . An additional 12 million Filipinos live overseas , comprising one of the world 's largest diasporas . Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands . In prehistoric times , Negritos were some of the archipelago 's earliest inhabitants . They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples . Exchanges with Chinese , Malay , Indian , and Islamic states occurred . Then , various nations were established under the rule of Datus , Rajahs , Sultans or Lakans . The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon , Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization . In 1543 , Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain . With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City , in 1565 , the first Hispanic settlement in the archipelago was established . The Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years . This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion . During this time , Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons . As the 19th century gave way to the 20th , there followed in quick succession the Philippine Revolution , which spawned the short-lived First Philippine Republic , followed by the bloody Philippine–American War of conquest by US military force . Aside from the period of Japanese occupation , the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II , when the Philippines was recognized as an independent nation . Since then , the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy , which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution . The nation 's large population and economic potential have led it to be classified as a middle power . It is a founding member of the United Nations , World Trade Organization , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum , and the East Asia Summit . It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank . The Philippines is considered to be an emerging market and a newly industrialized country , which has an economy transitioning from being one based on agriculture to one based more on services and manufacturing . [ https : //www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html # Econ CIA World Factbook , Philippines ] , Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Etymology The Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain . Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos during his expedition in 1542 named the islands of Leyte and Samar Felipinas after the then Prince of Asturias . Eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago . Before that became commonplace , other names such as Islas del Poniente ( Islands of the West ) and Magellan 's name for the islands San Lázaro were also used by the Spanish to refer to the islands . The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history . During the Philippine Revolution , the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic . From the period of the Spanish–American War ( 1898 ) and the Philippine–American War ( 1899–1902 ) until the Commonwealth period ( 1935–46 ) , American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands , a translation of the Spanish name . From the 1898 Treaty of Paris , the name Philippines began to appear and it has since become the country 's common name . Since the end of World War II , the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines.Quezon , Manuel , III . ( March 28 , 2005 ) . [ http : //www.quezon.ph/2005/03/28/323/ `` The Philippines are or is ? `` ] . Manuel L. Quezon III : The Daily Dose . Retrieved December 20 , 2009 . History Prehistory The metatarsal of the Callao Man , reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date . This distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan , carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago . Negritos were also among the archipelago 's earliest inhabitants , but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated . There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos . F. Landa Jocano theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally . Wilhelm Solheim 's Island Origin Theory postulates that the peopling of the archipelago transpired via trade networks originating in the Sundaland area around 48,000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide-scale migration . The Austronesian Expansion Theory postulates that Malayo-Polynesians coming from Taiwan began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC , displacing earlier arrivals.Mijares , Armand Salvador B . ( 2006 ) . [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20140707050814/http : //ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/viewFile/10/9 The Early Austronesian Migration To Luzon : Perspectives From The Peñablanca Cave Sites ] . Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 26 : 72–78 . ( archived from [ http : //ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/viewFile/10/9 the original ] on 2014-07-07 ) The most widely accepted theory , based on linguistic and archeological evidence , is the `` Out-of-Taiwan '' model , which hypothesizes that Austronesians from Taiwan , who were themselves descended from the neolithic civilizations of the Yangtze river such as the Liangzhu culture , began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC , displacing earlier arrivals . During the neolithic period , a `` jade culture '' is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC . The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas in insular and mainland Southeast Asia . These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies . By 1000 BC the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four kinds of social groups : hunter-gatherer tribes , warrior societies , highland plutocracies , and port principalities . Precolonial epoch Some of the societies scattered in the islands of what would later become the Philippines remained isolated but many evolved into states that developed substantial trade and contacts with the peoples of eastern , southern and southeastern Asia ; including those from Brunei , China , India , Indonesia , Malaysia and Japan as well as other Austronesian islands . The first millennium saw the rise of the port principalities and their growth into maritime states composed of autonomous barangays independent of or allied with larger nations which were either Malay thalassocracies led by Datus , tributary states to China ruled by Huangs or Indianized kingdoms governed by Rajahs . The Kedatuan of Madja-as was founded following a civil war in collapsing Srivijaya , wherein loyalists of the Malay datus of Srivijaya defied the invading Chola Dynasty and its puppet-Rajah , called Makatunao , and set up a guerrilla-state in the islands of the Visayas . Its founding datu , Puti , had purchased land for his new realms from the aboriginal Ati hero , Marikudo . Madja-as was founded on Panay island ( named after the destroyed state of Pannai allied under Srivijaya which was located in Sumatra ) . Afterwards , the people of Madja-as often raided the port cities of southern China and warred with the Chinese navy . The Rajahnate of Cebu was a neighbor of Madja-as in the Visayas led by Rajamuda Sri Lumay , a monarch with partial Tamil descent . This state grew wealthy by making use of the inter-island shipping routes within the archipelago . Meanwhile , the Rajahnate of Butuan in northeastern Mindanao attained prominence under the rule of Rajah Sri Bata Shaja , who was from a Buddhist ruling-class governing a Hindu nation . This state became powerful due to the local goldsmith industry and also maintained commercial ties and a diplomatic rivalry with the Champa civilization . Both the Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu maintained contact and traded with Kutai , a Hindu country in south Borneo established by Indian traders . The Huangdom of Ma-i centered in Mindoro , ruled by Huang Gat-sa-Lihan , was noted for its trust-worthiness in trade . In northern Luzon , the Huangdom of Pangasinan under Huang Taymey , exported horses and silver to China , the Kingdom of Ryukyu and Japan . In central Luzon , the Kingdom of Tondo was ruled over by the Lakandula dynasty and the kingdom grew wealthy via the exclusive trading-rights of Chinese goods which they marketed in southeast Asia . This was granted to them by the Ming Dynasty . The 1300s saw the arrival and eventual spread of Islam in the Philippine archipelago . In 1380 , Karim ul ' Makdum and Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr , an Arab trader born in Johore , arrived in Sulu from Malacca and established the Sultanate of Sulu by converting Sulu 's rajah , Rajah Baguinda Ali and marrying his daughter . At the end of the 15th century , Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao . The sultanate form of government extended further into Lanao . Around this time , the people of Luzon were collectively called Lucoes and they rose to prominence by participating in trading ventures and military campaigns in Myanmar , Malacca and East Timor where they were employed as traders and mercenaries . Islam then started to spread out of Mindanao in the south and went into Luzon in the north . Manila in Luzon was Islamized during the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521 . This was accomplished because the Bruneian Empire subjugated the Kingdom of Tondo by defeating Datu Gambang and installing the Muslim Rajah , Rajah Sulaiman I to the throne and by establishing the Bruneian puppet-state of the Kingdom of Maynila . Sultan Bolkiah also married Laila Mecana , the daughter of Sulu Sultan Amir Ul-Ombra to expand Brunei 's influence in both Luzon and Mindanao . Nevertheless , states like the animist Igorot , Malay Madja-as , Sinified Ma-i , and Indianized Butuan still maintained their cultures . The rivalries between the datus , rajahs , huangs , sultans , and lakans eventually eased Spanish colonization . Furthermore , the islands were sparsely populated due to consistent natural disasters and inter-kingdom conflicts . Therefore , colonization was made easy and the small states of the archipelago quickly became incorporated into the Spanish Empire and were Hispanicized and Christianized . Colonial era In 1521 , Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan 's expedition arrived in the Philippines , claimed the islands for Spain and was then killed at the Battle of Mactan . Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first Hispanic settlements in Cebu . After relocating to Panay island and consolidating a coalition of native Visayan allies and Hispanic soldiers , the Spaniards then captured Islamic Manila , therein they put down the Tondo Conspiracy and exiled the conspirators to Guam and Guerrero . Under Spanish rule , they established Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies ( 1571 ) . They also defeated the Chinese-warlord Limahong . In response to the Islamic invasion of the Philippines , the Castilian War was waged against the Sultanate of Brunei and war was also waged against the Sultanate of Ternate and Tidore ( in response to Ternatan slaving and piracy against the Butuan Rajahnate and Bohol ) . Fortifications were also set up in Taiwan and the Maluku islands . These were abandoned and the soldiers withdrew back to the Philippines in order to re-concentrate their military forces because of a threatened invasion by the Japan-born Ming-dynasty loyalist , Koxinga , ruler of the stronghold of Tungning . However , the invasion was aborted . Meanwhile , settlers were sent to the Pacific islands of Palau and the Marianas . Spanish rule eventually contributed significantly to bringing political unity to the fragmented states of the archipelago . From 1565 to 1821 , the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and then was administered directly from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence . The Manila galleons , the largest wooden ships ever built , were constructed in Bicol and Cavite . The Manila galleons were accompanied with a large naval escort as it traveled to and fro Manila and Acapulco . The galleons sailed once or twice a year , between the 16th and 19th centuries . Trade introduced foodstuff such as maize , tomatoes , potatoes , chili peppers , chocolate and pineapples from Mexico and Peru . Within the Philippines , the Marquisate of Buglas was established and rule of it was awarded to Sebastian Elcano and his crew , the survivors of the first circumnavigation of the world , as well as his descendants . New towns were also created and Roman Catholic missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity . They also founded schools , a university , hospitals and churches which were built along the Earthquake Baroque architectural style . The Spanish also decreed the introduction of free public schooling in 1863 . As a result of these policies the Philippine population increased exponentially . During its rule , the Spanish quelled various indigenous revolts . There were several external military challenges from Chinese and Japanese pirates , the Dutch , the English and the Portuguese . Those challengers were fought-off despite the hostile forces having encircled the Philippine archipelago in a crescent formed from Japan to Indonesia . British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 in an extension of the fighting of the Seven Years ' War . Spanish rule was restored following the 1763 Treaty of Paris . The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years . In the last quarter of the 19th century Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Moro Muslims in the Sulu Sultanate on Sulu formally recognised Spanish sovereignty . In the 19th century , Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Philippine society . Many Spaniards born in the Philippines ( criollos ) and those of mixed ancestry ( mestizos ) became wealthy and an influx of Latin American settlers opened up government positions traditionally held by Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula ( peninsulares ) . The ideals of revolution also began to spread through the islands . Criollo dissatisfaction resulted in the 1872 Cavite Mutiny that was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution . Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three priests—Mariano Gómez , José Burgos , and Jacinto Zamora ( collectively known as Gomburza ) —were accused of sedition by colonial authorities and executed . This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain , organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar , José Rizal , and Mariano Ponce , lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines . Rizal was eventually executed on December 30 , 1896 , on charges of rebellion . As attempts at reform met with resistance , Andrés Bonifacio in 1892 established the secret society called the Katipunan , who sought independence from Spain through armed revolt . Bonifacio and the Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896 . A faction of the Katipunan , the Magdalo of Cavite province , eventually came to challenge Bonifacio 's position as the leader of the revolution and Emilio Aguinaldo took over . In 1898 , the Spanish–American War began in Cuba and reached the Philippines . Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence from Spain in Kawit , Cavite on June 12 , 1898 , and the First Philippine Republic was established in the Barasoain Church in the following year . The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States as a result of the latter 's victory in the Spanish–American War . A compensation of 20 million US dollars was paid to Spain according to the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris . As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the nascent First Philippine Republic , the Philippine–American War broke out , the First Republic was defeated , and the archipelago was administered under an Insular Government . The war resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of combatants as well as a couple of hundred thousand civilians , mostly from a cholera epidemic . The Americans then suppressed other rebellious sub-states : mainly , the waning Sultanate of Sulu , as well as the insurgent Tagalog Republic , the Cantonal Republic of Negros in the Visayas , and the Republic of Zamboanga in Mindanao . During this era , a renaissance in Philippine culture occurred , with the expansion of Philippine cinema and literature . In 1935 , the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president . He designated a national language and introduced women 's suffrage and land reform . Plans for independence over the next decade were interrupted by World War II when the Japanese Empire invaded and the Second Philippine Republic of José P. Laurel was established as a collaborator state . Many atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war such as the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre that culminated during the Battle of Manila . In 1944 , Quezon died in exile in the United States and Sergio Osmeña succeeded him . The Allied Forces then employed a strategy of island hopping towards the Philippine Archipelago , in the process , retaking territory conquered by Imperial Japan . From mid-1942 through mid-1944 , the Filipino guerrilla resistance had been supplied and encouraged by U.S. Navy submarines and a few parachute drops , so that the guerrillas could harass the Japanese Army and take control of the rural jungle and mountainous areas – amounting to about half of the Philippine archipelago . While remaining loyal to the United States , many Filipinos hoped and believed that liberation from the Japanese would bring them freedom and their already-promised independence . Eventually , the largest naval battle in history , according to gross tonnage , the Battle of Leyte Gulf , occurred when the Allied Forces started the liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese Empire . Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945 . By the end of the war it is estimated that over a million Filipinos had died . Postcolonial period On October 24 , 1945 , the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations and the following year , on July 4 , 1946 , it became recognized by the United States as independent , during the presidency of Manuel Roxas . Disgruntled remnants of the communist Hukbalahap continued to roam the countryside but were put down by President Elpidio Quirino 's successor Ramon Magsaysay . Magsaysay 's successor , Carlos P. Garcia initiated the Filipino First Policy , which was continued by Diosdado Macapagal , with celebration of Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12 , the date of Emilio Aguinaldo 's declaration , while furthering the claim on the eastern part of North Borneo . In 1965 , Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos . Early in his presidency he initiated numerous infrastructure projects but was accused of massive corruption and embezzling billions of dollars in public funds . Nearing the end of his term , Marcos declared Martial Law on September 21 , 1972 . This period of his rule was characterized by political repression , censorship , and human rights violations but the US were steadfast in their support . His wife Imelda continued to live a lavish lifestyle as the majority of Filipinos remained in poverty . On August 21 , 1983 , Marcos ' chief rival , opposition leader Benigno Aquino , Jr. , was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport . Marcos eventually called snap presidential elections in 1986 . Marcos was proclaimed the winner , but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent , leading to the People Power Revolution . Marcos and his allies fled to Hawaii and Aquino 's widow , Corazon Aquino was recognized as president . Contemporary history The return of democracy and government reforms beginning in 1986 were hampered by national debt , government corruption , coup attempts , disasters , a persistent communist insurgency , and a military conflict with Moro separatists . During Corazon Aquino 's administration , U.S. forces withdrew from the Philippines , due the rejection of the U.S . Bases Extension Treaty , and leading to the official transfer of Clark Air Base in November 1991 and Subic Bay to the government in December 1992 . The administration also faced a series of natural disasters , including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 . After introducing a constitution that limited presidents to a single term , Aquino did not stand for re-election . Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos , who won the Philippine presidential election held in May 1992 . During this period , the economy was known as the `` Tiger Economy in Asia '' , with an average of 6 % GDP growth rate . However , the political stability and economic improvements , such as the peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front in 1996 , were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis . On his Presidency the death penalty was revived in the light of the Rape-slay case of Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez in 1993 and the first person to be executed is Leo Echegaray in 1999 . Ramos ' successor , Joseph Estrada assumed office in June 1998 and managed to regain the economy from −0.6 % growth to 3.4 % by 1999 amidst the 1997 Asian financial crisis . The government had announced a war against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in March 2000 and neutralized the camps including the headquarters of the insurgents . In the middle of ongoing conflict with the Abu Sayyaf , and and and accusations of alleged corruption , and a stalled impeachment process , Estrada 's administration was overthrown by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and succeeded by his Vice President , Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on January 20 , 2001 . In Arroyo 's 9-year administration , The economy experienced GDP growth from 4 % in 2002 to 7 % growth in 2007 with the completion of infrastructure projects like the LRT Line 2 in 2004 and managed to avoid the Great Recession . Nevertheless , it was tied with graft and political scandals like the Hello Garci scandal pertaining to the alleged manipulation of votes in the 2004 presidential elections . On November 23 , 2009 , the Maguindanao massacre led to the murder of 34 journalists . Benigno Aquino III won the 2010 national elections and served as the 15th President of the Philippines . He was the third youngest person to be elected president and the first to be a bachelor , beginning with the 2010 Manila hostage crisis that caused deeply strained relations between Manila and Hong Kong for a time . During the previous years , The Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro was signed on October 15 , 2012 , as the first step of the creation of an autonomous political entity named Bangsamoro . However , territorial disputes in eastern Sabah and the South China Sea have escalated . The economy performed well at 7.2 % GDP growth , the second fastest in Asia . Aquino signed the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 , commonly known as K–12 program in May 15 , 2013 aiming to enhance the educational system in the country . On November 8 , 2013 , Typhoon Yolanda ( Haiyan ) struck and heavily devastated the country , especially in the Visayas . On April 28 , 2014 , when United States President Barack Obama visited the Philippines , the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement , was signed . From January 15 to 19 , 2015 , January 15 to 19 , 2015 , Pope Francis stayed in the Philippines for a series of publicity tours and paid visits to the victims of Typhoon Haiyan ( Yolanda ) . On January 25 , 2015 , 44 members of the Philippine National Police-Special Action Force were killed after a clash took place in Mamasapano , Maguindanao putting efforts to pass the Bangsamoro Basic Law into law in an impasse . On December 20 , 2015 , Pia Wurtzbach won the Miss Universe 2015 , making her the third Filipino to win the Miss Universe title following Gloria Diaz in 1969 and Margarita Moran in 1973 . On January 12 , 2016 , the Philippine Supreme Court upheld the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement paving the way for the return of United States Armed Forces bases into the country . On March 23 , 2016 , Diwata-1 was launched to the International Space Station ( ISS ) , becoming the country 's first micro-satellite and the first satellite to be built and designed by Filipinos . Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte of PDP–Laban won the 2016 presidential election becoming the first president from Mindanao . Camarines Sur representative Leni Robredo won the vice presidency . On July 12 , 2016 , the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines in its case against China 's claims in the South China Sea . Politics The Philippines has a democratic government in the form of a constitutional republic with a presidential system . It is governed as a unitary state with the exception of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao ( ARMM ) which is largely free from the national government . There have been attempts to change the government to a federal , unicameral , or parliamentary government since the Ramos administration . The President functions as both head of state and head of government and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces . The president is elected by popular vote for a single six-year term , during which he or she appoints and presides over the cabinet . The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate , serving as the upper house , with members elected to a six-year term , and the House of Representatives , serving as the lower house , with members elected to a three-year term . Senators are elected at large while the representatives are elected from both legislative districts and through sectoral representation . The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court , composed of a Chief Justice as its presiding officer and fourteen associate justices , all of whom are appointed by the President from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council . Foreign relations The Philippines ' international relations are based on trade with other nations and the well-being of the 11 million overseas Filipinos living outside the country . As a founding and active member of the United Nations , the Philippines has been elected several times into the Security Council . Carlos P. Romulo was a former President of the United Nations General Assembly . The country is an active participant in the Human Rights Council as well as in peacekeeping missions , particularly in East Timor . In addition to membership in the United Nations , the Philippines is also a founding and active member of ASEAN ( Association of Southeast Asian Nations ) , an organization designed to strengthen relations and promote economic and cultural growth among states in the Southeast Asian region . It has hosted several summits and is an active contributor to the direction and policies of the bloc .. ( 1999 ) . 3 ASEAN Informal Summit . Archived from [ http : //www.summit99.ops.gov.ph/asean_structure.htm the original ] on December 17 , 2007 . Retrieved December 13

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Luzon is an island of which country?

The modern Olympic Games or Olympics ( ) are the leading international sporting event featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions . The Olympic Games are considered to be the world 's foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating . The Olympic Games are held every four years , with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years but two years apart . Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games , which were held in Olympia , Greece , from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD . Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) in 1894 . The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement , with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority . The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several changes to the Olympic Games . Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for ice and winter sports , the Paralympic Games for athletes with a disability , and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes . The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic , political , and technological advancements . As a result , the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism , as envisioned by Coubertin , to allowing participation of professional athletes . The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship and commercialization of the Games . World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916 , 1940 , and 1944 Games . Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games . The Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations ( IFs ) , National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) , and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games . As the decision-making body , the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games , and organizes and funds the Games according to the Olympic Charter . The IOC also determines the Olympic program , consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games . There are several Olympic rituals and symbols , such as the Olympic flag and torch , as well as the opening and closing ceremonies . Over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events . The first , second , and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals : gold , silver , and bronze , respectively . The Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented . This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies , including boycotts , doping , bribery , and a terrorist attack in 1972 . Every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame . The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world . Ancient Olympics The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia , Greece . Competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece . These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration , horse and chariot racing events . It has been widely written that during the Games , all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished . This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce . This idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars . The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were traveling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus . The origin of the Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend ; one of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games . According to legend , it was Heracles who first called the Games `` Olympic '' and established the custom of holding them every four years . The myth continues that after Heracles completed his twelve labors , he built the Olympic Stadium as an honor to Zeus . Following its completion , he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a `` stadion '' ( , Latin : stadium , `` stage '' ) , which later became a unit of distance . The most widely accepted inception date for the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC ; this is based on inscriptions , found at Olympia , listing the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC . The Ancient Games featured running events , a pentathlon ( consisting of a jumping event , discus and javelin throws , a foot race , and wrestling ) , boxing , wrestling , pankration , and equestrian events . Tradition has it that Coroebus , a cook from the city of Elis , was the first Olympic champion . The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance , featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus ( whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia ) and Pelops , divine hero and mythical king of Olympia . Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis . The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues . The Games were held every four years , and this period , known as an Olympiad , was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement . The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games , which included the Pythian Games , the Nemean Games , and the Isthmian Games . The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC , but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece . While there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Games officially ended , the most commonly held date is 393 AD , when the emperor Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated . Another date commonly cited is 426 AD , when his successor , Theodosius II , ordered the destruction of all Greek temples . Modern Games Forerunners Various uses of the term `` Olympic '' to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since the 17th century . The first such event was the Cotswold Games or `` Cotswold Olimpick Games '' , an annual meeting near Chipping Campden , England , involving various sports . It was first organized by the lawyer Robert Dover between 1612 and 1642 , with several later celebrations leading up to the present day . The British Olympic Association , in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London , mentioned these games as `` the first stirrings of Britain 's Olympic beginnings '' . L'Olympiade de la République , a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games . The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics . The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport . In 1850 an Olympian Class was started by William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock , in Shropshire , England . In 1859 , Brookes changed the name to the Wenlock Olympian Games . This annual sports festival continues to this day . The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Brookes on 15 November 1860 . Between 1862 and 1867 , Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival . Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly , these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook , although only 'gentlemen amateurs ' could compete . The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics . In 1865 Hulley , Brookes and E.G . Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool , a forerunner of the British Olympic Association . Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter . In 1866 , a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized at London 's Crystal Palace . Revival Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821 . It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem `` Dialogue of the Dead '' , published in 1833 . Evangelos Zappas , a wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist , first wrote to King Otto of Greece , in 1856 , offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games . Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859 , which was held in an Athens city square . Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire . Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games . The stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875 . Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870 , though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games . In 1890 , after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society , Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years . He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee . This meeting was held from 16 to 23 June 1894 , at the University of Paris . On the last day of the Congress , it was decided that the first Olympic Games to come under the auspices of the IOC would take place in Athens in 1896 . The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president . 1896 Games The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896 . The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events . Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games . This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games . George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games . The Greek government also provided funding , which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set . Greek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting an Olympic Games . This feeling was shared by many of the athletes , who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city . The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world . The second Olympics was held in Paris . Changes and adaptations After the success of the 1896 Games , the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival . The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the World 's fair at St. Louis in 1904 were side shows . The Games in Paris did not have a stadium , but were notable for being the first time women took part in the Games . When the St. Louis Games were celebrated roughly 650 athletes participated , but 580 were from the United States . The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement . The Games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games ( so-called because they were the second Games held within the third Olympiad ) were held in Athens . These Games were , but are not now , officially recognized by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since . The Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated great public interest . This marked the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics . Winter Games The Winter Olympics was created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games . Figure skating ( in 1908 and 1920 ) and ice hockey ( in 1920 ) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics . The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities . At the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne , it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games . A winter sports week ( it was actually 11 days ) was held in 1924 in Chamonix , France , in connection with the Paris Games held three months later ; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games . Although it was intended that the same country host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year , this idea was quickly abandoned . The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart . This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville , France ; after that , beginning with the 1994 Games , the Winter Olympics were held every four years , two years after each Summer Olympics . Paralympics In 1948 , Sir Ludwig Guttmann , determined to promote the rehabitation of soldiers after World War II , organized a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics . Guttmann 's event , known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games , became an annual sports festival . Over the next twelve years , Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing . For the 1960 Olympic Games , in Rome , Guttmann brought 400 athletes to compete in the `` Parallel Olympics '' , which became known as the first Paralympics . Since then , the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year . Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea , the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics . In 2001 the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) signed an agreement guaranteeing that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games . The agreement came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing , and the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver . Chairman of the London organising committee , Lord Coe , said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and Olympics in London that , Youth Games In 2010 , the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games , which give athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete . The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC . The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14–26 August 2010 , while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck , Austria , two years later . These Games will be shorter than the senior Games ; the summer version will last twelve days , while the winter version will last nine days . The IOC allows 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games , and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games . The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games , however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of disciplines and events . 21st-century games From 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896 , the Games have grown to about 10,500 competitors from 204 nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics . The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller . For example , Sochi hosted 2,873 athletes from 88 nations competing in 98 events during the 2014 Winter Olympics . During the Games most athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic Village . This village is intended to be a self-contained home for all the Olympic participants , and is furnished with cafeterias , health clinics , and locations for religious expression . The IOC allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees representing nations that did not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organizations demand . As a result , colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games . Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico , Bermuda , and Hong Kong , all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country . The current version of the Charter allows for the establishment of new National Olympic Committees to represent nations which qualify as `` an independent State recognized by the international community '' . Therefore , it did not allow the formation of National Olympic Committees for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010 , although the IOC had recognized the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986 . After 2012 , Netherlands Antilles athletes can choose to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba . Economic and social impact on host cities and countries Many economists are skeptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games , emphasizing that such `` mega-events '' often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run . Conversely hosting ( or even bidding for ) the Olympics appears to increase the host country 's exports , as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games . Moreover , research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city , which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector . This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards , although not permanently . This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society . The Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities ; for example , the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades , often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups . The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most expensive Olympic Games in history , costing in excess of US $ 50 billion . According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development that was released at the time of the games , this cost will not boost Russia 's national economy , but may attract business to Sochi and the southern Krasnodar region of Russia in the future as a result of improved services . But by December 2014 , The Guardian stated that Sochi `` now feels like a ghost town '' , citing the spread-out nature of the stadiums and arenas , the still-unfinished construction , and the overall effects Russia 's political and economic turmoil . Furthermore , at least four cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics , citing the high costs or the lack of local support , resulting in only a two-city race between Almaty , Kazakhstan and Beijing , China . Thus in July 2016 , The Guardian stated that the biggest threat to the future of the Olympics is that very few cities want to host them . International Olympic Committee The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations , recognized media partners , as well as athletes , officials , judges , and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter . As the umbrella organization of the Olympic Movement , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) is responsible for selecting the host city , overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games , updating and approving the sports program , and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights . The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements : * International Federations ( IFs ) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level . For example , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) is the IF for association football , and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball is the international governing body for volleyball . There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement , representing each of the Olympic sports . * National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country . For example , the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) is the NOC of the United States . There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC . * Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games ( OCOGs ) are temporary committees responsible for the organization of each Olympic Games . OCOGs are dissolved after each Games once the final report is delivered to the IOC . French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement . The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country ( or languages , if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English ) . Every proclamation ( such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony ) is spoken in these three ( or more ) languages , or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country . Criticism The IOC has often been criticized for being an intractable organization , with several members on the committee for life . The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial . Brundage was president for over 20 years , and during his tenure he protected the Olympics from political involvement and the influence of advertising . He was accused of both racism , for his handling of the apartheid issue with the South African delegation , and antisemitism . Under the Samaranch presidency , the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption . Samaranch 's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism . In 1998 , it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics . The IOC pursued an investigation which led to the resignation of four members and expulsion of six others . The scandal set off further reforms that changed the way host cities were selected , to avoid similar cases in the future . A BBC documentary entitled Panorama : Buying the Games , aired in August 2004 , investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city . After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games , Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee ( headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe ) of breaking the bid rules . He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness ; Chirac gave guarded interviews regarding his involvement . The allegation was never fully explored . The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy . A prominent IOC member , Marc Hodler , strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion , Switzerland , alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee . These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation . The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion 's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination . In July 2012 , the Anti-Defamation League called the continued refusal by the International Olympic Committee to hold a moment of silence at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Olympics , `` a continuing stubborn insensitivity and callousness to the memory of the murdered Israeli athletes . '' Commercialization Under national organizing committees The Olympics have been commercialized to various degrees since the initial 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens , when a number of companies paid for advertizing , including Kodak . In 1908 , Oxo , Odol mouthwash and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic Games . Coca Cola sponsored the 1928 Summer Olympics , and has subsequently remained a sponsor to the current time . Before the IOC took control of sponsorship , national organizing committees were responsible for negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and the use of the Olympic symbols . Under IOC control The IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors . It was not until the retirement of IOC president Avery Brundage , in 1972 , that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them . Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand . Budget During the first half of the 20th century the IOC ran on a small budget . As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972 , Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest . Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC 's decision-making . Brundage 's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organizing committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols . When Brundage retired the IOC had US $ 2 million in assets ; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US $ 45 million . This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights . When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent . The 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history . The Los Angeles-based organizing committee , led by Peter Ueberroth , was able to generate a surplus of US $ 225 million , which was an unprecedented amount at that time . The organizing committee had been able to create such a surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies . The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights . Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Program ( TOP ) in 1985 , in order to create an Olympic brand . Membership in TOP was , and is , very exclusive and expensive . Fees cost US $ 50 million for a four-year membership . Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category , and use of the Olympic symbol , the interlocking rings , in their publications and advertisements . Effect of television The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television , though only to local audiences . The 1956 Winter Olympics were the first internationally televised Olympic Games , and the following Winter Games had their broadcasting rights sold for the first time to specialized television broadcasting networks—CBS paid US $ 394,000 for the American rights , and the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) allocated US $ 660,000 . In the following decades the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War . Superpowers jockeyed for political supremacy , and the IOC wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium . The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games , thereby generating more interest , which in turn created more appeal to advertisers time on television . This cycle allowed the IOC to charge ever-increasing fees for those rights . For example , CBS paid US $ 375 million for the rights of the 1998 Nagano Games , while NBC spent US $ 3.5 billion for the broadcast rights of all the Olympic Games from 2000 to 2012 . Viewership increased exponentially from the 1960s until the end of the century . This was due to the use of satellites to broadcast live television worldwide in 1964 , and the introduction of color television in 1968 . Global audience estimates for the 1968

qw_1963--Olympic_Games.txt

The first Paralympic Games to officially tie in with the Summer Olympics were held in 1960 in which city?

Futbol Club Barcelona , commonly known as Barcelona and familiarly as Barça , is a professional football club , based in Barcelona , Catalonia , Spain . Founded in 1899 by a group of Swiss , English and Catalan footballers led by Joan Gamper , the club has become a symbol of Catalan culture and Catalanism , hence the motto `` Més que un club '' ( More than a club ) . Unlike many other football clubs , the supporters own and operate Barcelona . It is the second most valuable sports team in the world , worth $ 3.56 billion , and the world 's second richest football club in terms of revenue , with an annual turnover of €560.8 million . The official Barcelona anthem is the `` Cant del Barça '' , written by Jaume Picas and Josep Maria Espinàs . Domestically , Barcelona has won 24 La Liga , 28 Copa del Rey , 11 Supercopa de España , 3 Copa Eva Duarte and 2 Copa de la Liga trophies , as well as being the record holder for the latter four competitions . In international club football , Barcelona has won five UEFA Champions League titles , a record four UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , a shared record five UEFA Super Cup , a record three Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and a record three FIFA Club World Cup trophies . Barcelona was ranked first in the IFFHS Club World Ranking for 1997 , 2009 , 2011 , 2012 and 2015 and currently occupies the third position on the UEFA club rankings . The club has a long-standing rivalry with Real Madrid ; matches between the two teams are referred to as El Clásico . Barcelona is one of the most supported teams in the world , and has the largest social media following in the world among sports teams . Barcelona 's players have won a record number of Ballon d'Or awards ( 11 ) , as well as a record number of FIFA World Player of the Year awards ( 7 ) . In 2010 , the club made history when three players who came through its youth academy ( Messi , Iniesta and Xavi ) were chosen as the three best players in the world in the FIFA Ballon d'Or awards , an unprecedented feat for players from the same football school . Barcelona is one of three founding members of the Primera División that have never been relegated from the top division , along with Athletic Bilbao and Real Madrid . In 2009 , Barcelona became the first Spanish club to win the continental treble consisting of La Liga , Copa del Rey , and the UEFA Champions League , and also became the first football club to win six out of six competitions in a single year , completing the sextuple in also winning the Spanish Super Cup , UEFA Super Cup and FIFA Club World Cup . In 2011 , the club became European champions again and won five trophies . This Barcelona team , which reached a record six consecutive Champions League semi-finals and won 14 trophies in just four years under Pep Guardiola , is considered by some in the sport to be the greatest team of all time . In June 2015 , Barcelona became the first European club in history to achieve the continental treble twice . History Beginnings of FC Barcelona ( 1899–1922 ) On 22 October 1899 , Hans Gamper placed an advertisement in Los Deportes declaring his wish to form a football club ; a positive response resulted in a meeting at the Gimnasio Solé on 29 November . Eleven players attended — Walter Wild ( the first director of the club ) , Lluís d'Ossó , Bartomeu Terradas , Otto Kunzle , Otto Maier , Enric Ducal , Pere Cabot , Carles Pujol , Josep Llobet , John Parsons , and William Parsons — and Foot-Ball Club Barcelona was born . FC Barcelona had a successful start in regional and national cups , competing in the Campionat de Catalunya and the Copa del Rey . In 1902 , the club won its first trophy , the Copa Macaya , and participated in the first Copa del Rey , losing 1–2 to Bizcaya in the final . Hans Gamper — now known as Joan Gamper — became club president in 1908 , finding the club in financial difficulty after not winning a competition since the Campionat de Catalunya in 1905 . Club president on five separate occasions between 1908 and 1925 , he spent 25 years in total at the helm . One of his main achievements was ensuring Barça acquire its own stadium and thus generate a stable income . On 14 March 1909 the team moved into the Camp de la Indústria , a stadium with a capacity of 8,000 . To celebrate their new surroundings , the club conducted a logo contest the following year . Carles Comamala won the contest , and his suggestion became the crest that the club still wears – with some minor changes – as of the present day . With the new stadium , Barcelona participated in the inaugural version of the Pyrenees Cup , which , at the time , consisted of the best teams of Languedoc , Midi and Aquitaine ( Southern France ) , the Basque Country and Catalonia ; all were former members of the Marca Hispanica region . The contest was the most prestigious in that era . From the inaugural year in 1910 to 1913 , Barcelona won the competition four consecutive times . Carles Comamala played an integral part of the four-time champion , managing the side along with Amechazurra and Jack Greenwell . The latter became the club 's first full-time coach in 1917 . The last edition was held in 1914 in the city of Barcelona , which local rivals Espanyol won . During the same period , the club changed its official language from Castilian to Catalan and gradually evolved into an important symbol of Catalan identity . For many fans , participating in the club had less to do with the game itself and more with being a part of the club 's collective identity . On 4 February 1917 , the club held its first testimonial match to honour Ramón Torralba , who played from 1913 to 1928 . The match was against local side Terrassa : Barcelona won 6–2 . Gamper simultaneously launched a campaign to recruit more club members , and by 1922 , the club had more than 20,000 , who helped finance a new stadium . The club then moved to the new Les Cortes , which they inaugurated the same year . Les Cortes had an initial capacity of 30,000 , and in the 1940s it was expanded to 60,000 . Gamper recruited Jack Greenwell as the first full-time manager in Barcelona 's history . After this hiring , the club 's fortunes began to improve on the field . During the Gamper-led era , Barcelona won eleven Campionats de Catalunya , six Copa del Rey and four Pyrenees Cups and enjoyed its first `` golden age '' . Rivera , Republic and Civil War ( 1923–1957 ) On 14 June 1925 , in a spontaneous reaction against Primo de Rivera 's dictatorship , the crowd in the stadium jeered the Royal March . As a reprisal , the ground was closed for six months and Gamper was forced to relinquish the presidency of the club . This coincided with the transition to professional football , and , in 1926 , the directors of Barcelona publicly claimed , for the first time , to operate a professional football club.Arnaud , Pierre ; Riordan , James . p. 103 On 3 July 1927 , the club held a second testimonial match for Paulino Alcántara , against the Spanish national team . To kick off the match , local journalist and pilot Josep Canudas dropped the ball onto the pitch from his airplane . In 1928 , victory in the Spanish Cup was celebrated with a poem titled `` Oda a Platko '' , which was written by a member of the Generation of '27 , Rafael Alberti , inspired by the heroic performance of the Barcelona goalkeeper , Franz Platko . On 23 June 1929 , Barcelona won the inaugural Spanish League . A year after winning the championship , on 30 July 1930 , Gamper committed suicide after a period of depression brought on by personal and financial problems . Although they continued to have players of the standing of Josep Escolà , the club now entered a period of decline , in which political conflict overshadowed sports throughout society . Attendance at matches dropped as the citizens of Barcelona were occupied with discussing political matters . Although the team won the Campionat de Catalunya in 1930 , 1931 , 1932 , 1934 , 1936 and 1938 , success at a national level ( with the exception of the 1937 disputed title ) evaded them . A month after the Spanish Civil War began in 1936 , several players from Barcelona enlisted in the ranks of those who fought against the military uprising , along with players from Athletic Bilbao . On 6 August , Falangist soldiers near Guadarrama murdered club president Josep Sunyol , a representative of the pro-independence political party . He was dubbed the martyr of barcelonisme , and his murder was a defining moment in the history of FC Barcelona and Catalan identity . In the summer of 1937 , the squad was on tour in Mexico and the United States , where it was received as an ambassador of the Second Spanish Republic . The tour led to the financial security of the club , but also resulted in half of the team seeking asylum in Mexico and France , making it harder for the remaining team to contest for trophies . On 16 March 1938 , Barcelona came under aerial bombardment from the Italian Air Force , causing more than 3,000 deaths , with one of the bombs hitting the club 's offices . A few months later , Catalonia came under occupation and as a symbol of the `` undisciplined '' Catalanism , the club , now down to just 3,486 members , faced a number of restrictions . All signs of regional nationalism , including language , flag and other signs of separatism were banned throughout Spain . The Catalan flag was banned and the club were prohibited from using non-Spanish names . These measures forced the club to change its name to Club de Fútbol Barcelona and to remove the Catalan flag from its crest . In 1943 , Barcelona faced rivals Real Madrid in the semi-finals of Copa del Generalísimo ( now the Copa del Rey ) . The first match at Les Corts was won by Barcelona 3–0 . Real Madrid comfortably won the second leg , beating Barcelona 11–1 . According to football writer Sid Lowe , `` There have been relatively few mentions of the game [ since ] and it is not a result that has been particularly celebrated in Madrid . Indeed , the 11–1 occupies a far more prominent place in Barcelona 's history . '' It has been alleged by local journalist Paco Aguilar that Barcelona 's players were threatened by police in the changing room , though nothing was ever proven . Despite the difficult political situation , CF Barcelona enjoyed considerable success during the 1940s and 1950s . In 1945 , with Josep Samitier as coach and players like César , Ramallets and Velasco , they won La Liga for the first time since 1929 . They added two more titles in 1948 and 1949 . In 1949 , they also won the first Copa Latina . In June 1950 , Barcelona signed László Kubala , who was to be an important figure at the club . On a rainy Sunday of 1951 , the crowd left Les Corts stadium after a 2–1 win against Santander by foot , refusing to catch any trams , and surprising the Francoist authorities . The reason was simple : at the same time , a tram strike was taking place in Barcelona , receiving the support of blaugrana fans . Events like this made CF Barcelona represent much more than just Catalonia and many progressive Spaniards saw the club as a staunch defender of rights and freedoms . Coach Ferdinand Daučík and László Kubala led the team to five different trophies including La Liga , the Copa del Generalísimo , the Copa Latina , the Copa Eva Duarte , and the Copa Martini Rossi in 1952 . In 1953 , the club won La Liga and the Copa del Generalísimo again . Club de Fútbol Barcelona ( 1957–1978 ) With Helenio Herrera as coach , a young Luis Suárez , the European Footballer of the Year in 1960 , and two influential Hungarians recommended by Kubala , Sándor Kocsis and Zoltán Czibor , the team won another national double in 1959 and a La Liga and Fairs Cup double in 1960 . In 1961 , they became the first club to beat Real Madrid in a European Cup play-off . However , they lost 2–3 to Benfica in the final . The 1960s were less successful for the club , with Real Madrid monopolising La Liga . The completion of the Camp Nou , finished in 1957 , meant the club had little money to spend on new players . The 1960s saw the emergence of Josep Maria Fusté and Carles Rexach , and the club won the Copa del Generalísimo in 1963 and the Fairs Cup in 1966 . Barcelona restored some pride by beating Real Madrid 1–0 in the 1968 Copa del Generalísimo final at the Bernabéu in front of Franco , with coach Salvador Artigas , a former republican pilot in the civil war . With the end of Franco 's dictatorship in 1974 , the club changed its official name back to Futbol Club Barcelona and reverted the crest to its original design , including the original letters once again . The 1973–74 season saw the arrival of Johan Cruyff , who was bought for a world record £920,000 from Ajax . Already an established player with Ajax , Cruyff quickly won over the Barcelona fans when he told the European press that he chose Barcelona over Real Madrid because he could not play for a club associated with Francisco Franco . He further endeared himself when he named his son Jordi , after the local Catalan Saint George . Next to champions like Juan Manuel Asensi , Carles Rexach and Hugo Sotil , he helped the club win the 1973–74 season for the first time since 1960 , defeating Real Madrid 5–0 at the Santiago Bernabéu along the way . He was crowned European Footballer of the Year in 1973 during his first season with Barcelona ( his second Ballon d'Or win ; he won his first while playing for Ajax in 1971 ) . Cruyff received this prestigious award a third time ( the first player to do so ) in 1974 , while he was still with Barcelona . Núñez and the stabilisation years ( 1978–2000 ) In 1978 , Josep Lluís Núñez became the first elected president of FC Barcelona , and , since then , the members of Barcelona have elected the club president . The process of electing a president of FC Barcelona was closely tied to Spain 's transition to democracy in 1974 and the end of Franco 's dictatorship . The new president 's main objective was to develop Barcelona into a world-class club by giving it stability both on and off the pitch . His presidency was to last for 22 years , and it deeply affected the image of Barcelona , as Núñez held to a strict policy regarding wages and discipline , letting go of such players as Maradona , Romário and Ronaldo rather than meeting their demands . On 16 May 1979 , the club won its first Cup Winners Cup by beating Fortuna Düsseldorf 4–3 in Basel in a final watched by more than 30,000 travelling blaugrana fans . The same year , Núñez began to invest in the club 's youth program by converting La Masia to a dormitory for young academy players from abroad . The name of the dormitory would later become synonymous with the youth program of Barcelona . In June 1982 , Diego Maradona was signed for a world record fee of £5 million from Boca Juniors . In the following season , under coach Luis , Barcelona won the Copa del Rey , beating Real Madrid . However , Maradona 's time with Barcelona was short-lived and he soon left for Napoli . At the start of the 1984–85 season , Terry Venables was hired as manager and he won La Liga with noteworthy displays by German midfielder Bernd Schuster . The next season , he took the team to their second European Cup final , only to lose on penalties to Steaua București during a dramatic evening in Seville . Around this time , tensions began to arise between what was perceived as president Núñez 's dictatorial rule and the nationalistic support group , Boixos Nois . The group , identified with a left-wing separatism , repeatedly demanded the resignation of Núñez and openly defied him through chants and banners at matches . At the same time , Barcelona experienced an eruption in skinheads , who often identified with a right-wing separatism . The skinheads slowly transferred the Boixos Nois ' ideology from liberalism to fascism , which caused division within the group and a sudden support for Núñez 's presidency . Inspired by British hooligans , the remaining Boixos Nois became violent , causing havoc leading to large-scale arrests . After the 1986 FIFA World Cup , Barcelona signed the English top-scorer Gary Lineker , along with goalkeeper Andoni Zubizarreta , but the team could not achieve success , as Schuster was excluded from the team . Terry Venables was subsequently fired at the beginning of the 1987–88 season and replaced with Luis Aragonés . The season finished with the players rebelling against president Núñez , in an event known as the Hesperia mutiny , and a 1–0 victory at the Copa del Rey final against Real Sociedad . Dream Team In 1988 , Johan Cruyff returned to the club as manager and he assembled the so-called Dream Team . He used a mix of Spanish players like Pep Guardiola , José Mari Bakero and Txiki Begiristain while signing international players such as Ronald Koeman , Michael Laudrup , Romário and Hristo Stoichkov . It was ten years after the inception of the youth program , La Masia , when the young players began to graduate and play for their first team . One of the first graduates , who would later earn international acclaim , was previous Barcelona coach Pep Guardiola . Under Cruyff 's guidance , Barcelona won four consecutive La Liga titles from 1991 to 1994 . They beat Sampdoria in both the 1989 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup final and the 1992 European Cup final at Wembley , with a free kick goal from Dutch international Ronald Koeman . They also won a Copa del Rey in 1990 , the European Super Cup in 1992 and three Supercopa de España trophies . With 11 trophies , Cruyff became the club 's most successful manager at that point . He also became the club 's longest consecutive serving manager , serving eight years . Cruyff 's fortune was to change , and , in his final two seasons , he failed to win any trophies and fell out with president Núñez , resulting in his departure . On the legacy of Cruyff 's football philosophy and the passing style of play he introduced to the club , future coach of Barcelona Pep Guardiola would state , `` Cruyff built the cathedral , our job is to maintain and renovate it . '' Reacting to Cruyff 's departure , an independent protest group was organised by Armand Caraben , Joan Laporta and Alfons Godall . The objective of the group , called L'Elefant Blau , was to oppose the presidency of Núñez , which they regarded as a corruption of the club 's traditional values . Laporta would later take over the presidency of Barcelona in 2003 . Cruyff was briefly replaced by Bobby Robson , who took charge of the club for a single season in 1996–97 . He recruited Ronaldo from his previous club , PSV and delivered a cup treble , winning the Copa del Rey , UEFA Cup Winners Cup and the Supercopa de España . Despite his success , Robson was only ever seen as a short-term solution , while the club waited for Louis van Gaal to become available . Like Maradona , Ronaldo only stayed a short time before he left for Internazionale . However , new heroes emerged , such as Luís Figo , Patrick Kluivert , Luis Enrique and Rivaldo , and the team won a Copa del Rey and La Liga double in 1998 . In 1999 , the club celebrated its centenari , winning the Primera División title , and Rivaldo became the fourth Barcelona player to be awarded European Footballer of the Year . Despite this domestic success , the failure to emulate Real Madrid in the Champions League led to van Gaal and Núñez resigning in 2000 . Exit Núñez , enter Laporta ( 2000–2008 ) The departures of Núñez and van Gaal were hardly noticed by the fans when compared to that of Luís Figo , then club vice-captain . Figo had become a cult hero , and was considered by Catalans to be one of their own . However , Barcelona fans were distraught by Figo 's decision to join arch-rivals Real Madrid , and , during subsequent visits to the Camp Nou , Figo was given an extremely hostile reception . Upon his first return , a piglet 's head and a full bottle of whiskey were thrown at him from the crowd . The next three years saw the club in decline , and managers came and went . van Gaal was replaced by Llorenç Serra Ferrer who , despite an extensive investment in players in the summer of 2000 , presided over a mediocre league campaign and a humiliating first-round Champions League exit , and was eventually dismissed late in the season . Long-serving coach Carles Rexach was appointed as his replacement , initially on a temporary basis , and managed to at least steer the club to the last Champions League spot on the final day of the season . Despite better form in La Liga and a good run to the semi-finals of the Champions League , Rexach was never viewed as a long-term solution and that summer Louis van Gaal returned to the club for a second spell as manager . What followed , despite another decent Champions League performance , was one of the worst La Liga campaigns in the club 's history , with the team as low as 15th in February 2003 . This led to van Gaal 's resignation and replacement for the rest of the campaign by Radomir Antić , though a sixth-place finish was the best that he could manage . At the end of the season , Antić 's short-term contract was not renewed , and club president Joan Gaspart resigned , his position having been made completely untenable by such a disastrous season on top of the club 's overall decline in fortunes since he became president three years prior . After the disappointment of the Gaspart era , the combination of a new young president , Joan Laporta , and a young new manager , former Dutch and Milan star Frank Rijkaard , saw the club bounce back . On the field , an influx of international players , including Ronaldinho , Deco , Henrik Larsson , Ludovic Giuly , Samuel Eto ' o , and Rafael Márquez , combined with home grown Spanish players , such as Carles Puyol , Andrés Iniesta , Xavi and Víctor Valdés , led to the club 's return to success . Barcelona won La Liga and the Supercopa de España in 2004–05 , and Ronaldinho and Eto ' o were voted first and third , respectively , in the FIFA World Player of the Year awards . In the 2005–06 season , Barcelona repeated their league and Supercup successes . The pinnacle of the league season arrived at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in a 3–0 win over Real Madrid . It was Frank Rijkaard 's second victory at the Bernabéu , making him the first Barcelona manager to win there twice . Ronaldinho 's performance was so impressive that after his second goal , which was Barcelona 's third , some Real Madrid fans gave him a standing ovation . In the Champions League , Barcelona beat the English club Arsenal in the final . Trailing 1–0 to a 10-man Arsenal and with less than 15 minutes remaining , they came back to win 2–1 , with substitute Henrik Larsson , in his final appearance for the club , setting up goals for Samuel Eto ' o and fellow substitute Juliano Belletti , for the club 's first European Cup victory in 14 years . Despite being the favourites and starting strongly , Barcelona finished the 2006–07 season without trophies . A pre-season US tour was later blamed for a string of injuries to key players , including leading scorer Eto ' o and rising star Lionel Messi . There was open feuding as Eto ' o publicly criticized coach Frank Rijkaard and Ronaldinho . Ronaldinho also admitted that a lack of fitness affected his form . In La Liga , Barcelona were in first place for much of the season , but inconsistency in the New Year saw Real Madrid overtake them to become champions . Barcelona advanced to the semi-finals of the Copa del Rey , winning the first leg against Getafe 5–2 , with a goal from Messi bringing comparison to Diego Maradona 's goal of the century , but then lost the second leg 4–0 . They took part in the 2006 FIFA Club World Cup , but were beaten by a late goal in the final against Brazilian side Internacional . In the Champions League , Barcelona were knocked out of the competition in the last 16 by eventual runners-up Liverpool on away goals . Barcelona finished the 2007–08 season third in La Liga and reached the semi-finals of the UEFA Champions League and Copa del Rey , both times losing to the eventual champions , Manchester United and Valencia , respectively . The day after a 4–1 defeat to Real Madrid , Joan Laporta announced that Barcelona B coach Pep Guardiola would take over Frank Rijkaard 's duties on 30 June 2008 . Guardiola era ( 2008–2012 ) FC Barcelona B youth manager Pep Guardiola took over Frank Rijkaard 's duties at the conclusion of the season . Guardiola brought with him the now famous tiki-taka style of play he had been taught during his time in the Barcelona youth teams . In the process , Guardiola sold Ronaldinho and Deco and started building the Barcelona team around Xavi , Andrés Iniesta and Messi . Barça beat Athletic Bilbao 4–1 in the 2009 Copa del Rey Final , winning the competition for a record-breaking 25th time . A historic 2–6 victory against Real Madrid followed three days later and ensured that Barcelona became La Liga champions for the 2008–09 season . Barça finished the season by beating the previous year 's Champions League winners Manchester United 2–0 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome to win their third Champions League title and completed the first ever treble won by a Spanish team . The team went on to win the 2009 Supercopa de España against Athletic Bilbao and the 2009 UEFA Super Cup against Shakhtar Donetsk , becoming the first European club to win both domestic and European Super Cups following a treble . In December 2009 , Barcelona won the 2009 FIFA Club World Cup , and became the first football club ever to accomplish the sextuple . Barcelona accomplished two new records in Spanish football in 2010 as they retained the La Liga trophy with 99 points and won the Spanish Super Cup trophy for a ninth time . After Laporta 's departure from the club in June 2010 , Sandro Rosell was soon elected as the new president . The elections were held on 13 June , where he got 61.35 % ( 57,088 votes , a record ) of total votes . Rosell signed David Villa from Valencia for €40 million and Javier Mascherano from Liverpool for €19 million . At the 2010 FIFA World Cup

sfq_20324--FC_Barcelona.txt

After he left Barcelona, football manager Pep Guardiola went on to manage which European club in 2013?

Chinese culture ( ) is one of the world 's oldest cultures , traces back to thousands and thousands of years ago . The area in which the culture is dominant covers a large geographical region in eastern Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between provinces , cities , and even towns as well . Important components of Chinese culture includes ceramics , architecture , music , literature , martial arts , cuisine , visual arts , philosophy and religion . Identity There are 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in China . In terms of numbers however , Han Chinese is by far the largest group . Throughout history , many groups have merged into neighboring ethnicities or disappeared . At the same time , many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and regional cultural traditions . The term Zhonghua Minzu has been used to describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general . Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the family name . Regional Traditional Chinese Culture covers large geographical territories , where each region is usually divided into distinct sub-cultures . Each region is often represented by three ancestral items . For example , Guangdong is represented by chenpi , aged ginger and hay . Others include ancient cities like Lin'an ( Hangzhou ) , which include tea leaf , bamboo shoot trunk , and hickory nut . Such distinctions give rise to the old Chinese proverb : `` '' ( Shí lǐ bù tóng fēng , bǎi lǐ bù tóng sú ) , literally `` the praxis vary within ten li , customs vary within a hundred li . '' '' Society Structure Since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period , some form of Chinese monarch has been the main ruler above all . Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society . Conceptually each imperial or feudal period is similar , with the government and military officials ranking high in the hierarchy , and the rest of the population under regular Chinese law . From the late Zhou Dynasty ( 1046–256 BCE ) onwards , traditional Chinese society was organized into a hierarchic system of socio-economic classes known as the four occupations . However , this system did not cover all social groups while the distinctions between all groups became blurred ever since the commercialization of Chinese culture in the Song Dynasty ( 960–1279 CE ) . Ancient Chinese education also has a long history ; ever since the Sui Dynasty ( 581–618 CE ) educated candidates prepared for the Imperial examinations which drafted exam graduates into government as scholar-bureaucrats . This led to the creation of a meritocracy , although success was available only to males who could afford test preparation . Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics . Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi , a highly esteemed socio-economic position . A major mythological structure developed around the topic of the mythology of the imperial exams . Trades and crafts were usually taught by a shifu . The female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women in the Han Dynasty and outlined the four virtues women must abide to , while scholars such as Zhu Xi and Cheng Yi would expand upon this . Chinese marriage and Taoist sexual practices are some of the rituals and customs found in society . Values Most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism . The subject of which school was the most influential is always debated as many concepts such as Neo-Confucianism , Buddhism and many others have come about . Reincarnation and other rebirth concept is a reminder of the connection between real-life and the after-life . In Chinese business culture , the concept of guanxi , indicating the primacy of relations over rules , has been well documented . Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China 's history , and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy . A number of more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential , such as Legalism . There was often conflict between the philosophies , e.g . the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism . Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today . In recent years , a number of New Confucians ( not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism ) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian `` Asian values '' . With the rise of European economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century , non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China . Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China 's cultural legacy , while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and European cultures . In essence , the history of 20th-century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social , political , and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse . Language The ancient written standard was Classical Chinese . It was used for thousands of years , but was mostly used by scholars and intellectuals which forms the `` top '' class of the society called `` shi da fu ( 士大夫） '' . It is difficult but possible for ordinary people to become the `` top '' class by passing written exams . Calligraphy later became commercialized , and works by famous artists became prized possessions . Chinese literature has a long past ; the earliest classic work in Chinese , the I Ching or `` Book of Changes '' dates to around 1000 BC . A flourishing of philosophy during the Warring States period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius 's Analects and Laozi 's Tao Te Ching . ( See also : the Chinese classics . ) Dynastic histories were often written , beginning with Sima Qian 's seminal Records of the Grand Historian , which was written from 109 BC to 91 BC . The Tang Dynasty witnessed a poetic flowering , while the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties . Printmaking in the form of movable type was developed during the Song Dynasty . Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form . Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well . Chinese philosophers , writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire . Some classical scholars , however , were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people , often to the displeasure of authorities . At the start of the 20th century , most of the population were still illiterate , and the many mutually-unintelligible language spoken ( Mandarin , Wu , Yue ( Cantonese ) , Min Nan ( Ban-lam-gu ) , Jin , Xiang , Hakka , Gan , Hui , Ping etc . ) in different regions prevented communication with people from other areas . Nevertheless , the written language keeps the communication open and passing the official orders and documentations throughout the entire region of China . Reformers set out to establish a national language , settling on the Beijing-based Mandarin as the spoken form . After the May 4th Movement , Classical Chinese was quickly replaced by written vernacular Chinese , modeled after the vocabulary and grammar of the standard spoken language . Religion and spirituality Chinese religion was originally oriented to worshipping the supreme god Shang Di during the Xia and Shang dynasties , with the king and diviners acting as priests and using oracle bones . The Zhou dynasty oriented it to worshipping the broader concept of heaven . A large part of Chinese culture is based on the notion that a spiritual world exists . Countless methods of divination have helped answer questions , even serving as an alternate to medicine . Folklores have helped fill the gap for things that can not be explained . There is often a blurred line between myth , religion and unexplained phenomenon . While many deities are part of the tradition , some of the most recognized holy figures include Guan Yin , the Jade Emperor and Buddha . Many of the stories have since evolved into traditional Chinese holidays . Other concepts have extended to outside of mythology into spiritual symbols such as Door god and the Imperial guardian lions . Along with the belief of the holy , there is also the evil . Practices such as Taoist exorcism fighting mogwai and jiangshi with peachwood swords are just some of the concepts passed down from generations . A few Chinese fortune telling rituals are still in use today after thousands of years of refinement . Literature The Zhou dynasty is often regarded as the touchstone of Chinese cultural development . Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of subjects including poetry , astrology , astronomy , calendar , constellations and many others . Some of the most important early texts include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics . Many Chinese concepts such as Yin and Yang , Qi , Four Pillars of Destiny in relation to heaven and earth were theorized in the pre-imperial periods . The Song dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature , and saw the creation of works such as Su Song 's Xin Yixiang Fayao and Shen Kuo 's Dream Pool Essays . There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias , such as Sima Guang 's Zizhi Tongjian of 1084 or the Four Great Books of Song fully compiled and edited by the 11th century . Notable Confucianists , Taoists and scholars of all classes have made significant contributions to and from documenting history to authoring saintly concepts that seem hundred of years ahead of time . Many novels such as Four Great Classical Novels spawned countless fictional stories . By the end of the Qing dynasty , Chinese culture would embark on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for the common citizens . Hu Shih and Lu Xun would be pioneers in modern literature . After the founding of the People 's Republic of China , the study of Chinese modern literature has gradually been increased over time . Modern-era literature has formed an aspect in the process of forming modern interpretations of nationhood and creation of a sense of national spirit . Music and Dancing Styles Music and dance were closely associated in the very early periods of China . The music of China dates back to the dawn of Chinese civilization with documents and artifacts providing evidence of a well-developed musical culture as early as the Zhou Dynasty ( 1122 BCE - 256 BCE ) . The earliest music of the Zhou Dynasty recorded in ancient Chinese texts includes the ritual music called yayue and each piece may be associated with a dance . Some of the oldest written music dates back to Confucius 's time . The first major well-documented flowering of Chinese music was exemplified through the popularization of the qin ( plucked instrument with seven strings ) during the Tang Dynasty , although the instrument is known to have played a major role before the Han Dynasty . There are many musical instruments that are integral to Chinese culture , such as the Xun ( Ocarina-type instrument that is also integral in Native American cultures ) , Guzheng ( zither with movable bridges ) , guqin ( bridgeless zither ) , sheng and xiao ( vertical flute ) , the erhu ( alto fiddle or bowed lute ) , pipa ( pear-shaped plucked lute ) , and many others . Arts Different forms of art have swayed under the influence of great philosophers , teachers , religious figures and even political figures . Chinese art encompasses all facets of fine art , folk art and performance art . Porcelain pottery was one of the first forms of art in the Palaeolithic period . Early Chinese music and poetry was influenced by the Book of Songs , and the Chinese poet and statesman Qu Yuan . Chinese painting became a highly appreciated art in court circles encompassing a wide variety of Shan shui with specialized styles such as Ming Dynasty painting . Early Chinese music was based on percussion instruments , which later gave away to stringed and reed instruments . By the Han dynasty papercutting became a new art form after the invention of paper . Chinese opera would also be introduced and branched regionally in addition to other performance formats such as variety arts . Martial arts China is one of the main birth places of Eastern martial arts . Chinese martial arts are collectively given the name Kung Fu ( gong ) `` achievement '' or `` merit '' , and ( fu ) `` man '' , thus `` human achievement '' ) or ( previously and in some modern contexts ) Wushu ( `` martial arts '' or `` military arts '' ) . China also includes the home to the well-respected Shaolin Monastery and Wudang Mountains . The first generation of art started more for the purpose of survival and warfare than art . Over time , some art forms have branched off , while others have retained a distinct Chinese flavor . Regardless , China has produced some of the most renowned martial artists including Wong Fei Hung and many others . The arts have also co-existed with a variety of weapons including the more standard 18 arms . Legendary and controversial moves like Dim Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture . Fashion Different social classes in different eras boast different fashion trends , the color yellow or red was usually reserved for the emperor during China 's Imperial era . China 's fashion history covers hundreds of years with some of the most colorful and diverse arrangements . During the Qing Dynasty , China 's last imperial dynasty , a dramatic shift of clothing occurred , examples of which include the cheongsam ( or qipao in Mandarin ) . The clothing of the era before the Qing Dynasty is referred to as Hanfu or traditional Han Chinese clothing . Many symbols such as phoenix have been used for decorative as well as economic purposes . Architecture Chinese architecture , examples for which can be found from more than 2,000 years ago , is almost as old as Chinese civilization and has long been an important hallmark of Chinese culture . There are certain features common to Chinese architecture , regardless of specific regions , different provinces or use . The most important is its emphasis on width , such as the wide halls of the Forbidden City serve as an example . In contrast , Western architecture tends to emphasize height ( though exceptions such as pagodas in Eastern architecture also focus on height ) . Another important feature is symmetry , which connotes a sense of grandeur as it applies to everything from palaces to farmhouses . One notable exception is in the design of gardens , which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible . Like Chinese scroll paintings , the principle underlying the garden 's composition is to create enduring flow , to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription , as in nature herself . Feng shui has played a very important part in structural development . Chinese architecture also have a huge influence on the architecture of East Asia , and to a lesser extent , Southeast Asia as well . Cuisine The overwhelmingly large variety of Chinese cuisine comes mainly from the practice of dynastic period , when emperors would host banquets with over 100 dishes per meal . A countless number of imperial kitchen staff and concubines were involved in the food preparation process . Over time , many dishes became part of the everyday-citizen culture . Some of the highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant in Beihai Park Beijing and the Oriole Pavilion . Arguably all branches of Hong Kong eastern style are in some ways rooted from the original dynastic cuisines . Tea culture Chinese Tea culture refers to how tea is prepared as well as the occasions when people consume tea in China . Tea culture in China differs from that in European countries like Britain and other Asian countries like Japan in preparation , taste , and occasion wherein it is consumed . Even today , tea is consumed regularly , both at casual and formal occasions . In addition to being a popular beverage , tea is used in traditional Chinese medicine , as well as in Chinese cuisine . Green tea is one of the main worldwide teas originating in China . Leisure A number of games and pastimes are popular within Chinese culture . The most common game is Mah Jong . The same pieces are used for other styled games such as Shanghai Solitaire . Others include pai gow , pai gow poker and other bone domino games . Weiqi and xiangqi are also popular . Ethnic games like Chinese yo-yo are also part of the culture where it is performed during social events . Qigong pronounced ( Chi Kung ) is the practice of spiritual , physical , and medical techniques . It is as a form of exercise and although it is commonly used among the elderly , any one of any age can practice it during their free time . With its combination of physical flexibility and movement , breathing technique , and constant state of focus and mediation , it has also been a way to cleanse and heal the body and helps get in touch with your inner-self . Qigong has continuous rhythmic movements that help reduce stress and build stamina as well as to improve certain functions of our body such as cardiovascular and digestive . Gallery File : Beijingreddoorpic2.jpg|A traditional red Chinese door with Imperial guardian lion knocker , resembling number 8 ( good luck or fortune ) in Chinese culture . File : Journey.jpg|18th-century Chinese illustration of a scene from Journey to the West ( 西游记 ) . Top left to right : Tang Sanzang and Sun Wukong , bottom left : Zhu Bajie . File : Incense taiwan temple fu dog.jpg|The Chinese Dragon , Guardian Lions and incense comprise three symbols within traditional Chinese culture . File : HappygoldfishAstorCourt.jpg|A koi pond is a signature Chinese scenery depicted in countless works of art . File : WLA brooklynmuseum Arita Ware Large Plate in Wan Li Style.jpg|A Qinghuaci ware , ca . 1680 . File : Pine , Plum and Cranes.jpg|Pine , Plum and Cranes , 1759 AD , painting by Shen Quan ( 1682–1760 ) . Hanging scroll , ink and colour on silk . The Palace Museum , Beijing . File : Jichang Yuan.jpg|Jichang Garden in Wuxi ( 1506-1521 ) , built during the Ming Dynasty , is an exemplary work of Chinese gardening art . File : Renxiong wan04s.jpg|No . 4 of Ten Thousand Scenes ( 十萬圖之四 ) . Painting by Ren Xiong , a pioneer of the Shanghai School of Chinese art circa 1850 . File : Chinese tea set and three gaiwan.jpg|A traditional Chinese tea culture ( 茶藝 ) set and three gaiwan . File : Beijing opera mask.jpg|A mask used in Peking opera .

qw_601--Chinese_culture.txt

What board game for two players is known as wiq in Chinese and baduk in Korean?

Paul Gardner Allen ( born January 21 , 1953 ) is an American businessman , philanthropist , investor , musician , and innovator , best known as the co-founder of Microsoft , alongside Bill Gates . As of March 2016 , he was estimated to be the 45th richest person in the world , with an estimated wealth of $ 17.7 billion . Allen is the founder and Chief Executive Officer of Vulcan Inc. , which manages his various business and philanthropic efforts . Allen also has a multibillion-dollar investment portfolio including technology and media companies , real estate holdings , and stakes in other companies . He owns two professional sports teams , the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League and the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association . He is also part-owner of the Seattle Sounders FC , which in 2009 , joined Major League Soccer . He is also the founder of Allen Institute for Brain Science , Institute for Artificial Intelligence , Institute for Cell Science and Vulcan Aerospace . Early life and education Paul Allen was born on January 21 , 1953 in Seattle , Washington to Kenneth Sam Allen and Edna Faye ( née Gardner ) Allen . Allen attended Lakeside School , a private school in Seattle , where he befriended Bill Gates , three years younger , with whom he shared an enthusiasm for computers . They used Lakeside 's Teletype terminal to develop their programming skills on several time-sharing computer systems . After graduation , Allen went to Washington State University , where he joined Phi Kappa Theta fraternity , but dropped out after two years in order to work as a programmer for Honeywell in Boston , near where Bill Gates had ended up as well . Allen later convinced Gates to drop out of Harvard University in order to create Microsoft . Microsoft In Albuquerque , New Mexico , Paul Allen with his friend Bill Gates , in 1975 , began marketing a BASIC programming language interpreter . Allen came up with the original name of `` Micro-Soft , '' as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article . In 1980 , after promising to deliver IBM a Disk Operating System ( DOS ) they had not yet developed for the Intel 8088-based IBM PC , Allen spearheaded a deal for Microsoft to purchase a Quick and Dirty Operating System ( QDOS ) which was written by Tim Paterson who , at the time , was employed at Seattle Computer Products . As a result of this transaction , Microsoft was able to secure a contract to supply the DOS that would eventually run on IBM 's PC line . This contract with IBM was the watershed in Microsoft history that led to Allen 's and Gates ' wealth and success . Allen effectively left Microsoft in 1982 due to serious illness . Allen officially resigned from his position on the Microsoft board of directors in November 2000 but was asked to consult as a senior strategy advisor to the company 's executives and still owns a reported 100 million shares . Business ventures and investments Financial and technology * Vulcan Capital is an investment-arm of Allen 's Seattle-based Vulcan Inc. , which manages his personal fortune . In 2013 , Allen opened a new Vulcan Capital office in Palo Alto , California to focus on making new investments in emerging technology and internet companies . Recent investments include Redfin , Decide.com and Audience Inc . * Patents : Paul Allen holds 43 patents from the United States Patent and Trademark Office . * Apps : Allen backed A.R.O. , the startup behind the mobile app Saga ; SportStream , a social app for sports fans ; and a content-management app called Fayve . * Interval Research Corporation : In 1992 , Allen and David Liddle co-founded Interval Research Corporation , a Silicon Valley-based laboratory and new business incubator that was dissolved in 2000 after generating over 300 patents , four of which were the subject of Allen 's August 2010 patent infringement lawsuit against AOL , Apple , eBay , Facebook , Google , Netflix , Office Depot , OfficeMax , Staples , Yahoo ! , and YouTube . * Ticketmaster : In 1993 , Paul Allen invested $ 243 million to acquire 80 % of Ticketmaster . In 1997 , Home Shopping Network acquired 47.5 % of Allen 's stock for $ 209 million worth of HSN stock . Aerospace Allen confirmed that he was the sole investor behind Burt Rutan 's Scaled Composites ' SpaceShipOne suborbital commercial spacecraft on October 4 , 2004 . SpaceShipOne climbed to an altitude of 377591 ft and was the first privately funded effort to successfully put a civilian in suborbital space . It won the Ansari X Prize competition and received the $ 10 million prize . On December 13 , 2011 , Allen announced the creation of Stratolaunch Systems . Stratolaunch is a proposed orbital launch system consisting of a dual-bodied , 6 engine jet aircraft , capable of carrying a rocket to high altitude ; the rocket would then separate from its carrier aircraft and fire its own engines to complete its climb into orbit . If successful , this project would be the first wholly privately funded space transport system . Stratolaunch , which is partnering with Orbital Sciences Corporation and Scaled Composites , is intended to launch in inclement weather , fly without worrying about the availability of launch pads and to operate from different locations . Stratolaunch plans to ultimately host six to ten missions per year . On April 13 , 2015 , Vulcan Aerospace was announced . It is the company within Paul Allen 's Vulcan Inc. that plans and executes projects to shift how the world conceptualizes space travel through cost reduction and on-demand access . File : SpaceShipOne Takeoff photo D Ramey Logan.jpg|SpaceShipOne Takeoff photo File : Launch of the Rockets on SpaceShipOne photo D Ramey Logan.jpg|Launch of the Rockets on SpaceShipOne File : SS1Group01.jpg| ( L-R ) Marion Blakely , '' Mike '' Melvill , Sir Richard Branson , `` Burt '' Rutan , Brian Binnie and Paul G. Allen reflect on a mission accomplished in 2004 . File : Ansari X-Prize Check.jpg|Paul Allen ( third from right ) and Burt Rutan ( fifth from right ) were presented with the Ansari X PRIZE by members of the X PRIZE Foundation in 2004 . File : SpaceShipOne.jpg|SpaceShipOne can now be found at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum . Real estate Allen 's Vulcan Real Estate division offers development and portfolio management services , and is known for the redevelopment of the South Lake Union neighborhood immediately north of downtown Seattle . Vulcan has developed 6.3 million square feet of new residential , office , retail and biotechnology research space and has a total development capacity of 10,000,000 square feet ( 930,000 m2 ) . Vulcan advocated for the Seattle Streetcar line known as South Lake Union Streetcar , which runs from Seattle 's Westlake Center to the south end of Lake Union . In 2012 , The Wall Street Journal called Allen 's South Lake Union investment `` unexpectedly lucrative '' and one that led to his firm selling a 1,800,000 square feet ( 170,000 m2 ) office complex to Amazon.com for US $ 1.16 billion , one of the most expensive office deals ever in Seattle . `` It 's exceeded my expectations , '' Mr. Allen said of the South Lake Union development . Venues * Sports and event centers : Allen invested more than $ 150 million in Portland 's Moda Center , which he now owns outright . He also contributed more than $ 140 million to help build CenturyLink Field in Seattle . * Seattle Cinerama : Allen purchased Seattle 's historic Cinerama Theater in 1998 , and upgraded it with 3-D capability and digital sound , in addition to interior and exterior refurbishing . The theater installed the world 's first commercial digital laser projector in 2014 . * Hospital Club : Allen opened the Hospital Club in London in 2002 as a professional and social hub for people working in the creative arts . Sports team ownership Portland Trail Blazers Allen purchased the Portland Trail Blazers NBA team in 1988 from California real estate developer Larry Weinberg for $ 70 million . He was instrumental in the development and funding of the Moda Center ( previously known as the Rose Garden ) , the arena where the Blazers play . He purchased the arena on April 2 , 2007 , and stated that this was a major milestone and a positive step for the franchise . Since taking over the franchise , the Allen-owned Trail Blazers have reached the playoffs 19 times including the NBA Finals in 1990 and 1992 ( As of July 2015 ) According to Forbes , the Blazers were valued at $ 940 million in 2015 and ranked No . 12 out of 30 NBA teams . Seattle Seahawks Allen purchased the Seattle Seahawks NFL team in 1996 when former owner Ken Behring threatened to move the Seahawks to Southern California . Herman Sarkowsky , a former Seahawks minority owner , told The Seattle Times about Allen 's decision to buy the team , `` I 'm not sure anybody else in this community would have done what [ Allen ] did . '' The Seahawks are valued at $ 1.33 billion in August 2014 by Forbes , which says the team has `` one of the most rabid fan bases in the NFL . '' Under the helm of Allen , the Seahawks have been to the Super Bowl three times winning Super Bowl XLVIII and have won three NFC Championships ( 2005 , 2013 , 2014 ) . Seattle Sounders FC Allen 's Vulcan Sports & Entertainment is part of the ownership team of the Seattle Sounders FC , a Major League Soccer ( MLS ) franchise that began play in 2009 at CenturyLink Field , a stadium also controlled by Allen . The ownership team also includes film producer Joe Roth , businessman Adrian Hanauer , and comedian Drew Carey . The Sounders sold out every home game during its first season , setting a new MLS record for average match attendance and the most season tickets sold in the league . Seattle Sounders FC is only the second expansion team in MLS history to win the U.S. Open Cup tournament in its first season . Filmmaking Paul Allen and his sister Jody Allen are the owners and executive producers of Vulcan Productions , a television and film production company headquartered in Seattle within the entertainment division of Vulcan Inc. Their films have received various recognition , ranging from a Peabody to Independent Spirit Awards , Grammys and Emmys . In 2014 alone , Allen 's film , We The Economy , won 12 awards including a Webby award for best Online News & Politics Series . The films have also been nominated for Golden Globes and Academy Awards among many others . Vulcan Productions ' films and documentary projects include Far from Heaven ( 2002 ) , Hard Candy ( 2005 ) , Rx for Survival : A Global Health Challenge ( 2005 ) , Where God Left His Shoes ( 2006 ) , Judgment Day : Intelligent Design on Trial ( 2007 ) , This Emotional Life ( 2010 ) , We The Economy ( 2014 ) Racing Extinction ( 2015 ) and Oscar-nominated Body Team 12 ( 2015 ) . In 2013 , Vulcan Productions co-produced the Richard E. Robbins-directed film Girl Rising which tells the stories of girls from different parts of the world who seek an education . Globally over 205 million households watched Girl Rising during the CNN and CNN International premieres , and over 4 million people have engaged with Girl Rising through websites and social media . Through the associated 10x10 program , over $ 2.1 million has been donated to help girls receive an education worldwide . Also in 2013 , Vulcan Productions signed on as a producing partner of Pandora 's Promise , a documentary about nuclear power , directed by Oscar-nominated director Robert Stone . It was released in select theaters nationwide June 12 , 2013 and on CNN on November 7 , 2013 . A variety of college and private screenings as well as panel discussions have been hosted throughout the country . Philanthropy Paul Allen has given more than $ 2 billion towards the advancement of science , technology , education , wildlife conservation , the arts and community services in his lifetime . The Paul G. Allen Family Foundation was established to administer a portion of Allen 's philanthropic contributions . Since its formation , the foundation has given more than $ 494 million to over 1,500 nonprofits and in 2010 , Allen became a signatory of The Giving Pledge , promising to give at least half of his fortune to philanthropic causes . Allen has received commendations for his philanthropic commitments including the Andrew Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy and Inside Philanthropy 's `` Philanthropist of the Year . '' Science and research In September 2003 , Allen launched the Allen Institute for Brain Science with a $ 100 million contribution dedicated to understanding how the human brain works . In total , Paul Allen has donated $ 500 million to the institute , making it his single largest philanthropic recipient . Since its launch , the Allen Institute for Brain Science has taken a Big Science and Open Science approach to tackle projects . The institute makes research tools available to the scientific community using an open data model . Some of the institute 's most notable projects include the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas , Allen Human Brain Atlas and the Allen Mouse Brain Connectivity Atlas . The Allen Institute is also helping to advance and shape the White House 's BRAIN Initiative as well as the Human Brain Project . Founded in 2014 , the Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence ( AI2 ) main focus is to research and engineer artificial intelligence . The Institute is modeled after the Allen Institute for Brain Science and led by researcher and professor , Dr. Oren Etzioni . AI2 has undertaken four main projects , Aristo , Semantic Scholar , Euclid and Plato . Project Aristo is working to build an AI system capable of passing an 8th grade science exam . In December 2014 , Allen committed $ 100 million to create the Allen Institute for Cell Science in Seattle . The institute is investigating and creating a virtual model of cells in the hope of bringing forth treatment of different diseases . Like the institutes before it , all data generated and tools developed will be made publicly available online . Launched in 2016 with a $ 100 million commitment , The Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group aims to discover and support ideas at the frontier of bioscience in an effort accelerate the pace of discovery . The group is led by Tom Skalak and will be targeting scientists and research areas that ″some might consider out-of-the-box at the very edges of knowledge.″ Allen launched the Allen Distinguished Investigators Awards ( ADI ) in 2010 to support scientists pursuing early-stage research projects who often have difficulty securing funding from traditional sources . The ADI grant program backs pioneering researchers in the areas of emerging life sciences technology to cellular decision-making and neural engineering with the intent that research made possible by these grants will advance each respective field . Paul Allen donated the seed money to build SETI 's Allen Telescope Array , eventually contributing $ 30 million to the project . Allen has a flower fly named after him for his contributions to Dipterology , called Paul Allen 's flower fly . Environment and conservation Allen has bankrolled a range of wildlife conservation projects over the past several years , including contributing millions in direct gifts and grants to program , projects , initiatives and charities . By marrying technology development with philanthropic interests , he is working to address the trafficking of endangered species and ensure stable or thriving generations of wild animals . Allen provided more than $ 7 million to fund the census , the largest pan-African aerial survey since the 1970s . The Great Elephant Census team is flying over 20 countries to survey the African savannah elephants with hopes that the accurate and up-to-date data will spur immediate protective actions and long-term conservation management plans . Allen began supporting the University of British Columbia 's Sea Around Us Project in 2014 to improve data on global fisheries as a way to fight illegal fishing . Part of his $ 2.6 million in funding will go to create FishBase , an online database about adult finfish . Launched in July 2015 , Paul Allen is funding the Global FinPrint initiative , a three-year survey of sharks and rays in coral reef areas . The survey is the largest of its kind and designed to provide data to help conservation programs . The initiative is a partnership between Allen 's Vulcan Inc , Stony Brook University , Florida International University , James Cook University and the Australian Institute of Marine Sciences . Survey results will be made available in summer 2018 . Allen backed Washington state initiative 1401 to prohibit the purchase , sale and distribution of products made from 10 endangered species including elephants , rhinos , lions , tigers , leopards , cheetahs , marine turtles , pangolins , sharks and rays . The initiative gained enough signatures to be on the state 's ballot on November 3 , 2015 , and passed . Alongside the United States Department of Transportation , Allen and Vulcan Inc. launched the Smart City Challenge , a contest inviting American cities to transform their transportation systems . Created in 2015 with USDOT 's $ 40 million commitment as well as $ 10 million from Allen 's Vulcan Inc. , the challenge aims to create a first-of-its-kind modern city that will demonstrate how cities can improve quality of life while lowering greenhouse gas emissions . The winning city will be named in June 2016 . Created in 2015 , the Smart Catch program is designed for chefs by chefs to recognize and promote restaurants serving sustainable seafood . The program right now is being used by over 80 restaurants in Seattle . As a founding member of the International SeaKeepers Society , Paul Allen hosts its proprietary SeaKeeper 1000TM oceanographic and atmospheric monitoring system on all three of his megayachts . Paul Allen also has a long history of investing in Africa . Including the following : * Microgrids , Paul Allen is currently funding the building of microgrids , which are small-scale power grids that can operate independently , in Kenya to help promote reusable energy and empower its businesses and residents . * Wireless broadband , Allen was an early investor in the Mawingu Networks , a wireless and solar-powered Internet provider which aims to connect rural Africa with the world . * Off Grid Electric , a company focused on providing solar energy to people in emerging nations , Allen 's investment is giving Tanzanians the ability to access electrical service for a very little cost . Ebola In 2014 , Paul Allen pledged at least $ 100 million toward the fight to end the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa , making him the largest private donor in the Ebola crisis . He also created a website called TackleEbola.org as a way to spread awareness as well as serve as a way donors can fund projects in need . The site additionally highlights organizations working to stop Ebola that Allen supports such as International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement , Médecins Sans Frontières , Partners in Health , UNICEF and World Food Program USA . On April 21 , 2015 , Allen brought together key leaders in the Ebola fight at the Ebola Innovation Summit in San Francisco . The summit aimed to share key learnings and reinforce the need for continued action and support to bring the number of Ebola cases down to zero . As part of his ongoing commitment to end the Ebola outbreak in West Africa , the Paul Allen Foundation partnered with the United States Department of State and MRIGlobal to develop a new first of its kind medevac biocontainment units . These units will be used by the U.S. State Department to help safely evacuate healthcare workers who might fall ill to infectious diseases such as Ebola . In October 2015 , the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation announced it would award seven new grants totaling $ 11 million to prevent future widespread outbreaks of the virus . The arts Over the years , Paul Allen has established several non-profit community institutions that feature his private collections of historic artifacts . These include : * EMP Museum , a collection of rock 'n ' roll and pop culture exhibits inside a Frank Gehry-designed building at Seattle Center , established in 2000 . The EMP Museum also houses the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame . * Flying Heritage Collection , which showcases restored vintage military aircraft and armaments primarily from the World War II era , established in 2004 . * STARTUP Gallery , a permanent exhibit at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science in Albuquerque dedicated to the history of the microcomputer , established in 2007 . * Living Computer Museum , a collection of vintage computers in working order and available for interactive sessions on-site or through networked access , opened to the public in 2012 . An active art collector , Paul Allen has gifted more than $ 100 million to support the arts . On October 15 , 2012 , the Americans for the Arts awarded Allen with the Eli and Edythe Broad Award for Philanthropy in the Arts . Allen has also loaned out more than 300 pieces from his private art collection to 47 different venues . In 2013 , Allen sold Barnett Newman 's Onement VI ( 1953 ) at Sotheby 's in New York for $ 43.8 million , surpassing its estimate of $ 30 million to $ 40 million . In 2015 , Allen founded the Seattle Art Fair , a four-day event with 60+ galleries from around the world including works from the Gagosian Gallery , David Zwirner and many others . The event drew thousands and inspired other satellite fairs throughout the city . Also in 2015 , Allen announced that he 'd be opening up Pivot Art + Culture , a gallery that will be located in the new Allen Institute for Brain Science building . The gallery is scheduled to open in the winter of 2015 . Education In 1989 , Paul Allen donated $ 2 million to the University of Washington to construct the Allen Library , which was named after his father Kenneth S. Allen , a former associate director of the University of Washington library system . In the same year , Allen donated an additional $ 8 million to establish the Kenneth S. Allen Library Endowment . In 2012 , the endowment was renamed the Kenneth S. and Faye G. Allen Library Endowment after Allen 's mother ( a noted bibliophile ) died . In 2002 , Allen donated $ 14 million to the University of Washington to construct the Paul G. Allen Center for Computer Science and Engineering . The building was dedicated in October 2003 . In 2010 , Allen announced a gift of $ 26 million to build the Paul G. Allen School of Global Animal Health at Washington State University , his alma mater . The gift is the largest private donation in the university 's history . Personal life Allen was diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma in 1982 . His cancer was successfully treated by several months of radiation therapy . Allen has never married and has no children . He has been , at times , reclusive . Music Paul Allen received his first electric guitar at the age of sixteen , and was inspired to play it by listening to Jimi Hendrix . In 2000 , Allen played rhythm guitar on the independently-produced and eponymous album Grown Men . In 2013 , he had a major label release on Sony 's Legacy Recordings ; Everywhere at Once by Paul Allen and the Underthinkers . PopMatters.com described Everywhere at Once as `` a quality release of blues-rock that 's enjoyable from start to finish . '' Yachting and treasure hunting The launch of Paul Allen 's 414 ft yacht , Octopus , secured its position as one of the world 's largest yachts in 2003 . As of 2013 , it is 14th in the list of motor yachts by length . The yacht is equipped with two helicopters , a submarine , an ROV , a swimming pool , a music studio and a basketball court . Allen has loaned Octopus for a number of operations . Most notably , Octopus was used in the search for a missing American pilot and two officers whose plane disappeared off Palau and the study of a rare fish called a coelacanth among many others . In 2012 , Allen along with the Royal Navy attempted to retrieve the bell from , which sank in the Denmark Strait during World War II , as a national memorial . In March 2015 , an Allen-led research team found the in the Sibuyan Sea off the coast of the Philippines . Musashi and her sister ship were two of the largest and most technologically impressive battleships in naval history . On August 7 , 2015 , Allen and his research team along with the Royal Navy went back again to the site of HMS Hood and recovered the bell . The bell will be restored and given to the British Royal Navy to memorialize the 1,415 men lost at sea . Octopus is a member of AMVER , a voluntary group ship reporting system used worldwide by authorities to arrange assistance for those in distress at sea . The ship is also known for its annual celebrity-studded parties hosted at Cannes film festival , where Allen and his band play for guests . These performances have included musicians such as Usher and Dave Stewart . Allen also owns Meduse and Tatoosh , which is one of the world 's 100 largest yachts . In January 2016 , it was reported that Tatoosh allegedly damaged coral in the Cayman Islands . In April 2016 , the Department of Environment ( DoE ) and Allen 's Vulcan Inc. successfully completed a restoration plan to help speed recovery and protect the future of coral in this area . Awards and recognition Paul Allen has received various awards recognizing many different areas including sports , philanthropy , and the arts : * On March 9 , 2005 , Paul Allen , Burt Rutan , and the SpaceShipOne team were awarded the 2005 National Air and Space Museum Trophy for Current Achievement . * In 2007 and 2008 , Allen was listed among the Time 100 Most Influential People in The World . * He received the Vanguard Award from the National Cable & Telecommunications Association on May 20 , 2008 . * On October 30 , 2008 , the Seattle-King County Association of Realtors honored Allen for his `` unwavering commitment to nonprofit organizations in the Pacific Northwest and lifetime giving approaching US $ 1 billion . '' * In 2009 , Allen 's philanthropy as the long-time owner of the Trail Blazers was recognized with an Oregon Sports Award * On October 26 , 2010 , Paul Allen was awarded the W.J.S . Krief Lifetime Achievement Award for his contributions to the field of neuroscience by the Cajal Club . * On January 26 , 2011 at Seattle 's Benaroya Hall , Paul Allen was named Seattle Sports Commission Sports Citizen of the Year , an award that has been renamed the Paul Allen Award . * In 2011 , Paul Allen was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . * On October 15 , 2012 , Allen received the Eli and Edythe Broad Award for Philanthropy in the Arts at the National Arts Awards . * On February 2 , 2014 , Allen received a Super Bowl ring as the Seattle Seahawks won the Vince Lombardi Trophy .

qg_3302--Paul_Allen.txt

Prior to selling the team to current owner Paul Allen, which California real estate developer pissed off most of the Northwest when he tried to move the team to Anaheim?

The earliest known working telescopes appeared in 1608 and are credited to Hans Lippershey . Among many others who claimed to have made the discovery were Zacharias Janssen , a spectacle-maker in Middelburg , and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar . The design of these early refracting telescopes consisted of a convex objective lens and a concave eyepiece . Galileo used this design the following year . In 1611 , Johannes Kepler described how a telescope could be made with a convex objective lens and a convex eyepiece lens and by 1655 astronomers such as Christiaan Huygens were building powerful but unwieldy Keplerian telescopes with compound eyepieces . Hans Lippershey is the earliest person documented to have applied for a patent for the device . Isaac Newton is credited with building the first `` practical '' reflector in 1668 with a design that incorporated a small flat diagonal mirror to reflect the light to an eyepiece mounted on the side of the telescope . Laurent Cassegrain in 1672 described the design of a reflector with a small convex secondary mirror to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror . The achromatic lens , which greatly reduced color aberrations in objective lenses and allowed for shorter and more functional telescopes , first appeared in a 1733 telescope made by Chester Moore Hall , who did not publicize it . John Dollond learned of Hall 's invention and began producing telescopes using it in commercial quantities , starting in 1758 . Important developments in reflecting telescopes were John Hadley 's production of larger paraboloidal mirrors in 1721 ; the process of silvering glass mirrors introduced by Léon Foucault in 1857 ; and the adoption of long lasting aluminized coatings on reflector mirrors in 1932. the Ritchey-Chretien variant of Cassegrain reflector was invented around 1910 , but not widely adopted until after 1950 ; many modern telescopes including the Hubble Space Telescope use this design , which gives a wider field of view than a classic Cassegrain . During the period 1850-1900 , reflectors suffered from problems with speculum metal mirrors , and a considerable number of `` Great Refractors '' were built from 60 cm to 1 metre aperture , culminating in the Yerkes Observatory refractor in 1897 ; however , starting from the early 1900s a series of ever-larger reflectors with glass mirrors were built , including the Mount Wilson 60-inch , the 100-inch ( 2.5 metre ) Hooker Telescope ( 1917 ) and the 200-inch ( 5 metre ) Hale telescope ( 1948 ) ; essentially all major research telescopes since 1900 have been reflectors . A number of 4-metre class ( 160 inch ) telescopes were built on superior higher altitude sites including Hawaii and the Chilean desert in the 1975-1985 era . The development of the computer-controlled alt-azimuth mount in the 1970s and active optics in the 1980s enabled a new generation of even larger telescopes , starting with the 10-metre ( 400 inch ) Keck telescopes in 1993/1996 , and a number of 8-metre telescopes including the ESO Very Large Telescope , Gemini Observatory and Subaru Telescope . The era of radio telescopes ( along with radio astronomy ) was born with Karl Guthe Jansky 's serendipitous discovery of an astronomical radio source in 1931 . Many types of telescopes were developed in the 20th century for a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays . The development of space observatories after 1960 allowed access to several bands impossible to observe from the ground , including X-rays and longer wavelength infrared bands . Optical telescopes Invention Optical foundations Lenses and their properties were known well before the invention of the optical telescope ; simple lenses made from rock crystal have been known from before recorded history . Ptolemy ( in his work Optics written in the 2nd century AD ) wrote about the properties of light including reflection , refraction , and color . During the 10th century , the Persian scholar Ibn Sahl , was to make some of the most refined descriptions in respect to optics at the time . It was approximately from the 12th century in Europe that 'reading stones ' ( magnifying lenses placed on the reading material ) were well documented—as well as the use of lenses as burning glasses . It is generally considered that spectacles for correcting long sightedness with convex lenses were invented in Northern Italy in the late 13th to early 14th century , and the invention of the use of concave lenses to correct near-sightedness is ascribed to Nicholas of Cusa in 1451 . Thus , early knowledge of lenses and the availability of lenses for spectacles from the 13th century onwards through the 16th century means that it was possible for many individuals to discover the principles of a telescope using a combination of concave or concave and convex lenses ; in the 13th century , Robert Grosseteste wrote several scientific treatises between 1230 and 1235 , including De Iride ( Concerning the Rainbow ) , in which he said : Roger Bacon was a pupil of Grosseteste at Oxford , and is frequently stated as having described a magnifying device in the 13th century , however it is not certain if he built a working model . Pre 17th century developments There is some documentary evidence , but no surviving designs or physical evidence , that the principles of telescopes were known in the late 16th century . Writings by John Dee and Thomas Digges in England in 1570 and 1571 , respectively ascribe the use of both reflecting and refracting telescopes to Thomas ' father Leonard Digges , and it is independently confirmed by a report by William Bourne in approximately 1580 . They may have been experimental devices and were never widely reported or reproduced . Thomas Digges describes his father 's device as follows : Although Digges may have created a rudimentary instrument involving lenses and mirrors , the optical performance required to see the details of coins lying about in fields , or private activities seven miles away , was far beyond the technology of the time . In Italy , Giambattista della Porta also described a possible telescope as early as 1586 when he wrote in a letter , '' ... to make glasses that can recognize a man several miles away . '' In his Natural Magic published in 1589 he wrote : Della Porta was preoccupied with other things at the time and thought the idea of a `` telescope '' unimportant . Similar claims have been made about the Catalan Juan Roget ( died before 1624 ) inventing early telescope-like devices . The first known telescopes The practical exploitation of the instrument was certainly achieved and came to public attention in the Netherlands at about 1608 , but the credit of the original invention has been claimed on behalf of three individuals : Hans Lippershey and Sacharias Jansen—spectacle-makers in Middelburg , and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar ( also known as Jacob Adriaanszoon ) . Hans Lippershey was credited with creating and disseminating designs for the first practical telescope—later applying to the States General of the Netherlands on October 2 , 1608 , for a patent for an instrument `` for seeing things far away as if they were nearby , '' ( beating Jacob Metius 's patent by a few weeks ) . Lippershey failed to receive a patent since the same claim for invention had been made by other spectacle-makers . Lippershey was handsomely rewarded by the Dutch government for copies of his design . The original Dutch telescopes were composed of a convex and a concave lens—telescopes that are constructed this way do not invert the image . Lippershey 's original design had only 3x magnification . Telescopes seem to have been made in the Netherlands in considerable numbers soon after the date of their invention , and rapidly found their way all over Europe . Galileo happened to be in Venice in June 1609 and there heard of the `` Dutch perspective glass '' by means of which distant objects appeared nearer and larger . Galileo states that he solved the problem of the construction of a telescope the first night after his return to Padua from Venice and made his first telescope the next day by fitting a convex lens in one extremity of a leaden tube and a concave lens in the other one . A few days afterwards , having succeeded in making a better telescope than the first , he took it to Venice where he communicated the details of his invention to the public and presented the instrument itself to the doge Leonardo Donato , who was sitting in full council . The senate in return settled him for life in his lectureship at Padua and doubled his salary . Galileo devoted his time to improving and perfecting the telescope and soon succeeded in producing telescopes of greatly increased power . His first telescope magnified three diameters , but he soon made instruments which magnified eight diameters and finally , one that magnified thirty-three diameters . With this last instrument , he discovered in 1610 the satellites of Jupiter and soon afterwards the spots on the sun , the phases of Venus , and the hills and valleys on the Moon . In this last achievement he now appears to have been preceded by Thomas Harriot who made the first drawings of the moon with the aid of a telescope in July 1609 . Galileo demonstrated the revolution of the satellites of Jupiter around the planet and gave rough predictions of their configurations , proved the rotation of the Sun on its axis and established the general truth of the Copernican system as compared with that of Ptolemy . Galileo 's instrument was the first to be given the name `` telescope '' . The name was invented by the Greek poet/theologian Giovanni Demisiani at a banquet held on April 14 , 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo Galilei a member of the Accademia dei Lincei . The word was created from the Greek tele 'far ' and skopein 'to look or see ' ; teleskopos = 'far-seeing ' . These brilliant achievements , together with Galileo 's immense improvement of the instrument , overshadowed to a great degree the credit due to the original inventor , and led to the universal adoption of the name of the Galilean telescope for the form of the instrument invented by Lippershey . Further refinements Refracting telescopes Johannes Kepler first explained the theory and some of the practical advantages of a telescope constructed of two convex lenses in his Catoptrics ( 1611 ) . The first person who actually constructed a telescope of this form was the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner who gives a description of it in his Rosa Ursina ( 1630 ) . William Gascoigne was the first who commanded a chief advantage of the form of telescope suggested by Kepler : that a small material object could be placed at the common focal plane of the objective and the eyepiece . This led to his invention of the micrometer , and his application of telescopic sights to precision astronomical instruments . It was not till about the middle of the 17th century that Kepler 's telescope came into general use : not so much because of the advantages pointed out by Gascoigne , but because its field of view was much larger than in the Galilean telescope . The first powerful telescopes of Keplerian construction were made by Christiaan Huygens after much labor—in which his brother assisted him . With one of these : an objective diameter of and a 12 ft focal length , he discovered the brightest of Saturn 's satellites ( Titan ) in 1655 ; in 1659 , he published his `` Systema Saturnium '' which , for the first time , gave a true explanation of Saturn 's ring—founded on observations made with the same instrument . Long focal length refractors The sharpness of the image in Kepler 's telescope was limited by the chromatic aberration introduced by the non-uniform refractive properties of the objective lens . The only way to overcome this limitation at high magnifying powers was to create objectives with very long focal lengths . Giovanni Cassini discovered Saturn 's fifth satellite ( Rhea ) in 1672 with a telescope 35 ft long . Astronomers such as Johannes Hevelius were constructing telescopes with focal lengths as long as 150 ft . Besides having really long tubes these telescopes needed scaffolding or long masts and cranes to hold them up . Their value as research tools was minimal since the telescope 's frame `` tube '' flexed and vibrated in the slightest breeze and sometimes collapsed altogether . Aerial telescopes In some of the very long refracting telescopes constructed after 1675 , no tube was employed at all . The objective was mounted on a swiveling ball-joint on top of a pole , tree , or any available tall structure and aimed by means of string or connecting rod . The eyepiece was handheld or mounted on a stand at the focus , and the image was found by trial and error . These were consequently termed aerial telescopes . and have been attributed to Christiaan Huygens and his brother Constantijn Huygens , Jr. although it is not clear that they invented it . Christiaan Huygens and his brother made objectives up to diameter and 210 ft focal length and others such as Adrien Auzout made telescopes with focal lengths up to 600 ft. Telescopes of such great length were naturally difficult to use and must have taxed to the utmost the skill and patience of the observers . Aerial telescopes were employed by several other astronomers . Cassini discovered Saturn 's third and fourth satellites in 1684 with aerial telescope objectives made by Giuseppe Campani that were 100 and in focal length . Reflecting telescopes The ability of a curved mirror to form an image may have been known since the time of Euclid and had been extensively studied by Alhazen in the 11th century . Galileo , Giovanni Francesco Sagredo , and others , spurred on by their knowledge that curved mirrors had similar properties to lenses , discussed the idea of building a telescope using a mirror as the image forming objective . Niccolò Zucchi , an Italian Jesuit astronomer and physicist , wrote in his book Optica pilosophia of 1652 that he tried replacing the lens of a refracting telescope with a bronze concave mirror in 1616 . Zucchi tried looking into the mirror with a hand held concave lens but did not get a satisfactory image , possibly due to the poor quality of the mirror , the angle it was tilted at , or the fact that his head partially obstructed the image . In 1636 Marin Mersenne proposed a telescope consisting of a paraboloidal primary mirror and a paraboloidal secondary mirror bouncing the image through a hole in the primary , solving the problem of viewing the image . James Gregory went into further detail in his book Optica Promota ( 1663 ) , pointing out that a reflecting telescope with a mirror that was shaped like the part of a conic section , would correct spherical aberration as well as the chromatic aberration seen in refractors . The design he came up with bears his name : the `` Gregorian telescope '' ; but according to his own confession , Gregory had no practical skill and he could find no optician capable of realizing his ideas and after some fruitless attempts , was obliged to abandon all hope of bringing his telescope into practical use . In 1666 Isaac Newton , based on his theories of refraction and color , perceived that the faults of the refracting telescope were due more to a lens 's varying refraction of light of different colors than to a lens 's imperfect shape . He concluded that light could not be refracted through a lens without causing chromatic aberrations , although he incorrectly concluded from some rough experiments that all refracting substances would diverge the prismatic colors in a constant proportion to their mean refraction . From these experiments Newton concluded that no improvement could be made in the refracting telescope . Newton 's experiments with mirrors showed that they did not suffer from the chromatic errors of lenses , for all colors of light the angle of incidence reflected in a mirror was equal to the angle of reflection , so as a proof to his theories Newton set out to build a reflecting telescope . Newton completed his first telescope in 1668 and it is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope . After much experiment , he chose an alloy ( speculum metal ) of tin and copper as the most suitable material for his objective mirror . He later devised means for grinding and polishing them , but chose a spherical shape for his mirror instead of a parabola to simplify construction . He added to his reflector what is the hallmark of the design of a `` Newtonian telescope '' , a secondary `` diagonal '' mirror near the primary mirror 's focus to reflect the image at 90° angle to an eyepiece mounted on the side of the telescope . This unique addition allowed the image to be viewed with minimal obstruction of the objective mirror . He also made all the tube , mount , and fittings . Newton 's first compact reflecting telescope had a mirror diameter of 1.3 inches and a focal ratio of f/5 . With it he found that he could see the four Galilean moons of Jupiter and the crescent phase of the planet Venus . Encouraged by this success , he made a second telescope with a magnifying power of 38x which he presented to the Royal Society of London in December 1672 . This type of telescope is still called a Newtonian telescope . A third form of reflecting telescope , the `` Cassegrain reflector '' was devised in 1672 by Laurent Cassegrain . The telescope had a small convex hyperboloidal secondary mirror placed near the prime focus to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror . No further practical advance appears to have been made in the design or construction of the reflecting telescopes for another 50 years until John Hadley ( best known as the inventor of the octant ) developed ways to make precision aspheric and parabolic speculum metal mirrors . In 1721 he showed the first parabolic Newtonian reflector to the Royal Society . It had a 6 in diameter , focal length speculum metal objective mirror . The instrument was examined by James Pound and James Bradley . After remarking that Newton 's telescope had lain neglected for fifty years , they stated that Hadley had sufficiently shown that the invention did not consist in bare theory . They compared its performance with that of a diameter aerial telescope originally presented to the Royal Society by Constantijn Huygens , Jr. and found that Hadley 's reflector , `` will bear such a charge as to make it magnify the object as many times as the latter with its due charge '' , and that it represents objects as distinct , though not altogether so clear and bright . Bradley and Samuel Molyneux , having been instructed by Hadley in his methods of polishing speculum metal , succeeded in producing large reflecting telescopes of their own , one of which had a focal length of 8 ft . These methods of fabricating mirrors were passed on by Molyneux to two London opticians —Scarlet and Hearn— who started a business manufacturing telescopes . The British mathematician , optician James Short began experimenting with building telescopes based on Gregory 's designs in the 1730s . He first tried making his mirrors out of glass as suggested by Gregory , but he later switched to speculum metal mirrors creating Gregorian telescopes with original designers parabolic and elliptic figures . Short then adopted telescope-making as his profession which he practised first in Edinburgh , and afterward in London . All Short 's telescopes were of the Gregorian form . Short died in London in 1768 , having made a considerable fortune selling telescopes . Since speculum metal mirror secondaries or diagonal mirrors greatly reduced the light that reached the eyepiece , several reflecting telescope designers tried to do away with them . In 1762 Mikhail Lomonosov presented a reflecting telescope before the Russian Academy of Sciences forum . It had its primary mirror tilted at four degrees to telescope 's axis so the image could be viewed via an eyepiece mounted at the front of the telescope tube without the observer 's head blocking the incoming light . This innovation was not published until 1827 , so this type came to be called the Herschelian telescope after a similar design by William Herschel . About the year 1774 William Herschel ( then a teacher of music in Bath , England ) began to occupy his leisure hours with the construction of reflector telescope mirrors , finally devoted himself entirely to their construction and use in astronomical research . In 1778 , he selected a reflector mirror ( the best of some 400 telescope mirrors which he had made ) and with it , built a 7 ft focal length telescope . Using this telescope , he made his early brilliant astronomical discoveries . In 1783 , Herschel completed a reflector of approximately 18 in in diameter and 20 ft focal length . He observed the heavens with this telescope for some twenty years , replacing the mirror several times . In 1789 Herschel finished building his largest reflecting telescope with a mirror of 49 in and a focal length of 40 ft , ( commonly known as his 40-foot telescope ) at his new home , at Observatory House in Slough , England . To cut down on the light loss from the poor reflectivity of the speculum mirrors of that day , Herschel eliminated the small diagonal mirror from his design and tilted his primary mirror so he could view the formed image directly . This design has come to be called the Herschelian telescope . He discovered Saturn 's sixth known moon , Enceladus , the first night he used it ( August 28 , 1789 ) , and on September 17 , its seventh known moon , Mimas . This telescope was world 's largest telescope for over 50 years . However , this large scope was difficult to handle and thus less used than his favorite 18.7-inch reflector . In 1845 William Parsons , 3rd Earl of Rosse built his 72 in Newtonian reflector called the `` Leviathan of Parsonstown '' with which he discovered the spiral form of galaxies . All of these larger reflectors suffered from the poor reflectivity and fast tarnishing nature of their speculum metal mirrors . This meant they need more than one mirror per telescope since mirrors had to be frequently removed and re-polished . This was time consuming since the polishing process could change the curve of the mirror so it usually had to be `` re-figured '' to the correct shape . Achromatic refracting telescopes From the time of the invention of the first refracting telescopes it was generally supposed that chromatic errors seen in lenses simply arose from errors in the spherical figure of their surfaces . Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature to correct these errors . Isaac Newton discovered in 1666 that chromatic colors actually arose from the un-even refraction of light as it passed through the glass medium . This led opticians to experiment with lenses constructed of more than one type of glass in an attempt to canceling the errors produced by each type of glass . It was hoped that this would create an `` achromatic lens '' ; a lens that would focus all colors to a single point , and produce instruments of much shorter focal length . The first person who succeeded in making a practical achromatic refracting telescope was Chester Moore Hall from Essex , England . He argued that the different humours of the human eye refract rays of light to produce an image on the retina which is free from color , and he reasonably argued that it might be possible to produce a like result by combining lenses composed of different refracting media . After devoting some time to the inquiry he found that by combining two lenses formed of different kinds of glass , he could make an achromatic lens where the effects of the unequal refractions of two colors of light ( red and blue ) was corrected . In 1733 , he succeeded in constructing telescope lenses which exhibited much reduced chromatic aberration . One of his instruments had an objective measuring with a relatively short focal length of 20 in . Hall was a man of independent means and seems to have been careless of fame ; at least he took no trouble to communicate his invention to the world . At a trial in Westminster Hall about the patent rights granted to John Dollond ( Watkin v. Dollond ) , Hall was admitted to be the first inventor of the achromatic telescope . However , it was ruled by Lord Mansfield that it was not the original inventor who ought to profit from such invention , but the one who brought it forth for the benefit of mankind . In 1747 , Leonhard Euler sent to the Prussian Academy of Sciences a paper in which he tried to prove the possibility of correcting both the chromatic and the spherical aberration of a lens . Like Gregory and Hall , he argued that since the various humours of the human eye were so combined as to produce a perfect image , it should be possible by suitable combinations of lenses of different refracting media to construct a perfect telescope objective . Adopting a hypothetical law of the dispersion of differently colored rays of light , he proved analytically the possibility of constructing an achromatic objective composed of lenses of glass and water . All of Euler 's efforts to produce an actual objective of this construction were fruitless—a failure which he attributed solely to the difficulty of procuring lenses that worked precisely to the requisite curves . John Dollond agreed with the accuracy of Euler 's analysis , but disputed his hypothesis on the grounds that it was purely a theoretical assumption : that the theory was opposed to the results of Newton 's experiments on the refraction of light , and that it was impossible to determine a physical law from analytical reasoning alone . In 1754 , Euler sent to the Berlin Academy a further paper in which starting from the hypothesis that light consists of vibrations excited in an elastic fluid by luminous bodies—and that the difference of color of light is due to the greater or lesser frequency of these vibrations in a given time— he deduced his previous results . He did not doubt the accuracy of Newton 's experiments quoted by Dollond . Dollond did not reply to this , but soon afterwards he received an abstract of a paper by the Swedish mathematician and astronomer , Samuel Klingenstierna , which led him to doubt the accuracy of the results deduced by Newton on the dispersion of refracted light . Klingenstierna showed from purely geometrical considerations ( fully appreciated by Dollond ) that the results of Newton 's experiments could not be brought into harmony with other universally accepted facts of refraction . As a practical man , Dollond at once put his doubts to the test of experiment : he confirmed the conclusions of Klingenstierna , discovered a difference far beyond his hopes in the refractive qualities of different kinds of glass with respect to the divergence of colors , and was thus rapidly led to the construction of lenses in which first the chromatic aberration—and afterwards—the spherical aberration were corrected . Dollond was aware of the conditions necessary for the attainment of achromatism in refracting telescopes , but relied on the accuracy of experiments made by Newton . His writings show that with the exception of his bravado , he would have arrived sooner at a discovery for which his mind was fully prepared . Dollond 's paper recounts the successive steps by which he arrived at his discovery independently of Hall 's earlier invention—and the logical processes by which these steps were suggested to his mind . In 1765 Peter Dollond ( son of John Dollond ) introduced the triple objective , which consisted of a combination of two convex lenses of crown glass with a concave flint lens between them . He made many telescopes of this kind . The difficulty of procuring disks of glass ( especially of flint glass )

sfq_22823--History_of_the_telescope.txt

Who invented the telescope in 1608?

The Absheron Peninsula ( ) is a peninsula in Azerbaijan . It is host to Baku , the biggest and the most populous city of the country , and also the Baku metropolitan area , with its satellite cities Sumgayit and Khyrdalan . There are three districts , of which two are urban ( Baku and Sumgayit ) , and one ( Absheron Rayon ) , is suburban district in Absheron region . It extends 60 km eastward into the Caspian Sea , and reaches a maximum width of 30 km . Though technically the easternmost extension of the Caucasus Mountains , the landscape is only mildly hilly , a gently undulating plain that ends in a long spit of sand dunes known as Shah Dili , and now declared the Absheron National Park . In this part the peninsula is dissected by ravines and characterized by frequent salt lakes . Etymology The etymology is as follows : The word Absheron consists of a few parts . Ab means water , shour means salty and an is the suffix that makes plural in Persian . So , Abshouran , which came out these words , means `` place of salty water '' . This is also the name of a city in Russia which is called Apsheronsk . According to Conrad Malte-Brun in 1810 , an alternative name for the peninsula was Okoressa . Geography The Absheron Peninsula is nearly the metropolitan area of Baku because the Baku metropolitan area consists of Baku city , Sumgayit and Khyrdalan whereas the Absheron Peninsula consists of Baku city , Sumgayit and Absheron rayon whose center is Khyrdalan . Climate The Absheron Peninsula , has a temperate semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification : BSk ) with warm and dry summers , cool and occasionally wet winters , and strong winds all year long . The peninsula is the most arid part of Azerbaijan ( precipitation here is around or less than 200 mm a year ) . The majority of the light annual precipitation occurs in seasons other than summer , but none of these seasons are particularly wet . The natural vegetation of the Absheron Peninsula is dry steppe and semi-desert . Due to the semi-arid climate , local agriculture requires irrigation . Economy Beginning in the 1870s , the Absheron Peninsula was the site of some of the world 's earliest petroleum production . Much of the landscape remains scarred with rusting oil derricks . Despite serious problems with environmental damage and pollution , the Absheron is known for its flowers , horticulture , mulberries and figs . The northern coast has wide though less-than-pristine beaches which are popular local tourist attractions . Wealthy people have settled in the Absheron Peninsula , including Robert Nobel and Zeynalabdin Taghiyev .

qw_16389--Absheron_Peninsula.txt

Which city is sited on the Absheron Peninsula which juts into the Caspian Sea?

George Walker Bush ( born July 6 , 1946 ) is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 and 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 . The eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush , he was born in New Haven , Connecticut . After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975 , he worked in oil businesses . He married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter . He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election . He was elected president in 2000 after a close and controversial election against Al Gore , becoming the fourth president to be elected while receiving fewer popular votes nationwide than an opponent . He is the second president to have been the son of a former president , the first having been John Quincy Adams . He is also the brother of Jeb Bush , a former Governor of Florida and candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election . Eight months into Bush 's first term as president , the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred . Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine : launching a `` War on Terror '' , an international military campaign which included the war in Afghanistan , in 2001 , and the Iraq War , in 2003 . He also promoted policies on the economy , health care , education , social security reform , and amending the Constitution to prohibit same-sex marriage . He signed into law broad tax cuts , the Patriot Act , the No Child Left Behind Act , the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act , Medicare prescription drug benefits for seniors , and funding for the AIDS relief program known as PEPFAR . His tenure saw national debates on immigration , Social Security , electronic surveillance , and torture . Bush successfully ran for re-election against Democratic Senator John Kerry in 2004 , in another relatively close election . After his re-election , Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the political spectrum Baker , Kevin , for his handling of the Iraq War , Hurricane Katrina , and other challenges . Amid this criticism , the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections . In December 2007 , the United States entered its longest post-World War II recession , often referred to as the `` Great Recession '' , prompting the Bush administration to obtain congressional passage of multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country 's financial system . Nationally , Bush was both one of the most popular and unpopular presidents in history , having received the highest recorded presidential approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks , as well as one of the lowest approval ratings during the 2008 financial crisis . He was met with public protests during visits to the United Kingdom . Bush left office in 2009 , returning to Texas where he purchased a home in suburban Dallas . He is currently a public speaker , and has written a memoir , Decision Points . His presidential library was opened in 2013 . His presidency has been ranked among the worst in surveys of presidential scholars published in the late 2000s and 2010s . Childhood to mid-life Early life and education George Walker Bush was born on July 6 , 1946 , at Grace-New Haven Hospital ( now Yale–New Haven Hospital ) in New Haven , Connecticut , as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and Barbara Pierce . He was raised in Midland and Houston , Texas , with four siblings , Jeb , Neil , Marvin and Dorothy . Another younger sister , Robin , died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953 . His grandfather , Prescott Bush , was a U.S . Senator from Connecticut . His father , George H.W . Bush , was Ronald Reagan 's Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U.S. President from 1989 to 1993 . Bush has English and some German ancestry , along with more distant Dutch , Welsh , Irish , French , and Scottish roots . Bush attended public schools in Midland , Texas , until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade . He then went to The Kinkaid School , a prep school in Houston for two years . Bush attended high school at the Phillips Academy , a boarding school ( then all-male ) in Andover , Massachusetts , where he played baseball , and during his senior year , was the head cheerleader . He attended Yale University from 1964 to 1968 , graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in History . During this time , he was a cheerleader and a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon , serving as the president of the fraternity during his senior year . Bush became a member of the Skull and Bones society as a senior . Bush was a rugby union player and was on Yale 's 1st XV . He characterized himself as an average student . His GPA during his first three years at Yale was 77 , and he had a similar average under a nonnumeric rating system in his final year . Beginning in the fall of 1973 , Bush attended the Harvard Business School , where he earned an M.B.A. degree . He is the only U.S. President to have earned an M.B.A . Texas Air National Guard In May 1968 , Bush was commissioned into the Texas Air National Guard . After two years of active-duty service while training , he was assigned to Houston , flying Convair F-102s with the 147th Reconnaissance Wing out of the Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base . Critics , including former Democratic National Committee Chairman Terry McAuliffe , have alleged that Bush was favorably treated due to his father 's political standing as a member of the House of Representatives , citing his selection as a pilot despite his low pilot aptitude test scores and his irregular attendance . In June 2005 , the United States Department of Defense released all the records of Bush 's Texas Air National Guard service , which remain in its official archives . In late 1972 and early 1973 , he drilled with the 187th Fighter Wing of the Alabama Air National Guard , having moved to Montgomery , Alabama , to work on the unsuccessful U.S. Senate campaign of Republican Winton M. Blount . In 1972 , Bush was suspended from flying for failure to take a scheduled physical exam . He was honorably discharged from the Air Force Reserve on November 21 , 1974 . Marriage , family , and personal life At a backyard barbecue in 1977 , friends introduced him to Laura Lane Welch , a school teacher and librarian . Bush proposed to her after a three-month courtship , and they married on November 5 of that year . The couple settled in Midland , Texas . Bush left his family 's Episcopal Church to join his wife 's United Methodist Church . On November 25 , 1981 , Laura Bush gave birth to fraternal twin daughters , Barbara Pierce Bush and Jenna Welch Bush ; they graduated from high school in 2000 and from Yale University and the University of Texas at Austin , respectively , in 2004 . Prior to his marriage , Bush had multiple episodes of alcohol abuse . In one instance , on September 4 , 1976 , he was arrested near his family 's summer home in Kennebunkport , Maine , for driving under the influence of alcohol . He pleaded guilty , was fined $ 150 , and had his Maine driver 's license briefly suspended . Bush says his wife has had a stabilizing effect on his life , and attributes to her influence his 1986 decision to give up alcohol . While Governor of Texas , Bush said of his wife , `` I saw an elegant , beautiful woman who turned out not only to be elegant and beautiful , but very smart and willing to put up with my rough edges , and I must confess has smoothed them off over time . '' Bush has been an avid reader throughout his adult life , preferring biographies and histories . During his time as president , Bush read the Bible daily . He also read 14 Lincoln biographies and , during the last three years of his presidency , he reportedly read 186 books . Walt Harrington , a journalist , recalls seeing `` books by John Fowles , F. Scott Fitzgerald , James Joyce , and Gore Vidal lying about , as well as biographies of Willa Cather and Queen Victoria '' in his home when Bush was a Texas oilman . Other hobbies include cigar smoking and golf . Since leaving the White House , Bush has also taken up oil painting . His first granddaughter , Margaret Laura `` Mila '' Hager , was born to his daughter Jenna Bush on April 14 , 2013 . She is named after her two grandmothers . Early career In 1978 , Bush ran for the House of Representatives from Texas 's 19th congressional district . His opponent , Kent Hance , portrayed him as out of touch with rural Texans . Bush lost the election by 6,000 votes ( 6 percent ) of the 103,000 votes cast . He returned to the oil industry and began a series of small , independent oil exploration companies . He created Arbusto Energy , and later changed the name to Bush Exploration . In 1984 , his company merged with the larger Spectrum 7 , and Bush became chairman . The company was hurt by decreased oil prices , and it folded into HKN , Inc. Bush served on the board of directors for HKN . Questions of possible insider trading involving HKN arose , but the Securities and Exchange Commission 's ( SEC ) investigation concluded that the information Bush had at the time of his stock sale was not sufficient to constitute insider trading . Bush moved his family to Washington , D.C. in 1988 to work on his father 's campaign for the U.S. presidency . He served as a campaign adviser and liaison to the media ; he assisted his father by campaigning across the country . Returning to Texas after the successful campaign , he purchased a share in the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in April 1989 , where he served as managing general partner for five years . He actively led the team 's projects and regularly attended its games , often choosing to sit in the open stands with fans . Bush 's sale of his shares in the Rangers in 1998 brought him over $ 15 million from his initial $ 800,000 investment . In December 1991 , Bush was one of seven people named by his father to run his father 's 1992 Presidential re-election campaign as `` campaign advisor '' . The previous month , his father asked him to tell White House chief of staff John H. Sununu that he should resign . Governor of Texas ( 1995–2000 ) As Bush 's brother , Jeb , sought the governorship of Florida , Bush declared his candidacy for the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election . His campaign focused on four themes : welfare reform , tort reform , crime reduction , and education improvement . Bush 's campaign advisers were Karen Hughes , Joe Allbaugh , and Karl Rove . After easily winning the Republican primary , Bush faced popular Democratic incumbent Governor Ann Richards . In the course of the campaign , Bush pledged to sign a bill allowing Texans to obtain permits to carry concealed weapons . Richards had vetoed the bill , but Bush signed it after he became governor . According to The Atlantic Monthly , the race `` featured a rumor that she was a lesbian , along with a rare instance of such a tactic 's making it into the public record – when a regional chairman of the Bush campaign allowed himself , perhaps inadvertently , to be quoted criticizing Richards for 'appointing avowed homosexual activists ' to state jobs '' . The Atlantic , and others , connected the lesbian rumor to Karl Rove , but Rove denied being involved . Bush won the general election with 53.5 percent against Richards ' 45.9 percent . ; Bush used a budget surplus to push through Texas 's largest tax-cut , $ 2 billion . He extended government funding for organizations providing education of the dangers of alcohol and drug use and abuse , and helping to reduce domestic violence . Critics contended that during his tenure , Texas ranked near the bottom in environmental evaluations . Supporters pointed to his efforts to raise the salaries of teachers and improve educational test scores . In 1999 , Bush signed a state law obliging electric retailers to buy a certain amount of energy from renewable sources ( RPS ) , [ http : //www.capitol.state.tx.us/BillLookup/Text.aspx ? LegSess 76R & BillSB7 SB7 ] [ http : //www.capitol.state.tx.us/tlodocs/76R/billtext/html/SB00007I.htm Law text ] Texas Legislature Online , May 1999 . Retrieved September 24 , 2011. which helped Texas eventually become the leading producer of wind powered electricity in the U.S . In 1998 , Bush won re-election with a record 69 percent of the vote . He became the first governor in Texas history to be elected to two consecutive four-year terms . For most of Texas history , governors served two-year terms ; a constitutional amendment extended those terms to four years starting in 1975 . In his second term , Bush promoted faith-based organizations and enjoyed high approval ratings . He proclaimed June 10 , 2000 to be Jesus Day in Texas , a day on which he `` urge [ d ] all Texans to answer the call to serve those in need '' . Throughout Bush 's first term , national attention focused on him as a potential future presidential candidate . Following his re-election , speculation soared . Within a year , he decided to seek the 2000 Republican presidential nomination . Presidential campaigns 2000 presidential candidacy Primary In June 1999 , while Governor of Texas , Bush announced his candidacy for President of the United States . With no incumbent running , Bush entered a large field of candidates for the Republican Party presidential nomination consisting of John McCain , Alan Keyes , Steve Forbes , Gary Bauer , Orrin Hatch , Elizabeth Dole , Dan Quayle , Pat Buchanan , Lamar Alexander , John Kasich , and Bob Smith . Bush portrayed himself as a compassionate conservative , implying he was more centrist than other Republicans . He campaigned on a platform that included bringing integrity and honor back to the White House , increasing the size of the United States Armed Forces , cutting taxes , improving education , and aiding minorities . By early 2000 , the race had centered on Bush and McCain . Bush won the Iowa caucuses , but , although he was heavily favored to win the New Hampshire primary , he trailed McCain by 19 percent and lost that primary . Despite this , Bush regained momentum and , according to political observers , effectively became the front runner after the South Carolina primary , which according to The Boston Globe made history for his campaign 's negativity ; The New York Times described it as a smear campaign . General election On July 25 , 2000 , Bush surprised some observers by asking Dick Cheney , a former White House Chief of Staff , U.S. Representative , and Secretary of Defense , to be his running mate . Cheney was then serving as head of Bush 's Vice-Presidential search committee . Soon after , Bush and Cheney were officially nominated by the Republican Party at the 2000 Republican National Convention . Bush continued to campaign across the country and touted his record as Governor of Texas . Bush 's campaign criticized his Democratic opponent , incumbent Vice President Al Gore , over gun control and taxation . When the election returns came in on November 7 , Bush won 29 states , including Florida . The closeness of the Florida outcome led to a recount . The initial recount also went to Bush , but the outcome was tied up in courts for a month until reaching the U.S. Supreme Court . On December 9 , in the controversial Bush v. Gore ruling , the Court reversed a Florida Supreme Court decision ordering a third count , and stopped an ordered statewide hand recount based on the argument that the use of different standards among Florida 's counties violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . The machine recount showed that Bush had won the Florida vote by a margin of 537 votes out of six million cast . Although he received 543,895 fewer individual votes than Gore nationwide , Bush won the election , receiving 271 electoral votes to Gore 's 266 ( Gore 's statewide victories had electoral votes tallying 267 ; however , one of Gore 's pledged electors abstained , rendering the official tally at 266 ) . Bush was the first person to win an American presidential election with fewer national votes than another candidate since Benjamin Harrison in 1888 . 2004 presidential candidacy In 2004 , Bush commanded broad support in the Republican Party and did not encounter a primary challenge . He appointed Ken Mehlman as campaign manager , with a political strategy devised by Karl Rove . Bush and the Republican platform included a strong commitment to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan , support for the USA PATRIOT Act , a renewed shift in policy for constitutional amendments banning abortion and same-sex marriage , reforming Social Security to create private investment accounts , creation of an ownership society , and opposing mandatory carbon emissions controls . Bush also called for the implementation of a guest worker program for immigrants , which was criticized by conservatives . The Bush campaign advertised across the U.S. against Democratic candidates , including Bush 's emerging opponent , Massachusetts Senator John Kerry . Kerry and other Democrats attacked Bush on the Iraq War , and accused him of failing to stimulate the economy and job growth . The Bush campaign portrayed Kerry as a staunch liberal who would raise taxes and increase the size of government . The Bush campaign continuously criticized Kerry 's seemingly contradictory statements on the war in Iraq , and argued that Kerry lacked the decisiveness and vision necessary for success in the War on Terror . In the election , Bush carried 31 of 50 states , receiving a total of 286 electoral votes . He won an absolute majority of the popular vote ( 50.7 percent to his opponent 's 48.3 percent ) . The previous President to win an absolute majority of the popular vote was Bush 's father in the 1988 election . Additionally , it was the first time since Herbert Hoover 's election in 1928 that a Republican president was elected alongside re-elected Republican majorities in both Houses of Congress . Presidency ( 2001–09 ) Though Bush originally outlined an ambitious domestic agenda , his priorities were significantly altered following the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001 . Wars were waged in Afghanistan and Iraq with significant domestic debates regarding immigration , healthcare , Social Security , economic policy , and treatment of terrorist detainees . Over an eight-year period , Bush 's once-high approval ratings steadily declined , while his disapproval numbers increased significantly . In 2007 , the United States entered the longest post-World War II recession . Domestic policy Economic policy Bush took office during a period of economic recession in the wake of the bursting of the Dot-com bubble . The terrorist attacks also impacted the economy . The Bush administration increased federal government spending from $ 1.789 trillion to $ 2.983 trillion ( 60 percent ) while revenues increased from $ 2.025 trillion to $ 2.524 trillion ( from 2000 to 2008 ) . Individual income tax revenues increased by 14 percent , corporate tax revenues by 50 percent , customs and duties by 40 percent . Discretionary defense spending was increased by 107 percent , discretionary domestic spending by 62 percent , Medicare spending by 131 percent , social security by 51 percent , and income security spending by 130 percent . Cyclically adjusted , revenues rose by 35 percent and spending by 65 percent . The increase in spending was more than under any predecessor since Lyndon B. Johnson . The number of economic regulation governmental workers increased by 91,196 . The surplus in fiscal year 2000 was $ 237 billion—the third consecutive surplus and the largest surplus ever.Office of Management ! and Budget ; National Economic Council , September 27 , 2000 In 2001 , Bush 's budget estimated that there would be a $ 5.6 trillion surplus over the next ten years . Facing congressional opposition , Bush held townhall style meetings across the U.S. in order to increase public support for his plan for a $ 1.35 trillion tax cut program—one of the largest tax cuts in U.S. history . Bush argued that unspent government funds should be returned to taxpayers , saying `` the surplus is not the government 's money . The surplus is the people 's money . '' Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan warned of a recession and Bush stated that a tax cut would stimulate the economy and create jobs . Treasury Secretary Paul H. O'Neill , opposed some of the tax cuts on the basis that they would contribute to budget deficits and undermine Social Security . O'Neill disputes the claim , made in Bush 's book Decision Points , that he never openly disagreed with him on planned tax cuts . By 2003 , the economy showed signs of improvement , though job growth remained stagnant . Another tax cut program was passed that year . During the 2001 to 2008 years , GDP grew at an average annual rate of 2.125 percent , less than for past business cycles . Bush entered office with the Dow Jones Industrial Average at 10,587 , and the average peaked in October 2007 at over 14,000 . When Bush left office , the average was at 7,949 , one of the lowest levels of his presidency . Unemployment originally rose from 4.2 percent in January 2001 to 6.3 percent in June 2003 , but subsequently dropped to 4.5 percent as of July 2007 . Adjusted for inflation , median household income dropped by $ 1,175 between 2000 and 2007 , while Professor Ken Homa of Georgetown University has noted that `` Median real after-tax household income went up 2 % '' . The poverty rate increased from 11.3 percent in 2000 to 12.3 percent in 2006 after peaking at 12.7 percent in 2004 . By October 2008 , due to increases in spending , the national debt had risen to $ 11.3 trillion , an increase of over 100 percent from 2000 when the debt was only $ 5.6 trillion . Most debt was accumulated as a result of what became known as the `` Bush tax cuts '' and increased national security spending . In March 2006 , then-Senator Barack Obama said when he voted against raising the debt ceiling : `` The fact that we are here today to debate raising America 's debt limit is a sign of leadership failure . '' By the end of Bush 's presidency , unemployment climbed to 7.2 percent . In December 2007 , the United States entered the longest post–World War II recession , which included a housing market correction , a subprime mortgage crisis , soaring oil prices , and a declining dollar value . In February , 63,000 jobs were lost , a five-year record . To aid with the situation , Bush signed a $ 170 billion economic stimulus package which was intended to improve the economic situation by sending tax rebate checks to many Americans and providing tax breaks for struggling businesses . The Bush administration pushed for significantly increased regulation of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in 2003 , and after two years , the regulations passed the House but died in the Senate . Many Republican senators , as well as influential members of the Bush Administration , feared that the agency created by these regulations would merely be mimicking the private sector 's risky practices . In September 2008 , the crisis became much more serious beginning with the government takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac followed by the collapse of Lehman Brothers and a federal bailout of American International Group for $ 85 billion . Many economists and world governments determined that the situation became the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression . Additional regulation over the housing market would have been beneficial , according to former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan . Bush , meanwhile , proposed a financial rescue plan to buy back a large portion of the U.S. mortgage market . Vince Reinhardt , a former Federal Reserve economist now at the American Enterprise Institute , said `` it would have helped for the Bush administration to empower the folks at Treasury and the Federal Reserve and the comptroller of the currency and the FDIC to look at these issues more closely '' , and additionally , that it would have helped `` for Congress to have held hearings '' . In November 2008 , over 500,000 jobs were lost , which marked the largest loss of jobs in the United States in 34 years . The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in the last four months of 2008 , 1.9 million jobs were lost . By the end of 2008 , the U.S. had lost a total of 2.6 million jobs . Education and health Bush undertook a number of educational priorities , such as increasing the funding for the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in his first years of office , and creating education programs to strengthen the grounding in science and mathematics for American high school students . Funding for the NIH was cut in 2006 , the first such cut in 36 years , due to rising inflation . One of the administration 's early major initiatives was the No Child Left Behind Act , which aimed to measure and close the gap between rich and poor student performance , provide options to parents with students in low-performing schools , and target more federal funding to low-income schools . This landmark education initiative passed with broad bipartisan support , including that of Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts . It was signed into law by Bush in early 2002 . Many contend that the initiative has been successful , as cited by the fact that students in the U.S. have performed significantly better on state reading and math tests since Bush signed `` No Child Left Behind '' into law . Critics argue that it is underfunded and that NCLBA 's focus on `` high-stakes testing '' and quantitative outcomes is counterproductive . After being re-elected , Bush signed into law a Medicare drug benefit program that , according to Jan Crawford , resulted in `` the greatest expansion in America 's welfare state in forty years ; '' the bill 's costs approached $ 7 trillion . In 2007 , Bush opposed and vetoed State Children 's Health Insurance Program ( SCHIP ) legislation , which was added by the Democrats onto a war funding bill and passed by Congress . The SCHIP legislation would have significantly expanded federally funded health care benefits and plans to children of some low-income families from about six million to ten million children . It was to be funded by an increase in the cigarette tax . Bush viewed the legislation as a move toward socialized health care , and asserted that the program could benefit families making as much as $ 83,000 per year who did not need the help . Social services and social security Following Republican efforts to pass the Medicare Act of 2003 , Bush signed the bill , which included major changes to the Medicare program by providing beneficiaries with some assistance in paying for prescription drugs , while relying on private insurance for the delivery of benefits . The retired persons lobby group AARP worked with the Bush Administration on the program and gave their endorsement . Bush said the law , estimated to

qz_1354--George_W._Bush.txt

Who is the Vice-President for George W Bush?

Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh ( Philip Mountbatten ; born Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark on 10 June 1921 ) is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II . He is the longest-serving consort of a reigning British monarch and the oldest-ever male member of the British royal family . A member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg , Philip was born into the Greek and Danish royal families . He was born in Greece but his family was exiled from the country when he was still an infant . After being educated in France , Germany , and the United Kingdom , he joined the Royal Navy in 1939 , at the age of 18 . From July 1939 , he began corresponding with the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth ( his third cousin through Queen Victoria and second cousin once removed through Christian IX of Denmark ) , whom he had first met in 1934 . During World War II he served with the Mediterranean and Pacific fleets . After the war , Philip was granted permission by George VI to marry Elizabeth . Before the official announcement of their engagement , he abandoned his Greek and Danish royal titles and became a naturalised British subject , adopting the surname Mountbatten from his maternal grandparents . After an engagement of five months , he married Elizabeth on 20 November 1947 . Just before the wedding , the King granted him the style of His Royal Highness and the title Duke of Edinburgh . Philip left active military service when Elizabeth became Queen in 1952 , having reached the rank of commander . His wife made him a prince of the United Kingdom in 1957 . Philip has four children with Elizabeth : Prince Charles , Princess Anne , Prince Andrew , and Prince Edward . He has eight grandchildren and five great-grandchildren . Through a British Order in Council issued in 1960 , descendants of Philip and Elizabeth not bearing royal styles and titles can use the surname Mountbatten-Windsor , which has also been used by some members of the royal family who do hold titles , such as Charles and Anne . A keen sports enthusiast , Philip helped develop the equestrian event of carriage driving . He is a patron of over 800 organisations and serves as chairman of the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award scheme for people aged 14 to 24 . Early life Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark was born in Mon Repos on the Greek island of Corfu on 10 June 1921 , the only son and fifth and final child of Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark and Princess Alice of Battenberg . Philip 's four elder sisters were Margarita , Theodora , Cecilie , and Sophie . He was baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church . His godparents were Queen Olga of Greece ( his paternal grandmother ) and the Mayor of Corfu . Shortly after Philip 's birth , his maternal grandfather , Prince Louis of Battenberg , then known as Louis Mountbatten , Marquess of Milford Haven , died in London . Louis was a naturalised British citizen , who , after a career in the Royal Navy , had renounced his German titles and adopted the surname Mountbatten during the First World War . After visiting London for the memorial , Philip and his mother returned to Greece where Prince Andrew had remained behind to command an army division embroiled in the Greco-Turkish War ( 1919–1922 ) . The war went badly for Greece , and the Turks made large gains . On 22 September 1922 , Philip 's uncle , King Constantine I , was forced to abdicate , and the new military government arrested Prince Andrew , along with others . The commander of the army , General Georgios Hatzianestis , and five senior politicians were executed . Prince Andrew 's life was believed to be in danger , and Alice was under surveillance . In December , a revolutionary court banished Prince Andrew from Greece for life . The British naval vessel HMS Calypso evacuated Prince Andrew 's family , with Philip carried to safety in a cot made from a fruit box . Philip 's family went to France , where they settled in the Paris suburb of Saint-Cloud in a house lent to them by his wealthy aunt , Princess George of Greece and Denmark . Because he left the country as a baby , he does not have a strong grasp of Greek . In 1992 , Philip said that he `` could understand a certain amount of '' the language . Youth Education Philip was first educated at an American school in Paris run by Donald MacJannet , who described Philip as a `` rugged , boisterous boy , but always remarkably polite '' . In 1928 , he was sent to the United Kingdom to attend Cheam School , living with his maternal grandmother at Kensington Palace and his uncle , George Mountbatten , 2nd Marquess of Milford Haven , at Lynden Manor in Bray , Berkshire . In the next three years , his four sisters married German noblemen and moved to Germany , his mother was placed in an asylum after being diagnosed with schizophrenia , and his father moved to a small flat in Monte Carlo . Philip had little contact with his mother for the remainder of his childhood . In 1933 , he was sent to Schule Schloss Salem in Germany , which had the `` advantage of saving school fees '' because it was owned by the family of his brother-in-law , Berthold , Margrave of Baden . With the rise of Nazism in Germany , Salem 's Jewish founder , Kurt Hahn , fled persecution and founded Gordonstoun School in Scotland . After two terms at Salem , Philip moved to Gordonstoun . In 1937 , his sister Cecilie , her husband ( Georg Donatus , Hereditary Grand Duke of Hesse ) , her two young sons and her mother-in-law were killed in an air crash at Ostend ; Philip , then sixteen years old , attended the funeral in Darmstadt . The following year , his uncle and guardian Lord Milford Haven died of cancer of the bone marrow.Brandreth , pp . 77 , 136 Naval and wartime service After leaving Gordonstoun in 1939 , Prince Philip joined the Royal Navy , graduating the next year from the Royal Naval College , Dartmouth , as the best cadet in his course . During the Second World War , he continued to serve in the British forces , while two of his brothers-in-law , Prince Christopher of Hesse and Berthold , Margrave of Baden , fought on the opposing German side . He was commissioned as a midshipman in January 1940 . Philip spent four months on the battleship HMS Ramillies , protecting convoys of the Australian Expeditionary Force in the Indian Ocean , followed by shorter postings on HMS Kent , on HMS Shropshire and in Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) . After the invasion of Greece by Italy in October 1940 , he was transferred from the Indian Ocean to the battleship in the Mediterranean Fleet . Among other engagements , Philip was involved in the Battle of Crete , and was mentioned in despatches for his service during the Battle of Cape Matapan , in which he controlled the battleship 's searchlights . He was also awarded the Greek War Cross of Valour . Duties of lesser glory included stoking the boilers of the troop transport ship RMS Empress of Russia . He was promoted to sub-lieutenant after a series of courses at Portsmouth in which he gained the top grade in four out of five sections of the qualifying examination . In June 1942 , he was appointed to the V and W class destroyer and flotilla leader HMS Wallace , which was involved in convoy escort tasks on the east coast of Britain , as well as the allied invasion of Sicily . Promotion to lieutenant followed on 16 July 1942 . In October of the same year he became first lieutenant of HMS Wallace , at 21 years old one of the youngest first lieutenants in the Royal Navy . During the invasion of Sicily , in July 1943 , as second in command of HMS Wallace , he saved his ship from a night bomber attack . He devised a plan to launch a raft with smoke floats that successfully distracted the bombers allowing the ship to slip away unnoticed . In 1944 , he moved on to the new destroyer , HMS Whelp , where he saw service with the British Pacific Fleet in the 27th Destroyer Flotilla . He was present in Tokyo Bay when the instrument of Japanese surrender was signed . In January 1946 , Philip returned to the United Kingdom on the Whelp , and was posted as an instructor at HMS Royal Arthur , the Petty Officers ' School in Corsham , Wiltshire . Marriage In 1939 , King George VI and Queen Elizabeth toured the Royal Naval College , Dartmouth . During the visit , the Queen and Earl Mountbatten asked Philip to escort the King 's two daughters , Elizabeth and Margaret , who were Philip 's third cousins through Queen Victoria , and second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark . Elizabeth fell in love with Philip and they began to exchange letters when she was thirteen . Eventually , in the summer of 1946 , Philip asked the King for his daughter 's hand in marriage . The King granted his request , provided that any formal engagement be delayed until Elizabeth 's twenty-first birthday the following April . By March 1947 , Philip had abandoned his Greek and Danish royal titles , had adopted the surname Mountbatten from his mother 's family , and had become a naturalised British subject.In 1957 , it was established by a ruling in Attorney-General v. Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover [ 1957 ] 1 All ER 49 , that all descendants of Sophia of Hanover , including Philip , were already naturalised British subjects under the terms of the Sophia Naturalization Act 1705 . The engagement was announced to the public on 10 July 1947 . Though Philip appeared `` always to have regarded himself as an Anglican '' , and had attended Anglican services with his classmates and relations in England , and throughout his Royal Navy days , Archbishop of Canterbury Geoffrey Fisher wanted to `` regularise '' Philip 's position by officially receiving him into the Church of England , which he did in October 1947 . The day preceding his wedding , King George VI bestowed the style His Royal Highness on Philip and , on the morning of the wedding , 20 November 1947 , he was made the Duke of Edinburgh , Earl of Merioneth , and Baron Greenwich of Greenwich in the County of London . Philip and Elizabeth were married in a ceremony at Westminster Abbey , recorded and broadcast by BBC radio to 200 million people around the world . However , in post-war Britain , it was not acceptable for any of the Duke of Edinburgh 's German relations to be invited to the wedding , including Philip 's three surviving sisters , all of whom had married German princes , some with Nazi connections . After their marriage , the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh took up residence at Clarence House . Their first two children were born : Prince Charles in 1948 and Princess Anne in 1950 . Philip returned to the navy after his honeymoon , at first in a desk job at the Admiralty , and later on a staff course at the Naval Staff College , Greenwich . From 1949 , he was stationed in Malta ( residing at Villa Guardamangia ) after being posted as the first lieutenant of the destroyer HMS Chequers , the lead ship of the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean Fleet . On 16 July 1950 , he was promoted lieutenant commander and given command of the frigate HMS Magpie . He was promoted to commander in 1952 , but his active naval career ended in July 1951 . With the King in ill health , Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh were both appointed to the Privy Council on 4 November 1951 , after a coast-to-coast tour of Canada . At the end of January 1952 , Philip and his wife set out on a tour of the Commonwealth . On 6 February 1952 , when they were in Kenya , Elizabeth 's father died and she became queen . It was Philip who broke the news of her father 's death to Elizabeth at Sagana Lodge , and the royal party immediately returned to the United Kingdom . Consort of the Queen Royal house The accession of Elizabeth to the throne brought up the question of the name of the royal house . The Duke 's uncle , Louis Mountbatten , 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma , advocated the name House of Mountbatten , as Elizabeth would typically have taken Philip 's last name on marriage ; however , when Queen Mary , Elizabeth 's paternal grandmother , heard of this suggestion , she informed the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , who himself later advised the Queen to issue a royal proclamation declaring that the royal house was to remain known as the House of Windsor . Churchill 's strong personal antipathy to Lord Mountbatten , whom he considered a dangerous and subversive rival who had lost India , may have contributed to this . The Duke privately complained , `` I am nothing but a bloody amoeba . I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children . '' On 8 February 1960 , several years after the death of Queen Mary and the resignation of Churchill , the Queen issued an Order in Council declaring that the surname of male-line descendants of the Duke and the Queen who are not styled as Royal Highness , or titled as Prince or Princess , was to be Mountbatten-Windsor . While it seems the Queen had `` absolutely set her heart '' on such a change and had it in mind for some time , it occurred only eleven days before the birth of Prince Andrew ( 19 February ) , and only after three months of protracted correspondence between the constitutional expert Edward Iwi ( who averred that , without such a change , the royal child would be born with `` the Badge of Bastardy '' ) and the Prime Minister Harold Macmillan ( who attempted , ultimately unsuccessfully , to rebuff Iwi ) . After her accession to the throne , the Queen also announced that the Duke was to have `` place , pre-eminence and precedence '' next to her `` on all occasions and in all meetings , except where otherwise provided by Act of Parliament '' . This meant the Duke took precedence over his son , the Prince of Wales , except , officially , in the British parliament . In fact , however , he attends Parliament only when escorting the Queen for the annual State Opening of Parliament , where he walks and sits beside her . Contrary to rumours over the years , the Queen and Duke are said by insiders to have had a strong relationship throughout their marriage , despite the challenges of Elizabeth 's reign . The Queen referred to Prince Philip in a speech on the occasion of her Diamond Jubilee in 2012 as her `` constant strength and guide '' . Duties and milestones As consort to the Queen , Philip supported his wife in her new duties as sovereign , accompanying her to ceremonies such as the State Opening of Parliament in various countries , state dinners , and tours abroad . As Chairman of the Coronation Commission , he was the first member of the royal family to fly in a helicopter , visiting the troops that were to take part in the ceremony . Philip was not crowned in the service , but knelt before Elizabeth , with her hands enclosing his , and swore to be her `` liege man of life and limb '' . In the early 1950s , his sister-in-law , Princess Margaret , considered marrying a divorced older man , Peter Townsend and the press accused Philip of being hostile to the match . `` I have n't done anything , '' he complained . Philip had not interfered , preferring to stay out of other people 's love lives . Eventually , Margaret and Townsend parted . For six months , over 1953–54 , Philip and Elizabeth toured the Commonwealth ; again their children were left in the United Kingdom . In 1956 , the Duke , with Kurt Hahn , founded the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award in order to give young people `` a sense of responsibility to themselves and their communities '' . In the same year , he also established the Commonwealth Study Conferences . From 1956 to 1957 , Philip travelled around the world aboard the newly commissioned HMY Britannia , during which he opened the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne and visited the Antarctic . The Queen and the children remained in the UK . On the return leg of the journey , Philip 's private secretary , Mike Parker , was sued for divorce by his wife . As with Townsend , the press still portrayed divorce as a scandal and eventually Parker resigned . He later said that the Duke was very supportive and `` the Queen was wonderful throughout . She regarded divorce as a sadness , not a hanging offence . '' In a public show of support , the Queen created Parker a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order . Further press reports claimed that the Queen and the Duke were drifting apart , which enraged the Duke and dismayed the Queen , who issued a strongly worded denial . On 22 February 1957 , she granted her husband the style and title of a Prince of the United Kingdom by Letters Patent , restoring the princely status that he had formally renounced ten years earlier . On the same date , it was gazetted that he was to be known as `` His Royal Highness The Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh '' . Philip was appointed to the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada on 14 October 1957 , taking his Oath of Allegiance before the Queen in person at her Canadian residence , Rideau Hall . In Canada in 1969 , Philip spoke about his views on republicanism : Philip is patron of some 800 organisations , particularly focused on the environment , industry , sport , and education . He served as UK President of the World Wildlife Fund from 1961 to 1982 , International President from 1981 , and President Emeritus from 1996 . He is patron of The Work Foundation , was President of the International Equestrian Federation from 1964 to 1986 , and has served as Chancellor of the Universities of Cambridge , Edinburgh , Salford , and Wales . At the beginning of 1981 , Philip wrote to his eldest son , Charles , counselling him to make up his mind to either propose to Lady Diana Spencer or break off their courtship . Charles felt pressured by his father to make a decision and did so , proposing to Diana in February . They married six months later . By 1992 , the marriage of the Prince and Princess of Wales had broken down . The Queen and Philip hosted a meeting between Charles and Diana , trying to effect a reconciliation , but without success . Philip wrote to Diana , expressing his disappointment at both Charles 's and her extra-marital affairs , and asking her to examine both his and her behaviour from the other 's point of view . The Duke was direct and Diana was sensitive . She found the letters hard to take , but nevertheless she appreciated that he was acting with good intent . Charles and Diana separated and later divorced . A year after the divorce , Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997 . At the time , the Duke was on holiday at Balmoral with the extended royal family . In their grief , Diana 's two sons , Princes William and Harry , wanted to attend church and so their grandparents took them that morning.Brandreth , p. 358 For five days , the Queen and the Duke shielded their grandsons from the ensuing press interest by keeping them at Balmoral , where they could grieve in private . The royal family 's seclusion caused public dismay , but the public mood was transformed from hostility to respect by a live broadcast made by the Queen on 5 September . Uncertain as to whether they should walk behind her coffin during the funeral procession , Diana 's sons hesitated . Philip told William , `` If you do n't walk , I think you 'll regret it later . If I walk , will you walk with me ? '' On the day of the funeral , Philip , William , Harry , Charles and Diana 's brother , Earl Spencer , walked through London behind her bier . Over the next few years , Mohamed Fayed , whose son Dodi Fayed was also killed in the crash , claimed that Prince Philip had ordered the death of Diana and that the accident was staged . The inquest into the Princess of Wales 's death concluded in 2008 that there was no evidence of a conspiracy . Prince Philip receives a Parliamentary annuity ( of £359,000 since 1990 ) that serves to meet official expenses in carrying out public duties . The annuity is unaffected by the reform of royal finances under the Sovereign Grant Act 2011 . Any part of the allowance that is not used to meet official expenditure is liable for tax . In practice , the entire allowance is used to fund his official duties . His personal wealth was estimated at £28 million in 2001 . 21st century During his wife 's Golden Jubilee in 2002 , the Duke was commended by the Speaker of the British House of Commons for his role in supporting the Queen during her reign . The Duke of Edinburgh 's time as royal consort exceeds that of any other consort in British history ; however , Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother ( his mother-in-law ) , who died aged 101 , had a longer lifespan . In April 2008 , Philip was admitted to the King Edward VII Hospital for `` assessment and treatment '' for a chest infection , though he walked into the hospital unaided and recovered quickly , and was discharged three days later to recuperate at Windsor Castle . In August , the Evening Standard reported that he was suffering from prostate cancer . Buckingham Palace , which usually refuses to comment on rumours of ill health , claimed that the report was an invasion of privacy and issued a statement denying the story . The newspaper retracted the report and admitted it was untrue . In June 2011 , in an interview marking his 90th birthday he said that he would now slow down and reduce his duties , stating that he had `` done [ his ] bit '' . His wife , the Queen , gave him the title Lord High Admiral for his 90th birthday . While staying at the royal residence at Sandringham , Norfolk , on 23 December 2011 , the Duke suffered chest pains and was taken to the cardio-thoracic unit at Papworth Hospital , Cambridgeshire , where he underwent successful coronary angioplasty and stenting . He was discharged on 27 December . On 4 June 2012 , during the celebrations in honour of his wife 's Diamond Jubilee , Philip was taken from Windsor Castle to the King Edward VII Hospital , London , suffering from a bladder infection . He was released from hospital on 9 June . After a recurrence of infection in August 2012 , while staying at Balmoral Castle , he was admitted to Aberdeen Royal Infirmary for five nights as a precautionary measure . In June 2013 , Philip was admitted to the London Clinic for an exploratory operation on his abdomen , spending 11 days in hospital . On 21 May 2014 , the Prince appeared in public with a bandage on his right hand after a `` minor procedure '' was performed in Buckingham Palace the preceding day . He is the longest-lived male member of the British royal family . The record for the longest-lived male descendant of Queen Victoria is currently held by Count Carl Johan Bernadotte of Wisborg ( the Duke of Connaught 's grandson ) who lived to be 95 years , 6 months and 5 days old . Prince Philip would surpass this record on 13 December 2016 . Personality and image Philip played polo until 1971 , when he started to compete in carriage driving , a sport which he helped expand ; the early rule book was drafted under his supervision . He was a keen yachts sailor , striking up a friendship in 1949 with Uffa Fox in Cowes . He and the Queen regularly attended Cowes Week in HMY Britannia . His first airborne flying lesson took place in 1952 ; by his 70th birthday he had accrued 5,150 pilot hours . He was presented with Royal Air Force wings in 1953 . In April 2014 , it was reported that an old British Pathe newsreel film had been discovered of Philip 's 1962 two-month flying tour of South America . Filmed sitting alongside Philip at the aircraft 's controls was his co-pilot Captain Peter Middleton , the grandfather of the Duke 's granddaughter-in-law , Catherine , Duchess of Cambridge . He has painted with oils , and collected artworks , including contemporary cartoons , which hang at Buckingham Palace , Windsor Castle , Sandringham House , and Balmoral Castle . Hugh Casson described Philip 's own artwork as `` exactly what you 'd expect ... totally direct , no hanging about . Strong colours , vigorous brushstrokes . '' His down-to-earth manner was attested to by a White House butler who recalled that , on a visit in 1979 , Philip had engaged him and a fellow butler in a conversation , and poured them drinks . As well as a reputation for bluntness and plain speaking , Philip is noted for occasionally making observations and jokes that have been construed as either funny , or as gaffes : awkward , politically incorrect or even offensive , but sometimes perceived as stereotypical of someone of his age and background . In an address to the General Dental Council in 1960 , he jokingly coined a new word for his blunders : `` Dontopedalogy is the science of opening your mouth and putting your foot in it , a science which I have practised for a good many years . '' Later in life he suggested his comments may have contributed to the perception that he is `` a cantankerous old sod '' . The historian David Starkey has described him as a kind of `` HRH Victor Meldrew '' . For example , in May 1999 British newspapers accused Philip of insulting deaf children at a pop concert in Wales by saying , `` No wonder you are deaf listening to this row . '' Later Philip wrote , `` The story is largely invention . It so happens that my mother was quite seriously deaf and I have been Patron of the Royal National Institute for the Deaf for ages , so it 's hardly likely that I would do any such thing . '' When he and the Queen met Stephen Menary , an army cadet blinded by an IRA bomb , and the Queen enquired how much sight he retained , Philip quipped : `` Not a lot , judging by the tie he 's wearing '' . Menary later said : `` I think he just tries to put people at ease by trying to make a joke . I certainly did n't take any offence . '' During a state visit to the People 's Republic of China in 1986 , in a private conversation with British students from Xi'an 's North West University , Philip joked , `` If you stay here much longer , you 'll go slit-eyed . '' The British press reported on the remark as indicative of racial intolerance , but the Chinese authorities were reportedly unconcerned . Chinese students studying in the UK ,

qz_2908--Prince_Philip,_Duke_of_Edinburgh.txt

What public school did the Duke of Edinburgh and Prince Charles attend?

Mykonos ( , ; ) is a Greek island , part of the Cyclades , lying between Tinos , Syros , Paros and Naxos . The island spans an area of and rises to an elevation of 341 m at its highest point . There are 10,134 inhabitants ( 2011 census ) , most of whom live in the largest town , Mykonos , which lies on the west coast . The town is also known as Chora ( i.e . the Town in Greek , following the common practice in Greece when the name of the island itself is the same as the name of the principal town ) . Mykonos ' nickname is The island of the winds . Tourism is a major industry and Mykonos is well known for its vibrant nightlife and for being a gay-friendly destination with many establishments catering for the LGBT community . History Archaeological findings suggest the presence of the Neolithic tribe , Kares on the island in 3000 BC , but the first real settlers seem to be the Ionians from Athens in the early 11th century BC . There were many people living on the neighbouring island of Delos , just 2 km away , which meant that Mykonos became an important place for supplies and transit . It was , however , during ancient times a rather poor island with limited agricultural resources and only two towns . Its inhabitants were polytheists and worshipped many gods . Mykonos came under the control of the Romans during the reign of the Roman Empire and then became part of the Byzantine Empire until the 12th century . In 1204 , with the fall of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade , Mykonos was occupied by Andrea Ghisi , a relative of the Doge of Venice . The island was ravaged by the Catalans at the end of the 13th century and finally given over to direct Venetian rule in 1390 . In 1537 , while the Venetians still reigned , Mykonos was attacked by Hayreddin Barbarossa , the infamous admiral of Suleiman the Magnificent , and an Ottoman fleet established itself on the island . The Ottomans , under the leadership of Kapudan Pasha , imposed a system of self-governance comprising a governor and an appointed council of syndics . When the castle of Tinos fell to the Ottomans in 1718 , the last of the Venetians withdrew from the region . Up until the end of the 18th century , Mykonos prospered as a trading centre , attracting many immigrants from nearby islands , in addition to regular pirate raids . In June 1794 the Battle of Mykonos was fought between British and French ships in the island 's main harbour . The Greek Revolution against the Ottoman Empire broke out in 1821 and Mykonos played an important role , led by the national heroine , Manto Mavrogenous . Mavrogenous , a well-educated aristocrat guided by the ideas of the Enlightenment , sacrificed her family 's fortune for the Greek cause . Greece became an independent state in 1830 . A statue of her sits in the middle of Mando Mavrogenous square in the main town . As a result of sailing and merchant activity , the island 's economy quickly picked up but declined again during the late 19th century and especially after the opening of the Corinth Canal in 1904 and the First World War at the beginning of the 20th century . Many Mykonians left the island to find work in mainland Greece and many foreign countries , especially the United States . Tourism soon came to dominate the local economy , owing a lot to the important excavations carried out by the French School of Archaeology , which began work in Delos in 1873 . In the 1930s many famous artists , politicians and wealthy Europeans began spending their vacations on the island and Mykonos quickly became an international hot spot . Temporarily suspended during the Second World War , tourists once again rushed to Mykonos ' luxurious shores in the 1950s and have not stopped since . Mythology In Greek mythology , the Mykonos was named after its first ruler , Mykons , the son or grandson of the god Apollo and a local hero . The island is also said to have been the location of a great battle between Zeus and Titans and where Hercules killed the invincible giants having lured them from the protection of Mount Olympus . It is even said that the large rocks all over the island are the petrified testicles ( or , in bowdlerized versions of the myth , the entire corpses ) of the giants ; this portion of the myth is the source of the slang term `` stones '' attested in most major European languages . Geography The island spans an area of and rises to an elevation of 341 m at its highest point . It is situated 150 km east of Athens in the Aegean Sea . The island features no rivers , but numerous seasonal streams two of which have been converted into reservoirs . The island is composed mostly of granite and the terrain is very rocky with many areas eroded by the strong winds . High quality clay and baryte , which is a mineral used as a lubricant in oil drilling , were mined on the eastern side of Mykonos until the late 1900s . It produces 4500 m3 of water daily , by reverse osmosis of sea water in order to help meet the needs of its population and visitors . The island has a population of nearly 12,500 , most of whom live in the main town of Chora . Climate The sun shines for up to 300 days a year . It rains between February and March . This arid climate produces sparse vegetation . Vegetation grows around the beginning of winter and ends in mid-summer . Although temperatures can rise as high as 40 C in the summer months , average temperatures are around 28 C. In the winter , average temperatures are 15 C . There are two seasonal winds in Mykonos . The one in winter arrives from the south and is sometimes accompanied by electrical storms . The Sirocco , a famous southern wind , carries sands from the deserts that border the Mediterranean . In the summer a cooling wind comes from the north , the Meltemi , during July and August . Villages There are ten villages : Cuisine Local specialities : Government The municipality of Mykonos ( officially : ) is a separate regional unit of the South Aegean region , and the sole municipality in the regional unit . As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform , the regional unit Mykonos was created out of part of the former Cyclades Prefecture . The municipality , unchanged at the Kallikratis reform , also includes the islands Delos , Rineia and several uninhabited islets . The total area of the municipality is In the 2012 elections , the centre right New Democracy obtained the highest vote on Mykonos followed by the Coalition of the Radical Left ( SYRIZA ) . Demographics There are 10,134 inhabitants ( 2011 ) most of whom live in the largest town , Mykonos , also known as Chora ( i.e . the Town in Greek , a common denomination in Greece when the name of the island itself is the same as the name of the principal town ) . Economy Being a Greek island , the economy of Mykonos has close relation with the sea . However , with the rise of tourism , it plays a minor role during summer . Landmarks * Municipal Library - an 18th-century mansion housing over 8,000 volumes and a vast collection of 18th- and 19th-century photographs , documents and Cycladic coins and old seals as well as sketches and books from the personal library of American artist John Ratekin . The Municipal Library is located on Ayia Kyriaki Square in the main town of Chora . * Petros the Pelican - an old celebrity of the town 's waterfront , `` Petros '' has been the official mascot of Mykonos for over 50 years . He took up permanent residence on the island after a storm in 1954 and after his death the islanders elected a successor to carry on his legacy until today . * Mykonos windmills - The windmills are a defining feature of the Mykonian landscape . There are many dotted around the island , but most are concentrated in the main town of Chora . The famous `` Kato Mili '' in Chora ( Greek for lower mills ) , stand in a row on a hill overlooking the sea to harness the strong northern winds . Capped with wood and straw , the windmills were built by the Venetians in the 16th century to mill flour and remained in use until the early 20th century . Many have been refurbished and restored to serve as homes to locals and vaults to numerous Mykonian heritage documents . * Little Venice - rows of fishing houses line the waterfront with their balconies hanging over the sea . The first of these was constructed in the mid-18th century . They originally belonged to rich merchants or captains and the little basement doors that provided direct access to the sea and underground storage areas led people to believe that the owners were secretly pirates . Some of the houses have now been converted into bars and cafes and little shops and galleries . Little Venice is considered one of the most romantic spots on the island and many people gather there to watch the sunset . The area attracts many artists who come to paint the picturesque coastline . * Armenistis Lighthouse - is a testimony to Mykonos ' maritime history , as well as a fully functioning lighthouse . It is located in Fanari , which means lantern in Greek , from Chora . * Tria Pigadia - are three identical wells standing in a row in the middle of the main town , Chora . They were built in 1722 to provide the town with water . Unlike most modern wells which are over 30 metres deep , the Tria Pigadia are only 5–6 metres deep as they were dug into sand where water was more easily accessible . * Archaeological Museum of Mykonos - was built in 1905 to house the findings from the Putrefaction Pit of 425/426 BC , discovered in 1898 on the islet of Rheneia by D. Stavropoulos . It is one of the oldest museums in Greece and was designed by Alexandros Lykakis and funded by the Ministry of Education and the Archaeological Society of Athens . The land as donated by the Municipality of Mykonos . The original Neoclassical building underwent refurbishments and expansions in the 1930s and 1960s and the large eastern room was added in 1972 . The museum contains artefacts from the neighbouring island Rhenia , including 9th- to 8th-century BC ceramic pottery from the Cyclades and 7th- to 6th-century BC works from other areas in the Aegean . Its most famous item is the large vase produced in Tinos , showing scenes from the fall of Troy . * Aegean Maritime Museum - was founded in 1983 by the Mykonian George M. Drakopoulos and it opened in 1985 with the goal of preserving and promoting the study of Greek maritime history and tradition , in particular the evolution and activities of the merchant ship in the Aegean Sea . Drakopoulos has been awarded with the Athens Academy Award and with the World Ship Trust ’ s award for Individual Achievement for his work with the museum . The museum was the first in Greece that rescued and restored living historical exhibits to operate as they were originally designed and built . In addition to original pieces , there are also replicas of famous historical ships and collections of coins with nautical scenes from the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD and a variety of elaborate shipping instruments . * Folklore Museum - the oldest house on the island houses a collection of 19th-century furniture , jewellery , ceramics embroideries , marble sculptures , tombstones and a variety of other trinkets . The museum also pays tribute to Mykonos ' traditional nautical roots with models of 19th-century Mykonian ships , maps and an anchor and canons used during the Greek War of Independence . * Lena 's House - this 19th-century traditional Mykonian residence belonged to a wealthy shipping family and the original furniture is still preserved . The house now operates as a museum . * Agricultural Museum ( also known as the Bonis Mill ) - old tools and machinery are displayed in one of Mykonos ’ famous windmills and , located above the main town of Chora in Ano Myloi ( meaning Upper Windmills ) , it offers a spectacular view . Churches * Panagia Paraportiani - ( the Church of Our Lady ) one of the most famous architectural structures in Greece . The church received its name Paraportiani , which means `` standing next to the entrance / door '' , because it was located next to the entrance of the ancient castle , or kastro door . The neighbourhood of Kastro , where it is situated , used to be the site of a medieval castle – in those days a castle was a strong fortification surrounding a settlement – constructed in 1207 by the Gisi family , who controlled the island at the time . The castle was destroyed in the 16th century and its remnants covered up by new buildings when Chora began to expand in the 18th century . It took around 200 years to build the church . Construction began in the 15th century and was not completed until the 17th century . Its architectural quirkiness makes it one of the most photographed places in the world . * Catholic Church - the only Catholic church on the island was constructed in 1668 and renovated in 1677 by Bishop Leandros Zanthakis . The icon of the Virgin Mary and baby Jesus between Saint Dominic and Saint Catherine of Siena was transported to Mykonos from Venice in 1715 . A fire on 1 May 1991 damaged part of the church . By October 1997 the church was restored and re-opened to the public . Transportation Mykonos Airport is located 4 km southeast of the town of Mykonos and it is served by international flights during summer . The flight from Athens to Mykonos is 25 minutes . Mykonos is also accessible by boat and ferries . High speed vessels travel there daily from the surrounding islands and from Athens . Taxis , buses or boats are available for transportation . There are three main bus depots in Mykonos . The northern one is situated behind Remezzo Club above the old Port and provides regular service to Ano Mera , Elia and Kalafatis . A few hundred meters below , at the Old Port , lays another Depot focusing on the northern destinations of Tourlos ( New Port ) and Agios Stefanos . The southern Bus Depot is at the town `` entrance '' , called Fabrika and it provides regular service to Ornos , Agios Yannis , Plati Gialos , Psarou , Paraga , and Paradise Beach . Small boats travel to and from the many beaches . Tour boats go regularly to the nearby island of Delos . Culture In 2013 the Mykonos Biennale was inaugurated . It offers theatrical , cultural , cinematic , artistic , and musical productions . Notable people < ! -- -names need to have articles . Bluelined when linked . They will be deleted otherwise Also needs cite to link notable person with Mykonos per

qw_3516--Mykonos.txt

Which group of around 200 Greek islands in the Aegean Sea includes Andros, Naxos, Paros and Milos?

A steak is a meat generally sliced perpendicular to the muscle fibers , potentially including a bone . Exceptions , in which the meat is sliced parallel to the fibers , include the skirt steak that is cut from the plate , the flank steak that is cut from the abdominal muscles , and the Silverfinger steak that is cut from the loin and includes three rib bones . When the word `` steak '' is used without qualification , it generally refers to a beefsteak . In a larger sense , there are also fish steaks , ground meat steaks , pork steak and many more varieties . Steaks are usually grilled , but they can be pan-fried , or broiled . Steak is often grilled in an attempt to replicate the flavor of steak cooked over the glowing coals of an open fire . Steak can also be cooked in sauce , such as in steak and kidney pie , or minced and formed into patties , such as hamburgers . Steaks are also cut from grazing animals , usually farmed , other than cattle , including bison , camel , goat , horse , kangaroo , sheep , ostrich , pigs , reindeer , turkey and deer , as well as various types of fish , especially salmon and large pelagic fish such as swordfish , shark and marlin . For some meats , such as pork , lamb and mutton , chevon and veal , these cuts are often referred to as chops . Some cured meat , such as gammon , is commonly served as steak . Grilled Portobello mushroom may be called mushroom steak , and similarly for other vegetarian dishes . Imitation steak is a food product that is formed into a steak shape from various pieces of meat , while fruits such as watermelon can be grilled and described as `` watermelon steak '' because of their shape and color . Etymology The word steak originates from the mid-15th century Scandinavian word steik , or stickna in the Middle English dialect , along with the Old Norse word steikja . The Oxford English Dictionary 's first reference is to `` a thick slice of meat cut for roasting or grilling or frying , sometimes used in a pie or pudding ; especially a piece cut from the hind-quarters of the animal . '' Subsequent parts of the entry , however , refer to `` steak fish '' , which referred to `` cod of a size suitable for cutting into steaks '' , and also `` steak-raid '' , which was a custom among Scottish Highlanders of giving some cattle being driven through a gentleman 's land to the owner . An early written usage of the word `` stekys '' comes from a 15th-century cookbook , and makes reference to both beef or venison steaks . Production Livestock for meat to be used as steak cuts may be raised on a farm or ranch . The meat from various wild game may also be used for steak cuts . The trade in steaks from bushmeat is a serious threat to biodiversity , as commercial harvesting could endanger species . File : Los Animales en la Estancia ( 5451915873 ) .jpg|A sheep ranch ( Estancia ) in Argentina File : Cattle grazing near Hunningham - geograph.org.uk - 1575393.jpg|Cattle grazing in England File : Fish-farms-vietnam.jpg|Fish farming in Vietnam . Houseboat rafts with rearing cages underneath . Marketing and sales Countries with enough suitable land for grazing animals , in particular cattle , have a history of production and culinary use of steak . Such countries include Argentina , Ireland , New Zealand , Australia , South Africa , the United States and the United Kingdom . In Asian countries , such as China and Korea , steak is traditionally sliced and stir-fried and served in smaller amounts as part of a mixed dish . `` Chinese peasants had already mastered the richly varied environment and knew every edible part of it , which helped them to withstand famine . The stir-fry technique conserved precious firewood and enabled cooks to be exceedingly adaptable . '' Argentina In Argentina , beef represents a large portion of the country 's export market . A total of 11.8 million animals were slaughtered in 2010 . The country has one of the largest consumptions of beef per capita worldwide , and much of it is barbecued steak . Beef steak consumption is described as part of the `` Argentine national identity '' . In 2010 , there were 244,000 cattle producers in Argentina . In Argentina , a steakhouse is referred to as a parrilla , which are common throughout the country . Portion sizes of steak dishes in Argentine restaurants tend to be large , with steaks weighing over 454 grams ( one pound ) being commonplace . Asado is a traditional dish that often includes steak and is also the standard word for `` barbecue '' in Argentina and other countries . Asado is considered a national dish of the country . Australia Domestic and international marketing of Australian beef is undertaken by Meat & Livestock Australia , a corporation which runs programs related to quality assurance , sustainable production and environmental considerations , through organizations such as Meat Standards Australia ( MLA ) . Ireland The Irish agricultural beef market is a contributor to the economy of Ireland . A significant amount of Irish beef is exported to other countries , with over 50 % of exported beef going to the United Kingdom . New Zealand The `` Steak of Origin '' competition has been run for a decade on behalf of the Beef+Lamb Corporation of New Zealand . It `` aims to find the most tender and tasty sirloin steak '' in the country . Criteria for judging claims to include `` tenderness , pH , marbling and % cooking loss '' however while this data is collected for each entrant steak , only the shear force ( correlated to perceived tenderness ) determines qualification to a tasting panel , at which objective taste from a panel determines the winner . The pH is used solely to disqualify entrants and neither the 'marbling ' or the ' % cooking loss ' have any effect on the outcome of the competition at any stage . Their parallel competition which they run for lamb legs `` Glammies '' does take into account some of these other metrics when weighting the entrants for their ranking within the competition . South Africa South Africa uses steak to create biltong , a popular and exported dried and cured form that has found a market in many beef-eating countries . United Kingdom In the United Kingdom , steak is often served with chips and various vegetable accompaniments . According to a survey by trade magazine Caterer and Hotelkeeper , the most popular dinner menu in British restaurants in the 1980s included steak : being prawn cocktail , steak and Black Forest gateau . Cattle breeds such as Hereford or Aberdeen Angus date back to the 1700s , and a handful of farmers continue to raise cattle sired by registered pedigree bulls . Bullocks , which live outdoors year-round , grow slowly as they would in their natural habitat , ultimately producing a distinctly tender meat . Around 2,200,000 cattle are slaughtered for beef each year in the United Kingdom . United States In the United States , cuts of beef for retail sale include various beefsteaks , as well as stew meat and hamburger meat . In the U.S. circa 1956 , approximately 24 % of retail beef cuts were beef steaks . Beef production is the largest single agriculture in the United States , with 687,540 farms raising cattle and over a million in the production process , as of the 2007 Agriculture Census . On average , a single farm typically raises about 50 cattle at a time , with 97 percent of the cattle farms classified as one of these small family farms . These smaller farms average a gross cash income of $ 62,286 per year as of 2007 . Cooking Beef steaks are commonly grilled , broiled or occasionally fried . Grilled beef steaks can be cooked at different temperatures , or for different lengths of time ; the resulting cooked steak ranges from blue ( very rare ) to overdone . The most common characteristics of a rare steak is a soft , cold , red center . The outside is seared for flavor , while the inside is cooked to suit the diner 's preference . Steaks cooked well-done are typically cooked throughout the entire cut of meat . For example , a beefsteak cooked well-done will not have any pinkness in the middle when sliced . Uncooked beef steak can be served raw , such as in steak tartare . Fish steaks are generally cooked for a short time , as the flesh cooks quickly , especially when grilled . Fish steaks , such as tuna , can also be cooked to various temperatures , such as rare and medium-rare . The different ways in which a steak dish could be cut are - rib eye , sirloin , tenderloin , rump , porterhouse and t-bone . Cuts of steak are quite dissimilar between countries owing to different methods of cutting up the carcass . The result is that a steak found in one country is not the same as in another , although the recipes may be the same , differing `` only in their sauces , butters or garnitures '' . Dining Steak has become a popular dish in many places around the world , cooked in domestic as well as professional kitchens , and is often a primary ingredient in a menu . It is used in small amounts in an hors d'oeuvre , in an entrée dish or more usually , in a larger amount as the main course . A steak knife is a specialized piece of cutlery to make cutting the steak easier . It is sharper than other knives and has a serrated edge . Steak has also been an important breakfast dish , especially for people undertaking hard outdoor work , such as farmers . When ordering steak at a restaurant , it is common practice to advise the chef or person taking orders of how you would like your steak cooked . The terms rare , medium-rare , medium , medium-well or well-done denote individual preferences . Print references to the word `` rare '' go back at least to the 17th century c . 1615 . `` [ `` implied in : G. Markham Eng . Hus-wife in Countrey Contentments ii . 54 To know when meate is rosted enough , for as too much rareness is vnwholsome , so too much drinesse is not nourishing . [ at rareness n.2 ] 1776 G. Colman Spleen ii . 26 For which reason they leave the food without any juices at all . Without them , Sir , instead of beef or mutton , you might as well eat mahogany ? . Eat your meat as rare as possible , Sir ... '' Steak clubs Beefsteak Clubs were once part of London 's club life . They were described as `` a club of ancient institution in every theatre ; when the principal performers dined one day in the week together ( generally Saturday ) , and authors and other geniuses were admitted members . '' Dr Johnson 's club in Ivy lane was originally a Beef-Steak Club and the `` Rump-Steak or Liberty Club '' was in existence from 1733–34 . The present-day Beefsteak Club , established in 1876 , is at 9 Irving Street , London . Among its members are many notable people . Steakhouses A steakhouse is a restaurant that specializes in beefsteaks and other individual portions of meat . Chophouses started in London in the 1690s , and served individual portions of meat , known as chops . The houses were normally only open for men : for example , women were only admitted to Stone 's Chop House in 1921 . Accounts of travellers in 19th century London refer to their `` dining off mutton chop , rump steak and a 'weal ' cutlet '' , as well as hams and sirloins . Delmonico 's restaurant in New York City , which opened in 1827 and stayed open for almost 100 years , has been described as `` the most famous steak restaurant in American history '' . Delmonico steak refers to a method of preparation from one of several cuts of beef ( typically the rib cut ) prepared Delmonico style , originally from the mid-19th century . Hundreds of restaurants continue to specialize in serving steak , describing themselves as `` steakhouses '' , competing for culinary awards and aiming for culinary excellence . Sauces and condiments Classic sauces and seasonings to accompany steak include : * Béarnaise sauce * Café de Paris sauce * Compound butters such as parsley butter ( to create Entrecôte à la Bretonne ) , garlic butter or snail butter * Demi-glace , a rich brown sauce in French cuisine used in the preparation of Tournedos Rossini * Mustard * Fresh Rosemary * Pepper * Peppercorn sauce * Sauce Nivernaise * White wine , to create Tournedos au vin blanc * Worcestershire sauce , a traditional commercial condiment Commercially produced bottled sauces for steak and pre-mixed spices are also popular . In 2012 in the U.S. , A1 Steak Sauce had slightly over 50 % of the market share for all meat sauce products , and was the category leader . Montreal steak seasoning is a spice mix used to flavor steak and grilled meats that was based on the pickling dry-rub mix used in preparing Montreal smoked meat . Cultural significance Steak and other meat products can now be frozen and exported , but before the invention of commercial refrigeration , transporting meat over long distances was impossible . Communities had to rely on what was locally available , which , in turn , determined the forms and tradition of meat consumption . Hunter-gathering peoples cut steaks from local indigenous animals . For example , Sami cuisine relies partly on the meat of the reindeer ; the Inuit diet uses locally caught sea-mammal meat from whales ; Indigenous Australians ate kangaroo , while indigenous North American food included bison steak . In the Middle East , meat recipes from medieval times onwards simply state `` meat '' without specifying the kind or the cut and `` apart from an occasional gazelle , kid or camel '' , only lamb and mutton were eaten because cattle were seldom bred . In contemporary Argentina , where consumption of steak is very high , steak is a significant part of the national cuisine and the barbecue asado has the status of a national dish . In Austria , the national dish is Wiener Schnitzel , which is a type of steak made from veal . Advice on butchery and recipes for American black bear steak and chops is provided by US governments . Types Beefsteak See also : Meat hanging , Beef aging and Cut of beef Many types of beefsteak exist . The more tender cuts of beef , from the loin and rib , are cooked quickly , using dry heat , and served whole . Less tender cuts from the chuck or round are cooked with moist heat or are mechanically tenderized ( e.g . cube steak ) . Beef steak can be cooked to a level of very rare ( bleu , a cold raw center ) , rare , medium rare , medium , medium well done , or well done . Pittsburgh rare is charred on the outside . Beef , unlike certain other meats , does not need to be cooked through . Food-borne human illnesses are not normally found within a beef steak , though surfaces can potentially be contaminated from handling , and thus , very rare steak ( seared on the outside and raw within ) is generally accepted as safe . Beef steak is graded for quality , with higher prices for higher quality . Generally , the higher the quality , the more tender the beef , the less time is needed for cooking , or the better the flavor . For example , beef fillet is the most tender and wagyu , such as Kobe beef from Japan , is known for its high quality and commands a high price . Steak can be cooked relatively quickly compared to other cuts of meat , particularly when cooked at very high temperatures , such as by broiling or grilling . The quality and safety of steak as a food product is regulated by law . In Australia , there are National Meat Accreditation standards ; in Canada , there is the Canadian Beef Grading Agency ; in the United Kingdom , the Food Standards Agency is responsible ; in the United States , beef is graded by the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) as select , choice or prime , where `` prime '' refers to beef of the highest quality , typically that which has significant marbling . In 1996 in the U.S. , only 2.4 % of cattle were graded as prime , and most prime beef is sold in restaurants and hotels . File : Beef inspection USDA.jpg|Inspected beef carcasses tagged by the USDA File : Sliced Matsusaka wagyu beef.jpg|High grade sliced Matsusaka wagyu beef ( rib section meat ) File : Matsusaka sirloin.jpg|Matsusaka sirloin steak There is a wide range of quickly prepared and well-known beef steak dishes , including Minute steak , steak sandwiches , and steak and eggs . `` Surf and turf '' , which combines meat and fish , requires more time to prepare . Steak meat is also often minced , shredded , chopped finely or re-formed to create a range of dishes , including steak burgers , that retain the name `` steak '' . Other such dishes include : * Chicken fried steak – a breaded cutlet dish consisting of a piece of steak ( tenderized cube steak ) coated with seasoned flour and pan-fried . It is associated with U.S. Southern cuisine . * Hamburg steak – a beefsteak that is shaped into a patty to be cooked after being minced . It is similar to the Salisbury steak . Made popular worldwide by the migrating Germans , it became a mainstream dish around the start of the nineteenth century . * Restructured steak – a class of imitation beef steaks made from smaller pieces of beef fused together by a binding agent . Its development started in the 1970s . * Salisbury steak , first recorded in 1897 and named after James Salisbury , a doctor during the American Civil War , who recommended people eat hamburger three times per day . During World War I , American soldiers replaced the word `` hamburger '' with Salisbury steak for political reasons . Fish steak Fish steaks are cut perpendicular to the spine and include bones . Although their delicate flesh requires quicker cooking than beef , steaks from swordfish , halibut , tuna , salmon and mahi-mahi can be grilled . They are frequently cooked whole or as fillets . Fish steaks may also be poached or baked using a court bouillon , wine or sauce or cooked en papillote . Commercial sashimi tuna steaks may have their coloration fixated by the use of flushing with carbon monoxide ( CO ) , whereby CO is pumped into bags containing the tuna , which is then stored at 4° Celsius . The duration of time for color fixation to occur varies per the size of the meat . For example , a two-inch tuna steak takes twenty-four hours for color fixation to be completed using this process . When utilized , color fixation using CO occurs prior to the vacuum sealing of tuna steaks for storage . In Japan , color fixation using CO is prohibited . File : Swordfish steaks for sale.JPG|Swordfish steaks for sale at a market File : Salmon steaks.JPG|Salmon steaks on display File : tuna steak.JPG|Tuna steak served in a French bistro Lamb steak Lamb steaks come from a range of cuts and are a versatile ingredient that can be used in a range of dishes . It can be served warm or cold and is commonly found sliced into salads . Pork steak Pork steaks are generally cut from the shoulder of the pig , but can also be cut from the loin or leg of the pig . Shoulder steaks are cut from the same primal cut of meat most commonly used for pulled pork , and can be quite tough without long cooking times due to the high amount of collagen in the meat ; therefore , pork shoulder steaks are often cooked slower than a typical beef steak , and may be stewed or simmered in barbecue sauce during cooking . Cooked gammon steaks are a component of a full breakfast , whereas ham steaks from a rolled pork loin are more likely to be served at lunch . A Boston butt is a type of pork steak originating from colonial New England , where butchers would pack less valuable cuts of pork in barrels , called butts . File : HK Wellcome Shop frozen pork meat Ham Steak Nutrition Information Dairy Farm Intl barcode Sept-2012.JPG|Frozen ham steak for sale in Hong Kong File : Pork loin ham 2.jpg|Ham steaks File : Flatten pork steaks-01.jpg|Pork steaks being flattened Vegetarian steak Sliced vegetables can be used as vegetarian `` steaks '' , such as cauliflower , portobello mushrooms , and eggplant . Beans and legumes ( such as soybeans ) have also been used to form steak foods . Watermelon steaks are steak-shaped pieces of watermelon , often prepared by grilling . Its texture has been compared to that of seared meat , and it has been described as unique in its taste and texture . File : Bean steaks.JPG|Bean steaks , served with a sauce File : Bishop , East Dulwich , London ( 3666527372 ) .jpg|An eggplant steak burger topped with Feta cheese File : Grilled watermelon.JPG|Watermelon steaks on a grill

dpql_3856--Steak.txt

What is the French name given to a steak that has been cut from between two ribs?

The London Underground ( also known simply as the Underground , or by its nickname the Tube ) is a public rapid transit system serving Greater London and some adjacent parts of the counties of Buckinghamshire , Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom . The world 's first underground railway , the Metropolitan Railway , which opened in 1863 , is now part of the Circle , Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines ; the first line to operate underground electric traction trains , the City & South London Railway in 1890 , is now part of the Northern line . The network has expanded to 11 lines , and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers , making it the world 's 11th busiest metro system . The system 's first tunnels were built just below the surface , using the cut-and-cover method ; later , smaller , roughly circular tunnels – which gave rise to its nickname , the Tube – were dug through at a deeper level . The system has 270 stations and 250 mi of track . Despite its name , only 45 % of the system is actually underground in tunnels , with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface . In addition , the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London , with less than 10 % of the stations located south of the River Thames . The early tube lines , originally owned by several private companies , were brought together under the `` '' brand in the early 20th century and eventually merged along with the sub-surface lines and bus services in 1933 to form London Transport under the control of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) . The current operator , London Underground Limited ( LUL ) , is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London ( TfL ) , the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London . , 92 % of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares . The Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster , a contactless ticketing system , in 2003 . Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014 . The LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design , commissioning many new station buildings , posters and public artworks in a modernist style . The schematic Tube map , designed by Harry Beck in 1931 , was voted a national design icon in 2006 and now includes other TfL transport systems such as the Docklands Light Railway , London Overground and TfL Rail . Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface , created by Edward Johnston in 1916 . History Early years The idea of an underground railway linking the City of London with some of the railway termini in its urban centre was proposed in the 1830s , and the Metropolitan Railway was granted permission to build such a line in 1854 . To prepare construction , a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth , a small town with geological properties similar to London . This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train , and was later , in 1861 , filled up . The world 's first underground railway , it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives . It was hailed as a success , carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day , and borrowing trains from other railways to supplement the service . The Metropolitan District Railway ( commonly known as the District Railway ) opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground `` inner circle '' connecting London 's main-line termini . The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884 , built using the cut and cover method . Both railways expanded , the District building five branches to the west reaching Ealing , Hounslow , Uxbridge , Richmond and Wimbledon and the Metropolitan eventually extended as far as in Buckinghamshire , more than 50 mi from Baker Street and the centre of London . For the first deep-level tube line , the City and South London Railway , two 10 ft diameter circular tunnels were dug between King William Street ( close to today 's Monument station ) and Stockwell , under the roads to avoid the need for agreement with owners of property on the surface . This opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows , nicknamed padded cells . The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898 , followed by the Central London Railway in 1900 , known as the `` twopenny tube '' . These two ran electric trains in circular tunnels having diameters between 11 ft and 12 ft , whereas the Great Northern and City Railway , which opened in 1904 , was built to take main line trains from Finsbury Park to a Moorgate terminus in the City and had 16 ft diameter tunnels . In the early 20th century , the District and Metropolitan railways needed to electrify and a joint committee recommended an AC system , the two companies co-operating because of the shared ownership of the inner circle . The District , needing to raise the finance necessary , found an investor in the American Charles Yerkes who favoured a DC system similar to that in use on the City & South London and Central London railways . The Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan , but after arbitration by the Board of Trade , the DC system was adopted . The Underground Electric Railways Company years Yerkes soon had control of the District Railway and established the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) in 1902 to finance and operate three tube lines , the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( Bakerloo ) , the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( Hampstead ) and the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway , ( Piccadilly ) , which all opened between 1906 and 1907 . When the `` Bakerloo '' was so named in July 1906 , The Railway Magazine called it an undignified `` gutter title '' . By 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines . In January 1913 , the UERL acquired the Central London Railway and the City & South London Railway , as well as many of London 's bus and tram operators . Only the Metropolitan Railway , along with its subsidiaries the Great Northern & City Railway and the East London Railway , and the Waterloo & City Railway , by then owned by the main line London and South Western Railway , remained outside of the Underground Group 's control . A joint marketing agreement between most of the companies in the early years of the 20th century included maps , joint publicity , through ticketing and UNDERGROUND signs outside stations in Central London . The Bakerloo line was extended north to Queen 's Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford , but World War I delayed construction and trains reached in 1917 . During air raids in 1915 people used the tube stations as shelters . An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war and completed in 1920 . After the war government-backed financial guarantees were used to expand the network and the tunnels of the City and South London and Hampstead railways were linked at Euston and Kennington , although the combined service was not named the Northern line until later . The Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the `` Metro-land '' brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line . Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth , and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925 and from Wembley Park to Stanmore in 1932 . The Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow ( later Uxbridge ) and Hounslow . The London Passenger Transport Board years In 1933 , most of London 's underground railways , tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board , which used the London Transport brand . The Waterloo & City Railway , which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway , remained with its existing owners . In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed , Harry Beck 's diagrammatic tube map appeared for the first time . In the following years , the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed , the Brill Tramway in 1935 , and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936 . The 1935–40 New Works Programme included the extension of the Central and Northern lines and the Bakerloo line to take over the Metropolitan 's Stanmore branch . World War II suspended these plans after the Bakerloo line had reached Stanmore and the Northern line High Barnet and Mill Hill East in 1941 . Following bombing in 1940 passenger services over the West London Line were suspended , leaving Olympia exhibition centre without a railway service until a District line shuttle from Earl 's Court began after the war . After work restarted on the Central line extensions in east and west London , these were complete in 1949 . During the war many tube stations were used as air-raid shelters . On 3 March 1943 , a test of the air-raid warning sirens , together with the firing of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket , resulted in a crush of people attempting to take shelter in Bethnal Green tube station . A total of 173 people , including 62 children , died , making this both the worst civilian disaster of World War II , and the largest loss of life in a single incident on the London Underground network . The London Transport Executive / Board years On 1 January 1948 , under the provisions of the Transport Act 1947 , the London Passenger Transport Board was nationalised and renamed the London Transport Executive , becoming a subsidiary organisation of the British Transport Commission , which was formed on the same day . Under the same act , the country 's main line railways were also nationalised , and their reconstruction was given priority over the maintenance of the Underground and most of the unfinished plans of the pre-war New Works Programme were shelved or postponed . However , the District line needed new trains and an unpainted aluminium train entered service in 1953 , this becoming the standard for new trains . In the early 1960s the Metropolitan line was electrified as far as Amersham , British Rail providing services for the former Metropolitan line stations between Amersham and Aylesbury . In 1962 , the British Transport Commission was abolished , and the London Transport Executive was renamed the London Transport Board , reporting directly to the Minister of Transport . Also during the 1960s , the Victoria line was dug under central London and , unlike the earlier tubes , the tunnels did not follow the roads above . The line opened in 1968–71 with the trains being driven automatically and magnetically encoded tickets collected by automatic gates gave access to the platforms . The Greater London Council years On 1 January 1970 responsibility for public transport within Greater London passed from central government to local government , in the form of the Greater London Council ( GLC ) , and the London Transport Board was abolished . The London Transport brand continued to be used by the GLC . On Friday 28 February 1975 , a southbound train on the Northern City Line failed to stop at its Moorgate terminus and ploughed into the wall at the end of the tunnel . In the resulting tube crash , 43 people died and a further 74 were injured , this being the greatest loss of life during peacetime on the London Underground . In 1976 the Northern City Line was taken over by British Rail and linked up with the main line railway at Finsbury Park , a transfer that had already been planned prior to the accident . In 1979 another new tube , the Jubilee line , named in honour of Queen Elizabeth 's Silver Jubilee , took over the Stanmore branch from the Bakerloo line , linking it to a newly constructed tube between Baker Street and Charing Cross stations . Under the control of the Greater London Council , London Transport introduced a system of fare zones for buses and underground trains that cut the average fare in 1981 . Fares increased following a legal challenge but the fare zones were retained , and in the mid-1980s the Travelcard and the Capitalcard were introduced . The London Regional Transport years In 1984 control of London Buses and the London Underground passed back to central government with the creation of London Regional Transport ( LRT ) , which reported directly to the Secretary of State for Transport , whilst still retaining the London Transport brand . One person operation had been planned in 1968 , but conflict with the trade unions delayed introduction until the 1980s . On 18 November 1987 , fire broke out in an escalator at King 's Cross St. Pancras tube station . The resulting fire cost the lives of 31 people and injured a further 100 . London Underground were strongly criticised in the aftermath for their attitude to fires underground , and publication of the report into the fire led to the resignation of senior management of both London Underground and London Regional Transport . To comply with new safety regulations issued as a result of the fire , and to combat graffiti , a train refurbishment project was launched in July 1991 . In April 1994 , the Waterloo & City Railway , by then owned by British Rail and known as the Waterloo & City line , was transferred to the London Underground . In 1999 , the Jubilee line was extended from Green Park station through Docklands to Stratford station , resulting in the closure of the short section of tunnel between Green Park and Charing Cross stations , and including the first stations on the London Underground to have platform edge doors . The Transport for London years Transport for London ( TfL ) was created in 2000 as the integrated body responsible for London 's transport system . TfL is part of the Greater London Authority and is constituted as a statutory corporation regulated under local government finance rules . The TfL Board is appointed by the Mayor of London , who also sets the structure and level of public transport fares in London . However the day-to-day running of the corporation is left to the Commissioner of Transport for London . TfL eventually replaced London Regional Transport , and discontinued the use of the London Transport brand in favour of its own brand . The transfer of responsibility was staged , with transfer of control of the London Underground delayed until July 2003 , when London Underground Limited became an indirect subsidiary of TfL . Between 2000 and 2003 , London Underground was reorganised in a Public-Private Partnership where private infrastructure companies ( infracos ) upgraded and maintained the railway . This was undertaken before control passed to TfL , who were opposed to the arrangement . One infraco went into administration in 2007 and TfL took over the responsibilities , TfL taking over the other in 2010 . Electronic ticketing in the form of the contactless Oyster card was introduced in 2003 . London Underground services on the East London line ceased in 2007 so that it could be extended and converted to London Overground operation , and in December 2009 the Circle line changed from serving a closed loop around the centre of London to a spiral also serving Hammersmith . From September 2014 , passengers have been able to use contactless cards on the Tube , the use of which has grown very quickly and now over a million contactless transactions are made on the Underground every day . Infrastructure Railway The Underground serves 270 stations . Fourteen Underground stations are outside Greater London , of which five ( Amersham , Chalfont & Latimer , Chesham , and Chorleywood on the Metropolitan line , and Epping on the Central line ) , are beyond the M25 London Orbital motorway . Of the 32 London boroughs , six ( Bexley , Bromley , Croydon , Kingston , Lewisham and Sutton ) are not served by the Underground network , while Hackney has Old Street and Manor House only just inside its boundaries . Lewisham used to be served by the East London Line ( stations at New Cross and New Cross Gate ) . The line and the stations were transferred to the London Overground network in 2010 London Underground 's eleven lines total 402 km in length , making it the third longest metro system in the world . These are made up of the sub-surface network and the deep-tube lines . The Circle , District , Hammersmith & City , and Metropolitan lines form the sub-surface network , with railway tunnels just below the surface and of a similar size to those on British main lines . The Hammersmith & City and Circle lines share stations and most of their track with each other , as well as with the Metropolitan and District lines . The Bakerloo , Central , Jubilee , Northern , Piccadilly , Victoria and Waterloo & City lines are deep-level tubes , with smaller trains that run in two circular tunnels ( tubes ) with a diameter about 11 ft . These lines have the exclusive use of a pair of tracks , except for the Piccadilly line , which shares track with the District line between Acton Town and Hanger Lane Junction and with the Metropolitan line between Rayners Lane and Uxbridge ; and the Bakerloo line , which shares track with London Overground services north of Queen 's Park . Fifty-five per cent of the system runs on the surface . There are 20 mi of cut-and-cover tunnel and 93 mi of tube tunnel . Many of the central London underground stations on deep-level tube lines are higher than the running lines to assist deceleration when arriving and acceleration when departing . Trains generally run on the left-hand track . However , in some places , the tunnels are above each other ( for example , the Central line east of St Paul 's station ) , or the running tunnels are on the right ( for example on the Victoria line between Warren Street and King 's Cross St. Pancras , to allow cross-platform interchange with the Northern line at Euston ) . The lines are electrified with a four-rail DC system : a conductor rail between the rails is energised at −210 V and a rail outside the running rails at +420 V , giving a potential difference of 630 V. On the sections of line shared with mainline trains , such as the District line from East Putney to Wimbledon and Gunnersbury to Richmond , and the Bakerloo line north of Queen 's Park , the centre rail is bonded to the running rails . Of all the stations on the network , 127 of them , or 47 % of all the stations are below ground ( this includes sub surface stations ) . Most of the overground stations are in west or northwest London . There is a proposal to extend the Northern line to Battersea , opening three stations at Nine Elms , Battersea Park and Clapham Junction . These stations will probably be underground as these will be in Inner London and are being extended from the Kennington tube station . If all three stations are below ground , the percentage will go up from 47 % to 48 % . Lines Services using former and current main lines The Underground uses a number of railways and alignments that were built by main-line railway companies . * Bakerloo line : Between Queen 's Park and Harrow & Wealdstone this runs over the Watford DC Line alongside the London & North Western Railway ( LNWR ) main line that opened in 1837 . The route was laid out by the LNWR in 1912–15 and is part of the Network Rail system . * Central line : The railway from just south of Leyton to just south of Loughton was built by Eastern Counties Railway in 1856 on the same alignment in use today . The Underground also uses the line built in 1865 by the Great Eastern Railway ( GER ) between Loughton to Ongar via Epping . The connection to the main line south of Leyton was closed in 1970 and removed in 1972 . The line from Epping to Ongar was closed in 1994 ; most of the line is in use today by the heritage Epping Ongar Railway . The line between Newbury Park and Woodford junction ( west of Roding Valley ) via Hainault was built by the GER in 1903 , the connections to the main line south of Newbury Park closing in 1947 ( in the Ilford direction ) and 1956 ( in the Seven Kings direction ) . * Central line : The line from just north of White City to Ealing Broadway was built in 1917 by the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) and passenger service introduced by the Underground in 1920 . North Acton to West Ruislip was built by GWR on behalf of the Underground in 1947–8 alongside the pre-existing tracks from Old Oak Common junction towards and beyond , which date from 1904. , the original Old Oak Common junction to route has one main-line train a day to/from Paddington . * District line : South of Kensington Olympia short sections of the 1862 West London Railway ( WLR ) and its 1863 West London Extension Railway ( WLER ) were used when District extended from Earl 's Court in 1872 . The District had its own bay platform at Olympia built in 1958 along with track on the bed of the 1862/3 WLR/WLER northbound . The southbound WLR/WLER became the new northbound main line at that time , and a new southbound main-line track was built through the site of former goods yard . The 1872 junction closed in 1958 , and a further connection to the WLR just south of Olympia closed in 1992 . The branch is now segregated . * District line : The line between Campbell Road junction ( now closed ) , near Bromley-by-Bow , and Barking was built by the London , Tilbury & Southend Railway ( LTSR ) in 1858 . The slow tracks were built 1903–05 , when District services were extended from Bow Road ( though there were no District services east of East Ham from 1905 to 1932 ) . The slow tracks were shared with LTSR stopping and goods trains until segregated by 1962 , when main-line trains stopped serving intermediate stations . * District line : The railway from Barking to Upminster was built by LTSR in 1885 and the District extended over the route in 1902 . District withdrew between 1905 and 1932 , when the route was quadrupled . Main-line trains ceased serving intermediate stations in 1962 , and the District line today only uses the 1932 slow tracks . * District line : The westbound track between east of Ravenscourt Park and Turnham Green and Turnham Green to Gunnersbury follows the alignment of a railway built by the London & South Western Railway ( LSWR ) in 1869 . The eastbound track between Turnham Green and east of Ravenscourt Park follows the alignment built in 1911 ; this was closed 1916 but was re-used when the Piccadilly line was extended in 1932 . * District line : The line between East Putney and Wimbledon was built by the LSWR in 1889 . The last scheduled main-line service ran in 1941 but it still sees a few through Waterloo passenger services at the start and end of the daily timetable . The route is also used for scheduled ECS movements to/from Wimbledon Park depot and for Waterloo services diverted during disruptions and track closures elsewhere . * Hammersmith & City : Between Paddington and Westbourne Park tube station , the line runs alongside the main line . The Great Western main line opened in 1838 , serving a temporary terminus the other side of Bishop 's Road . When the current Paddington station opened in 1854 , the line passed to the south of the old station . On opening in 1864 , the Hammersmith & City ( then part of the Metropolitan line ) ran via the main line to a junction at Westbourne Park , until 1867 when two tracks opened to the south of the main line , with a crossing near Westbourne Bridge , Paddington . The current two tracks to the north of the main line and the subway east of Westbourne Park opened in 1878 . The Hammersmith & City route is now completely segregated from the main line . * Jubilee line : The rail route between Canning Town and Stratford was built by the GER in 1846 , with passenger services starting in 1847 . The original alignment was quadrupled `` in stages between 1860 and 1892 '' for freight services before the extra ( western ) tracks were lifted as traffic declined during the 20th century , and were re-laid for Jubilee line services that started in 1999 . The current Docklands Light Railway ( ex-North London Line ) uses the original eastern alignment and the Jubilee uses the western alignment . * Northern line : The line from East Finchley to Mill Hill East was opened in 1867 , and from Finchley Central to High Barnet in 1872 , both by the Great Northern Railway . * Piccadilly line : The westbound track between east of Ravenscourt Park and Turnham Green was built by LSWR in 1869 , and originally used for eastbound main-line and District services . The eastbound track was built in 1911 ; it closed in 1916 but was re-used when the Piccadilly line was extended in 1932 . Main line services that use LU tracks Some tracks now in LU ownership remain in use by main line services . * District line – East Putney to Wimbledon , used by South West Trains on through , ECS and diverted services * Metropolitan line – Harrow-on-the-Hill to Mantles Wood ( west of Amersham ) , used by Chiltern Railways Marylebone to Aylesbury/Aylesbury Vale services Trains London Underground trains come in two sizes , larger sub-surface trains and smaller deep-tube trains . Since the early 1960s all passenger trains have been electric multiple units with sliding doors and a train last ran with a guard in 2000 . All lines use fixed length trains with between six and eight cars , except for the Waterloo & City line that uses four cars . New trains are designed for maximum number of standing passengers and for speed of access to the cars and have regenerative braking and public address systems . Since 1999 all new stock has had to comply with accessibility regulations that require such things as access and room for wheelchairs , and the size and location of door controls . All underground trains are required to comply with the The Rail Vehicle Accessibility ( Non Interoperable Rail System ) Regulations 2010 ( RVAR 2010 ) by 2020 . Stock on sub-surface lines is identified by a letter ( such as S Stock , used on the Metropolitan line ) , while tube stock is identified by the year of intended introduction ( for example , 1996 Stock , used on the Jubilee line ) . Depots The Underground is served by the following depots : * Bakerloo : London Road , Stonebridge Park * Central : Hainault , Ruislip , White City * Circle : Hammersmith , Neasden * District : Ealing Common , Hammersmith , Upminster * Hammersmith & City : Hammersmith , Neasden * Jubilee : Neasden , Stratford Market * Metropolitan : Neasden * Northern : Edgware , Golders Green , High Barnet , Highgate , Morden * Piccadilly : Cockfosters , Northfields * Victoria : Northumberland Park * Waterloo & City : Waterloo * London Transport Museum : Acton Town Ventilation and cooling When the Bakerloo line opened in 1906 it was advertised with a maximum temperature of

bt_1955--London_Underground.txt

What colour on the London underground map is the District Line

|Circles of 9 and 12 - The 108 Human Types |Circles of 9 and 12 - The 108 Human Types In Western astrology , astrological signs are the twelve 30° sectors of the ecliptic , starting at the vernal equinox ( one of the intersections of the ecliptic with the celestial equator ) , also known as the First Point of Aries . The order of the astrological signs is Aries , Taurus , Gemini , Cancer , Leo , Virgo , Libra , Scorpio , Sagittarius , Capricorn , Aquarius and Pisces . The concept of the zodiac originated in Babylonian astrology , and was later influenced by Hellenistic culture . According to astrology , celestial phenomena relate to human activity on the principle of `` as above , so below '' , so that the signs are held to represent characteristic modes of expression . The twelve sector division of the ecliptic constitutes astrology 's primary frame of reference when considering the positions of celestial bodies , from a geocentric point of view , so that we may find , for instance , the Sun in 23° Aries ( 23° longitude ) , the Moon in 7° Scorpio ( 217° longitude ) , or Jupiter in 29° Pisces ( 359° longitude ) . Beyond the celestial bodies , other astrological points that are dependent on geographical location and time ( namely , the Ascendant , the Midheaven , the Vertex and the houses ' cusps ) are also referenced within this ecliptic coordinate system . Various approaches to measuring and dividing the sky are currently used by differing systems of astrology , although the tradition of the Zodiac 's names and symbols remain consistent . Western astrology measures from Equinox and Solstice points ( points relating to equal , longest and shortest days of the tropical year ) , while Jyotiṣa or Vedic astrology measures along the equatorial plane ( sidereal year ) . Precession results in Western astrology 's zodiacal divisions not corresponding in the current era to the constellations that carry similar names , while Jyotiṣa measurements still correspond with the background constellations . In Western and Asian astrology , the emphasis is on space , and the movement of the Sun , Moon and planets in the sky through each of the zodiac signs . In Chinese astrology , by contrast , the emphasis is on time , with the zodiac operating on cycles of years , months , and hours of the day . A common feature of all three traditions however , is the significance of the Ascendant — the zodiac sign that is rising ( due to the rotation of the earth ) on the eastern horizon at the moment of a person 's birth . Western zodiac signs Zodiac history and symbolism While Western astrology is essentially a product of Greco-Roman culture , some of its more basic concepts originated in Babylonia . Isolated references to celestial `` signs '' in Sumerian sources are insufficient to speak of a Sumerian zodiac . Specifically , the division of the ecliptic in twelve equal sectors is a Babylonian conceptual construction . By the 4th century BC , Babylonians ' astronomy and their system of celestial omens were influencing the Greek culture and , by the late 2nd century BC , Egyptian astrology was also mixing in . This resulted , unlike the Mesopotamian tradition , in a strong focus on the birth chart of the individual and in the creation of horoscopic astrology , employing the use of the Ascendant ( the rising degree of the ecliptic , at the time of birth ) , and of the twelve houses . Association of the astrological signs with Empedocles ' four classical elements was another important development in the characterization of the twelve signs . The body of astrological knowledge by the 2nd century AD is described in Ptolemy 's Tetrabiblos , a work that was responsible for astrology 's successful spread across Europe and the Middle East , and remained a reference for almost seventeen centuries as later traditions made few substantial changes to its core teachings . The following table enumerates the twelve divisions of celestial longitude , with the Latin names ( still widely used ) and the English translation ( gloss ) . The longitude intervals , being a mathematical division , are closed for the first endpoint ( a ) and open for the second ( b ) — for instance , 30° of longitude is the first point of Taurus , not part of Aries . Association of calendar dates with astrological signs only makes sense when referring to Sun sign astrology . Polarity and the four elements Empedocles , a fifth-century BC Greek philosopher , identified Fire , Earth , Air , and Water as elements . He explained the nature of the universe as an interaction of two opposing principles called love and strife manipulating the four elements , and stated that these four elements were all equal , of the same age , that each rules its own province , and each possesses its own individual character . Different mixtures of these elements produced the different natures of things . Empedocles said that those who were born with near equal proportions of the four elements are more intelligent and have the most exact perceptions . Each sign is associated with one of the classical elements , and these can also be grouped according to polarity : Fire and Air signs are considered positive or extrovert , masculine signs ; while Water and Earth signs are considered negative or introvert , feminine signs . The four astrological elements are also considered as a direct equivalent to Hippocrates ' personality types ( sanguine air ; choleric fire ; melancholic water ; phlegmatic earth ) . A modern approach looks at elements as `` the energy substance of experience '' and the next table tries to summarize their description through keywords . Classification according to element has gained such importance , that some astrologers start their interpretation of a natal chart , by studying the balance of elements shown by the position of planets and angles ( especially the Sun , the Moon and the Ascendant ) . The three modalities Each of the four elements manifests in three modalities : Cardinal , Fixed and Mutable . As each modality comprehends four signs , these are also known as Quadruplicities . They are occasionally referred to as crosses because each modality forms a cross when drawn across the zodiac . Christian astrology relates the three qualities to the three aspects of God in the trinity . The combination of element and modality provides a basic sign characterization . For instance , Capricorn is a cardinal earth sign , meaning that it is associated with action ( cardinal modality ) in the material world ( earth element ) . That can translate into ambition or practical application to the concrete , everyday necessities of life . The next table displays the twelve combinations of elements and modalities . Planetary rulerships Rulership is the connection between planet and correlated sign and house . In traditional Western astrology , each sign is ruled by one and only one of the seven visible planets ( note that in astrology , the Sun and Moon are termed The Lights , while the other bodies are called planets , which literally means wanderers , i.e . wandering stars as opposed to the fixed stars ) . The traditional rulerships are as follows : Aries ( Mars ) , Taurus ( Venus ) , Gemini ( Mercury ) , Cancer ( Moon ) , Leo ( Sun ) , Virgo ( Mercury ) , Libra ( Venus ) , Scorpio ( Mars ) , Sagittarius ( Jupiter ) , Capricorn ( Saturn ) , Aquarius ( Uranus ) , Pisces ( Jupiter ) . Psychologically-oriented astrologers often believe that Uranus is the ruler or co-ruler of Aquarius instead of Saturn ; Neptune is the ruler or co-ruler of Pisces instead of Jupiter , and that Pluto is the ruler or co-ruler of Scorpio instead of Mars . Some astrologers believe that the planetoid Chiron may be the ruler of Virgo , while other group of modern astrologers claim that Ceres is the ruler of Taurus instead . Other astrologers , still , use the former planets Pallas , Vesta , Juno and Hygiea in their delineations and rulerships , for example Vesta to Taurus and Pallas to Virgo . Debate continues between those who consider the newly discovered planets as rulers or co-rulers of certain signs and those that do not . Some astrologers do not even use the astrological signs at all ( mostly Cosmobiologists and Uranian Astrologers/Hamburg School ) . Therefore , they do not take into account planetary rulerships and the essential dignities when interpreting an astrological chart . Note that , if one starts from Leo and Cancer , the traditional planetary rulers are arrayed outward in the same order from the sun as they occur in the natural solar system . The Lights ruling Leo and Cancer , Mercury ruling Virgo and Gemini , Venus ruling Libra and Taurus , Mars ruling Scorpio and Aries , Jupiter ruling Sagittarius and Pisces , Saturn ruling Capricorn and Aquarius . The result is a symmetry of traditional rulerships across the 0° Leo/Aquarius axis . Note that modern rulerships , which attribute Pluto as ruler of Scorpio , break this symmetry . The following table shows both , traditional and modern , rulerships . Dignity and detriment , exaltation and fall A traditional belief of astrology , known as essential dignity , is the idea that the Sun , Moon and planets are more powerful and effective in some signs than others , because the basic nature of both is held to be in harmony . By contrast , they are held to find some signs to be weak or difficult to operate in because their natures are thought to be in conflict . The most important of these categories are Dignity , Detriment , Exaltation and Fall . * Dignity and Detriment : A planet is strengthened or dignified if it falls within the sign that it rules . In other words , it is said to exercise Rulership of the sign . For example , the Moon in Cancer is considered `` strong '' ( well-dignified ) . Seventeenth century astrologer William Lilly compared rulership to a king on his throne , with considerable dignity . If a planet is in the sign opposite that which it rules ( or is dignified ) , it is said to be weakened or in Detriment ( for example , the Moon in Capricorn ) . In traditional astrology , other levels of Dignity are recognised in addition to Rulership . These are known as Exaltation ( see below ) , Triplicity , Terms or bounds , and Face or Decan , which together are known as describing a planet 's Essential dignity , the quality or ability to give of one 's true nature . Contemporary traditional astrologers like John Frawley or J Lee Lehman explain further on the concept of Essential Dignity . * Exaltation and Fall : In addition , a planet is also strengthened when it is in its sign of Exaltation . In traditional horary astrology , Exaltation denotes a level of dignity somewhat exaggerated compared to rulership . Exaltation was considered to give the planet ( or what it signified in a horary chart ) dignity , with the metaphor of an honoured guest – who is the centre of attention but the extent of their ability to act is limited . Examples of planets in their Exaltation are : Saturn ( Libra ) , Sun ( Aries ) , Venus ( Pisces ) , Moon ( Taurus ) , Mercury ( Virgo , although some disagree to this classification ) , Mars ( Capricorn ) , Jupiter ( Cancer ) . A planet in the opposite sign of its Exaltation is said to be in its Fall , and thus weakened , perhaps seemingly more so than Detriment . The Planet in fall is passively rejected or ignored by the sign that it 's in . It can be likened to a mayor of a rival city trying to make suggestions to the hosting mayor for how he should run his city : The host mayor finds it difficult to trust him and can not see how his input could have relevancy to his city . The people of the city feel the same as their ruler . The result is impasse and failure on behalf of both mayors and the city . There is no agreement as to the signs in which the three extra-Saturnian planets may be considered to be exalted . The following table summarizes the positions described above : In addition to essential dignity , the traditional astrologer considers Accidental dignity of planets . This is placement by house in the chart under examination . Accidental dignity is the planet 's `` ability to act . '' So we might have , for example , Moon in Cancer , dignified by rulership , is placed in the 12th house it would have little scope to express its good nature . The 12th is a cadent house as are the 3rd , 6th and 9th and planets in these houses are considered weak or afflicted . On the other hand , Moon in the 1st , 4th , 7th or 10th would be more able to act as these are Angular houses . Planets in Succedent houses of the chart ( 2nd , 5th , 8th , 11th ) are generally considered to be of medium ability to act . Besides Accidental Dignity , there are a range of Accidental Debilities , such as retrogradation , Under the Sun 's Beams , Combust , and so forth . Additional classifications Each sign can be divided into three 10° sectors known as decans or decanates , though these have fallen into disuse . The first decanate is said to be most emphatically of its own nature and is ruled by the sign ruler . The next decanate is sub-ruled by the planet ruling the next sign in the same triplicity . The last decanate is sub-ruled by the next in order in the same triplicity . While the element and modality of a sign are together sufficient to define it , they can be grouped to indicate their symbolism . The first four signs , Aries , Taurus , Gemini and Cancer , form the group of personal signs . The next four signs , Leo , Virgo , Libra and Scorpio form the group of interpersonal signs . The last four signs of the zodiac , Sagittarius , Capricorn , Aquarius and Pisces , form the group of transpersonal signs . Dane Rudhyar presented the tropical zodiac primary factors , used in the curriculum of the RASA School of Astrology . The tropical zodiac is the zodiac of seasonal factors as opposed to the sidereal zodiac ( constellation factors ) . The primary seasonal factors are based on the changing ratio of sunlight and darkness across the year . The first factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when daylight is increasing , or the half of the year when darkness is increasing . The second factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when there is more daylight than darkness , or the half when there is more darkness than daylight . The third factor is which of the four seasons the chosen time falls in , defined by the first two factors . Thus '' The Signs and the Houses '' , by Robin Armstrong , RASA School of Astrology 2009 http : //www.rasa.ws/index.php/rasa-library-articles-signs-and-houses- * the 'winter ' season is when daylight is increasing and there is more darkness than daylight . * the 'spring ' season is when daylight is increasing and there is more daylight than darkness . * the 'summer ' season is when darkness is increasing and there is more daylight than darkness . * the 'autumn ' season is when darkness is increasing and there is more darkness than daylight . Indian astrology In Indian astrology , there are four elements : fire , earth , air , and water . The master of fire is Mars , while Mercury is of earth , Saturn of air , and Venus of water . Jyotish astrology recognises twelve zodiac signs ( Rāśi ) , that correspond to those in Western astrology . The relation of the signs to the elements is the same in the two systems . Nakshatras A nakshatra ( Devanagari : नक्षत्र , Sanskrit ' , from ' 'approach ' , and ' 'guard ' ) or lunar mansion is one of the 27 divisions of the sky , identified by the prominent star ( s ) in them , as used in Hindu astronomy and astrology ( Jyotisha ) . Chinese zodiac signs Unlike the Western or Indian zodiacs , the Chinese zodiac signs are not derived from constellations , and are not assigned to sections of the ecliptic . Instead , Chinese astrological signs operate on cycles of years , lunar months , and two-hour periods of the day ( also known as shichen ) . A particular feature of the Chinese zodiac is its operation in a 60-year cycle in combination with the Five Phases of Chinese astrology ( Wood , Fire , Metal , Water , and Earth ) . Nevertheless , some researches say that there is an obvious relationship between the Chinese 12-year cycle and zodiac constellations : each year of the cycle corresponds to a certain disposal of Jupiter . For example , in the year of Snake Jupiter is in the Sign of Gemini , in the year of Horse Jupiter is in the Sign of Cancer and so on . So the Chinese 12-year calendar is a solar-lunar-jovian calendar . Zodiac symbolism The following table shows the twelve signs and their attributes . The twelve signs In Chinese astrology the zodiac of twelve animal sign represents twelve different types of personality . The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat , and there are many stories about the Origins of the Chinese Zodiac which explain why this is so . When the twelve zodiac signs are part of the 60-year calendar in combination with the four elements , they are traditionally called the twelve Earthly Branches . The Chinese Zodiac follows the lunisolar Chinese calendar and thus the `` changeover '' days in a month ( when one sign changes to another sign ) vary each year . The following are the twelve zodiac signs in order.Theodora Lau , Ibid , pp 2–8 , 30–5 , 60–4 , 88–94 , 118–24 , 148–53 , 178–84 , 208–13 , 238–44 , 270–78 , 306–12 , 338–44 , 2005 # Rat ( Yang , 1st Trine , Fixed Element Water ) : Rat years include 1900 , 1912 , 1924 , 1936 , 1948 , 1960 , 1972 , 1984 , 1996 , 2008 , 2020 , 2032 . The Rat also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Rat are 11pm – 1am . # Ox ( Yin , 2nd Trine , Fixed Element Earth : Ox years include 1901 , 1913 , 1925 , 1937 , 1949 , 1961 , 1973 , 1985 , 1997 , 2009 , 2021 , 2033 . The Ox also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Ox are 1am – 3am . # Tiger ( Yang , 3rd Trine , Fixed Element Wood ) : Tiger years include 1902 , 1914 , 1926 , 1938 , 1950 , 1962 , 1974 , 1986 , 1998 , 2010 , 2022 , 2034 . The Tiger also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Tiger are 3am – 5am . # Rabbit ( Yin , 4th Trine , Fixed Element Wood ) : Rabbit Years include 1903 , 1915 , 1927 , 1939 , 1951 , 1963 , 1975 , 1987 , 1999 , 2011 , 2023 , 2035 . The Rabbit also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Rabbit are 5am – 7am . # Dragon ( Yang , 1st Trine , Fixed Element Earth ) : Dragon years include 1904 , 1916 , 1928 , 1940 , 1952 , 1964 , 1976 , 1988 , 2000 , 2012 , 2024 , 2036 . The Dragon also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Dragon are 7am – 9am . # Snake ( Yin , 2nd Trine , Fixed Element Fire ) : Snake years include 1905 , 1917 , 1929 , 1941 , 1953 , 1965 , 1977 , 1989 , 2001 , 2013 , 2025 , 2037 . The Snake also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Snake are 9am – 11am . # Horse ( Yang , 3rd Trine , Fixed Element Fire ) : Horse years include 1906 , 1918 , 1930 , 1942 , 1954 , 1966 , 1978 , 1990 , 2002 , 2014 , 2026 , 2038 . The Horse also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Horse are 11am – 1pm . # Goat ( Yin , 4th Trine , Fixed Element Earth ) : Goat years include 1907 , 1919 , 1931 , 1943 , 1955 , 1967 , 1979 , 1991 , 2003 , 2015 , 2027 , 2039 . The Goat also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Goat are 1pm – 3pm . # Monkey ( Yang , 1st Trine , Fixed Element Metal ) : Monkey years include 1908 , 1920 , 1932 , 1944 , 1956 , 1968 , 1980 , 1992 , 2004 , 2016 , 2028 , 2040 . The Monkey also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Monkey are 3pm – 5pm . # Rooster ( Yin , 2nd Trine , Fixed Element Metal ) : Rooster years include 1909 , 1921 , 1933 , 1945 , 1957 , 1969 , 1981 , 1993 , 2005 , 2017 , 2029 , 2041 . The Rooster also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Rooster are 5pm – 7pm . # Dog ( Yang , 3rd Trine , Fixed Element Earth ) : Dog years include 1910 , 1922 , 1934 , 1946 , 1958 , 1970 , 1982 , 1994 , 2006 , 2018 , 2030 , 2042 . The Dog also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Dog are 7pm – 9pm . # Pig ( Yin , 4th Trine , Fixed Element Water ) : Pig years include 1911 , 1923 , 1935 , 1947 , 1959 , 1971 , 1983 , 1995 , 2007 , 2019 , 2031 , 2043 . The Pig also corresponds to a particular month in the year . The hours of the Pig are 9pm – 11pm . The five elements * Wood : The wood person has high morals , is self-confident , expansive and co-operative , with wide and varied interests and idealistic goals . The direction associated with Wood is East , and the season is spring , which makes it the fixed element for the animal signs Tiger and Rabbit . * Fire : The fire person has leadership qualities , dynamic passion , and is decisive , self-confident , positive and assertive . The direction associated with Fire is South , and the season is summer , which makes it the fixed element for the animal signs Snake and Horse . * Earth : The earth person is serious , logical and methodical , intelligent , objective and good at planning . The direction associated with Earth is Center . The season for Earth is the changeover point of the four seasons . It is the fixed element for the animal signs Ox , Dragon , Goat and Dog . * Metal : The metal person is sincere , has fixed values and opinions , is strong of will , and has eloquence of speech . The direction associated with Metal is West . The season for Metal is Autumn . It is the fixed element for the animal signs Monkey and Rooster . * Water : The water person is persuasive , intuitive , and empathetic . The water person is objective and often sought out for their counsel . The direction associated with water is North . The season for Water is Winter . It is the fixed element for the animal signs Rat and Pig . The five elements operate together with the twelve animal signs in a 60-year calendar . The four elements appear in the calendar in both their yin and yang forms and are known as the eight heavenly stems . When trying to calculate the relevant year of the cycle in relation to the Western calendar , an easy rule to follow is that years that end in an odd number are Yang ( representing masculine , active and light ) , those that end with an even number are Yin ( representing feminine , passive and darkness ) .Chinese Astrology : Exploring the Eastern Zodiac by Shelly Wu Notes

sfq_10595--Astrological_sign.txt

What is the star sign of the date of the Battle of Waterloo?

Mary Shakespeare , née Arden , ( c. 1537–1608 ) was the mother of William Shakespeare . She was the daughter of Robert Arden . The Arden family had been prominent in Warwickshire since before the Norman Conquest . She was the youngest of eight daughters , and she inherited her father 's farm , now called Mary Arden 's House , in Wilmcote , Warwickshire when Robert Arden died in December 1556 . Richard Shakespeare , the father of John Shakespeare , was a tenant farmer on land owned by her father in Snitterfield . As the daughter of Richard 's landlord ; she may have known John since childhood . Mary married John Shakespeare in 1557 , when she was 20 years old . She bore eight children : Joan ( 1558 ) , Margaret ( 1562–63 ) , William ( 1564–1616 ) , Gilbert ( 1566–1612 ) , ″ Joan ( 1569–1646 ) , Anne ( 1571–79 ) , Richard ( 1574–1613 ) , and Edmund ( 1580–1607 ) . Though Mary gave birth to many children , several of them died young . Their first daughter , Joan , born 1558 died , the name was used again for their third daughter . Their second daughter , Margaret , also died in infancy . Some members of the wider Arden family were of the Catholic faith . Mary was from a family of status and her ancestors had connections in society , such as Thomas Arden , who fought in the thirteenth-century civil war for the Barons and Simon de Montfort ; Robert Arden who fought in the War of Roses ; John Arden who served on the court of King Henry VII . Upon her father 's death , Mary inherited land in Snitterfield and Wilmcote . Mary Arden 's House in Wilmcote has been maintained in good condition because it had been a working farmhouse over the centuries . It was bought by the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust in 1930 and refurnished in the Tudor period style . In 2000 it was discovered that the building preserved as Mary Arden 's house had belonged to a friend and neighbour Adam Palmer and the house was renamed Palmer 's Farm . The house that had belonged to the Arden family which was near to Palmer 's Farm had been acquired by the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust in 1968 for preservation as part of a farmyard without knowing its true provenance . The house and farm are open as historic museum displaying 16th century life .

qf_2048--Mary_Shakespeare.txt

Mary Arden had a famous son. Who was he?

The Golden Globe Award is an American accolade bestowed by the 93 members of the Hollywood Foreign Press Association ( HFPA ) recognizing excellence in film and television , both domestic and foreign . The annual formal ceremony and dinner at which the awards are presented are a major part of the film industry 's awards season , which culminates each year with the Academy Awards . The 73rd Golden Globe Awards , honouring the best in film and television in 2015 , were broadcast live on January 10 , 2016 . Ricky Gervais hosted the show for the fourth time . History In 1943 , a group of writers banded together to form the Hollywood Foreign Press Association , and by creating a generously distributed award called the Golden Globe Award , they now play a significant role in film marketing . The 1st Golden Globe Awards , honoring the best achievements in 1943 filmmaking , was held in January 1944 , at the 20th Century-Fox studios . Subsequent ceremonies were held at various venues throughout the next decade , including the Beverly Hills Hotel , and the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel . In 1950 , the Hollywood Foreign Press Association made the decision to establish a special honorary award to recognize outstanding contributions to the entertainment industry . Recognizing its subject as an international figure within the entertainment industry , the first award was presented to director and producer , Cecil B. DeMille . The official name of the award thus became the Cecil B. DeMille Award . In 1963 , the Miss Golden Globe concept was introduced . In its inaugural year , two Miss Golden Globes were named , one for film and one for television . The two Miss Golden Globes named that year were Eva Six ( of the films Operation Bikini and Beach Party ) and Donna Douglas ( of television 's The Beverly Hillbillies ) , respectively . In 2009 , the Golden Globe statuette was redesigned ( but not for the first time in its history ) . The New York firm Society Awards collaborated for a year with the Hollywood Foreign Press Association to produce a statuette that included a unique marble and enhanced the statuette ’ s quality and gold content . It was unveiled at a press conference at the Beverly Hilton prior to the show . Revenues generated from the annual ceremony have enabled the Hollywood Foreign Press Association to donate millions of dollars to entertainment-related charities , as well as funding scholarships and other programs for future film and television professionals . The most prominent beneficiary being the Young Artist Awards , presented annually by the Young Artist Foundation , established in 1978 by late Hollywood Foreign Press member , Maureen Dragone to recognize and award excellence of young Hollywood performers under the age of 21 , and to provide scholarships for young artists who may be physically and/or financially challenged . Ceremony The broadcast of the Golden Globe Awards , telecast to 167 countries worldwide , generally ranks as the third most-watched awards show each year , behind only the Oscars and the Grammy Awards . Until Ricky Gervais hosted the 67th annual Golden Globe Awards Ceremony in 2010 , the award ceremony was one of two major Hollywood award ceremonies ( the other being the Screen Actors Guild Awards ) that did not have a regular host ; every year a different presenter introduced the ceremony at the beginning of the broadcast . Gervais returned to host the 68th annual Golden Globe Awards in 2011 , and the 69th annual Golden Globe Awards in 2012 . Tina Fey and Amy Poehler hosted the 70th annual Golden Globe Awards in 2013 , the 71st annual Golden Globe Awards in 2014 , and the 72nd annual Golden Globe Awards in 2015 . The Golden Globe Awards ' theme song , which debuted in 2012 , was written by Japanese musician and songwriter Yoshiki Hayashi . 2008 disruption On January 7 , 2008 , it was announced that due to the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike , the 65th Golden Globe Awards would not be telecast live . The ceremony was faced with a threat by striking writers to picket the event and by actors threatening to boycott the ceremony rather than cross picket lines . The Hollywood Foreign Press Association was forced to adopt another approach for the broadcast . NBC originally had exclusive broadcast rights to the ceremonies , but on January 11 , HFPA President Jorge Camara announced there would be no restrictions placed on media outlets covering the January 13 press conference , announcing the winners at 6:00pm PST . As a result , E ! , CNN , the TV Guide Network and KNBC-TV , the network 's Los Angeles owned-and-operated affiliate , aired the 31-minute event , emanating from the Grand Ballroom of the Beverly Hilton Hotel live , leaving NBC to fill the hour from 9:00–10:00pm ET with announcements , made after-the-fact by Access Hollywood hosts Billy Bush and Nancy O'Dell . The remaining hours of programming , set aside for the ceremonies by the network , were filled with a special two-hour edition of Dateline , hosted by Matt Lauer , that included film clips , interviews with some of the nominees and commentary from comedian Kathy Griffin and the panelists from Football Night in America . Categories Motion picture awards * Best Motion Picture – Drama * Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy * Best Director * Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama * Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy * Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama * Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy * Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture * Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture * Best Screenplay * Best Original Score * Best Original Song * Best Foreign Language Film * Best Animated Feature Film ( since 2006 ) * Cecil B. DeMille Award for Lifetime Achievement in Motion Pictures Television awards Awarded since 1956 : * Best Drama Series * Best Comedy Series * Best Actor in a Television Drama Series * Best Actor in a Television Comedy Series * Best Actress in a Television Drama Series * Best Actress in a Television Comedy Series * Best Limited Series or Motion Picture made for Television * Best Actor in a Limited Series or Motion Picture made for Television * Best Actress in a Limited Series or Motion Picture made for Television * Best Supporting Actor in a Series , Limited Series or Motion Picture made for Television * Best Supporting Actress in a Series , Limited Series or Motion Picture made for Television Retired awards : * Best Documentary Film • Last awarded in 1977 at the 34th Golden Globe Awards * Best English-Language Foreign Film • Awarded from 1957 to 1973 * New Star of the Year – Actor • Last awarded in 1983 at the 40th Golden Globe Awards * New Star of the Year – Actress • Last awarded in 1983 at the 40th Golden Globe Awards * Henrietta Award ( World Film Favorite – Female ) • Awarded from 1950 to 1979 * Henrietta Award ( World Film Favorite – Male ) • Awarded from 1950 to 1979 * Best Film Promoting International Understanding ( 1945–63 ) * Golden Globe Award for Best Cinematography – Awarded from 1948 to 1953 , in 1955 and in 1963 . Superlatives In acting categories , Meryl Streep holds the record for the most competitive Golden Globe wins with eight . However , including honorary awards , such as the Henrietta Award , World Film Favorite Actor/Actress Award , or Cecil B. DeMille Award , Barbra Streisand leads with nine . Additionally , Streisand won for composing the song Evergreen ( Love Theme from A Star Is Born ) , producing the Best Picture ( Comedy/Musical ) ( A Star Is Born in the ceremony held in 1977 ) , and directing Yentl in 1984 . Jack Nicholson , Angela Lansbury , Alan Alda and Shirley MacLaine have six awards each . Behind them are Rosalind Russell and Jessica Lange with five wins . Meryl Streep also holds the record for most nominations with twenty-nine ( as of the 2015 nominations ) and John Williams is second with twenty-five . At the 46th Golden Globe Awards an annomaly occurred , there was a three way tie for the winner of Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama and Golden Globes were awarded to Sigourney Weaver for Gorillas in the Mist , Jodie Foster for The Accused and Shirley Maclaine for Madame Sousatzka . In the category Best Director , Elia Kazan leads with four wins , followed by Clint Eastwood , Oliver Stone , Miloš Forman , David Lean and Martin Scorsese with three wins each . Steven Spielberg holds the record for most nominations with eleven ( as of the 2015 nominations ) . Francis Ford Coppola , Clint Eastwood and Steven Soderbergh are the only directors to receive two nominations in the same year . Only four people have won two acting awards in the same year : * Sigourney Weaver ( 1989 ) * * Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama , Gorillas in the Mist * * Best Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture , Working Girl * Joan Plowright ( 1993 ) * * Best Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture , Enchanted April * * Best Supporting Actress in a Series , Miniseries or TV Film , Stalin * Helen Mirren ( 2007 ) * * Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama , The Queen * * Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film , Elizabeth I * Kate Winslet ( 2009 ) * * Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama , Revolutionary Road * * Best Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture , The Reader Other superlatives : * Most awards won by a single film * * Five films have won five Golden Globe Awards . * * * Doctor Zhivago * * * Love Story * * * The Godfather * * * One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest * * * A Star Is Born * Most nominations received by a single film * * Nashville , with eleven nominations * Highest Sweep ( Winning every nominated category ) * * Three films won all five Golden Globes that they were nominated for . * * * Doctor Zhivago * * * One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest * * * A Star Is Born * Most nominations without winning an award * * Who 's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? , Foul Play and The Godfather Part III , all with seven nominations . * Youngest person to win an award * * Ricky Schroder winning New Star of the Year – Actor in 1980 ( 9 years old ) . * Oldest person to win an award * * Ennio Morricone winning Best Original Score for The Hateful Eight ( 87 years old ) . Records Film Actors with two or more acting awards Actors with five or more acting nominations Criticism 1968–1974 NBC broadcast ban The HFPA has had a lucrative contract with NBC for decades , which began broadcasting the award ceremony locally in Los Angeles in 1958 , then nationally in 1964 . However , in 1968 , the Federal Communications Commission claimed the show “ misled the public as to how the winners were determined ” ( allegations included that winners were determined by lobby ; to motivate winners to show up to the awards ceremony winners were informed if they did not attend another winner would be named ) . The FCC admonished NBC for participating in the scandal . Subsequently , NBC refused to broadcast the ceremony from 1968 until after 1974 . Pia Zadora awarded “ New Star of the Year in a Motion Picture ” in 1982 In 1982 , Pia Zadora won a Golden Globe in the category `` New Star of the Year in a Motion Picture – Female '' for her performance in Butterfly , over such competition as Elizabeth McGovern ( Ragtime ) and Kathleen Turner ( Body Heat ) . Accusations were made that the Foreign Press Association members had been bought off . Zadora 's husband , multimillionaire Meshulam Riklis , flew voting members to his casino , the Riviera Hotel in Las Vegas , which gave the appearance that they voted for Zadora to repay this . Riklis also invited voting members to his house for a lavish lunch and a showing of the film . He also spent a great deal on advertising . Furthermore , Zadora had made her film debut some 17 years earlier as a child performer in Santa Claus Conquers the Martians . The Tourist for Best Musical/Comedy nominations in 2011 The nominations for the 2011 Globes drew initial skepticism , as the Hollywood Foreign Press Association nominated The Tourist in its Best Musical/Comedy category , although it was originally advertised as a spy thriller , and also one of the most panned films of the season with host Ricky Gervais even joking to main star of the film Johnny Depp if he had seen the movie . Rumors then surfaced that Sony , the distributor of The Tourist , had influenced Globes voters with an all-expenses-paid trip to Las Vegas , culminating in a concert by Cher . Other Actor and filmmaker Gary Oldman is a longtime detractor of the Golden Globes .

sfq_24977--Golden_Globe_Award.txt

Who wrote the original music score for the 2015 film the Hateful Eight his first complete western score for 35 years, winning a Golden Globe ?

Gordon Cameron Jackson , OBE ( 19 December 1923 – 15 January 1990 ) was a Scottish Emmy Award-winning actor best remembered for his roles as the butler Angus Hudson in Upstairs , Downstairs and as George Cowley , the head of CI5 , in The Professionals . He also portrayed Flt . Lt. Andrew MacDonald , `` Intelligence '' , in The Great Escape . Early life Gordon Jackson was born in Glasgow in 1923 , the youngest of five children . He attended Hillhead High School , and in his youth he took part in BBC radio shows including Children 's Hour . He left school aged 15 and became a draughtsman for Rolls-Royce . Acting career His film career began in 1942 , when producers from Ealing Studios were looking for a young Scot to act in The Foreman Went to France and he was suggested for the part . After this , he returned to his job at Rolls-Royce , but he was soon asked to do more films , and he made the decision to make acting his career . Jackson soon appeared in other films , including Millions Like Us , San Demetrio London , The Captive Heart , Eureka Stockade and Whisky Galore ! . In the early years of his career , Jackson also worked in repertory theatre in Glasgow , Worthing and Perth . In 1949 , he starred in the film Floodtide , along with actress Rona Anderson . He and Anderson married two years later on 2 June 1951 . They had two sons , Graham and Roddy . The same year , he made his London stage debut , appearing in Seagulls Over Sorrento . In the 1950s and 1960s he appeared on television in programmes such as The Adventures of Robin Hood , ABC of Britain , Gideon 's Way and The Avengers . In 1955 he had a small part in The Quatermass Xperiment , the film version of the BBC TV serial . He later had supporting roles in the films The Great Escape , The Bridal Path and The Ipcress File . In 1969 , he and his wife had important roles in The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie . That year , he played Horatio in Tony Richardson 's production of Hamlet and he won a Clarence Derwent Award for Best Supporting Actor , having also taken part in the film version . Gordon Jackson became a household name playing the stern Scottish butler Hudson in sixty episodes of the period drama Upstairs , Downstairs from 1971 to 1975 . In 1976 , he won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Single Performance by a Supporting Actor for the episode `` The Beastly Hun '' . In 1974 , he was named British Actor of the Year and in 1979 he was made an OBE . Jackson was cast opposite Bette Davis for the American television film Madame Sin ( 1972 ) , which was released in overseas markets as a feature film . His next big television role was in The Professionals from 1977 . He played George Cowley in all 57 episodes until the programme 's end in 1983 , although filming had finished in 1981 . He played Noel Strachan in the Australian World War II drama A Town Like Alice ( 1981 ) , winning a Logie Award for his performance . After A Town Like Alice and The Professionals , Gordon Jackson continued his television work with appearances in Hart to Hart , Campion and Shaka Zulu , and the films The Shooting Party and The Whistle Blower . He also appeared in the theatre , appearing in Cards on the Table , adapted from the novel by Agatha Christie at the Vaudeville Theatre in 1981 , and in Mass Appeal by Bill C. Davis at the Lyric Hammersmith in 1982 . From 1985 to 1986 , Jackson narrated two afternoon cookery shows in New Zealand for TVNZ called Fresh and Fancy Fare and its successor Country Fare . His last role before his death was in Effie 's Burning , and this was broadcast posthumously . Death In 1989 , he was diagnosed with bone cancer and died the following year , aged 66 , in London . He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium . Partial filmography * The Foreman Went to France ( 1942 ) * Nine Men ( 1943 ) * Millions Like Us ( 1943 ) * San Demetrio London ( 1943 ) * Pink String and Sealing Wax ( 1945 ) * The Captive Heart ( 1946 ) * Against the Wind ( 1948 ) * Eureka Stockade ( 1949 ) * Floodtide ( 1949 ) * Stop Press Girl ( 1949 ) * Whisky Galore ! ( 1949 ) * Bitter Springs ( 1950 ) * Happy Go Lovely ( 1951 ) * The Lady with the Lamp ( 1951 ) * Castle in the Air ( 1951 ) * Meet Mr. Lucifer ( 1953 ) * Death Goes to School ( 1953 ) * Delavine Affair ( 1954 ) * The Love Lottery ( 1954 ) * Moby Dick—Rehearsed ( 1955 , TV ) * Windfall ( 1955 ) * Passage Home ( 1955 ) * The Quatermass Xperiment ( 1955 ) * Women Without Men ( 1956 ) * Pacific Destiny ( 1956 ) * The Baby and the Battleship ( 1956 ) * Sailor Beware ! ( 1956 ) * Rockets Galore ! ( 1957 ) * Seven Waves Away ( 1957 ) * Let 's Be Happy ( 1957 ) * Hell Drivers ( 1957 ) * Man in the Shadow ( 1957 ) * Three Crooked Men ( 1958 ) * Blind Spot ( 1958 ) * The Price of Silence ( 1959 ) * The Navy Lark ( 1959 ) * Yesterday 's Enemy ( 1959 ) * The Bridal Path ( 1959 ) * Blind Date ( 1959 ) * Cone of Silence ( 1960 ) * Tunes of Glory ( 1960 ) * Greyfriars Bobby : The True Story of a Dog ( 1961 ) * Two Wives at One Wedding ( 1961 ) * Mutiny on the Bounty ( 1962 ) * The Great Escape ( 1963 ) * The Long Ships ( 1964 ) * Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines ( 1965 ) * The Ipcress File ( 1965 ) * Cast a Giant Shadow ( 1966 ) * The Fighting Prince of Donegal ( 1966 ) * Triple Cross ( 1966 ) uncredited * The Night of the Generals ( 1967 ) * Danger Route ( 1967 ) * The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie ( 1969 ) * Run Wild , Run Free ( 1969 ) * Hamlet ( 1969 ) * Scrooge ( 1970 ) * Kidnapped ( 1971 ) * Madame Sin ( 1972 ) * Russian Roulette ( 1975 ) * Spectre ( 1977 , TV movie ) * Golden Rendezvous ( 1977 ) * The Medusa Touch ( 1978 ) * A Town Like Alice ( 1981 , TV ) * The Masks of Death ( 1984 , TV movie ) * The Shooting Party ( 1985 ) * Shaka Zulu ( 1986 , TV ) * The Whistle Blower ( 1986 ) * My Brother Tom ( 1986 , TV ) * Campion ( 1989 , TV ) * The Lady and the Highwayman ( 1989 , TV movie ) * Noble House ( 1989 , TV )

qf_3300--Gordon_Jackson_(actor).txt

What was the fist name of Hudson in Upstairs Downstairs?

An ecchymosis is a subcutaneous spot of bleeding ( from extravasation of blood ) with diameter larger than 1 cm . It is similar to ( and sometimes indistinguishable from ) a hematoma , commonly called a bruise , though the terms are not interchangeable in careful usage . Specifically , bruises are caused by trauma whereas ecchymoses , which are the same as the spots of purpura except larger , are not necessarily caused by trauma , often being caused by pathophysiologic cell function . A broader definition of ecchymosis is the escape of blood into the tissues from ruptured blood vessels . The term also applies to the subcutaneous discoloration resulting from seepage of blood within the contused tissue . Signs and symptoms Hematomas can be subdivided by size . By definition , ecchymoses are 1 centimeter in size or larger , and are therefore larger than petechiae ( less than 2 millimeters in diameter ) or purpura ( 2 millimeters to 1 centimeter in diameter ) . Ecchymoses also have a more diffuse border than other purpura . Cause There are many causes of subcutaneous hematomas including ecchymoses . Coagulopathies such as Hemophilia A may cause ecchymosis formation in children . Etymology and pronunciation The word ecchymosis ( ; plural ecchymoses , ) comes to English from New Latin , based on Greek ekchymōsis , from ekchymousthai `` to extravasate blood '' , from ex- ( elided to e- ) and chymos , `` juice '' . Compare enchyma , `` tissue infused with organic juice '' ; elaboration from chyme , the formative juice of tissues .

bb_2245--Ecchymosis.txt

Haematoma and Ecchymosis are medical terms which more commonly are called a?

Dialectic or dialectics ( , dialektikḗ ) , also known as the dialectical method , is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments . The term was popularized by Plato 's Socratic dialogues but the act itself has been central to European and Indian philosophy since ancient history . The term dialectic is not synonymous with the term debate . While in theory debaters are not necessarily emotionally invested in their point of view , in practice debaters frequently display an emotional commitment that may cloud rational judgment . Debates are won through a combination of persuading the opponent , proving one 's argument correct , or proving the opponent 's argument incorrect . Debates do not necessarily require promptly identifying a clear winner or loser ; however clear winners are frequently determined by either a judge , jury , or by group consensus . The term dialectics is also not synonymous with the term rhetoric , a method or art of discourse that seeks to persuade , inform , or motivate an audience . Concepts , like `` logos '' or rational appeal , `` pathos '' or emotional appeal , and `` ethos '' or ethical appeal , are intentionally used by rhetoricians to persuade an audience . The Sophists taught aretē ( , quality , excellence ) as the highest value , and the determinant of one 's actions in life . The Sophists taught artistic quality in oratory ( motivation via speech ) as a manner of demonstrating one 's aretē . Oratory was taught as an art form , used to please and to influence other people via excellent speech ; nonetheless , the Sophists taught the pupil to seek aretē in all endeavours , not solely in oratory . Socrates favoured truth as the highest value , proposing that it could be discovered through reason and logic in discussion : ergo , dialectic . Socrates valued rationality ( appealing to logic , not emotion ) as the proper means for persuasion , the discovery of truth , and the determinant for one 's actions . To Socrates , truth , not aretē , was the greater good , and each person should , above all else , seek truth to guide one 's life . Therefore , Socrates opposed the Sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof . Different forms of dialectical reasoning have emerged throughout history from the Indosphere ( Greater India ) and the West ( Europe ) . These forms include the Socratic method , Hindu , Buddhist , Medieval , Hegelian dialectics , Marxist , Talmudic , and Neo-orthodoxy . Principles The purpose of the dialectic method of reasoning is resolution of disagreement through rational discussion , and , ultimately , the search for truth . One way to proceed—the Socratic method—is to show that a given hypothesis ( with other admissions ) leads to a contradiction ; thus , forcing the withdrawal of the hypothesis as a candidate for truth ( see reductio ad absurdum ) . Another dialectical resolution of disagreement is by denying a presupposition of the contending thesis and antithesis ; thereby , proceeding to sublation ( transcendence ) to synthesis , a third thesis . Fichtean /Hegelian dialectics is based upon four concepts : # Everything is transient and finite , existing in the medium of time . # Everything is composed of contradictions ( opposing forces ) . # Gradual changes lead to crises , turning points when one force overcomes its opponent force ( quantitative change leads to qualitative change ) . # Change is helical ( spiral ) , not circular ( negation of the negation ) . The concept of dialectic ( as a unity of opposites ) existed in the philosophy of Heraclitus of Ephesus , who proposed that everything is in constant change , as a result of inner strife and opposition . Hence , the history of the dialectical method is the history of philosophy.Cassin , Barbara ( ed . ) , Vocabulaire européen des philosophies [ Paris : Le Robert & Seuil , 2004 ] , p. 306 , trans . M.K . Jensen Western dialectical forms Classical philosophy According to Kant , the ancient Greeks used the word `` dialectic '' to signify the logic of false appearance or semblance . To the Ancients , `` it was nothing but the logic of illusion . It was a sophistic art of giving to one 's ignorance , indeed even to one 's intentional tricks , the outward appearance of truth , by imitating the thorough , accurate method which logic always requires , and by using its topic as a cloak for every empty assertion . '' In classical philosophy , dialectic ( ) is a form of reasoning based upon dialogue of arguments and counter-arguments , advocating propositions ( theses ) and counter-propositions ( antitheses ) . The outcome of such a dialectic might be the refutation of a relevant proposition , or of a synthesis , or a combination of the opposing assertions , or a qualitative improvement of the dialogue . Moreover , the term `` dialectic '' owes much of its prestige to its role in the philosophies of Socrates and Plato , in the Greek Classical period ( 5th to 4th centuries BCE ) . Aristotle said that it was the pre-Socratic philosopher Zeno of Elea who invented dialectic , of which the dialogues of Plato are the examples of the Socratic dialectical method . Socratic dialogue In Plato 's dialogues and other Socratic dialogues , Socrates attempts to examine someone 's beliefs , at times even first principles or premises by which we all reason and argue . Socrates typically argues by cross-examining his interlocutor 's claims and premises in order to draw out a contradiction or inconsistency among them . According to Plato , the rational detection of error amounts to finding the proof of the antithesis . However , important as this objective is , the principal aim of Socratic activity seems to be to improve the soul of his interlocutors , by freeing them from unrecognized errors . For example , in the Euthyphro , Socrates asks Euthyphro to provide a definition of piety . Euthyphro replies that the pious is that which is loved by the gods . But , Socrates also has Euthyphro agreeing that the gods are quarrelsome and their quarrels , like human quarrels , concern objects of love or hatred . Therefore , Socrates reasons , at least one thing exists that certain gods love but other gods hate . Again , Euthyphro agrees . Socrates concludes that if Euthyphro 's definition of piety is acceptable , then there must exist at least one thing that is both pious and impious ( as it is both loved and hated by the gods ) —which Euthyphro admits is absurd . Thus , Euthyphro is brought to a realization by this dialectical method that his definition of piety is not sufficiently meaningful . According to the University of Chicago , dialectic can be defined as a , `` mode of thought , or a philosophic medium , through which contradiction becomes a starting point ( rather than a dead end ) for contemplation '' Socrates proposed this form of dialectic through a Socratic method termed elenchus . To achieve the ultimate truth of opinions , hence dialectic , Socrates refuted propositions by proving his own statements true . In common cases , Socrates used enthymemes as the foundation of his argument . Discourse was applied to guide his reasoned arguments until the interlocutors had no other choice but to agree with him , conclusively contradicting their original theses . Therefore , Socrates , in result , would have reached ultimate truth . For example , dialectic occurs between Socrates , the Sophist , Gorgias , and two men , Polus and Callicles in Plato 's Gorgias . Because Socrates ' ultimate goal was to reach true knowledge , he was even willing to change his own views in order to arrive at the truth . The fundamental goal of dialectic , in this instance , was to establish a precise definition of the subject ( in this case , rhetoric ) and with the use of argumentation and questioning , make the subject even more precise . In the Gorgias , Socrates reaches the truth by asking a series of questions and in return , receiving short , clear answers . Socrates asks Gorgias if he who has learned carpentering is a carpenter , and if he who has learned music is a musician , and if he who has learned medicine is a physician , and so forth . Gorgias one way or another replies `` yes , '' to all of these questions . Socrates then continues by asking Gorgias if he believes that a just man will always desire to do what is just and never intend to do injustice . Yet again , Gorgias replies , `` yes . '' Socrates then brings up the fact that earlier in their conversation Gorgias stated that rhetoricians are just men . Gorgias agrees . In return , Socrates contradicts Gorgias ' statements , because Gorgias had implied that if a rhetorician uses rhetoric for injustices , the teacher should not be at fault . If this were to occur , then a rhetorician would in fact not be a just man . Socrates discovered the inconsistency in Gorgias ' statements and ends the excerpt by stating `` there will be a great deal of discussion , before we get at the truth of all this . '' This example demonstrates how dialectic is used as a method to maneuver people into contradicting their own theses . Reasoned argumentative discourse furthers the establishment of the truth . Dialectic , dissimilar to debates , naturally comes to an end . The ultimate truth will be arrived at and contradiction diminished . There is another interpretation of the dialectic , as a method of intuition suggested in The Republic . Simon Blackburn writes that the dialectic in this sense is used to understand `` the total process of enlightenment , whereby the philosopher is educated so as to achieve knowledge of the supreme good , the Form of the Good '' . Aristotle Aristotle stresses that rhetoric is closely related to dialectic . He offers several formulas to describe this affinity between the two disciplines : first of all , rhetoric is said to be a “ counterpart ” ( antistrophos ) to dialectic ( Rhet . I.1 , 1354a1 ) ; ( ii ) it is also called an “ outgrowth ” ( paraphues ti ) of dialectic and the study of character ( Rhet . I.2 , 1356a25f . ) ; finally , Aristotle says that rhetoric is part of dialectic and resembles it ( Rhet . I.2 , 1356a30f . ) . In saying that rhetoric is a counterpart to dialectic , Aristotle obviously alludes to Plato 's Gorgias ( 464bff . ) , where rhetoric is ironically defined as a counterpart to cookery in the soul . Since , in this passage , Plato uses the word ‘ antistrophos ’ to designate an analogy , it is likely that Aristotle wants to express a kind of analogy too : what dialectic is for the ( private or academic ) practice of attacking and maintaining an argument , rhetoric is for the ( public ) practice of defending oneself or accusing an opponent.The analogy to dialectic has important implications for the status of rhetoric . Plato argued in his Gorgias that rhetoric can not be an art ( technê ) , since it is not related to a definite subject , while real arts are defined by their specific subjects , as e.g . medicine or shoemaking are defined by their products , i.e. , health and shoes . Medieval philosophy Dialectics ( also called logic ) was one of the three liberal arts taught in medieval universities as part of the trivium . The trivium also included rhetoric and grammar . Based mainly on Aristotle , the first medieval philosopher to work on dialectics was Boethius . After him , many scholastic philosophers also made use of dialectics in their works , such as Abelard , William of Sherwood , Garlandus Compotista , Walter Burley , Roger Swyneshed , William of Ockham , and Thomas Aquinas . This dialectic was formed as follows : # The Question to be determined # The principal objections to the question # An argument in favor of the Question , traditionally a single argument ( `` On the contrary ... '' ) # The determination of the Question after weighing the evidence . ( `` I answer that ... '' ) # The replies to each objection Modern philosophy The concept of dialectics was given new life by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ( following Johann Gottlieb Fichte ) , whose dialectically dynamic model of nature and of history made it , as it were , a fundamental aspect of the nature of reality ( instead of regarding the contradictions into which dialectics leads as a sign of the sterility of the dialectical method , as Immanuel Kant tended to do in his Critique of Pure Reason ) . In the mid-19th century , the concept of `` dialectic '' was appropriated by Karl Marx ( see , for example , Das Kapital , published in 1867 ) and Friedrich Engels and retooled in a non-idealist manner . It would also become a crucial part of later representations of Marxism as a philosophy of dialectical materialism . These representations often contrasted dramatically and led to vigorous debate among different Marxist groupings ( leading some prominent Marxists to give up on the idea of dialectics completely ) Thus this concept has played a prominent role on the world stage and in world history . In contemporary polemics , `` dialectics '' may also refer to an understanding of how we can or should perceive the world ( epistemology ) ; an assertion that the nature of the world outside one 's perception is interconnected , contradictory , and dynamic ( ontology ) ; or it can refer to a method of presentation of ideas and conclusions ( discourse ) . According to Hegel , `` dialectic '' is the method by which human history unfolds ; that is to say , history progresses as a dialectical process . Hegelian dialectic Hegelian dialectic , usually presented in a threefold manner , was stated by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus as comprising three dialectical stages of development : a thesis , giving rise to its reaction , an antithesis , which contradicts or negates the thesis , and the tension between the two being resolved by means of a synthesis . Although this model is often named after Hegel , he himself never used that specific formulation . Hegel ascribed that terminology to Kant . Carrying on Kant 's work , Fichte greatly elaborated on the synthesis model , and popularized it . On the other hand , Hegel did use a three-valued logical model that is very similar to the antithesis model , but Hegel 's most usual terms were : Abstract-Negative-Concrete . Hegel used this writing model as a backbone to accompany his points in many of his works . The formula , thesis-antithesis-synthesis , does not explain why the thesis requires an antithesis . However , the formula , abstract-negative-concrete , suggests a flaw , or perhaps an incomplete-ness , in any initial thesis—it is too abstract and lacks the negative of trial , error , and experience . For Hegel , the concrete , the synthesis , the absolute , must always pass through the phase of the negative , in the journey to completion , that is , mediation . This is the essence of what is popularly called Hegelian Dialectics . According to the German philosopher Walter Kaufmann : `` Fichte introduced into German philosophy the three-step of thesis , antithesis , and synthesis , using these three terms . Schelling took up this terminology . Hegel did not . He never once used these three terms together to designate three stages in an argument or account in any of his books . And they do not help us understand his Phenomenology , his Logic , or his philosophy of history ; they impede any open-minded comprehension of what he does by forcing it into a scheme which was available to him and which he deliberately spurned [ ... ] The mechanical formalism [ ... ] Hegel derides expressly and at some length in the preface to the Phenomenology . Kaufmann also cites Hegel 's criticism of the triad model commonly misattributed to him , adding that `` the only place where Hegel uses the three terms together occurs in his lectures on the history of philosophy , on the last page but one of the section on Kant—where Hegel roundly reproaches Kant for having 'everywhere posited thesis , antithesis , synthesis ' '' . To describe the activity of overcoming the negative , Hegel also often used the term Aufhebung , variously translated into English as `` sublation '' or `` overcoming , '' to conceive of the working of the dialectic . Roughly , the term indicates preserving the useful portion of an idea , thing , society , etc. , while moving beyond its limitations . ( Jacques Derrida 's preferred French translation of the term was relever . ) In the Logic , for instance , Hegel describes a dialectic of existence : first , existence must be posited as pure Being ( Sein ) ; but pure Being , upon examination , is found to be indistinguishable from Nothing ( Nichts ) . When it is realized that what is coming into being is , at the same time , also returning to nothing ( in life , for example , one 's living is also a dying ) , both Being and Nothing are united as Becoming . As in the Socratic dialectic , Hegel claimed to proceed by making implicit contradictions explicit : each stage of the process is the product of contradictions inherent or implicit in the preceding stage . For Hegel , the whole of history is one tremendous dialectic , major stages of which chart a progression from self-alienation as slavery to self-unification and realization as the rational , constitutional state of free and equal citizens . The Hegelian dialectic can not be mechanically applied for any chosen thesis . Critics argue that the selection of any antithesis , other than the logical negation of the thesis , is subjective . Then , if the logical negation is used as the antithesis , there is no rigorous way to derive a synthesis . In practice , when an antithesis is selected to suit the user 's subjective purpose , the resulting `` contradictions '' are rhetorical , not logical , and the resulting synthesis is not rigorously defensible against a multitude of other possible syntheses . The problem with the Fichtean `` thesis–antithesis–synthesis '' model is that it implies that contradictions or negations come from outside of things . Hegel 's point is that they are inherent in and internal to things . This conception of dialectics derives ultimately from Heraclitus . Hegel stated that the purpose of dialectics is `` to study things in their own being and movement and thus to demonstrate the finitude of the partial categories of understanding . '' One important dialectical principle for Hegel is the transition from quantity to quality , which he terms the Measure . The measure is the qualitative quantum , the quantum is the existence of quantity . As an example , Hegel mentions the states of aggregation of water : `` Thus the temperature of water is , in the first place , a point of no consequence in respect of its liquidity : still with the increase or diminution of the temperature of the liquid water , there comes a point where this state of cohesion suffers a qualitative change , and the water is converted into steam or ice '' . As other examples Hegel mentions the reaching of a point where a single additional grain makes a heap of wheat ; or where the bald-tail is produced , if we continue plucking out single hairs . Another important principle for Hegel is the negation of the negation , which he also terms Aufhebung ( sublation ) : Something is only what it is in its relation to another , but by the negation of the negation this something incorporates the other into itself . The dialectical movement involves two moments that negate each other , something and its other . As a result of the negation of the negation , `` something becomes its other ; this other is itself something ; therefore it likewise becomes an other , and so on ad infinitum '' . Something in its passage into other only joins with itself , it is self-related . In becoming there are two moments : coming-to-be and ceasing-to-be : by sublation , i.e. , negation of the negation , being passes over into nothing , it ceases to be , but something new shows up , is coming to be . What is sublated ( aufgehoben ) on the one hand ceases to be and is put to an end , but on the other hand it is preserved and maintained . In dialectics , a totality transforms itself ; it is self-related , then self-forgetful , relieving the original tension . Marxist dialectic Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels proposed that G.F. Hegel had rendered philosophy too abstractly ideal : In contradiction to Hegelian idealism , Karl Marx presented dialectical materialism ( Marxist dialectic ) : In Marxism , the dialectical method of historical study became intertwined with historical materialism , the school of thought exemplified by the works of Marx , Engels , and Vladimir Lenin . In the USSR , under Joseph Stalin , Marxist dialectics became `` diamat '' ( short for dialectical materialism ) , a theory emphasizing the primacy of the material way of life ; social `` praxis '' over all forms of social consciousness ; and the secondary , dependent character of the `` ideal '' . The term `` dialectical materialism '' was coined by the 19th-century social theorist Joseph Dietzgen who used the theory to explain the nature of socialism and social development . The original populariser of Marxism in Russia , Georgi Plekhanov used the terms `` dialectical materialism '' and `` historical materialism '' interchangeably . For Lenin , the primary feature of Marx 's `` dialectical materialism '' ( Lenin 's term ) was its application of materialist philosophy to history and social sciences . Lenin 's main input in the philosophy of dialectical materialism was his theory of reflection , which presented human consciousness as a dynamic reflection of the objective material world that fully shapes its contents and structure . Later , Stalin 's works on the subject established a rigid and formalistic division of Marxist–Leninist theory in the dialectical materialism and historical materialism parts . While the first was supposed to be the key method and theory of the philosophy of nature , the second was the Soviet version of the philosophy of history . A dialectical method was fundamental to Marxist politics , e.g. , the works of Karl Korsch , Georg Lukács and certain members of the Frankfurt School . Soviet academics , notably Evald Ilyenkov and Zaid Orudzhev , continued pursuing unorthodox philosophic study of Marxist dialectics ; likewise in the West , notably the philosopher Bertell Ollman at New York University . Friedrich Engels proposed that Nature is dialectical , thus , in Anti-Dühring he said that the negation of negation is : In Dialectics of Nature , Engels said : Marxist dialectics is exemplified in Das Kapital ( Capital ) , which outlines two central theories : ( i ) surplus value and ( ii ) the materialist conception of history ; Marx explains dialectical materialism : Class struggle is the central contradiction to be resolved by Marxist dialectics , because of its central role in the social and political lives of a society . Nonetheless , Marx and Marxists developed the concept of class struggle to comprehend the dialectical contradictions between mental and manual labor , and between town and country . Hence , philosophic contradiction is central to the development of dialectics the progress from quantity to quality , the acceleration of gradual social change ; the negation of the initial development of the status quo ; the negation of that negation ; and the high-level recurrence of features of the original status quo . In the USSR , Progress Publishers issued anthologies of dialectical materialism by Lenin , wherein he also quotes Marx and Engels : Lenin describes his dialectical understanding of the concept of development : Indian forms of dialectic Indian continental debate : an intra- and inter-Dharmic dialectic Anacker ( 2005 : p. 20 ) , in the introduction to his translation of seven works by the Buddhist monk Vasubandhu ( fl . 4th century ) , a famed dialectician of the Gupta Empire , contextualizes the prestige of dialectic and cut-throat debate in classical India and makes references to the possibly apocryphal story of the banishment of Moheyan post-debate with Kamalaśīla ( fl . 713–763 ) : Philosophical debating was in classical India often a spectator-sport , much as contests of poetry-improvisation were in Germany in its High Middle Ages , and as they still are in the Telugu country today . The king himself was often the judge at these debates , and loss to an opponent could have serious consequences . To take an atrociously extreme example , when the Tamil Śaivite Ñānasambandar Nāyanār defeated the Jain ācāryas in Madurai before the Pāṇḍya King Māravarman Avaniśūlāmani ( 620-645 ) this debate is said to have resulted in the impalement of 8000 Jains , an event still celebrated in the Mīnāksi Temple of Madurai today . Usually , the results were not so drastic ; they could mean formal recognition by the defeated side of the superiority of the winning party , forced conversions , or , as in the case of the Council of Lhasa , which was conducted by Indians , banishment of the losers . Brahmana/Vedic/Hindu dialectic While Western philosophy traces dialectics to ancient Greek thought of Socrates and Plato , the idea of tension between two opposing forces leading to synthesis is much older and present in Hindu Philosophy . Indian philosophy , for the most part subsumed within the Indian religions , has an ancient tradition of dialectic polemics . The two complements , `` purusha '' ( the active cause ) and the `` prakriti '' ( the passive nature ) brings everything into existence . They follow the `` rta '' , the Dharma ( Universal Law of Nature ) . Jain dialectic Anekantavada and Syadvada are the sophisticated dialectic traditions developed by the Jains to arrive at truth . As per Jainism , the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view , and that no single point of view is the complete truth . Jain doctrine of Anekantavada states that an object has infinite modes of existence and qualities and , as such , they can not be completely perceived in all its aspects and manifestations , due to the inherent limitations of being human . Only the Kevalis—the omniscient beings—can comprehend the object in all its aspects and manifestations , and that all others are capable of knowing only a part of it . Consequently , no one view can claim to represent the absolute truth . According to Jains , the ultimate principle should always be logical and no principle can be devoid of logic or reason . Thus one finds in the Jain texts , deliberative exhortations on any subject in all its facts , may they be constructive or obstructive , inferential or analytical , enlightening or destructive . Syādvāda is a theory of conditioned predication that provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that epithet Syād be attached to every expression . Syādvāda is not only an extension of Anekānta ontology , but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own force . The Sanskrit etymological root of the term Syād is `` perhaps '' or `` maybe '' , but in context of syādvāda , it means `` in some ways '' or `` from a perspective . '' As reality

odql_7465--Dialectic.txt

Which 20th century philosopher wrote 'Being And Nothingness' and 'Critique Of Dialectic Reason'?

For music from a year in the 1950s , go to 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59 This article includes an overview of the major events and trends in popular music in the 1950s . In the First World , rock and roll , doo-wop , pop , swing , rhythm and blues , blues , country and rockabilly dominated and defined the decade 's music . The U.S . Rock and roll Rock and roll dominated popular music in the later half of the 1950s . The musical style originated and evolved in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s , and quickly spread to much of the rest of the world . Its immediate origins lay in a mixing together of various black musical genres of the time , including rhythm and blues and gospel music ; with country and western and Pop . In 1951 , Cleveland , Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music for a multi-racial audience , and is credited with first using the phrase `` rock and roll '' to describe the music . The 1950s saw the growth in popularity of the electric guitar ( developed and popularized by Les Paul ) . Paul 's hit records like `` How High the Moon '' , and `` The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise '' , helped lead to the development of a specifically rock and roll style of playing of such exponents as Chuck Berry , Link Wray , and Scotty Moore . Chuck Berry , who is considered to be one of the pioneers of Rock and roll music , refined and developed the major elements that made rock and roll distinctive , focusing on teen life and introducing guitar solos and showmanship that would be a major influence on subsequent rock music.M . Campbell , ed. , Popular Music in America : And the Beat Goes on ( Cengage Learning , 3rd edn. , 2008 ) , pp . 168-9 . Artists such as Chuck Berry , Bo Diddley , Fats Domino , Little Richard , Jerry Lee Lewis , Big Joe Turner , and Gene Vincent released the initial rhythm and blues-influenced early rock and roll hits . Rock and roll forerunners in the popular music field included Johnnie Ray , The Crew-Cuts , The Fontane Sisters , and Les Paul and Mary Ford . The Rock and Roll Era is generally dated from 25 March 1955 premiere of the motion picture , `` The Blackboard Jungle '' . This film ’ s use of Bill Haley and His Comets ' `` ( We ’ re Gon na ) Rock Around the Clock '' over its opening credits , caused a national sensation when teenagers started dancing in the aisles . Pat Boone became one of the most successful artists of the 50s with his heavily Pop-influenced `` covers '' of R & B hits like `` Two Hearts , Two Kisses ( Make One Love ) '' , `` Ai n't That a Shame '' , and `` At My Front Door ( Crazy Little Mama ) '' . Boone 's traditional pop approach to rock and roll , coupled with his All-American , clean-cut image helped bring the new sound to a much wider audience . Elvis Presley , who began his career in the mid-1950s , soon became the leading figure of the newly popular sound of rock and roll with a series of network television appearances , motion pictures , and chart-topping records . His energized interpretations of songs , many from African American sources , and his uninhibited performance style made him enormously popular—and controversial during that period . Boone and Presley 's styles/images represented opposite ends of the burgeoning musical form , which competed with one another throughout the remainder of the decade . In 1957 , a popular television show featuring rock and roll performers , American Bandstand , went national . Hosted by Dick Clark , the program helped to popularize the more clean-cut , All-American brand of rock and roll . By the end of the decade , teen idols like Bobby Darin , Ricky Nelson , Frankie Avalon , Paul Anka , Neil Sedaka , Bobby Rydell , Connie Francis , and Fabian Forte were topping the charts . Some commentators have perceived this as the decline of rock and roll ; citing the deaths of Buddy Holly , The Big Bopper and Richie Valens in a tragic plane crash in 1959 and the departure of Elvis for the army as causes . On the other side of the spectrum , R & B-influenced acts like The Crows , The Penguins , The El Dorados and The Turbans all scored major hits , and groups like The Platters , with songs including `` The Great Pretender '' ( 1955 ) , and The Coasters with humorous songs like `` Yakety Yak '' ( 1958 ) , ranked among the most successful rock and roll acts of the period.V . Bogdanov , C. Woodstra and S. T. Erlewine , All Music Guide to Rock : the Definitive Guide to Rock , Pop , and Soul ( Milwaukee , WI : Backbeat Books , 3rd edn. , 2002 ) , ISBN 0-87930-653-X , pp . 1306–7 . Rock and roll has also been seen as leading to a number of distinct subgenres , including rockabilly ( see below ) in the 1950s , combining rock and roll with `` hillbilly '' country music , which was usually played and recorded in the mid-1950s by white singers such as Carl Perkins , Jerry Lee Lewis , Buddy Holly and with the greatest commercial success , Elvis Presley . [ `` Rockabilly '' ] , Allmusic , retrieved 6 August 2009 . Another subgenre , Doo Wop , entered the pop charts in the 1950s . Its popularity soon spawns the parody `` Who Put the Bomp '' . Novelty songs , long a music industry staple , continued their popularity in the Rock and Roll medium with hits such as `` Beep Beep '' . Classic pop Popular music dominated the charts for the first half of the decade . Vocal driven classic pop replaced big band/swing at the end of World War II , although it often used orchestras to back the vocalists . 1940s style Crooners vied with a new generation of big voiced singers , many drawing on Italian Canto Bella traditions . Mitch Miller , A & R man at the era 's most successful label , Columbia Records , set the tone for the development of popular music well into the middle of the decade . Show 1 . Miller integrated country , Western , rhythm & blues , and folk music into the musical mainstream , by having many of his label 's biggest artists record them in a style that corresponded to Pop traditions . Miller often employed novel and ear-catching arrangements featuring classical instruments ( whooping french horns , harpsichord ) , or sound effects ( whip cracks ) . He approached each record as a miniature story , often `` casting '' the vocalist according to type . ( Mitch ) Miller and the producers who followed his model were creating a new sort of pop record . Instead of capturing the sound of live groups , they were making three-minute musicals , matching singers to songs in the same way that movie producers matched stars to film roles . As Miller told `` Time '' magazine in 1951 , `` Every singer has certain sounds he makes better than others . Frankie Laine is sweat and hard words—he 's a guy beating the pillow , a purveyor of basic emotions . Guy Mitchell is better with happy-go-lucky songs ; he 's a virile young singer , gives people a vicarious lift . Rosemary Clooney is a barrelhouse dame , a hillbilly at heart . '' It was a way of thinking perfectly suited to the new market in which vocalists were creating unique identities and hit songs were performed as television skits . Whereas big band/swing music placed the primary emphasis on the orchestration , post-war/early 1950s era Pop focused on the song ’ s story and/or the emotion being expressed . By the early 1950s , emotional delivery had reached its apex in the miniature psycho-drama songs of writer-singer Johnnie Ray . Known as `` The Cry Guy '' and `` The Prince of Wails '' , Ray 's on-stage emotion wrought `` breakdowns '' provided a release for the pent-up angst of his predominantly teenage fans . As Ray described it , `` I make them feel , I exhaust them , I destroy them . '' It was during this period that the fan hysteria , which began with Frank Sinatra during the Second World War , really began to take hold . Although often ignored by musical historians , Pop music played a significant role in the development of rock 'n ' roll as well : [ Mitch ] Miller also conceived of the idea of the pop record `` sound '' per se : not so much an arrangement or a tune , but an aural texture ( usually replete with extramusical gimmicks ) that could be created in the studio and then replicated in live performance , instead of the other way around . Miller was hardly a rock 'n ' roller , yet without these ideas there could never have been rock 'n ' roll . `` Mule Train '' , Miller 's first major hit ( for Frankie Laine ) and the foundation of his career , set the pattern for virtually the entire first decade of rock . The similarities between it and , say , `` Leader of the Pack , '' need hardly be outlined here . Patti Page kicked things off with what would become the decade 's biggest hit , `` Tennessee Waltz '' . Her other hits from this period included : `` Mister and Mississippi '' , `` Mockin ' Bird Hill '' , `` Detour '' , `` ( How Much Is That ) Doggie in the Window '' , and `` Old Cape Cod '' . Frankie Laine 's 1949 hits , `` That Lucky Old Sun ( Just Rolls Around Heaven All Day ) '' and `` Mule Train '' , were still riding high on the charts when the decade began . He continued to score with such hits as : `` Georgia on My Mind '' , `` Cry of the Wild Goose '' , `` Jezebel '' , `` Rose , Rose , I Love You '' , `` Jealousy ( Jalousie ) '' , `` High Noon ( Do Not Forsake Me ) '' , `` I Believe '' , `` Granada '' , `` Moonlight Gambler '' , and `` Rawhide '' . Johnnie Ray had a long run of hits in the early half of the decade , often backed by The Four Lads , including : `` Cry '' , `` The Little White Cloud That Cried '' , `` Walking My Baby Back Home '' , `` Please , Mr. Sun '' , and `` Just Walkin ' in the Rain '' . The Four Lads racked up some hits on their own with `` Who Needs You '' , `` No , Not Much '' , `` Standin ' on the Corner '' , and `` Moments to Remember '' . Nat `` King '' Cole dominated the charts throughout the decade with such timeless classics as `` Unforgettable '' , `` Mona Lisa '' , `` Too Young '' , `` Darling , Je Vous Aime Beaucoup '' , `` Pretend '' , `` Smile '' , and `` A Blossom Fell '' . Perry Como was another frequent visitor to the charts with hits like : `` If '' , `` Round and Round '' , `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes '' , `` Tina Marie '' , `` Papa Loves Mambo '' , and `` Catch a Falling Star '' . Other major stars in the early 1950s included Frank Sinatra ( `` Young at Heart '' , `` Three Coins in the Fountain '' , `` Witchcraft '' ) , Tony Bennett ( `` Cold , Cold Heart '' , `` Because of You '' , `` Rags to Riches '' ) , Kay Starr ( `` Bonaparte 's Retreat '' , `` Wheel of Fortune '' , `` Rock and Roll Waltz '' ) , Rosemary Clooney ( `` Come On-a My House '' , `` Mambo Italiano '' , `` Half as Much '' , `` This Ole House '' ) , Dean Martin ( `` That 's Amore '' , `` Return to Me '' , `` Sway '' ) , Georgia Gibbs ( `` Kiss of Fire '' , `` Dance With Me , Henry '' , `` Tweedle Dee '' ) , Eddie Fisher ( `` Anytime '' , `` Wish You Were Here '' , `` Thinking of You '' , `` I 'm Walking Behind You '' , `` Oh ! My Pa-Pa '' , `` Fanny '' ) , Teresa Brewer ( `` Music ! Music ! Music ! `` , `` Till I Waltz Again With You '' , `` Ricochet ( Rick-O-Shay ) '' ) , Doris Day ( `` Secret Love '' , `` Whatever Will Be Will Be ( Que Sera Sera ) '' , `` Teacher 's Pet '' ) , Guy Mitchell ( `` My Heart Cries for You '' , `` The Roving Kind '' , `` Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania '' , `` Singing the Blues '' ) , Bing Crosby ( `` Play a Simple Melody with son Gary Crosby , `` True Love with Grace Kelly ) , Dinah Shore ( `` Lavender Blue '' ) , Kitty Kallen ( `` Little Things Mean a Lot '' ) , Joni James ( `` Have You Heard '' , `` Wishing Ring '' , `` Your Cheatin ' Heart '' ) , Peggy Lee ( `` Lover '' , `` Fever '' ) , Julie London ( `` Cry Me a River '' ) , Toni Arden ( `` Padre '' ) , June Valli ( `` Why Do n't You Believe Me '' ) , Arthur Godfrey ( `` Slowpoke '' ) , Tennessee Ernie Ford ( `` Sixteen Tons '' ) , Les Paul and Mary Ford ( `` Vaya Con Dios '' , `` Tiger Rag '' ) , and vocal groups like The Mills Brothers ( `` Glow Worm '' ) , The Weavers `` ( Goodnight Irene '' ) , The Four Aces ( `` Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing '' , `` ( It 's No ) Sin '' ) , The Chordettes ( `` Mister Sandman '' ) , Fontane Sisters ( `` Hearts of Stone '' ) , The Hilltoppers ( `` Trying '' , `` P.S . I Love You '' ) , The McGuire Sisters ( `` Sincerely '' , `` Goodnite , Sweetheart , Goodnite '' , `` Sugartime '' ) and The Ames Brothers ( `` Ragmop '' `` The Naughty Lady of Shady Lane '' ) . Classic pop declined in popularity as Rock and roll entered the mainstream and became a major force in American record sales . Crooners such as Eddie Fisher , Perry Como , and Patti Page , who had dominated the first half of the decade , found their access to the pop charts significantly curtailed by the decade 's end . However , new Pop vocalists continued to rise to prominence throughout the decade , many of whom started out singing Rock ‘ n ’ Roll . These include : Pat Boone ( `` Don ’ t Forbid Me '' , `` April Love '' , `` Love Letters in the Sand '' ) , Connie Francis ( `` Who ’ s Sorry Now '' , `` Among My Souvenirs '' , `` My Happiness '' ) , Gogi Grant ( `` Suddenly There ’ s a Valley '' , `` The Wayward Wind '' ) , Bobby Darin ( `` Dream Lover '' , `` Beyond the Sea '' , `` Mack the Knife '' ) , and Andy Williams ( `` Canadian Sunset '' , `` Butterfly '' , `` Hawaiian Wedding Song '' ) . Even Rock ‘ n ’ Roll icon Elvis Presley spent the rest of his career alternating between Pop and Rock ( `` Love Me Tender '' , `` Loving You '' , `` I Love You Because '' ) . Pop would resurface on the charts in the mid-1960s as `` Adult Contemporary '' . R & B In 1951 , Little Richard Penniman began recording for RCA Records in the late-1940s jump blues style of Joe Brown and Billy Wright . However , it was n't until he prepared a demo in 1954 , that caught the attention of Specialty Records , that the world would start to hear his new , uptempo , funky rhythm and blues that would catapult him to fame in 1955 and help define the sound of rock and roll . A rapid succession of rhythm-and-blues hits followed , beginning with `` Tutti Frutti '' and `` Long Tall Sally '' , which would influence performers such as James Brown , Elvis Presley , and Otis Redding . At the urging of Leonard Chess at Chess Records , Chuck Berry had reworked a country fiddle tune with a long history , entitled `` Ida Red '' . The resulting `` Maybellene '' was not only a # 3 hit on the R & B charts in 1955 , but also reached into the top 30 on the pop charts . Stax Records was founded in 1957 as Satellite Records . The label was a major factor in the creation of the Southern soul and Memphis soul styles . In 1959 , two black-owned record labels , one of which would become hugely successful , made their debut : Sam Cooke 's Sar , and Berry Gordy 's Motown Records . Blues Blues had a huge influence on mainstream American popular music in the 1950s with the enthusiastic playing styles of popular musicians like Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry , departed from the melancholy aspects of blues and influenced Rock and roll music . Ray Charles and Fats Domino help bring blues into the popular music scene . Domino provides a boogie-woogie style that heavily influences rock 'n ' roll . Big Mama Thornton records the original versions of `` Hound Dog '' and `` Ball and Chain '' . Country music Country music stars in the early 1950s included Hank Williams , Patsy Cline , Bill Monroe , Eddy Arnold , Gene Autry , Tex Ritter , Jim Reeves , Tennessee Ernie Ford , Chet Atkins and Kitty Wells . Wells ' 1952 hit `` It Was n't God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels '' became the first single by a solo female artist to top the U.S. country charts . `` It Was n't God ... `` was a landmark single in several ways ; it began a trend of `` answer '' songs , or songs written and recorded in response to ( or to counterpoint ) a previously popular song – in this case , `` The Wild Side of Life '' by Hank Thompson – and for Wells , began a trend of female singers who defied the typical stereotype of being submissive to men and putting up with their oft-infidel ways , both in their personal lives and in their songs . Early in the decade , the honky-tonk style dominated country music , with songs of heartbreak , loneliness , alcoholism and despair the overriding themes . Long regarded the master of these themes was Hank Williams , whose critically acclaimed songwriting resulted in a string of legendary hits and songs , such as `` Cold , Cold Heart '' , `` Your Cheating Heart '' , `` Why Do n't You Love Me '' and many more titles . Williams also lived hard , and on January 1 , 1953 , died . His legacy , however , would live on in country music for decades to come , and be vastly influential to new stars including a young Saratoga , Texas native named George Jones . Jones , just 23 when he had his first national hit -- `` Why Baby Why '' -- would go on to become one of country music 's most iconic figures for the next 55-plus years . Although some of his early songs included rockabilly ( usually recorded under the pseudonym Thumper Jones ) , he stayed true to the honky-tonk style for most of his career . In addition to `` Why Baby Why , '' his biggest 1950s hits included `` What Am I Worth '' , `` Treasure of Love '' , `` Just One More '' and his first No . 1 hit , `` White Lightning '' , and by the end of the 1990s , that number would increase to more than 100 hit songs . Besides Williams and Jones , the most popular honky tonk-styled singers included Lefty Frizzell , Carl Smith and Webb Pierce . In 1955 , Ozark Jubilee nearly began a nearly six-year run on ABC-TV , the first national TV show to feature country 's biggest stars . By the late 1950s , the Nashville sound became country music 's response to continued encroachment of genre by rock artists . This new style emphasized string sections , background vocals and crooning lead vocals in the vein of mainstream popular music , but utilizing production styles and themes seen in country music . Artists like Eddy Arnold and Jim Reeves , both whom had been well established earlier in the decade , were early pioneers in this style , which went on to see its greatest success in the 1960s . One of the first major Nashville Sound hits was `` Oh , Lonesome Me '' by Don Gibson . Also popular was the `` saga song '' , often a song with a historical background or having themes of violence , adultery and so forth . Songs by artists such as Johnny Horton ( `` The Battle of New Orleans '' and `` When It 's Springtime in Alaska '' ) , Stonewall Jackson ( `` Waterloo '' ) , Marty Robbins ( `` El Paso '' ) and Lefty Frizzell ( `` Long Black Veil '' ) dominated the charts starting in 1959 and continuing into the early 1960s . The late 1950s saw the emergence of the Lubbock sound , but by the end of the decade , backlash as well as traditional country music artists such as Ray Price , Marty Robbins , and Johnny Horton began to shift the industry away from the rock n ' roll influences of the mid-1950s . Rockabilly emerged in the early 1950s as a fusion of rock and roll and country music . Rockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s . The music was propelled by catchy beats , an electric guitar and an acoustic bass which was played using the slap-back technique . Rockabilly is generally considered to have begun in the early 1950s , when musicians like Bill Haley began mixing jump blues and electric country . In 1954 , however , Elvis Presley truly began the popularization of the genre with a series of recordings for Sun Records . `` Rock Around the Clock '' ( 1955 , Bill Haley ) was the breakthrough success for the style , and it launched the careers of several rockabilly entertainers . During this period Elvis Presley converted over to country music . He played a huge role in the music industry during this time . The number two , three and four songs on Billboard 's charts for that year were Elvis Presley , `` Heartbreak Hotel ; '' Johnny Cash , `` I Walk the Line ; '' and Carl Perkins , `` Blue Suede Shoes '' . Cash and Presley placed songs in the top 5 in 1958 with No . 3 `` Guess Things Happen That Way/Come In , Stranger '' by Cash , and No . 5 by Presley `` Don't/I Beg Of You '' . Presley acknowledged the influence of rhythm and blues artists and his style , saying `` The coloured folk been singin ' and playin ' it just the way I 'm doin ' it now , man for more years than I know . '' But he also said , `` My stuff is just hopped-up country . '' By 1958 , many rockabilly musicians returned to a more mainstream style or had defined their own unique style and rockabilly had largely disappeared from popular music , although its influences would remain into the future . Jazz Bebop , Hard bop , Cool jazz and the Blues gained popularity during the 1950s while prominent Jazz musicians who came into prominence in these genres included Lester Young , Ben Webster , Charlie Parker , Dizzy Gillespie , Miles Davis , John Coltrane , Thelonious Monk , Charles Mingus , Art Tatum , Bill Evans , Ahmad Jamal , Oscar Peterson , Gil Evans , Gerry Mulligan , Cannonball Adderley , Stan Getz , Chet Baker , Dave Brubeck , Art Blakey , Max Roach , the Miles Davis Quintet , the Modern Jazz Quartet , Ella Fitzgerald , Ray Charles , Sarah Vaughan , Dinah Washington , Nina Simone , and Billie Holiday . Other trends In 1956 the American musician of Jamaican descent Harry Belafonte popularized the Calypso music Caribbean musical style which became a worldwide craze with the release of his rendition traditional Jamaican folk song `` Banana Boat Song '' from his 1956 album Calypso . The album later became the first full-length record to sell more than a million copies , and Belafonte was dubbed the `` King of Calypso '' . Folk music The Weavers , Pete Seeger , Woody Guthrie , The Kingston Trio , Odetta , and several other performers were instrumental in launching the folk music revival of the 1950s and 1960s . Europe During the 1950s European popular music give way to the influence of American forms of music including jazz , swing and traditional pop , mediated through film and records . The significant change of the mid-1950s was the impact of American rock and roll , which provided a new model for performance and recording , based on a youth market . Initially this was dominated by American acts , or re-creations of American forms of music , but soon distinctly European Bands and individual artists began in early attempts to produce local Rock and roll music . Latin America * In 1958 the American musician Ritchie Valens 's `` La Bamba '' popularized Spanish language rock music throughout Latin America . * In 1958 Daniel Flores , who some call the `` godfather of Latin Rock '' , performed his hit song `` Tequila '' . * Argentinian band Los Cinco Latinos released their first album Maravilloso Maravilloso , which was met with success in Latin America and the United States . Hispanics , young and old , could find comfort in the popular rhythmic sounds of Latin music that reminded them of home ; mambo , cha-cha , merengue and salsa . Tito Puente , an American born Boricua ( Puerto Rican ) , revolutionized the Latin music of the time . He incorporated many new percussion and woodwind instruments into the popular Latin sound . The Hispanics in the U.S. certainly were able to conform with the popular vibes . Australia and New Zealand By the end of the decade , as the Rock n Roll style had spread throughout the world , it soon caught on with Australian teens . Johnny O'Keefe became perhaps the first modern rock star of the country , and began the field of Australian rock . New Zealand was introduced to Rock n Roll by Johnny Cooper 's cover of `` Rock around the Clock '' . After Rock n Roll had been introduced the most famous of New Zealand 's cover artists were : Johnny Devlin , Max Merit and the Meteors , Ray Columbus and the Invaders and Dinah Lee .

tc_2128--1950s_in_music.txt

On which label did Chuck Berry record in the 1950s and 1960s?

Lily Munster , Countess of Shroudshire ( née Dracula ) , is a fictional character in the CBS sitcom , The Munsters , originally played by Yvonne De Carlo . The matriarch of the Munster household , Lily is a vampire . The role was later played by Lee Meriwether in The Munsters Today and by Portia de Rossi in Mockingbird Lane . In the original unaired color pilot her name was Phoebe Munster . Origins Lily was born in 1827 to Sam Dracula ( Grandpa ) and his 166th wife ( referred to only as `` Grandma '' ) . She lived with Grandpa for some time in Transylvania ( a region in Romania ) before meeting Herman Munster and marrying him in 1865 . She , Grandpa , and Herman moved to America sometime before the mid-1940s and adopted her sister 's child , Marilyn . In the mid-1950s , she gave birth to Eddie , her and Herman 's only child . Her name is presumably derived from the tradition of the lily as a flower of death , or a vague reference to Lilith , a female demon of Jewish mythology . Description Lily is the matriarch of the Munster family . She is very close with her niece , Marilyn . She has a werewolf for a brother , who appears in one episode , and a sister who is mentioned a few times who is Marilyn 's mother . Lily is the voice of reason in the Munster household , often relied upon to set problems right , and typically mediates when Herman and Grandpa squabble . Lily also has a fiery temper . While she is deeply in love with Herman ( `` Pussycat , '' as she calls him ) , she also frequently gets very angry at him ( due to his frequent stupidity and occasional selfishness ) , and Herman often meekly discloses his fear ( to others ) of being on the receiving end of her wrath . She also has reprimanded her own father ( Grandpa ) on several occasions for his own foolish actions and stubborn self-righteousness . Lily treats her niece Marilyn as her own daughter , but shares the family 's concern that Marilyn 's `` hideousness '' is going to condemn her to a spinster 's life . As such , she is very much in favor of Marilyn dating , and is very accommodating to Marilyn 's fleeting beaus despite their `` rudeness . '' ( What Lily is perceiving as lack of manners is in fact the young man 's terror of seeing Marilyn 's monstrous relatives ) . Lily is very supportive of her son , Eddie , and keeps a close eye on his activities and social circle . Lily is mainly a housewife , and her duties include spreading garbage around the mansion and `` dusting '' with a vacuum cleaner operating in reverse so that it blows dirt about in the nine-room-and-a-dungeon house . During the course of the series , Lily works as a welder in a shipyard , a fashion model , and a palm reader in a tea room . In one episode she forces Herman to give her money so that she and Marilyn can open a beauty parlor , but this soon goes out of business , as Lily assumes her clientele wants to look more like her . These part-time jobs never seem to stick , and Lily would be back to being a homemaker by the next episode . Lily is a beautiful and slender woman who appears to be in her middle age years , although she is actually hundreds of years old . Later incarnations of the character , played by different actresses , would change her skin from green to pale white . A white streak in her hair recalls the monster 's mate from Bride of Frankenstein . Lily usually dresses in an ankle-length pale pink gown that appears faded and old , and she sometimes also wears a scarf . Her necklace features a bat-shaped medallion . When away from the Munster house , she sometimes wears a long silver cape with a hood . In the episode `` Munsters Masquerade '' , Lily demonstrates the ability to float in the air while dancing . True to her vampire nature , when Lily sleeps she resembles a corpse : ramrod straight and fingers cradled on her chest , even holding a lily ( flower ) between her fingers . However , like her father , she casts a reflection , sleeps at night and has no problems going out in the daylight ( although she wears her heavy cape and hood ) , despite the two being vampires . She also never is shown to be craving blood or attempting to bite a mortal , like Grandpa occasionally does . Development Lily was not in the original pilot episode of The Munsters . Instead , Herman is married to a much more Gothic-looking wife named Phoebe , played by Joan Marshall . The producers scrapped the Phoebe character after deciding she seemed almost an exact double of the Morticia Addams character on The Addams Family . Lily appeared in the second pilot and all other episodes . In the pilot , the Phoebe character was depicted as more goth in nature , and also has a somewhat abrasive bickering relationship with Herman and a strained relationship with Eddie , both elements toned down with Lily . Yvonne De Carlo was cast for the role in March 1964 . When first cast , Gwynne and Lewis went to the producers and complained because De Carlo was a movie star of long standing and they were worried that she would not fit in . However , after a few shows , they had to admit they had been wrong , and all got on well . Notes * Note A : Her age at the beginning of Season 1 . This does not take into account the fact that she is undead , and thus has some unknown date of death .

sfq_221--Lily_Munster.txt

In the television series The Munsters, what was Lily Munster's maiden name?

The Big Breakfast was a British light entertainment television show shown on Channel 4 and S4C each weekday morning from 28 September 1992 until 29 March 2002 during which period 2,482 shows were produced . The Big Breakfast was produced by Planet 24 , the production company co-owned by former Boomtown Rats singer and Live Aid organiser Bob Geldof . The programme was distinctive for broadcasting live from a former lockkeepers ' cottages commonly referred to as `` The Big Breakfast House '' , or more simply , `` The House '' , located on Fish Island , in Bow in east London . The show was a mix of news , weather , interviews , audience phone-ins and general features , with a light tone which was in competition with the more serious GMTV and even more serious BBC Breakfast programmes . History The Big Breakfast was launched at the end of September 1992 to replace The Channel Four Daily , which was Channel 4 's unsuccessful first dip into the breakfast television market between 1989 and 1992 . The Daily , launched at huge expense , had possessed an analytical style , focusing largely on current affairs , news bulletins and cerebral quiz shows ; however , this format had failed to earn enough viewing figures , and consequently Channel 4 opted to change direction and work towards a lighter style concentrating mainly on entertainment and humour . The first two presenters were Chris Evans ( from 1992 to 1994 ) and Gaby Roslin ( 1992 to 1996 ) . At its height in 1993 , viewing figures reached around two million per edition , and it was the highest rated UK breakfast television programme . Along with Evans and Roslin , Bob Geldof presented a short-lived political interview slot . His wife Paula Yates became notorious with her interviews conducted lying on a bed , and the puppet characters Zig and Zag created morning mayhem in the bathroom with Evans in a slot called 'The Crunch ' . As part of his contract with The Big Breakfast , Evans was committed to developing a new show for Channel 4 . Do n't Forget Your Toothbrush began in early 1994 , and Evans cut his involvement with The Big Breakfast to three days a week , Tuesday to Thursday . Former Neighbours star Mark Little replaced Evans on Mondays and Fridays . When Evans left the show later that year , Little continued on Thursdays and Fridays while Paul Ross took over Mondays to Wednesdays . Richard Orford replaced Ross around Easter 1995 but was quickly dropped and exchanged with Down Your Doorstep presenter Keith Chegwin . In July 1995 , the show reverted to using just one male presenter throughout the week , Mark Little . Chegwin would cover for Little when he was on tour as a comedian or on holiday . Relaunch Roslin continued full-time until she made way for Zoë Ball in 1996 . Audience figures slipped a little after Evans left , and a little more after Roslin stopped appearing . Mark Little left the programme in July 1996 , following press reports that he and Zoë Ball had fallen out . Little was replaced by Keith Chegwin , who himself exited the programme in August 1996 , just ahead of a massive relaunch . In an attempt to stem the sliding viewing figures , the Big Breakfast house was refurbished at a cost of £2 million . New presenters Rick Adams and Sharron Davies were brought in but viewing figures fell dramatically . Davies left the programme in early 1997 , to be replaced by Denise van Outen . Van Outen had initially been brought in as part of the September 1996 relaunch as a traffic and travel presenter , before being given a role based at the house as the phone room presenter and holiday relief for Davies . In June 1997 , Johnny Vaughan covered for Adams for a fortnight alongside Van Outen , the pair forging a successful on screen partnership . Adams left the programme shortly afterwards and , in September 1997 , the Vaughan and Van Outen partnership was made permanent . Audience figures stabilised and the duo fronted the programme together until Van Outen 's departure on January 1 , 1999 . ( A New Year 's Day pre-record ) . Kelly Brook was installed as Vaughan 's new co-presenter despite an internet campaign for the role to be awarded to Liza Tarbuck , an old friend of Vaughan 's who had successfully covered for Van Outen in the summer of 1998 . However , Brook struggled in the role and left the programme in early summer 1999 . Liza Tarbuck , having again covered the co-presenter role alongside Vaughan prior to Brook 's departure , was made permanent at the end of August 1999 . She left the following summer and , following Vaughan 's annual 1 month summer break , Denise van Outen returned to co-host in September 2000 for Vaughan 's final 4 months on the programme . Vaughan and Van Outen 's final Big Breakfast was on Friday 12 January 2001 , exactly 5 years to the day since Gaby Roslin had exited . Demise The programme relaunched with a new logo and updated theme on Monday 22 January 2001 . The house had also been redecorated in more muted colours , echoing the ill fated 1996 revamp . The programme moved to a line up of 3 main presenters , Paul Tonkinson , Amanda Byram and Donna Air . However , Tonkinson was dropped from the programme at the end of March 2001 and Air departed not long after . Richard Bacon and Amanda Byram remained as main presenters , the programme having reverted to 2 main presenters once more . The living room , which had been repainted a dark red as part of the revamp , was changed to a bright yellow and pink design , while the main presenter chairs were also reinstalled in front of the living room 's French windows . They replaced the bright green sofa which had also been brought in as part of the revamp . The new logo was replaced with one more closely resembling the traditional Big Breakfast logo , albeit utilising a slightly different font . Mike McClean was given a role on the programme , as Down Your Doorstep presenter and cover for Bacon , most regularly on Fridays when Bacon would reprise his former Down Your Doorstep role alongside Johnny Vegas . In December 2001 it was announced that The Big Breakfast was to be axed the following March . In the programme 's final months , former cover presenter Lisa Rogers was given a role as an extra presenter while Zig and Zag returned for the final 6 weeks in their former slot , The Crunch , for which a new bathroom set was installed in the house . The final Big Breakfast aired on 29 March 2002 and included a retrospective that included contributions from Evans , Roslin , Vaughan and van Outen . Both Evans and Vaughan declared the cancelling of the show a bad idea . The show ended with a tribute from the Prince of Wales before the last ever Friday song . When the show finished , the house again became a private residence , now known as 'The Cottage ' . After renovation following a fire , it has also been used for a number of television shows . Innovations Mark Lamarr , Keith Chegwin , Paul Ross , Richard Orford , Richard Bacon and Mike McClean were `` down your doorstep '' outside broadcasters , often turning up live and unannounced at an unsuspecting viewer 's house , while rooms within the Lock Keeper 's Cottages featured the zany aliens Zig and Zag and video games guru Ben the Boffin . The show 's style , with hand-held cameras moving around all of the set , meant that many of the crew members could be seen on screen . This led to them getting nicknames , such as 'Sturdy Girl ' , who was regularly asked to shake her head so that her hair would be hurled around whilst music played and the camera zoomed in and out . 'The Carpet Monster ' was revealed in the Doctor Who Special to have been an extra , playing a deadly clown , in the Seventh Doctor story The Greatest Show in the Galaxy . The show also used gimmicks such as live weddings to attract viewers . The first one was in 1993 . This featured Jamie and Mandy from Catterick in North Yorkshire , who also came back on the show after their honeymoon . Main presenters * Chris Evans ( 1992–1994 ) * Gaby Roslin ( 1992–1996 ) * Dannii Minogue ( 1994-1995 ) * Paul Ross ( 1994–1995 ) * Mark Little ( 1994–1996 ) * Keith Chegwin ( 1995–1996 ) * Zoë Ball ( 1996 ) * Rick Adams ( 1996–1997 ) * Sharron Davies ( 1996–1997 ) * Johnny Vaughan ( 1997–2001 ) * Denise van Outen ( 1997–1998 , 2000–2001 ) * Kelly Brook ( 1999 ) * Liza Tarbuck ( 1999–2000 ) * Paul Tonkinson ( 2001 ) * Donna Air ( 2001 ) * Richard Bacon ( 2001–2002 ) * Amanda Byram ( 2001–2002 ) * Mike McClean ( 2001–2002 ) * Lisa Rogers ( 2001–2002 ) * Helen Chamberlain * The most regular temporary stand-in presenters for Chris Evans and Gaby Roslin were Danny Baker ( 1993–94 ) and Dani Behr ( 1994-95 ) . Baker stood in while Evans was working on the first series of Do n't Forget Your Toothbrush . Features presenters * Bob Geldof - ( 1992 ) ( Interviewer ) * Paula Yates - ( 1992-1995 ) ( On the Bed Interviewer ) * Mark Lamarr - ( 1992-1996 ) ( Outside interviewer ) * Zig & Zag - ( 1992-1998 ) ( The Crunch ) , 2002 ( Alien Alarm ) * Kim Wilde - ( 1993 ) ( as co-presenter with Chris Evans ) * Paul O'Grady ( as Lily Savage ) - ( 1995-1996 ) ( On the Bed Interviewer ) * Ant & Dec ( 1995 - 1997 ) * Vanessa Feltz - ( 1996-1998 ) ( On the Bed Interviewer ) * Johnny Vegas - ( 2001-2002 ) ( Morning Glory ) * Gail Porter * Sara Cox * Jenny McCarthy Newsreaders * Peter Smith ( 1992 - 1996 ) * Phil Gayle ( 1997–2000 ) * Jasmine Lowson ( 2000–2002 ) Spin-offs and related programming The Bigger Breakfast Between 1997 and 2000 , during most nationally recognised UK school holiday periods , The Big Breakfast would run beyond its typical 9am finish to provide continuity into and out of unrelated shows aimed primarily towards children . This would last throughout the morning , usually until around midday . Although typically presented to the viewer as simply a programme on Channel 4 , most of The Bigger Breakfast is perhaps better classified as an informal style of in-vision continuity . The strand also acted as an umbrella brand for the programming which it linked to , by use of Big Breakfast style break-bumpers and Digital On-Screen Graphics . The expanded format always featured the regular content of The Big Breakfast from 7am-9am . The first run of The Bigger Breakfast during the summer of 1997 was titled as such all the way from its 7am start , presented throughout by Richard Orford and Denise Van Outen . Future editions would see slight separations made from the 7am-9am content , by way of this portion of the show being branded and scheduled as The Big Breakfast , with all content after 9am taking on the expanded Bigger Breakfast name . After a while , a further distinction was made by using a different set of presenters from that of The Big Breakfast . Presenters of The Bigger Breakfast included Josie D'Arby , Ben Shephard , Melanie Sykes and Dermot O'Leary . Programming was primarily composed of reruns of Channel 4 shows and US imports . The line-up changed frequently . The list below is of some of series featured on the Bigger Breakfast over the years : * Babylon 5 * Batman * Bewitched * Boy Meets World * Bug Juice * California Dreams * CatDog * City Guys * The Crystal Maze * Eerie Indiana * Fantastic Four * Inspector Gadget * Hang Time * Johnny Bravo * Madison * Moesha * The Monkees * Planet Pop * Pugwall 's Summer * Renford Rejects * Sam & Max * Saved by the Bell * Sister Sister * The Secret World of Alex Mack The Bigger Breakfast was discontinued after summer holidays in 2000 . The block of programming provided within The Bigger Breakfast was retained , with Channel 4 's youth strand T4 taking over the continuity role . Snap Snap Cackle Pop , a regular and recurring feature throughout the history of The Big Breakfast , was briefly retitled as simply Snap , in 1997 . As well as continuing as a short , daily entertainment news feature within The Big Breakfast , Snap also became a show in its own right . Airing once weekly at 6.00pm on Channel 4 , the half hour show was a light hearted round-up of recent news stories concerning popular entertainment in the UK . Presented by Denise Van Outen , the show was intentionally recognisable as being closely related to The Big Breakfast , from which it originated and continued to be part of . Snap contained a number of elements synonymous with The Big Breakfast , such as using the very same boudoir set and on-the-bed interviewing of guests . However , care was generally taken not to alienate viewers who were not so familiar with The Big Breakfast . The Big Breakfast End of the Year Show 1992 Three months after first appearing , Chris Evans , Gaby Roslin and Paula Yates hosted a live edition of the show , seeing in the new year of 1993 . Zsa Zsa Gabor featured as a special guest . The Biggest Breakfast Ever At 12.30am on 1 January 2000 , a mammoth eight-hour live broadcast took place from Lock Keepers ' Cottages to herald in the new century . Written by Ged Parsons and John Mann , The Biggest Breakfast Ever was hosted by Johnny Vaughan and Liza Tarbuck and featured many classic moments and 'best of ' features . Even eight hours of airtime was not enough . The show 's producers got Channel 4 to extend its broadcast time by half an hour to fit in the premiere of the competition `` Wonga '' ( a large-scale version of Jenga ) . The winner of the game had been told to 'stop steadying the stack ' on numerous occasions , but was still allowed to play and eventually won £100,000 . It was a prize game that returned to the show many times in its final two years , but never again was anyone allowed to blatantly break the rules of the game . Lock Keepers ' Cottages Unusually for a live British TV show at the time of its creation , The Big Breakfast was broadcast entirely from a real house . Located alongside the River Lea , in east London , the property became informally known as 'The Big Breakfast House ' . Filming would frequently take place within the large grounds of the property and the closely surrounding area . The cottages are in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets . Built in 1947 , the property originally comprised three cottages which housed the lock keepers , toll takers , and navigation operators of the Old Ford Locks in Bow . By the time of purchase by the programme-makers , Planet24 , in 1992 , the property had become Grade II listed and had remained unused for around 20 years . Extensive renovation work saw the transformation of the three cottages into one large three-bedroom property , specifically fitted for use as a TV studio . The exterior character of the property was largely unchanged . During the first four years of the show , the given address for the house was number 2 , Lock Keepers ' Cottages . The ' 2 ' was later dropped . In 1996 , due to the declining popularity of The Big Breakfast , the house was transformed in an art deco-style makeover . The original brickwork was virtually entirely covered over with a smooth rendered finish , painted white . Two large balconies now adorned the front and rear . The only untouched exterior features recognisable from the show 's original styling were the four brick chimneys and the roof . The legality of this extensive makeover could be questioned as having broken the rules of by its Grade II listed status . The work carried out is purported to have cost around £2million , largely funded by its sale to the show 's parent company , Channel Four Television . Structurally , the house largely remained in this style for the remainder of the series . The only notable structural alterations were the removal of the front balcony , the partial removal of the balcony to the rear and minor alterations to the styling of the doors and windows . However , the character of the house was altered through several artistic makeovers to both the interior and exterior . The exterior was painted bright yellow , later a light brown similar in shade to the original brickwork , followed by a faux red brickwork effect which was painted onto the render . The latter style became the final look of the house , during the show 's final three-and-a-half years . Cottages since The Big Breakfast In November 2002 , seven-and-a-half months after The Big Breakfast was axed , a fire destroyed a significant proportion of the first floor of the cottages . A large part of the roof was also destroyed in the blaze . The fire was suspicious as there was no gas or electrical supply to the building . Since the fire , extensive work has taken place to restore the house and it is now used as a family home . The house was bought for little more than half the original asking price of £1 million at £550,000 . The house was slashed in value because of the fire of November 2002 . The house has now been fully renovated , but some of the well-recognised aspects of the house from its use during the run of The Big Breakfast remain . The newly renovated house features in the BBC Two show Neneh and Andi Dish It Up , BBC Three 's Singing With the Enemy , and most recently Too Fat To Toddle on ITV1 . The cottages are located about 200 metres from the site of the main stadium used in the 2012 Olympic Games . In 2005 , the cottages became part of a compulsory purchase order for the Games , giving rise to speculation that the building may be demolished . However , the cottages and gardens remain unchanged . The house made a cameo appearance in a Channel 4 ident shown in the lead-up to the channel 's coverage of the Paralympics in August 2012 . Games and features Pun Down UK tabloid newspapers delight in punny headlines . The Pun-Down took a look at the best ( or worst ) puns in the headlines of that day 's papers , and was especially popular in the Johnny Vaughan era . On Fridays this became the `` Pun of the Week '' when an award was made for the best pun from the week 's newspapers . Question About the Clip Before most advertisement breaks a clip from an upcoming TV show or movie would be shown , a question being asked by one of the hosts about it ; the answer would be revealed after the advert break , along with details of the show or film . This feature would result in the production team chorusing `` Do n't phone , it 's just for fun ! '' which was a Chris Evans creation , initially used on his radio shows before he shot to fame on The Big Breakfast . Question of the Day A phone-in feature encouraging viewers to provide humorous answers throughout the morning to a pertinent ( or occasionally inane ) question . At one point it was accompanied by a fanfare , apparently played on the trumpet by `` little Ted '' beneath the camera ( in fact a member of the team waving a toy trumpet in shot ) . One morning 's question was `` What should the BBC do to improve EastEnders ? `` , and one viewer suggested adding Barbara Windsor to the cast ; this actually occurred shortly afterwards . Super Hints `` Your indispensable guide to a better life ! `` , this feature appeared during the early years of the show ; in it celebrities would give various simple but useful hints for such issues as cleaning or keeping food fresh . Streaky Bacon `` Streaky Bacon '' became a regular feature , in which Richard Bacon would get a member of the public out of their house to 'streak ' along their street wearing nothing but bacon-covered underwear in order to win their weight in bacon from their local butcher . Vital Statistics `` Vital Statistics '' was another common feature , particularly in the Johnny Vaughan era . These would often relate to a news story , a guest or a topic they had discussed , such as Doctor Who on their Doctor Who Special . On the Bed A key feature for the first five years was the `` On the Bed '' interview . Paula Yates ( the then wife of Bob Geldof , whose company produced the show ) , and later Paul O'Grady ( as Lily Savage ) and Vanessa Feltz assumed the role of interviewer . One of the most infamous on-air moments was Paula Yates ' open flirting during an interview with Michael Hutchence as a prelude to their affair . More Tea , Vicar A repeating feature in the Vaughan and van Outen era , in which an erratically filmed , speeded-up video clip of a line of tea cups was shown to a call-in viewer . Vaughan , dressed as an Anglican vicar , and van Outen , dressed as a nun replete with false teeth and an inferiority complex , then explained the rules . The caller guessed the number of tea cups shown in the video lead in , with Vaughan responding `` More tea , vicar '' if the number is too low ; `` Less tea , vicar '' if too high . If the contestant guessed the correct number within the time limit , a prize was awarded . The lyrics to `` More Tea , Vicar '' were as follows : More tea , vicar More tea , vicar More tea , vicar Guess how many cups From Me Shed , Son The inventor of the wind-up radio , Trevor Baylis , would join Johnny Vaughan in the shed to discuss innovative new products . Vaughan tended to make fun of Baylis for being older . Wonga A Jenga-style game , followed by various shouting and anarchy , with fans and the Wonga Lawyer . The show famously went over 27 minutes for a game once , with the Millennium Big Breakfast actually being commissioned with extra time for Wonga . Wonga money The Big Breakfast used to give out `` wonga money '' to people when they won money because they did n't want to give it to them on the show . They would give the real thing to them later . The Friday Song Each Friday the two main presenters and the whole crew would gather in the hallway for The Friday Song . The song would look back at events that happened on the show each week The lyrics to the chorus went as follows : 'Singing , wakey , wakey , wakey rise and shine , The big breakfast is the only way to dine , It 's your number one big breakie So get it down your neckie , And stick with us from seven until nine ! ' Others * Guess The Mess * One Lump or Two ? * Sunny Side Up * Pots Stop * Telly Rellies * Get Your Kit On * Show Us Your Behind * Court With Your Pants Down * You Pet * Spot the Sausage * What 's in My Pants * What 's Your Job , Bob ? * Yanks for the Memories * Bring Home The Bacon * Bowl The Vole * Get Your Nobbly Nuts Out * Egg On Your Face * Young Fogey * The Brian Moore The Merrier * Pushy Mum * Why * Bun in the Oven ( Bunny in the Oven was an Easter special ) * The Vincent Price Is Right * Housey Housey * Wheel Of Fish * Stop The Mop * Chicken In A Basket * Moving The Goalposts * My Lenny , Um , Gnome * An Ostrich In Time * Whose Washing Line Is It Anyway ? * Ice One Cyril * Licence To Lurk * Arrest The Vest * Beat The Banger * Game for a Bath * Thatch of the Day * Gaggin ' for it * Count-Down-Under * Young Fogies * Lost in Telly * Vidal Balloon * Who Wants to Win a Mini on-air

bt_805--The_Big_Breakfast.txt

Born in 1970, which female has been a presenter on the TV shows 'The Big Breakfast' and 'Live & Kicking'

The aurochs ( or ; pl . aurochs , or rarely aurochsen , aurochses ) , also urus , ure ( Bos primigenius ) , is an extinct type of large wild cattle that inhabited Europe , Asia and North Africa . It is the ancestor of domestic cattle . The species survived in Europe until the last recorded aurochs died in the Jaktorów Forest , Poland in 1627 . During the Neolithic Revolution , which occurred during the early Holocene , there were at least two aurochs domestication events : one related to the Indian subspecies , leading to zebu cattle ; the other one related to the Eurasian subspecies , leading to taurine cattle . Other species of wild bovines were also domesticated , namely the wild water buffalo , gaur , and banteng . In modern cattle , numerous breeds share characteristics of the aurochs , such as a dark colour in the bulls with a light eel stripe along the back ( the cows being lighter ) , or a typical aurochs-like horn shape . Taxonomy The aurochs was variously classified as Bos primigenius , Bos taurus , or , in old sources , Bos urus . However , in 2003 , the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature `` conserved the usage of 17 specific names based on wild species , which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic forms '' , confirming Bos primigenius for the aurochs . Taxonomists who consider domesticated cattle a subspecies of the wild aurochs should use B. primigenius taurus ; those who consider domesticated cattle to be a separate species may use the name B. taurus , which the Commission has kept available for that purpose . Etymology The words aurochs , urus , and wisent have all been used synonymously in English . However , the extinct aurochs/urus is a completely separate species from the still-extant wisent , also known as European bison . The two were often confused , and some 16th-century illustrations of aurochs and wisents have hybrid features . The word urus ( ; plural uri ) is a Latin word , but was borrowed into Latin from Germanic ( cf . Old English/Old High German ūr , Old Norse úr ) . In German , OHG ūr was compounded with ohso `` ox '' , giving ūrohso , which became early modern Aurochs . The modern form is Auerochse . The word aurochs was borrowed from early modern German , replacing archaic urochs , also from an earlier form of German . The word is invariable in number in English , though sometimes back-formed singular auroch and innovated plural aurochses occur . The use in English of the plural form ' is nonstandard , but mentioned in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language . It is directly parallel to the German plural Ochsen ( singular Ochse ) and recreates by analogy the same distinction as English ox ( singular ) and oxen ( plural ) . Evolution During the Pliocene , the colder climate caused an extension of open grassland , which led to the evolution of large grazers , such as wild bovines . Bos acutifrons is an extinct species of cattle that has been suggested as an ancestor for the aurochs . The oldest aurochs remains have been dated to about 2 million years ago , in India . The Indian subspecies was the first to appear . During the Pleistocene , the species migrated west into the Middle East ( western Asia ) as well as to the east . They reached Europe about 270,000 years ago . The South Asian domestic cattle , or zebu , descended from Indian aurochs at the edge of the Thar Desert ; the zebu is resistant to drought . Domestic yak , gayal and banteng do not descend from aurochs . The first complete mitochondrial genome ( 16,338 base pairs ) DNA sequence analysis of `` Bos primigenius '' from an archaeologically verified and exceptionally well preserved aurochs bone sample was published in 2010 . Three wild subspecies of aurochs are recognized . Only the Eurasian subspecies survived until recent times . * The Eurasian aurochs ( Bos primigenius primigenius ) once ranged across the steppes and taigas of Europe , Siberia , and Central Asia , and East Asia . It is noted as part of the Pleistocene megafauna , and declined in numbers along with other megafauna species by the end of Pleistocene . The Eurasian aurochs were domesticated into modern taurine cattle breeds around the 6th millennium BC in the Middle East , and possibly also at about the same time in the Far East . Aurochs were still widespread in Europe during the time of the Roman Empire , when they were widely popular as a battle beast in Roman arenas . Excessive hunting began and continued until the species was nearly extinct . By the 13th century , aurochs existed only in small numbers in Eastern Europe , and the hunting of aurochs became a privilege of nobles , and later royal households . The aurochs were not saved from extinction , and the last recorded live aurochs , a female , died in 1627 in the Jaktorów Forest , Poland from natural causes . Aurochs were found to have lived on the island of Sicily , having migrated via a land bridge from Italy . After the disappearance of the land bridge , Sicilian aurochs evolved to be 20 % smaller than their mainland relatives due to insular dwarfism . Fossilized specimen were found in Japan , possibly herded with steppe bisons . * The Indian aurochs ( Bos primigenius namadicus ) once inhabited India . It was the first subspecies of the aurochs to appear , at 2 million years ago , and from about 9000 years ago , it was domesticated as the zebu . Fossil remains indicate there were wild Indian aurochs besides domesticated zebu cattle in Gujarat and the Ganges area until about 4–5000 years ago . Remains from wild aurochs 4400 years old are clearly identified from Karnataka in South India . * The North African aurochs ( Bos primigenius africanus ) once lived in the woodland and shrubland of North Africa . It descended from aurochs populations migrating from the Middle East . The North African aurochs was morphologically very similar to the Eurasian subspecies , so that this taxon may exist only in a biogeographic sense . However , there is evidence that it was genetically distinct from the Eurasian subspecies . Depictions indicate that North African aurochs may have had a light saddle marking on its back . This subspecies may have been extinct prior to the Middle Ages . Description The appearance of the aurochs has been reconstructed from skeletal material , historical descriptions and contemporaneous depictions , such as cave paintings , engravings or Sigismund von Herberstein ’ s illustration . The work by Charles Hamilton Smith is a copy of a painting owned by a merchant in Augsburg , which may date to the 16th century . Scholars have proposed that Smith 's illustration was based on a cattle/aurochs hybrid , or an aurochs-like breed . The aurochs was depicted in prehistoric cave paintings and described in Julius Caesar 's The Gallic War , Book 6 , Ch . 28 . Size The aurochs was one of the largest herbivores in postglacial Europe , comparable to the wisent ( the European bison ) . The size of an aurochs appears to have varied by region : in Europe , northern populations were bigger on average than those from the south . For example , during the Holocene , aurochs from Denmark and Germany had an average height at the shoulders of 155 – in bulls and in cows , while aurochs populations in Hungary had bulls reaching 155 – . The body mass of aurochs appears to have shown some variability . Some individuals were comparable in weight to the wisent and the banteng , reaching around 700 kg , whereas those from the late-middle Pleistocene are estimated to have weighed up to 1500 kg , as much as the largest gaur ( the largest extant bovid ) . The sexual dimorphism between bull and cow was strongly expressed , with the cows being significantly shorter than bulls on average . Horns Because of the massive horns , the frontal bones of aurochs were elongated and broad . The horns of the aurochs were characteristic in size , curvature and orientation . They were curved in three directions : upwards and outwards at the base , then swinging forwards and inwards , then inwards and upwards . Aurochs horns could reach in length and between in diameter . The horns of bulls were larger , with the curvature more strongly expressed than in cows . The horns grew from the skull at a 60° angle to the muzzle , facing forwards . Body shape The proportions and body shape of the aurochs were strikingly different from many modern cattle breeds . For example , the legs were considerably longer and more slender , resulting in a shoulder height that nearly equalled the trunk length . The skull , carrying the large horns , was substantially larger and more elongated than in most cattle breeds . As in other wild bovines , the body shape of the aurochs was athletic and , especially in bulls , showed a strongly expressed neck and shoulder musculature . Therefore , the forehand was larger than the rear , similar to the wisent but unlike many domestic cattle . Even in carrying cows , the udder was small and hardly visible from the side ; this feature is equal to that of other wild bovines . Coat colour The coat colour of the aurochs can be reconstructed by using historical and contemporary depictions . In his letter to Conrad Gesner ( 1602 ) , Anton Schneeberger describes the aurochs , a description that agrees with cave paintings in Lascaux and Chauvet . Calves were born a chestnut colour . Young bulls changed their coat colour at a few months ' old to a very deep brown or black , with a white eel stripe running down the spine . Cows retained the reddish-brown colour . Both sexes had a light-coloured muzzle . Some North African engravings show aurochs with a light-coloured `` saddle '' on the back , but otherwise there is no evidence of variation in coat colour throughout its range . A passage from Mucante ( 1596 ) , describing the “ wild ox ” as gray , but is ambiguous and may refer to the wisent . Egyptian grave paintings show cattle with a reddish-brown coat colour in both sexes , with a light saddle , but the horn shape of these suggest that they may depict domestic cattle . Remains of aurochs hair were not known until the early 1980s . Colour of forelocks Some primitive cattle breeds display similar coat colours to the aurochs , including the black colour in bulls with a light eel stripe , a pale mouth , and similar sexual dimorphism in colour . A feature often attributed to the aurochs is blond forehead hairs . Historical descriptions tell that the aurochs had long and curly forehead hair , but none mentions a certain colour for it . Cis van Vuure ( 2005 ) says that , although the colour is present in a variety of primitive cattle breeds , it is probably a discolouration that appeared after domestication . The gene responsible for this feature has not yet been identified . Zebu breeds show lightly coloured inner sides of the legs and belly , caused by the so-called zebu-tipping gene . It has not been tested if this gene is present in remains of the wild form of the zebu , the Indian aurochs . Behaviour and ecology Like many bovids , aurochs formed herds for at least one part of the year . These probably did not number much more than thirty . If aurochs had social behaviour similar to their descendents , social status was gained through displays and fights , in which cows engaged as well as bulls . Indeed , it was reported that aurochs bulls often had severe fights . As in other wild cattle , ungulates that form unisexual herds , there was considerable sexual dimorphism . Ungulates that form herds containing animals of both sexes , such as horses , have more weakly developed sexual dimorphism . During the mating season , which probably took place during the late summer or early autumn , the bulls had severe fights , and evidence from the forest of Jaktorów shows these could lead to death . In autumn , aurochs fed up for the winter and got fatter and shinier than during the rest of the year , according to Schneeberger . Calves were born in spring . According to Schneeberger the mother stayed at the calf 's side until it was strong enough to join and keep up with the herd on the feeding grounds . Calves were vulnerable to wolves and , to an extent , bears , while healthy adult aurochs probably did not have to fear these predators . In prehistoric Europe , North Africa and Asia , big cats , like lions and tigers , and hyenas were additional predators that probably preyed on aurochs . Historical descriptions , like Caesar ’ s Commentarii de Bello Gallico or Schneeberger , tell that aurochs were swift and fast , and could be very aggressive . According to Schneeberger , aurochs were not concerned when a man approached . But , teased or hunted , an aurochs could get very aggressive and dangerous , and throw the teasing person into the air , as he described in a 1602 letter to Gesner . Habitat and distribution There is no consensus concerning the habitat of the aurochs . While some authors think that the habitat selection of the aurochs was comparable to the African forest buffalo , others describe the species as inhabiting open grassland and helping maintain open areas by grazing , together with other large herbivores . With its hypsodont jaw , the aurochs was probably a grazer and had a food selection very similar to domestic cattle . It was not a browser like many deer species , nor a semi-intermediary feeder like the wisent . Comparisons of the isotope levels of Mesolithic aurochs and domestic cattle bones showed that aurochs probably inhabited wetter areas than domestic cattle . Schneeberger describes that , during winter , the aurochs ate twigs and acorns in addition to grasses . After the beginning of the Common Era , the habitat of aurochs became more fragmented because of the steadily growing human population . During the last centuries of its existence , the aurochs was limited to remote regions , such as floodplain forests or marshes , where there were no competing domestic herbivores and less hunting pressure . Relationship with humans Domestication The aurochs , which ranged throughout much of Eurasia and Northern Africa during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene , is the wild ancestor of modern cattle . Archaeological evidence shows that domestication occurred independently in the Near East and the Indian subcontinent between 10,000–8,000 years ago , giving rise to the two major domestic taxa observed today : humpless Bos taurus ( taurine ) and humped Bos indicus ( zebu ) , respectively . This is confirmed by genetic analyses of matrilineal mitochondrial DNA sequences , which reveal a marked differentiation between modern Bos taurus and Bos indicus haplotypes , demonstrating their derivation from two geographically and genetically divergent wild populations . It is possible that there was a third domestication event from another form of the aurochs in Africa . The Sanga cattle , a zebu-like cattle with no back hump , is commonly believed to originate from crosses between humped-zebus with taurine cattle breeds . However , there is archaeological evidence that these cattle were domesticated independently in Africa and that bloodlines of taurine and zebu cattle were introduced only within the last few hundreds years . Domestication of the aurochs began in the southern Caucasus and northern Mesopotamia from about the 6th millennium BC . Genetic evidence suggests that aurochs were independently domesticated in India and possibly also in northern Africa . Domesticated cattle and aurochs are so different in size that they have been regarded as separate species ; however , large ancient cattle and aurochs `` are difficult to classify because morphological traits have overlapping distributions in cattle and aurochs and diagnostic features are identified only in horn and some cranial elements . '' A Mitochondrial DNA study suggests that all domesticated taurine cattle originated from about 80 wild female aurochs in the Near East . Comparison of aurochs bones with those of modern cattle has provided many insights about the aurochs . Remains of the beast , from specimens believed to have weighed more than a ton , have been found in Mesolithic sites around Goldcliff , Wales . Though aurochs became extinct in Britain during the Bronze Age , analysis of bones from aurochs that lived at about the same time as domesticated cattle showed no genetic contribution to modern breeds . As a result of this study , modern European cattle were thought to have descended directly from the Near East domestication . Another study found distinct similarities between modern breeds and Italian aurochs specimens , which suggested that the previously tested British aurochs were not a good model of the diversity of aurochs genetics . It also suggests possible North African and European aurochs contributions to domestic breeds . Further genetic tests have shown that domestic cattle in Europe are of Near Eastern origin . This indicates that the European aurochs was not domesticated , nor did it interbreed with the imported Near Eastern cattle . Indian cattle ( zebu ) , although domesticated eight to ten thousand years ago , are related to aurochs that diverged from the Near Eastern ones some 200,000 years ago . African cattle are thought to have descended from aurochs more closely related to the Near Eastern ones . The Near East and African aurochs groups are thought to have split some 25,000 years ago , probably 15,000 years before domestication . The `` Turano-Mongolian '' type of cattle now found in Northern China , Mongolia , Korea and Japan may represent a fourth domestication event ( and a third event among Bos taurus–type aurochs ) . This group may have diverged from the Near East group some 35,000 years ago . Whether these separate genetic populations would have equated to separate subspecies is unclear . The maximum range of the aurochs was from Europe ( excluding Ireland and northern Scandinavia ) , to northern Africa , the Middle East , India and Central Asia . Until at least 3,000 years ago , the aurochs was also found in Eastern China , where it is recorded at the Dingjiabao Reservoir in Yangyuan County . Most remains in China are known from the area east of 105° E , but the species has also been reported from the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau , close to the Heihe River . In Japan , excavations have been discovered from various locations such as in Iwate and Tochigi prefectures , and at there , animals possibly herded with steppe bisons . Extinction Already in the times of Herodotus ( 5th century BC ) aurochs had disappeared from southern Greece but remained common in the area north and east of Echedorus river close to modern Thessaloniki . Last reports of the species in the southern tip of the Balkans date to the 1st century BC when Varro reports that fierce wild oxen live in Dardania ( southern Serbia ) and Thrace . By the 13th century AD , the aurochs ' range was restricted to Poland , Lithuania , Moldavia , Transylvania and East Prussia . The right to hunt large animals on any land was restricted first to nobles and then , gradually , to only the royal households . As the population of aurochs declined , hunting ceased , and the royal court used gamekeepers to provide open fields for grazing for the aurochs . The gamekeepers were exempted from local taxes in exchange for their service . Poaching aurochs was punishable by death . According to the royal survey in 1564 , the gamekeepers knew of 38 animals . The last recorded live aurochs , a female , died in 1627 in the Jaktorów Forest , Poland , from natural causes . The causes of extinction were unrestricted hunting , a narrowing of habitat due to the development of farming , and diseases transmitted by domestic cattle . Cattle resembling the aurochs While all the wild subspecies are extinct , Bos primigenius lives on in domesticated cattle and attempts are being made to breed similar types suitable for filling the extinct subspecies ' role in the wild . Less-derived cattle breeds Because some cattle breeds have been changed more than other breeds , certain breeds ( all belonging to the so-called landraces ) bear a greater resemblance to the aurochs . These breeds are not very productive from the economical point of view , as they do not give as much milk or meat as others . Most of the ″primitive″ phenotypes are facing extinction , because farmers give them up for economic reasons or crossbreed them with more productive dairy and meat cattle . Very hardy and robust , the primitive breeds are sometimes used in nature conservation programs , where they can fill the place of their wild ancestor in the ecology . Primitive breeds include , for example : Caldela , Limia Cattle , Maremmana primitivo , Maronesa , Pajuna Cattle , Rhodopian Shorthorn , Sayaguesa Cattle , Spanish Fighting Bull , and Tudanca Cattle . Image : Miura-est.jpg|Spanish Fighting Bulls often resemble the aurochs in body shape , horn shape and coat colour . Image : TudancaBull.JPG|Tudanca Cattle is a primitive Iberian cattle breed . Image : MaremmanerBulle.jpg|The most primitive lineages of Maremmana , called ″Maremmana primitivo″ , are used in the Tauros Project . Image : Maronesa bull.jpg|Maronesa , a primitive and hardy breed from the North of Portugal , has remained aurochs-like in many respects . It is also used by the Tauros Project . Image : Pajuna bull1.jpg|Semi-feral Pajuna Cattle bull in Spain Image : Limia cattle.jpg|Limia Cattle bull and cow in the Netherlands ( Tauros Project ) Image : Sayaguesa 1.jpg|Sayaguesa Cattle cows in the Netherlands ( Tauros Project ) Image : Vaca cachena Coles.jpg| Cachena cow from Portugal Breeding of aurochs-like cattle The idea of breeding back the aurochs was first proposed in the 19th century by Feliks Paweł Jarocki . In the 1920s , a first attempt was undertaken by the Heck brothers in Germany with the aim of breeding an effigy ( a look-alike ) of the aurochs . Starting in the 1990s , grazing and rewilding projects brought new impetus to the idea and new breeding-back efforts came underway , this time with the aim of recreating an animal not only with the looks but also with the behaviour and the ecological impact of the aurochs , in order to be able to fill the ecological role of the aurochs . Heck cattle In the early 1920s , two German zoo directors ( in Berlin and Munich ) , the brothers Heinz and Lutz Heck , began a selective breeding program to breed back the aurochs into existence from the descendant domestic cattle . Their plan was based on the concept that a species is not extinct as long as all its genes are still present in a living population . The result is the breed called Heck cattle . It resembles what is known about the appearance of the aurochs in colour and , in some cases , also horn shape . Taurus Project The ABU ( Arbeitsgemeinschaft Biologischer Umweltschutz ) , a conservation group in Germany , started to crossbreed Heck cattle with southern-European primitive breeds in 1996 , with the goal of increasing the aurochs-likeness of certain Heck cattle herds . These crossbreeds are called Taurus cattle . It is intended to bring in aurochs-like features that are supposedly missing in Heck cattle , using Sayaguesa Cattle , Chianina and , to a lesser extent , Spanish Fighting Cattle ( Lidia ) . The same is done in the Hungarian national park Hortobágy National Park , additionally using Hungarian Grey cattle and Watusi , in Lille Vildmose National Park in Denmark , using only Chianina and Sayaguesa so far , and in Latvia . Tauros Programme The Dutch-based Tauros Programme , ( initially TaurOs Project ) is trying to DNA-sequence breeds of primitive cattle to find gene sequences that match those found in `` ancient DNA '' from aurochs samples . The modern cattle would be selectively bred to try to produce the aurochs-type genes in a single animal . Starting around 2007 , Tauros Programme selected a number of primitive breeds mainly from Iberia and Italy , such as Sayaguesa Cattle , Maremmana primitivo , Pajuna Cattle , Limia Cattle , Maronesa , Tudanca Cattle and others , which already bear considerable resemblance to the aurochs in certain features . Tauros Programme started collaborations with Rewilding Europe and European Wildlife , two European organization for ecological restoration and rewilding , and now has breeding herds not only in the Netherlands , but also in Portugal , Croatia , Romania and the Czech Republic . Numerous crossbreed calves of the first , second and third offspring generations have been born already . Uruz Project A further back-breeding effort , the Uruz project , was started in 2013 by the True Nature Foundation , an organization for ecological restoration and rewilding . It differs from the other projects in that it is planning to make use of genome editing . Its preliminary plans called for the use of Sayaguesa , Maremmana primitiva or Hungarian Steppe cattle , and Texas Longhorn with wildtype colour or Barrosã cattle . The finalised plans now call for setting up two breeding lines , Sayaguesa × Maremmana primitiva/Hungarian Steppe cattle and Watusi × Chianina , and later crossing these lines . Two Watusi × Chianina breeding herds have been set up in Boxmeer and Breda in the Netherlands , another herd using Barrosã is being set up in northern Portugal . Auerrind Project The newest of the back-breeding efforts , the Auerrindprojekt , was started in 2015 as a conjoint effort of the Experimentalarchäologisches Freilichtlabor Lauresham ( Experimental-Archaeological Open-air Laboratory Lauresham , run by Lorsch Abbey ) , the Förderkreis Große Pflanzenfresser im Kreis Bergstraße e.V . ( Promoting Association Megaherbivores in Bergstraße District ) and the Landschaftspflegebetrieb Hohmeyer ( Landscape Preservation Company Hohmeyer ) . In accordance with the breeding aims , the Auerrindprojekt has already set up two breeding herds of Watusi × Chianina and one breeding herd of Sayaguesa x Podolian cattle ; a second breeding herd of Sayaguesa × Podolian cattle will be started in 2017 . Other projects Scientists of the Polish Foundation for Recreating the Aurochs ( PFOT ) in Poland hope to use DNA from bones in museums to recreate the aurochs . They plan to return this animal to the forests of Poland . The project has gained the support of the Polish Ministry of the Environment . They plan research on ancient preserved DNA . Other research projects have extracted `` ancient '' DNA over the past twenty years and their results have been published in such periodicals as Nature and PNAS . Polish scientists Ryszard Słomski and Jacek A. Modliński believe that modern genetics and biotechnology make it possible to recreate an animal almost identical to the aurochs . They say this research will lead to examining the causes of the extinction of the aurochs , and help prevent a similar occurrence with domestic cattle . Cultural significance The aurochs was an important game animal appearing in both Paleolithic European and Mesopotamian cave paintings , such as those found at Lascaux and Livernon in France . Aurochs existed into the Iron Age in Anatolia and the Near East , where it was worshiped as a sacred animal , the Lunar Bull , associated with the Great Goddess and later with Mithras . In 2012 , an archaeological mission of the British Museum , led by Lebanese archaeologist Claude Doumet Serhal , discovered at the site of the old American school in Sidon , Lebanon , the remains of wild animal bones , including those of an aurochs , dating from the late fourth-early third millennium . A 1999 archaeological dig in Peterborough , England

odql_13017--Aurochs.txt

What is the common name for the species of large cattle, Bos primigenius, once prevalent in Europe, that was hunted to extinction in 1627?

Gordon Banks , OBE ( born 30 December 1937 ) is a former England international football goalkeeper . He made 628 appearances during a 15-year career in the Football League , and won 73 caps for his country . Regarded as one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time , the IFFHS named Banks the second best goalkeeper of the 20th century – after Lev Yashin ( 1st ) and ahead of Dino Zoff ( 3rd ) . He was named FWA Footballer of the Year in 1972 , and was named FIFA Goalkeeper of the Year on six occasions . He joined Chesterfield in March 1953 , and played for the youth team in the 1956 FA Youth Cup final . He made his first team debut in November 1958 , and was sold to Leicester City for £7,000 in July 1959 . He played in four cup finals for the club , as they were beaten in the 1961 and 1963 FA Cup finals , before winning the League Cup in 1964 and finishing as finalists in 1965 . During this time he established himself as England 's number one goalkeeper , and played every game of the nation 's 1966 World Cup victory . Despite this success , he was dropped by Leicester and sold on to Stoke City for £50,000 in April 1967 . He made one of the game 's great saves to prevent a Pelé goal in the 1970 World Cup , but was absent due to illness as England were beaten by West Germany at the quarter-final stage . He was Stoke 's goalkeeper in the 1972 League Cup win – the club 's only major honour . He was still Stoke and England 's number one when a car crash in October 1972 cost him both the sight in one eye and his professional career . He did though play in the United States for the Fort Lauderdale Strikers in 1977 and 1978 . He briefly entered management with Telford United , but left the game after he was sacked in December 1980 . Club career Chesterfield Banks was born in Sheffield , West Riding of Yorkshire , and brought up in the working class area of Tinsley . The family later moved to the village of Catcliffe after his father set up a ( then illegal ) betting shop . This brought greater prosperity but also misery , as one day Banks 's disabled brother was mugged for the shop 's daily takings , and died of his injuries some weeks later . He left school in December 1952 , and took up employment as a bagger with a local coal merchant , which helped to build up his upper body strength . He spent a season playing for amateur side Millspaugh F.C . after their regular goalkeeper failed to turn up for a match ; the club 's trainer spotted Banks amongst the spectators and invited him to play in goal as he was aware that Banks had previously played for Sheffield Schoolboys . His performances there earned him a game in the Yorkshire League for Rawmarsh Welfare , however a 12–2 defeat to Stocksbridge Works on his debut was followed by a 3–1 home defeat , and he was dropped by Rawmarsh and returned to Millspaugh . Still aged 15 , he then switched jobs to become a hod carrier . He was scouted by Chesterfield whilst playing for Millspaugh , and offered a six-game trial in the youth team in March 1953 . He impressed enough in these games to be offered a part-time £3 a week contract by manager Teddy Davison in July 1953 . The reserve team were placed in the Central League on account of a powerful club director rather than on merit , and Banks conceded 122 goals in the 1954–55 season as the `` Spireites '' finished in last place with only three victories . Banks was posted to Germany with the Royal Signals on national service , and won the Rhine Cup with his regimental team . He recovered from a fractured elbow to help the Chesterfield youth team to the 1956 final of the FA Youth Cup . There they were beaten 4–3 on aggregate by Manchester United 's famous `` Busby Babes '' – a team that included both Wilf McGuinness and Bobby Charlton . Banks was given his first team debut by manager Doug Livingstone , at the expense of long-serving Ron Powell , in a Third Division game against Colchester United at Saltergate in November 1958 . The game ended 2–2 , and Banks kept his place against Norwich City in the following match , and he missed only three games by the end of the 1958–59 season due to injury . With no goalkeeping coaching to speak of , Banks had to learn from his mistakes on the pitch , and he soon developed into a modern vocal goalkeeper who ordered the players in front of him into a more effective defence . Having just 23 league and three cup appearances to his name , it came as a surprise to Banks when Matt Gillies , manager of First Division club Leicester City , bought him from Chesterfield for £7,000 in July 1959 ; this also meant a wage increase to £15 a week . Leicester City Banks faced competition from five other goalkeepers , including 30-year-old Scotland international John Anderson and 25-year-old Dave MacLaren . He started the 1959–60 season as the reserve team 's goalkeeper , in effect making him the club 's second choice ahead of four of his rivals but behind first team choice MacLaren . He had played four reserve team games when MacLaren picked up an injury and manager Matt Gillies selected Banks for his Leicester debut against Blackpool at Filbert Street on 9 September . The match finished 1–1 , with Jackie Mudie 's strike cancelling out Ken Leek 's opener . Banks retained his place for the 2–0 defeat against Newcastle United at St James ' Park three days later . With McLaren fit again , Banks was sent back to the reserves but , after the first team conceded 14 goals in the next five games , he was recalled and became the first-choice goalkeeper for the remainder of the season . The defensive record did not improve at first , with Banks conceding six in a heavy defeat to Everton at Goodison Park , but he improved in each match and the `` Foxes '' settled for a comfortable 12th-place finish . In training , he worked extensively on improving his weaknesses , such as coming for crosses . He put in extra hours during training and came up with practice sessions to improve his skills – this was largely unique in an era where there were no specialized goalkeeping coaches . In the summer , both Anderson and MacLaren departed , leaving Banks as the club 's undisputed number one ahead of a group of understudies . Leicester finished sixth in 1960–61 , and managed to beat champions Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane . Yet their greatest accomplishment was in reaching the final of the FA Cup , with Banks conceding only five goals in their nine games on route to the final and keeping three clean sheets in the semi-final and two replays against Sheffield United . Goals from Jimmy Walsh and Ken Leek finally broke the deadlock in the second replay at St Andrew 's . Their opponents in the final at Wembley were Tottenham , who had already won the First Division title by an eight-point margin . Right-back Len Chalmers picked up a severe injury early in the match , and with Ken Leek dropped for disciplinary reasons in rookie Hughie McIlmoyle 's favour , City were effectively playing with ten men and offered little threat going forward . Bobby Smith and Terry Dyson gave `` Spurs '' a 2–0 win and the first `` double '' of the 20th century , with Banks unable to prevent either goal . The 1961–62 season proved to be highly disappointing , as Leicester finished 14th in the league and exited the FA Cup at the hands of Stoke City . The only highlight was the club 's participation in the European Cup Winners ' Cup , which actually put Banks in the difficult position of choosing to play for his club against Spanish club Atlético Madrid or choosing to attend the England versus Portugal match as a non-playing squad member . He elected to attend both games , leaving London at full-time to reach Leicester 30 minutes before the kick-off against Madrid . A last minute goal earned the Spaniards a 1–1 draw at Filbert Street . In the return leg , Banks saved an Enrique Collar penalty , but Madrid were awarded a second penalty which Collar converted , and Leicester lost the game 2–0 ( losing the tie 3–1 on aggregate ) . Banks broke his nose at Craven Cottage , on the opening day of the 1962–63 season , in a 2–1 defeat to Fulham . Leicester went to chase a possible double , reaching the FA Cup semi-finals whilst lying top of the table in April . City beat Liverpool 1–0 at Hillsborough to reach the final , with Banks keeping a clean sheet despite his goal being under a near-constant siege from the Merseyside club . The News of the World reported that Liverpool had had 34 attempts on goal to Leicester 's one , and Banks later stated that it was his finest performance at club level . Yet Banks then broke a finger in a 2–1 defeat to West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns , and was out injured as Leicester lost their final three league games to end the season in a disappointing fourth place . In the 1963 FA Cup Final , Banks and the rest of the team underperformed , and lost the game 3–1 to Manchester United . City ended the 1963–64 season in 11th place , having been inconsistent all season . Success instead came through the League Cup , as they beat West Ham United 6–3 over two legs in the semi-finals to reach the final against Stoke City . The opening tie at the Victoria Ground finished 1–1 in extremely muddy conditions as Banks spilled a shot from Bill Asprey , with Keith Bebbington pouncing on the rebound . Back at Filbert Street , goals from Mike Stringfellow , Dave Gibson and Howard Riley won the game for Leicester 3–2 and settled the tie at 4–3 . Banks started the 1964–65 season on wages of £40 a week , and the club only agreed to pay £60 a week in December . These miserly wages made it difficult for the club to spend the £80,000 it received for the sale of Frank McLintock – he had put in a transfer request over dissatisfaction with his pay and quality replacements were reluctant to join a club that paid full internationals like Banks and McLintock no more than the base rate that rival clubs paid to average players . Leicester finished 18th in the league and were knocked out of the FA Cup by Liverpool at Anfield in the Sixth Round . In the League Cup , City struggled to get past Peterborough United ( in a replay ) , Grimsby Town and Crystal Palace ( in a replay ) , before they recorded an 8–1 victory over Coventry City at Highfield Road . After easing past Plymouth Argyle in the semi-finals , Banks found himself playing in another League Cup final . However Chelsea won the final after successfully defending their 3–2 win at Stamford Bridge with a goalless draw at Filbert Street . He missed the first nine games of the 1965–66 season after breaking his wrist diving at the feet of Northampton Town 's Joe Kiernan in a pre-season friendly . Leicester finished the season in seventh spot , and exited both cup competitions at the hands of Manchester City . Despite being a World Cup winner in the previous summer , Banks was dropped towards the end of the 1966–67 season for highly promising teenage reserve Peter Shilton . Manager Matt Gillies was blunt , telling Banks `` we [ Gillies and the club 's directors ] think your best days are behind you , and you should move on '' . Teammate Richie Norman told Banks that Gillies was pressured into the decision after Shilton told the board he would leave the club unless he was given first team football . Banks was transfer listed at £50,000 , the same price the club received for Derek Dougan in March 1967 . However many of the big clubs were unwilling to outlay such an expense on a goalkeeper . Liverpool manager Bill Shankly showed strong interest , but could not convince the club 's board of directors to agree to such a large fee for a goalkeeper . West Ham United manager Ron Greenwood was prepared to match the fee , but instead signed Kilmarnock 's Bobby Ferguson for £65,000 as he had already agreed terms with Kilmarnock and did not want to go back on his word . Terms were instead agreed with Stoke City , a mid-table First Division side . Stoke City On leaving Filbert Street , Banks requested a loyalty bonus from Leicester , and was told by Matt Gillies `` We 've decided not to pay you a penny . There 's to be no compensation payment and that 's final . '' Banks then refused the move until Stoke boss Tony Waddington seemingly negotiated a £2,000 payment out of Leicester . It was only some years later that Banks was informed that Stoke had actually made the payment , not Leicester . Waddington valued good goalkeepers highly , and the two built up a close relationship . During this time , Banks moved to Madeley , Staffordshire . He replaced John Farmer 's as the club 's number one , and kept goal in the last four games of the 1966–67 season , making his home debut at the Victoria Ground in a 3–1 win over former club Leicester . Banks fitted in well at Stoke , as Waddington built a team of veteran players who were judged by some to be past their best . The `` Potters '' struggled near the foot of the First Division table in the 1967–68 and 1968–69 campaigns , before rising to ninth place in the 1969–70 season . Banks remained a reliable stopper for the club , though on 1 March 1969 he was knocked unconscious at Roker Park by Sunderland 's Malcolm Moore , and his replacement David Herd conceded four goals in a 4–1 defeat . Banks also played a season for the Cleveland Stokers of the American United Soccer Association in the summer of 1968 ; he played seven of the short-lived club 's 12 games in Cleveland , Ohio . Banks made what he believed to be three of the best saves of his career in a Stoke shirt . In the first instance he saved and caught a powerful and well placed header from Manchester City 's Wyn Davies from just eight yards out , in the second case he saved a Francis Lee header at Maine Road , and he made his third great save for the club by catching a volley from Tottenham Hotspur 's Alan Gilzean that had been hit from just six yards out at White Hart Lane . Stoke began to compete for honours in the 1970–71 season , though despite impressive victories against the top two clubs – Arsenal and Leeds United – City ended the season in mid-table obscurity . The club 's great achievement was in reaching the semi-finals of the FA Cup , beating Millwall , Huddersfield Town , Ipswich Town and Hull City en route . Facing Arsenal at Hillsborough in the semi-finals , they lost a two-goal lead to draw 2–2 , and were then beaten 2–0 in the replay at Villa Park . Despite another mid-table finish in 1971–72 , Stoke beat Chesterfield , Tranmere Rovers , Hull City and Manchester United to reach another FA Cup semi-final . They again faced Arsenal , and once more a draw at Hillsborough meant a replay at Goodison Park . The `` Gunners '' goals in a 2–1 victory came from a disputed Frank McLintock penalty and a John Radford goal that television replays showed was clearly offside . In a May 2011 interview , he said that he still felt `` cheated '' out of a chance to play for the club in an FA Cup final . Stoke and Banks found solace in the League Cup , though it took them 11 matches to reach the final after overcoming Southport , then Oxford United in a replay , Manchester United in a second replay , Bristol Rovers , and then West Ham United in a second replay following an aggregate draw after two legs . In extra-time of the second leg with West Ham , Banks fouled Harry Redknapp to give up a penalty , and then saved Geoff Hurst 's powerful spot-kick to keep City in the competition . They then faced Chelsea in the final at Wembley . Peter Osgood beat Banks with a hooked shot just before half-time , but goals from Terry Conroy and George Eastham won Stoke the game at 2–1 . At the end of the season Banks was named as the FWA Footballer of the Year , becoming the first goalkeeper to receive the honour since Bert Trautmann in 1956 . On 22 October 1972 , while driving home from a session on his injured shoulder with the Stoke physiotherapist , Banks lost control of his new Ford Consul ( a re-badged Ford Granada Mk 1 ) car which ended up in a ditch . He had attempted to overtake a car on a sharp turn and collided with an oncoming Austin A60 van . He was taken to the North Staffordshire Hospital and during an operation received 200 stitches in his face and over 100 micro-stitches inside the socket of his right eye , and was told the chances of saving the sight in his eye were 50–50 . His sight never returned , and as the loss of binocular vision severely limited his abilities as a goalkeeper , he retired from professional football the following summer . Fort Lauderdale Strikers In April 1977 he went to play as a named superstar in the North American Soccer League ( NASL ) for Fort Lauderdale Strikers . The Strikers won their division in 1977 , and Banks was named NASL Goalkeeper of the Year after he conceded only 29 goals in 26 games – the best defensive record in the NASL . He also played one League of Ireland game for St Patrick 's Athletic ; keeping a clean sheet in a 1–0 win over Shamrock Rovers at Richmond Park on 2 October 1977 . He returned to Fort Lauderdale and played 11 games in the 1978 season . International career Banks was capped twice for the England under-23 side in matches against Wales and Scotland in 1961 . Ron Springett was the goalkeeper for England as Banks rose to prominence , but after the 1962 World Cup in Chile , a new coach was appointed in former England right-back Alf Ramsey . Ramsey demanded sole control of the team and began looking towards the next World Cup . Banks won his first cap on 6 April 1963 against Scotland at Wembley , after Springett was dropped following a poor performance . England lost 2–1 , though Banks was blameless as Scotland 's goals came firstly from an error by Jimmy Armfield and then secondly from the penalty spot . He was picked for the next match against Brazil , which ended in a credible 1–1 draw after Bryan Douglas cancelled out Pepe 's opener . Banks continued to play consistently to become established as England 's first-choice goalkeeper . In 1963 , he was picked to play against the Rest of the World , in a celebration match to mark 100 years of The Football Association . Banks also played in two of England 's three games at the `` Little World Cup '' in Brazil in the summer of 1964 , a 1–1 draw with Portugal and a 1–0 defeat to Argentina . Blackpool 's Tony Waiters won five caps in the England goal in 1964 , but found that his challenge to Banks ' first team place came to an end after he conceded five goals to Brazil . During England 's summer of 1965 tour he built up a solid understanding with his defenders – George Cohen , Jack Charlton , Bobby Moore , and Ray Wilson – as he only conceded two goals in four matches against Hungary , Yugoslavia , West Germany , and Sweden . They then played seven friendlies in 1966 in the build-up to the World Cup , though the team passed their biggest test of character in the British Home Championship , beating Scotland 4–3 in front of a crowd of over 130,000 at Hampden Park . Going into the competition , the only defeat in 21 matches since the `` Little World Cup '' came against Austria , in a game that Banks missed due to injury . 1966 World Cup Banks entered the 1966 FIFA World Cup as England 's first choice goalkeeper , and his understudies Ron Springett and Peter Bonetti never took to the field during the tournament . England opened the tournament with a goalless draw against Uruguay , with Banks a virtual spectator as the highly defensive Uruguayans rarely ventured out of their own half . They then defeated Mexico 2–0 , with Banks again rarely troubled throughout . A 2–0 win over France then took England through the group stage without Banks conceding a goal . England beat Argentina 1–0 in the last eight , with Geoff Hurst scoring with a header ; the match was sullied by the first-half sending off of Argentinian midfielder Antonio Rattín , who refused to leave the pitch after being dismissed for dissent . In contrast to the previous games , the semi-final against Portugal proved to be a fair contest between two sides of talented players eager to attack from the start of the match . Yet there was panic in the buildup to the game as trainer Harold Shepherdson forgot to buy chewing gum , which Banks used to make his hands stickier and better able to handle the ball , and so Shepherdson had to run to a nearby newsagents to purchase gum as the teams were in the tunnel . Bobby Charlton scored two goals , but Portugal made a strong finish and won a penalty on 82 minutes after Jack Charlton handled the ball in the penalty area . Eusébio converted the penalty after sending Banks the wrong way , and the game finished 2–1 in England 's favour . This was the first goal Banks had conceded for England in 721 minutes of regular play , since giving up Scotland 's last goal after 81 minutes of the Home International clash in April . This remains a record for an England goalkeeper . England 's opponents in the final were West Germany . It was England who dominated the final but it was Banks who was beaten first . A weak header from Ray Wilson handed a chance to Helmut Haller , who sent an accurate but relatively weak shot into the corner of the net ; Banks had been unsighted by Jack Charlton , and he failed to adjust his position in time to reach the ball . England equalised through a Geoff Hurst header within six minutes and went ahead late in the second half through Martin Peters . With seconds left in the game , Lothar Emmerich sent a free kick into the England penalty area , and the ball fell to Wolfgang Weber , who guided the ball over a lunging Ray Wilson and an outstretched Banks into the net to take the game into extra-time . In extra-time , the Germans sent shots in at the England goal which Banks managed to catch and control without any great danger . Hurst scored two goals to complete his hat-trick , and though many claimed his second goal never crossed the line Banks always maintained his belief that the officials called the decision correctly . Between these goals Banks had to deal with a fiery shot from Sigfried Held , and was later exposed only for Uwe Seeler to come just centimetres away from connecting with the ball . Euro 1968 Scotland were the first team to beat the world champions , as goals from Denis Law , Bobby Lennox and Jim McCalliog secured a 3–2 victory at Wembley on 15 April 1967 . Despite this set-back , England qualified for UEFA Euro 1968 , which consisted of just four teams : England , Italy ( hosts ) , the Soviet Union , and Yugoslavia . England played just two games at the tournament , losing 1–0 to Yugoslavia , and then beating the Soviets 2–0 in the third-place play-off . 1970 World Cup Banks went into the 1970 World Cup as England 's number one with 59 caps to his name , and had Peter Bonetti ( one cap ) and Alex Stepney ( six caps ) as his understudies . However he soon found that the heat and altitude at Guadalajara , Mexico difficult to cope with . The team 's efforts at acclimatization were not helped when Bobby Moore was falsely accused of stealing the infamous `` Bogotá Bracelet '' . Despite this , a Geoff Hurst goal was enough to beat their first opponents , Romania . A far tougher test awaited on 7 June , when England faced Brazil . The day before the match Banks was informed that he had been awarded an OBE . Playing at pace , Brazil were putting England under enormous pressure and an attack was begun by captain Carlos Alberto who sent a low ball down the right flank for the speedy Jairzinho to latch on to . The Brazilian winger sped past left-back Terry Cooper and crossed the ball into the six-yard box , where Pelé connected with a powerful header to send the ball low towards the right-hand corner of the goal . In the knowledge that his header was placed to perfection , Pelé immediately shouted `` Gol ! '' ( Brazilian Portuguese for goal ) . The split-second incident only allowed Banks time for one conscious thought – that the shot was impossible to catch , and the only way to prevent Pelé from following up on the rebound would be to parry the ball over the bar . The ball bounced two yards in front of the goal-line , and Banks managed to make contact with the ball with the fingers of his right hand , and rolled his hand slightly to angle to ball over the crossbar . He landed in the inner netting of the goal , and knew he had saved the ball after witnessing Pelé 's reaction . Banks then rose to his feet to defend the corner , and broke into laughter after the following exchange : `` I thought that was a goal . '' ( Pelé ) `` You and me both . '' ( Banks ) `` You 're getting old , Banksy , you used to hold on to them . '' ( Bobby Moore ) Pelé , and numerous journalists and pundits , would later describe the save as the greatest in the history of the game . Banks would later say `` They wo n't remember me for winning the World Cup , it 'll be for that save . That 's how big a thing it is . People just want to talk about that save . '' In 2002 the UK public voted the save No . 41 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments . Brazil still won the game 1–0 – Jairzinho guided a shot past Banks in the second half . England ultimately joined Brazil in the last eight after a win in the final group game against Czechoslovakia . The reward was a rematch of the 1966 final against West Germany . The day before the game Banks and England 's hopes of making further inroads into the World Cup were dented when he started to complain of an upset stomach . He became affected by violent stomach cramps and aching limbs , and spent his time in the bathroom sweating , shivering and vomiting . He passed an extremely undemanding fitness test but suffered a relapse shortly before the game and Ramsey was forced to rest him in place of Peter Bonetti . Ramsey remarked that `` of all the players to lose , we had to lose him . '' Banks watched

sfq_3197--Gordon_Banks.txt

If Gordon Banks was 1, Nobby Stiles was 4, Bobby Charlton was 9, who was 16?

The bluebottle fly or bottlebee ( Calliphora vomitoria ) is a common blow fly found in most areas of the world and is the type species for the genus Calliphora . Its larva , used as fishing bait , is called a maggot , while its pupa , also widely used for bait , is called a caster . Similar species include the greenbottle fly , a close relative that can be distinguished by its bright green metallic colouring . Bluebottle fly adults feed on nectar , while the larvae feed on carcasses of dead animals . Adults are also pollinators to some flowers with strong odor . Description It is 10 - long , slightly larger than a housefly . The head and thorax are dull gray and the abdomen is bright metallic blue with black markings . Its body and legs are covered with black bristle-like hair . It has short , clubbed antennae and 4 tarsi per leg . The eyes are red and the wings are transparent . The legs and antennae are black and pink . The chest is bright purple and has spikes to protect themselves against other flies . These insects like to fly in packs in order to detect possible prey more efficiently . If one fly detects food , it will disperse a pheromone which will alert the others to the meal . Life cycle A female blue bottle fly lays her eggs where she feeds , usually in decaying meat , garbage , or feces . Pale whitish larvae , commonly called maggots , soon hatch from the eggs and immediately begin feeding on the decomposing matter where they were hatched . After a few days of feeding , they are fully grown . At that time they will crawl away to a dry place where they can burrow into soil or similar matter to pupate into tough brown cocoons . After two or three weeks , the adults emerge to mate , beginning the cycle again . During cold weather , pupae and adults can hibernate until higher temperatures revive them . They are pollinators of some flowers with a strong odor such as skunk cabbage and goldenrod . Gallery File : Calliphora vomitoria Portrait.jpg|Calliphora vomitoria head shot

sfq_15533--Blue_bottle_fly.txt

What species of fly has the Latin name calliphora vomitoria?

Tahiti ( ; ) is the largest island in the Windward group of French Polynesia ; this overseas collectivity of the French Republic is sometimes referred to as an overseas country . The island is located in the archipelago of the Society Islands in the central Southern Pacific Ocean , and is divided into two parts : The bigger , northwestern part Tahiti Nui and the smaller , southeastern part Tahiti Iti . The island was formed from volcanic activity and is high and mountainous with surrounding coral reefs . The population is 183,645 inhabitants ( 2012 census ) , making it the most populous island of French Polynesia and accounting for 68.5 % of its total population . Tahiti is the economic , cultural and political centre of French Polynesia . The capital of the collectivity , Pape'ete , is located on the northwest coast with the only international airport in the region , Fa ' a ' ā International Airport , situated 5 km from the town centre . Tahiti was originally settled by Polynesians between 300 and 800 CE . They represent about 70 % of the island 's population with the rest made up of Europeans , Chinese and those of mixed heritage . The island was part of the Kingdom of Tahiti until its annexation by France in 1880 , when it was proclaimed a colony of France . It was not until 1946 that the indigenous Tahitians were legally authorised to be French citizens . French is the only official language although the Tahitian language ( Reo Tahiti ) is widely spoken . Geography Tahiti is the highest and largest island in French Polynesia lying close to Moorea island . It is located 4400 km south of Hawaii , 7900 km from Chile and 5700 km from Australia . The island is 45 km across at its widest point and covers an area of 1045 km2 . The highest peak is Mont Orohena ( Mou ' a 'Orohena ) ( 2241 m ) . Mount Roonui , or Mount Ronui ( Mou ' a Rōnui ) in the southeast rises to 1332 m. The island consists of two roughly round portions centred on volcanic mountains and connected by a short isthmus named after the small town of Taravao , situated there . The northwestern portion is known as Tahiti Nui ( `` big Tahiti '' ) , while the much smaller southeastern portion is known as Tahiti Iti ( `` small Tahiti '' ) or Tai'arapū . Tahiti Nui is heavily populated along the coast , especially around the capital , Papeete . The interior of Tahiti Nui is almost entirely uninhabited . Tahiti Iti has remained isolated , as its southeastern half ( Te Pari ) is accessible only to those travelling by boat or on foot . The rest of the island is encircled by a main road which cuts between the mountains and the sea . A scenic and winding interior road climbs past dairy farms and citrus groves with panoramic views . Tahiti 's landscape features lush rainforests and many streams , including the Papenoo River on the north side . Climate November to April is the wet season , the wettest month of which is January with of rain in Papeetē . August is the driest with . The average temperature ranges between 21 and with little seasonal variation . The lowest and highest temperatures recorded in Papeete are 16 and , respectively . History Prehistoric colonization of Tahiti The first Tahitians arrived from Southeast Asia in about 200 BCE , after a long migration from South East Asia or Indonesia , via the Fijian , Samoan and Tongan Archipelagos . This hypothesis of an emigration from Southeast Asia is supported by a number of linguistic , biological and archaeological proofs . For example , the languages of Fiji and Polynesia all belong to the same Oceanic sub-group , Fijian-Polynesian , which itself forms part of the great family of the Austronesian Languages . This emigration , across several hundred kilometres of ocean , was made possible by using outrigger canoes that were up to twenty or thirty meters long and could transport families as well as domestic animals . In 1769 , for instance , James Cook mentions a great traditional ship ( va ' a ) in Tahiti that was 33 m long , and could be propelled by sail or paddles . In 2010 , an expedition on a simple outrigger canoe with a sail retraced the route back from Tahiti to Asia . Tahitian society was composed of chiefdoms and territories based on kinship and military power among various clans . A clan was led by a chief ( Ari ' i rahi ) , nobles ( Ari ' i ) and lesser chiefs . The Ari ' i were believed to be descendants of Polynesian gods and invested with supernatural power ( mana ) . A symbol of their status were belts made of red feathers . However , clan leaders did not hold absolute power , and their role included consulting with general assemblies or councils , especially in times of war . The marae was a sacred place of worship constructed of raised stone platforms in open ground , performing a cultural function similar to such structures in other Polynesian societies . The marae were at the centre of the spiritual and social life of the clan . Here , gods were invoked and leaders enthroned . It was also a place for ceremonies such as preparation for war , birth celebrations as well as burial rituals . Types of marae ranged from simple family platforms to larger edifices for leaders of high status , although all were considered tapu . Early European contact saw the arrival of the London Missionary Society in 1797 who introduced Christianity and documented the Tahitian language ( Reo Tahiti ) . Civilization before the arrival of the Europeans Before the arrival of the Europeans the island was divided into different chiefdoms , very precise territories dominated by a single clan . These chiefdoms were linked to each other by allegiances based on the blood ties of their leaders and on their power in war . The most important clan on the island was the Teva , whose territory extended from the peninsula in the south of Tahiti Nui . The Teva Clan was composed of the Teva i Uta ( Teva of the Interior ) and the Teva i Tai ( Teva of the Sea ) , and was led by Amo and Purea.Salvat , p. 187 A clan was composed of a chief ( ari ’ i rahi ) , nobles ( ari ’ i ) and under-chiefs ( 'Īato'ai ) . The ari ’ i , considered descendants of the Polynesian gods , were full of mana ( spiritual power ) . They traditionally wore belts of red feathers , symbols of their power . The chief of the clan did not have absolute power . Councils or general assemblies had to be called composed of the ari ’ i and the 'Īato'ai , especially in case of war . The more unrelated the ari ’ i were to the chief of the clan , the more autonomous they were , forming a counterweight to his authority . The clans were organized around marae , open air cultic sites . These marae were at the heart of the religious and social life of the clans : that is where the gods were invoked , where the chiefs were enthroned , and where war and fishing expeditions were prepared , and where births and deaths were celebrated . There was a hierarchy of marae , progressing from simple family marae to royal marae . The size of any marae is proportional to the influence of the family . One of the royal marae of Tahiti is Farepu ’ a , built on the accession of Tetuana ’ e Nui . The marae were protected by tapu , an absolute and sacred ban , transgressing which would bring on a curse . The term passed into western languages as taboo . First European visits Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós , serving the Spanish Crown in an expedition to Terra Australis , was perhaps the first European to set eyes on the island of Tahiti . He sighted an inhabited island on 10 February 1606 which he called Sagitaria ( or Sagittaria ) . However , whether the island that he saw was actually Tahiti or not has not been fully ascertained . It has been suggested that he actually saw the island of Rekareka to the south-east of Tahiti . According to other authors the first European to arrive in Tahiti was Spanish explorer Juan Fernández in his expedition of 1576–1577 . The first European to have visited Tahiti according to existing records was lieutenant Samuel Wallis , who was circumnavigating the globe in HMS Dolphin , and landed on 17 June 1767 in Matavai Bay , situated on the territory of the chiefdom of Pare ( Arue/Mahina ) , governed by the female chieftain `` Oberea '' ( Purea ) . Wallis named the island King George Island . The first contacts were difficult , since on the 24 and the 26 June 1767 , some Tahitians in canoes tried to take the ship and beach it , possibly because they were afraid the English had intentions of staying permanently , or possibly to take possession of the metallic objects from the ship . In retaliation , the English sailors opened fire on the canoes and on the crowds on the hills . In reaction to this powerful counter-attack , the inhabitants of the bay laid down offerings for the English , showing their wish for peace or to submit . Following this episode , Samuel Wallis was able to establish cordial relations with the female chieftain “ Oberea “ ( Purea ) and remained on the island for a total of 40 days , until 27 July 1767 . On 2 April 1768 , it was the turn of Louis-Antoine de Bougainville , completing the first French circumnavigation , to land in the Bay of Matavai . He only stayed about ten days on the island , which he called “ Nouvelle-Cythère “ , or `` New Cythera '' , because of the warm welcome he had received and the sweetness of the Tahitian customs . The account he gave of his port of call would contribute to the creation of the myth of a Polynesian paradise and nourished the theme of the good savage , so dear to Jean-Jacques Rousseau , which was very much in fashion . Between this date right until the end of the 18th century , the name of the island was spelled phonetically “ Taïti ” . Beginning in the 19th century , the Tahitian orthography “ Tahiti ” became normal usage in French and English . In July 1768 , Captain James Cook was commissioned by the Royal Society and on orders from the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to observe the transit of Venus across the sun , a phenomenon that would be visible from Tahiti on 3 June 1769 . He arrived in Tahiti on board HMS Endeavour in April 1769 and remained on the island until August . He set up camp at Matavai Bay along with Charles Green and Daniel Solander.The length of stay enabled them to undertake for the first time real ethnographic and scientific observations of the island . Assisted by the botanist Joseph Banks , and by the artist Sydney Parkinson , Cook gathered valuable information on the fauna and flora , as well as the native society , language and customs . Cook estimated the population to be 200,000 including all the nearby islands in the chain . This estimate was later lowered to 35,000 by anthropologist Douglas L. Oliver , the foremost modern authority on Tahiti , at the time of first European contact in 1767 . His crew moreover maintained friendly relations with the cheftainess `` Oberea '' ( Purea ) , whom they mistakenly took to be the Queen of Tahiti . These exchanges created favorable conditions for the rise of the Pōmare Dynasty . The Viceroy of Peru , Manuel de Amat y Juniet , following the instructions of the Spanish Crown , organized an expedition to settle and colonize the island in 1772 , largely to prevent other powers from gaining a base in the Pacific from which to attack the coast of Peru , but also to evangelize . He sent two expeditions under the command of navigator Domingo de Bonechea in 1772 and in 1774 . Bonechea died on 20 January 1775 in Tahiti , where his grave was rediscovered in the 20th century . The Spanish mission on Tahiti was abandoned on 12 November that year after Charles III of Spain cancelled the mission as a consequence of his secular policy . Some maps still bear the name Isla de Amat for Tahiti , named after Viceroy Amat who ordered the expedition . A most notable result of these voyages was the drafting of a diary by a soldier of the Spanish Navy named Maximo Rodriguez , covering a period of 12 months , which contains valuable ethnological information about the Tahitians of the 18th century . Cook later returned to Tahiti between 15 August and 1 September 1773 , and for the last time between 13 August and 8 December 1777 . On these visits Cook made harbour at Tautira Bay , which is sometimes known as Cook 's Anchorage . During his final stay he accompanied the chief Tū ( nephew of the female chieftain `` Oberea '' ( Purea ) ) on a warring expedition to Mo'orea ( 'Aimeo ) . Cook , however , refused to offer him military support and was content with just visiting the island . British influence and the rise of the Pōmare Mutineers of the Bounty On 26 October 1788 , HMS Bounty , under the command of Captain William Bligh , landed in Tahiti with the mission of carrying Tahitian breadfruit trees ( Tahitian : uru ) to the Caribbean . Sir Joseph Banks , the botanist from James Cook 's first expedition , had concluded that this plant would be ideal to feed the African slaves working in the Caribbean plantations at very little cost . The crew remained in Tahiti for about five months , the time needed to transplant the seedlings of the trees . Three weeks after leaving Tahiti , on 28 April 1789 , the crew mutinied on the initiative of Fletcher Christian . The mutineers seized the ship and set the captain and most of those members of the crew who remained loyal to him adrift in a ship 's boat . A group of mutineers then went back to settle in Tahiti . Although various explorers had refused to get involved in tribal conflicts , the mutineers from the Bounty offered their services as mercenaries and furnished arms to the family which became the Pōmare Dynasty . The chief Tū knew how to use their presence in the harbours favoured by sailors to his advantage . As a result of his alliance with the mutineers , he succeeded in considerably increasing his supremacy over the island of Tahiti . In about 1790 , the ambitious chief Tū took the title of king and gave himself the name Pōmare . Captain Bligh explains that this name was an homage to his eldest daughter Teriinavahoroa , who had died of tuberculosis , `` an illness that made her cough ( mare ) a lot , especially at night ( pō ) '' . Thus he became Pōmare I , founding the Pōmare Dynasty and his lineage would be the first to unify Tahiti from 1788–1791 . He and his descendants founded and expanded Tahitian influence to all of the lands that now constitute modern French Polynesia . In 1791 , HMS Pandora under Captain Edward Edwards called at Tahiti and took custody of fourteen of the mutineers . Four were drowned in the sinking of the Pandora on her homeward voyage , three were hanged , four were acquitted , and three were pardoned . Landings of the whalers In the 1790s , whalers began landing at Tahiti during their fishing expeditions in the southern hemisphere . The arrival of these whalers , who were subsequently joined by merchants coming from the penal colonies in Australia , marked the first major overturning of traditional Tahitian society . The crews introduced alcohol , arms and illnesses into the island , and encouraged prostitution , which brought with it venereal disease . These first exchanges with westerners had catastrophic consequences for the Tahitian population , which shrank rapidly , ravaged by diseases . So many Tahitians were killed by disease in fact that by 1797 , the population was only 16,000 . Later it was to drop as low as 6,000 . Arrival of the missionaries On 5 March 1797 , representatives of the London Missionary Society landed at Matavai Bay ( Mahina ) on board Duff , with the intention of converting the pagan native populations to Christianity . The arrival of these missionaries marked a new turning point for the island of Tahiti , having a lasting impact on the local culture . The first years proved hard work for the missionaries , despite their association with the Pōmare , the importance of whom they were aware of thanks to the reports of earlier sailors . In 1803 , upon the death of Pōmare I , his son Vaira'atoa succeeded him and took the title of Pomare II . He allied himself more and more with the missionaries , and from 1803 they taught him reading and the Gospels . Furthermore , the missionaries encouraged his wish to conquer his opponents , so that they would only have to deal with a single political contact , enabling them to develop Christianity in a unified country . The conversion of Pōmare II to Protestantism in 1812 marks moreover the point when Protestantism truly took off on the island . In about 1810 , Pōmare II married Teremo'emo ' e daughter of the chief of Raiatea , in order to ally himself with the chiefdoms of the Leeward Islands . On 12 November 1815 , thanks to these alliances , Pōmare II won a decisive battle at Fe ’ i Pī ( Punaauia ) , notably against Opuhara , the chief of the powerful clan of Teva . This victory allowed Pōmare II to be styled Ari ’ i Rahi , or the king of Tahiti . It was the first time that Tahiti had been united under the control of a single family . It was the end of Tahitian feudalism and the military aristocracy , which were replaced by an absolute monarchy . At the same time , Protestantism quickly spread , thanks to the support of Pōmare II , and replaced the traditional beliefs . In 1816 the London Missionary Society sent John Williams as a missionary and teacher , and starting in 1817 , the Gospels were translated into Tahitian ( Reo Maohi ) and taught in the religious schools . In 1818 , the minister William Pascoe Crook founded the city of Papeete , which became the capital of the island . In 1819 , Pōmare II , encouraged by the missionaries , introduced the first Tahitian legal code , known under the name of the Pōmare Legal Code , which consists of nineteen laws . The missionaries and Pōmare II thus imposed a ban on nudity ( obliging them to wear clothes covering their whole body ) , banned dances and chants , described as immodest , tattoos and costumes made of flowers . In the 1820s , the entire population of Tahiti converted to Protestantism . Duperrey , who berthed in Tahiti in May 1823 , attests to the change in Tahitian society in a letter dated 15 May 1823 : “ The missionaries of the Royal Society of London have totally changed the morals and customs of the inhabitants . Idolatry no longer exists among them , and they generally profess the Christian religion . The women no longer come aboard the vessel , and even when we meet them on land they are extremely reserved . ( ... ) The bloody wars that these people used to carry out and human sacrifices have no longer taken place since 1816 . '' When , on 7 December 1821 , Pōmare II died , his son Pōmare III was only eighteen months old . His uncle and the religious people therefore supported the regency , until 2 May 1824 , the date on which the missionaries conducted his coronation , a ceremony unprecedented in Tahiti . Taking advantage of the weakness of the Pōmare , local chiefs won back some of their power and took the hereditary title of Tavana ( from the English word ‘ governor ’ ) . The missionaries also took advantage of the situation in order to change the way in which powers were arranged , and to make the Tahitian monarchy closer to the English model of a constitutional monarchy . They therefore created the Tahitian Legislative Assembly , which first sat on the 23 February 1824 . In 1827 , the young Pōmare III suddenly died , and it was his half-sister , 'Aimata , aged thirteen , who took the title of Pōmare IV . The Birmingham born missionary George Pritchard , who was the acting British consul , became her main adviser and tried to interest her in the affairs of the kingdom . But the authority of the Queen , who was certainly less charismatic than her father , was challenged by the chiefs , who had won back an important part of their prerogatives since the death of Pōmare II . The power of the Pōmare had become more symbolic than real , time and time again Queen Pōmare , Protestant and anglophile , sought in vain the protection of England . In November 1835 Charles Darwin visited Tahiti aboard HMS Beagle on her circumnavigation , captained by Robert FitzRoy . He was impressed by what he perceived to be the positive influence the missionaries had had on the sobriety and moral character of the population . Darwin praised the scenery , but was not flattering towards Tahiti 's Queen Pōmare IV . Captain Fitzroy negotiated payment of compensation for an attack on an English ship by Tahitians , which had taken place in 1833 . In 1839 the island was visited by the United States Exploring Expedition ; one of its members , Alfred Thomas Agate , produced a number of sketches of Tahitian life , some of which were later published in the United States . French protectorate and the end of the Pōmare kingdom In 1836 , the Queen ’ s advisor Pritchard had two French Catholic priests expelled , François Caret and Honoré Laval . As a result , in 1838 France sent Admiral Abel Aubert Dupetit-Thouars to get reparation . Once his mission had been completed , Admiral Du Petit-Thouars sailed towards the Marquesas Islands , which he annexed in 1842 . Also in 1842 , a European crisis involving Morocco escalated between France and Great Britain , souring their relations . In August 1842 , Admiral Du Petit-Thouars returned and landed in Tahiti . He then made friends with Tahitian chiefs who were hostile to the Pōmare family and favorable to a French protectorate . He had them sign a request for protection in the absence of their Queen , before then approaching her and obliging her to ratify the terms of the treaty of protectorate . The treaty had not even been ratified by France itself when Jacques-Antoine Moerenhout was named royal commissaire alongside Queen Pōmare . Within the framework of this treaty , France recognized the sovereignty of the Tahitian state . The Queen was responsible for internal affairs , while France would deal with foreign relations and assure the defence of Tahiti , as well as maintain order on the island . Once the treaty had been signed there began a struggle for influence between the English Protestants and the Catholic representatives of France . During the first years of the Protectorate , the Protestants managed to retain a considerable hold over Tahitian society , thanks to their knowledge of the country and its language . George Pritchard had been away at the time . He returned however to work towards indoctrinating the locals against the Roman Catholic French . Tahitian War of independence ( 1844–7 ) In 1843 , the Queen 's Protestant advisor , Pritchard , persuaded her to display the Tahitian flag in place of the flag of the Protectorate . By way of reprisal , Admiral Dupetit-Thouars announced the annexation of the Kingdom of Pōmare on the 6 November 1843 and set up the governor Armand Joseph Bruat there as the chief of the new colony . He threw Pritchard into prison , and later sent him back to Britain . The annexation caused the Queen to be exiled to the Leeward Islands , and after a period of troubles , a real Franco-Tahitian war began in March 1844 . News of Tahiti reached Europe in early 1844 . The French statesman François Guizot , supported by King Louis-Philippe of France , had denounced annexation of the island . The war ended in December 1846 in favour of the French . The Queen returned from exile in 1847 and agreed to sign a new covenant , considerably reducing her powers , while increasing those of the commissaire . The French nevertheless still reigned over the Kingdom of Tahiti as masters . In 1863 , they put an end to the British influence and replaced the British Protestant Missions with the Société des missions évangéliques de Paris ( Society of Evangelical Missions of Paris ) . During the same period about a thousand Chinese , mainly Cantonese , were recruited at the request of a plantation owner in Tahiti , William Stewart , to work on the great cotton plantation at Atimaono . When the enterprise resulted in bankruptcy in 1873 , a few Chinese workers returned to their country , but a large number stayed in Tahiti and mixed with the population . In 1866 the district councils were formed , elected , which were given the powers of the traditional hereditary chiefs . In the context of the republican assimilation , these councils tried their best to protect the traditional way of life of the local people , which was threatened by European influence . In 1877 , Queen Pōmare died after ruling for fifty years . Her son , Pōmare V , then succeeded her on the throne . The new king seemed little concerned with the affairs of the kingdom , and when in 1880 the governor Henri Isidore Chessé , supported by the Tahitian chiefs , pushed him to abdicate in favor of France , he accepted . On the 29 June 1880 , he ceded Tahiti to France along with the islands that were its dependencies . He was given the titular position of Officer of the Orders of the Legion of Honour and Agricultural Merit of France . Having become a colony , Tahiti thus lost all sovereignty . Tahiti was nevertheless a special colony , since all the subjects of the Kingdom of Pōmare would be given French citizenship . On the 14 July 1881 , among cries of “ Vive la République ! ” the crowds celebrated the fact that Polynesia now belonged to France ; this was the first celebration of the Tiurai ( national and popular festival ) . In 1890 , Papeete became a commune of the Republic of France . The French painter Paul Gauguin lived on Tahiti in the 1890s and painted many Tahitian subjects . Papeari has a small Gauguin museum . In 1891 Matthew Turner , an American shipbuilder from San Francisco who had been seeking a fast passage between the city and Tahiti , built the Papeete , a two-masted schooner that made the trip in seventeen days . Twentieth century to present In 1903 , the Établissements Français d ’ Océanie ( French Establishments in Oceania ) were created , which collected together Tahiti , the other Society Islands , the Austral Islands , the Marquesas Islands and the Tuamotu Archipelago . In 1946 , Tahiti and the whole of French Polynesia became an overseas territory ( Territoire d'outre-mer ) . Tahitians were granted French citizenship , a right that had been campaigned for by nationalist leader Pouvanaa a Oopa for many years . In 2003 , French Polynesia 's status was changed to that of an

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Which artist's-works include Sunflowers and Pears and Street in Tahiti?

Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex , KG PC ( ; 10 November 1565 – 25 February 1601 ) was an English nobleman and a favourite of Elizabeth I . Politically ambitious , and a committed general , he was placed under house arrest following a poor campaign in Ireland during the Nine Years ' War in 1599 . In 1601 , he led an abortive coup d'état against the government and was executed for treason . He is an ancestor of Queen Elizabeth II . Early life Essex was born on 10 November 1565 at Netherwood near Bromyard , in Herefordshire , the son of Walter Devereux , 1st Earl of Essex , and Lettice Knollys . His maternal great-grandmother Mary Boleyn was a sister of Anne Boleyn , the mother of Queen Elizabeth I , making him a first-cousin-twice-removed of the Queen . He was brought up on his father 's estates at Chartley Castle , Staffordshire , and at Lamphey , Pembrokeshire , in Wales . His father died in 1576 , and the new Earl of Essex became a ward of Lord Burghley . In 1577 , he was admitted as a fellow-commoner at Trinity College , Cambridge ; in 1579 , he matriculated ; and in 1581 he graduated as Master of Arts . On 21 September 1578 , Essex 's mother married Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester , Elizabeth I 's long-standing favourite and Robert Devereux 's godfather . Essex performed military service under his stepfather in the Netherlands , before making an impact at court and winning the Queen 's favour . In 1590 , he married Frances Walsingham , daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham and widow of Sir Philip Sidney , by whom he was to have several children , three of whom survived into adulthood . Sidney , Leicester 's nephew , died in 1586 at the Battle of Zutphen in which Essex also distinguished himself . In October 1591 , Devereux 's mistress , Elizabeth Southwell , gave birth to a son who survived into adulthood . Court and military career Essex first came to court in 1584 , and by 1587 had become a favourite of the Queen , who relished his lively mind and eloquence , as well as his skills as a showman and in courtly love . In June 1587 he replaced the Earl of Leicester as Master of the Horse . After Leicester 's death in 1588 , the Queen transferred the late Earl 's royal monopoly on sweet wines to Essex , providing him with revenue from taxes . In 1593 , he was made a member of her Privy Council . Essex underestimated the Queen , however , and his later behaviour towards her lacked due respect and showed disdain for the influence of her principal secretary , Robert Cecil . On one occasion during a heated Privy Council debate on the problems in Ireland , the Queen reportedly cuffed an insolent Essex round the ear , prompting him to half draw his sword on her . In 1589 , he took part in Francis Drake 's English Armada , which sailed to Spain in an unsuccessful attempt to press home the English advantage following the defeat of the Spanish Armada , although the Queen had ordered him not to take part in the expedition . In 1591 , he was given command of a force sent to the assistance of King Henry IV of France . In 1596 , he distinguished himself by the capture of Cadiz . During the Islands Voyage expedition to the Azores in 1597 , with Walter Raleigh as his second in command , he defied the Queen 's orders , pursuing the treasure fleet without first defeating the Spanish battle fleet . When the Spanish fleet appeared off the English coast during the 3rd Spanish Armada in the Autumn of 1597 panic then ensued because the English fleet had been far out to sea with the coast virtually undefended . This further depleted the relationship between the Queen and Essex even though initially he was put in charge of the fleet to face the Spanish threat . Ireland Essex 's greatest failure was as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland , a post which he talked himself into in 1599 . The Nine Years War ( 1595–1603 ) was in its middle stages , and no English commander had been successful . More military force was required to defeat the Irish chieftains , led by Hugh O'Neill , the Earl of Tyrone and supplied from Spain and Scotland . Essex led the largest expeditionary force ever sent to Ireland—16,000 troops—with orders to put an end to the rebellion . He departed London to the cheers of the Queen 's subjects , and it was expected the rebellion would be crushed instantly , but the limits of Crown resources and of the Irish campaigning season dictated otherwise . Essex had declared to the Privy Council that he would confront O'Neill in Ulster . Instead , he led his army into southern Ireland , where he fought a series of inconclusive engagements , wasted his funds , and dispersed his army into garrisons , while the Irish won two important battles in other parts of the country . Rather than face O'Neill in battle , Essex entered a truce that some considered humiliating to the Crown and to the detriment of English authority . The Queen herself told Essex that if she had wished to abandon Ireland it would scarcely have been necessary to send him there . In all of his campaigns Essex secured the loyalty of his officers by conferring knighthoods , an honour the Queen herself dispensed sparingly , and by the end of his time in Ireland more than half the knights in England owed their rank to him . The rebels were said to have joked that , `` he never drew sword but to make knights . '' But his practice of conferring knighthoods could in time enable Essex to challenge the powerful factions at Cecil 's command . He was the second Chancellor of Trinity College , Dublin , serving from 1598 to 1601 . First trial Relying on his general warrant to return to England , given under the great seal , Essex sailed from Ireland on 24 September 1599 , and reached London four days later . The Queen had expressly forbidden his return and was surprised when he presented himself in her bedchamber one morning at Nonsuch Palace , before she was properly wigged or gowned . On that day , the Privy Council met three times , and it seemed his disobedience might go unpunished , although the Queen did confine him to his rooms with the comment that `` an unruly beast must be stopped of his provender . '' Essex appeared before the full Council on 29 September , when he was compelled to stand before the Council during a five-hour interrogation . The Council—his uncle William Knollys , 1st Earl of Banbury included—took a quarter of an hour to compile a report , which declared that his truce with O'Neill was indefensible and his flight from Ireland tantamount to a desertion of duty . He was committed to the custody of Sir Richard Berkeley in his own York House on 1 October , and he blamed Cecil and Raleigh for the queen 's hostility . Raleigh advised Cecil to see to it that Essex did not recover power , and Essex appeared to heed advice to retire from public life , despite his popularity with the public . During his confinement at York House , Essex probably communicated with King James VI of Scotland through Lord Mountjoy , although any plans he may have had at that time to help the Scots king capture the English throne came to nothing . In October , Mountjoy was appointed to replace him in Ireland , and matters seemed to look up for the Earl . In November , the queen was reported to have said that the truce with O'Neill was `` so seasonably made ... as great good ... has grown by it . '' Others in the Council were willing to justify Essex 's return to Ireland , on the grounds of the urgent necessity of a briefing by the commander-in-chief . Cecil kept up the pressure and , on 5 June 1600 , Essex was tried before a commission of 18 men . He had to hear the charges and evidence on his knees . Essex was convicted , was deprived of public office , and was returned to virtual confinement . Essex rebellion In August , his freedom was granted , but the source of his basic income—the sweet wines monopoly—was not renewed . His situation had become desperate , and he shifted `` from sorrow and repentance to rage and rebellion . '' In early 1601 , he began to fortify Essex House , his town mansion on the Strand , and gathered his followers . On the morning of 8 February , he marched out of Essex House with a party of nobles and gentlemen ( some later involved in the 1605 Gunpowder Plot ) and entered the city of London in an attempt to force an audience with the Queen . Cecil immediately had him proclaimed a traitor . A force under Sir John Leveson placed a barrier across the street at Ludgate Hill . When Essex 's men tried to force their way through , Essex 's stepfather , Sir Christopher Blount , was injured in the resulting skirmish , and Essex withdrew with his men to Essex House . Essex surrendered after Crown forces besieged Essex House . Treason trial and death On 19 February 1601 , Essex was tried before his peers on charges of treason . Quoting from State Trials . Compiled by T. B. Howell and T. J. Howell . 33 Vols . London . 1809-26 . Vol . I , pp . 1334-1360 , author Laura Hanes Cadwallader summarized the indictment : The indictment charged Essex with `` conspiring and imagining at London , . . . to depose and slay the Queen , and to subvert the Government . '' It also stated that Essex had `` endeavored to raise himself to the Crown of England , and usurp the royal dignity , '' and that in order to fulfill these intentions , he and others `` rose and assembled themselves in open rebellion , and moved and persuaded many of the citizens of London to join them in their treason , and endeavored to get the city of London into their possession and power , and wounded and killed many of the Queen 's subjects then and there assembled for the purpose of quelling such rebellion . '' Essex was charged also with holding the Lord Keeper and the other Privy Councillors in custody `` for four hours and more . '' Part of the evidence showed that he was in favour of toleration of religious dissent . In his own evidence , he countered the charge of dealing with Catholics , swearing that `` papists have been hired and suborned to witness against me . '' Essex also asserted that Cecil had stated that none in the world but the Infanta of Spain had right to the Crown of England , whereupon Cecil ( who had been following the trial at a doorway concealed behind some tapestry ) stepped out to make a dramatic denial , going down on his knees to give thanks to God for the opportunity . The witness whom Essex expected to confirm this allegation , his uncle William Knollys , was called and admitted there had once been read in Cecil 's presence a book treating such matters ( possibly either The book of succession supposedly by an otherwise unknown R. Doleman but probably really by Robert Persons or A Conference about the Next Succession to the Crown of England explicitly mentioned to be by Persons , in which a Catholic successor friendly to Spain was favoured ) . However he denied he had heard Cecil make the statement . Thanking God again , Cecil expressed his gratitude that Essex was exposed as a traitor while he himself was found an honest man . Essex was found guilty and , on 25 February 1601 , was beheaded on Tower Green , becoming the last person to be beheaded in the Tower of London . It was reported to have taken three strokes by the executioner Thomas Derrick to complete the beheading . Previously Thomas Derrick had been convicted of rape but was pardoned by the Earl of Essex himself ( clearing him of the death penalty ) on the condition that he became an executioner at Tyburn . At Sir Walter Raleigh 's own treason trial later on , in 1603 , it was alleged that Raleigh had said to a co-conspirator , `` Do not , as my Lord Essex did , take heed of a preacher . By his persuasion he confessed , and made himself guilty . '' In that same trial , Raleigh also denied that he had stood at a window during the execution of Essex 's sentence , disdainfully puffing out tobacco smoke in sight of the condemned man . Essex at the end shocked many by denouncing his sister Penelope , Lady Rich as his co-conspirator : the Queen , who was determined to show as much clemency as possible , ignored the charge . Some days before the execution , Captain Thomas Lee was apprehended as he kept watch on the door to the Queen 's chambers . His plan had been to confine her until she signed a warrant for the release of Essex . Capt . Lee , who had served in Ireland with the Earl , and who acted as go-between with the Ulster rebels , was tried and put to death the next day . Essex 's conviction for treason meant that the earldom was forfeit , and his son did not inherit the title . However , after the Queen 's death , King James I reinstated the earldom in favour of the disinherited son , Robert Devereux , 3rd Earl of Essex . The Essex ring There is a widely repeated romantic legend about a ring given by Elizabeth to Essex . There is a possible reference to the legend by John Webster in his 1623 play The Devil 's Law Case suggesting that it was known at this time , but the first printed version of it is in the 1695 romantic novel The Secret History of the most renowned Queen Elizabeth and the Earl of Essex , by a Person of Quality . The version given by David Hume in his History of England says that Elizabeth had given Essex a ring after the expedition to Cadiz that he should send to her if he was in trouble . After his trial he tried to send the ring to Elizabeth via the Countess of Nottingham , but the countess kept the ring as her husband was an enemy of Essex , as a result of which Essex was executed . On her deathbed the countess is said to have confessed this to Elizabeth , who angrily replied `` May God forgive you , Madam , but I never can . '' The chapter house museum in Westminster Abbey has a gold ring which is claimed to be this one . Some historians consider this story of the ring to be a myth , partly because there are no contemporary accounts of it . John Lingard in his history of England says the story appears to be a fiction , Lytton Strachey states `` Such a narrative is appropriate enough to the place where it was first fully elaborated — a sentimental novelette ; but it does not belong to history '' , and Alison Weir calls it a fabrication . Poetry Like many other Elizabethan aristocrats Essex was a competent lyric poet , who also participated in court entertainments . He engaged in literary as well as political feuds with his principal enemies , including Walter Raleigh . His poem `` Muses no more but mazes '' attacks Raleigh 's influence over the queen.Steven W. May , `` The poems of Edward de Vere , seventeenth Earl of Oxford and Robert Devereux , second Earl of Essex '' in Studies in Philology , 77 ( Winter 1980 ) , Chapel Hill , p.86 ff . Other lyrics were written for masques , including the sonnet `` Seated between the old world and the new '' in praise of the queen as the moral power linking Europe and America , who supports `` the world oppressed '' like the mythical Atlas . During his disgrace he also wrote several bitter and pessimistic verses . His longest poem , `` The Passion of a Discontented Mind '' ( beginning `` From silent night ... '' ) , is a penitential lament , probably written while imprisoned awaiting execution . Several of Essex 's poems were set to music . English composer John Dowland set a poem called `` Can she excuse my wrongs with virtue 's cloak ? '' in his 1597 publication First Booke of Songs : these lyrics have been attributed to Essex , largely on the basis of the dedication of `` The Earl of Essex 's Galliard '' , an instrumental version of the same song . Dowland also sets the opening verses of Essex 's poem `` The Passion of a Discontented Mind '' ( `` From silent night '' ) in his 1612 collection of songs . Orlando Gibbons set lines from the poem in the same year . Settings of Essex 's poems `` Change thy minde '' ( set by Richard Martin ) and `` To plead my faith '' ( set by Daniel Bacheler ) are published in A Musicall Banquet ( 1610 ) , a collection of songs edited by Robert Dowland . Ancestry Portrayals of Essex Opera * Saverio Mercadante 's 1833 opera Il Conte d'Essex with libretto by Felice Romani * Gaetano Donizetti 's 1837 opera Roberto Devereux with libretto by Salvadore Cammarano based mainly on François Ancelot 's Elisabeth d'Angleterre . * Benjamin Britten 's 1953 opera Gloriana is based on Lytton Strachey 's Elizabeth and Essex . Stage * In the 1956 essay Hamlet oder Hekuba : der Einbruch der Zeit in das Spiel ( Hamlet or Hecuba : the Irruption of Time into the Play ) , the German legal theorist Carl Schmitt suggests that elements of the Earl 's biography , in particular his final days and last words , were incorporated into William Shakespeare 's Hamlet at both the level of dialogue and the level of characterisation . Schmitt 's overall argument investigates the relationship between history and narrative generally . * Essex is briefly alluded to in Shakespeare 's Henry V at 5.0.22–34 . * Essex is said by editor David L. Stevenson to be alluded to in Much Ado About Nothing at 3.1.10–11 . * Gautier Coste de La Calprenède , Le Comte d'Essex ( 1639 ) . * Thomas Corneille , Le Comte d'Essex ( 1678 ) . * Claude Boyer , Le Comte d'Essex , tragedie . Par Monsieur Boyer de l'Academie françoise ( 1678 ) . * John Banks , The Unhappy Favourite ; Or the Earl of Essex , a Tragedy ( 1682 ) . * The night of Essex 's execution is dramatised in the Timothy Findley play Elizabeth Rex . Film * The 1939 film The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex dramatised the Queen 's relationship with Devereux , starring Bette Davis and Errol Flynn ; it is based on Maxwell Anderson 's 1930 play Elizabeth the Queen and Lytton Strachey 's romantic account Elizabeth and Essex . * Their relationship also provided material during the silent-era , as in 1912 in Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth . * Essex was played by Sam Reid in the 2011 film Anonymous , a fictional biopic that posits that Edward de Vere , the 17th Earl of Oxford , was the true author of William Shakespeare 's plays . TV * Charlton Heston portrayed the Earl of Essex opposite Judith Anderson 's Elizabeth I in a 1968 television adaption of Maxwell Anderson 's Elizabeth The Queen , for the Hallmark Hall of Fame series . * The Earl of Essex was portrayed by Robin Ellis in the fifth and sixth episodes of the BBC series Elizabeth R starring Glenda Jackson as Elizabeth I in 1971 . * The Queen 's relationship with Essex ( played by Hugh Dancy ) and his stepfather Leicester ( played by Jeremy Irons ) was also covered by a 2005 Channel 4/HBO co-production Elizabeth I , starring Helen Mirren . * In the 2005 The Virgin Queen , Hans Matheson played the ill-fated Earl of Essex . Essex in literature At least two fencing treatises are dedicated to Robert , Earl of Essex . They are as follows : * Vincentio Saviolo – His Practice ( 1595 ) * George Silver – Paradoxes of Defence ( 1599 ) Robert Devereux 's death and confession became the subject of two popular 17th-century Broadside Ballads , set to the English folk tunes Essex Last Goodnight and Welladay . Numerous ballads lamenting his death and praising his military feats were also published throughout the 17th century . Notes

qw_14568--Robert_Devereux,_2nd_Earl_of_Essex.txt

Which Earl of Essex, after being sent to Ireland as Governor-General in 1599, being briefly imprisoned and leading a rebellion against Queen Eliabeth I, was executed in 1601?

A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices . It is one of the basic shapes in geometry . A triangle with vertices A , B , and C is denoted \triangle ABC . In Euclidean geometry any three points , when non-collinear , determine a unique triangle and a unique plane ( i.e . a two-dimensional Euclidean space ) . This article is about triangles in Euclidean geometry except where otherwise noted . Types of triangle By lengths of sides Triangles can be classified according to the lengths of their sides : * An equilateral triangle has all sides the same length . An equilateral triangle is also a regular polygon with all angles measuring 60° . * An isosceles triangle has two sides of equal length.Euclid defines isosceles triangles based on the number of equal sides , i.e . only two equal sides . An alternative approach defines isosceles triangles based on shared properties , i.e . equilateral triangles are a special case of isosceles triangles . An isosceles triangle also has two angles of the same measure ; namely , the angles opposite to the two sides of the same length ; this fact is the content of the isosceles triangle theorem , which was known by Euclid . Some mathematicians define an isosceles triangle to have exactly two equal sides , whereas others define an isosceles triangle as one with at least two equal sides . The latter definition would make all equilateral triangles isosceles triangles . The 45–45–90 right triangle , which appears in the tetrakis square tiling , is isosceles . * A scalene triangle has all its sides of different lengths . Equivalently , it has all angles of different measure . A right triangle is also a scalene triangle if and only if it is not isosceles . Hatch marks , also called tick marks , are used in diagrams of triangles and other geometric figures to identify sides of equal lengths . A side can be marked with a pattern of `` ticks '' , short line segments in the form of tally marks ; two sides have equal lengths if they are both marked with the same pattern . In a triangle , the pattern is usually no more than 3 ticks . An equilateral triangle has the same pattern on all 3 sides , an isosceles triangle has the same pattern on just 2 sides , and a scalene triangle has different patterns on all sides since no sides are equal . Similarly , patterns of 1 , 2 , or 3 concentric arcs inside the angles are used to indicate equal angles . An equilateral triangle has the same pattern on all 3 angles , an isosceles triangle has the same pattern on just 2 angles , and a scalene triangle has different patterns on all angles since no angles are equal . By internal angles Triangles can also be classified according to their internal angles , measured here in degrees . * A right triangle ( or right-angled triangle , formerly called a rectangled triangle ) has one of its interior angles measuring 90° ( a right angle ) . The side opposite to the right angle is the hypotenuse , the longest side of the triangle . The other two sides are called the legs or catheti ( singular : cathetus ) of the triangle . Right triangles obey the Pythagorean theorem : the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two legs is equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse : , where a and b are the lengths of the legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse . Special right triangles are right triangles with additional properties that make calculations involving them easier . One of the two most famous is the 3–4–5 right triangle , where . In this situation , 3 , 4 , and 5 are a Pythagorean triple . The other one is an isosceles triangle that has 2 angles that each measure 45 degrees . * Triangles that do not have an angle measuring 90° are called oblique triangles . * A triangle with all interior angles measuring less than 90° is an acute triangle or acute-angled triangle . If c is the length of the longest side , then , where a and b are the lengths of the other sides . * A triangle with one interior angle measuring more than 90° is an obtuse triangle or obtuse-angled triangle . If c is the length of the longest side , then , where a and b are the lengths of the other sides . * A triangle with an interior angle of 180° ( and collinear vertices ) is degenerate . * A right degenerate triangle has collinear vertices , two of which are coincident . A triangle that has two angles with the same measure also has two sides with the same length , and therefore it is an isosceles triangle . It follows that in a triangle where all angles have the same measure , all three sides have the same length , and such a triangle is therefore equilateral . Basic facts Triangles are assumed to be two-dimensional plane figures , unless the context provides otherwise ( see Non-planar triangles , below ) . In rigorous treatments , a triangle is therefore called a 2-simplex ( see also Polytope ) . Elementary facts about triangles were presented by Euclid in books 1–4 of his Elements , around 300 BC . The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle in Euclidean space is always 180 degrees . This fact is equivalent to Euclid 's parallel postulate . This allows determination of the measure of the third angle of any triangle given the measure of two angles . An exterior angle of a triangle is an angle that is a linear pair ( and hence supplementary ) to an interior angle . The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two interior angles that are not adjacent to it ; this is the exterior angle theorem . The sum of the measures of the three exterior angles ( one for each vertex ) of any triangle is 360 degrees.The n external angles of any n-sided convex polygon add up to 360 degrees . Similarity and congruence Two triangles are said to be similar if every angle of one triangle has the same measure as the corresponding angle in the other triangle . The corresponding sides of similar triangles have lengths that are in the same proportion , and this property is also sufficient to establish similarity . Some basic theorems about similar triangles are : * If and only if one pair of internal angles of two triangles have the same measure as each other , and another pair also have the same measure as each other , the triangles are similar . * If and only if one pair of corresponding sides of two triangles are in the same proportion as are another pair of corresponding sides , and their included angles have the same measure , then the triangles are similar . ( The included angle for any two sides of a polygon is the internal angle between those two sides . ) * If and only if three pairs of corresponding sides of two triangles are all in the same proportion , then the triangles are similar.Again , in all cases `` mirror images '' are also similar . Two triangles that are congruent have exactly the same size and shape : All pairs of congruent triangles are also similar ; but not all pairs of similar triangles are congruent . all pairs of corresponding interior angles are equal in measure , and all pairs of corresponding sides have the same length . ( This is a total of six equalities , but three are often sufficient to prove congruence . ) Some individually necessary and sufficient conditions for a pair of triangles to be congruent are : * SAS Postulate : Two sides in a triangle have the same length as two sides in the other triangle , and the included angles have the same measure . * ASA : Two interior angles and the included side in a triangle have the same measure and length , respectively , as those in the other triangle . ( The included side for a pair of angles is the side that is common to them . ) * SSS : Each side of a triangle has the same length as a corresponding side of the other triangle . * AAS : Two angles and a corresponding ( non-included ) side in a triangle have the same measure and length , respectively , as those in the other triangle . ( This is sometimes referred to as AAcorrS and then includes ASA above . ) Some individually sufficient conditions are : * Hypotenuse-Leg ( HL ) Theorem : The hypotenuse and a leg in a right triangle have the same length as those in another right triangle . This is also called RHS ( right-angle , hypotenuse , side ) . * Hypotenuse-Angle Theorem : The hypotenuse and an acute angle in one right triangle have the same length and measure , respectively , as those in the other right triangle . This is just a particular case of the AAS theorem . An important condition is : * Side-Side-Angle ( or Angle-Side-Side ) condition : If two sides and a corresponding non-included angle of a triangle have the same length and measure , respectively , as those in another triangle , then this is not sufficient to prove congruence ; but if the angle given is opposite to the longer side of the two sides , then the triangles are congruent . The Hypotenuse-Leg Theorem is a particular case of this criterion . The Side-Side-Angle condition does not by itself guarantee that the triangles are congruent because one triangle could be obtuse-angled and the other acute-angled . Using right triangles and the concept of similarity , the trigonometric functions sine and cosine can be defined . These are functions of an angle which are investigated in trigonometry . Right triangles A central theorem is the Pythagorean theorem , which states in any right triangle , the square of the length of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two other sides . If the hypotenuse has length c , and the legs have lengths a and b , then the theorem states that a^2 + b^2 = c^2.\ , The converse is true : if the lengths of the sides of a triangle satisfy the above equation , then the triangle has a right angle opposite side c . Some other facts about right triangles : * The acute angles of a right triangle are complementary . a + b + 90^ { \circ } 180^ { \circ } \Rightarrow a + b 90^ { \circ } \Rightarrow a = 90^ { \circ } - b * If the legs of a right triangle have the same length , then the angles opposite those legs have the same measure . Since these angles are complementary , it follows that each measures 45 degrees . By the Pythagorean theorem , the length of the hypotenuse is the length of a leg times √2 . * In a right triangle with acute angles measuring 30 and 60 degrees , the hypotenuse is twice the length of the shorter side , and the longer side is equal to the length of the shorter side times √3 : : c = 2a\ , : b = a\times\sqrt { 3 } . For all triangles , angles and sides are related by the law of cosines and law of sines ( also called the cosine rule and sine rule ) . Existence of a triangle Condition on the sides The triangle inequality states that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than or equal to the length of the third side . That sum can equal the length of the third side only in the case of a degenerate triangle , one with collinear vertices . It is not possible for that sum to be less than the length of the third side . A triangle with three given positive side lengths exists if and only if those side lengths satisfy the triangle inequality . Conditions on the angles Three given angles form a non-degenerate triangle ( and indeed an infinitude of them ) if and only if both of these conditions hold : ( a ) each of the angles is positive , and ( b ) the angles sum to 180° . If degenerate triangles are permitted , angles of 0° are permitted . Trigonometric conditions Three positive angles α , β , and γ , each of them less than 180° , are the angles of a triangle if and only if any one of the following conditions holds : \tan { \frac { \alpha } { 2 } } \tan { \frac { \beta } { 2 } } +\tan { \frac { \beta } { 2 } } \tan { \frac { \gamma } { 2 } } +\tan { \frac { \gamma } { 2 } } \tan { \frac { \alpha } { 2 } } 1 , Vardan Verdiyan & Daniel Campos Salas , `` Simple trigonometric substitutions with broad results '' , Mathematical Reflections no 6 , 2007 . \sin^2 { \frac { \alpha } { 2 } } +\sin^2 { \frac { \beta } { 2 } } +\sin^2 { \frac { \gamma } { 2 } } +2\sin { \frac { \alpha } { 2 } } \sin { \frac { \beta } { 2 } } \sin { \frac { \gamma } { 2 } } 1 , \sin ( 2\alpha ) + \sin ( 2\beta ) + \sin ( 2\gamma ) = 4\sin ( \alpha ) \sin ( \beta ) \sin ( \gamma ) , \cos^2\alpha+\cos^2\beta+\cos^2\gamma+2\cos ( \alpha ) \cos ( \beta ) \cos ( \gamma ) 1 , \tan ( \alpha ) + \tan ( \beta ) + \tan ( \gamma ) = \tan ( \alpha ) \tan ( \beta ) \tan ( \gamma ) , the latter equality applying only if none of the angles is 90° ( so the tangent function 's value is always finite ) . Points , lines , and circles associated with a triangle There are thousands of different constructions that find a special point associated with ( and often inside ) a triangle , satisfying some unique property : see the article Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers for a catalogue of them . Often they are constructed by finding three lines associated in a symmetrical way with the three sides ( or vertices ) and then proving that the three lines meet in a single point : an important tool for proving the existence of these is Ceva 's theorem , which gives a criterion for determining when three such lines are concurrent . Similarly , lines associated with a triangle are often constructed by proving that three symmetrically constructed points are collinear : here Menelaus ' theorem gives a useful general criterion . In this section just a few of the most commonly encountered constructions are explained . A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a straight line passing through the midpoint of the side and being perpendicular to it , i.e . forming a right angle with it . The three perpendicular bisectors meet in a single point , the triangle 's circumcenter , usually denoted by O ; this point is the center of the circumcircle , the circle passing through all three vertices . The diameter of this circle , called the circumdiameter , can be found from the law of sines stated above . The circumcircle 's radius is called the circumradius . Thales ' theorem implies that if the circumcenter is located on one side of the triangle , then the opposite angle is a right one . If the circumcenter is located inside the triangle , then the triangle is acute ; if the circumcenter is located outside the triangle , then the triangle is obtuse . An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular to ( i.e . forming a right angle with ) the opposite side . This opposite side is called the base of the altitude , and the point where the altitude intersects the base ( or its extension ) is called the foot of the altitude . The length of the altitude is the distance between the base and the vertex . The three altitudes intersect in a single point , called the orthocenter of the triangle , usually denoted by H. The orthocenter lies inside the triangle if and only if the triangle is acute . An angle bisector of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex which cuts the corresponding angle in half . The three angle bisectors intersect in a single point , the incenter , usually denoted by I , the center of the triangle 's incircle . The incircle is the circle which lies inside the triangle and touches all three sides . Its radius is called the inradius . There are three other important circles , the excircles ; they lie outside the triangle and touch one side as well as the extensions of the other two . The centers of the in- and excircles form an orthocentric system . A median of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite side , and divides the triangle into two equal areas . The three medians intersect in a single point , the triangle 's centroid or geometric barycenter , usually denoted by G. The centroid of a rigid triangular object ( cut out of a thin sheet of uniform density ) is also its center of mass : the object can be balanced on its centroid in a uniform gravitational field . The centroid cuts every median in the ratio 2:1 , i.e . the distance between a vertex and the centroid is twice the distance between the centroid and the midpoint of the opposite side . The midpoints of the three sides and the feet of the three altitudes all lie on a single circle , the triangle 's nine-point circle . The remaining three points for which it is named are the midpoints of the portion of altitude between the vertices and the orthocenter . The radius of the nine-point circle is half that of the circumcircle . It touches the incircle ( at the Feuerbach point ) and the three excircles . The centroid ( yellow ) , orthocenter ( blue ) , circumcenter ( green ) and center of the nine-point circle ( red point ) all lie on a single line , known as Euler 's line ( red line ) . The center of the nine-point circle lies at the midpoint between the orthocenter and the circumcenter , and the distance between the centroid and the circumcenter is half that between the centroid and the orthocenter . The center of the incircle is not in general located on Euler 's line . If one reflects a median in the angle bisector that passes through the same vertex , one obtains a symmedian . The three symmedians intersect in a single point , the symmedian point of the triangle . Computing the sides and angles There are various standard methods for calculating the length of a side or the measure of an angle . Certain methods are suited to calculating values in a right-angled triangle ; more complex methods may be required in other situations . Trigonometric ratios in right triangles In right triangles , the trigonometric ratios of sine , cosine and tangent can be used to find unknown angles and the lengths of unknown sides . The sides of the triangle are known as follows : * The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle , or defined as the longest side of a right-angled triangle , in this case h . * The opposite side is the side opposite to the angle we are interested in , in this case a . * The adjacent side is the side that is in contact with the angle we are interested in and the right angle , hence its name . In this case the adjacent side is b . Sine , cosine and tangent The sine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse . In our case \sin A \frac { \text { opposite side } } { \text { hypotenuse } } \frac { a } { h } \ , . Note that this ratio does not depend on the particular right triangle chosen , as long as it contains the angle A , since all those triangles are similar . The cosine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse . In our case \cos A \frac { \text { adjacent side } } { \text { hypotenuse } } \frac { b } { h } \ , . The tangent of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side . In our case \tan A \frac { \text { opposite side } } { \text { adjacent side } } \frac { a } { b } =\frac { \sin A } { \cos A } \ , . The acronym `` SOH-CAH-TOA '' is a useful mnemonic for these ratios . Inverse functions The inverse trigonometric functions can be used to calculate the internal angles for a right angled triangle with the length of any two sides . Arcsin can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the opposite side and the length of the hypotenuse . \theta = \arcsin \left ( \frac { \text { opposite side } } { \text { hypotenuse } } \right ) Arccos can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the adjacent side and the length of the hypotenuse . \theta = \arccos \left ( \frac { \text { adjacent side } } { \text { hypotenuse } } \right ) Arctan can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the opposite side and the length of the adjacent side . \theta = \arctan \left ( \frac { \text { opposite side } } { \text { adjacent side } } \right ) In introductory geometry and trigonometry courses , the notation sin−1 , cos−1 , etc. , are often used in place of arcsin , arccos , etc . However , the arcsin , arccos , etc. , notation is standard in higher mathematics where trigonometric functions are commonly raised to powers , as this avoids confusion between multiplicative inverse and compositional inverse . Sine , cosine and tangent rules The law of sines , or sine rule , states that the ratio of the length of a side to the sine of its corresponding opposite angle is constant , that is \frac { a } { \sin \alpha } \frac { b } { \sin \beta } \frac { c } { \sin \gamma } . This ratio is equal to the diameter of the circumscribed circle of the given triangle . Another interpretation of this theorem is that every triangle with angles α , β and γ is similar to a triangle with side lengths equal to sin α , sin β and sin γ . This triangle can be constructed by first constructing a circle of diameter 1 , and inscribing in it two of the angles of the triangle . The length of the sides of that triangle will be sin α , sin β and sin γ . The side whose length is sin α is opposite to the angle whose measure is α , etc . The law of cosines , or cosine rule , connects the length of an unknown side of a triangle to the length of the other sides and the angle opposite to the unknown side . As per the law : For a triangle with length of sides a , b , c and angles of α , β , γ respectively , given two known lengths of a triangle a and b , and the angle between the two known sides γ ( or the angle opposite to the unknown side c ) , to calculate the third side c , the following formula can be used : c^2\ = a^2 + b^2 - 2ab\cos ( \gamma ) b^2\ = a^2 + c^2 - 2ac\cos ( \beta ) a^2\ = b^2 + c^2 - 2bc\cos ( \alpha ) If the lengths of all three sides of any triangle are known the three angles can be calculated : \alpha=\arccos\left ( \frac { b^2+c^2-a^2 } { 2bc } \right ) \beta=\arccos\left ( \frac { a^2+c^2-b^2 } { 2ac } \right ) \gamma=\arccos\left ( \frac { a^2+b^2-c^2 } { 2ab } \right ) The law of tangents or tangent rule , can be used to find a side or an angle when you know two sides and an angle or two angles and a side . It states that : \frac { a-b } { a+b } = \frac { \tan [ \frac { 1 } { 2 } ( \alpha-\beta ) ] } { \tan [ \frac { 1 } { 2 } ( \alpha+\beta ) ] } . Solution of triangles `` Solution of triangles '' is the main trigonometric problem : to find missing characteristics of a triangle ( three angles , the lengths of the three sides etc . ) when at least three of these characteristics are given . The triangle can be located on a plane or on a sphere . This problem often occurs in various trigonometric applications , such as geodesy , astronomy , construction , navigation etc . Computing the area of a triangle Calculating the area T of a triangle is an elementary problem encountered often in many different situations . The best known and simplest formula is : T=\frac { 1 } { 2 } bh where b is the length of the base of the triangle , and h is the height or altitude of the triangle . The term `` base '' denotes any side , and `` height '' denotes the length of a perpendicular from the vertex opposite the side onto the line containing the side itself . In 499 CE Aryabhata , a great mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy , used this method in the Aryabhatiya ( section 2.6 ) . Although simple , this formula is only useful if the height can be readily found , which is not always the case . For example , the surveyor of a triangular field might find it relatively easy to measure the length of each side , but relatively difficult to construct a 'height ' . Various methods may be used in practice , depending on what is known about the triangle . The following is a selection of frequently used formulae for the area of a triangle . Using trigonometry The height of a triangle can be found through the application of trigonometry . Knowing SAS : Using the labels in the image on the right , the altitude is . Substituting this in the formula T=\frac { 1 } { 2 } bh derived above , the area of the triangle can be expressed as : T \frac { 1 } { 2 } ab\sin \gamma \frac { 1 } { 2 } bc\sin \alpha = \frac { 1 } { 2 } ca\sin \beta ( where α is the interior angle at A , β is the interior angle at B , \gamma is the interior angle at C and c is the

qb_2701--Triangle.txt

What is the name of a triangle which has sides unequal in length?

The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river flowing through France , Luxembourg , and Germany . It is a left tributary of the Rhine , which it joins at Koblenz . A small part of Belgium is also drained by the Moselle through the Sauer and the Our . The Moselle `` twists and turns its way between Trier and Koblenz along one of Germany 's most beautiful river valleys . `` [ http : //www.romantic-germany.info/Moselle.4106.0.html Moselle : Holidays in one of Germany 's most beautiful river valleys ] at www.romantic-germany.info . Retrieved 23 Jan 2016 . It flows through a region that has been influenced by mankind since it was first cultivated by the Romans . Today , its hillsides are covered by terraced vineyards where `` some of the best Rieslings grow '' , and numerous ruined castles dominate the hilltops above wine villages and towns that line the riverbanks . Traben-Trarbach with its art nouveau architecture and Bernkastel-Kues with its traditional market square are two of the many popular tourist attractions on the Moselle river . Name The name Moselle is derived from the Celtic name form , Moseal , via the Latin Mosella , a diminutive form of Mosa , the Latin description of the Meuse , which used to flow parallel to the Moselle . So the Mosella was the `` Little Meuse '' . The Moselle is first recorded by Tacitus in Book 13 of his Annals and in Book 4 of his Histories . The Roman poet , Decimius Magnus Ausonius , made it a literary theme as early as the 4th century . In his poem dated A.D. 371 , called Mosella , which was published in 483 hexameters , this poet of the Late Antiquity and teacher at the Trier Imperial Court ( Kaiserhof ) described a journey from Bingen over the Hunsrück hills to the Moselle and then following its course to Trier on the road named after him , the Via Ausonius . Ausonius describes flourishing and rich landscapes along the river and in the valley of the Moselle , thanks to the policies of their Roman rulers . The river subsequently gave its name to two French republican départements : Moselle and Meurthe-et-Moselle . Geography The source of the Moselle is at 715 metres above sea level on the Col de Bussang on the western slopes of the Ballon d'Alsace in the Vosges . After 544 kilometres it discharges into the Rhine at the Deutsches Eck in Koblenz at a height of 59 metres above NHN . The length of the river in France is 314 kilometres , for 39 kilometres it forms the border between Germany and Luxembourg , and 208 kilometres are solely within Germany . The Moselle flows through the Lorraine region , west of the Vosges . Further downstream , in Germany , the Moselle valley forms the division between the Eifel and Hunsrück mountain regions . The average flow rate of the Moselle at its mouth is 328 m³/s , Hydrologischer Atlas der Schweiz 2002 , Tab . 5.4 Natürliche Abflüsse 1961-1980 ( natural discharges ) ( [ http : //www.hydrologie.unibe.ch/hades/hades/tafel_54.html see map ] ) making it the second largest tributary of the Rhine by volume after the Aare ( 560 m³/s ) and bigger than the Main and Neckar . River sections The section of the Moselle from the Franco-German-Luxembourg tripoint to its confluence with the Saar near Konz shortly before Trier is in Germany known ( geographically incorrectly ) as the Upper Moselle . The section from Trier to Pünderich is the Middle Moselle , the section between Pünderich and its mouth in Koblenz as the Lower Moselle or Terraced Moselle ( Terrassenmosel ) . Characteristic of the Middle and Lower Moselle are its wide meanders cut deeply into the highlands of the Rhenish Massif , the most striking of which is the Cochemer Krampen between Bremm and Cochem . Also typical are its vineyard terraces . From the tripoint the Moselle marks the entire Saarland-Luxembourg . Catchment The catchment area of the Moselle is 28,286 km² in area . The French part covers 15,360 km² , about 54 percent of the entire catchment . The German state of Rhineland-Palatinate has 6,980 km² , the Saarland 2,569 km² , Luxembourg 2,521 km² , Wallonia ( Belgium ) 767 km² and North Rhine-Westphalia , 88 km² . Tributaries The three largest tributaries of the Moselle are , in order , the Meurthe , the Saar and the Sauer . The Meurthe was the old upper course of the Moselle , until the latter captured the former upper reaches of the Meuse and took it over . However , the Meuse only delivered a little more water than the Meurthe at its confluence . The Saar is the biggest of all the tributaries ( 78.2 m³/s ) as well as the longest ( 246 km ) . The Sauer is the largest left-hand tributary and drains the region on either side of the German-Luxembourg border . The largest tributary relative to the Moselle at its confluence is the Moselotte , which is about 40 % greater by volumetric flow and thus represents the main branch of the Moselle system . At its mouth , the Mosell delivers 328 m³/s of water into the Rhine after flowing for 544 km . TimeAxis = orientation : horizontal format : xxxx ImageSize = width:500 height : auto barincrement:25 PlotArea = left:10 right:10 top:10 bottom:40 AlignBars = justify Colors = id : canvas value : rgb ( 0.97,0.97,0.97 ) BackgroundColors = canvas : canvas Period = from:0 till:250 ScaleMajor = unit : year increment:30 start:0 gridcolor : blue BarData= barset : Riverlength PlotData= width:18 fontsize : M textcolor : black color : skyblue shift : ( 20 , -6 ) anchor : from barset : Riverlength from : start till : end width:20 color : drabgreen Text : The_10_longest_tributaries fontsize:10 from : start till : end width:20 color : canvas from : start till:227 text : Saar ( 227 km ) from : start till:173 text : Sauer ( 173 km ) from : start till:161 text : Meurthe ( 161 km ) from : start till:142 text : Kyll ( 142 km ) from : start till:138 text : Seille ( 138 km ) from : start till:97 text : Madon ( 97 km ) from : start till:86 text : Orne ( 86 km ) from : start till:74 text : Lieser ( 74 km ) from : start till:63 text : Salm ( 63 km ) from : start till:59 text : Elzbach ( 59 km ) TextData= fontsize : M pos : ( 10,20 ) text : km TimeAxis = orientation : horizontal format : xxxx ImageSize = width:500 height : auto barincrement:25 PlotArea = left:10 right:10 top:10 bottom:40 AlignBars = justify Colors = id : canvas value : rgb ( 0.97,0.97,0.97 ) BackgroundColors = canvas : canvas Period = from:0 till:80 ScaleMajor = unit : year increment:10 start:0 gridcolor : blue BarData= barset : Riverlength PlotData= width:18 fontsize : M textcolor : black color : skyblue shift : ( 20 , -6 ) anchor : from barset : Riverlength from : start till : end width:20 color : drabgreen Text : The_10_largest_tributaries_by_volume fontsize:10 from : start till : end width:20 color : canvas from : start till:78.2 text : Saar ( 78.2 m³/s ) from : start till:53.8 text : Sauer ( 53.8 m³/s ) from : start till:41.1 text : Meurthe ( 41.1 m³/s ) from : start till:13.7 text : Moselotte ( 13.7 m³/s ) from : start till:12.4 text : Orne ( 12.4 m³/s ) from : start till:11.1 text : Madon ( 11.1 m³/s ) from : start till:10.5 text : Seille ( 10.5 m³/s ) from : start till:10.2 text : Kyll ( 10.2 m³/s ) from : start till:9.7 text : Vologne ( 9.7 m³/s ) from : start till:4.5 text : Alf ( 4.5 m³/s ) TextData= fontsize : M pos : ( 10,20 ) text : m³/s TimeAxis = orientation : horizontal format : xxxx ImageSize = width:500 height : auto barincrement:25 PlotArea = left:10 right:10 top:10 bottom:40 AlignBars = justify Colors = id : canvas value : rgb ( 0.97,0.97,0.97 ) BackgroundColors = canvas : canvas Period = from:0 till:7500 ScaleMajor = unit : year increment:1000 start:0 gridcolor : blue BarData= barset : Riverlength PlotData= width:18 fontsize : M textcolor : black color : skyblue shift : ( 20 , -6 ) anchor : from barset : Riverlength from : start till : end width:20 color : drabgreen Text : The_10_largest_catchments_of_the_tributaries fontsize:10 from : start till : end width:20 color : canvas from : start till:7431 text : Saar ( 7,431 km² ) from : start till:4259 text : Sauer ( 4,259 km² ) from : start till:3085 text : Meurthe ( 3,085 km² ) from : start till:1348 text : Seille ( 1,348 km² ) from : start till:1268 text : Orne ( 1,268 km² ) from : start till:1032 text : Madon ( 1,032 km² ) from : start till:843 text : Kyll ( 843 km² ) from : start till:402 text : Lieser ( 402 km² ) from : start till:385 text : Rupt de Mad ( 385 km² ) from : start till:369 text : Vologne ( 369 km² ) TextData= fontsize : M pos : ( 10,20 ) text : km² List of tributaries From the left : Madon , Terrouin , Esch , Rupt de Mad , Orne , Fensch , Gander , Syre , Sauer , Kyll , Salm , Lieser , Alf , Endert , Brohlbach , Elz . From the right : Moselotte , Vologne , Meurthe , Seille , Saar , Olewiger Bach , Avelsbach , Ruwer , Feller Bach , Dhron , Ahringsbach , Kautenbach , Lützbach , Flaumbach , Altlayer Bach , Baybach , Ehrbach . Towns Towns along the Moselle are : * in France : Épinal , Toul , Pont-à-Mousson , Metz and Thionville * in Luxembourg : Schengen , Remich , Grevenmacher and Wasserbillig * in Germany : Konz , Trier , Schweich , Bernkastel-Kues , Traben-Trarbach , Zell , Cochem and Koblenz Adjacent mountain ranges From Trier downstream the Moselle separates the two Central Upland ranges of the Eifel ( to the northwest ) and the Hunsrück ( to the southeast ) . Geology The Vosges , the present source region of the Moselle , were formed about 50 million years ago . In the Miocene and Pliocene epochs the ancient Moselle ( Urmosel ) was already a tributary of the ancient Rhine ( Ur-Rhein ) . When , in the Quaternary period , the Rhenish Massif slowly rose , the meanders of the Moselle were formed between the Trier Valley and the Neuwied Basin . Water levels The highest navigable water level ( HSW ) is 695 cm and normal level ( NSt ) is 200 cm at the Trier Gauge ( Pegel Trier ) . High water : * 11.28 m , Trier Gauge on 21 December 1993 * 10.56 m , Trier Gauge on 28 May 1983 * 10.33 m , Trier Gauge on 23 January 1995 * 10.26 m , Trier Gauge on 12 April 1983 * 9.92 m , Trier Gauge on 27 February 1997 Low water : * 0.47 m in Bernkastel on 28 July 1921 History The Moselle was known to the Romans by the name of Flumen Musalla ( in the Tabula Peutingeriana ) , and the river was romanticised by the poet Ausonius around 371 A.D. From 1815 , the Moselle formed the border between the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and Prussia ( German Empire in 1871 ) . In the act of 10 April 1952 ratifying the treaty instituted by the E.C.S.C. , Article 2 charged the French Government `` to initiate , before the establishment of the Common Market , negotiations with the governments concerned in order to achieve a rapid implementation of the canalisation of the Moselle between Thionville and Koblenz . The River was canalised between Metz and Thionville , via a canal opened in 1964 by the Grand Duchess , Charlotte of Luxembourg , the Federal Chancellor of Germany , Konrad Adenauer and their host , General de Gaulle , President of France . It is on the Moselle , at the site of the Franco-German-Luxembourg tripoint , that the Schengen Agreement was signed in 1992 , establishing the free movement of goods and people in the European Community . Economy The Moselle valley between Metz and Thionville is an industrial area , with coal mining and steel manufactures . The Moselle valley is famous for its beautiful scenery and the excellent wine produced . Most well-known is the German Mosel wine region , while the Luxembourg winegrowing region is called Moselle Luxembourgeoise and the French region is called AOC Moselle . Most notable among the wines produced here are Riesling , Elbling , Müller-Thurgau , Kerner , and Auxerrois . The German part of the Moselle is a particularly popular tourist destination . Navigation After the Second World War , France pressed to be able to ply the Moselle with larger ships in order to be able to link the industrial regions of Lorraine . When , in 1955 , the population on the Saar voted to belong to West Germany , France demanded as `` compensation '' an upgrade of the Moselle . On 27 October 1956 they concluded the Moselle Treaty with Germany and Luxembourg for a canalisation of the Moselle and conceded to Germany in return the extension of the Grand Canal d'Alsace on the Upper Rhine instead of an extension of the canal via Breisach . In 1958 work began and by 26 May 1964 the Moselle could be officially opened from Metz to Koblenz as a major waterway for shipping with 14 locks . France extended it by 1979 as far as Neuves-Maisons . With that , 394 km of the Moselle have been upgraded with a total of 28 locks . In the years 1992 to 1999 the navigable channel was deepened from 2.7 to 3.00 metres , which enables 1500-tonne freighters to use the river , a 20 % increase in capacity . The channel has a width of von 40 metres , more on the bends . The International Moselle Commission ( IMK ) , founded in 1962 with its head office in Trier , is responsible for navigation . The Moselle Shipping Police Act which it has produced is valid in all three participant states i.e . from Metz to Koblenz . In 1921 the Moselle ( Mo ) became a Reich waterway , today it is a federal waterway ( Bundeswasserstraße ) from Apach at the tripoint to its mouth on the Rhine at kilometre 592.29 in Koblenz . The waterway is 242 kilometres long and managed by the Trier and Koblenz Water and Shipping Offices ( Wasser- und Schifffahrtsämtern Trier und Koblenz ) . It is categorized as a European waterway of Class Vb . Its kilometrage begins at its mouth with km 0 and runs upstream . Since 1816 it has formed a 36-km-long condominium from Apach , a common German-Luxembourg sovereign area with a division of responsibilities set out in a 1976 agreement . The International Moselle Company , initially set up in 1957 to finance the construction of the river 's upgrade , manages the shipping charges and the operation and maintenance of the waterway which they are used to fund . Today the Moselle is navigable for large cargo ships up to 110 m long from the Rhine in Koblenz up to Neuves-Maisons , south of Nancy . For smaller ships it is connected to other parts of France through the Canal de l'Est and the Canal de la Marne au Rhin . There are locks in Koblenz , Lehmen , Müden , Fankel , Sankt Aldegund , Enkirch , Zeltingen , Wintrich , Detzem , Trier , Grevenmacher , Palzem , Apach , Kœnigsmacker , Thionville , Richemont , Talange , Metz , Ars-sur-Moselle , Pagny-sur-Moselle , Blénod-lès-Pont-à-Mousson , Custines , Pompey , Aingeray , Fontenoy-sur-Moselle , Toul , Villey-le-Sec , and Neuves-Maisons . By 1970 more than 10 million tonnes of goods were being transported on the Moselle , the majority on towed barges . Upstream freight mainly comprised fuel and ores ; downstream the main goods were steel products , gravel and rocks . There is an inland port at Trier , a transshipment site in Zell ( Mosel ) ; and there are other ports in Mertert , Thionville , Metz and Frouard . In addition to freighters there are also pleasure boats for tourists between the very busy wine villages and small towns of the Middle and Lower Moselle . There are also yachting or sports marinas in the following places : Koblenz , Winningen , Brodenbach , Burgen , Löf , Hatzenport , Senheim , Treis , Traben-Trarbach , Kues , Neumagen , Pölich , Schweich , Trier and Konz . The Moselle is linked near Toul via the Canal de la Marne au Rhin with inter alia the Meuse , the Saône and the Rhône . Other canals link the river to the North Sea and even the Mediterranean . Changes of level There is a total of 28 changes of level on the Moselle : * 16 in France near Neuves-Maisons , Villey-le-Sec , Toul , Fontenoy-sur-Moselle , Aingeray , Frouard-Pompey , Custines , Blénod-lès-Pont-à-Mousson , Pagny-sur-Moselle , Ars-sur-Moselle , Metz , Talange , Richemont , Thionville , Kœnigsmacker and Apach * 2 between Luxembourg and Germany near Stadtbredimus-Palzem and Grevenmacher-Wellen * 10 in Germany near Trier , Detzem , Wintrich , Zeltingen , Enkirch , St. Aldegund , Fankel , Müden , Lehmen and Koblenz . The change in level near Detzem has the greatest height difference - 9 metres - and at 29 kilometres the longest canal pound ; it is the only one with a sluiceway . In addition in Detzem are all the structures of a change in level are arranged side by side ; the lock is by one riverbank , the weir in the middle of the stream and the hydropower station on the other bank . Between the lock and the weir are a boat slipway/boat channel and boat lock , between the weir and the power station is the fish ladder . The structures have been blended into the landscape through their low level design ; this was achieved by the choice of sector weir gates as well as lifting gates in the upper pound and mitred lock gates in the lower pound of the locks . The water levels and hydropower works are controlled by the Fankel Central Control Station ( Zentralwarte Fankel ) of the RWE Power Company at Fankel . Tourism Through the Moselle valley run the Moselle Wine Road and the Moselle Cycleway , which may be cycled from Metz in France via Trier to Koblenz on the River Rhine , a distance of 311 kilometres . Between Koblenz and Trier , large sections run on the trackbed of the old Moselle Valley Railway , far from the noise and fumes of motor vehicles . Every year on the Sunday after Pentecost , the 140 kilometres of road between Schweich and Cochem is also car-free as part of the Happy Moselle Day . A number of notable castles and ruins adorn the heights above the Moselle valley and many are visible on a boat trip on the Moselle . In 1910 , a hiking trail , the Moselle Ridgeway , was established which runs for 185 kilometres on the Eifel side and 262 kilometres on the Hunsrück side . Another unusual trail runs from Ediger-Eller via the Calmont Trail to Bremm through the steepest vineyard in Europe . Before the construction of barrages the Moselle was a popular route for ustufen beliebter Wanderfluss für folding kayaks which is why many of the weirs have boat channels . The river is still used today by canoeists , especially during the annual week-long lock closures when no commercial shipping is permitted . In April 2014 the Moselle Trail was opened , a path running for 365 kilometres from Perl on the Upper Moselle to Koblenz . Numerous Moselle Trail `` partner trails '' , the so-called side branches ( Seitensprünge ) and `` dream paths '' ( Traumpfade ) enhance the hiking network in the Moselle Valley . The ADAC 's Rallye Deutschland has taken place since 2000 in the vineyards along the Moselle at Veldenz , Dhron , Piesport , Minheim , Kesten , Trittenheim , Fell , Ruwertal and Trier . At Koblenz Locks the Mosellum offers exhibitions about the migration of fish in the Moselle as well as water ecology , navigation and power generation . With the construction of the visitor and information centre the most modern fish ladder along the Moselle was opened . Wine A wine-growing region lies along the Moselle with a cultivated area of about 10,540 hectares . The largest part , currently just under 9,000 ha , is on German soil in the states of Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland ; the Luxembourg part has an area of about 1,300 hectares ( see Wine in Luxembourg ) . Upstream on the Moselle the vineyards extend into France as far as Seille in the region of Côtes de Moselle with an area of 130 hectares and to the region around Toul ( Côtes de Toul ) covering 110 hectares . The German Moselle wine region , including its tributaries , bears the growing and manufacturing name of `` Mosel '' . For marketing reasons the agricultural authorities of the region have divided it into six wine-growing areas . The wine literature and specialist press , by contrast , divide the region into four areas based on geomorphological , micro-climatic and also historical reasons : 1 . Upper Moselle . The valley sides of the Upper Moselle ( also called the Burgundy Moselle , Burgundermosel ) with their overwhelmingly muschelkalk soils belong geologically to the so-called Paris Basin , which explains its low proportion of Riesling - only around 10 % in 2010 - and the increasing cultivation of Pinot Blanc and Pinot Noir grapes . 2 . Trier Region . Around the city of Trier and in the valleys of the Saar and Ruwer with their side valleys , the Riesling is the predominant grape on the shale soils , with over 80 % of the crop . One climatic feature of this area is the frequent orientation of often small southwest-southeast facing locations in which the vegetation is exposed to stronger , cooler winds and , especially in the light of recent global warming , often achieve lower degrees of maturity than in the narrow , often deeply incised valley of the Middle and Lower Moselle . 3 . Middle Moselle . With around 6000 hectares of vineyard the Middle Moselle is the largest wine growing area of the Moselle . According to the wine experts and trade , the `` greatest '' wines of the Moselle , both in quantity and quality , are grown here on land that has been consolidated into large concerns with much vaunted steeply sloped vineyards . 4 . Lower Moselle . In the Lower Moselle Valley , the viticulture is more picturesque : with large numbers of medieval castles , high above little villages , decorated with timber-framed houses , surrounded by steep slopes with small terraces in the narrow , winding valley . Here , cultivating vines is very labour-intensive and costly and it is difficult to make it economical . As a result , it is common for vineyards to fall into ruin here . The wine industry on the German Moselle has been declining for decades . In 2005 , statistics showed there were 10,375 hectares of vineyard ; by 2012 this had fallen to just 8,491 . The vineyards that have fallen fallow are mostly those on extremely steep hillsides . There has been a major decline in the number of so-called Nebenerwerbswinzer ( vintners for whom it is a secondary occupation ) , and the small , family farming operations that , until the end of the 1960s formed the majority of wine businesses . Comparative figures by the Chamber of Agriculture for Rhineland-Palatinate for several wine villages on the Lower Moselle e. g. show that there were still 797 wine businesses in the early 1960s , but by the early 2000s there were only just under 100 . There has been the opposite trend amongst the established traditional wine estates and more recent vintners with a sound education in oenology and business management , who have increased their business through the reclamation of once renowned , but long forgotten sites . The end of the 20th century saw the rediscovery of the use of special terroirReinhard Löwenstein , Vom Öchsle zum Terroir , Frankfurter Allgemeine newspaper No . 232 , 7 October 2003 and Die Zukunft liegt im Terroir , in the same paper dated 17 December 2005 in order to improve quality and value , which has led to a more nuanced view of Moselle wine that , a few years before , had been characterised by overproduction , label scandals and cheap offers . Moselle umbrella brand On 10 November 2006 in Burg the Moselle Regional Initiative was founded . The introduction of the Moselle as an umbrella brand was based on that of the Eifel region and covers products and services from the areas of agriculture , forestry , tourism , handicrafts and nature . Moselle Slate Moselle Slate ( Moselschiefer ) is a manufacturing and trade description for slate from the municipalities of Mayen , Polch , Müllenbach , Trier and its surrounding area . Today only products from the roofing slate mines of Katzenberg and Margareta in Mayen bear the name Moselle Slate . The name is derived from the historical transport route for this slate along the Moselle to the Lower Rhine . See also : Moselle Slate Road Literature The Moselle was celebrated in Mosella , a Latin poem by Ausonius ( 4th century ) . In the 20th century , the river and the folklore and local history of the towns along its banks were described by British travel writer Roger Pilkington . In the tale , `` The Seven Swabians '' of the Brothers Grimm , the eponymous Swabians drown trying to cross the Moselle . Castles * Château de Meinsberg ( dit de Malbrouck ) : near Manderen , this castle was built in the 15th century but rebuilt in the 1990s . Today it is used for numerous cultural events . * Château Fort de Sierck-les-Bains : situated just on the French-German border at Sierck-les-Bains , this fortress of the Duke of Lorraine dates back to the 11th century . Most of today 's castle was constructed in the 18th century , following plans from Vauban . * Schloss Berg : a Renaissance castle at Nennig , today a hotel and a casino . * Alte Burg : a manor house built in 1360 at Longuich . One of the few surviving manor houses in rural Rhineland-Palatinate . * Schloss Lieser : a palace at Lieser built from 1884 to 1887 in historistic style . * Landshut Castle : a castle built by the Electorate of Trier in the 13th century at Bernkastel-Kues . * Grevenburg : ruins of a castle at Traben-Trarbach built by Johann III of Sponheim-Starkenburg about 1350 , destroyed , after many sieges , in 1734 . * Marienburg : a 12th-century castle and later monastery near Pünderich and Alf . * Arras Castle : a 12th-century castle in Alf . * Metternich Castle : a castle built around 1120 at Beilstein , today partly in ruins . * Cochem Castle : The castle in Cochem was originally

odql_14222--Moselle.txt

Which city lies at the confluence of the rivers Rhine and Moselle

Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. ( often referred to as Warner Bros. Pictures , Warner Bros. or just simply WB ) is an American entertainment company . As one of the major film studios , it is a division of Time Warner , with its headquarters in Burbank , California . Warner Bros. has several subsidiary companies , including Warner Bros. Pictures , Turner Entertainment Co. , Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment , Warner Bros. Television , Warner Bros . Animation , Warner Home Video , New Line Cinema , Castle Rock Entertainment , and DC Entertainment . Warner Bros. owns half of The CW Television Network . History Founding The company 's name originates from the four founding Warner brothers ( born Wonskolaser or Wonsal before Anglicization ) : Harry , Albert , Sam , and Jack Warner . They emigrated as small children with their parents to Canada from Krasnosielc which was located in the part of Congress Poland that had been subjugated to the Russian Empire following the eighteenth-century Partitions of Poland near present-day Ostrołęka . Jack , the youngest , was born in London , Ontario . The three elder brothers began in the movie theater business , having acquired a movie projector with which they showed films in the mining towns of Pennsylvania and Ohio . In the beginning , Sam and Albert Warner invested $ 150 to present Life of an American Fireman and The Great Train Robbery . They opened their first theater , the Cascade , in New Castle , Pennsylvania , in 1903 . When the original building was in danger of being demolished , the modern Warner Bros. called the current building owners , and arranged to save it . The owners noted people across the country had asked them to protect it for its historical significance . In 1904 , the Warners founded the Pittsburgh-based Duquesne Amusement & Supply Company , to distribute films . In 1912 , Harry Warner hired an auditor named Paul Ashley Chase . By the time of World War I they had begun producing films . In 1918 they opened the first Warner Bros. studio on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood . Sam and Jack produced the pictures , while Harry and Albert , along with their auditor and now controller Chase , handled finance and distribution in New York City . During World War I their first nationally syndicated film , My Four Years in Germany , based on a popular book by former ambassador James W. Gerard , was released . On April 4 , 1923 , with help from money loaned to Harry by his banker Motley Flint , they formally incorporated as Warner Brothers Pictures , Incorporated . ( As late as the 1960s , Warner Bros. claimed 1905 as its founding date . ) The first important deal was the acquisition of the rights to Avery Hopwood 's 1919 Broadway play , The Gold Diggers , from theatrical impresario David Belasco . However , Rin Tin Tin , a dog brought from France after World War I by an American soldier , established their reputation . Rin Tin Tin debuted in the feature Where the North Begins . The movie was so successful that Jack signed the dog to star in more films for $ 1,000 per week . Rin Tin Tin became the studio 's top star . Jack nicknamed him `` The Mortgage Lifter '' and the success boosted Darryl F. Zanuck 's career . Zanuck eventually became a top producer and between 1928 and 1933 served as Jack 's right-hand man and executive producer , with responsibilities including day-to-day film production . More success came after Ernst Lubitsch was hired as head director ; Harry Rapf left the studio to join Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.Thomas46 , 47 Lubitsch 's film The Marriage Circle was the studio 's most successful film of 1924 , and was on The New York Times best list for that year . Despite the success of Rin Tin Tin and Lubitsch , Warner 's remained a lesser studio . Sam and Jack decided to offer Broadway actor John Barrymore the lead role in Beau Brummel . The film was so successful that Harry signed Barrymore to a long-term contract ; like The Marriage Circle , Beau Brummell was named one of the ten best films of the year by the Times . By the end of 1924 , Warner Bros. was arguably Hollywood 's most successful independent studio , where it competed with `` The Big Three '' Studios ( First National , Paramount Pictures , and MGM ) . As a result , Harry Warner—while speaking at a convention of 1,500 independent exhibitors in Milwaukee , Wisconsin—was able to convince the filmmakers to spend $ 500,000 in newspaper advertising , and Harry saw this as an opportunity to establish theaters in cities such as New York and Los Angeles . As the studio prospered , it gained backing from Wall Street , and in 1924 Goldman Sachs arranged a major loan . With this new money , the Warners bought the pioneer Vitagraph Company which had a nationwide distribution system . In 1925 , Warners ' also experimented in radio , establishing a successful radio station , KFWB , in Los Angeles . 1925–1935 : Sound , color , style Warner Bros. was a pioneer of films with synchronized sound ( then known as `` talking pictures '' or `` talkies '' ) . In 1925 , at Sam 's urging , Warner 's agreed to add this feature to their productions . By February 1926 , the studio reported a net loss of $ 333,413 . After a long period denying Sam 's request for sound , Harry agreed to change , as long as the studio 's use of synchronized sound was for background music purposes only . The Warners signed a contract with the sound engineer company Western Electric and established Vitaphone . In 1926 , Vitaphone began making films with music and effects tracks , most notably , in the feature Don Juan starring John Barrymore . The film was silent , but it featured a large number of Vitaphone shorts at the beginning . To hype Don Juans release , Harry acquired the large Piccadilly Theater in Manhattan , New York City , and renamed it Warners ' Theatre . Don Juan premiered at the Warners ' Theatre in New York on August 6 , 1926 . Throughout the early history of film distribution , theater owners hired orchestras to attend film showings , where they provided soundtracks . Through Vitaphone , Warner Bros. produced eight shorts ( which aired at the beginning of every showing of Don Juan across the country ) in 1926 . Many film production companies questioned the necessity . Don Juan did not recoup its production cost and Lubitsch left for MGM . By April 1927 , the Big Five studios ( First National , Paramount , MGM , Universal , and Producers Distributing ) had ruined Warner 's , and Western Electric renewed Warner 's Vitaphone contract with terms that allowed other film companies to test sound . As a result of their financial problems , Warner Bros. took the next step and released The Jazz Singer starring Al Jolson . This movie , which has very little sound dialogue but includes sound segments of Jolson singing , was a sensation . It signaled the beginning of the era of `` talking pictures '' and the twilight of the silent era . However , Sam died the night before the opening , preventing the brothers from attending the premiere . Jack became sole head of production . Sam 's death also had a great effect on Jack 's emotional state , as Sam was arguably Jack 's inspiration and favorite brother . In the years to come , Jack kept the studio under tight control . Firing employees was common . Among those whom Jack fired were Rin Tin Tin ( in 1929 ) and Douglas Fairbanks , Jr.—who had served as First National 's top star since the brothers acquired the studio in 1928—in 1933 . Thanks to the success of The Jazz Singer , the studio was cash-rich . Jolson 's next film for the company , The Singing Fool was also a success . With the success of these first talkies ( The Jazz Singer , Lights of New York , The Singing Fool and The Terror ) , Warner Bros. became a top studio and the brothers were now able to move out from the Poverty Row section of Hollywood and acquire a much larger studio lot in Burbank . They expanded by acquiring the Stanley Corporation , a major theater chain . This gave them a share in rival First National Pictures , of which Stanley owned one-third . In a bidding war with William Fox , Warner Bros. bought more First National shares on September 13 , 1928 ; Jack also appointed Zanuck as the manager of First National Pictures . In 1928 , Warner Bros. released Lights of New York , the first all-talking feature . Due to its success , the movie industry converted entirely to sound almost overnight . By the end of 1929 , all the major studios were exclusively making sound films . In 1929 , First National Pictures released their first film with Warner Bros. , Noah 's Ark . Despite its expensive budget , Noah 's Ark was profitable . In 1929 , Warner Bros. released On with the Show , the first all-color all-talking feature . This was followed by Gold Diggers of Broadway which was so popular it played in theatres until 1939 . The success of these two color pictures caused a color revolution ( just as the first all-talkie had created one for talkies ) . Warner Bros. color films from 1929 to 1931 included The Show of Shows ( 1929 ) , Sally ( 1929 ) , Bright Lights ( 1930 ) , Golden Dawn ( 1930 ) , Hold Everything ( 1930 ) , Song of the Flame ( 1930 ) , Song of the West ( 1930 ) , The Life of the Party ( 1930 ) , Sweet Kitty Bellairs ( 1930 ) , Under A Texas Moon ( 1930 ) , Bride of the Regiment ( 1930 ) , Viennese Nights ( 1931 ) , Woman Hungry ( 1931 ) , Kiss Me Again ( 1931 ) , Fifty Million Frenchmen ( 1931 ) and Manhattan Parade ( 1932 ) . In addition to these , scores of features were released with Technicolor sequences , as well as numerous Technicolor Specials short subjects . The majority of these color films were musicals . In 1929 , Warner Bros bought the St. Louis-based theater chain Skouras Brothers . Following this take-over , Spyros Skouras , the driving force of the chain , became general manager of the Warner Brothers Theater Circuit in America . He worked successfully in that post for two years and turned its losses into profits . Harry produced an adaptation of a Cole Porter musical titled Fifty Million Frenchmen . Through First National , the studio 's profit increased substantially . After the success of the studio 's 1929 First National film Noah 's Ark , Harry agreed to make Michael Curtiz a major director at the Burbank studio . Mort Blumenstock , a First National screenwriter , became a top writer at the brothers ' New York headquarters . In the third quarter , Warner Bros. gained complete control of First National , when Harry purchased the company 's remaining one-third share from Fox . The Justice Department agreed to allow the purchase if First National was maintained as a separate company . When the Great Depression hit , Warner asked for and got permission to merge the two studios . Soon afterward Warner Bros. moved to the First National lot in Burbank . Though the companies merged , the Justice Department required Warner to release a few films each year under the First National name until 1938 . For thirty years , certain Warner productions were identified ( mainly for tax purposes ) as ' A Warner Bros.–First National Picture . ' In the latter part of 1929 , Jack Warner hired George Arliss to star in Disraeli , which was a success . Arliss won an Academy Award for Best Actor and went on to star in nine more movies for the studio . In 1930 , Harry acquired more theaters in Atlantic City , despite the beginning of the Great Depression . In July 1930 , the studio 's banker , Motley Flint , was murdered by a disgruntled investor in another company . Harry acquired a string of music publishers to form Warner Bros. Music . In April 1930 , Warner Bros. acquired Brunswick Records . Harry obtained radio companies , foreign sound patents and a lithograph company . After establishing Warner Bros. Music , Harry appointed his son , Lewis , to manage the company . By 1931 , the studio began to feel the effects of the Depression as the public could no longer afford the tickets . The studio reportedly lost $ 8 million , and an additional $ 14 million the following year . In 1931 , Warner Bros. Music head Lewis Warner died from an infected wisdom tooth . Around that time , Zanuck hired screenwriter Wilson Mizner . While at the studio , Mizner had hardly any respect for authority and found it difficult to work with Jack , but became an asset . As time went by , Warner became more tolerant of Mizner and helped invest in Mizner 's Brown Derby restaurant . On April 3 , 1933 , Mizner died from a heart attack . By 1932 , audiences had grown tired of musicals , and the studio was forced to cut musical numbers from many productions and advertise them as straight comedies . The public had begun to associate musicals with color , and thus studios began to abandon its use . Warner Bros. had a contract with Technicolor to produce two more pictures in that process . As a result , the first horror films in color were produced and released by the studio : Doctor X ( 1932 ) and Mystery of the Wax Museum ( 1933 ) . In the latter part of 1931 , Harry Warner rented the Teddington Studios in London , England . The studio focused on making `` quota quickies '' for the domestic British market and Irving Asher was appointed as the studio 's head producer . In 1934 , Harry officially purchased the Teddington Studios . In February 1933 , Warner Bros. produced 42nd Street , a very successful musical under the direction of Loyd Bacon . Warner assigned Bacon to `` more expensive productions including Footlight Parade , Wonder Bar , Broadway Gondolier '' ( which he also starred in ) , and Gold Diggers that saved the company from bankruptcy . In the wake of 42nd Street 's success , the studio produced profitable musicals . These starred Ruby Keeler and Dick Powell and were mostly directed by Busby Berkeley . In 1935 , the revival suffered a major blow when Berkeley was arrested after killing three people while driving drunk . By the end of the year , people again tired of Warner Bros. musicals , and the studio—after the huge profits made by 1935 film Captain Blood—shifted its focus to Errol Flynn swashbucklers . 1930–1935 : Pre-code realistic period With the collapse of the market for musicals , Warner Bros. , under Zanuck turned to more socially realistic storylines . For its many films about gangsters ; Warner Bros. soon became known as a `` gangster studio '' . The studio 's first gangster film , Little Caesar , was a great box office success and Edward G. Robinson starred in many of the subsequent Warner gangster films . The studio 's next effort , The Public Enemy , made James Cagney arguably the studio 's new top star , and Warner Bros. made more gangster films . Another gangster film the studio produced was the critically acclaimed I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang , based on a true story and starring Paul Muni , joining Cagney and Robinson as one the studio 's top gangster stars after appearing in the successful film , which convinced audiences to question the American legal system . By January 1933 , the film 's protagonist Robert Elliot Burns—still imprisoned in New Jersey—and other chain gang prisoners nationwide appealed and were released . In January 1933 , Georgia chain gang warden J. Harold Hardy—who was also made into a character in the film—sued the studio for displaying `` vicious , untrue and false attacks '' against him in the film . After appearing in the Warner 's film The Man Who Played God , Bette Davis became a top star . In 1933 , relief for the studio came after Franklin D. Roosevelt became president and began the New Deal . This economic rebound allowed Warner Bros. to again became profitable . The same year , Zanuck quit . Harry Warner 's relationship with Zanuck had become strained after Harry strongly opposed allowing Zanuck 's film Baby Face to step outside Hays Code boundaries . The studio reduced his salary as a result of losses from the Great Depression , and Harry refused to restore it as the company recovered . Zanuck established his own company . Harry thereafter raised salaries for studio employees . In 1933 , Warner was able to link up with newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst 's Cosmopolitan Films . Hearst had previously worked with MGM , but ended the association after a dispute with head producer Irving Thalberg over the treatment of Hearst 's longstanding mistress , actress Marion Davies , who was struggling for box office success . Through his partnership with Hearst , Warner signed Davies to a studio contract . Hearst 's company and Davies ' films , however , did not increase the studio 's profits . In 1934 , the studio lost over $ 2.5 million , of which $ 500,000 was the result of a 1934 fire at the Burbank studio , destroying 20 years ' worth of early Vitagraph , Warner Bros. and First National films . The following year , Hearst 's film adaption of William Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1935 ) failed at the box office and the studio 's net loss increased . During this time , Harry and six other movie studio figures were indicted for conspiracy to violate the Sherman Antitrust Act , through an attempt to gain a monopoly over St Louis movie theaters . In 1935 , Harry was put on trial ; after a mistrial , Harry sold the company 's movie theaters and the case was never reopened . 1935 also saw the studio make a net profit of $ 674,158.00 . By 1936 , contracts of musical and silent stars were not renewed replaced by tough-talking , working-class types who better fit these pictures . Dorothy Mackaill , Dolores del Río , Bebe Daniels , Frank Fay , Winnie Lightner , Bernice Claire , Alexander Gray , Alice White , and Jack Mulhall that had characterized the urban , modern , and sophisticated attitude of the 1920s gave way to James Cagney , Joan Blondell , Edward G. Robinson , Warren William and Barbara Stanwyck , who would be more acceptable to the common man . The studio was one of the most prolific producers of Pre-Code pictures and had a lot of trouble with the censors once they started clamping down on what they considered indecency ( around 1934 ) . As a result , Warner Bros. turned to historical pictures from around 1935 to avoid confrontations with the Breen office . In 1936 , following the success of The Petrified Forest , Jack signed Humphrey Bogart to a studio contract . Warner , however , did not think Bogart was star material , and cast Bogart in infrequent roles as a villain opposite either James Cagney or Edward Robinson over the next five years . After Hal B. Wallis succeeded Zanuck in 1933 , and the Hays Code began to be enforced in 1935 , the studio was forced to abandon this realistic approach in order to produce more moralistic , idealized pictures . The studio 's historical dramas , melodramas ( or `` women 's pictures '' ) , swashbucklers , and adaptations of best-sellers , with stars like Bette Davis , Olivia de Havilland , Paul Muni , and Errol Flynn avoided the censors . In 1936 , Bette Davis , by now arguably the studio 's top star , was unhappy with her roles . She traveled to England and tried to break her contract . Davis lost the lawsuit and returned to America . Although many of the studio 's employees had problems with Jack Warner , they considered Albert and Harry fair . Code era In the 1930s many actors and actresses disappeared who had characterized the realistic pre-Code era but who were not suited to the new trend into moral and idealized pictures . Warner Bros. remained a top studio in Hollywood , but this changed after 1935 as other studios , notably MGM , quickly overshadowed the prestige and glamor that previously characterized Warner Bros . However , in the late 1930s , Bette Davis became the studio 's top draw and was even dubbed as `` The Fifth Warner Brother . '' In 1935 , Cagney sued Jack Warner for breach of contract . Cagney claimed Warner had forced him to star in more films than his contract required . Cagney eventually dropped his lawsuit after a cash settlement . Nevertheless , Cagney left the studio to establish an independent film company with his brother Bill . The Cagneys released their films though Grand National Films , however they were not able to get good financing and ran out of money after their third film . Cagney then agreed to return to Warner Bros. , after Jack agreed to a contract guaranteeing Cagney would be treated to his own terms . After the success of Yankee Doodle Dandy at the box office , Cagney again questioned if the studio would meet his salary demand and again quit to form his own film production and distribution company with Bill . Another employee with whom Warner had troubles was studio producer Bryan Foy . In 1936 , Wallis hired Foy as a producer for the studio 's low budget B-films leading to his nickname `` the keeper of the B 's '' . Foy was able to garnish arguably more profits than any other B-film producer at the time . During Foy 's time at the studio , however , Warner fired him seven different times . During 1936 , The Story of Louis Pasteur proved a box office success and star Paul Muni won the Oscar for Best Actor in March 1937 . The studio 's 1937 film The Life of Emile Zola gave the studio its first Best Picture Oscar . In 1937 , the studio hired Midwestern radio announcer Ronald Reagan . Although Reagan was initially a B-film actor , Warner Bros. was impressed by his performance in the final scene of Knute Rockne , All American , and agreed to pair him with Flynn in Santa Fe Trail ( 1940 ) . Reagan then returned to B-films . After his performance in the studio 's 1942 Kings Row , Warner decided to make Reagan a top star and signed him to a new contract , tripling his salary . In 1936 , Harry 's daughter Doris read a copy of Margaret Mitchell 's Gone with the Wind and was interested in making a film adaptation . Doris offered Mitchell $ 50,000 for screen rights . Jack vetoed the deal , realizing it would be an expensive production . George Raft also proved to be a problem for Jack . Warner had signed him in 1939 , hoping he could substitute in gangster pictures when either Robinson or Cagney were on suspension . Raft had difficulty working with Bogart and refused to co-star with him . Eventually , Warner agreed to release Raft from his contract . Following Raft 's departure , the studio gave Bogart the role of Roy Earl in the 1941 film High Sierra , which helped establish him as a top star . Following High Sierra , Bogart was given a role in John Huston 's successful 1941 remake of the studio 's 1931 failure , The Maltese Falcon . Warner 's cartoons Warner 's cartoon unit had its roots in the independent Harman and Ising studio . From 1930 to 1933 , Disney alumni Hugh Harman and Rudolf Ising produced musical cartoons for Leon Schlesinger , who sold them to Warner . Harman and Ising introduced their character Bosko in the first Looney Tunes cartoon , Sinkin ' in the Bathtub , and created a sister series , Merrie Melodies , in 1931 . Harman and Ising broke away from Schlesinger in 1933 due to a contractual dispute , taking Bosko with them to MGM . As a result , Schlesinger started his own studio , Leon Schlesinger Productions , which continued with Merrie Melodies while starting production on Looney Tunes starring Buddy , a Bosko clone . By the end of the decade , a new Schlesinger production team , including directors Friz Freleng , Tex Avery , Robert Clampett and Chuck Jones was formed . Schlesinger 's staff developed a fast-paced , irreverent style that made their cartoons globally popular . In 1936 , Avery directed cartoons starring Porky Pig , which established the character as the studio 's first animated star . In addition to Porky , Warner Bros. cartoon characters Daffy Duck ( who debuted in the 1937 short Porky 's Duck Hunt ) and Bugs Bunny ( who debuted in the 1940 short A Wild Hare ) achieved star power . By 1942 , the Schlesinger studio had surpassed Walt Disney Studios as the most successful producer of animated shorts . Warner Bros eventually bought Schlesinger 's cartoon unit in 1944 and renamed it Warner Bros. Cartoons . Unfortunately , the unit was indifferently treated by senior management , beginning with the installation of Edward Selzer as senior producer , whom the creative staff considered an interfering incompetent . Jack had little regard for the company 's short film product and reputedly was so ignorant about the animation division of the studio that he was mistakenly convinced that the unit produced cartoons of Mickey Mouse , Walt Disney Productions ' flagship character . He sold off the unit 's pre-August 1948 library for $ 3,000 each , which proved a shortsighted transaction in light of its eventual value . Warner Brothers Cartoons continued , with intermittent interruptions , until 1969 when it was dissolved as the parent company ceased film shorts entirely . Characters such as Bugs Bunny , Daffy Duck , Tweety Bird , Sylvester , and Porky Pig became central to the company 's image in subsequent decades . Bugs in particular remains a mascot to Warner Bros. , its various divisions and Six Flags ( which Time Warner once owned ) . The success of the compilation film , The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie in 1980 , featuring the archived film of these characters prompted Warner Brothers to organize Warner Bros . Animation as a new production division to restart production of original material . World War II According to Warner 's autobiography , prior to US entry in World War II , Philip Kauffman , Warner Bros. German sales head , was murdered by the Nazis in Berlin in 1936 . Harry produced the successful anti-German film The Life of Emile Zola ( 1937 ) . After that , Harry supervised the production of more anti-German films , including Confessions of a Nazi Spy ( 1939 ) , The Sea Hawk ( 1940 ) , which made King Phillip II an equivalent of Hitler , Sergeant York , and You 're In The Army Now ( 1941 ) . Harry then decided to focus on producing war films . Warners ' cut its film production in half during the war , eliminating its B Pictures unit in 1941 . Bryan Foy joined Twentieth Century Fox . During the war era , the studio made Casablanca , Now , Voyager , Yankee Doodle Dandy ( all 1942 ) , This Is the Army , and Mission to Moscow ( both 1943 ) ; the latter became controversial a few years afterwards . At the premieres of Yankee Doodle Dandy ( in Los Angeles , New York , and London ) , audiences purchased $ 15.6 million in war bonds for the governments of England and the United States . By the middle of 1943 , however , audiences had

qw_4631--Warner_Bros..txt

What film production company was named after brothers Harry (born Hirsz), Albert (born Aaron), Sam (born Szmul), and Jack (born Itzhak)?

A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government . Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government , Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside . State citizenship and residency are flexible , and no government approval is required to move between states , except for persons covered by certain types of court orders ( e.g. , paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody ) . States range in population from just under 600,000 ( Wyoming ) to over 38 million ( California ) , and in area from ( Rhode Island ) to ( Alaska ) . Four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names . States are divided into counties or county-equivalents , which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign . County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state . State governments are allocated power by the people ( of each respective state ) through their individual constitutions . All are grounded in republican principles , and each provides for a government , consisting of three branches : executive , legislative , and judicial . States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution ; among them ratifying constitutional amendments . Historically , the tasks of local law enforcement , public education , public health , regulating intrastate commerce , and local transportation and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities , although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well . Over time , the U.S. Constitution has been amended , and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed . The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation , with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did . There is a continuing debate over states ' rights , which concerns the extent and nature of the states ' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals . States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress , a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives . Each state is represented by two Senators , and at least one Representative , while additional representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census . Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College , the body that elects the President of the United States , equal to the total of Representatives and Senators from that state . The Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union . Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 , the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50 . Alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted , both in 1959 . The Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede ( withdraw from ) from the Union . Shortly after the Civil War , the U.S. Supreme Court , in Texas v. White , held that a state can not unilaterally do so . States of the United States The 50 U.S. states ( in alphabetical order ) , along with state flag and date each joined the union : Governments As each state is itself a sovereign entity , it reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way ( within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution ) deemed appropriate by its people . As a result , while the governments of the various states share many similar features , they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance . No two state governments are identical . Constitutions The government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution . Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborate than their federal counterpart . The Constitution of Alabama , for example , contains 310,296 words — more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution . In practice , each state has adopted a three-branch system of government , modeled after the federal government , and consisting of three branches ( although the three-branch structure is not required ) : executive , legislative , and judicial . Executive In each state , the chief executive is called the governor , who serves as both head of state and head of government . The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature , as well as push for the passage of bills supported by the party of the Governor . In 43 states , governors have line item veto power . Most states have a `` plural executive '' in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people . Such additional elected officials serve as members of the executive branch , but are not beholden to the governor and the governor can not dismiss them . For example , the attorney general is elected , rather than appointed , in 43 of the 50 U.S. states . Legislative The legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two chambers : a lower house ( termed the House of Representatives , State Assembly , General Assembly or House of Delegates ) and a smaller upper house , always termed the Senate . The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature , which is composed of only a single chamber . Most states have part-time legislatures , while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures . However , several states with high population have short legislative sessions , including Texas and Florida . In Baker v. Carr ( 1962 ) and Reynolds v. Sims ( 1964 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation ( the one person , one vote standard ) . In practice , most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts , each of which has approximately the same population . Some states , such as Maryland and Vermont , divide the state into single- and multi-member districts , in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations , e.g. , a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one . If the governor vetoes legislation , all legislatures may override it , usually , but not always , requiring a two-thirds majority . In 2013 , there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies . They earned from $ 0 annually ( New Mexico ) to $ 90,526 ( California ) . There were various per diem and mileage compensation . Judicial States can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary , as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process . Most have a trial level court , generally called a District Court or Superior Court , a first-level appellate court , generally called a Court of Appeal ( or Appeals ) , and a Supreme Court . However , Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals . In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court ; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court 's Appellate Division , and from there to the Court of Appeals . Most states base their legal system on English common law ( with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations ) , with the notable exception of Louisiana , a former French colony , which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law . Only a few states choose to have the judges on the state 's courts serve for life terms . In most of the states the judges , including the justices of the highest court in the state , are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years , and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment . Relationships Among states Each state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original States in all respects . With the growth of states ' rights advocacy during the antebellum period , the Supreme Court asserted , in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan ( 1845 ) , that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality . Under Article Four of the United States Constitution , which outlines the relationship between the states , each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other 's legislatures and courts , which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts and criminal judgments , and before 1865 , slavery status . Regardless of the Full Faith and Credit Clause , some legal arrangements , such as professional licensure and marriages , may be state-specific , and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states . Such legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity . States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights , under the Privileges and Immunities Clause . Under the Extradition Clause , a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of `` treason , felony , or other crimes '' in another state if the other state so demands . The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state . With the consent of Congress , states may enter into interstate compacts , agreements between two or more states . Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource , such as transportation infrastructure or water rights . With the federal government Every state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles , such as the consent of the governed . This guarantee has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government . States are also guaranteed protection from invasion , and , upon the application of the state legislature ( or executive , if the legislature can not be convened ) , from domestic violence . This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot , but was not invoked . Since the early 20th century , the Supreme Court has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States to allow greatly expanded scope of federal power over time , at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states ' matters . The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says , `` On the whole , especially after the mid-1880s , the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power . '' In Wickard v. Filburn , the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern . For example , Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines , but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state , based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce . In recent years , the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison . Another example of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and distribute the resulting revenue back to the states ( subject to conditions set by Congress ) . An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways , which include the Interstate Highway System . The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government , and also serves the interests of the states . By threatening to withhold federal highway funds , Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws . An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21 , enacted by each state , brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act . Although some objected that this infringes on states ' rights , the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution 's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole . Admission into the Union Article IV , Section 3 , Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union . Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 , the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50 . Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states . It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress . This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims ( there were 4 in 1787 ) , to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states , and has served this same function since , whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress . Most of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 have been created from organized territories established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV , Section 3 , Clause 2 . The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance ( 1787 ) , which predates the ratification of the Constitution . In some cases , an entire territory has become a state ; in others some part of a territory has . When the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government , Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step towards admission to the Union . Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers . Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice , a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted . Upon acceptance of that constitution , and upon meeting any additional Congressional stipulations , Congress has always admitted that territory as a state . In addition to the original 13 , six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government , or part of one , before being admitted to the Union . Three were set off from an already existing state , two entered the Union after having been sovereign states , and one was established from unorganized territory : * California , 1850 , from land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . * Kentucky , 1792 , from Virginia ( District of Kentucky : Fayette , Jefferson , and Lincoln counties ) Michael P. Riccards , `` Lincoln and the Political Question : The Creation of the State of West Virginia '' Presidential Studies Quarterly , Vol . 27 , 1997 [ http : //www.questia.com/PM.qst ? a o & d=5000522904 online edition ] * Maine , 1820 , from Massachusetts ( District of Maine ) * Texas , 1845 , previously the Republic of Texas * Vermont , 1791 , previously the Vermont Republic ( also known as the New Hampshire Grants and claimed by New York ) * West Virginia , 1863 , from Virginia ( Trans-Allegheny region counties ) during the Civil War Congress is under no obligation to admit states , even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood . Such has been the case numerous times during the nation 's history . In one instance , Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849 . It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress . In another , leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes ( Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek , and Seminole ) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905 , as a means to retain control of their lands . The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress . Instead , the Indian Territory , along with Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907 . The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation . The State of Franklin existed for several years , not long after the end of the American Revolution , but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress , which ultimately recognized North Carolina 's claim of sovereignty over the area . The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory , and ultimately the state of Tennessee . Additionally , the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors . Among them , Michigan Territory , which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835 , was not admitted to the Union until 1837 , due to a boundary dispute the adjoining state of Ohio . The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837 , but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years . Also , statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years ( 1854–61 ) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions . Possible new states Puerto Rico Puerto Rico referred to itself as the `` Commonwealth of Puerto Rico '' in the English version of its constitution , and as `` Estado Libre Asociado '' ( literally , Associated Free State ) in the Spanish version . As with any non-state territory of the United States , its residents do not have voting representation in the federal government . Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. Congress in the form of a Resident Commissioner , a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union , and no voting rights otherwise . A non-binding referendum on statehood , independence , or a new option for an associated territory ( different from the current status ) was held on November 6 , 2012 . Sixty one percent ( 61 % ) of voters chose the statehood option , while one third of the ballots were submitted blank . On December 11 , 2012 , the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico , held on November 6 , 2012 , to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State . Washington , D.C . The intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site , not giving favor to any existing state ; as a result , the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government . The inhabitants of the District do not have full representation in Congress or a sovereign elected government ( they were allotted presidential electors by the 23rd amendment , and have a non-voting delegate in Congress ) . Some residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction—either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part , with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction . Others Various proposals to divide California , usually involving splitting the south half from the north or the urban coastline from the rest of the state , have been advanced since the 1850s . Similarly , numerous proposals to divide New York , all of which involve to some degree the separation of New York City from the rest of the state , have been promoted over the past several decades . The partitioning of either state is , at the present , highly unlikely . Other even less likely possible new states are Guam and the Virgin Islands , both of which are unincorporated organized territories of the United States . Also , either the Northern Mariana Islands or American Samoa , an unorganized , unincorporated territory , could seek statehood . Secession from the Union The Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union . However , its predecessor document , the Articles of Confederation , stated that the United States `` shall be perpetual . '' The question of whether or not individual states held the right to unilateral secession remained a difficult and divisive one until the American Civil War . In 1860 and 1861 , eleven southern states seceded , but following their defeat in the American Civil War were brought back into the Union during the Reconstruction Era . The federal government never recognized the secession of any of the rebellious states . Following the Civil War , the United States Supreme Court , in Texas v. White , held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void . Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution , which states that the Constitution was intended to `` form a more perfect union '' and speaks of the people of the United States in effect as a single body politic , as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation , the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede . However , the court 's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring `` through revolution , or through consent of the States , '' essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union . Commonwealths Four states—Kentucky , Massachusetts , Pennsylvania , and Virginia —adopted Constitutions early in their post-colonial existence identifying themselves as commonwealths , rather than states . These commonwealths are states , but legally , each is a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution . As a result , `` commonwealth '' is used in all public and other state writings , actions or activities within their bounds . The term , which refers to a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people , was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum , the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament 's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England . Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660 , and the word was dropped from the full title . When Virginia adopted its first constitution on June 29 , 1776 , it was reintroduced . Pennsylvania followed suit when it drew up a constitution later that year , as did Massachusetts , in 1780 , and Kentucky , in 1792 . The U.S. territories of the Northern Marianas and Puerto Rico are also referred to as commonwealths . This designation does have a legal status different from that of the 50 states . Both of these commonwealths are unincorporated territories of the United States . Origins of states ' names The 50 states have taken their names from a wide variety of languages . Twenty-four state names originate from Native American languages . Of these , eight are from Algonquian languages , seven are from Siouan languages , three are from Iroquoian languages , one is from Uto-Aztecan languages and five others are from other indigenous languages . Hawaii 's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language . Of the remaining names , 22 are from European languages : Seven from Latin ( mainly Latinized forms of English names ) , the rest are from English , Spanish and French . Eleven states are named after individual people , including seven named for royalty and one named after an American president . The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed . Several of the states that derive their names from ( corrupted ) names used for Native peoples , have retained the plural ending of `` s '' . Geography Borders The borders of the 13 original states were largely determined by colonial charters . Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s . Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories , divided them , and over time , created states within them . Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features ( such as rivers or mountain range peaks ) , and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns . At various times , national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries ( British North America , New France , New Spain including Spanish Florida , and Russian America ) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states . In the West , relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail , due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River . Once established , most state borders have , with few exceptions , been generally stable . Only two states , Missouri ( Platte Purchase ) and Nevada , grew appreciably after statehood . Several of the original states ceded land , over a several year period , to the Federal government , which in turn became the Northwest Territory , Southwest Territory , and Mississippi Territory . In 1791 Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create the District of Columbia ( Virginia 's portion was returned in 1847 ) . In 1850 , Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government . Additionally , Massachusetts and Virginia ( on two occasions ) , have lost land , in each instance to form a new state . There have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys , resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions , or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes . Occasionally the United States Congress or the United States Supreme Court have settled state border disputes . One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York , in which New Jersey won roughly 90 % of Ellis Island from New York in 1998 . Regional grouping States may be grouped in regions ; there are endless variations and possible groupings . Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government . For example , the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions , with nine divisions . The Census Bureau region definition is `` widely used … for data collection and analysis , '' '' The National Energy Modeling System : An Overview 2003 '' ( Report # : DOE/EIA-0581 , October 2009 ) . United States Department of Energy , Energy Information Administration . and is the most commonly used classification system . Other multi-state regions are unofficial , and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines .

sfq_17193--U.S._state.txt

Lynchburg the home of Jack Daniels whisky is in which US State?

Blasphemy is the act of insulting or showing contempt or lack of reverence to a deity , to religious or holy persons or sacred things , or toward something considered sacred or inviolable . [ http : //www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/blasphemy Blasphemy ] Merriam Webster ( July 2013 ) ; 1. great disrespect shown to God or to something holy2 . irreverence toward something considered sacred or inviolableBlasphemies , in Webster 's New World College Dictionary , 4th Ed,1 . profane or contemptuous speech , writing , or action concerning God or anything held as divine.2 . any remark or action held to be irreverent or disrespectful Some religions consider blasphemy as a religious crime . [ http : //www.wsj.com/articles/blasphemy-divide-insults-to-religion-remain-a-capital-crime-in-muslim-lands-1420673864 Blasphemy Divide : Insults to Religion Remain a Capital Crime in Muslim Lands ] The Wall Street Journal ( January 8 , 2015 ) As of 2012 , anti-blasphemy laws existed in 32 countries , while 87 nations had hate speech laws that covered defamation of religion and public expression of hate against a religious group . [ http : //www.pewforum.org/2012/11/21/laws-penalizing-blasphemy-apostasy-and-defamation-of-religion-are-widespread/ Laws Penalizing Blasphemy , Apostasy and Defamation of Religion are Widespread ] Pew Research ( November 21 , 2012 ) Anti-blasphemy laws are particularly common in Muslim-majority nations , such as those in the Middle East and North Africa , although they are also present in some Asian and European countries . Etymology The word `` blasphemy '' came via Middle English blasfemen and Old French blasfemer and Late Latin blasphemare from Greek βλασφημέω , from βλάπτω `` injure '' and φήμη `` utterance , talk , speech '' . From blasphemare also came Old French blasmer , from which English `` blame '' came . Blasphemy : 'from Gk . blasphemia `` a speaking ill , impious speech , slander , '' from blasphemein `` to speak evil of . '' ' `` In the sense of speaking evil of God this word is found in Ps . 74:18 ; Isa . 52:5 ; Rom . 2:24 ; Rev . 13:1 , 6 ; 16:9 , 11 , 21 . It denotes also any kind of calumny , or evil-speaking , or abuse ( 1 Kings 21:10 LXX ; Acts 13:45 ; 18:6 , etc. ) . '' Blasphemy laws In some countries with a state religion , blasphemy is outlawed under the criminal code . Such laws have led to the persecution , lynchings , murder or arrest of minorities and dissident members , after flimsy accusations . Sources of claims : * [ http : //www.religiouswatch.com/rwworld.htm World of Intolerance ] Religious Watch . Retrieved 5 October 2011 * [ http : //www.iheu.org/united-nations-will-violate-human-rights-says-new-report-religious-freedoms United Nations will violate Human Rights ] International Humanist and Ethical Union . Retrieved 5 October 2011 * * [ http : //www.uscirf.gov/index.php ? optioncom_content & task view & id1414 & Itemid 1 Annual Report of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom ] May 2009 ( Pakistan , etc . ) . Retrieved 5 October 2011 * [ http : //www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/TestFrame/af783bb51170854380256739004faac4 ? Opendocument A call upon states to work toward abolishing the juvenile death penalty ] U.N. January 1999 . Retrieved 5 October 2011 * [ http : //report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/asia-pacific/indonesia Indonesia – Amnesty International Report 2009 ] Amnesty International . Retrieved 5 October 2011 As of 2012 , 33 countries had some form of anti-blasphemy laws in their legal code . Of these , 20 were Muslim-majority nations – Afghanistan , Algeria , Bahrain , Egypt , Indonesia , Iran , Jordan , Kuwait , Malaysia , the Maldives , Morocco , Oman , Pakistan , Qatar , Saudi Arabia , Somalia , Sudan , Turkey , the UAE and the Western Sahara . The other twelve nations with anti-blasphemy laws in 2012 were Denmark , Finland , Germany , Greece , India , Ireland , Italy , Lebanon , Malta , the Netherlands ( abolished in 2014 ) , Nigeria , Poland and Singapore . Blasphemy was treated as a capital crime ( death penalty ) in many Muslim nations . Other countries have removed the ban of blasphemy . France did so in 1881 to allow freedom of religion and freedom of the press and blasphemy was abolished or repealed in Sweden in 1970 , Norway with Acts in 2009 and 2015 , the Netherlands in 2014 , and Iceland in 2015 . Where blasphemy is banned , it can be either some laws which directly punish religious blasphemy , or some laws that allow those who are offended by blasphemy to punish blasphemers . Those laws may condone penalties or retaliation for blasphemy under the labels of blasphemous libel , expression of opposition , or `` vilification , '' of religion or of some religious practices , religious insult , or hate speech . Christianity Christian theology condemns blasphemy . It is spoken of in Mark 3:29 , where blaspheming the Holy Spirit is spoken of as unforgivable—the eternal sin . However , there is dispute over what form this blasphemy may take and whether it qualifies as blasphemy in the conventional sense ; and over the meaning of `` unforgivable '' . In 2 Kings 18 , the Rabshakeh gave the word from the king of Assyria , dissuading trust in the Lord , asserting that God is no more able to deliver than all the gods of the land . In , Jesus told a paralytic `` your sins are forgiven '' and was accused of blasphemy . Blasphemy has been condemned as a serious , or even the most serious , sin by the major creeds and Church theologians ( apostasy and infidelity [ unbelief ] were generally considered to be the gravest sins , with heresy a greater sin than blasphemy , cf . Thomas Aquinas ' Summa Theologiae ) . * Thomas Aquinas says that “ [ if ] we compare murder and blasphemy as regards the objects of those sins , it is clear that blasphemy , which is a sin committed directly against God , is more grave than murder , which is a sin against one 's neighbor . On the other hand , if we compare them in respect of the harm wrought by them , murder is the graver sin , for murder does more harm to one 's neighbor , than blasphemy does to God . ” * The Book of Concord calls blasphemy “ the greatest sin that can be outwardly committed ” . * The Baptist Confession of Faith says : “ Therefore , to swear vainly or rashly by the glorious and awesome name of God…is sinful , and to be regarded with disgust and detestation . …For by rash , false , and vain oaths , the Lord is provoked and because of them this land mourns . ” * The Heidelberg Catechism answers question 100 about blasphemy by stating that “ no sin is greater or provokes God 's wrath more than the blaspheming of His Name ” . * The Westminster Larger Catechism explains that “ The sins forbidden in the third commandment are , the abuse of it in an ignorant , vain , irreverent , profane ... mentioning ... by blasphemy ... to profane jests , ... vain janglings , ... to charms or sinful lusts and practices . ” * Calvin found it intolerable “ when a person is accused of blasphemy , to lay the blame on the ebullition of passion , as if God were to endure the penalty whenever we are provoked . ” Catholic prayers and reparations for blasphemy In the Catholic Church , there are specific prayers and devotions as Acts of Reparation for blasphemy . For instance , The Golden Arrow Holy Face Devotion ( Prayer ) first introduced by Sister Marie of St Peter in 1844 is recited `` in a spirit of reparation for blasphemy '' . This devotion ( started by Sister Marie and then promoted by the Venerable Leo Dupont ) was approved by Pope Leo XIII in 1885 . The Raccolta Catholic prayer book includes a number of such prayers . The Five First Saturdays devotions are done with the intention in the heart of making reparation to the Blessed Mother for blasphemies against her , her name and her holy initiatives . The Holy See has specific `` Pontifical organizations '' for the purpose of the reparation of blasphemy through Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ , e.g . the Pontifical Congregation of the Benedictine Sisters of the Reparation of the Holy Face . Punishment The most common punishment for blasphemers was capital punishment through hanging or stoning , justified by the words of . The last person hanged for blasphemy in Great Britain was Thomas Aikenhead aged 20 , in Scotland in 1697 . He was prosecuted for denying the veracity of the Old Testament and the legitimacy of Christ 's miracles . Blasphemy ( and blasphemous libel ) remained a criminal offence in England & Wales until the passing of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 , but was last successfully prosecuted in the case of Whitehouse v Lemon ( 1977 ) , where the defendant was fined £500 and given a nine month suspended prison sentence ( the publisher was also fined £1,000 ) . Islam In Islamic literature , blasphemy is of many types , and there are many different words for it : sabb ( insult ) and shatm ( abuse , vilification ) , takdhib or tajdif ( denial ) , iftira ( concoction ) , la ` n or la'ana ( curse ) and ta ` n ( accuse , defame ) . In Islamic literature , the term blasphemy sometimes also overlaps with infidel ( kufr , disbeliever ) , fisq ( depravity ) , isa'ah ( insult ) , and ridda ( apostasy ) . There are a number of surah in Qur'an and sunnah in hadith relating to blasphemy , from which Quranic verses 5:33-34 and 33:57-61 have been most commonly used in Islamic history to justify and punish blasphemers.Siraj Khan , Blasphemy against the Prophet , in Muhammad in History , Thought , and Culture ( ed : Coeli Fitzpatrick Ph.D. , Adam Hani Walker ) , ISBN 978-1610691772 , pp . 59-67 For example , A variety of actions , speeches or behavior can constitute blasphemy in Islam . Some examples include insulting or cursing Allah , or Muhammad ; mockery or disagreeable behavior towards beliefs and customs common in Islam ; criticism of Islam 's holy personages . Apostasy , that is , the act of abandoning Islam , or finding faults or expressing doubts about Allah ( ta'til ) and Qur'an , rejection of Muhammed or any of his teachings , or leaving the Muslim community to become an atheist is a form of blasphemy . Questioning religious opinions ( fatwa ) and normative Islamic views can also be construed as blasphemous . Improper dress , drawing offensive cartoons , tearing or burning holy literature of Islam , creating or using music or painting or video or novels to mock or criticize Muhammad are some examples of blasphemous acts . In the context of those who are non-Muslims , the concept of blasphemy includes all aspects of infidelity ( kufr ) . Blasphemy in different Islamic schools of jurisprudence The Quran does not explicitly mention any worldly punishment for blasphemy ( sabb allah or sabb al-rasul ) , as it does for apostasy ( riddah ) . Islamic jurisprudence ( fiqh ) of Sunni and Shia madhabs have declared different punishments for the religious crime of blasphemy , and they vary between schools . These are as follows : Hanafi – views blasphemy as synonymous with apostasy , and therefore , accepts the repentance of apostates . Those who refuse to repent , their punishment is death if the blasphemer is a Muslim man , and if the blasphemer is a woman , she must be imprisoned with coercion ( beating ) till she repents and returns to Islam . If a non-Muslim commits blasphemy , his punishment must be a tazir ( discretionary , can be death , arrest , caning , etc . ) . Maliki – view blasphemy as an offense distinct from , and more severe than apostasy . Death is mandatory in cases of blasphemy for Muslim men , and repentance is not accepted . For women , death is not the punishment suggested , but she is arrested and punished till she repents and returns to Islam or dies in custody . A non-Muslim who commits blasphemy against Islam must be punished ; however , the blasphemer can escape punishment by converting and becoming a devout Muslim . Hanbali – view blasphemy as an offense distinct from , and more severe than apostasy . Death is mandatory in cases of blasphemy , for both Muslim men and women , and repentance is not accepted . Shafi ’ i – recognizes blasphemy as a separate offense from apostasy , but accepts the repentance of blasphemers . If the blasphemer does not repent , the punishment is death.L Wiederhold L , Blasphemy against the Prophet Muhammad and his companions ( sabb al-rasul , sabb al-sahabah ) : The introduction of the topic into Shafi ' i legal literature , Jrnl of Sem Studies , Oxford University Press , 42 ( 1 ) , pp . 39-70 Ja'fari ( Shia ) – views blasphemy against Islam , the Prophet , or any of the Imams , to be punishable with death , if the blasphemer is a Muslim . In case the blasphemer is a non-Muslim , he is given a chance to convert to Islam , or else killed . Some jurists suggest that the sunnah in hadith provide a basis for a death sentence for the crime of blasphemy , even if someone claims not to be an apostate , but has committed the crime of blasphemy . Some modern Muslim scholars contest that Islam supports blasphemy law , stating that Muslim jurists made the offense part of Sharia . The Islamic law considers blasphemy against Muhammad a more severe offense than blasphemy against God . Repentance can lead to forgiveness by God when God is blasphemed , however since Muhammad is no longer alive , forgiveness is not possible when Muhammad is blasphemed , and the Muslim community must punish his blasphemy by avenging blasphemer 's death . In Islamic jurisprudence , Kitab al Hudud and Taz'ir cover punishment for blasphemous acts . The penalties for blasphemy can include fines , imprisonment , flogging , amputation , hanging , or beheading . Many nations prescribe and carry out the death penalty for apostasy , a similarly motivated action , and Pakistan and Egypt demand execution for some blasphemers . Muslim clerics may call for revenge against an alleged blasphemer by issuing a fatwa ( legal ruling ) , or simply provide guidelines on behaviors and lifestyle that is blasphemous . For example , in Malaysia , Islamic scholars issued a fatwa declaring yoga as blasphemous , because yoga is a form of spiritual practice in Hinduism . Notable cases and debate on blasphemy As of 2011 , all Islamic majority nations , worldwide , had criminal laws on blasphemy . Over 125 non-Muslim nations worldwide did not have any laws relating to blasphemy . In Islamic nations , thousands of individuals have been arrested and punished for blasphemy of Islam . Moreover , several Islamic nations have argued in the United Nations that blasphemy against Muhammad is unacceptable , and that laws should be passed worldwide to proscribe it . In September 2012 , the Organisation of Islamic Conference ( OIC ) , who has sought for a universal blasphemy law over a decade , revived these attempts . Separately , the Human Rights Commission of the OIC called for `` an international code of conduct for media and social media to disallow the dissemination of incitement material '' . Non-Muslim nations that do not have blasphemy laws , have pointed to abuses of blasphemy laws in Islamic nations , and have disagreed . Notwithstanding , controversies raised in the non-Muslim world , especially over depictions of Muhammad , questionning issues relating to the religious offense to minorities in secular countries . A key case was the 1989 fatwa against English author Salman Rushdie for his 1988 book entitled The Satanic Verses , the title of which refers to an account that Muhammad , in the course of revealing the Quran , received a revelation from Satan and incorporated it therein until made by Allah to retract it . Several translators of his book into foreign languages have been murdered . In the UK , many supporters of Salman Rushdie and his publishers advocated unrestricted freedom of expression and the abolition of the British blasphemy laws . As a response , Richard Webster wrote A Brief History of Blasphemy in which he discussed freedom to publish books that may cause distress to minorities . Notable cases in Muslim countries In September 2007 , Bangladeshi cartoonist Arifur Rahman depicted in the daily Prothom Alo a boy holding a cat conversing with an elderly man . The man asks the boy his name , and he replies `` Babu '' . The older man chides him for not mentioning the name of Muhammad before his name . He then points to the cat and asks the boy what it is called , and the boy replies `` Muhammad the cat '' . Bangladesh does not have a blasphemy law but groups said the cartoon ridiculed Muhammad , torched copies of the paper and demanded that Rahman be executed for blasphemy . As a result , Bangladeshi police detained Rahman and confiscated copies of Prothom Alo in which the cartoon appeared . In November 2007 , British schoolteacher Gillian Gibbons , who taught middle-class Muslim and Christian children in Sudan , was convicted of insulting Islam by allowing her class of six-year-olds to name a teddy bear `` Muhammad '' . On 30 November , thousands of protesters took to the streets in Khartoum , demanding Gibbons 's execution after imams denounced her during Friday prayers . Many Muslim organizations in other countries publicly condemned the Sudanese over their reactions as Gibbons did not set out to cause offence . She was released into the care of the British embassy in Khartoum and left Sudan after two British Muslim members of the House of Lords met President Omar al-Bashir . In January 2011 , talking about the Asia Bibi blasphemy case , Pakistani politician Salmaan Taseer expressed views opposing the country 's blasphemy law . He was then killed by one of his bodyguards , Malik Mumtaz Qadri . After the murder , hundreds of clerics voiced support for the crime and urged a general boycott of Taseer 's funeral . However , hundreds of people turned up for his funeral . Supporters of Mumtaz Qadri blocked police attempting to bring him to the courts and some showered him with rose petals . In October , Qadri was sentenced to death for murdering Taseer . Minority Affairs Minister Shahbaz Bhatti said that he was first threatened with death in June 2010 when he was told that he would be beheaded if he attempted to change the blasphemy laws . On 2 March 2011 , he was shot dead by gunmen , presumably because of his position on the blasphemy laws . Some expressed concerns that the assassinations of Taseer and Bhatti may dissuade other Pakistani politicians from speaking out against the blasphemy laws . Protests against depicting Muhammad In December 1999 , the German news magazine Der Spiegel printed on the same page pictures of “ moral apostles ” Muhammad , Jesus , Confucius , and Immanuel Kant . Few weeks later , the magazine received protests , petitions and threats against publishing depictions of Muhammad . The Turkish TV-station Show TV broadcast the telephone number of an editor who then received daily calls . A picture of Muhammad had been published by the magazine once before in 1998 in a special edition on Islam , without evoking similar protests . In 2008 , several Muslims protested against the inclusion of Muhammad 's depictions in the English Wikipedia 's Muhammad article . An online petition opposed a reproduction of a 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century Ilkhanate manuscript image depicting Muhammad as he prohibited Nasīʾ . Jeremy Henzell-Thomas of The American Muslim deplored the petition as one of `` these mechanical knee-jerk reactions [ which ] are gifts to those who seek every opportunity to decry Islam and ridicule Muslims and can only exacerbate a situation in which Muslims and the Western media seem to be locked in an ever-descending spiral of ignorance and mutual loathing . '' The Muhammad cartoons crisis In September 2005 , in the tense aftermath of the assassination of Dutch film director Theo van Gogh , killed for his views on Islam , Danish news service Ritzau published an article discussing the difficulty encountered by the writer Kåre Bluitgen to find an illustrator to work on his children 's book The Qur'an and the life of the Prophet Muhammad ( Danish : Koranen og profeten Muhammeds liv ) . He said that three artists declined his proposal , which was interpreted as evidence of self-censorship out of fear of reprisals , which led to much debate in Denmark . Jyllands-Posten editor Flemming Rose invited professional illustrators to depict Muhammad , as an experiment to see how much they felt threatened . One cartoon by Kurt Westergaard depicted Muhammad with a bomb in his turban , which resulted in withdrawal of the ambassadors of Libya , Saudi Arabia and Syria from Denmark , as well as consumer boycotts of Danish products in a number of Islamic countries . Reviewing the experiment , Danish scholar Peter Hervik wrote that it disproved the idea that self-censorship was a serious problem in Denmark , because the overwhelming majority of cartoonists had either responded positively or refused for contractual or philosophical reasons . Furthermore , the Danish newspaper Politiken stated that they asked Bluitgen to put them in touch with the artists who reportedly declined his proposal , so his claim that none of them dared to work with him could be proved , but that Bluitgen refused , making his initial claim impossible to confirm . Commenting the cartoon that initiated the diplomatic crisis , American scholar John Woods expressed worries about Westergaard-like association of the Prophet with terrorism , that was beyond satire and offensive to a vast majority of Muslims . Hervik also deplored that the newspaper 's `` desire to provoke and insult Danish Muslims exceeded the wish to test the self-censorship of Danish cartoonists . '' An online caricature competition was announced in support of Jyllands-Posten in Sweden but foreign minister Laila Freivalds pressured the provider to shut the page down . In 2006 , her involvement was revealed to the public and she had to resign . In France , satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo republished the Jyllands-Posten cartoons of Muhammad and was taken to court by Islamic organisations under French hate speech laws ; it was ultimately acquitted of charges that it incited hatred . In July 2007 , art galleries in Sweden declined to show drawings of artist Lars Vilks depicting Muhammad as a roundabout dog . While Swedish newspapers had published them already , the drawings gained international attention after the newspaper Nerikes Allehanda published one of them on August 18 to illustrate an editorial on the `` right to ridicule a religion '' .English translation : This particular publication led to official condemnations from Iran , Pakistan , Afghanistan , Egypt and Jordan , and by the inter-governmental Organisation of the Islamic Conference . In 2006 , the American comedy program South Park , which had previously depicted Muhammad as a superhero ( `` Super Best Friends ) '' and has depicted Muhammad in the opening sequence since then , attempted to satirize the Danish newspaper incident . They intended to show Muhammad handing a salmon helmet to Family Guy character Peter Griffin ( `` Cartoon Wars Part II '' ) . However , Comedy Central who airs the series rejected the scene and its creators reacted by satirizing double standard for broadcast acceptability . In April 2010 , animators Trey Parker and Matt Stone planned to make episodes satirizing controversies over previous episodes , including Comedy Central 's refusal to show images of Muhammad following the 2005 Danish controversy . After they faced Internet death threats , Comedy Central modified their version of the episode , obscuring all images and bleeping all references to Muhammad . In reaction , cartoonist Molly Norris created the Everybody Draw Mohammed Day , claiming that if many people draw pictures of Muhammad , threats to murder them all would become unrealistic . Judaism states that he that blasphemes the name of the LORD `` shall surely be put to death '' . In Jewish law the only form of blasphemy which is punishable by death is blaspheming the Ineffable Name . The Seven Laws of Noah , which Judaism sees as applicable to all people , prohibit blasphemy . The United Nations In the early 21st century , blasphemy became an issue in the United Nations . The United Nations passed several resolutions which called upon the world to take action against the `` defamation of religions '' . The campaign for worldwide criminal penalties for the `` defamation of religions '' had been spearheaded by Organisation of Islamic Cooperation on behalf of the United Nations ' large Muslim bloc . The campaign ended in 2011 when the proposal was withdrawn in Geneva , in the Human Rights Council because of lack of support , marking an end to the effort to establish worldwide blasphemy strictures along the lines of those in Pakistan , Saudi Arabia , and Iran . This resolution had passed every year since 1999 , in the United Nations , with declining number of `` yes '' votes with each successive year . In July , 2011 , the UN Human Rights Committee released a 52-paragraph statement , General Comment 34 on the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ( ICCPR ) 1976 , concerning freedoms of opinion and expression . Paragraph 48 states : Colloquial usage In contemporary language , the notion of blasphemy is often used hyperbolically . This usage has garnered some interest among linguists recently , and the word 'blasphemy ' is a common case used for illustrative purposes .

bb_7353--Blasphemy.txt

In what Sudan city was Gillian Gibbons imprisoned for the blasphemous naming of a teddy bear incident?

Will Trent is the fictional main protagonist in author Karin Slaughter 's Georgia Bureau of Investigation Atlanta series . Other major characters are Angie Polaski and Faith Mitchell . Current books in the series have the US titles of Triptych , Fractured , and Undone . Slaughter also writes the Grant County series . She has over 17 million books in print and is published in 30 languages . Some of her book titles differ in the US and other countries . Biography Will was found in a trashcan when he was a baby , and taken to the Atlanta Children 's Home where he grew up . Despite the name , it was little more than a state orphanage . The woman who ran it and her assistants did the best they could , though they were understaffed and underpaid . The children were fed and clothed , the place was kept clean , some stability was provided . The state tried to place the children with foster families , which sometimes led to adoption into a loving environment , but more often than not that was n't the case . Will never gave up , carefully grooming himself every visiting day , so that someone would want to adopt him . Will became one of The Doors , the nickname given to the children who always came back , as if the system was just a big revolving door . When he reached the legal adult age of eighteen , he left the home . When Will was eight he met eleven-year-old Angie Polaski , recently arrived at the home . First they became allies and friends , eventually sexual partners , then developed a relationship . Though they admit they love each other , they are not in love . Will is comfortable with the familiarity and not interested in other women ; Angie is n't and is interested in other men . She 's left Will over a dozen times , but always comes back . He finally gave her an ultimatum and she agreed to marry him . After leaving the home , Will began working for the Georgia Bureau of Investigation ( GBI ) . He worked in the Major Case Squad , where he had a reputation for being a good agent who did n't get along well with others . He was drafted into the Special Criminal Apprehension Team , a new unit headed by Amanda Wagner . Will has solved 89 % of his cases , a phenomenal clearance rate . He is an excellent puzzle solver , one of the best agents in the bureau . However , he is dyslexic . Will looks at his dyslexia as a personal failure and has never sought help for it . He uses all kinds of tricks to hide it : wearing a wristwatch to tell his left from right , using color-coded folders to identify his cases , using a digital recorder and voice recognition software to generate his reports , pretending that he forgot his glasses when someone hands him something to read . He shops for groceries based on familiar-looking labels or pictures on the packaging , and avoids new restaurants because he does n't have the menu memorized . He has trouble with the signs when driving in unfamiliar areas , and he can not read roadmaps . He hates changing technology—a new cell phone or stereo or television costs him hours laboriously reading the directions or programming the functions . Despite his problem , he can take apart , repair , and reassemble almost anything with moving parts . He restored two automobiles , he can fix a piano or a washing machine or a lawnmower . Will Trent is 6 ' 3 '' tall and broad-shouldered , lanky and strong , with short dirty-blonde hair . He has huge hands . He has a scar on his upper lip where it was split so badly it could n't be sewn back together properly , another running from his ear down into his collar , and still another on the back of his head from a shovel attack . He has scars from a whip , electrical burns , cigarette burns , and an open fracture . He also has a self-inflicted scar on one forearm from a suicide attempt . In spite of all the scars , some women find him good-looking , but he only has eyes for Angie . And in spite of the dyslexia , Will finished high school and got a college degree . Though he worked ten times harder than the other students , he barely passed . He went further and obtained dubious upper-level degrees through correspondence schools . Will is controlled and not likely to be impulsive or spontaneous . Loud noises make him flinch . He 's a snappy dresser with a penchant for three-piece suits . He is eminently fair and reasonable , has poor social skills , and is kind to animals . Major characters Angie Polaski Angie Polaski was eleven when she joined the Atlanta Children 's Home . Since by that time she 'd been abused by an endless string of her drug addict mother 's boyfriends and found her mother overdosed in the bathroom just prior to entering a vegetative coma . She suffered more still at the hands of various foster parents and always ended up back at the home . The home itself became the source of some of her happiest childhood memories due to the devotion of Ms. Flannery , who ran the place and , though not particularly nurturing , conscientiously cared for her charges as best she could with what she had . After leaving the home Angie joined the Atlanta Police Department , and her long , strange relationship with Will Trent continued . One time Angie tried to count the number of men she had left Will for and came up with eleven . All of a type , as Will was happy to point out , that were bad for her . And every time she ended up back on Will 's doorstep , and he took her back . When Angie was with the APD she worked vice , dressing as a prostitute to lure and arrest men . She developed a kinship with the working girls , as she shared a similar background of abuse with many of them . There but for the grace of God and all that . Angie never knew who her father was , and perhaps the most painful aspect of her childhood was the treachery of her mother , Deidre Polaski , tossing her maternal duties for drugs . Angie left the police department due to medical disability brought on by an attack in the line of duty which would have restricted her to a desk job had she stayed . At the end of Fractured , she has moved in with Will and they are engaged . Faith Mitchell Faith Mitchell is named after her grandmother . She is tall and blonde and pretty . She is a homicide detective with the Atlanta Police Department . Faith 's mother , Evelyn , was one of the city 's highest-ranking police commanders when Faith got her gold shield five years ago at the ripe young age of twenty-eight , which brought on rumors of nepotism . But Faith 's competency soon quelled them and she was accepted into the squad . However , Faith 's mother is no longer a police captain ; six of her detectives were caught skimming money off of narcotics busts and she refused to testify against them . They were fired and she was forced to retire . The man who led the investigation was Will Trent . When Faith was fourteen , she met a boy , and became pregnant . Upon learning the news , he disappeared . She waited until she was in her third trimester to tell her parents , and they ultimately left the decision up to her . Her son Jeremy was born and she did n't give him up for adoption . She eventually got used to the stares and the comments , but it was many years later that she found out that her father , a very devout man , was forced to leave his church . Though early , Faith 's motherhood was relatively normal . She loved her son dearly , anxiously passing many hours worrying about where he was , about drinking and drugs and accidents , that he might repeat her own mistakes . Faith has a brother Zeke who is a surgeon in the Air Force , serving overseas in Brandenburg , Germany . Her father , Bill , died of pancreatic cancer . His death left a huge hole in Faith 's life . It was not long after his death that she was promoted to homicide , becoming one of only three women in the division . After seeing the toll the internal investigation took on her mother , transforming her into an old woman before Faith 's eyes , Faith came to hate Will Trent . In Fractured , she meets him , and ends up having to work with him . Over time , she grew to like Will , and at the end of Fractured , She accepted Amanda Wagner 's offer to join the Georgia Bureau of Investigation as Will 's partner . Other characters Amanda Wagner -- Amanda is Will Trent 's tough as nails supervisor . Caroline -- Caroline is Amanda 's secretary . Leo Donnelly -- Another homicide detective , Leo may or may not be the victim of a bad rap . Throughout Triptych he 's castigated by the other cops for his bad manners , his bad breath , his bad hygiene , but he 's the one with the contacts and he 's the one with the instincts to first smell the hinky smell . In Fractured , as Faith 's partner , he screws up and schedules emergency surgery so he can go on medical leave rather than face Amanda 's wrath . Leo 's been divorced four times . Pete Hanson -- Pete is a verbose , eccentric and able coroner . He 's been divorced three times . He likes to gamble and wears a big gold medallion and shorts or scruffy jeans under his starched white lab coat . He admires Will Trent 's intellect and skill as an investigator . Charlie Reed -- Charlie is a crime scene technician with the Criminal Apprehension Team , another of Amanda 's recruits who 's been around almost as long as Will . Charlie 's meticulous and a good investigator who always goes the extra mile , and Will requests him on all his cases . Charlie is not above bending the rules if it will save lives . Victor Martinez -- The Dean of Student Relations at Georgia Tech . He and Faith spark the second time they meet . Hamish Patel -- Hamish is a hostage negotiator for the GBI , trained by Amanda . Ivan Sambor -- A Polish cop . Books in the series Triptych When Atlanta police detective Michael Ormewood is called out to a murder scene at the notorious Grady Homes , he finds himself faced with one of the most brutal killings of his career : Aleesha Monroe is found in the stairwell in a pool of her own blood , her body horribly mutilated . As a one-off killing it ’ s shocking , but when it becomes clear that it ’ s just the latest in a series of similar attacks , the Georgia Bureau of Investigation are called in , and Ormewood is forced into working with Special Agent Will Trent of the Criminal Apprehension Team — a man he instinctively dislikes . But then , only 24 hours later , the violence Michael sees around him every day explodes in his own back yard . And , it seems the mystery behind Monroe ’ s death is inextricably entangled with a past that refuses to stay buried… Fractured When Atlanta housewife Abigail Campano comes home unexpectedly one afternoon , she walks into a nightmare . A broken window , a bloody footprint on the stairs and , most devastating of all , the horrifying sight of her teenage daughter lying dead on the landing , a man standing over her with a bloody knife . The struggle which follows changes Abigail ’ s life forever . When the local police make a misjudgement which not only threatens the investigation but places a young girl ’ s life in danger , the case is handed over to Special Agent Will Trent of the Criminal Apprehension Team –- teamed with detective Faith Mitchell , a woman who resents him from their first meeting . But in the relentless heat of a Georgia summer , Will and Faith realize that they must work together to find the brutal killer who has targeted one of Atlanta ’ s wealthiest , most privileged communities -– before it ’ s too late… Undone Released July 2009 , Undone brings together the Will Trent series and the Grant County series . Someone had spent time with her — someone well-practiced in the art of pain… Three years ago former Grant County medical examiner Sara Linton moved to Atlanta hoping to leave her tragic past behind her . Now working as a doctor in Atlanta ’ s Grady Hospital she is starting to piece her life together . But when a severely wounded young woman is brought in to the emergency room , she finds herself drawn back into a world of violence and terror . The woman has been hit by a car but , naked and brutalized , it ’ s clear that she has been the prey of a twisted mind . When Special Agent Will Trent of the Criminal Investigation Team returns to the scene of the accident , he stumbles on a torture chamber buried deep beneath the earth . And this hidden house of horror reveals a ghastly truth – Sara ’ s patient is just the first victim of a sick , sadistic killer . Wrestling the case away from the local police chief , Will and his partner Faith Mitchell find themselves at the center of a grisly murder hunt . And Sara , Will and Faith – each with their own wounds and their own secrets – are the only thing that stands between a madman and his next crime… Broken When the body of a young woman is discovered deep beneath the icy waters of Lake Grant , a note left under a rock by the shore points to suicide . But within minutes , it becomes clear that this is no suicide . It ’ s a brutal , cold-blooded murder . All too soon former Grant County medical examiner Sara Linton – home for Thanksgiving after a long absence — finds herself unwittingly drawn into the case . The chief suspect is desperate to see her but when she arrives at the local police station she is met with a horrifying sight — he lies dead in his cell , the words ‘ Not me ’ scrawled across the walls . Something about his confession doesn ’ t add up and deeply suspicious of the detective in charge , Lena Adams , Sara immediately calls the Georgia Bureau of Investigation . Shortly afterwards , Special Agent Will Trent is brought in from his vacation to investigate . But he is immediately confronted with a wall of silence . Grant County is a close-knit community with loyalties and ties that run deep . And the only person who can tell the truth about what really happened is dead . Fallen There ’ s no police training stronger than a cop ’ s instinct . Faith Mitchell ’ s mother isn ’ t answering her �phone . Her front door is open . There ’ s a bloodstain above the knob . Her infant daughter is hidden �in a shed behind the house . All that the Georgia Bureau of Investigations taught Faith Mitchell goes �out the window when she charges into her mother ’ s house , gun drawn . She sees a man dead in the �laundry room . She sees a hostage situation in the bedroom . What she doesn ’ t see is her mother… “ You know what we ’ re here for . Hand it over , and we ’ ll let her go . ” When the hostage situation turns deadly , Faith is left with too many questions , not enough answers . To find her mother , she ’ ll need the help of her partner , Will Trent , and they ’ ll both need the help of trauma doctor Sara Linton . But Faith isn ’ t just a cop anymore — she ’ s a witness . She ’ s also a suspect . The thin blue line hides police corruption , bribery , even murder . Faith will have to go up against the people she respects the most in order to find her mother and bring the truth to light — or bury it forever . Karin Slaughter ’ s most exhilarating novel yet is a thrilling journey through the heart and soul , where the personal and the criminal collide , and conflicted loyalties threaten to destroy reputations and ruin lives . Snatched Will Trent , a dedicated agent with the Georgia Bureau of Investigation for fifteen years , knows that there ’ s definitely such a thing as a cop ’ s intuition . Which is why he should have listened to his own . While in an airport restroom at Atlanta ’ s Hartsfield-Jackson International , Will overhears a girl ’ s pleading , plaintive voice : “ Please , I wan na go home. ” Something isn ’ t right here , thinks Will . He feels it in his gut . But he waits too long to act , and now the girl and the anxious , angry man she ’ s with have disappeared into the crowds at the busiest passenger airport in the world . After a desperate search and with time running out , Will makes a call to his supervisor , Amanda Wagner . Will ’ s partner , Faith Mitchell , immediately sends out an abducted child alert . The entire airport will soon be grinding to a halt : Eighty-nine million passengers a year . Five runways . Seven concourses . Six million square feet of space that sprawled across two counties , three cities , and five jurisdictions . All shut down on a dime because Will has a hunch that he is certain is true : a girl , maybe six or seven years old , has been snatched from God knows where . And he intends to bring her back—no matter what it takes . Criminal Will Trent is a brilliant agent with the Georgia Bureau of Investigation . Newly in love , he is beginning to put a difficult past behind him . Then a local college student goes missing , and Will is inexplicably kept off the case by his supervisor and mentor , deputy director Amanda Wagner . Will can not fathom Amanda ’ s motivation until the two of them literally collide in an abandoned orphanage they have both been drawn to for different reasons . Decades before , when his father was imprisoned for murder , this was Will ’ s home . It appears that the case that launched Amanda ’ s career forty years ago has suddenly come back to life—and it involves the long-held mystery of Will ’ s birth and parentage . Now these two dauntless investigators will each need to face down demons from the past if they are to prevent an even greater terror from being unleashed . Busted Detective Will Trent is standing in a Georgia convenience store , waiting on an obstinate Icee frozen drink machine . To the surveillance cameras and bored staff of the Lil ’ Dixie Gas-n-Go , however , Will appears to be someone very different—the menacing ex-con Bill Black . Going undercover as Bill , the Georgia Bureau of Investigation agent is about to infiltrate the most corrupt town in the most corrupt county in the new American South . But first : his Icee . Everything changes in one horrific instant , as all hell breaks loose at the Lil ’ Dixie . A cop is shot . A bag of cash goes flying across the floor . A young woman disappears while a killer takes off in a battered pick-up truck . Within seconds , Will is in pursuit . Unseen Will Trent is a Georgia Bureau of Investigation agent whose latest case has him posing as Bill Black , a scary ex-con who rides a motorcycle around Macon , Georgia , and trails an air of violence wherever he goes . The cover has worked and he has caught the eye of a wiry little drug dealer who thinks he might be a useful ally . But undercover and cut off from the support of the woman he loves , Sara Linton , Will finds his demons catching up with him . Although she has no idea where Will has gone , or why , Sara herself has come to Macon because of a cop shooting : Her stepson , Jared , has been gunned down in his own home . Sara holds Lena , Jared ’ s wife , responsible : Lena , a detective , has been a magnet for trouble all her life , and Jared ’ s shooting is not the first time someone Sara loved got caught in the crossfire . Furious , Sara finds herself involved in the same case that Will is working without even knowing it , and soon danger is swirling around both of them .

sfq_18384--Will_Trent.txt

Who created the fictional special agent Will Trent?

In Jewish eschatology the term mashiach , or `` Messiah '' , came to refer to a future Jewish king from the Davidic line , who is expected to be anointed with holy anointing oil and rule the Jewish people during the Messianic Age . The Messiah is often referred to as `` King Messiah '' , or , in Hebrew , ( melekh mashiach ) , and , in Aramaic , malka meshiḥa . Views Historical In Jewish eschatology the term mashiach , or `` Messiah '' , came to refer to a future Jewish king from the Davidic line , who is expected to be anointed with holy anointing oil and rule the Jewish people during the Messianic Age . The Messiah is often referred to as `` King Messiah '' , or , in Hebrew , ( melekh mashiach ) , and , in Aramaic , malka meshiḥa . Orthodox views have generally held that the Messiah will be descended from his father through the line of King David , and will gather the Jews back into the Land of Israel , usher in an era of peace , build the Third Temple , father a male heir , re-institute the Sanhedrin , and so on . Jewish tradition alludes to two redeemers , both of whom are called mashiach and are involved in ushering in the Messianic age : Mashiach ben David ; and Mashiach ben Yosef . In general , the term Messiah unqualified refers to Mashiach ben David ( Messiah , son of David ) . Talmud The Talmud extensively discusses the coming of the Messiah ( Sanhedrin 98a–99a , et al . ) and describes a period of freedom and peace , which will be the time of ultimate goodness for the Jews . Tractate Sanhedrin contains a long discussion of the events leading to the coming of the Messiah , for example : The Talmud tells many stories about the Messiah , some of which represent famous Talmudic rabbis as receiving personal visitations from Elijah the Prophet and the Messiah . For example : Views of Maimonides The influental Jewish philosopher Maimonides discussed the messiah in his Mishneh Torah , his 14 volume compendium of Jewish law , in the section Hilkhot Melakhim Umilchamoteihem , chapters 11 & 12 . According to Maimonides , Jesus of Nazareth is not the Messiah , as is claimed by Christians and Muslims . Ancient Israel Many of the scriptural requirements concerning the Messiah , what he will do , and what will be done during his reign are located in the Book of Isaiah , although requirements are mentioned by other prophets as well . Views on whether Hebrew Bible passages are Messianic may vary from and among scholars of ancient Israel looking at their meaning in original context and from and among rabbinical scholars . * Isaiah 1:26 : `` And I will restore your judges as at first and your counsellors as in the beginning ; afterwards you shall be called City of Righteousness , Faithful City . '' Some Jews interpret this to mean that the Sanhedrin will be re-established . '' ( ) * Once he is King , leaders of other nations will look to him for guidance . ( ) * The whole world will worship the One God of Israel ( ) * He will be descended from King David ( Isaiah 11:1 ) via Solomon ( , ) * The `` spirit of the Lord '' will be upon him , and he will have a `` fear of God '' ( ) * Evil and tyranny will not be able to stand before his leadership ( ) * Knowledge of God will fill the world ( ) * He will include and attract people from all cultures and nations ( ) * All Israelites will be returned to their homeland ( ) * Death will be swallowed up forever ( ) * There will be no more hunger or illness , and death will cease ( ) * All of the dead will rise again ( ) * The Jewish people will experience eternal joy and gladness ( ) * He will be a messenger of peace ( ) * Nations will recognize the wrongs they did to Israel ( ) * The peoples of the world will turn to the Jews for spiritual guidance ( ) * The ruined cities of Israel will be restored ( ) * Weapons of war will be destroyed ( ) * The people of Israel will have direct access to the Torah through their minds and Torah study will become the study of the wisdom of the heart ( ) * He will give you all the worthy desires of your heart ( ) * He will take the barren land and make it abundant and fruitful ( , , , ) Second Temple period and apocalypticism The majority of Second Temple texts have no reference to an individual end-time Messiah . Exceptions among the Dead Sea Scrolls include 4Q521 , the `` Messianic Apocalypse . '' Other messianic concepts are found in the Old Testament pseudepigrapha . Messianic allusions to some figures include to Menahem ben Hezekiah who traditionally was born on the same day that the Second Temple was destroyed . Present-day Jewish positions Orthodox Judaism Orthodox Judaism maintains that Jews are obliged to accept the 13 Principles of Faith as formulated by Maimonides in his introduction to Chapter Helek of the Mishna Torah . Each principle starts with the words Ani Maamin ( I believe ) . Number 12 is the main principle relating to Mashiach . The text is as follows : Hasidic Judaism Hasidic Jews tend to have a particularly strong and passionate belief in the immediacy of the Messiah 's coming , and in the ability of their actions to hasten his arrival . Because of the supposed piousness , wisdom , and leadership abilities of the Hasidic Masters , members of Hasidic communities are sometimes inclined to regard their dynastic rebbes as potential candidates for Messiah . Many Jews , ( see the Bartenura 's explanation on Megillat Rut , and the Halakhic responsa of The Ch'sam Sofer on Choshen Mishpat [ vol . 6 ] , Chapter 98 where this view is explicit ) especially Hasidim , adhere to the belief that there is a person born each generation with the potential to become Messiah , if the Jewish people warrant his coming ; this candidate is known as the Tzadik Ha-Dor , meaning Tzaddik of the Generation . However , fewer are likely to name a candidate . Conservative Judaism Emet Ve-Emunah , the Conservative movement 's statement of principles , states the following : Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism generally do not accept the idea that there will be a Messiah . Some believe that there may be some sort of `` messianic age '' ( the World to Come ) in the sense of a `` utopia '' , which all Jews are obligated to work towards ( thus the tradition of Tikkun olam ) . In 1999 , the Central Conference of American Rabbis , the official body of American Reform rabbis , authored `` A Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism '' , meant to describe and define the spiritual state of modern Reform Judaism . In a commentary appended to the platform , it states : Chabad Messianism Menachem Mendel Schneerson declared often that the Messiah is very close , urging all to pray for the coming of the Messiah and do everything possible to hasten the coming of the Messiah through increased acts of kindness , and so on . In the late 1980s , the Rebbe called for his followers to become involved in outreach activities with the purpose of bringing about the Jewish Messianic Age , which led to controversy surrounding the messianic beliefs of Chabad . In fact , some Chabad Hasidim , called mashichists , `` have not yet accepted the Rebbe ’ s passing '' and even after his death regard him as the ( living ) 'King Messiah ' and 'Moses of the generation ' , awaiting his second coming . The Chabad-Messianic question , regarding a dead Moshiach , got oppositional addresses from a halachic perspective by many prominent Orthodox authorities , including leaders from the Ashkenazi non-Hasidic Lithuanian ( Litvak ) institutions , Ponevezh yeshiva in Bnei Brak , Israel , and got vehement opposition , notably that of the Rabbinical Seminary of America ( Yeshivas Chofetz Chaim ) in New York and that of the Rabbinical Council of America ( See The Rebbe , the Messiah , and the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference ) .

qw_2858--Messiah_in_Judaism.txt

According to Jewish tradition, whose chair is set ready at each passover meal in case he reappears to herald the coming of the Messiah?

The Byzantine Empire , sometimes referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire , was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the East during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages , when its capital city was Constantinople ( modern-day Istanbul , originally founded as Byzantium ) . It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 . During most of its existence , the empire was the most powerful economic , cultural , and military force in Europe . Both `` Byzantine Empire '' and `` Eastern Roman Empire '' are historiographical terms created after the end of the realm ; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire ( , tr . ; ) , or Romania ( ) , and to themselves as `` Romans '' . Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire 's Greek East and Latin West divided . Constantine I ( r. 324–337 ) reorganised the empire , made Constantinople the new capital , and legalised Christianity . Under Theodosius I ( r. 379–395 ) , Christianity became the Empire 's official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed . Finally , under the reign of Heraclius ( r. 610–641 ) , the Empire 's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin . Thus , although the Roman state continued and Roman state traditions were maintained , modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was centred on Constantinople , oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture , and characterised by Orthodox Christianity . The borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence , as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery . During the reign of Justinian I ( r. 527–565 ) , the Empire reached its greatest extent after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast , including North Africa , Italy , and Rome itself , which it held for two more centuries . During the reign of Maurice ( r. 582–602 ) , the Empire 's eastern frontier was expanded and the north stabilised . However , his assassination caused the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 , which exhausted the Empire 's resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the Muslim conquests of the seventh century . In a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces , Egypt and Syria , to the Arabs . During the Macedonian dynasty ( 10th–11th centuries ) , the Empire again expanded and experienced the two-century long Macedonian Renaissance , which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 . This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia as a homeland . The Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration , such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city . However , it was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade , when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the Empire formerly governed were divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms . Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261 , the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence . Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century . The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire . Nomenclature The first use of the term `` Byzantine '' to label the later years of the Roman Empire was in 1557 , when the German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ , a collection of historical sources . The term comes from `` Byzantium '' , the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantine 's capital . This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts . The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre ( Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae ) , and in 1680 of Du Cange 's Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of `` Byzantine '' among French authors , such as Montesquieu . However , it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world . The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the `` Roman Empire '' , the `` Empire of the Romans '' ( Latin : Imperium Romanum , Imperium Romanorum ; Greek : Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn , Archē tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , `` Romania '' ( Latin : Romania ; Greek : Rhōmania ) , the `` Roman Republic '' ( Latin : Res Publica Romana ; Greek : Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , Graikia ( Greek : Γραικία ) , and also as Rhōmais ( Greek : ) . The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi , and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to their modern language as Romaika and Graikika . Although the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic character during most of its history and preserved Romano-Hellenistic traditions , it became identified by its western and northern contemporaries with its increasingly predominant Greek element . The occasional use of the term `` Empire of the Greeks '' ( Latin : Imperium Graecorum ) in the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire and of the Byzantine Emperor as Imperator Graecorum ( Emperor of the Greeks ) were also used to separate it from the prestige of the Roman Empire within the new kingdoms of the West . The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800 . Needing Charlemagne 's support in his struggle against his enemies in Rome , Leo used the lack of a male occupant of the throne of the Roman Empire at the time to claim that it was vacant and that he could therefore crown a new Emperor himself . Whenever the Popes or the rulers of the West made use of the name Roman to refer to the Eastern Roman Emperors , they usually preferred the term Imperator Romaniae ( meaning Emperor of Romania ) instead of Imperator Romanorum ( meaning Emperor of the Romans ) , a title that they applied only to Charlemagne and his successors . No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds , where the Empire was more straightforwardly seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire . In the Islamic world , the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm . The name millet-i Rûm , or `` Roman nation , '' was used by the Ottomans through the 20th century to refer to the former subjects of the Byzantine Empire , that is , the Orthodox Christian community within Ottoman realms . History Early history The Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa . These territories were home to many different cultural groups , both urban populations and rural populations . Generally speaking , the eastern Mediterranean provinces were more urbanised than the western , having previously been united under the Macedonian Empire and Hellenised by the influence of Greek culture . The West also suffered more heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD . This distinction between the established Hellenised East and the younger Latinised West persisted and became increasingly important in later centuries , leading to a gradual estrangement of the two worlds . Decentralization of power To maintain control and improve administration , various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried between 285 and 324 , from 337 to 350 , from 364 to 392 , and again between 395 and 480 . Although the administrative subdivisions varied , they generally involved a division of labour between East and West . Each division was a form of power-sharing ( or even job-sharing ) , for the ultimate imperium was not divisible and therefore the empire remained legally one state—although the co-emperors often saw each other as rivals or enemies . In 293 , emperor Diocletian created a new administrative system ( the tetrarchy ) , to guarantee security in all endangered regions of his Empire . He associated himself with a co-emperor ( Augustus ) , and each co-emperor then adopted a young colleague given the title of Caesar , to share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner . The tetrarchy collapsed , however , in 313 and a few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus . Recentralisation In 330 , Constantine moved the seat of the Empire to Constantinople , which he founded as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium , a city strategically located on the trade routes between Europe and Asia and between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea . Constantine introduced important changes into the Empire 's military , monetary , civil and religious institutions . As regards his economic policies in particular , he has been accused by certain scholars of `` reckless fiscality '' , but the gold solidus he introduced became a stable currency that transformed the economy and promoted development . Under Constantine , Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state , but enjoyed imperial preference , because the emperor supported it with generous privileges . Constantine established the principle that emperors could not settle questions of doctrine on their own , but should summon instead general ecclesiastical councils for that purpose . His convening of both the Synod of Arles and the First Council of Nicaea indicated his interest in the unity of the Church , and showcased his claim to be its head . The rise of Christianity was briefly interrupted on the accession of the emperor Julian in 361 , who made a determined effort to restore polytheism throughout the empire and was thus dubbed `` Julian the Apostate '' by the Church . However this was reversed when Julian was killed in battle in 363 . Theodosius I ( 379-395 ) was the last Emperor to rule both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire . In 391 and 392 he issued a series of edicts essentially banning pagan religion . Pagan festivals and sacrifices were banned , as was access to all pagan temples and places of worship . The last Olympic Games are believed to have been held in 393 . In 395 , Theodosius I bequeathed the imperial office jointly to his sons : Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West , once again dividing Imperial administration . In the 5th century the Eastern part of the empire was largely spared the difficulties faced by the West—due in part to a more established urban culture and greater financial resources , which allowed it to placate invaders with tribute and pay foreign mercenaries . This success allowed Theodosius II to focus on the codification of Roman law and further fortification of the walls of Constantinople , which left the city impervious to most attacks until 1204 . Large portions of the Theodosian Walls are preserved to the present day . To fend off the Huns , Theodosius had to pay an enormous annual tribute to Attila . His successor , Marcian , refused to continue to pay the tribute , but Attila had already diverted his attention to the West . After his death in 453 , the Hunnic Empire collapsed , and many of the remaining Huns were often hired as mercenaries by Constantinople . Loss of the Western Roman Empire After the fall of Attila , the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of peace , while the Western Empire deteriorated due to continuing migration and expansion by the Germanic nations ( its end is usually dated in 476 when the Germanic Roman general Odoacer deposed the usurper Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus ) . In 480 with the death of the Western Emperor Julius Nepos , Eastern Emperor Zeno became sole Emperor of the empire . Odoacer , now ruler of Italy , was nominally Zeno 's subordinate but acted with complete autonomy , eventually providing support to a rebellion against the Emperor . Zeno negotiated with the invading Ostrogoths , who had settled in Moesia , convincing the Gothic king Theodoric to depart for Italy as magister militum per Italiam ( `` commander in chief for Italy '' ) with the aim of deposing Odoacer . By urging Theodoric to conquer Italy , Zeno rid the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate ( Odoacer ) and moved another ( Theodoric ) further from the heart of the Empire . After Odoacer 's defeat in 493 , Theodoric ruled Italy de facto , although he was never recognised by the eastern emperors as `` king '' ( rex ) . In 491 , Anastasius I , an aged civil officer of Roman origin , became Emperor , but it was not until 497 that the forces of the new emperor effectively took the measure of Isaurian resistance . Anastasius revealed himself as an energetic reformer and an able administrator . He perfected Constantine I 's coinage system by definitively setting the weight of the copper follis , the coin used in most everyday transactions . He also reformed the tax system and permanently abolished the chrysargyron tax . The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of of gold when Anastasius died in 518 . Justinian dynasty The Justinian dynasty was founded by Justin I , who though illiterate , rose through the ranks of the military to become Emperor in 518 . He was succeeded by his nephew Justinian I in 527 , who may already have exerted effective control during Justin 's reign . One of the most important figures of late antiquity and possibly the last Roman emperor to speak Latin as a first language , Justinian 's rule constitutes a distinct epoch , marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii , or `` restoration of the Empire '' . His wife Theodora was particularly influential . In 529 , Justinian appointed a ten-man commission chaired by John the Cappadocian to revise Roman law and create a new codification of laws and jurists ' extracts , known as the `` Corpus Juris Civilis '' . In 534 , the Corpus was updated and , along with the enactments promulgated by Justinian after 534 , formed the system of law used for most of the rest of the Byzantine era . The Corpus forms the basis of civil law of many modern states . In 532 , attempting to secure his eastern frontier , Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassanids . In the same year , he survived a revolt in Constantinople ( the Nika riots ) , which solidified his power but ended with the deaths of a reported 30,000 to 35,000 rioters on his orders . The western conquests began in 533 , as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of Africa from the Vandals who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage . Their success came with surprising ease , but it was not until 548 that the major local tribes were subdued . In Ostrogothic Italy , the deaths of Theodoric , his nephew and heir Athalaric , and his daughter Amalasuntha had left her murderer , Theodahad ( r. 534–536 ) , on the throne despite his weakened authority . In 535 , a small Byzantine expedition to Sicily met with easy success , but the Goths soon stiffened their resistance , and victory did not come until 540 , when Belisarius captured Ravenna , after successful sieges of Naples and Rome . In 535–536 , Theodahad sent Pope Agapetus I to Constantinople to request the removal of Byzantine forces from Sicily , Dalmatia , and Italy . Although Agapetus failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian , he succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople denounced , despite empress Theodora 's support and protection . ; . The Ostrogoths were soon reunited under the command of King Totila and captured Rome in 546 . Belisarius , who had been sent back to Italy in 544 , was eventually recalled to Constantinople in 549 . The arrival of the Armenian eunuch Narses in Italy ( late 551 ) with an army of 35,000 men marked another shift in Gothic fortunes . Totila was defeated at the Battle of Taginae and his successor , Teia , was defeated at the Battle of Mons Lactarius ( October 552 ) . Despite continuing resistance from a few Gothic garrisons and two subsequent invasions by the Franks and Alemanni , the war for the Italian peninsula was at an end . In 551 , Athanagild , a noble from Visigothic Hispania , sought Justinian 's help in a rebellion against the king , and the emperor dispatched a force under Liberius , a successful military commander . The empire held on to a small slice of the Iberian Peninsula coast until the reign of Heraclius . In the east , the Roman–Persian Wars continued until 561 when the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau agreed on a 50-year peace . By the mid-550s , Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation , with the notable exception of the Balkans , which were subjected to repeated incursions from the Slavs and the Gepids . Tribes of Serbs and Croats were later resettled in the northwestern Balkans , during the reign of Heraclius . Justinian called Belisarius out of retirement and defeated the new Hunnish threat . The strengthening of the Danube fleet caused the Kutrigur Huns to withdraw and they agreed to a treaty that allowed safe passage back across the Danube . Although polytheism had been suppressed by the state since at least the time of Constantine in the 4th century , traditional Greco-Roman culture was still influential in the Eastern empire in the 6th century . Philosophers such as John Philoponus drew on neoplatonic ideas in addition to Christian thought and empiricism . Nevertheless , Hellenistic philosophy began to be gradually supplanted by or amalgamated into newer Christian philosophy . The closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 was a notable turning point . Hymns written by Romanos the Melodist marked the development of the Divine Liturgy , while the architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles worked to complete the new Church of the Holy Wisdom , Hagia Sophia , which was designed to replace an older church destroyed during the Nika Revolt . Completed in 537 , the Hagia Sophia stands today as one of the major monuments of Byzantine architectural history . During the 6th and 7th centuries , the Empire was struck by a series of epidemics , which greatly devastated the population and contributed to a significant economic decline and a weakening of the Empire . After Justinian died in 565 , his successor , Justin II refused to pay the large tribute to the Persians . Meanwhile , the Germanic Lombards invaded Italy ; by the end of the century only a third of Italy was in Byzantine hands . Justin 's successor , Tiberius II , choosing between his enemies , awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military action against the Persians . Though Tiberius ' general , Maurice , led an effective campaign on the eastern frontier , subsidies failed to restrain the Avars . They captured the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582 , while the Slavs began to make inroads across the Danube . Maurice , who meanwhile succeeded Tiberius , intervened in a Persian civil war , placed the legitimate Khosrau II back on the throne and married his daughter to him . Maurice 's treaty with his new brother-in-law enlarged the territories of the Empire to the East and allowed the energetic Emperor to focus on the Balkans . By 602 , a series of successful Byzantine campaigns had pushed the Avars and Slavs back across the Danube . However , Maurice 's refusal to ransom several thousand captives taken by the Avars , and his order to the troops to winter in the Danube caused his popularity to plummet . A revolt broke out under an officer named Phocas , who marched the troops back to Constantinople ; Maurice and his family were murdered while trying to escape . Shrinking borders Heraclian dynasty After Maurice 's murder by Phocas , Khosrau used the pretext to reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia . Phocas , an unpopular ruler invariably described in Byzantine sources as a `` tyrant '' , was the target of a number of Senate-led plots . He was eventually deposed in 610 by Heraclius , who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship . Following the accession of Heraclius , the Sassanid advance pushed deep into the Levant , occupying Damascus and Jerusalem and removing the True Cross to Ctesiphon . The counter-attack launched by Heraclius took on the character of a holy war , and an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard ( similarly , when Constantinople was saved from a combined Avar - Sassanid - Slavic siege in 626 , the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin that were led in procession by Patriarch Sergius about the walls of the city ) . In this very siege of Constantinople of the year 626 , amidst the climactic Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 , the combined Avar , Sassanid , and Slavic forces unsuccessfully besieged the Byzantine capital between June and July . After this , the Sassanid army was forced to withdraw to Anatolia . The loss came just after news had reached them of yet another Byzantine victory , where Heraclius 's brother Theodore scored well against the Persian general Shahin . Following this , Heraclius led an invasion into Sassanid Mesopotamia once again . The main Sassanid force was destroyed at Nineveh in 627 , and in 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony , as he marched into the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon , where anarchy and civil war reigned as a result of the enduring war . Eventually , the Persians were obliged to withdraw all armed forces and return Sassanid-ruled Egypt , the Levant and whatever imperial territories of Mesopotamia and Armenia were in Roman hands at the time of an earlier peace treaty in c. 595 . The war had exhausted both the Byzantines and Sassanids , however , and left them extremely vulnerable to the Muslim forces that emerged in the following years . The Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat by the Arabs at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 , while Ctesiphon fell in 637 . Siege of Constantinople ( 674–678 ) The Arabs , now firmly in control of Syria and the Levant , sent frequent raiding parties deep into Asia Minor , and in 674–678 laid siege to Constantinople itself . The Arab fleet was finally repulsed through the use of Greek fire , and a thirty-years ' truce was signed between the Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate . However , the Anatolian raids continued unabated , and accelerated the demise of classical urban culture , with the inhabitants of many cities either refortifying much smaller areas within the old city walls , or relocating entirely to nearby fortresses . Constantinople itself dropped substantially in size , from 500,000 inhabitants to just 40,000–70,000 , and , like other urban centres , it was partly ruralised . The city also lost the free grain shipments in 618 , after Egypt fell first to the Persians and then to the Arabs , and public wheat distribution ceased . The void left by the disappearance of the old semi-autonomous civic institutions was filled by the theme system , which entailed dividing Asia Minor into `` provinces '' occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration . This system may have had its roots in certain ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius , but over the course of the 7th century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance . The massive cultural and institutional restructuring of the Empire consequent on the loss of territory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a decisive break in east Mediterranean Romanness and that the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as another successor state rather than a real continuation of the Roman Empire . The withdrawal of large numbers of troops from the Balkans to combat the Persians and then the Arabs in the east opened the door for the gradual southward expansion of Slavic peoples into the peninsula , and , as in Asia Minor , many cities shrank to small fortified settlements . In the 670s , the Bulgars were pushed south of the Danube by the arrival of the Khazars . In 680 , Byzantine forces sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated . In 681 , Constantine IV signed a treaty with the Bulgar khan Asparukh , and the new Bulgarian state assumed sovereignty over a number of Slavic tribes that had previously , at least in name , recognised Byzantine rule . In 687–688 , the final Heraclian emperor , Justinian II , led an expedition against the Slavs and Bulgarians , and made significant gains , although the fact that he had to fight his way from Thrace to Macedonia demonstrates the degree to which Byzantine power in the north Balkans had declined . Justinian II attempted to break the power of the urban aristocracy through severe taxation and the appointment of `` outsiders '' to administrative posts . He was driven from power in 695 , and took shelter first with the Khazars and then with the Bulgarians . In 705 , he returned to Constantinople with the armies of the Bulgarian khan Tervel , retook the throne , and instituted a reign of terror against his enemies . With his final overthrow in 711 , supported once more by the urban aristocracy , the Heraclian dynasty came to an end . Isaurian dynasty to the accession of Basil I Leo III the Isaurian turned back the Muslim assault in 718 and addressed himself to the task of reorganising and consolidating the themes in Asia Minor . His successor , Constantine V , won noteworthy victories in northern Syria and thoroughly undermined Bulgarian strength . Taking advantage of the Empire 's weakness after the Revolt of Thomas the Slav in the early 820s , the Arabs re-emerged and captured Crete . They also successfully attacked Sicily , but in 863 general Petronas gained a decisive victory against Umar al-Aqta , the emir of Melitene ( Malatya ) . Under the leadership of emperor Krum , the Bulgarian threat also re-emerged , but in 815–816 Krum 's son , Omurtag , signed a peace treaty with Leo V . Religious dispute over iconoclasm The 8th and early 9th centuries were also dominated by controversy and religious division over Iconoclasm , which was the main political issue in the Empire for over a century . Icons ( here meaning all forms of religious imagery ) were banned by Leo and Constantine from around 730 , leading to revolts by iconodules ( supporters of icons ) throughout the empire . After the efforts of empress Irene , the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshiped . Irene is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne , but , according to Theophanes the Confessor , the scheme was frustrated by Aetios , one of her favourites . In the early 9th century , Leo V reintroduced the policy of iconoclasm , but in 843 empress Theodora restored the veneration of icons with the help of Patriarch Methodios . Iconoclasm played a part in the further alienation of East from West , which worsened during the so-called Photian schism , when Pope Nicholas I challenged the elevation of Photios to the patriarchate . Macedonian dynasty and resurgence ( 867–1025 ) The accession of Basil I to the throne in 867 marks the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty , which would rule for the next two and a half centuries

qw_10445--Byzantine_Empire.txt

What is the name of 11 Roman Emperors, the first of which transferred the capital to Byzantium in 330 AD, and the last of which died when it was captured by the Turks in 1453?

Joely Kim Richardson ( born 9 January 1965 ) is an English actress , known for her role as Julia McNamara in the FX drama series Nip/Tuck ( 2003–10 ) , and Queen Catherine Parr in the Showtime series The Tudors ( 2010 ) . She has also appeared in films such as 101 Dalmatians ( 1996 ) , Event Horizon ( 1997 ) , The Patriot ( 2000 ) , Anonymous ( 2011 ) , and the Hollywood film adaptation The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 ) . Early life Richardson was born in Marylebone , London to the theatrical Redgrave family , the daughter of actress Vanessa Redgrave and director Tony Richardson , and the granddaughter of actors Sir Michael Redgrave and Rachel Kempson , Lady Redgrave . She is the sister of the late actress Natasha Richardson ( 1963–2009 ) , and through her , she is the sister-in-law of actor Liam Neeson , and the aunt of Micheál and Daniel Neeson . She was the niece of the late Lynn Redgrave and the late Corin Redgrave and cousin of actress Jemma Redgrave , who is just five days younger than Richardson . Joely Richardson appeared as an extra at the age of three in the 1968 version of The Charge of the Light Brigade , directed by her father . Richardson and her sister Natasha 's early education began in London at the independent St Paul 's Girls ' School in Hammersmith . At age 14 Richardson moved to boarding school at the independent Harry Hopman Tennis School in Tampa , Florida . In 1983 , she graduated from the Thacher School in Ojai , California , then returned to London to study at Royal Academy of Dramatic Art . Career Possessing an early ambition to become a professional tennis player , she spent two years at a tennis academy in Florida . Richardson then turned to acting . In 1985 , she portrayed , by flashbacks , the younger version of the leading character played by her mother in the film Wetherby . After a leading role in Peter Greenaway 's cult success Drowning by Numbers ( 1988 ) , her first major role in front of a mass audience was as Joanna Farley in a 1989 television episode of Poirot , based on Agatha Christie 's detective series . In a 1989 episode of Jim Henson 's The Storyteller , she was cast as a princess . She portrayed a teacher on the verge of a nervous breakdown in the 1989 Channel 4 serial Behaving Badly and fictional Finnish Princess Anna ( with `` a voice like a tuba '' ) in the 1991 screen comedy King Ralph . A year later she appeared in Shining Through alongside her future brother-in-law , Liam Neeson , when both played Nazis . In 1993 , Richardson appeared in the BBC 's Lady Chatterley opposite Sean Bean . In 1996 , she played fashion designer Anita Campbell-Green in the Disney live-action remake of the animated 101 Dalmatians opposite Glenn Close as Cruella de Vil . In 1998 , in the popular television drama The Echo , she played Amanda Powell . The next year , she played in the science fiction horror film Event Horizon as Lieutenant Starck , executive officer of the research and rescue ship Lewis and Clark , sent to rescue crew of the long-lost experimental ship Event Horizon . One year later , Richardson appeared opposite Mel Gibson in the film The Patriot , an American film based on the American Revolution . Also in 2000 , she appeared opposite Hugh Laurie in Maybe Baby , Ben Elton 's film adaptation of his book Inconceivable . She was cast in the 2001 film The Affair of the Necklace after director Charles Shyer noticed her resemblance to doomed 18th century French Queen Marie Antoinette . In 2003 , Richardson took on the role of Julia McNamara in the television drama Nip/Tuck , based on the lives of two plastic surgeons in Miami . Her mother , Vanessa Redgrave , has appeared in several episodes , playing her character 's mother . In 2005 , Richardson starred in Lies My Mother Told Me , based on a true story about a murderous con artist . In 2007 , she played the mother in The Last Mimzy with Timothy Hutton and Chris O'Neil . She also starred in the television drama Wallis & Edward , playing the lead role of Wallis Simpson , lover of Edward , Prince of Wales . In 2009-10 , Richardson appeared as Catherine Parr , sixth wife of Henry VIII , in the fourth ( and final ) season of Showtime 's hit period drama The Tudors . The role reunited her with her ex-husband Tim Bevan , who was part of the show 's production team . Joely has recently joined the cast of TV series Titanic - Blood and Steel in which she will play the role of Countess Markievicz . In 2015 she co-starred alongside Arnold Schwarzenegger in the Zombie thriller film Maggie . Personal life Richardson is divorced from film producer Tim Bevan . The couple has a daughter , Daisy Bevan ( b . 1992 ) , who is also an actress . Richardson had an affair with Archie Stirling resulting in the failure of his marriage to Diana Rigg in 1990 . ( Farndale , Nigel ( 6 July 2008 ) . `` Diana Rigg : Her Story '' . The Daily Telegraph ( London ) . Retrieved 27 May 2014 . ) Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Notes

tc_1243--Joely_Richardson.txt

What relation is Joey Richardson to Vanessa Redgrave?

Moses ( ; , Modern Tiberian ISO 259-3 ; Moushe ; ; in both the Septuagint and the New Testament ) is a prophet in Abrahamic religions . According to the Hebrew Bible , he was a former Egyptian prince who later in life became a religious leader and lawgiver , to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed . Also called Moshe Rabbenu in Hebrew ( , lit . `` Moses our Teacher '' ) , he is the most important prophet in Judaism . He is also an important prophet in Christianity , Islam , Baha'ism as well as a number of other faiths . According to the Book of Exodus , Moses was born in a time when his people , the Israelites , an enslaved minority , were increasing in numbers and the Egyptian Pharaoh was worried that they might ally themselves with Egypt 's enemies . Moses ' Hebrew mother , Jochebed , secretly hid him when the Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew boys to be killed in order to reduce the population of the Israelites . Through the Pharaoh 's daughter ( identified as Queen Bithia in the Midrash ) , the child was adopted as a foundling from the Nile river and grew up with the Egyptian royal family . After killing an Egyptian slavemaster ( because the slavemaster was smiting a Hebrew to death ) , Moses fled across the Red Sea to Midian , where he encountered The Angel of the Lord , speaking to him from within a burning bush on Mount Horeb ( which he regarded as the Mountain of God ) . God sent Moses back to Egypt to demand the release of the Israelites from slavery . Moses said that he could not speak with assurance or eloquence , so God allowed Aaron , his brother , to become his spokesperson . After the Ten Plagues , Moses led the Exodus of the Israelites out of Egypt and across the Red Sea , after which they based themselves at Mount Sinai , where Moses received the Ten Commandments . After 40 years of wandering in the desert , Moses died within sight of the Promised Land . According to archaeologist William G. Dever , scholarly consensus sees Moses as a legendary figure and not a historical person . Archaeological evidence does not support a mass-migration from Egypt , as described in the Bible . Rabbinical Judaism calculated a lifespan of Moses corresponding to 1391–1271 ( 120 years ) BCE ; Jerome gives 1592 BCE , and James Ussher 1571 BCE as his birth year . Name The Biblical account of Moses ' birth provides him with a folk etymology to explain the ostensible meaning of his name . He is said to have received it from the Pharaoh 's daughter : `` he became her son . She named him Moses ( Moshe ) , saying , `` I drew him out ( meshitihu ) of the water . '' Lorena Miralles Maciá , `` Judaizing a Gentile Biblical Character through Fictive Biographical Reports : The Case of Bityah , Pharaoh 's Daughter , Moses ' Mother , according to Rabbinic Interpretations , '' in Constanza Cordoni , Gerhard Langer ( eds . ) , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? idAWMIBAAAQBAJ & pg PA155 Narratology , Hermeneutics , and Midrash : Jewish , Christian , and Muslim Narratives from Late Antiquity through to Modern Times , ] Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht/University of Vienna Press , 2014 pp.145-175 p.155 . This explanation links it to a verb mashah , meaning `` to draw out '' , which makes the Pharaoh 's daughter 's declaration a play on words . The princess made a grammatical mistake which is prophetic of his role in his future life , as someone who will `` draw the people of Israel out of Egypt through the waters of the Red Sea . '' Several etymologies have been proposed . An Egyptian root msy , 'child of ' , has been considered as a possible etymology , arguably an abbreviation of a theophoric name , as for example in Egyptian names like Thutmoses ( Thoth created him ) and Ramesses ( Ra created him ) , Christopher B. Hays , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id r5W7BwAAQBAJ & pg=PA116 Hidden Riches : A Sourcebook for the Comparative Study of the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near East , ] Presbyterian Publishing Corp , 2014 p.116 . with the god 's name omitted . Abraham Yahuda , based on the spelling given in the Tanakh , argues that it combines 'water ' or 'seed ' and 'pond , expanse of water ' , thus yielding the sense of `` child of the Nile '' ( mw-še ) . The Hebrew etymology in the Biblical story may reflect an attempt to cancel out traces of Moses ' Egyptian origins . The Egyptian character of his name was recognized as such by ancient Jewish writers like Philo of Alexandria and Josephus.Franz V. Greifenhagen , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? idr1evAwAAQBAJ & pg PA63 Egypt on the Pentateuch 's Ideological Map : Constructing Biblical Israel 's Identity , ] Bloomsbury Publishing , 2003 pp.60ff.p.62 n.65.p.63 . Philo linked Mōēsēs ( ) to the Egyptian ( Coptic ) word for water ( mou/μῶυ ) , while Josephus , in his Antiquities of the Jews , claimed that the second element , -esês , meant 'those who are saved ' . The problem of how an Egyptian princess , known to Josephus as Thermutis ( identified as Tharmuth ) and in later Jewish tradition as Bithiah , could have known Hebrew puzzled medieval Jewish commentators like Abraham ibn Ezra and Hezekiah ben Manoah , known also as Hizkuni . Hizkuni suggested she either converted or took a tip from Jochebed.Jeffrey K. Salkin , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id-dzNOFuoEigC & pg PA54 Righteous Gentiles in the Hebrew Bible : Ancient Role Models for Sacred Relationships , ] Jewish Lights Publishing , 2008 pp.47 ff. , p.54 . Biblical narrative Prophet and deliverer of Israel The Israelites had settled in the Land of Goshen in the time of Joseph and Jacob , but a new pharaoh arose who oppressed the children of Israel . At this time Moses was born to his father Amram , son of Kehath the Levite , who entered Egypt with Jacob 's household ; his mother was Jochebed ( also Yocheved ) , who was kin to Kehath . Moses had one older ( by seven years ) sister , Miriam , and one older ( by three years ) brother , Aaron . The Pharaoh had commanded that all male Hebrew children born would be drowned in the river Nile , but Moses ' mother placed him in an ark and concealed the ark in the bulrushes by the riverbank , where the baby was discovered and adopted by Pharaoh 's daughter . One day after Moses had reached adulthood he killed an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew . Moses , in order to escape the Pharaoh 's death penalty , fled to Midian ( a desert country south of Judah ) . There , on Mount Horeb , God revealed to Moses his name YHWH ( probably pronounced Yahweh ) and commanded him to return to Egypt and bring his chosen people ( Israel ) out of bondage and into the Promised Land ( Canaan ) . Moses returned to carry out God 's command , but God caused the Pharaoh to refuse , and only after God had subjected Egypt to ten plagues did the Pharaoh relent . Moses led the Israelites to the border of Egypt , but there God hardened the Pharaoh 's heart once more , so that he could destroy the Pharaoh and his army at the Red Sea Crossing as a sign of his power to Israel and the nations . From Egypt , Moses led the Israelites to biblical Mount Sinai , where he was given the Ten Commandments from God , written on stone tablets . However , since Moses remained a long time on the mountain , some of the people feared that he might be dead , so they made a statue of a golden calf and worshiped it , thus disobeying and angering God and Moses . Moses , out of anger , broke the tablets , and later ordered the elimination of those who had worshiped the golden statue , which was melted down and fed to the idolaters . He also wrote the ten commandments on a new set of tablets . Later at Mount Sinai , Moses and the elders entered into a covenant , by which Israel would become the people of YHWH , obeying his laws , and YHWH would be their god . Moses delivered the laws of God to Israel , instituted the priesthood under the sons of Moses ' brother Aaron , and destroyed those Israelites who fell away from his worship . In his final act at Sinai , God gave Moses instructions for the Tabernacle , the mobile shrine by which he would travel with Israel to the Promised Land . From Sinai , Moses led the Israelites to the Desert of Paran on the border of Canaan . From there he sent twelve spies into the land . The spies returned with samples of the land 's fertility , but warned that its inhabitants were giants . The people were afraid and wanted to return to Egypt , and some rebelled against Moses and against God . Moses told the Israelites that they were not worthy to inherit the land , and would wander the wilderness for forty years until the generation who had refused to enter Canaan had died , so that it would be their children who would possess the land . When the forty years had passed , Moses led the Israelites east around the Dead Sea to the territories of Edom and Moab . There they escaped the temptation of idolatry , received God 's blessing through Balaam the prophet , and massacred the Midianites , who by the end of the Exodus journey had become the enemies of the Israelites . Moses was twice given notice that he would die before entry to the Promised Land : in Numbers 27:13 , once he had seen the Promised Land from a viewpoint on Mount Abarim , and again in Numbers 31:1 once battle with the Midianites had been won . On the banks of the Jordan River , in sight of the land , Moses assembled the tribes . After recalling their wanderings he delivered God 's laws by which they must live in the land , sang a song of praise and pronounced a blessing on the people , and passed his authority to Joshua , under whom they would possess the land . Moses then went up Mount Nebo to the top of Pisgah , looked over the promised land of Israel spread out before him , and died , at the age of one hundred and twenty . More humble than any other man ( Num . 12:3 ) , `` there hath not arisen a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses , whom YHWH knew face to face '' ( Deuteronomy 34:10 ) . The New Testament states that after Moses ' death , Michael the Archangel and the Devil disputed over his body ( Epistle of Jude 1:9 ) . Lawgiver of Israel Moses is honoured among Jews today as the `` lawgiver of Israel '' , and he delivers several sets of laws in the course of the four books . The first is the Covenant Code ( Exodus – ) , the terms of the covenant which God offers to the Israelites at biblical Mount Sinai . Embedded in the covenant are the Decalogue ( the Ten Commandments , Exodus 20:1–17 ) and the Book of the Covenant ( Exodus 20:22–23:19 ) . The entire Book of Leviticus constitutes a second body of law , the Book of Numbers begins with yet another set , and the Book of Deuteronomy another . Moses has traditionally been regarded as the author of those four books and the Book of Genesis , which together comprise the Torah , the first and most revered section of the Hebrew Bible . Historicity According to archaeologist William G. Dever , the scholarly consensus is that the figure of Moses is legendary , and not historical.William G. Dever 'What Remains of the House That Albright Built ? , ' in George Ernest Wright , Frank Moore Cross , Edward Fay Campbell , Floyd Vivian Filson ( eds . ) The Biblical Archaeologist , American Schools of Oriental Research , Scholars Press , Vol . 56 , No 1 , 2 March 1993 pp.25-35 , p.33 : 'the overwhelming scholarly consensus today is that Moses is a mythical figure . ' However , he concedes that a `` Moses-like figure '' may have existed somewhere in the southern Transjordan in the mid-13th century BC . Certainly no Egyptian sources mention Moses or the events of Exodus-Deuteronomy , nor has any archaeological evidence been discovered in Egypt or the Sinai wilderness to support the story in which he is the central figure . The story of his discovery picks up a familiar motif in ancient Near Eastern mythological accounts of the ruler who rises from humble origins : Thus Sargon of Akkad 's Sumerian account of his origins runs ; My mother , the high priestess , conceived ; in secret she bore me She set me in a basket of rushes , with bitumen she sealed my lid She cast me into the river which rose over me . The tradition of Moses as a lawgiver and culture hero of the Israelites may go back to the 7th-century BC sources of the Deuteronomist , which might conserve earlier traditions . Kenneth Kitchen , a solitary voice among British Egyptologists , argues that there is an historic core behind the Exodus , with Egyptian corvée labour exacted from Hebrews during the imperialist control exercised by the Egyptian Empire over Canaan from the time of the Thutmosides down to the revolt against Merneptah and Rameses III . William Albright believed in the essential historicity of the biblical tales of Moses and the Exodus , accepting however that the core narrative had been overlaid by legendary accretions . Biblical minimalists such as Philip R. Davies and Niels Peter Lemche regard all biblical books , and the stories of an Exodus , united monarchy , exile and return as fictions composed by a social elite in Yehud in the Persian period or even later , the purpose being to legitimize a return to indigenous roots . Despite the imposing fame associated with Moses , no source mentions him until he emerges in texts associated with the Babylonian exile.George W. Coats , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id bk7_CMIAQOsC & pgPA10 Moses : Heroic Man , Man of God , ] A & C Black , 1988 pp.10ff ( p.11 Albright ; pp.29-30 , Noth ) . A theory developed by Cornelius Tiele in 1872 , which had proved influential , and still held in regard by modern scholars , argued that Yahweh was a Midianite god , introduced to the Israelites by Moses , whose father-in-law Jethro was a Midianite priest . It was to such a Moses that Yahweh reveals his real name , hidden from the Patriarchs who knew him only as El Shaddai , Against this view is the modern consensus that most of the Israelites were native to Palestine . Martin Noth argued that the Pentateuch uses the figure of Moses , originally linked to legends of a Transjordan conquest , as a narrative bracket or late reductional device to weld together 4 of the 5 , originally independent , themes of that work . Manfred Görg , and Rolf Krauss the latter in a somewhat sensationalist manner , have suggested that the Moses story is a distortion or transmogrification of the historical pharaoh Amenmose ( ca . 1200 BCE ) , who was dismissed from office and whose name was later simplified to msy ( Mose ) . Aidan Dodson regards this hypothesis as `` intriguing , but beyond proof . '' The name King Mesha of Moab has been linked to that of Moses . Mesha also is associated with narratives of an exodus and a conquest , and several motifs in stories about him are shared with the Exodus tale and that regarding Israel 's war with Moab ( 2 Kings:3 ) . Moab rebels against oppression , like Moses , leads his people out of Israel , as Moses does from Egypt , and his first-born son is slaughtered at the wall of Kir-hareseth as the firstborn of Israel are condemned to slaughter in the Exodus story , `` an infernal passover that delivers Mesha while wrath burns against his enemies '' . An Egyptian version of the tale that crosses over with the Moses story is found in Manetho who , according to the summary in Josephus , wrote that a certain Osarseph , a Heliopolitan priest , became overseer of a band of lepers , when Amenophis , following indications by Amenhotep , son of Hapu , had all the lepers in Egypt quarantined in order to cleanse the land so that he might see the gods . The lepers are bundled into Avaris , the former capital of the Hyksos , where Osarseph prescribes for them everything forbidden in Egypt , while proscribing everything permitted in Egypt . They invite the Hyksos to reinvade Egypt , rule with them for 13 years – Osarseph then assumes the name Moses - and are then driven out . Exodus narrative The Exodus narrative , which in traditional chronology begins with the impossible date of 1496 BCE , itself has resisted numerous attempts to verify it or ground it in archaeological digs , which have been abandoned as a `` fruitless pursuit , '' since the evidence points to an indigenous origin for Israelites . Attempts to locate the Yam Suph ( Reed sea/Red Sea ) as described in Exodus have failed.Carol Meyers , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id0QHHITXsyskC & pg PA112 Exodus , ] Cambridge University Press 2005 p.112 ( population of 600,000 p.100 ) The figure of 600,000 adult males described in Exodus 12:37 , or 603,550 at Exodus 38:26 , would imply a total population of Israelites in flight through the desert for 40 years of 2 to 2.5 million people , when the total population of Egypt at the time was 3 to 4.5 million . Had such a catastrophic demographic outflow taken place , it would have been recorded in Egyptian writings.K . L. Noll , [ https : //books.google.it/books ? id hMeRK7B1EsMC & pgPA97 Canaan and Israel in Antiquity : A Textbook on History and Religion , ] 2nd Edition A & C Black , 2012 pp.97-99 Sources Apart from a few scattered references elsewhere in the Jewish scriptures , all that is known about Moses comes from the books of Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers and Deuteronomy . The majority of scholars consider these books to go back to the Persian period , 538–332 BCE . Moses in Hellenistic literature Non-biblical writings about Jews , with references to the role of Moses , first appear at the beginning of the Hellenistic period , from 323 BCE to about 146 BCE . Shmuel notes that `` a characteristic of this literature is the high honour in which it holds the peoples of the East in general and some specific groups among these peoples . '' In addition to the Judeo-Roman or Judeo-Hellenic historians Artapanus , Eupolemus , Josephus , and Philo , a few non-Jewish historians including Hecataeus of Abdera ( quoted by Diodorus Siculus ) , Alexander Polyhistor , Manetho , Apion , Chaeremon of Alexandria , Tacitus and Porphyry also make reference to him . The extent to which any of these accounts rely on earlier sources is unknown . Moses also appears in other religious texts such as the Mishnah ( c. 200 CE ) , Midrash ( 200–1200 CE ) , and the Quran ( c. 610–53 ) . The figure of Osarseph in Hellenistic historiography is a renegade Egyptian priest who leads an army of lepers against the pharaoh and is finally expelled from Egypt , changing his name to Moses . In Hecataeus The earliest existing reference to Moses in Greek literature occurs in the Egyptian history of Hecataeus of Abdera ( 4th century BCE ) . All that remains of his description of Moses are two references made by Diodorus Siculus , wherein , writes historian Arthur Droge , `` he describes Moses as a wise and courageous leader who left Egypt and colonized Judaea . '' Among the many accomplishments described by Hecataeus , Moses had founded cities , established a temple and religious cult , and issued laws : Droge also points out that this statement by Hecataeus was similar to statements made subsequently by Eupolemus . In Artapanus The Jewish historian Artapanus of Alexandria ( 2nd century BCE ) , portrayed Moses as a cultural hero , alien to the Pharaonic court . According to theologian John Barclay , the Moses of Artapanus `` clearly bears the destiny of the Jews , and in his personal , cultural and military splendor , brings credit to the whole Jewish people . '' Artapanus goes on to relate how Moses returns to Egypt with Aaron , and is imprisoned , but miraculously escapes through the name of YHWH in order to lead the Exodus . This account further testifies that all Egyptian temples of Isis thereafter contained a rod , in remembrance of that used for Moses ' miracles . He describes Moses as 80 years old , `` tall and ruddy , with long white hair , and dignified . '' Some historians , however , point out the `` apologetic nature of much of Artapanus ' work , '' with his addition of extra-biblical details , such as his references to Jethro : the non-Jewish Jethro expresses admiration for Moses ' gallantry in helping his daughters , and chooses to adopt Moses as his son . In Strabo Strabo , a Greek historian , geographer and philosopher , in his Geographica ( c. 24 CE ) , wrote in detail about Moses , whom he considered to be an Egyptian who deplored the situation in his homeland , and thereby attracted many followers who respected the deity . He writes , for example , that Moses opposed the picturing of the deity in the form of man or animal , and was convinced that the deity was an entity which encompassed everything – land and sea : In Strabo 's writings of the history of Judaism as he understood it , he describes various stages in its development : from the first stage , including Moses and his direct heirs ; to the final stage where `` the Temple of Jerusalem continued to be surrounded by an aura of sanctity . '' Strabo 's `` positive and unequivocal appreciation of Moses ' personality is among the most sympathetic in all ancient literature . '' His portrayal of Moses is said to be similar to the writing of Hecataeus who `` described Moses as a man who excelled in wisdom and courage . '' Egyptologist Jan Assmann concludes that Strabo was the historian `` who came closest to a construction of Moses ' religion as monotheistic and as a pronounced counter-religion . '' It recognized `` only one divine being whom no image can represent ... [ and ] the only way to approach this god is to live in virtue and in justice . '' In Tacitus The Roman historian Tacitus ( c. 56–120 CE ) refers to Moses by noting that the Jewish religion was monotheistic and without a clear image . His primary work , wherein he describes Jewish philosophy , is his Histories ( c. 100 ) , where , according to Arthur Murphy , as a result of the Jewish worship of one God , `` pagan mythology fell into contempt . '' Tacitus states that , despite various opinions current in his day regarding the Jews ' ethnicity , most of his sources are in agreement that there was an Exodus from Egypt . By his account , the Pharaoh Bocchoris , suffering from a plague , banished the Jews in response to an oracle of the god Zeus-Amun . In this version , Moses and the Jews wander through the desert for only six days , capturing the Holy Land on the seventh.Tacitus , Cornelius . Tacitus , The Histories , Volume 2 , Book V. Chapters 5 , 6 p. 208 . In Longinus The Septuagint , the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible , influenced Longinus , who may have been the author of the great book of literary criticism , On the Sublime . The date of composition is unknown , but it is commonly assigned to the late Ist century C.E . The writer quotes Genesis in a `` style which presents the nature of the deity in a manner suitable to his pure and great being , '' however he does not mention Moses by name , calling him 'no chance person ' ( ) but `` the Lawgiver '' ( , thesmothete ) of the Jews , '' a term that puts him on a par with Lycurgus and Minos . Aside from a reference to Cicero , Moses is the only non-Greek writer quoted in the work , contextually he is put on a par with Homer , . and he is described `` with far more admiration than even Greek writers who treated Moses with respect , such as Hecataeus and Strabo . In Josephus In Josephus ' ( 37 – c. 100 CE ) Antiquities of the Jews , Moses is mentioned throughout . For example Book VIII Ch . IV , describes Solomon 's Temple , also known as the First Temple , at the time the Ark of the Covenant was first moved into the newly built temple : According to Feldman , Josephus also attaches particular significance to Moses ' possession of the `` cardinal virtues of wisdom , courage , temperance , and justice . '' He also includes piety as an added fifth virtue . In addition , he `` stresses Moses ' willingness to undergo toil and his careful avoidance of bribery . Like Plato 's philosopher-king , Moses excels as an educator . '' In Numenius Numenius , a Greek philosopher who was a native of Apamea , in Syria , wrote during the latter half of the 2nd century CE . Historian Kennieth Guthrie writes that `` Numenius is perhaps the only recognized Greek philosopher who explicitly studied Moses , the prophets , and the life of Jesus ... '' He describes his background : In Justin Martyr The Christian saint and religious philosopher Justin Martyr ( 103–165 CE ) drew the same conclusion as Numenius , according to other experts . Theologian Paul Blackham notes that Justin considered Moses to be `` more trustworthy , profound and truthful because he is older than the Greek philosophers . '' He quotes him : Moses in Abrahamic religions Judaism There is a wealth of stories and additional information about Moses in the Jewish apocrypha and in the genre of rabbinical exegesis known as Midrash , as well as in the primary works of the Jewish oral law , the Mishnah and the Talmud . Moses is also given a number of bynames in Jewish tradition . The Midrash identifies Moses as one of seven biblical personalities who were called by various names . Moses ' other names were : Jekuthiel ( by his mother ) , Heber ( by his father ) , Jered ( by Miriam ) , Avi Zanoah ( by Aaron ) , Avi Gedor ( by Kohath ) , Avi Soco ( by his wet-nurse ) , Shemaiah ben Nethanel ( by people of Israel ) . Moses is also attributed the names Toviah ( as a first name ) , and Levi ( as a family name ) ( Vayikra Rabbah 1:3 ) , Heman , Mechoqeiq ( lawgiver ) and Ehl Gav Ish ( Numbers 12:3 ) . Jewish historians who lived at Alexandria , such as Eupolemus , attributed to Moses the feat of having taught the Phoenicians their alphabet , similar to legends of Thoth . Artapanus of Alexandria explicitly identified Moses not only with Thoth/Hermes , but also with the Greek figure Musaeus ( whom he called `` the teacher of

dpql_5107--Moses.txt

According to several early Old Testament books, who led the Israelites after the death of Moses?

Bryan Guy Adams , ( born 5 November 1959 ) is a Canadian singer , guitarist , songwriter , photographer , and activist . One of the world 's best-selling artists of all time , Adams in his more than thirty five-year career has sold 100 million records and singles worldwide . Adams rose to fame in North America with his 1983 album Cuts Like a Knife and turned into a global star with his 1984 album Reckless which produced some of his best known songs including `` Run to You '' and `` Summer of '69 '' . In 1991 , he released `` ( Everything I Do ) I Do It for You '' , one of the best-selling singles of all time . Adams also spawned the U.S . Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles `` Heaven '' , `` All for Love '' and `` Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman ? `` . For his contributions to music , Adams has garnered many awards and nominations , including 20 Juno Awards among 56 nominations , 15 Grammy Award nominations including a win for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television in 1992 . He has also won MTV , ASCAP , American Music awards , three Ivor Novello Awards for song composition and has been nominated five times for Golden Globe Awards and three times for Academy Awards for his songwriting for films . Adams was awarded the Order of Canada and the Order of British Columbia for contributions to popular music and philanthropic work via his own foundation , which helps improve education for people around the world . Adams was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame in March 2011 and Canada 's Walk of Fame , Canadian Broadcast Hall of Fame in 1998. , and in April 2006 he was inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame at Canada 's Juno Awards . In 2008 , Adams was ranked 38th on the list of All-Time top artists in the Billboard Hot 100 50th Anniversary Charts . On 13 January 2010 , he received the Allan Waters Humanitarian Award for his part in numerous charitable concerts and campaigns during his career , and on 1 May 2010 was given the Governor General 's Performing Arts Award for his 30 years of contributions to the arts . Life and career Early life Adams was born in Kingston , Ontario , Canada , to British parents , Elizabeth Jane ( née Watson ) and Captain Conrad J. Adams , who immigrated to Canada from Plymouth , England in the 1950s . Adams ' father , a Sandhurst officer in the British Army , joined the Canadian Army and later spent time as a United Nations peacekeeping observer for Canada , which led to him becoming a Canadian foreign service diplomat . Adams travelled with his parents to diplomatic postings in Portugal ( where he attended the American International School of Lisbon ) and Vienna , Austria , during the 1960s , and to Israel during the early 1970s . Adams has a brother , Bruce . Early career By 17 , Adams had started working in the Vancouver studio scene , working as a background vocalist for the CBC and backing local artists and with Motown keyboardist Robbie King , whom Adams attributes as having given him his first salaried session . Prior to that at age 15-16 he fronted various pub bands like Sweeney Todd that released `` If Wishes Were Horses '' and was often seen sitting in with other cover bands . He and his guitarist Keith Scott met during those club years and still work together today . In 1978 , at 18 , Adams met Jim Vallance through a mutual friend in a Vancouver music store . Vallance was the former drummer and principal songwriter for Vancouver-based rock band Prism and had recently quit that band to focus on a career as a studio musician and songwriter . They agreed to meet at Vallance 's home studio a few days later , which proved to be the beginning of a partnership which still exists in 2016 . Later in 1978 , Adams signed to A & M records for one dollar . Some of the first demos written in 1978 have surfaced over the years , most notably `` I 'm Ready '' ( recorded for both the album Cuts Like a Knife and later his release for MTV Unplugged ) and `` Remember , '' which was recorded on his first album . Both songs were covered by other artists even before his first album was released . Also recorded during this time was the disco song `` Let Me Take You Dancing '' featuring Adams 's vocal sped up to meet the 122BPM dance tempo , the song made the Canadian RPM chart in March 1979 along with its B-Side `` Do n't Turn Me Away '' . `` Straight From The Heart '' was also written during this period . The song was later recorded for Adams 's third album `` Cuts Like A Knife '' in 1983 and released as a single , becoming Adams 's first top 10 record in the U.S. in 1983 . 1980s Adams 's self-titled debut album was released in February 1980 , and marked the beginning of what was to become a long songwriting partnership between Adams and co-writer Jim Vallance . With the exception of `` Remember '' and `` Wastin ' Time '' , most of the album was recorded from 29 October up until 29 November 1979 at Manta Studios in Toronto and co-produced by Adams and Vallance . The album was certified gold in Canada in 1986 . Adams 's second album , You Want It You Got It , was recorded in New York City in two weeks and it marked Adams 's first album co-produced by Bob Clearmountain . It was released in 1981 and contained the FM radio hit `` Lonely Nights '' , ( as well as Seattle-area favorite `` Fits Ya Good '' ) but it was not until his third album that he achieved international recognition , popularity . Adams also co-wrote songs for other artists during this time including Billboard charted songs like `` No Way to Treat a Lady '' for Bonnie Raitt and `` Do n't Let Him Know '' for Prism . Cuts Like a Knife , which was released in January 1983 , was Adams 's breakout album due mainly to the lead singles . `` Straight from the Heart '' was the most successful song , reaching # 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Another single , `` Cuts Like a Knife '' charted at number 15 . `` This Time '' also placed on the Hot 100 . Music videos were released for four of the singles from the album . `` Cuts Like a Knife '' arguably became Adams 's most recognizable and popular song from the album . Its music video received heavy airplay on music television channels . The album peaked at number eight on the Billboard 200 album chart and achieved three times platinum status in Canada , platinum in the United States and gold in Australia . Adams 's album , Reckless , produced by Adams and Bob Clearmountain , peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 . The album was released in November 1984 and featured the singles , `` Run to You '' , `` Summer of '69 '' , `` Heaven '' , `` One Night Love Affair '' , `` Somebody '' , and `` It 's Only Love '' , a duet with Tina Turner . All the singles had accompanying music videos and all charted on the Billboard Hot 100 but only `` Run to You '' , `` Summer of '69 '' , and `` Heaven '' peaked in the top ten . `` Heaven '' became the most successful single from Reckless at the time of its release on the pop charts , reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and number nine on the mainstream rock chart . `` It 's Only Love '' was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group . In 1986 , the song won an MTV award for Best Stage Performance . After the release of the album , Adams was nominated for Best Male Rock Performance . The album is Adams 's best-selling album in the United States and was certified five times platinum . In December 1984 , Adams embarked on a two-year world tour to launch the album starting in Canada and United States , then into Japan , Australia , back to the UK and again to Canada . After winning four Juno Awards , he headed south towards the American West Coast , culminating with two dates at the Paladium in Los Angeles . After the tour in the United States , Adams took part of a grand ensemble of Canadian artists named Northern Lights , who recorded `` Tears Are Not Enough '' for the African famine-relief effort . Adams later headed back to Europe for a 50-city concert tour with rock singer Tina Turner , culminating in April with his return to London to headline three sold-out shows at the Hammersmith Odeon . Adams began the first leg of his tour entitled `` World Wide in '85 '' which started in Oklahoma and ended in October 1985 . Adams later visited Vancouver , Canada , and afterward returned to the American East Coast to play two sold-out concerts in New York . In 1985 , Adams worked on Roger Daltrey 's sixth solo album Under a Raging Moon , which was a tribute album to The Who 's former drummer Keith Moon who died in 1978 . Adams co wrote two tracks for the album those being : `` Let Me Down Easy '' and `` Rebel '' . The track `` Let Me Down Easy '' was a Top 15 Hit on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Tracks and featured Adams playing guitar and singing backing vocals aside Roger Daltrey also with Robbie McIntosh playing guitar in the music video . Nearly 30 years later , Adams would release his own version of Let Me Down Easy on a 30-year anniversary version of Reckless . The follow-up album to Reckless was Into the Fire which was released in 1987 . The album was recorded at Cliffhanger Studios in Vancouver , British Columbia and mixed at AIR Studios in London and Warehouse Studio in Vancouver . This album contained the hit songs `` Heat of the Night '' and `` Hearts on Fire '' and hit the Top 10 on both sides of the Atlantic . 1990s On the 24 September 1991 , Adams released the album Waking Up the Neighbours . Co-produced by Adams and Mutt Lange , it topped the charts around the world including number 1 in both the UK and Germany and number 6 on the Billboard 200 . The album featured four singles including `` ( Everything I Do ) I Do It for You '' , that also featured in the motion picture Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves and spent 16 consecutive weeks at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart . That was followed by `` Ca n't Stop This Thing We Started '' which peaked at number 2 in the USA , `` Do I Have to Say the Words ? '' reached number 11 , and in the UK , `` Thought I 'd Died and Gone to Heaven '' was the second most successful single reaching the Top 10 . The album won many awards including a Grammy Award in 1991 for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television . July 6 , 1991 was the start off of the `` Waking Up the World '' tour which went on until 1993 . The first concert was at Milton Keynes festival with ZZTop . Adams played whirlwind tour brought him to places many Western artists had never played , India , Egypt , Portugal , Vietnam , Reykjavík , Iceland to name a few . On the 13 January 1992 , the Canadian leg of the tour kicked off in Sydney , Nova Scotia and wrapped up with a standing room only concert in Vancouver , Canada , on 31 January . February 1992 , Adams toured New Zealand and Australia for seven dates—kicking off with a press conference in Sydney . On the 21 February , the tour headed to Japan for approximately a dozen shows in six cities . The tour continued through several European countries in June 1992 , including Italy , Germany , Holland and Scandinavia , and in July 1992 , Adams performed for the first time in Hungary and Turkey ( where he filmed his video for `` Do I Have To Say The Words ? `` ) . The USA tour continued from September through December 1993 . February 1993 was the Asian leg of the tour including Thailand , Singapore , Japan , and Hong Kong and then straight back to the US to tour from March - May 1993 In 1993 he collaborated with Rod Stewart and Sting for the single `` All for Love '' co-written by Adams for the Motion Picture Soundtrack of the movie Three Musketeers . The single topped the charts worldwide . In November 1993 , Adams released a compilation album entitled So Far So Good , that again topped the Charts in numerous countries such as the UK , Germany and Australia . It included a brand new song called `` Please Forgive Me '' , that became another number 1 single in Australia as well as reaching the Top 3 in the US , the UK and Germany . It was followed in 1995 by , `` Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman ? '' ( song released from the Motion Picture Soundtrack of the movie Don Juan DeMarco ) . It was number 1 in the US and Australia as well as a Top 5 hit in the UK and Germany . In June 1996 the album 18 til I Die was released . It contained the three singles including two UK Top 10 singles `` The Only Thing That Looks Good on Me '' and `` Lets Make a Night to Remember '' and `` Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman ? `` . The album peaked at number thirty-one on the Billboard 200 in the United States and held that position for three weeks . It was far more successful in Europe and Australia reaching the top spot on the UK charts for Adams 's third number 1 in a row . The album has been certified platinum in the United States by the RIAA . 18 til I Die was certified three times platinum in Canada and Australia and two times platinum in the UK . On 27 July 1996 , Adams performed his second sold-out Wembley Stadium in London in front of a crowd of approximately 70,000 . In 1996 , Adams joined Don Henley on stage with a Duet at Live at Honors , Everybody Knows . In December 1997 , Adams released MTV Unplugged with three new tracks : `` Back to You '' , `` A Little Love '' and `` When You Love Someone '' . `` Back to You '' was the first single , followed by `` I 'm Ready '' , an acoustic version of the Cut 's Like A Knife track . The album was a top 10 success in Germany while both singles reached the top 20 in the UK . On a Day Like Today was released in 1998 and the release coincided with his contract being sold to Interscope Records . Despite Interscope 's involvement or lack of , On a Day Like Today enjoyed tremendous success internationally , entering the Top 5 in Germany and was certified platinum in the UK . It generated two British Top 10 singles : `` Cloud Number Nine '' and `` When You 're Gone '' , which featured Melanie C of The Spice Girls . In 1990 , Adams voiced the evil rat henchman Hoodwink in the Canadian children 's animated television special The Real Story of the Three Little Kittens which was created and produced for The Real Story of ... ( a.k.a . Favorite Songs ) anthology series . It was first broadcast on CTV Television Network in Canada and later on HBO in USA . To commemorate the millennium , Adams released The Best of Me , his most comprehensive collection of songs at that time , which also included two new songs , the title track `` The Best of Me '' and the UK number 1 track `` Do n't Give Up '' . The album reached the Top 10 in Germany and was certified three times platinum in Canada and Platinum in the UK . The single from the album , `` The Best of Me '' was a successful hit with the exception of the US , where neither the single or the album were released by Interscope Records . 2000s In 2000 , Adams co-wrote and sang on the number one song for Chicane 's album Behind the Sun called `` Do n't Give Up '' . In 2002 , Adams co-wrote and performed the songs for the DreamWorks animated film , Spirit : Stallion of the Cimarron . The songs were included on the film 's soundtrack . The most successful single from the soundtrack was `` Here I Am '' , a British Top 5 and German Top 20 hit . The song also gave him his fourth Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Song from a Motion Picture . In 2004 , ARC Weekly released its chart of top pop artists since the last 25 years and Adams came up at number 13 in the chart with four number-one singles , ten top five hits and 17 top ten hits . Six years after the release of On a Day Like Today , Room Service was released in September 2004 . It topped the charts in Germany and Switzerland and peaked at number four in the UK , selling 440,000 copies in its first week in Europe and thus debuted at number one on Billboards European album chart . The single , `` Open Road '' , was the most successful single from the album and peaked at number one in Canada and number twenty-one in the UK . In May 2008 , the album was also released in the US but charted only at number 134 on the Billboard 200 . In 2005 , Anthology , the first 2-disc compilation was released , containing two new tracks . The US release features a new version of `` When You 're Gone '' , a duet with Pamela Anderson . Also in 2005 , Adams re-recorded the theme song for the second season of Pamela 's Fox sitcom Stacked . In 2006 , Adams co-wrote and performed the theme song `` Never Let Go '' which was featured in the closing credits of the film The Guardian starring Kevin Costner and Ashton Kutcher . Adams also co-wrote the song `` Never Gon na Break My Faith '' for the film Bobby . The song was performed by the R & B singers Aretha Franklin and Mary J. Blige and earned him a Golden Globe Nomination in 2007 . In 2007 , he co-wrote two songs `` A Place for Us '' and `` Another Layer '' for the Disney film Bridge to Terabithia . Adams released his eleventh album internationally on 17 March 2008 . It was appropriately called 11 . The album was released in the US exclusively at Wal-Mart and Sam 's Club retail stores on 13 May 2008 . The first single released from the album was `` I Thought I 'd Seen Everything '' . Adams did an 11-day , 11-country European acoustic promotional tour to kick off the release of the album . The album debuted at number one in Canada ( making it his first album to reach that position since Waking Up the Neighbours in 1991 ) as well as reaching number two in Germany . In the United States , the album charted at number 80 . Adams was one of the four musicians who were pictured on the second series of the Canadian Recording Artist Series to be issued by Canada Post stamps on 2 July 2009 . The total estimated number of Adams stamps that were printed is one and one-half million . In December 2009 , he co-wrote , produced and performed the song `` You 've Been a Friend to Me '' for the Disney film Old Dogs . 2010s In February 2010 , Adams released `` One World , One Flame '' . On 12 February 2010 , Adams performed a duet with Nelly Furtado . The song was called `` Bang the Drum '' and was co-written with Jim Vallance for the opening ceremony for the 2010 Winter Olympics Games in Vancouver , British Columbia . The ceremony was held indoors at BC Place Stadium . Adams performed at Wayne Gretzky 's final game in 1999 at Madison Square Garden , when Gretzky then played for the New York Rangers . Adams then sang the Canadian national anthem and ad-libbed a line to acknowledge Gretzky 's departure , singing , `` We 're gon na miss you Wayne Gretzky . '' Adams was one of several well-known Canadian musicians to visit Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper at his official residence . Originally the visit was meant to be Adams 's plea to the Prime Minister to change the archaic copyright laws , instead Harper turned it into a photo opportunity for himself and an informal `` jam session '' . In November 2010 , Adams released the acoustic album Bare Bones . It was recorded live at various locations on his `` Bare Bones Tour '' earlier in the year . It was certified gold in India a year later . On 19 February 2011 , Adams and his band played in Kathmandu , which was organized by ODC Network and made him the first ever international artist to perform in Nepal . He performed at the opening ceremony of the 2011 Cricket World Cup on 17 February 2011 in Dhaka , Bangladesh and also performed in a solo concert in the next day . On 19 November 2011 , Adams co-wrote and recorded the dance music single/video for the Loverush UK ! single `` Tonight in Babylon '' in Southwark , London .. This song was also recorded/released on his Bare Bones Sydney Opera House video . On 20 November 2011 , Adams performed `` When You 're Gone '' on the TV show The X Factor in the UK with the remaining acts in the competition . In July 2012 , Adams was featured as the voice of the lead character of a dog called Jock , in the animated South African film Jock of the Bushveld . He also co-wrote and sang two of the main songs : `` Way Oh '' and `` By Your Side '' . The American released of the film was retitled `` Jock the Hero dog '' . In 2013 , he wrote and sang on `` After All '' with Michael Bublé from his album To Be Loved . In an interview on 18 March 2014 , Adams revealed that he has signed a contract with Verve Records in the US . With one album celebrating the 30th Anniversary of Reckless , a new album of covers . On 30 September 2014 , Adams released a new album titled Tracks of My Years . The album reached # 1 on the Canadian album chart . The album contains cover songs and one original song co-written with Jim Vallance . On 13 July 2014 , Adams presented a live concert on the Plains of Abraham in Quebec City , Canada . Adams was moved by the crowd and mentioned : `` Quebec City is the Capital of music and artists . '' In July 2014 , Adams filmed Bryan Adams in Concert for the American program Great Performances on PBS . It was recorded at the Elgin Theatre in Toronto and first shown on American Public Television on 2 March 2015 . Adams released his first album of all new material in seven years on 16 October 2015 . The album , titled Get Up , was co-written with longtime collaborator Jim Vallance and produced by Jeff Lynne . On 7 September 2015 , it was announced that Adams would be performing at the 2015 AFL Grand Final , along with English singer Ellie Goulding and American musician Chris Isaak . Activism and humanitarian work Humanitarian work Most of Adams 's philanthropic activity is focused on [ http : //www.thebryanadamsfoundation.com/ `` The Bryan Adams Foundation '' ] , which aims to advance education and learning opportunities for children and young people worldwide , believing that an education is the best gift that a child can be given . The foundation is mostly funded by Adams himself . Since the 1980s , Adams has participated in concerts and other activities to help raise money and awareness for a variety of causes . His first high profile charity appearance came in 1985 when he opened the US transmission of Live Aid from Philadelphia . In June of the next year , Adams participated in the two-week Amnesty International `` A Conspiracy of Hope '' tour alongside Sting , U2 and Peter Gabriel . In 1986 , Adams performed at The Prince 's Trust All-Star Rock Concert in Wembley Arena to celebrate first 10 years of the Trust and again in June 1987 at the 5th Annual Prince 's Trust Rock Gala along with Elton John , George Harrison , Ringo Starr and others . The following year Adams performed at the Nelson Mandela birthday party concert at Wembley Stadium . Adams helped commemorate the fall of the Berlin Wall when , in 1990 , he joined many other guests ( including his songwriting partner Michael Kamen ) for Roger Waters ' massive performance of The Wall in Berlin , Germany . He performed the Pink Floyd songs `` What Shall We Do Now ? '' and `` Young Lust '' during the performance of The Wall , and then joined Waters , Joni Mitchell , Cyndi Lauper , Van Morrison , Paul Carrack and others to perform Waters ' `` The Tide Is Turning '' to close the concert . On 29 January 2005 , Adams joined the CBC benefit concert in Toronto for victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . Twenty years after performing at Live Aid in the USA , Adams played at Canada 's Live 8 show in Barrie , Ontario . Later that year , he performed in Qatar and raised UK£1.5M ( US $ 2,617,000 ) from the concert . He also auctioned a white Fender Stratocaster guitar signed by many of the world 's prominent guitarists . The guitar raised a total of US $ 3.7 million for charity and thus set a record as the world 's costliest guitar . The money went to Qatar 's `` Reach Out to Asia '' campaign to help the underprivileged across the continent . Money raised also went to some of his own projects like rebuilding a school in Thailand and building a new sports center in Sri Lanka , both of which had been devastated by the Indian Ocean tsunami . On 25 May 2005 , Adams raised £1.3M with cousin Johnny Armitage , from a concert and auction entitled Rock by the River for the Royal Marsden Hospital in London . On 15 May 2006 , Adams returned to London to attend the Hope Foundation 's event ( hosted by designer Bella Freud ) , helping to raise a portion of the £250,000 to support the Palestinian refugee children . The following June , he offered individuals from the public the chance to bid to sing with him live in concert at three different charity auctions in London . Over £50,000 was raised with money going to the NSPCC , Children in Need , and the University College Hospital . On 28 February 2008 he appeared in One Night Live at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto , Canada with Josh Groban , Sarah McLachlan , Jann Arden and RyanDan in aid of the Sunnybrook Hospital Women and Babies Program . On 29 January 2006 , Adams became the first Western artist to perform in Karachi , Pakistan after the 11 September attacks , in

qf_506--Bryan_Adams.txt

"Who duetted with Bryan Adams on the 1985 hit ""It's Only Love""?"

Dr. Finlay is a fictional character , the hero of a series of stories by Scottish author A. J. Cronin . History The stories were used as the basis for the long-running BBC television programme Dr. Finlay 's Casebook , screened from 1962 to 1971 , and radio series of the same name ( 1970–78 ) . Based on Cronin 's novella entitled Country Doctor , the storylines centred on Dr. Finlay 's general medical practice in the fictional Scottish town of Tannochbrae during the late 1920s . The main characters were Dr. Finlay , a junior partner in the practice , played by Bill Simpson , Dr. Cameron , the craggy senior partner , played by Andrew Cruickshank , and Janet , their unflappable housekeeper and receptionist at Arden House , played by Barbara Mullen . Dr. Finlay returned to television with the ITV series , Doctor Finlay , continuing the stories into the late 1940s , which featured David Rintoul as Dr. Finlay , Ian Bannen as Dr. Cameron , and Annette Crosbie as Janet . It later aired in the U.S. on PBS ' Masterpiece Theatre . Character In the books , Dr Finlay worked alone . He was charming and became well-acquainted with his patients over many years . It was thus his trademark to know them from birth to death and so provide a continuous relationship .

qb_7244--Dr._Finlay.txt

Which Scottish physician and novelist created Dr Finlay?

France ( French : ) , officially the French Republic ( ) , is a sovereign state comprising territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories . The European , or metropolitan , area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea , and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean . France spans 643801 km2 and has a total population of 66.7 million . It is a unitary semi-presidential republic with the capital in Paris , the country 's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre . During the Iron Age , what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls , a Celtic people . The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome , which held Gaul until 486 , when the Germanic Franks conquered the region and formed the Kingdom of France . France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages , with its victory in the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337 to 1453 ) strengthening state-building and political centralization . During the Renaissance , French culture flourished and a global colonial empire was established , which by the 20th century would be the second largest in the world . The 16th century was dominated by religious civil wars between Catholics and Protestants ( Huguenots ) . France became Europe 's dominant cultural , political , and military power under Louis XIV . In the late 18th century , the French Revolution overthrew the absolute monarchy , established one of modern history 's earliest republics , and saw the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , which expresses the nation 's ideals to this day . In the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire , whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe . Following the collapse of the Empire , France endured a tumultuous succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870 . France was a major participant in the First World War , from which it emerged victorious , and was one of the Allied Powers in the Second World War , but came under occupation by the Axis Powers in 1940 . Following liberation in 1944 , a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War . The Fifth Republic , led by Charles de Gaulle , was formed in 1958 and remains to this day . Algeria and the colonies in Indochina became independent in the 1950s after long , bloody wars . Nearly all the other colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic and military connections with France . France has long been a global center of art , science , and philosophy . It hosts Europe 's third-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites ( after Italy and Spain ) and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually , the most of any country in the world . France is a developed country with the world 's sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity . In terms of aggregate household wealth , it ranks fourth in the world . France performs well in international rankings of education , health care , life expectancy , and human development . France remains a great power in the world , being a founding member of the United Nations , where it serves as one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council , and a founding and leading member state of the European Union ( EU ) . It is also a member of the Group of 7 , North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , and La Francophonie . Etymology Originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire , the name `` France '' comes from the Latin ' , or `` country of the Franks '' . Modern France is still named today Francia in Italian and Spanish , Frankreich in German and Frankrijk in Dutch , all of which have the same historical meaning . There are various theories as to the origin of the name Frank . Following the precedents of Edward Gibbon and Jacob Grimm , the name of the Franks has been linked with the word frank ( free ) in English . It has been suggested that the meaning of `` free '' was adopted because , after the conquest of Gaul , only Franks were free of taxation . Another theory is that it is derived from the Proto-Germanic word frankon , which translates as javelin or lance as the throwing axe of the Franks was known as a francisca . However , it has been determined that these weapons were named because of their use by the Franks , not the other way around . History Prehistory ( before the 6th century BC ) The oldest traces of human life in what is now France date from approximately 1.8 million years ago . Humans were then confronted by a harsh and variable climate , marked by several glacial eras . Early homonids led a nomadic hunter-gatherer life . France has a large number of decorated caves from the upper Paleolithic era , including one of the most famous and best preserved : Lascaux ( approximately 18,000 BC ) . At the end of the last glacial period ( 10,000 BC ) , the climate became milder ; from approximately 7,000 BC , this part of Western Europe entered the Neolithic era and its inhabitants became sedentary . After strong demographic and agricultural development between the 4th and 3rd millennia , metallurgy appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium , initially working gold , copper and bronze , and later iron . France has numerous megalithic sites from the Neolithic period , including the exceptionally dense Carnac stones site ( approximately 3,300 BC ) . Antiquity ( 6th century BC–5th century AD ) In 600 BC , Ionian Greeks , originating from Phocaea , founded the colony of Massalia ( present-day Marseille ) , on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea . This makes it France 's oldest city . At the same time , some Gallic Celtic tribes penetrated parts of the current territory of France , and this occupation spread to the rest of France between the 5th and 3rd century BC . The concept of Gaul emerged at that time ; it corresponds to the territories of Celtic settlement ranging between the Rhine , the Atlantic Ocean , the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean . The borders of modern France are roughly the same as those of ancient Gaul , which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls . Gaul was then a prosperous country , of which the southernmost part was heavily subject to Greek and Roman influences . Around 390 BC the Gallic chieftain Brennus and his troops made their way to Italy through the Alps , defeated the Romans in the Battle of the Allia , and besieged and ransomed Rome . The Gallic invasion left Rome weakened , and the Gauls continued to harass the region until 345 BC when they entered into a formal peace treaty with Rome . But the Romans and the Gauls would remain adversaries for the next several centuries , and the Gauls would continue to be a threat in Italia . Around 125 BC , the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans , who called this region Provincia Nostra ( `` Our Province '' ) , which over time evolved into the name Provence in French . Julius Caesar conquered the remainder of Gaul and overcame a revolt carried out by the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix in 52 BC . Gaul was divided by Augustus into Roman provinces.Carpentier et al . 2000 , pp . 53–55 Many cities were founded during the Gallo-Roman period , including Lugdunum ( present-day Lyon ) , which is considered the capital of the Gauls . These cities were built in traditional Roman style , with a forum , a theatre , a circus , an amphitheatre and thermal baths . The Gauls mixed with Roman settlers and eventually adopted Roman culture and Roman speech ( Latin , from which the French language evolved ) . The Roman polytheism merged with the Gallic paganism into the same syncretism . From the 250s to the 280s AD , Roman Gaul suffered a serious crisis with its fortified borders being attacked on several occasions by barbarians.Carpentier et al . 2000 , pp . 76–77 Nevertheless , the situation improved in the first half of the 4th century , which was a period of revival and prosperity for Roman Gaul . In 312 , the emperor Constantin I converted to Christianity . Subsequently , Christians , who had been persecuted until then , increased rapidly across the entire Roman Empire . But , from the beginning of the 5th century , the Barbarian Invasions resumed , and Germanic tribes , such as the Vandals , Suebi and Alans crossed the Rhine and settled in Gaul , Spain and other parts of the collapsing Roman Empire . Early Middle Ages ( 5th century–10th century ) At the end of the Antiquity period , ancient Gaul was divided into several Germanic kingdoms and a remaining Gallo-Roman territory , known as the Kingdom of Syagrius . Simultaneously , Celtic Britons , fleeing the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain , settled the western part of Armorica . As a result , the Armorican peninsula was renamed Brittany , Celtic culture was revived and independent petty kingdoms arose in this region . The pagan Franks , from whom the ancient name of `` Francie '' was derived , originally settled the north part of Gaul , but under Clovis I conquered most of the other kingdoms in northern and central Gaul . In 498 , Clovis I was the first Germanic conqueror after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity , rather than Arianism ; thus France was given the title `` Eldest daughter of the Church '' ( ' ) by the papacy , and French kings would be called `` the Most Christian Kings of France '' ( ' ) . The Franks embraced the Christian Gallo-Roman culture and ancient Gaul was eventually renamed Francia ( `` Land of the Franks '' ) . The Germanic Franks adopted Romanic languages , except in northern Gaul where Roman settlements were less dense and where Germanic languages emerged . Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian dynasty , but his kingdom would not survive his death . The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and divided it among their heirs , so four kingdoms emerged from Clovis 's : Paris , Orléans , Soissons , and Rheims . The last Merovingian kings lost power to their mayors of the palace ( head of household ) . One mayor of the palace , Charles Martel , defeated an Islamic invasion of Gaul at the Battle of Tours ( 732 ) and earned respect and power within the Frankish kingdoms . His son , Pepin the Short , seized the crown of Francia from the weakened Merovingians and founded the Carolingian dynasty . Pepin 's son , Charlemagne , reunited the Frankish kingdoms and built a vast empire across Western and Central Europe . Proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III and thus establishing in earnest the French government 's longtime historical association with the Catholic Church , Charlemagne tried to revive the Western Roman Empire and its cultural grandeur . Charlemagne 's son , Louis I ( emperor 814–840 ) , kept the empire united ; however , this Carolingian Empire would not survive his death . In 843 , under the Treaty of Verdun , the empire was divided between Louis ' three sons , with East Francia going to Louis the German , Middle Francia to Lothair I , and West Francia to Charles the Bald . West Francia approximated the area occupied by , and was the precursor , to modern France . During the 9th and 10th centuries , continually threatened by Viking invasions , France became a very decentralised state : the nobility 's titles and lands became hereditary , and the authority of the king became more religious than secular and thus was less effective and constantly challenged by powerful noblemen . Thus was established feudalism in France . Over time , some of the king 's vassals would grow so powerful that they often posed a threat to the king . For example , after the Battle of Hastings in 1066 , William the Conqueror added `` King of England '' to his titles , becoming both the vassal to ( as Duke of Normandy ) and the equal of ( as king of England ) the king of France , creating recurring tensions . Late Middle Ages ( 10th century–15th century ) The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987 , when Hugh Capet , Duke of France and Count of Paris , was crowned King of the Franks . His descendantsthe Capetians , the House of Valois , and the House of Bourbonprogressively unified the country through wars and dynastic inheritance into the Kingdom of France , which was fully declared in 1190 by Philip II Augustus . The French kings played a prominent role in most Crusades in order to restore Christian access to the Holy Land . French knights made up the bulk of the steady flow of reinforcements throughout the two-hundred-year span of the Crusades , in such a fashion that the Arabs uniformly referred to the crusaders as Franj caring little whether they really came from France . The French Crusaders also imported the French language into the Levant , making French the base of the lingua franca ( `` Frankish language '' ) of the Crusader states . French knights also comprised the majority in both the Hospital and the Temple orders . The latter , in particular , held numerous properties throughout France and by the 13th century were the principal bankers for the French crown , until Philip IV annihilated the order in 1307 . The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the southwestern area of modern-day France . In the end , the Cathars were exterminated and the autonomous County of Toulouse was annexed into the kingdom of France . Later kings expanded their domain to cover over half of modern continental France , including most of the north , centre and west of France . Meanwhile , the royal authority became more and more assertive , centred on a hierarchically conceived society distinguishing nobility , clergy , and commoners . Charles IV the Fair died without an heir in 1328 . Under the rules of the Salic law the crown of France could not pass to a woman nor could the line of kingship pass through the female line . Accordingly , the crown passed to Philip of Valois , a cousin of Charles , rather than through the female line to Charles ' nephew , Edward , who would soon become Edward III of England . During the reign of Philip of Valois , the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power . Philip 's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337 , on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death , England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years ' War . The exact boundaries changed greatly with time , but French landholdings of the English Kings remained extensive for decades . With charismatic leaders , such as Joan of Arc and La Hire , strong French counterattacks won back English continental territories . Like the rest of Europe , France was struck by the Black Death ; half of the 17 million population of France died . Early modern period ( 15th century–1789 ) The French Renaissance saw a spectacular cultural development and the first standardization of the French language , which would become the official language of France and the language of Europe 's aristocracy . It also saw a long set of wars , known as the Italian Wars , between the Kingdom of France and the powerful Holy Roman Empire . French explorers , such as Jacques Cartier or Samuel de Champlain , claimed lands in the Americas for France , paving the way for the expansion of the First French colonial empire . The rise of Protestantism in Europe led France to a civil war known as the French Wars of Religion , where , in the most notorious incident , thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre of 1572 . The Wars of Religion were ended by Henry IV 's Edict of Nantes , which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots . Under Louis XIII , the energetic Cardinal Richelieu reinforced the centralization of the state , royal power and French dominance in Europe , foreshadowing the reign of Louis XIV . During Louis XIV 's minority and the regency of Queen Anne and Cardinal Mazarin , a period of trouble known as the Fronde occurred in France , which was at that time at war with Spain . This rebellion was driven by the great feudal lords and sovereign courts as a reaction to the rise of royal power in France . The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV . By turning powerful feudal lords into courtiers at the Palace of Versailles , Louis XIV 's personal power became unchallenged . Remembered for his numerous wars , he made France the leading European power . France became the most populous country in Europe and had tremendous influence over European politics , economy , and culture . French became the most-used language in diplomacy , science , literature and international affairs , and remained so until the 20th century . France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas , Africa and Asia . Louis XIV also revoked the Edict of Nantes , forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile . Under Louis XV , Louis XIV 's grandson , France lost New France and most of its Indian possessions after its defeat in the Seven Years ' War , which ended in 1763 . Its European territory kept growing , however , with notable acquisitions such as Lorraine ( 1766 ) and Corsica ( 1770 ) . An unpopular king , Louis XV 's weak rule , his ill-advised financial , political and military decisions as well as the debauchery of his court discredited the monarchy and arguably led to the French Revolution 15 years after his death . Louis XVI , Louis XV 's grandson , actively supported the Americans , who were seeking their independence from Great Britain ( realized in the Treaty of Paris ( 1783 ) ) . The financial crisis that followed France 's involvement in the American Revolutionary War was one of many contributing factors to the French Revolution . Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles , and major scientific breakthroughs and inventions , such as the discovery of oxygen ( 1778 ) and the first hot air balloon carrying passengers ( 1783 ) , were achieved by French scientists . French explorers , such as Bougainville and Lapérouse , took part in the voyages of scientific exploration through maritime expeditions around the globe . The Enlightenment philosophy , in which reason is advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority , undermined the power of and support for the monarchy and helped pave the way for the French Revolution . Modern period ( 1789–1914 ) Facing financial troubles , Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General ( gathering the three Estates of the realm ) in May 1789 to propose solutions to his government . As it came to an impasse , the representatives of the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly , signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution . Fearing that the king would suppress the newly created National Assembly , insurgents stormed the Bastille on 14 July 1789 , a date which would become France 's National Day . The absolute monarchy was subsequently replaced by a constitutional monarchy . Through the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , France established fundamental rights for men . The Declaration affirms `` the natural and imprescriptible rights of man '' to `` liberty , property , security and resistance to oppression '' . Freedom of speech and press were declared , and arbitrary arrests outlawed . It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges and proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all men , as well as access to public office based on talent rather than birth . While Louis XVI , as a constitutional king , enjoyed popularity among the population , his disastrous flight to Varennes seemed to justify rumours he had tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign invasion . His credibility was so deeply undermined that the abolition of the monarchy and establishment of a republic became an increasing possibility . European monarchies gathered against the new régime , to restore the French absolute monarchy . The foreign threat exacerbated France 's political turmoil and deepened the sense of urgency among the various factions and war was declared against Austria on 20 April 1792 . Mob violence occurred during the insurrection of 10 August 1792 and the following month . As a result of this violence and the political instability of the constitutional monarchy , the Republic was proclaimed on 22 September 1792 . Louis XVI was convicted of treason and guillotined in 1793 . Facing increasing pressure from European monarchies , internal guerrilla wars and counterrevolutions ( such as the War in the Vendée or the Chouannerie ) , the young Republic fell into the Reign of Terror . Between 1793 and 1794 , between 16,000 and 40,000 people were executed . In Western France , the civil war between the Bleus ( `` Blues '' , supporters of the Revolution ) and the Blancs ( `` Whites '' , supporters of the Monarchy ) lasted from 1793 to 1796 and led to the loss of between 200,000 and 450,000 lives . Both foreign armies and French counter-revolutionaries were crushed and the French Republic survived . Furthermore , it extended greatly its boundaries and established `` Sister Republics '' in the surrounding countries . As the threat of a foreign invasion receded and France became mostly pacified , the Thermidorian Reaction put an end to Robespierre 's rule and to the Terror . The abolition of slavery and male universal suffrage , enacted during this radical phase of the revolution , were cancelled by subsequent governments . After a short-lived governmental scheme , Napoleon Bonaparte seized control of the Republic in 1799 becoming First Consul and later Emperor of the French Empire ( 1804–1814/1815 ) . As a continuation of the wars sparked by the European monarchies against the French Republic , changing sets of European Coalitions declared wars on Napoleon 's Empire . His armies conquered most of continental Europe with swift victories such as the battles of Jena-Auerstadt or Austerlitz . He redrew the European political map , while members of the Bonaparte family were appointed as monarchs in some of the newly established kingdoms . These victories led to the worldwide expansion of French revolutionary ideals and reforms , such as the Metric system , the Napoleonic Code and the Declaration of the Rights of Man . After the catastrophic Russian campaign , and the ensuing uprising of European monarchies against his rule , Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy restored . About a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic Wars . After his brief return from exile , Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo , the monarchy was re-established ( 1815–1830 ) , with new constitutional limitations . The discredited Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830 , which established the constitutional July Monarchy , which lasted until 1848 , when the French Second Republic was proclaimed , in the wake of the European Revolutions of 1848 . The abolition of slavery and male universal suffrage , both briefly enacted during the French Revolution were re-enacted in 1848 . In 1852 , the president of the French Republic , Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte , Napoleon I 's nephew , was proclaimed emperor of the second Empire , as Napoleon III . He multiplied French interventions abroad , especially in Crimea , in Mexico and Italy which resulted in the annexation of the duchy of Savoy and the county of Nice , then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia . Napoleon III was unseated following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and his regime was replaced by the Third Republic . France had colonial possessions , in various forms , since the beginning of the 17th century , but in the 19th and 20th centuries , its global overseas colonial empire extended greatly and became the second largest in the world behind the British Empire . Including metropolitan France , the total area of land under French sovereignty almost reached 13 million square kilometres in the 1920s and 1930s , 8.6 % of the world 's land . Known as the Belle Époque , the turn of the century was a period characterized by optimism , regional peace , economic prosperity and technological , scientific and cultural innovations . In 1905 , state secularism was officially established . Contemporary period ( 1914–present ) France was a member of the Triple Entente when World War I broke out . A small part of Northern France was occupied , but France and its allies emerged victorious against the Central Powers at a tremendous human and material cost . World War I left 1.4 million French soldiers dead , 4 % of its population . Between 27 and 30 % of soldiers conscripted from 1912–1915 were killed . The interbellum years were marked by intense international tensions and a variety of social reforms introduced by the Popular Front government ( annual leave , eight-hour workdays , women in government , etc ... ) . In 1940 France was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany . Metropolitan France was divided into a German occupation zone in the north and Vichy France , a newly established authoritarian regime collaborating with Germany , in the south , while Free France , the government-in-exile led by Charles de Gaulle , was set up in London . From 1942 to 1944 , about 160,000 French citizens , including around 75,000 Jews , were deported to death camps and concentration camps in Germany and Poland . On 6 June 1944 the Allies invaded Normandy and in August they invaded Provence . Over the following year the Allies and the French Resistance emerged victorious over the Axis powers and French sovereignty was restored with the establishment of the Provisional Government of the French Republic ( GPRF ) . This interim government , established by de Gaulle , aimed to continue to wage war against Germany and to purge collaborators from office . It also made several important reforms ( suffrage extended to women , creation of a social security system ) . The GPRF laid the groundwork for a new constitutional order that resulted in the Fourth Republic , which saw spectacular economic growth ( les Trente Glorieuses ) . France was one of the founding members of NATO ( 1949 ) . France attempted to regain control of French Indochina but was defeated by the Viet Minh in 1954 at the climactic Battle of Dien Bien Phu . Only months later , France faced another anti-colonialist conflict in Algeria . Torture and illegal executions were perpetrated by both sides and the debate over whether or not to keep control of Algeria , then home to over one million European settlers , wracked the country and nearly led to a coup and civil war . In 1958 , the weak and unstable Fourth Republic gave way to the Fifth Republic , which included a strengthened Presidency . In the latter role , Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the war . The Algerian War was concluded with the Évian Accords in 1962 that led to Algerian independence . A vestige of the colonial empire are the French overseas departments and territories . In the context of the Cold War , de Gaulle pursued a policy of `` national independence '' towards the Western and Eastern blocs . To this end , he withdrew from NATO 's military integrated command , he launched a nuclear development program and made France the fourth

odql_10672--France.txt

By population, which is the second biggest city in France?

A pillar box is a type of free-standing post box . They are found in the United Kingdom and in most former nations of the British Empire , members of the Commonwealth of Nations and British overseas territories , such as Australia , Cyprus , India , Gibraltar , Hong Kong , the Republic of Ireland , Malta , New Zealand and Sri Lanka . Pillar boxes were provided in territories administered by the United Kingdom , such as Mandatory Palestine , and territories with Agency postal services provided by the British Post Office such as Bahrain , Dubai , Kuwait and Morocco . The United Kingdom also exported pillar boxes to countries that ran their own postal services , such as Argentina , Portugal and Uruguay . Mail is deposited in pillar boxes to be collected by the Royal Mail , An Post or the appropriate postal operator and forwarded to the addressee . The boxes have been in use since 1852 , just twelve years after the introduction of the first adhesive postage stamps ( Penny Black ) and uniform penny post . Mail may also be deposited in lamp boxes or wall boxes that serve the same purpose as pillar boxes but are attached to a post or set into a wall . According to the Letter Box Study Group , there are more than 150 recognised designs and varieties of pillar boxes and wall boxes , not all of which have known surviving examples . The red post box is regarded as a British cultural icon . Royal Mail estimates there are over 100,000 post boxes in the United Kingdom . Construction Most traditional British pillar boxes produced after 1905 are made of cast iron and are cylindrical . Other shapes have been used : the hexagonal Penfolds , rectangular boxes that have not proved to be popular , and an oval shape that is used mainly for the large `` double aperture '' boxes most often seen in large cities like London and Dublin . In recent years boxes manufactured in glass-fibre or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ( ABS ) plastic have been produced that do not follow these general outlines . These are for use in secure indoor locations such as supermarkets . Cast iron pillar box construction comprises three distinct main parts : The cap sits on top of the Carcass and is usually bolted down from inside . Some designs after 1965 do not have a separate cap . Caps can also be fitted with a separate bracket , normally of cast iron , which supports a Post Office Direction sign ( POD ) indicating the nearest Post Office . The door contains the aperture or posting slot . It is hinged , should display the Royal Cypher of the reigning monarch and may also be fitted with a collection plate showing the times of collection from that location . It is fitted with a brass security lock on the inside . The contractor for these locks has been the Chubb Locks company for many years . They are 5 lever locks and each one can exhibit more than 6500 combinations . There is no skeleton key for these locks . Each post box has its own set of keys and postal workers have to carry large bunches with them when clearing the boxes . The carcass or body of the box that supports the door and cap , and may protrude substantially down below ground level . This provides security and stability to the pillar box . There is a wirework cage inside to prevent mail falling out when the door is opened , a hinged letter chute to allow mail to fall into the collecting bag or sack and a serrated hand-guard to prevent unauthorised tampering with the mail through the aperture . History Pre-history Before the introduction of pillar boxes , in the UK , it was customary to take outgoing mail to the nearest letter receiving house or post office . Such houses were usually coaching inns or turnpike houses where the Royal Mail coach would stop to pick up and set down mails and passengers . People took their letters , in person , to the receiver , or postmaster , purchased a stamp ( after 1840 ) and handed over the letter . The Channel Island problem The advent of the British wayside letter box can be traced to Sir Rowland Hill , Secretary of the Post Office , and his Surveyor for the Western District , and noted novelist , Anthony Trollope . Hill sent Trollope to the Channel Islands to ascertain what could be done about the problem of collecting the mail on a pair of islands . The problems identified in the Channel Islands were caused by the irregular sailing times of the Royal Mail packet boats serving the islands due to weather and tides . Trollope subsequently arrived in Jersey in the early Spring of 1852 and proceeded to survey both islands . His recommendation back to Hill was to employ a device he may have seen in use in Paris : a “ letter-receiving pillar ” . It was to be made of cast iron , about 1.5 metres high , octagonal in design and painted olive green . Trollope estimated that four would be needed for Guernsey and five for Jersey . The foundry of Vaudin & Son in Jersey was commissioned to produce them and the first four were erected in David Place , New Street , Cheapside and St Clement 's Road in Saint Helier and brought into public use on 23 November 1852 . Guernsey received its first three pillar boxes on 8 February 1853 . They were an instant success , despite some obvious problems with rainwater ingress . One Vaudin box still stands in Union Street , Saint Peter Port , Guernsey whilst another is in the British Postal Museum & Archive collection in London . The first UK and Isle of Wight boxes The very first boxes erected in the UK are not recorded , but the designs varied from area to area as each District Surveyor issued their own specifications and tendered to their own chosen foundries . The earliest ones were essentially experimental , including octagonal pillars or fluted columns , vertical slits instead of horizontal ones , and other unusual features . It is recorded in the Post Office archives that the first box in the UK was erected in Botchergate , Carlisle in 1853 . This fact is commemorated today with a replica Penfold box , located between the Market Cross and the Old Town Hall , in Carlisle city centre . The first six in London were installed on 11 April 1855 . The earliest surviving UK designs are four Butt boxes made in Gloucester for the Western Area . These are at Barnes Cross , near Sherborne , Dorset , inside the former Britannia Royal Naval Hospital in Plymouth , in the Haverfordwest town museum ( formerly at Merlin 's Bridge ) and in the British Postal Museum & Archive store at Debden ( formerly at Ventnor railway station , Isle of Wight ) . All date from 1853–59 , with Barnes Cross being one of the later batch . The oldest pillar boxes still in use by the Royal Mail are at Framlingham in Suffolk . This pair were founded by Andrew Handyside and Company of Derby in 1856 . They are at Double Street and College Road . A third octagonal pillar of this type was at Gobweston in Lincolnshire and is now in the Museum of Lincolnshire Life in Lincoln . 1856 also saw various designs introduced in Scotland and the Midlands . The postbox believed to be the oldest in Scotland , is a wall box which sits on the front of the Golspie Inn - Formerly Sutherland Arms Hotel . It carries the Royal Cypher of Queen Victoria and dates back to 1861 . Design problems The first design for London , by Grissel & Son of Hoxton Ironworks was rather stubby and rectangular , although surmounted by a decorative ball . Erected in 1855 , they were replaced because people complained that they were ugly . One survived and was earmarked for preservation in the early part of the 20th century . It was unfortunately stored in a contractor 's yard in London which was subject to a direct hit from a German bomb during the Blitz , thus destroying forever some important boxes . A photograph of this Grissel box together with a Giant Fluted box and a Penfold in the contractor 's yard appeared in The Letter Box by Jean Young Farrugia . Moving towards a standard design Standardisation of sorts came in 1857 with the deliberations of the Committee for Science & Art of the House of Lords . The Committee designed a very ornate box festooned with Grecian style-decoration but , in a major oversight , devoid of any posting aperture , which meant they were hewn out of the cast iron locally , destroying the aesthetic of the box . Fifty were made for London and the big cities and three survive . One is in Salford Museum , Greater Manchester and the other two are at the BPMA in London . A similar , much simplified version has survived painted green by An Post at the Cork Kent railway station , Ireland . Also to be found only in Ireland is one of the early boxes , now at the AN POST exhibit on the history of the Irish Postal service in the General Post Office , O'Connel Street , Dublin . It is the sole surviving `` Ashworth '' box of 1855 for the Northern District , that included all of the island of Ireland . Prior to 1859 there was no standard colour , although there is evidence that the lettering and Royal Cypher were sometimes picked out in gold . In 1859 , a bronze green colour became standard until 1874 . Initially it was thought that the green colour would be unobtrusive . Too unobtrusive , as it turned out — people kept walking into them . Red became the standard colour in 1874 , although ten more years elapsed before every box in the UK had been repainted . First National Standard boxes The first real standard design came in 1859 with the First National Standard box . These were also cast in two sizes for the first time to allow for heavier usage in big metropolitan areas . A number have survived across the UK , including Aberdeen , Brighton , Stoke , Worthing , London , World 's End Hambledon , Bristol , Congresbury , and Newport , Isle of Wight . Similar boxes have also survived in Mauritius . In the busy city of Liverpool , even these boxes could not provide the capacity and security required , so a special design was commissioned from the foundry of Cochrane Grove & Co of Dudley . Known as `` Liverpool Specials '' , three survive from a batch of six . Two of these are in Liverpool and the other is in the BPMA collection in London . Cochrane became the foundry that made all the Penfold boxes from 1866 to 1879 . Penfolds The most famous of the early designs is that named after the architect who designed it , John Penfold . Penfold boxes come in three sizes and altogether there are nine different types . They are very widespread , with the biggest accumulations in London and Cheltenham . Others are spread across England , Ireland , India ( including locally made copies ) , British Guyana , Australia and New Zealand . An export order from the postal service of the Republic of Uruguay resulted in nine boxes of the Penfold design being exported there in 1879 , of which six are believed extant , including one in the philatelic department of the central Post Office in Montevideo . In 1993 the Correo Uruguayo commemorated Penfold post boxes with a set of stamps of various denominations . There are no original Penfolds in Scotland , but 1989-built replicas have been erected in these areas , as well as other deserving sites where they are suitable . The first replica Penfold was erected at Tower Bridge , in London , on the south embankment and carries a commemorative plaque . Genuine Penfolds can be seen at the British Postal Museum & Archive Museum Store in Debden , Essex , The Farm Museum in Normanby by Scunthorpe , the National Railway Museum at York , Beamish Open Air Museum , the Black Country Museum , Crich National Tramway Museum , Oakham Treasures , near Bristol ( see link below ) , Carshalton Beeches in Surrey , The Isle of Wight Postal Museum near Newport , Isle of Wight and Milestones Living History Museum in Basingstoke , whilst the Severn Valley Railway , Blists Hill Victorian Town and the Talyllyn Railway have replica Penfolds . Penfolds , distinguished by their hexagonal construction and Acanthus bud surmounting the cap , were originally exclusively city-based , but have now been installed rural areas as well . About 300 were made , of which 150 survive . Nearly 100 replicas , made at the end of the 1980s , have also been installed . The New Zealand boxes are the only Penfolds to bear the cypher of King Edward VII ; all others in the former British controlled territories have the cypher of Queen Victoria . Penfold boxes in Uruguay bear the national coat of arms of Uruguay and are painted either yellow or black with a yellow band . Boxes made in Madras , India for the kingdom of Travancore carry that kingdom 's emblem of a stylised Turbinella pyrum seashell . The Acanthus bud and leaves decoration on the top of Penfold boxes was also emulated in a design of cylindrical post boxes for New Zealand and Australia . File : UK post office box.jpg|Penfold Type PB8/1 at King 's Parade , Cambridge . File : Replica Penfold.jpg|Replica Penfold , erected at Tower Bridge in 1989 . File : Brecon pillar box.jpg|Disused green Penfold PB8/1 outside Brecon Museum , Wales . File : Rochester Penfold.jpg|Original bronze-green livery Penfold on High St Rochester , Kent showing enamel Letters flap . File : Nayland Penfold.jpg|Queen Victoria Coat of Arms details from Penfold at the former Neyland Railway Station , Wales . File : Buxton Penfold.JPG|Penfold box at Buxton , Derbyshire , England . File : PB8 Dunedin.jpg|Edward VII Penfold PB8 in Dunedin , New Zealand File : Anchal Box Perumbavoor Rest House.JPG|Pillar box in Perumbavoor , Kerala , made in Madras for the Indian kingdom of Travancore File : Gold Postbox - geograph.org.uk - 3158996.jpg|thumb|Gold Postbox in Lincoln , painted in honour of the gold medal won by Sophie Wells Anonymous boxes A return to cylindrical boxes followed with the so-called Anonymous boxes of 1879 . Andrew Handyside of Derby was the foundry , but omitted the Royal cypher and the words `` Post Office '' leading to the Anonymous soubriquet . It took 13 years before this change was reversed , even though the box had undergone a major design change during that time . This involved lowering the position of the aperture relative to the top of the box . The original `` High Aperture '' design was prone to mail becoming caught under the rim of the cap . This was solved by lowering the aperture so that it falls centrally between the two raised beading lines . Consequently , the second style is known as `` Low Aperture '' . The Portuguese post office adopted the original high-aperture design , which were made for it by Andrew Handyside & Co. Portugal later adopted its own modified design based on Types A and B . Numerous examples of each design remain in use . Late 19th and early 20th century boxes New post box designs were ordered in 1887 for the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria . For the first time there was a lamp-post mounted letter box for use in London squares , but which soon established themselves in rural areas ( see lamp boxes ) . For the big cities , a double-aperture oval-shaped pillar ( designated Type C ) was introduced , partly to increase capacity and certainly in London , to allow mail to be pre-sorted by region , normally with apertures marked separately for `` London '' and `` Country '' . All pillar and lamp boxes now had the distinctive Imperial cypher of Victoria Regina , whilst the wall-mounted boxes continued to show only a block cypher VR . The new pillar box design saw out the reign and remained little changed until 1905 , when the basic design was refined . The Edward VII boxes now had the posting aperture as part of the door , rather than the body of the box . That eliminated the chance for mail to get caught up in the top of the box . This basic design remains the same today , having served well throughout the reigns of George V , Edward VIII , George VI and Elizabeth II . An experiment of 1932 was the addition of a stamp vending machine to the end of the post box . This necessitated an oval planform for the box even though it was only provided with a single posting aperture . At one end of the oval is the stamp machine and at the other is the posting aperture . The boxes have two doors ; one for clearance of mail and one for emptying the cash and reloading the stamp machines . The machines were set to vend two halfpenny stamps in exchange for one old penny , the stamps being supplied in a long continuously wound roll known as a coil . Boxes were again made in two sizes , designated Type D and Type E , and carried raised lettering on the castings indicating the position of the stamp vending machine , as well as an array of small enamel plates warning users of the danger of bent coins and the need to wait for stamps to be issued before inserting more money . Several of each have survived in use in England and in the Isle of Man . File : Buxton Anonymous box.JPG|Type B 'Anonymous ' pillar box in Buxton , Derbyshire , England . File : VR Pillar box , Hull.JPG|VR Type B pillar box in Hull . File : Oxford GeorgeSt VR PillarBox.JPG|VR pillar box in Oxford , cast by A. Handyside . File : K6 Telephone Box and Edward VII Pillar Box Amberley.jpg|Edward VII pillar box in front of a K6 Telephone box . File : Pair at Bembridge.jpg|Father and daughter pair : George VI and Elizabeth II pillar boxes at Bembridge Post Office Isle of Wight . One was for local mail and the other for off-island post . File : POD Pillar.jpg|PB27/1 pillar of George V , fitted with a Post Office Direction Sign ( POD ) at the Colne Valley Postal History Museum , Essex File : Ealing Broadway Box.JPG|1932 Type E pillar box with integral stamp vending machine at Ealing Village File : Ramsgate EVIIIR Pillar Box.JPG|Rare Edward VIII Type ' A ' pillar box in Ramsgate , Kent , England . Air mail Commercial Air Mail service commenced in the United Kingdom in 1919 . By the early 1930s Imperial Airways was operating regular airmail services to Europe and the British colonies and dominions . To facilitate easy collection of air mail and its speedy onward transmission , a fleet of special vehicles and dedicated postboxes were introduced . To distinguish them from regular post boxes , they were painted Air Force blue , with prominent royal blue signage . The service ran successfully until the outbreak of war in 1939 , when it was suspended . Although Air Mail re-commenced after the War , the postboxes and vehicles were no longer identifiable , as Air Mail could now be posted anywhere . Ireland Following Irish independence in 1922 , existing British pillar boxes were retained , and simply painted green . Many of these are extant around the country , retaining the monogram of the monarch who reigned at the time of the box 's installation . The Department of Posts and Telegraphs continued installing similar pillar boxes and wall boxes , but with the initials SÉ ( for Saorstát Éireann ) , a harp or the P ⁊ T logo , instead of a monarch 's monogram . Since 1984 An Post , the current Irish postal administration , uses the An Post logo to adorn its posting boxes . During 1939 a number of bombs were put in post boxes by the IRA as part of their S-Plan campaign . Queen Elizabeth II The next major design change came in 1968 with the introduction of the Type F pillar box . This was conceived by Vandyke Engineering and proposed to the Post Office as a cheaper alternative to the traditional cast box . It was fabricated in sheet steel with welded construction . Unfortunately , the British climate did not suit the use of galvanised steel ( a problem often seen with the 1940 and 1988 pattern of lamp box ) and the Vandyke pillars soon began to rust badly . The very last one was removed from service at Colmore Row in Birmingham in 2002 . In 1974 the Post Office experimented with a similar rectangular design known as Type G. This was made in traditional cast iron by the foundry of Carron Company in Stirling , Scotland . It was an operational success , but the public disliked the `` square '' designs and petitioned the Post Office for a return to cylindrical boxes . The Post Office commissioned a new design of pillar box in 1980 from a panel of three competing designers . The competition was won by Tony Gibbs and his design , which was thought to be ultra-modern at the time , was designated Type K by the Post Office . Made in traditional cast iron , it stayed in production until 2000. Notable features included : replaceable lifting ring screwed into the dome of the box , body and roof of box cast as one piece , large easy-to-read collection time plate , all surface details and collection plate window recessed to give a perfect cylindrical outline , integral restrictor plate , know colloquially as a `` Belfast Flap '' to restrict posting to letters only and a flanged shallow base suitable for installation in modern buildings , shopping centres and other urban areas . These boxes were thus much easier to move and handle as they could be rolled over level ground or lifted by crane into position . The design had one major flaw in the area of the door hinge , which is prone to snap under stress and the K type pillar boxes are no longer being installed . All new pillar boxes for use in the UK are Type A traditional pillars or Type C oval pillars from the foundry of Machan Engineering , Denny , Falkirk , Scotland . Exceptions to this are the Supermarket or `` Inside '' boxes supplied by [ http : //www.broadwater.co.uk/ ? ref=664 Broadwater Mouldings Ltd ] of Eye , Suffolk and the sheet steel `` Garage '' boxes supplied directly by Romec Ltd . File : EIIR Type B in Scarborough.JPG|EIIR Type B pillar box in Scarborough , North Yorkshire . File : EIIR Type B ( Nigerian pattern ) , Uttoxeter.JPG|Elizabeth II Type B pillar box ( Nigerian pattern ) in Uttoxeter , Staffordshire , England . File : Double_pillar_box_modern.jpg|Modern Royal Mail branded EiiR Type C double aperture pillar box , Menai Bridge . File : Type K Pillar Box.jpg| Type K pillar box of Elizabeth II fitted with a `` Post Office Direction '' sign File : Easter Compton.jpg|Unusual bracket carrying a Post Office `` Lozenge '' fitted to a Type K pillar at Easter Compton , S. Gloucs File : Double Vandyke.jpg| A rare double Type F pillar box by Vandyke Engineering ( 1968 ) at the BPMA Store , Debden , Essex . File : Type G pillar box.JPG|Type G ( square ) pillar box in Cambridge File : IDEO POS.jpg|A prototype Post Office Suite by Ideo Design from 1989 , now in the BPMA store , London File : Supermarket Box.jpg|A glass-fibre pillar box of the type frequently seen in British supermarkets , made by [ http : //www.broadwater.co.uk/ ? ref=664 Broadwater Mouldings Ltd ] of Eye , Suffolk . File : Transparent pillar box Heathrow Terminal 5.jpg|Box at Terminal 5 , Heathrow Airport . The transparent panel allows visual inspection of the contents , for security purposes . File : Installing a postbox , Canal Walk , Swindon ( 2 of 4 ) - geograph.org.uk - 1749745.jpg|Installing a used Type K in Swindon Scotland In Scotland there were protests when the first boxes made in the reign of Elizabeth II were produced . These bore the cypher `` E II R '' but there were objections because Queen Elizabeth is the first Queen of Scotland and of the United Kingdom to bear that name , Elizabeth I having been Queen of England only . After several E II R pillar boxes were blown up by improvised explosive devices , the General Post Office ( as it was at that time ) replaced them with ones which only bore the Crown of Scotland and no Royal cypher . Red telephone boxes or kiosks of type K6 were also treated in the same way . Olympic gold Main article 2012 Olympics gold post boxes in the United Kingdom To mark the 2012 Summer Olympics , Royal Mail , Isle of Man Post and Guernsey Post painted a pillar box gold in the home town of each Great Britain team member who won a gold medal , as well as a demonstration model near Westminster Abbey . A website mapping the gold boxes was provided . The boxes , originally intended to be repainted to the traditional red in due course , will remain gold painted permanently . No longer in use To reflect the iconic nature of the British post box and the heritage attached to them ; out-of-use post boxes ( especially older models ) are rarely removed and instead painted black and sealed to signify to members of the public the box is no longer in use . Examples of 'black post boxes ' can be seen outside former post-offices and in conservation areas . Overseas File : Red mail drop box Buenos Aires.jpg|Pillar box in Buenos Aires , Argentina File : Bassendean rail museum gnangarra 03.jpg|Australian-made Edward VII pillar box at the Western Australian Rail Transport Museum , Bassendean File : Cyprus-postbox.JPG|Pillar boxes in Cyprus were painted yellow after independence , and are still in use File : Gibraltar-mailbox.jpg|George V pillar box in Gibraltar File : GuernseyPostBox.jpg|A Guernsey Post Elizabeth II Type C double pillar box File : HK PB Central.jpg|Colonial-era post box in Hong Kong , a Scottish Crown Type C in Central File : British-era letter box in Shimla , India.jpg|Pillar box in Shimla , India , of a design pioneered by Suttie & Co of Greenock , Scotland File : Postbox in Al Ahmadi 1976.jpg|Last red pillar box in Al Ahmadi , Kuwait , about 1976 File : Museum of Macau IMG 5403.JPG|Macanese pillar box from the Portuguese colonial era in the Museum of Macau File : Vittorioso . EVIIR Edwardian Post Box. , Malta - Flickr - sludgegulper.jpg|A red pillar box in Vittoriosa , Malta . Shortly after independence , royal cyphers were ground off the pillar boxes in Valletta and Floriana , but most others remained intact . File : Post box in Thames.jpg|Early pillar box in Thames , New Zealand File : Old postbox North Cyprus Queen Elizabeth II.JPG|Elizabeth II pillar box in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus File : Tel Aviv British mailboxes by David Shankbone.jpg|British postboxes in old Tel Aviv , Israel , are a remnant of the Palestine Mandate . The British royal cyphers were ground off the cast-iron doors after the Israeli war of independence File:20121027 0811 Sintra 02.jpg|British-made `` high-aperture '' box in Sintra , Portugal File : Marcos correio ( Porto ) .JPG|Two variations of Portuguese pillar boxes in Porto , Portugal File : Singapore Replica Penfold.jpg|Replica Penfold in Singapore for collecting special Christmas post File : Buzón_de_Correos_en_Alcalá_la_Real.jpg|Post box in Spain File : 小田原市大工町交差点の丸ポスト.JPG|Maru ( `` Round '' ) Post Japan Clearance Post boxes are emptied ( ``

odql_1078--Pillar_box.txt

Which 19th century British novelist, who worked as a Surveyor for the Post Office, was reputedly instrumental in the introduction of the pillar box in 1852?

Mauritius ( ; ) , officially the Republic of Mauritius ( ) , is an island nation in the Indian Ocean about 2000 km off the southeast coast of the African continent . The country includes the island of Mauritius , Rodrigues [ 560 km east ] , and the outer islands ( Agaléga , St. Brandon and two disputed territories ) . The islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues ( 172 km southwest ) form part of the Mascarene Islands , along with nearby Réunion , a French overseas department . The area of the country is 2,040 km2 . The capital and largest city is Port Louis . The island of Mauritius was visited during the Middle Ages by the Arabs and then by the Portuguese , who named it Dina Arobi and Cirne , respectively . The island was uninhabited until the Dutch Republic established a colony in 1638 , with the Dutch naming the island after Prince Maurice van Nassau . The Dutch colony was abandoned in 1710 , and , five years later , the island became a French colony and was named Isle de France . Due to its strategic position , Mauritius was known as the `` star and key '' of the Indian Ocean . Mauritius became an important base on the trade routes from Europe to the East before the opening of the Suez Canal and was involved in the long power struggle between the French and the British . The French won the Battle of Grand Port , their only naval victory over the British during these wars , but they could not prevent the British from landing at Cap Malheureux three months later . They formally surrendered on the fifth day of the invasion , 3 December 1810 , on terms allowing settlers to keep their land and property , the use of the French language , and the law of France in criminal and civil matters . Under British rule , the island became the Empire 's main sugar-producing colony . In the 20th century , movements to improve labour laws and introduce political reforms began to be organized , a process that accelerated after World War II . The country became an independent state on 12 March 1968 , following the adoption of a new constitution . In 1992 , Mauritius became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations . The sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago is disputed between Mauritius and the United Kingdom ( UK ) . The UK excised the archipelago from Mauritian territory prior to Mauritian independence in 1965 . It gradually depopulated the archipelago 's indigenous population and leased its biggest island , Diego Garcia , to the United States . Mauritius also claims sovereignty over Tromelin Island from France . The people of Mauritius are multiethnic , multi-religious , multicultural and multilingual . The island 's government is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system , and Mauritius is highly ranked for democracy and for economic and political freedom . Along with the other Mascarene Islands , Mauritius is known for its varied flora and fauna , with many species endemic to the island . The island is widely known as the only known home of the dodo , which , along with several other avian species , was made extinct by human activities relatively shortly after the island 's settlement . Etymology The first historical evidence of the existence of an island now known as Mauritius is on a map produced by the Italian cartographer Alberto Cantino in 1502 . From this , it appears that Mauritius was first named Dina Arobi during the Middle Ages by Arab sailors , the first people to visit the island . In 1507 Portuguese sailors visited the uninhabited island . The island appears with a Portuguese name Cirne on early Portuguese maps , probably from the name of a ship in the 1507 expedition . Another Portuguese sailor , Dom Pedro Mascarenhas , gave the name Mascarenes to the Archipelago . In 1598 a Dutch squadron under Admiral Wybrand van Warwyck landed at Grand Port and named the island Mauritius , in honour of Prince Maurice van Nassau , stadholder of the Dutch Republic . Later the island became a French colony and was renamed Isle de France . On 3 December 1810 the French surrendered the island during the Napoleonic Wars . Under British rule , the island 's name reverted to Mauritius . Mauritius is also commonly known as Maurice and Île Maurice in French , Moris in Mauritian Creole . History The island of Mauritius was uninhabited before its first recorded visit during the Middle Ages by Arab sailors , who named it Dina Arobi . However , the island might have been visited well before by sailors of ancient times ; wax tablets were found on the shores of Mauritius by the Dutch , but since the tablets were not preserved , it can not be said whether they were of Greek or Phoenician or Arabic origin.A short History of Mauritius , P.J . Barnwell & A. Toussaint In 1507 Portuguese sailors came to the uninhabited island and established a visiting base . Diogo Fernandes Pereira , a Portuguese navigator , was the first European known to land in Mauritius . He named the island `` Ilha do Cirne '' . The Portuguese did not stay long as they were not interested in these islands . Dutch Mauritius ( 1638–1710 ) In 1598 a Dutch squadron under Admiral Wybrand Van Warwyck landed at Grand Port and named the island `` Mauritius '' after Prince Maurice van Nassau of the Dutch Republic , the ruler of his country . The Dutch established a small colony on the island in 1638 , from which they exploited ebony trees and introduced sugar cane , domestic animals and deer . It was from here that Dutch navigator Abel Tasman set out to discover the western part of Australia . The first Dutch settlement lasted twenty years . Several attempts were subsequently made but the settlements never developed enough to produce dividends , leading to the Dutch to abandon Mauritius in 1710 . French Mauritius ( 1715–1810 ) France , which already controlled neighbouring Île Bourbon ( now Réunion ) , took control of Mauritius in 1715 and renamed it Isle de France . The 1735 arrival of French governor Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais coincided with development of a prosperous economy based on sugar production . Mahé de La Bourdonnais established Port Louis as a naval base and a shipbuilding centre . Under his governorship , numerous buildings were erected , a number of which are still standing today . These include part of Government House , the Château de Mon Plaisir , and the Line Barracks , the headquarters of the police force . The island was under the administration of the French East India Company which maintained its presence until 1767 . From 1767 to 1810 , except for a brief period during the French Revolution when the inhabitants set up a government virtually independent of France , the island was controlled by officials appointed by the French Government . Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre lived on the island from 1768 to 1771 , then went back to France , where he wrote Paul et Virginie , a love story , which made the Isle de France famous wherever the French language was spoken . Two famous French governors were the Vicomte de Souillac ( who constructed the Chaussée in Port LouisPort Louis , A tropical City , Auguste Toussaint . ISBN 0 04 969001 9 and encouraged farmers to settle in the district of Savanne ) and Antoine Bruni d'Entrecasteaux ( who saw to it that the French in the Indian Ocean should have their headquarters in Mauritius instead of Pondicherry in India ) . Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen was a successful general in the French Revolutionary Wars and , in some ways , a rival of Napoléon I . He ruled as Governor of Isle de France and Réunion from 1803 to 1810 . British naval cartographer and explorer Matthew Flinders was arrested and detained by the General Decaen on the island , in contravention of an order from Napoléon . During the Napoleonic Wars , Mauritius became a base from which French corsairs organised successful raids on British commercial ships . The raids continued until 1810 , when a Royal Navy expedition led by Commodore Josias Rowley , R.N. , an Anglo-Irish aristocrat , was sent to capture the island . Despite winning the Battle of Grand Port , the only French naval victory over the British during these wars , the French could not prevent the British from landing at Cap Malheureux three months later . They formally surrendered the island on the fifth day of the invasion , 3 December 1810 , on terms allowing settlers to keep their land and property and to use the French language and law of France in criminal and civil matters . Under British rule , the island 's name reverted to Mauritius . British Mauritius ( 1810–1968 ) The British administration , which began with Sir Robert Farquhar as Governor , led to rapid social and economic changes . However , it was tainted by the Ratsitatane episode . Ratsitatane , nephew of King Radama of Madagascar , was brought to Mauritius as a political prisoner . He managed to escape from prison and plotted a rebellion that would free all the slaves on the island . But he was betrayed by one of his associates and was caught by the British forces , summarily judged , and condemned to death . He was beheaded at Plaine Verte on 15 April 1822 , and his head was exposed to serve as deterrent against any future uprising among the slaves . In 1832 , Adrien d'Épinay launched the first Mauritian newspaper ( Le Cernéen ) which was not controlled by the government . In the same year , there was a move by the procureur-general to abolish slavery without compensation to the slave owners . This gave rise to discontent , and to check an eventual rebellion , the government ordered all the inhabitants to surrender their arms . Furthermore , a stone fortress , Fort Adelaide , was built on a hill ( now known as the Citadel hill ) in the centre of Port Louis to quell any uprising . Slavery was abolished in 1835 , and the planters ultimately received two million pounds sterling in compensation for the loss of their slaves who had been imported from Africa and Madagascar during the French occupation . The abolition of slavery had important impacts on Mauritius ' society , economy and population . The planters brought a large number of indentured labourers from India to work in the sugar cane fields . Between 1834 and 1921 , around half a million indentured labourers were present on the island . They worked on sugar estates , factories , in transport and on construction sites . Additionally , the British brought 8,740 Indian soldiers to the island . Aapravasi Ghat , in the bay at Port Louis and now a UNESCO site , was the first British colony to serve as a major reception centre for slaves and indentured servants for British plantation labour . An important figure of the 19th century was Rémy Ollier , a brilliant journalist of mixed origin . In 1828 , the colour bar was officially abolished in Mauritius but British governors gave little power to coloured persons , and appointed only whites as leading officials . Rémy Ollier petitioned to Queen Victoria so that coloureds also might become members in the council of government , and this became possible a few years later . He also made Port Louis become a municipality so that the citizens could administer the town through their own elected representatives . A street has been named after him in Port Louis , and his bust was erected in the Jardin de la Compagnie in 1906 . In 1885 a new constitution was introduced to Mauritius . It created elected positions on the governing council , but the franchise was restricted mainly to the French and Creole classes . The labourers brought from India were not always fairly treated and a German , Adolph von Plevitz , made himself the unofficial protector of these immigrants . He mixed with many of the labourers , and in 1871 helped them to write a petition which was sent to Governor Gordon . Subsequently , a commission was appointed to look into the complaints made by the Indian immigrants , and in 1872 two lawyers , appointed by the British Crown , were sent from England to make an inquiry . This Royal Commission had a great impact for it recommended a lot of measures that would affect the lives of Indian labourers during the next fifty years . At the beginning of the 20th century , in November 1901 , Gandhi stopped in Mauritius , on his way to India ( from South Africa ) . He stayed on the island for two weeks , and urged the Indo-Mauritian community to take an interest in education and to play a more active role in politics . Back in India , he sent over a young lawyer Manilal Doctor to improve the plight of the Indo-Mauritians . During the same year , faster links were established with Rodrigues thanks to the wireless . In 1903 , motorcars were introduced in Mauritius , and in 1910 the first taxis , operated by Joseph Merven , came into service . The electrification of Port Louis took place in 1909 , and in the same decade the Mauritius Hydro Electric Company ( managed by the Atchia Brothers ) was authorised to power the towns of upper Plaines Wilhems with electricity . The 1910s were a period of great political agitation . The rising middle class ( made up of doctors , lawyers , and teachers ) began to challenge the political power of the oligarchs—that is , the sugar cane landowners . Dr. Eugène Laurent , mayor of Port Louis , was the leader of this new group ; his party , Action Libérale , demanded that more people should be allowed to vote in the elections . Action Libérale was opposed by the Parti de l'Ordre , led by Henri Leclézio , the most influential of the sugar magnates . In 1911 there were riots in Port Louis due to a false rumour that Dr. Eugène Laurent had been murdered by the oligarchs in Curepipe . Shops and offices were damaged in the capital and one person was killed . In the same year , 1911 , the first public cinema shows took place in Curepipe and , in the same town , a stone building was erected to house the Royal College . In 1912 , a wider telephone network came into service and it was used by the government , business firms , and a few private households . World War I broke out in August 1914 . Many Mauritians volunteered to fight in Europe against the Germans , and in Mesopotamia against the Turks . But the war affected Mauritius much less than the wars of the eighteenth century . On the contrary , the 1914–18 war was a period of great prosperity because of a boom in sugar prices . In 1919 the Mauritius Sugar Syndicate came into being , and it included 70 % of all sugar producers . The 1920s saw the rise of a `` retrocessionism '' movement which favoured the retrocession of Mauritius to France . The movement rapidly collapsed because none of the candidates who wanted Mauritius to be given back to France was elected in the 1921 elections . In 1922 , the first aeroplane landed in Mauritius , and in 1923 there were 79 cars on the island . The College of Agriculture was started at Réduit in 1925 . Due to the post-war recession , there was a sharp drop in sugar prices . Many sugar estates closed down , and it marked the end of an era for the sugar magnates who had not only controlled the economy , but also the political life of the country . Raoul Rivet , the editor of Le Mauricien newspaper , campaigned for a revision of the constitution that would give the emerging middle class a greater role in the running of the country . The principles of Arya Samaj began to infiltrate the Hindu community who clamoured for more social justice . The 1930s saw the birth of the Labour Party . It was launched by Dr. Maurice Curé . Emmanuel Anquetil rallied the urban workers while Pandit Sahadeo concentrated on the rural working class . Labour Day was celebrated for the first time in 1938 . More than 30,000 workers sacrificed a day 's wage and came from all over the island to attend a giant meeting at the Champ de Mars . At the outbreak of World War II in 1939 , many Mauritians volunteered to serve under the British flag in Africa and the Near East , fighting against the German and Italian armies . Some went to England to become pilots and ground staff in the Royal Air Force . Mauritius was never really threatened , but several British ships were sunk outside Port Louis by German submarines in 1943 . During World War II conditions were hard in the country ; the prices of commodities doubled but the salaries of workers increased only by 10 or 20 percent . There was civil unrest , and the colonial government did its utmost to crush all trade union activities . However , the labourers of Belle Vue Harel Sugar Estate went on strike on 27 September 1943 . Police officers eventually fired on the crowd , and killed three labourers including a boy of ten and a pregnant woman , Anjaly Coopen . The first general elections were held on 9 August 1948 and were won by the Labour Party . This party , led by Guy Rozemont , bettered its position in 1953 , and , on the strength of the election results , demanded universal suffrage . Constitutional conferences were held in London in 1955 and 1957 , and the ministerial system was introduced . Voting took place for the first time on the basis of universal adult suffrage on 9 March 1959 . The general election was again won by the Labour Party , led this time by Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam . A Constitutional Review Conference was held in London in 1961 and a programme of further constitutional advance was established . The 1963 election was won by the Labour Party and its allies . The Colonial Office noted that politics of a communal nature was gaining ground in Mauritius and that the choice of candidates ( by parties ) and the voting behaviour ( of electors ) were governed by ethnic and caste considerations . Around that time , two eminent British academics , Richard Titmuss and James Meade , published a report which dwelt upon the social problems caused by overpopulation and the monoculture of sugar cane . This led to an intense campaign to halt the population explosion , and the decade registered a sharp decline in population growth . Independence ( since 1968 ) At the Lancaster Conference of 1965 , it became clear that Britain wanted to relieve itself of the colony of Mauritius . In 1959 , Harold Macmillan had made his famous Winds of Change Speech where he acknowledged that the best option for Britain was to give complete independence to its colonies . Thus , since the late Fifties , the way was paved for independence . Later in 1965 , after the Lancaster Conference , the Chagos Archipelago was excised from the territory of Mauritius to form the British Indian Ocean Territory ( BIOT ) . A general election took place on 7 August 1967 , and the Labour Party and its two allies obtained the majority of seats . Mauritius adopted a new constitution and independence was proclaimed on 12 March 1968 . Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam became the first prime minister of an independent Mauritius with Queen Elizabeth II remaining head of state as Queen of Mauritius . In 1969 , the opposition party Mauritian Militant Movement ( MMM ) led by Paul Bérenger was founded . Later in 1971 , the MMM , backed by unions , called a series of strikes in the port which caused a state of emergency in the country . The coalition government of the Labour Party and the PMSD ( Parti Mauricien Social Democrate ) reacted by curtailing civil liberties and curbing the freedom of the press . Assassination attempts were made twice against Paul Bérenger . Neither were successful although the second one led to the death of Azor Adélaïde , a dock worker and activist , on 25 November 1971 . General elections were postponed and public meetings were prohibited . Members of the MMM including Paul Bérenger were imprisoned on 23 December 1971 . The MMM leader was released a year later . In May 1975 , a student revolt that started at the University of Mauritius swept across the country . The students were unsatisfied with an education system that did not meet their aspirations and gave limited prospects for future employment . On 20 May , thousands of students tried to enter Port-Louis over the Grand River North West bridge and clashed with the police . An act of Parliament was passed on 16 December 1975 to extend the right to vote to 18-year-olds . This was seen as an attempt to appease the frustration of the younger generation . The next general election took place on 20 December 1976 . The Labour Party won 28 seats out of 62 but the Prime Minister , Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam , managed to remain in office , with a two-seat majority , after striking an alliance with the PMSD of Gaetan Duval . In 1982 an MMM government led by prime minister Anerood Jugnauth and Paul Bérenger as Minister of Finance was elected . However , ideological and personality differences emerged within the MMM leadership . The power struggle between Bérenger and Jugnauth came to a head in March 1983 . Jugnauth travelled to New Delhi to attend a Non-Aligned Movement summit , on Jugnauth 's return to Mauritius , Bérenger proposed constitutional changes that would strip power from the prime minister . At Jugnauth 's request , prime minister Indira Gandhi of India planned an armed intervention involving the Indian Navy and Indian Army to prevent a coup under the code name Operation Lal Dora . The MMM government split up nine months after the June 1982 election , and the new MSM party , led by Aneerood Jugnauth , was elected to power in 1983 . Gaëtan Duval became the vice-prime minister . Throughout the decade , the prime minister , Aneerood Jugnauth , ruled the country with the help of the PMSD and the Labour Party . That period saw a growth in the EPZ ( Export Processing Zone ) sector . Industrialisation began to spread to villages as well , and attracted young workers from all ethnic communities . As a result , the sugar industry began to lose its hold on the economy . Mammouth stores opened in 1985 and offered credit facilities to low income earners , thus allowing them to afford basic household appliances . There was also a boom in the tourism industry , and new hotels sprang up throughout the island . In 1989 the stock exchange opened its doors and in 1992 the freeport began operation . Republic ( since 1992 ) On 12 March 1992 , twenty-four years after independence , Mauritius was proclaimed a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations . Political power remained with the prime minister . Despite an improvement in the economy , which coincided with a fall in the price of petrol and a favourable dollar exchange rate , the government did not enjoy full popularity . As early as 1984 , there was discontent . Through the Newspapers and Periodicals Amendment Act , the government tried to make every newspaper provide a bank guarantee of half a million rupees . Forty-three journalists protested by participating in a public demonstration in Port Louis , in front of parliament . They were arrested and freed on bail . This caused a public outcry and the government had to review its policy . There was also dissatisfaction in the education sector . There were not enough high-quality secondary colleges to answer the growing demand of primary school leavers who had got through their CPE ( Certificate of Primary Education ) . In 1991 , a master plan for education failed to get national support and contributed to the government 's downfall . Dr Navin Chandra Ramgoolam was elected as prime minister in the 1995 election . The landslide victory of 60–0 was a repeat of the 1982 score , but this time it was on the side of the Labour–MMM alliance . In February 1999 , the country experienced a brief period of civil unrest . Riots flared up after the popular singer Kaya , arrested for smoking marijuana at a public concert , was found dead in his prison cell . The president Cassam Uteem and cardinal Jean Margéot toured the country and , after four days of turmoil , calm was restored . A commission of enquiry was set up to investigate the root causes of the social disturbance . The resulting report delved into the cause of poverty and qualified many tenacious beliefs as perceptions . Aneerood Jugnauth of the MSM returned to power in 2000 after making an alliance with the MMM , which included prominent figures such as Anil Bachoo , Pravind Jugnauth and Sangeet Fowdar amongst others . In 2002 , Rodrigues became an autonomous entity within the republic and was thus able to elect its own representatives to administer the island . In 2003 , the prime ministership was transferred to Paul Bérenger of the MMM , and Aneerood Jugnauth went to Le Réduit to serve as president . In the 2005 election , Navin Ramgoolam , leader of the Labour Party , was brought to power after making an alliance with the Parti Mauricien Xavier-Luc Duval ( PMXD ) and other minor parties . In 2008 , the French-Mauritian writer Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature , and boxer Bruno Julie gave the island its first Olympic medal . Navin Ramgoolam was again elected in May 2010 . This time the Labour Party joined forces with the PMSD and the MSM . Under the new government , the country continued with its MID ( Maurice Ile Durable ) project , started in 2008 , to make the economy less dependent on fossil fuels . New biometric identity cards were issued in 2014 . The political landscape stayed rather confused . The Labour Party did away with the MSM , and then with the PMSD , whose leader had acted as Finance minister . The MMM made an alliance ( known as Remake ) with the MSM but broke off with the latter to become the ally of Labour Party . Parliament remained closed for the most part of 2014 . A second republic was proposed ( by the leaders of Labour and MMM ) whereby a president , elected by the population , would hold more power and rule the country in joint collaboration with the PM . Nomination day took place on 24 November 2014 and , for the first time , electoral candidates had the option of not proclaiming their ethnic group . Only a few chose to do so . General elections were held on 10 December 2014 , and the Lepep alliance made up of the MSM , PMSD , and Mouvement Liberater ( led by an MMM dissident ) was elected to power by reaping 47 seats out of 60 . The Westminster system was thus maintained and Aneerood Jugnauth became the PM for the sixth time . Shortly after the new government took office , the ex-PM was lengthily interrogated by the Police on charges related to money laundering . The license of the Bramer Bank was revoked by the Bank of Mauritius due to alleged lack of liquidity , and its wake the BAI ( British American Insurance ) was suspended from trading and placed in receivership . A new state-owned institution , the National Commercial Bank , was set up to take over from the Bramer Bank . A United Nations tribunal ruled that Britain had acted illegally when it created a marine protected area around the Chagos without the consent of Mauritius , thereby depriving this

odql_2485--Mauritius.txt

Which bird is the symbol of the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, which began its overseas work in Mauritius in 1970?

The terms ' ( AD or A.D. ) and before Christ ( BC or B.C . ) are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars . The term ' is Medieval Latin , which means in the year of the Lord but is often translated as in the year of our Lord . It is occasionally set out more fully as ' ( or Jesu ) ' ( `` in the year of Our Lord Jesus Christ '' ) . Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor introduced the AD system in AD 525 , counting the years since the birth of Christ . This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth , with AD counting years from the start of this epoch , and BC denoting years before the start of the era . There is no year zero in this scheme , so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC . This dating system was devised in 525 , but was not widely used until after 800 . The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today . For decades , it has been the unofficial global standard , adopted in the pragmatic interests of international communication , transportation , and commercial integration , and recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations . Traditionally , English followed Latin usage by placing the `` AD '' abbreviation before the year number . However , BC is placed after the year number ( for example : AD , but 68 BC ) , which also preserves syntactic order . The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium , as in `` fourth century AD '' or `` second millennium AD '' ( although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions ) . Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ , it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death , i.e. , after the death of Jesus . However , this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be included in either of the BC and the AD time scales . Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Current , or Common Era ( abbreviated as CE or C.E . ) , with the preceding years referred to as Before the Common , Christian , or Current Era ( BCE or B.C.E . ) . Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity , but use the same numbers for AD years . History The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table . His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians . The last year of the old table , Diocletian 247 , was immediately followed by the first year of his table , AD 532 . When he devised his table , Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year—he himself stated that the `` present year '' was `` the consulship of Probus Junior '' , which was 525 years `` since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ '' . Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus ' Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier , without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred . `` However , nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system , whether consulate , Olympiad , year of the world , or regnal year of Augustus ; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date . '' Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC , 1 BC , or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or Incarnation . Among the sources of confusion are : * In modern times , Incarnation is synonymous with the conception , but some ancient writers , such as Bede , considered Incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity * The civil , or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August ( 30 August in the year before a Julian leap year ) . * There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls * There were confused summations of emperors ' regnal years It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus 's birth . Two major theories are that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke , which states that Jesus was `` about thirty years old '' shortly after `` the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar '' , and hence subtracted thirty years from that date , or that Dionysius counted back 532 years ( the period during which the dates of Alexandrian Easter repeat ) from the first year of his new table . It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the very day of an event but from the beginning of a cycle which occurs in close proximity . For example , the Islamic calendar dates not from the date of the Hegira ( 16 May AD 622 ) but from the following new year ( 16 July AD 622 ) . It has also been speculated by Georges Declercq that Dionysius ' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world . At the time , it was believed by some that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus . The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament . It was believed that , based on the Anno Mundi calendar , Jesus was born in the year 5500 ( or 5500 years after the world was created ) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking the end of the world . Anno Mundi 6000 ( approximately AD 500 ) was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius . Popularization The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede , who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus , used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , completed in 731 . In this same history , he also used another Latin term , ante vero incarnationis dominicae tempus anno sexagesimo ( `` in fact in the 60th year before the time of the Lord 's incarnation '' ) , equivalent to the English `` before Christ '' , to identify years before the first year of this era . Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus , but `` the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century , when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ 's conception , i.e. , the Annunciation on March 25 '' ( Annunciation style ) . On the continent of Europe , Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by Alcuin . Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the use of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system 's prevalence . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time , but usage of AD gradually became more common in Roman Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries.Patrick , 1908 In 1422 , Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius . Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of the Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so , with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries . Although Anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century , the term `` Before Christ '' ( or its equivalent ) did not become common until much later . Bede the Venerable used the expression `` anno igitur ante incarnationem Dominicam '' ( so in the year before the Incarnation of the Lord ) twice . `` Anno an xpi nativitate '' ( in the year before the birth of Christ ) is found in 1474 in a work by a German monk . In 1627 , the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau ( Dionysius Petavius in Latin ) , with his work De doctrina temporum , popularized the usage ante Christum ( Latin for `` Before Christ '' ) to mark years prior to AD . Change of year When the reckoning from Jesus ' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe , various people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year : Christmas , Annunciation , or Easter . Thus , depending on the time and place , the year number changed on different days in the year , which created slightly different styles in chronology : * From 25 March 753 AUC ( today in 1 BC ) , i.e. , notionally from the incarnation of Jesus . That first `` Annunciation style '' appeared in Arles at the end of the 9th century , then spread to Burgundy and northern Italy . It was not commonly used and was called calculus pisanus since it was adopted in Pisa and survived there till 1750 . * From 25 December 753 AUC ( today in 1 BC ) , i.e. , notionally from the birth of Jesus . It was called `` Nativity style '' and had been spread by the Venerable Bede together with the Anno Domini in the early Middle Ages . That reckoning of the Year of Grace from Christmas was used in France , England and most of western Europe ( except Spain ) until the 12th century ( when it was replaced by Annunciation style ) , and in Germany until the second quarter of the 13th century . * From 25 March 754 AUC ( today in AD 1 ) . That second `` Annunciation style '' may have originated in Fleury Abbey in the early 11th century , but it was spread by the Cistercians . Florence adopted that style in opposition to that of Pisa , so it got the name of calculus florentinus . It soon spread in France and also in England where it became common in the late 12th century and lasted until 1752 . * From Easter , starting in 754 AUC ( AD 1 ) . That mos gallicanus ( French custom ) bound to a moveable feast was introduced in France by king Philip Augustus ( 1165–1180–1223 ) , maybe to establish a new style in the provinces reconquered from England . However , it never spread beyond the ruling élite . With these various styles , the same day could , in some cases , be dated in 1099 , 1100 or 1101 . Historical birth date of Jesus See also : Date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth , Nativity of Jesus and Chronology of Jesus The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text , but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC . The historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating , but the date is estimated through two different approaches - one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew , and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus.Paul L. Maier `` The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus '' in Chronos , kairos , Christos : nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman , Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pp . 113–129New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pp . 121–124 Other eras During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era , European countries used various systems to count years . Systems in use included consular dating , imperial regnal year dating , and Creation dating . Although the last non-imperial consul , Basilius , was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I , later emperors through Constans II ( 641–668 ) were appointed consuls on the first 1 January after their accession . All of these emperors , except Justinian , used imperial post-consular years for the years of their reign , along with their regnal years . Long unused , this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888 . Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400 , placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 ( Julian ) —eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply . Although this incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire , years numbered from it , an Era of Incarnation , were exclusively used and are yet used , in Ethiopia . This accounts for the seven- or eight-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and Ethiopian calendars . Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor , George Syncellus , and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus ' creation of the world . This era , called Anno Mundi , `` year of the world '' ( abbreviated AM ) , by modern scholars , began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC . Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC , the Byzantine Era . No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world . Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicle used an era beginning with the birth of Abraham , dated in 2016 BC ( AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami ) . Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era , which began counting from 38 BC , well into the Middle Ages . In 1422 , Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the Anno Domini system . The Era of Martyrs , which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284 , who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians , was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still used , officially , by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches . It was also used by the Ethiopian church . Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus Christ , which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini ( AD 29 ) , which appears in some medieval manuscripts . CE and BCE Alternative names for the Anno Domini era include vulgaris aerae ( found 1615 in Latin ) , `` Vulgar Era '' ( in English , as early as 1635 ) , `` Christian Era '' ( in English , in 1652 ) , `` Common Era '' ( in English , 1708 ) , and `` Current Era '' . Since 1856 , The term common era does not appear in this book ; the term Christian era [ lowercase ] does appear a number of times . Nowhere in the book is the abbreviation explained or expanded directly . the alternative abbreviations CE and BCE , ( sometimes written C.E . and B.C.E . ) are sometimes used in place of AD and BC . The `` Common/Current Era '' ( `` CE '' ) terminology is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly make religious references . For example , Cunningham and Starr ( 1998 ) write that `` B.C.E./C.E . …do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D . '' Upon its foundation , the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era , but used the Western calendar for international purposes . The translated term was 西元 ( `` xī yuán '' , `` Western Era '' ) . Later , in 1949 , the People 's Republic of China adopted 公元 ( gōngyuán , `` Common Era '' ) for all purposes domestic and foreign . No year zero In the AD year numbering system , whether applied to the Julian or Gregorian calendars , AD 1 is preceded by 1 BC . There is no year `` 0 '' between them . Because of this , most experts agree that a new century begins in a year which has `` 01 '' as the final digits ( e.g. , 1801 , 1901 , 2001 ) . New millennia likewise began in 1001 and 2001 . A common misconception is that centuries and millennia begin when the trailing digits are zeroes ( 1800 , 1900 , 2000 , etc . ) ; moreover , this convention was widely used to celebrate the new millennium in the year 2000 . For computational reasons , astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 year 1 , 1 BC year 0 , 2 BC year −1 , etc . In common usage , ancient dates are expressed in the Julian calendar , but ISO 8601 uses the Gregorian calendar and astronomers may use a variety of time scales depending on the application . Thus dates using the year 0 or negative years may require further investigation before being converted to BC or AD .

odql_14658--Anno_Domini.txt

238 AD is known in Roman history as the Year of the ........ (how many) Emperors?

Carlos Alberto Martínez Tevez ( ; born 5 February 1984 ) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a forward for Boca Juniors and the Argentina national team . His energy , skill , and goal scoring rate have made him an indispensable player for his club sides throughout his career , in the eyes of fellow players and media alike . Tevez began his career with Boca Juniors , winning the Copa Libertadores and Intercontinental Cup in 2003 before moving to Corinthians where he won the Brasileiro . In 2006 he moved to West Ham United , helping the team remain in the Premier League in his only season . Tevez 's prolonged transfers to West Ham and Manchester United were plagued by issues regarding third-party ownership by Media Sports Investment , and their resulting sagas paved changes to both Premier League and FIFA regulations . Tevez transferred to Manchester United in 2007 and in his two years won several trophies including two league titles and the Champions League . In 2009 he joined Manchester City for £47 million , becoming the first player to move between the two rival clubs since Terry Cooke in 1999 . Despite missing four months of the 2011–12 season following a dispute , Tevez returned to help City win their first league title in 44 years . In 2013 , he joined Juventus for £12 million , finishing as the team 's top goalscorer and winning the Scudetto in his first season . After winning a domestic double and reaching the Champions League final in his second season , he returned to Boca Juniors in June 2015 where he won another domestic double , becoming the first footballer to win two domestic league and cup doubles in one calendar year . Since his debut for Argentina in 2005 , Tevez has over 75 caps . A gold medal winner at the 2004 Olympics , he also played at two World Cups , a Confederations Cup , and four Copa América tournaments . Early life Tevez was born Carlos Alberto Martínez in Ciudadela , Buenos Aires Province , and raised in the neighbourhood of Ejército de Los Andes , better known as `` Fuerte Apache '' . It was from there that he got the nickname of `` El Apache '' . His parents changed his surname to his mother 's during a conflict between his junior club All Boys and Boca Juniors . Tevez has a distinctive burn scar that runs down his neck from his right ear to his chest . He was accidentally scalded with boiling water as a child , which caused third-degree burns and kept him hospitalised in intensive care for nearly two months . After joining Boca Juniors , Tevez refused an offer from the club to have them cosmetically improved , saying that the scars were a part of who he was in the past and who he is today . Club career Boca Juniors Aged 16 , Tevez made his debut for Boca Juniors against Talleres de Córdoba in the during the Torneo Apertura of the 2001–02 Argentine Primera División , on 21 October 2001 . Boca Juniors were crowned champions of the 2001 Copa Libertadores and faced Bayern Munich at the 2001 Intercontinental Cup on 27 November , where they lost 1–0 , however Tevez was not included in the squad . He went on to score 1 goal in 11 league appearances in the 2001–02 season . Boca had finished in 1st place of their 2002 Copa Libertadores group and had reached the quarter-final stage , where they faced Paraguay 's Club Olimpia . Tevez scored after 18 minutes in the first-leg to give Boca Juniors a 1–0 lead , until Olimpia levelled the scores in the 67th minute when Boca defender Cristian Traverso scored an own goal , on 8 May . Boca lost the second-leg 1–0 in Asunción on 16 May . Boca finished three points behind Independiente to finish in second position during the Torneo Apertura . Boca Juniors eventually finished four points behind River Plate to claim second position in the Torneo Clausura . Tevez scored 10 goals in 32 appearances for Boca during the 2002–03 season . During the 2002 Copa Sudamericana , Boca were eliminated 3–1 on aggregate by Gimnasia de La Plata in the first-round . Boca Juniors participated at the 2003 Copa Libertadores and reached the final of the competition , where they faced Santos . Boca won 5–1 on aggregate , with Tevez scoring in Boca 's 3–1 away win in the second-leg . Tevez was also voted as the tournament 's best player . Tevez scored 12 goals in 23 appearances during the 2003–04 season . Boca were crowned champions of the Torneo Apertura , where Tevez finished as the Apertura 's seventh top goal-scorer with 8 goals . Boca then finished in second spot of the Torneo Clausura , four points behind River Plate . During the 2003 Copa Sudamericana , Boca Juniors reached the quarter-final stages where they were eliminated by Colombia 's Atlético Nacional 5–1 on aggregate . During the 2003 Intercontinental Cup , Tevez , who had just returned to the side from injury , entered the field in the 73rd minute for Guillermo Barros Schelotto , as Boca Juniors beat Milan 3–1 on penalties to claim the Intercontinental Cup . Boca had reached the final of the 2004 Copa Sudamericana , where they beat Bolivia 's Bolívar 2–1 on aggregate . Tevez scored in Boca 's 2–0 second-leg win . Boca finished as runners-up of the 2004 Copa Libertadores . Tevez scored in both games of Boca 's round of 16 wins against Peru 's Club Sporting Cristal . Tevez also scored for Boca Juniors in their 2–1 second-leg loss to River Plate , having drawn them level 2–2 on aggregate , which Boca went on to win 5–4 on penalties . Boca played against Colombia 's Once Caldas in the final , where after drawing 1–1 on aggregate , Boca lost 2–0 on penalties . Tevez netted 2 goals in 9 league appreances in the Torneo Apertura of the 2004–05 season . Boca Juniors faced Peru 's Cienciano in the 2004 Recopa Sudamericana on 7 September . Tevez scored after 33 minutes to give Boca Juniors a 1–0 lead , but Cienciano equalised and the match was decided by a penalty shoot-out . Boca lost 4–2 on penalties , where Tevez had failed to convert his side 's second spot-kick . During his time at Boca Juniors , Tevez was listed by the media as a potential heir to Diego Maradona . Corinthians In January 2005 , Tevez was transferred to Brazilian Série A club Corinthians for $ 16 million cash and youth players worth $ 2 million . Joorabchian and Tevez also received an additional 15 % and 10 % transfer fee respectively . The transfer fee has also been reported as $ 22 million . Tevez signed a five-year , £6.85 million contract following the Brazilian club 's deal with Media Sports Investment . The deal was the biggest transfer ever in South American football . Investigation by Brazilian police later revealed that MSI owned 35 % of the player rights ( through BVI company MSI Group Limited ) while another 65 % owned by Just Sport Limited , another BVI company . Tevez captained the squad to the 2005 Campeonato Brasileiro , and was named the league 's best player by the Brazilian Football Confederation , becoming the first non-Brazilian player to win the award since 1976 . West Ham United On 23 August 2006 , Sky Sports reported that Tevez was refusing to play for Corinthians . Tevez confirmed on his website on 31 August that both he and Javier Mascherano were signing for West Ham United on permanent deals for undisclosed fees . Media reports speculated that other Premier League clubs turned down the opportunity of signing Tevez and Mascherano because of stipulations put in place by third parties MSI and Global Soccer Agencies , who owned both players ' rights . The investigation by the Premier League later revealed that Tevez was signed from MSI and Just Sports Inc. , and West Ham had the registration rights of the player , but the transfer fees were fully contributed to MSI and Just Sports ( the economic rights ) . Tevez made his West Ham debut coming on as a second-half substitute in the 1–1 home draw with Aston Villa on 10 September 2006 . After this game though , West Ham went on a nine-game winless streak ( one draw and eight defeats ) , which included seven consecutive matches without scoring . This winless run also included going out of both the UEFA Cup and League Cup . In November of the same season , Tevez left the ground early after being substituted and throwing a tantrum during a league match against Sheffield United , and as punishment , his teammates decided that Tevez had to donate half of a week 's wages to charity and train in a Brazil jersey . Tevez refused to wear the shirt , saying , `` I played in Brazil and have a great respect for Brazil and Brazilians but I 'm Argentine and wo n't wear that shirt . '' On 6 January 2007 , Tevez made his first start for West Ham under the new management of Alan Curbishley in a 3–0 FA Cup third round victory over Brighton & Hove Albion . He scored his first West Ham goal and assisted two others on 4 March 2007 in a 4–3 home defeat to Tottenham . In April 2007 , West Ham were fined a record £5.5 million for breaching Premier League rules over the signings of Tevez and Mascherano ; and Tevez was cleared to play for West Ham by the Premier League after changes were planned to be made to a third-party agreement related to him . That same month , Tevez was named the club 's Hammer of the Year . In relegation-threatened West Ham 's final league match of the season against Manchester United on 13 May , Tevez scored the only goal in a 1-0 victory . The match result secured West Ham 's stay in the top flight after Sheffield United 's failure to beat Wigan at home on the same day . 2007 transfer saga In June 2007 , Tevez rejected a move to Internazionale , and his representative , Kia Joorabchian , stated that he was in discussions to stay with West Ham , as the player had settled into the Premier League and wanted to remain in England . Tevez replied that he would not make a decision until the Copa América wrapped up in July . On 5 July , the Daily Mail reported that Tevez had agreed to join Manchester United in a deal worth £20 million , which was subject to an appeal from West Ham ; West Ham said in turn that they would block any transfer unless they received a majority of the transfer fee . The next day , West Ham released a statement that Tevez was under contract until June 2010 , in addition to denying having held negotiations with any other club . Joorabchian contradicted the claim by saying that West Ham had indeed given permission to United to engage in talks . Manchester United and West Ham sought FIFA 's assistance to rule on Tevez 's ownership , but on 24 July , FIFA suggested that the case be referred to the Court of Arbitration for Sport . Joorabchian intervened by issuing West Ham with a High Court writ `` ... to compel West Ham to release the registration of Carlos Tévez in accordance with contracts entered into between the parties . '' However , the case never made it to court as the Premier League approved an agreement between West Ham and MSI , in which MSI would pay £2 million to West Ham , who in turn released Tevez from his contract . Manchester United Manchester United put forward a proposed two-year loan deal for Tevez , which was approved on 10 August 2007 . He made his debut on 15 August when he started in place of the injured Wayne Rooney in a 1–1 draw against Portsmouth . On 23 September , he scored his first goal in a 2–0 home victory against Chelsea . In November , United manager Alex Ferguson confirmed that the club wanted to sign Tevez permanently . `` He 'll get me 15 goals this season , and what 's more , they 'll be important goals . '' Tevez was greeted with an ovation and singing of `` There 's Only One Carlos Tevez '' from the West Ham supporters upon his return to Upton Park for an away match ( lost by Manchester United ) on 29 December . Tevez scored a total of five goals during Manchester United 's successful 2007–08 Champions League campaign . He also scored the first penalty in the shoot-out against Chelsea in the final , which Manchester United won 6–5 after the match had ended 1–1 after extra time . He scored his first league goal of the 2008–09 season on 13 September 2008 in a 2–1 away defeat to Liverpool , and his first hat-trick came on 3 December 2008 , when he scored a quartet of goals in United 's 5–3 League Cup win over Blackburn Rovers in the fifth round . His first Champions League goal of the season , against Aalborg BK on 10 December , was the fastest goal scored in the tournament for 2008–09 at two minutes and 41 seconds . On 21 December , Tevez started for United in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup final , which United won 1–0 over Ecuadorean club LDU Quito , but he was substituted in the 51st minute for Jonny Evans after Nemanja Vidić was sent off . On 10 May 2009 , Tevez was reported as saying that he believed his time at Manchester United would come to an end that summer and he expressed his dissatisfaction at not having been offered a permanent contract with the club and having been dropped from the team despite , in his opinion , not having played badly . Despite this outburst , Tevez was named in Manchester United 's starting XI for the derby match against Manchester City later that day , before scoring the second of United 's two goals on the stroke of half-time , which prompted chants of `` Fergie , sign him up '' from some of the club 's fans . After the match , manager Alex Ferguson refused to be drawn on the subject of Tevez 's future with the club , saying `` I did n't read any of the papers . He 's a Manchester United player . '' The following game for Manchester United was away at Wigan Athletic . Tevez did not start the game , but came off the bench on 58 minutes and scored the equaliser three minutes later with a flamboyant back-heeled finish . His introduction immediately improved the team 's play and Michael Carrick scored the winner on 86 minutes . After the game , to the relief of most United fans , Alex Ferguson announced that the club had commenced talks to sign Tevez on a permanent deal . This news came on the same day as claims in The Sun that United lawyers were looking into the possibility of a Bosman-type case , which would allow Tevez to be signed for free . Tevez started the next game against Arsenal , but was substituted by Park Ji-Sung in the 66th minute . As he left the field , the Manchester United supporters applauded him , in his last game at Old Trafford for Manchester United . United chief executive David Gill suggested that Tevez 's future would be resolved by early June 2009 . Although United agreed to meet the option fee of £25.5 million and offered Tevez a five-year contract that would have made him one of the club 's top earners , Tevez 's advisors informed the club that he no longer wished to play for Manchester United . Nevertheless , reports also emerged that Tevez had ruled out signing for Liverpool , given the implications of a Manchester United player moving to join their north-west rivals . Manchester City After protracted negotiations , Tevez signed a five-year contract with Manchester United 's cross-town rivals , Manchester City , after a medical on 14 July 2009 . On 12 September , it was claimed that the transfer fee was £47 million , a British transfer record , but this was later denied by both Manchester City and Media Sports Investments . Tevez was given the number 32 shirt , just as he was at Manchester United and West Ham . In signing for Manchester City , Tevez became the first player to move between the two Manchester clubs since Terry Cooke moved from United to City in 1999 . After signing Tevez , Manchester City erected a blue 'Welcome to Manchester ' billboard with Tevez in the background . The billboard was located at the top of Deansgate in Manchester city centre , which leads to Salford and Trafford , where Old Trafford is outside the boundaries of Manchester . He made his City debut coming off the bench against Blackburn Rovers in a 2–0 away win . He scored his first goal for the club on 27 August 2009 against Crystal Palace in the second round of the League Cup , heading in City 's second goal in a 2–0 victory . During September 2009 , Tevez suffered a knee injury whilst on international duty with Argentina , which would keep him out for two to three weeks , forcing him to miss the match against Arsenal . It was also thought that Tevez would miss the Manchester derby the following weekend , but he recovered in time to play in the match . He set up his side 's first goal for Gareth Barry , but City ended up losing 4–3 . Tevez scored his first and second Premier League goals for the club during a 3–1 win over his former club , West Ham United prompting City fans to imitate the chant `` Fergie , sign him up '' . Later that week , he scored the third goal in Manchester City 's 5–1 win over Scunthorpe United in the League Cup , and three weeks later , he scored his third successive cup goal in the quarter-finals against Arsenal . The following week he scored the winner in a 2–1 win over Chelsea . One week later he scored twice , with an impressive brace , in a 3–3 draw with Bolton Wanderers . His next two goals came against Sunderland and Stoke City , scoring six goals in as many matches . On 28 December he continued his goalscoring run , scoring two against Wolverhampton Wanderers , making it eight goals in seven games for the striker . Tevez netted his first Premier League hat-trick for Manchester City on 11 January 2010 in a 4–1 home win over Blackburn Rovers , coincidentally on the same night he received his first ever Premier League Player of the Month award for December 2009 . On 19 January 2010 , Tevez spearheaded City 's attack as the club defeated former club and cross city rivals Manchester United in the first leg of the League Cup semi-final at the City of Manchester Stadium . Despite United taking a 1–0 lead , Tevez hit the equaliser in from the penalty spot before heading the winner in the 65th minute . On 27 January , Tevez scored his and Manchester City 's third goal of the tie in the second leg at Old Trafford . However , a stoppage-time goal from Wayne Rooney sent Manchester United through to the final with a 4–3 aggregate win . On 27 February 2010 Tevez scored two goals against Chelsea in a 4–2 away win over the league leaders , following his return from compassionate leave in Argentina . On 29 March 2010 , Tevez scored his second Premier League hat-trick for Manchester City against Wigan in a 3–0 victory . At the end of his first year at Manchester City , he was given two club awards , the Etihad Player of the Year award and the Players ' Player of the Year award . On 18 August 2010 , he was made club captain by manager Roberto Mancini , replacing defender Kolo Touré . Tevez continued his scoring form in the league from the 2009–10 in the 2010–11 season with two goals in the 3–0 , victory over Liverpool . Against Wigan Athletic , Tevez scored again in a 2–0 win . He continued his goal scoring run in a 1–0 win against Chelsea taking his tally to six goals in five games . He scored a penalty in a 2–1 home win against Newcastle , and followed up with two more goals against Blackpool in a 3–2 away win . In December 2010 , despite his agent recently asking the club to renegotiate and improve his contract , Tevez handed the club a written transfer request , citing family reasons and a breakdown in `` relationship with certain executives and individuals at the club '' . The transfer request was rejected by the club with a senior club official describing Tevez 's reasons for wanting to leave as `` ludicrous and nonsensical '' , whilst the club also stated that the player would not be sold in the January transfer window and will seek compensation for breach of contract from his agent if he retires or refuses to play . On 20 December 2010 , Tevez withdrew his transfer request and expressed his 'absolute commitment ' to Manchester City following clear-the-air talks . On 26 December 2010 , Tevez scored twice as City won 3–1 away at Newcastle United . Further goals against Leicester City , Wolverhampton Wanderers , West Bromwich Albion , Birmingham City and Notts County took him to 50 goals for the club . The mere 73 games played to reach this figure made him the second fastest player in City 's history to reach that figure , short of Derek Kevan 's 64-game record . After missing the 1–0 FA Cup semi-final victory over Manchester United at Wembley Stadium due to a hamstring injury , Tevez returned to captain City on 14 May 2011 in the 1–0 final over Stoke City . Two days later , amid rumours of his departure to Italy in the summer , he announced his desire to stay at Eastlands . However , on 8 June , he told an Argentine chat show host that he `` would not even return there on vacation '' . Due to his commitments to the national team in the summer , Tevez was not on the bench for City in the first league game of the 2011–12 season against Swansea City . Tevez made his first appearance of the season in City 's second game of the season against Bolton Wanderers coming on in the 68th minute for fellow Argentine Sergio Agüero . Despite losing the captain 's armband to Vincent Kompany , Tevez stated in an interview that he has had a complete turn around on his stance on Manchester and that he is not moving , `` I 'm happy at City and I 'm not moving from there '' . Tevez started his first game of the season against Wigan Athletic in which Tevez missed a penalty that was won by David Silva but played well in the game which ended 3–0 to City with Agüero scoring a hat trick . On 14 September Tevez made an appearance in City 's first ever Champions League game against Napoli , coming on as a second-half substitute for Edin Džeko in a 1–1 draw . Bayern Munich dispute On 27 September 2011 , Tevez was named as a substitute for City 's game at Bayern Munich . Mancini claimed that Tevez refused to come on as a substitute in the second half , when City was 2–0 down to the German club , although Tevez denied this calling it a misunderstanding . Tevez 's actions received widespread condemnation from various pundits and commentators , with Mancini claiming that he wanted Tevez `` out of Manchester City '' , and that he would never play for the club again . Tevez was suspended by Manchester City for a maximum period of two weeks as the club began an investigation into whether he refused to come on as a substitute . Following discussions with Mancini , owner Sheikh Mansour authorised the placing of Tevez on garden leave where the Argentinian would be paid in full but instructed to stay away from the Manchester City training ground . Return to first team Having failed to secure a transfer , Tevez was fined several weeks ' wages and denied a loyalty bonus , but returned to Manchester and resumed training on 14 February 2012 , with the backing of his fellow players . Mancini had previously stated that he was ready to welcome Tevez to the fold to boost their bid for the Premier League title . On 21 February , Tevez publicly apologised `` sincerely and unreservedly '' for his conduct , and withdrew his appeal over the City 's decision to severely fine him . He was however omitted from the club 's 2011–12 Europa League squad . On 23 February , Roberto Mancini drew a line under his dispute with Tevez , and insisted that he was available for selection . Tevez made his return to the Manchester City first-team in a 2–1 home victory against Chelsea on 21 March , coming on for Nigel de Jong in the 66th minute before providing the assist for Samir Nasri 's winning goal . His first goal of the season came four games later , the third goal in a 4–0 home win against West Bromwich Albion on 11 April . On 14 April , Tevez scored a hat-trick and provided an assist for Agüero in a 6–1 away win against Norwich City . He celebrated his third strike with a golf swing , in response the pundits who questioned his desire during his leave of absence in where he was pictured on the golf course . He also played in City 's title-winning game against Queens Park Rangers on 13 May . On 12 August 2012 , Tevez scored Manchester City 's second goal in a 3–2 win over Chelsea in the 2012 Community Shield . The following weekend , he scored City 's first goal of the 2012–13 Premier League season against Southampton . On 26 August , Tevez scored his third goal in three matches in a 2–2 draw with Liverpool , his 100th goal in English football . The following week , he scored the final goal in a 3–1 win over QPR to become the first Manchester City player to score 50 goals for the club in the Premier League . On 3 November , when City met West Ham United at Upton Park , Tevez received a warm welcome from West Ham fans , and responded by giving them a cross-armed 'Hammers ' salute . Speaking after the game , Tevez said : `` I have always had a fantastic relationship with the West Ham supporters . They were singing my name before the game and that 's why I did that ( Hammers salute ) , in tribute to them . I 've always felt really at home there . '' On 19 January 2013 , it was reported that Tevez had revealed that he nearly retired from professional football in 2012 in the midst of his Manchester City and Argentina crisis . He also spoke about his future and when he would return to Argentina . `` I ’ ve already said I want to retire wearing a Boca shirt , it 's my dream as well as my family 's . After the World Cup , we 'll see . I could finish my contract next year and go to Boca . '' Juventus On 26 June 2013 , Tevez signed a three-year contract with Juventus for a reported £12 million , with the fee subject to performance . The fee combined with wages and bonuses due to Tevez in the final year of his contract was estimated to save Manchester City about £27 million . On 18 August 2013 , Tevez made his competitive debut for Juventus , scoring the fourth goal in a 4–0 rout of Lazio in the 2013 Supercoppa Italiana . On 24 August , he made his first appearance in Serie A , scoring the winning goal as Juventus beat Sampdoria 1–0 in their opening match of the 2013–14 season . On 15 December 2013 , Tevez scored his

bb_7549--Carlos_Tevez.txt

What did Manchester United footballer Carlos Tevez put in his mouth in celebrating a goal at Christmas 2007?

The Thorn Birds is a 1977 best-selling novel by the Australian author Colleen McCullough . Set primarily on Drogheda—a fictional sheep station in the Australian Outback named after Drogheda , Ireland—the story focuses on the Cleary family and spans the years 1915 to 1969 . In 1983 , the novel was adapted into a television miniseries that , during its run 27–30 March , became the United States ' second highest-rated miniseries of all time behind Roots . The miniseries starred Richard Chamberlain , Rachel Ward , Barbara Stanwyck , Christopher Plummer , Richard Kiley , Bryan Brown , Mare Winningham , Philip Anglim , and Jean Simmons . It was directed by Daryl Duke and produced by television veteran David L. Wolper ( who also produced Roots ) . Plot The epic begins with Meghann `` Meggie '' Cleary , a four-year-old girl living in New Zealand in the early twentieth century , the only daughter of Paddy , an Irish farm labourer , and Fee , his harassed but aristocratic wife . Although Meggie is a beautiful child with curly red-gold hair , she receives little coddling and must struggle to hold her own against her numerous older brothers . Of these brothers , her favourite is the eldest , Frank , a rebellious young man who is unwillingly preparing himself for the blacksmith 's trade . He is much shorter than his brothers , but very strong ; also , unlike the other Clearys , he has black hair and eyes . Paddy is poor , but has a wealthy sister , Mary Carson , who lives in Australia on an enormous sheep station called Drogheda . One day , Paddy receives a letter from Mary offering him a job on her estate , Drogheda . In Drogheda , Meggie meets Ralph de Bricassart , a young , capable , and ambitious priest who , as punishment for insulting a bishop , has been relegated to a remote parish in the town of Gillanbone , near Drogheda . Ralph has befriended Mary , hoping a hefty enough bequest from her to the Catholic Church might liberate him from his exile . Ralph is strikingly handsome , `` a beautiful man '' ; Mary , who does not bother to conceal her desire for him , often goes to great lengths to see if he can be induced to break his vows . Ralph blandly shrugs off these attentions and continues his visits . Meanwhile , he cares for all the Clearys and soon learns to cherish beautiful but forlorn little Meggie . Meggie , in return , makes Ralph the centre of her life . Frank 's relationship with his father , Paddy , has never been peaceful . The two vie for Fee 's attention , and Frank resents the many pregnancies Paddy makes her endure . One day , after Fee , now in her forties , reveals she is again pregnant , the two men quarrel violently and Paddy blurts out the truth about Frank : he is not Paddy 's biological son . Long ago , Fee had been the adored only daughter of a prominent citizen . Then she had an affair with a married politician , and the result , Frank , was already eighteen months old when her mortified father married her off to Paddy . Because he resembles her lost love , Fee has always loved Frank more than her other children . To the sorrow of Meggie and Fee , when Frank learns that Paddy is only his stepfather , he runs away to become a prizefighter . Fee later gives birth to twin boys , James and Patrick ( Jims and Patsy ) , but shows little interest in them . Shortly afterward , Meggie 's beloved little brother , Hal , dies . With Frank gone and Hal dead , Meggie clings to Ralph more than ever . This goes largely unnoticed because Ralph has now been her mentor for several years ; however , as she ripens into womanhood , some begin to question their close relationship , including Ralph and Meggie themselves . Mary Carson has also noticed their changing relationship , and from motives of jealousy mingled with Machiavellian cruelty , she devises a plan to separate Ralph from Meggie by tempting him with his heart 's desire : a high place in the Church hierarchy . Although her will of record leaves the bulk of her estate to Paddy , she quietly writes a new one , making the Roman Catholic Church the main beneficiary and Ralph the executor . In the new will , the true magnitude of Mary 's wealth is finally revealed . Drogheda is not the centre of her fortune as Ralph and Paddy have long believed but is merely a hobby , a diversion from her true financial interests . Mary 's wealth is derived from a vast multi-national financial empire worth over thirteen million pounds ( about A $ 200 million in modern terms ) . The sheer size of Mary 's bequest will virtually guarantee Ralph 's rapid rise in the church . She also makes sure that after she dies only Ralph , at first , will know of the new will – forcing him to choose between Meggie and his own ambition . She also provides for her disinherited brother , promising him and all his grandchildren a home on Drogheda as long as any of them live . At Mary 's seventy-fifth birthday party , Ralph goes to great lengths to avoid Meggie , now seventeen and dressed in a beautiful rose-pink evening gown ; later , he explains that others might not see his attention as innocent . Mary dies in the night . Ralph duly learns of the new will . He sees at once the subtle genius of Mary 's plan and , although he weeps and calls her `` a disgusting old spider '' he takes the new will to her lawyer without delay . The lawyer , scandalised , urges Ralph to destroy the will , but to no avail . The bequest of thirteen million pounds works its expected magic , and Ralph soon leaves to begin his rapid advance in the Church . Before he leaves , Meggie confesses her love for him ; after the birthday party , Ralph finds her crying in the family cemetery and they share a passionate kiss , but Ralph refuses her because of his duties as a priest and begs Meggie to find a suitable partner . The Clearys learn that Frank has been convicted of murder after killing someone in a fight . He spends three decades in prison . Paddy and his son Stuart are killed ; Paddy dies in a lightning fire , and Stu is killed by a wild boar shortly after finding his father 's body . Meanwhile , Ralph , unaware of Paddy and Stu 's deaths , is on his way to Drogheda and suffers minor injuries when his plane bogs in the mud . As Meggie tends his wounds , she tries to seduce him and is rebuffed . Ralph remains at Drogheda only long enough to conduct the funerals . Three years later , a new ranch worker named Luke O'Neill begins to court Meggie . Although his motives are more mercenary than romantic , she marries him because he looks a little bit like Ralph , but mainly because he is not Catholic and wants little to do with religion-her own way of getting back at Ralph . She soon realises her mistake . After a brief honeymoon , Luke , a skinflint who regards women as sex objects and prefers the company of men , finds Meggie a live-in job with a kindly couple , the Muellers , and leaves to join a gang of itinerant sugarcane cutters in North Queensland . Before he leaves , he appropriates all Meggie 's savings and arranges to have her wages paid directly to him . He tells her he is saving money to buy a homestead ; however , he quickly becomes obsessed with the competitive toil of cane-cutting and has no real intention of giving it up . Hoping to change Luke 's ambition and settle him down , Meggie deliberately thwarts his usual contraception and bears Luke a red-haired daughter , Justine . The new baby , however , makes little impression on Luke . Father Ralph visits Meggie during her difficult labour ; he has come to say goodbye , as he is leaving Australia for Rome . He sees Meggie 's unhappiness for himself , and pities her . Justine proves to be a fractious baby , so the Muellers send Meggie to an isolated island resort for a rest . Father Ralph returns to Australia , learns of Meggie 's whereabouts from Anne Mueller , and joins her for several days . There , at last , the lovers consummate their passion , and Ralph realises that despite his ambition to be the perfect priest , his desire for Meggie makes him a man like other men . Father Ralph returns to the Church , and Meggie , pregnant with Ralph 's child , decides to separate from Luke . She tells Luke what she really thinks of him , and returns to Drogheda , leaving him to his cane-cutting . Back home , she gives birth to a beautiful boy whom she names Dane . Fee , who has had experience in such matters , notices Dane 's resemblance to Ralph as soon as he is born . The relationship between Meggie and Fee takes a turn for the better . Justine grows into an independent , keenly intelligent girl who loves her brother dearly ; however , she has little use for anyone else , and calmly rebuffs Meggie 's overtures of motherly affection . None of Meggie 's other surviving brothers ever marry , and Drogheda gradually becomes a place filled with old people . Ralph visits Drogheda after a long absence and meets Dane for the first time ; and although he finds himself strangely drawn to the boy , he fails to recognize that they are father and son . Dane grows up and decides , to Meggie 's dismay , to become a priest . Fee tells Meggie that what she stole from God , she must now give back . Justine , meanwhile , decides to become an actress and leaves Australia to seek her dream in England . Ralph , now a Cardinal , becomes a mentor to Dane , but still blinds himself to the fact that the young man is his own son . Dane is also unaware of their true relationship . Ralph takes great care of him , and because of their resemblance people mistake them for uncle and nephew . Ralph and Dane encourage the rumour . Justine and her brother remain close , although he is often shocked at her sexual adventures and free-wheeling lifestyle . She befriends Rainer Hartheim , a German politician who is a great friend of both Dane and Ralph – unbeknown to her , he falls deeply in love with her . Their friendship becomes the most important in her life , and is on the verge of becoming something more when tragedy strikes . Dane , who has just become a priest , is vacationing in Greece . While there , he goes swimming one day and dies while rescuing two women from a dangerous current . Meggie reveals before Dane 's funeral that Dane is Ralph 's son . Ralph dies in Meggie 's arms after the funeral . Justine breaks off all communications with Rainer and falls into a depressed , hum-drum existence . Eventually , they renew their acquaintance on strictly platonic terms , until Rainer visits Drogheda alone in order to urge Meggie to help him pursue Justine 's hand in marriage . Justine , now the sole surviving grandchild of Fee and Paddy Cleary , finally accepts her true feelings for Rainer . They marry , but have no plans to live on Drogheda . The book 's title obliquely refers to the mythical `` thornbird '' that searches for thorn trees from the day it is hatched . When it finds the perfect thorn , it impales itself , and sings the most beautiful song ever heard as it dies . It directly alludes , as should be obvious from the novel 's subject matter , to the Parable of the Sower in the Synoptic Gospels and chapter 9 of the Gospel of Thomas . List of characters * Meghann `` Meggie '' Cleary – The central character , the only daughter in a large family of sons . The novel takes her from early childhood to old age . * Father Ralph de Bricassart – Meggie 's true love , a handsome Irish Catholic priest . * Padraic `` Paddy '' Cleary – Meggie 's father , a kind and simple labouring Irishman . * Fiona `` Fee '' Armstrong Cleary – Paddy 's wife and Meggie 's mother , an aristocratic woman who has come down in the world . * Francis `` Frank '' Armstrong Cleary – Meggie 's eldest brother , Fee 's out-of-wedlock first son , Paddy 's stepson . A favourite with Meggie and Fee both . Becomes a prizefighter . * Mary Elizabeth Cleary Carson – Paddy 's immensely wealthy older sister ; Father Ralph 's benefactor ; owner of Drogheda . * Luke O'Neill – Meggie 's husband during an unhappy three-year marriage ; father of Justine . * Dane O'Neill – Son of Meggie and Ralph , Meggie 's pride and joy , drowned in Greece at the age of twenty-six . * Justine O'Neill – Daughter of Meggie and Luke , an intelligent , independent girl . At the end , she is the only surviving grandchild of Paddy and Fee Cleary . * Luddie and Anne Mueller – Meggie 's employers during her marriage to Luke . They become lifelong friends . * Bob , Jack , and Hughie Cleary – Meggie 's older brothers . They all resemble Paddy and live out their days , unmarried , on Drogheda . * Stuart `` Stu '' Cleary – A quiet , kindly boy who resembles his mother and is closest to Meggie in age . * Harold `` Hal '' Cleary – Meggie 's cherished baby brother . He dies when he 's four years old . * James and Patrick `` Jims and Patsy '' Cleary – Twin boys , Meggie 's youngest brothers . * Rainer `` Rain '' Moerling Hartheim – Friend of Ralph and eventually Dane . Member of the West German Parliament and eventual husband of Justine . * Archbishop ( later Cardinal ) Vittorio di Contini-Verchese – Ralph 's mentor , friend to Rainer and Dane .

sfq_25799--The_Thorn_Birds.txt

Who wrote the novel The Thom Birds?

( , , or ; Greek : , from λέγω lego `` I say '' ) is an important term in western philosophy , psychology , rhetoric , and religion . It is a Greek word meaning `` a ground '' , `` a plea '' , `` an opinion '' , `` an expectation '' , `` word '' , `` speech '' , `` account '' , `` to reason '' , but it became a technical term in philosophy beginning with Heraclitus ( ca . 535–475 BC ) , who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge . Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways . The sophists used the term to mean discourse , and Aristotle applied the term to refer to `` reasoned discourse '' or `` the argument '' in the field of rhetoric . The Stoic philosophers identified the term with the divine animating principle pervading the Universe . Under Hellenistic Judaism , Philo ( c. 20 BC – AD 50 ) adopted the term into Jewish philosophy . The Gospel of John identifies the Logos , through which all things are made , as divine ( theos ) , May , Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger . The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha . 1977. and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos . Although the term `` Logos '' is widely used in this Christian sense , in academic circles it often refers to the various ancient Greek uses , or to post-Christian uses within contemporary philosophy , Sufism , and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung . Despite the conventional translation as `` word '' , it is not used for a word in the grammatical sense ; instead , the term lexis ( λέξις ) was used . However , both logos and lexis derive from the same verb legō ( λέγω ) , meaning `` to count , tell , say , speak '' . Professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes logos as a `` premise . '' She states that , to find the reason behind a rhetor 's backing of a certain position or stance , one must acknowledge the different `` premises '' that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction . She continues by stating that the rhetor 's success will come down to `` certain objects of agreement ... between arguer and audience . '' `` Logos is logical appeal , and the term logic is derived from it . It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker 's topic . '' Furthermore , logos is credited with appealing to the audience 's sense of logic , with the definition of “ logic ” being concerned with the thing as it is known . Furthermore , you can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways : 1 ) through inductive logic , providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement ; 2 ) through deductive enthymeme , providing the audience with general scenarios and then pulling out a certain truth . Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos ( `` the uttered word '' ) and the logos endiathetos ( `` the word remaining within '' ) . The Stoics also spoke of the logos spermatikos ( the generative principle of the Universe ) , which is not important in the Biblical tradition but is relevant in Neoplatonism . Early translators from Greek , such as Jerome in the 4th century , were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the Logos expressed in the Gospel of John . The Vulgate Bible usage of in principio erat verbum was thus constrained to use the ( perhaps inadequate ) noun verbum for `` word '' , but later romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le mot in French . Reformation translators took another approach . Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort ( verb ) in favor of Wort ( word ) , for instance , although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as felt by Jerome and Augustine . Ancient Greek philosophy Heraclitus The writing of Heraclitus ( c. 535 – c. 475 BC ) was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy , although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time . For Heraclitus , logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world 's rational structure . What logos means here is not certain ; it may mean 'reason ' or 'explanation ' in the sense of an objective cosmic law , or it may signify nothing more than 'saying ' or 'wisdom ' . Yet , an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus . Aristotle identifies two specific types of persuasion methods : artistic and inartistic . He defines artistic proofs as arguments that the rhetor generates and creates on his own . Examples of these include relationships , testimonies , and conjugates . He defines inartistic proofs as arguments that the rhetor quotes using information from a non-self-generated source . Examples of these include laws , contracts , and oaths . Aristotle 's rhetorical logos Following one of the other meanings of the word , Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Ars Rhetorica , using it as meaning argument from reason , one of the three modes of persuasion . ( The other two modes are pathos ( ) , which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal , `` putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind '' , and ethos ( ) , persuasion through convincing listeners of one 's `` moral character . '' ) According to Aristotle , logos relates to `` the speech itself , in so far as it proves or seems to prove . '' In the words of Paul Rahe : Logos , pathos , and ethos can all be appropriate at different times . Arguments from reason ( logical arguments ) have some advantages , namely that data are ( ostensibly ) difficult to manipulate , so it is harder to argue against such an argument ; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience , enhancing ethos . On the other hand , trust in the speaker , built through ethos , enhances the appeal of arguments from reason . Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos `` is not emotional appeal per se , but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue , ' in that the pathē they stimulate lack , or at any rate are not shown to possess , any intrinsic connection with the point at issue – as if an advocate were to try to whip an anti-Semitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish ; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners 's reverential feelings for the politician 's ancestors . '' Aristotle comments on the three modes by stating : `` Persuasion is clearly a sort of demonstration , since we are most fully persuaded when we consider a thing to have been demonstrated . Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds . [ … ] Persuasion is achieved by the speaker 's personal character when the speech is so spoken as to make us think him credible . [ ... ] Secondly , persuasion may come through the hearers , when the speech stirs their emotions . [ ... ] Thirdly , persuasion is effected through the speech itself when we have proved a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to the case in question . ” -Aristotle , `` Rhetoric '' , 350 BC Stoics Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC , in which the logos was the active reason pervading and animating the universe . It was conceived of as material , and is usually identified with God or Nature . The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos ( `` logos spermatikos '' ) , or the law of generation in the universe , which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter . Humans , too , each possess a portion of the divine logos . The Stoics took all activity to imply a Logos , or spiritual principle . As the operative principle of the world , the Logos was anima mundi to them , a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria , although he derived the contents of the term from Plato . Isocrates ' logos Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle ’ s appeals to logos , pathos , and ethos , while less attention has been directed to Isocrates ’ teachings about philosophia and logos , and their partnership in generating an ethical , mindful polis . Isocrates does not provide a single definition of logos in his work , but Isocratean logos characteristically focuses on speech , reason , and civic discourse . He was concerned with establishing the “ common good ” of Athenian citizens which , he professed , could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophia and the application of logos . Logos in Hellenistic Judaism In the Septuagint the term logos is used for the word of God in the creation of heaven in Psalm 33:6 , and in some related contexts . Philo of Alexandria Philo ( 20 BC – 50 AD ) , a Hellenized Jew , used the term Logos to mean an intermediary divine being , or demiurge . Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form , and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world . The Logos was the highest of these intermediary beings , and was called by Philo `` the first-born of God . '' Philo also wrote that `` the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything , holding all things together and binding all the parts , and prevents them from being dissolved and separated . '' Plato 's Theory of Forms was located within the Logos , but the Logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world . In particular , the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible ( Old Testament ) was identified with the Logos by Philo , who also said that the Logos was God 's instrument in the creation of the universe . Christianity Christ the Logos The Christian concept of the Logos is derived from the first chapter of the Gospel of John , where the Logos ( often translated as “ Word ” ) is described in terms that resemble , but likely surpass , the ideas of Philo : John also explicitly identifies the Logos with Jesus : Non-trinitarian Arian theologians taught : Trinitarian theologian Frank Stagg writes : `` God '' or `` a god '' The last four words of ( , literally `` God was the Logos '' , or `` God was the Word '' ) have been a particular topic of debate between Jehovah 's Witnesses and other Christians . In this construct , the subject ( the Logos ) and the complement ( God ) both appear in the nominative case , and the complement is therefore usually distinguished by dropping any article and moving it before the verb . Grammatically , the phrase could therefore read either `` the Word was God '' or `` the Word was ' a ' god '' . Different translators decide to add it or to not add it . However , according to a grammatical construction known as Colwell 's Rule , the predicate of a predicate nominative should not be considered indefinite unless the context demands it . `` God '' ( ) is the predicate in the predicate nominative construction , so it is unlikely that the noun `` God '' is indefinite ( requiring `` a god '' rather than `` God '' ) . Early New Testament manuscripts did not distinguish upper and lower case , although many scholars see the movement of `` God '' to the front of the clause as indicating an emphasis more consistent with `` the Word was God '' . Some translations preserve a sense of ambiguity with `` the Word was divine '' , such as An American Translation and Moffatt , New Translation . Related translations have also been suggested , such as `` what God was , the Word also was '' . `` The Word was God '' is by far the most common English translation , although it is translated `` the Word was a god '' by the Jehovah 's Witnesses ( in the New World Translation and their edition of the Emphatic Diaglott ) and Unitarians ( in Thomas Belsham 's modification of William Newcome 's version ) . The Gnostics In Gnosticism , the Logos is often associated or paired with Sophia or wisdom . In Valentinianism , Logos and Sophia are a syzygy , or pair of aeons . The 'Fall of sophia ' and subsequent rescue by the Logos is a major theme in Gnosticism and appears in the Pistis Sophia . Valentinius ( c.100 – c.160 ) was said to be the first to introduce the 'Three Hypostases ' of Platonism into Christianity , identifying them with the Father , Son , and Spirit . The Logos was fully identified with the Son and Christ . “ Logos ” in Gnostic culture is usually associated with `` Sophia '' . `` Eventually Sophia was completely fused with Christ . Wisdom became Logos , and explicit associations between Sophia and Jesus disappeared from Christianity . '' Elizabeth Johnson states in `` Wisdom Was Made Flesh '' that masculine logos took over womanly wisdom `` as it became unseemly , given the developing patriarchal tendencies in the church , to interpret the male Jesus with a female symbol of God '' . Early Christian writers Following John 1 , the early Christian apologist Justin Martyr ( c 150 ) identified Jesus as the Logos . Like Philo , Justin also identified the Logos with the Angel of the Lord , and used this as a way of arguing for Christianity to Jews : In his First Apology , Justin used the Stoic concept of the Logos as a way of arguing for Christianity to non-Jews . Since a Greek audience would accept this concept , his argument could concentrate on identifying this Logos with Jesus . However , Justin does not go so far as to articulate a fully consistent doctrine of the Logos . Rhema and logos The word logos has been used in different senses along with Rhema . Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions . The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms Rhema and Logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word Dabar , as the Word of God . Some modern usage in Christian Theology distinguishes Rhema from Logos ( which here refers to the written scriptures ) while Rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word ( Logos ) is read , although this distinction has been criticized . Neoplatonism Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus ( 204/5–270 AD ) used the term `` Logos '' in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics , but the term Logos was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism , and similarities to Philo 's concept of Logos appear to be accidental . The Logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first Neoplatonist . Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting Logos as the principle of meditation , existing as the interrelationship between the Hypostases ( The 'One ' , 'Spirit ' ( nous ) and 'Soul ' ) . Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of `` The One '' , the `` Spirit '' and `` Soul '' . The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable , but for Plotinus these were not equal and `` The One '' was at the highest level , with the `` Soul '' at the lowest . For Plotinus , the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of Logos from the higher principle , and eros ( loving ) upward from the lower principle . Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of Logos , but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works , although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine . Plotinus specifically avoided using the term Logos to refer to the second person of his trinity . However , Plotinus influenced Victorinus who then influenced Augustine of Hippo . Centuries later , Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings . Victorinus differentiated between the Logos interior to God and the Logos related to the world by creation and salvation . Augustine of Hippo , often seen as the father of medieval philosophy , was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought . A young Augustine experimented with , but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus . In his Confessions Augustine described Logos as the Divine Eternal Word , by which he , in part , was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Greek-influenced world ( of which the Latin speaking West was a part ) Augustine 's Logos had taken body in Christ , the man in whom the logos ( i.e . veritas or sapientia ) was present as in no other man . Sufism The concept of Logos in Sufism is used to relate the `` Uncreated '' ( God ) to the `` Created '' ( man ) . In Sufism , for the Deist , no contact between man and God can be possible without the Logos . The Logos is everywhere and always the same , but its personification is `` unique '' within each region . Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the Logos , and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms . One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the Neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi , who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa . His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom ( Fusus al-Hikam ) and The Meccan Illuminations ( Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya ) . To Ibn Arabi , every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a Logos ( Kalimah ) , as an aspect of the unique Divine Being . In his view the Divine Being would have for ever remained hidden , had it not been for the prophets , with Logos providing the link between man and divinity . Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the Logos concept from Neoplatonic and Christian sources , although ( writing in Arabic rather than Greek ) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it . For Ibn Arabi , the Logos or `` Universal Man '' was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence . Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the Neoplatonic Logos . In the 15th century ʻAbd al-Karim al-Jili introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man . For al-Jili the perfect man ( associated with the Logos or the Holy Prophet ) has the power to assume different forms at different times , and appear in different guises . Jung 's analytical psychology Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional , non-reason oriented and mythical elements of eros . In Jung 's approach , logos vs eros can be represented as `` science vs mysticism '' , or `` reason vs imagination '' or `` conscious activity vs the unconscious '' . For Jung , logos represented the masculine principle of rationality , in contrast to its female counterpart , eros : Jung attempted to equate logos and eros , his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness , with the alchemical Sol and Luna . Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness . Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of `` paired opposites '' , e.g . by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the Neoplatonists . In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus : In so far as the spirit is also a kind of `` window on eternity '' ... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus ... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world , wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul . And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros , while the anima compensates logos .

bb_4832--Logos.txt

Who conceived the effective communication theory 'Three Modes of Persuasion' (comprising Logos, Ethos and Pathos)?

A federal district is a type of administrative division of a federation , under the direct control of a federal government . Federal districts often include capital districts , and they exist in states and countries worldwide . United States The seat of the U.S. federal government in Washington , D.C. is a federal district known as the `` District of Columbia '' , which is not part of any U.S. state . Other federally administered areas that are within a state , but not under its jurisdiction are called federal enclaves . In main addition , the U.S. government has several other kinds of `` federal districts '' which are not specifically related to a capital city : * The federal court system divides each state principal , the District of Columbia , and Puerto Rico , into one or more federal judicial districts . A United States district court and a bankruptcy court are located in each . There are also regional federal judicial circuits , each consisting of a group of states ( except for the District of Columbia Circuit , which consists only of the federal district , and the Federal Circuit , whose jurisdiction is based on specific subject matter instead of geography ) ; Puerto Rico and the United States territorial courts are also assigned to circuits . Each circuit has a United States court of appeals . Latin America The term Distrito Federal , meaning `` Federal District '' in both the Portuguese and Spanish languages , is used to refer to : * Federal Capital ( Argentina ) , formally Autonomous City of Buenos Aires , since 1994 . * Federal District ( Brazil ) * Federal District ( Mexico ) , an alternative official term for Mexico City until January 2016 . * Capital District ( Venezuela ) * Distrito Central , Tegucigalpa , capital of Honduras Asia In Malaysia , the term Federal Territory ( Malay : Wilayah Persekutuan ) is used for the three territories governed directly by the federal government , namely Kuala Lumpur ( national capital ) , Putrajaya ( federal government administrative centre ) and Labuan ( international offshore financial centre ) . In India , the term Union Territory is used for the seven territories governed directly by the federal national government with its own Chief minister and Governor . They include — Andaman and Nicobar Islands , Chandigarh , Dadra and Nagar Haveli , Daman and Diu , Delhi , Lakshadweep and Puducherry . Of these Delhi and Puducherry possess partial state hoods with their own elected chief ministers . In Pakistan , the term Federal Territory is used for the five zones and 12 union councils of Islamabad governed directly by the state government as Islamabad Capital Territory . Australia The Australian Capital Territory is enclaved within the state of New South Wales . Its only city is Canberra , the capital of Australia . Russia There are nine federal districts of Russia , which function as an additional administrative layer between other subdivisions and the Russian Federation as a whole state . There are also three cities of federal significance , established by the Constitution — Moscow , Saint Petersburg and Sevastopol . Each city is treated as separate subject of federation , and has its own legislative body .

dpql_3993--Federal_district.txt

As well as municipalities, which country is made up of 26 states and one federal district?

A drag queen is a person , usually male , who dresses in drag and often acts with exaggerated femininity and in feminine gender roles . Often they will exaggerate certain characteristics such as make-up and eyelashes for comic , dramatic , or satirical effect . While drag is very much associated with gay men and gay culture , there are drag artists of all sexualities and genders . There are many kinds of drag artists and they vary greatly in dedication , from professionals who have starred in films to people who just try it once , or those who simply prefer clothing and makeup that is usually worn by the opposite sex in their culture . Drag queens can vary widely by class and culture . Other drag performers include drag kings , women who perform in male roles and attire , faux queens , who are women who dress in an exaggerated style to emulate drag queens , and faux kings , who are men who dress to impersonate drag kings . There are many reasons people do drag including self-expression , comfort , transvestic fetishism , and spiritual reasons , as well as the higher-profile performing and entertaining . Drag can be a creative outlet , a means of self-exploration , and a way to make cultural statements . While the general public may be most familiar with the `` high drag '' of professional performance artists , drag is also part of regular life and street culture for many gender-nonconforming or gender-variant people , who may or may not consider what they do , `` drag . '' Drag queen activities among stage and street performers may include lip-synching performances , live singing , dancing , participating in events such as gay pride parades , drag pageants , or at venues such as cabarets and discotheques . Some drag artists also engage in mix-and-mingle or hosting work in night clubs , such as drag bingo , and at private parties and events . Famous drag queens include Divine , Dame Edna Everage , Lily Savage , Lady Bunny , RuPaul , Bianca Del Rio , Raven ( drag queen ) , Raja Gemini , Jinkx Monsoon , Sharon Needles , Willam , Violet Chachki , Alyssa Edwards , Shangela Laquifa Wadley , Manila Luzon , Courtney Act , Pearl Liaison , Jackie Beat , Adore Delano , Tyra Sanchez , Trixie Mattel , Katya Zamolodchikova , Naomi Smalls , Kim Chi , Bob the Drag Queen , Thorgy Thor , Acid Betty , Conchita Wurst . Terminology Drag queen The etymology of the term `` drag queen '' is disputed . The term drag queen occurred in Polari , a subset of English slang that was popular in some gay communities in the early part of the 20th century . Its first recorded use to refer to actors dressed in women 's clothing is from 1870 . A folk etymology is that drag is an acronym of `` Dressed Resembling A Girl '' in description of male theatrical transvestism . Queen may refer to the trait of affected royalty found in the personalities of many who do drag ( whether this is their normal personality or a character created for the stage ) . It is also related to the Old English word `` quean '' or cwene , which originally simply meant `` woman '' , then was later used as a label both for promiscuous women and gay men ( see Oxford English Dictionary definition number 3 for `` queen '' ) . The OE word apprears derived from Middle Dutch quene ( `` old woman '' ) , ultimately from Proto-Germanic * kwenǭ ( `` woman '' ) , from Proto-Indo-European * gʷḗn ( `` woman '' ) . Drag as a term referring to women 's clothing worn by men has less clear origins . According to one theory , it was used in reference to transvestites at least as early as the 18th century , owing to the tendency of their skirts to drag on the ground . Another possibility is that it derives from the Romani word for skirt , which appears in a number of Romani dialects of Northern Europe with forms like daraka and jendraka . Female impersonator Another term for a drag queen , female impersonator , is still used—though it is sometimes regarded as inaccurate , because not all contemporary drag performers are attempting to pass as women . Female impersonation has been and continues to be illegal in some places , which inspired the drag queen José Sarria to hand out labels to his friends reading , `` I am a boy , '' so he could not be accused of female impersonation . American drag queen RuPaul once said , `` I do not impersonate females ! How many women do you know who wear seven-inch heels , four-foot wigs , and skintight dresses ? '' He also said , `` I do n't dress like a woman ; I dress like a drag queen ! `` . Celebrity drag couple `` The Darling Bears '' go so far as to sport full beards for their performances , which could also be referred to as genderfuck . Going in drag while retaining clearly masculine features is referred to as skag drag . Some performers draw the distinction that a female impersonator seeks to emulate a specific female star or celebrity , while a drag queen only seeks to create a distinctive feminine persona of his or her own . Drag and transvestism Drag queens are sometimes called transvestites , although that term also has many other connotations than the term `` drag queen '' and is not much favored by many drag queens themselves . This is because of the distinctions between drag queens and transvestic fetishists . `` Drag queen '' usually connotes cross-dressing for the purposes of entertainment and self-expression . It is not an accurate way to describe people who cross-dress for the fulfillment of transvestic fetishes alone , i.e . people whose cross-dressing is primarily part of a private sexual activity or identity . Those whose motivation for transvestism is not primarily sexual , and who may go about their daily lives cross-dressed , often do not adopt the over-the-top drag queen look , at least not for daily wear ; these individuals may or may not self-identify as drag queens . Alternative terms There are also performers who prefer to be called `` gender illusionists '' who do blur the line between transgender and drag queen . Generally transgender performers do not consider themselves to be drag queens and drag queens do n't consider themselves to be illusionists , but , as with everything , there are exceptions . Often these distinctions are more generational , as laws and acceptance of individuality change and grow . Many drag queens prefer to be referred to as `` she '' while in drag and desire to stay completely in character . Some performers object to being referred to as `` he '' or by their legal name while in character . Drag performer RuPaul is an exception , as he seems to be completely indifferent to which pronoun is used to refer to him . In his words , `` You can call me he . You can call me she . You can call me Regis and Kathie Lee ; I do n't care ! '' The term tranny has been embraced by drag performers , notably RuPaul , and the gay male community in the United States , but it is considered offensive to most transgender and transsexual people . In the transgender community , it is taken as a degrading term along the lines of the highly offensive words `` fag '' and `` faggot '' in gay communities . This has caused the usage of the term to diminish . Drag and theater Men performing as women was mandated in early theater . Women were not allowed to perform on stage . In England , the first recorded appearance of a woman on the professional stage in an English troop did not occur till the year 1660 . In Shakespeare 's plays , men in female dress played the role of 14 different queens . The first Juliets in Romeo and Juliet were likely boys or young men . Cross-dressing was a common theme in Shakespeare 's plays . In As You Like It , one of his most popular plays , a boy cross-dressed as a girl would have played the role of Rosalind . In the play , Rosalind appears in drag dressed as Ganymede . In turn the character Ganymede dresses as a girl to help a boy who tries to woo Rosalind . Therefore , early theater goers would have watched a boy actor who dresses as a girl , then dresses as a boy , who then dresses as a girl . At the play 's end the boy actor appears dressed as a girl . Drag queen names There are various types of drag names . Many fall into two categories : The first are satirical names that play on words , such as Miss Understood , Gia Gunn , Ginger Minj , Sharon Needles and Lypsinka . The second type are names that trend toward glamour and extravagance , such as Dame Edna Everage , Chi Chi LaRue , Violet Chachki , Fabulous Russella , Miss Fame , The Lady Chablis , BeBe Zahara Benet and Zsa Zsa Shakespeer . This is the type used by the character Albin in the movie and musical La Cage Aux Folles for his drag persona , `` Miss ZaZa Napoli '' . Other types can have an in-depth backstory , cultural or geographical significance or simply be a feminine form of their `` Male '' name . Some examples of these varieties include Verka Serduchka , Raja Gemini , Miss Coco Peru , Shequida , Betty Butterfield , Jinkx Monsoon and Divine . In some cases drag queens will get their ( drag ) last name from the house they belong to , such as the House of Xtravaganza . A drag queen may either pick or be given a drag name by a friend or `` drag mother '' . While some may keep using the same drag name , drag queens do change names as well even using two or more concurrently for various reasons . Art of drag The process of getting into drag or into character can take hours . A drag queen may aim for a certain style , celebrity impression , or message with their look . Hair , make-up , and costumes are the most important essentials for drag queens . As a form of art , much work and creativity is put into transforming into a drag queen . Applying makeup is essential in order to achieve a more feminine look . Foundation helps to create a clean canvas by covering all wrinkles , flaws , and blemishes . Once the clean canvas is created , eye shadow will be added to eyes for a dramatic look . Drag queens use a lot of eyelashes to give the eyes a more intense look . Layering different colors of eye shadows , bronzers , and blush is used in creating the finished face of a drag queen . Since most drag queens are men , contouring is very important in creating high cheekbones and a slimmer face , as well as creating a smaller structured nose . Many drag queens often wear wigs or hairpieces . A costume is also needed . Depending on the event and the look that each drag queen is going for , the costumes can consist of , for example , a sparkling sequined dress , a leopard body suit , or a fur coat . Drag queens tend to go for a more exaggerated look with a lot more makeup than a typical feminine woman would wear . With the complete look , drag queens often go out to clubs and bars , where they will typically perform an act which is called a `` drag show . '' Many drag queens do dress up for money by doing different shows , but there are also drag queens that have full-time jobs but still enjoy dressing up in drag as a hobby . Many parts of the drag show , and of the drag queens ’ other intellectual properties , can not be protected by intellectual property law . To substitute the lack of legal protection , drag queens revert to social norms in order to protect their intellectual property . Drag shows and venues A drag show is an entertainment consisting of a variety of songs , monologues or skits featuring either single performers or groups of performers in drag meant to entertain an audience . They range from amateur performances at small bars to elaborately staged theatrical presentations . Many drag shows feature performers singing or lip-synching to songs while performing a pre-planned pantomime , or dancing . The performers often don elaborate costumes and makeup , and sometimes dress to imitate various famous female singers or personalities . And some events are centered around drag , such as Southern Decadence where the majority of festivities are led by the Grand Marshals , who are traditionally drag queens . In most cases , you can see drag performance at bars without any cost , but there are other drag queen performances where purchasing tickets is required . Tipping is usually encouraged . In movies * 1937 – Upstairs ( film ) ( Piętro wyżej ) , first drag queen style movie , starring Eugeniusz Bodo * 1953 – Glen or Glenda , one of the most famous cult classics of Ed Wood , starring himself as Glen and Glenda . * 1954 – White Christmas , classic of Irving Berlin , with Danny Kaye and Bing Crosby singing in `` drag '' . * 1959 – Some Like It Hot , starring Marilyn Monroe , Tony Curtis and Jack Lemmon . * 1967 – Thoroughly Modern Millie , an American musical starring Julie Andrews , James Fox , Mary Tyler Moore , Carol Channing , John Gavin , and Beatrice Lillie , notable where Fox 's character dresses in drag in order to find out what happened to Tyler Moore 's character . * 1969 – Funeral Parade of Roses starring Peter * 1972 – Pink Flamingos starring Divine * 1975 – The Rocky Horror Picture Show , with Tim Curry as a cross-dressing bi-sexual , Susan Sarandon , Barry Bostwick * 1977 – Outrageous ! , starring Craig Russell as a fictionalized version of himself * 1979 – The Rose starring Bette Midler , notable for a scene in which Midler 's character Mary Rose Foster performs a duet on stage in a drag club with a drag queen ( played by Kenny Sacha ) who is impersonating Midler as Foster . * 1982 – Tootsie starring Dustin Hoffman , Jessica Lange , and Teri Garr * 1982 – Victor/Victoria starring Julie Andrews * 1985 – Lust in the Dust starring Divine * 1988 – Hairspray starring Divine ( Remade in 2007 starring John Travolta ) * 1988 – Torch Song Trilogy starring Harvey Fierstein , Anne Bancroft and Matthew Broderick * 1990 – Paris Is Burning a documentary film directed by Jennie Livingston . It chronicles the ball culture of New York City and the gay and transgender community involved in it . It centers around African American and Latino drag culture surrounding communities such as Harlem in the 80s . * 1991 – Vegas in Space starring Doris Fish , Miss X , Ginger Quest , and introducing 'Tippi ' * 1993 – Mrs. Doubtfire starring Robin Williams , Sally Field , and Pierce Brosnan . * 1994 – The Adventures of Priscilla , Queen of the Desert starring Terence Stamp , Hugo Weaving , and Guy Pearce * 1995 – To Wong Foo , Thanks for Everything ! Julie Newmar starring Wesley Snipes , Patrick Swayze , and John Leguizamo ( cameo by RuPaul ) * 1995 – Wigstock : The Movie documentary film focusing on the annual drag music festival that had been held in New York City 's East Village during the 1980s and 1990s . Includes appearances by Lady Bunny , Crystal Waters , Deee-Lite , Jackie Beat , Debbie Harry , Leigh Bowery , Joey Arias and the Dueling Bankheads . The film also captures a performance by RuPaul at the height of his mainstream fame during the 1990s . * 1996 – The Birdcage starring Robin Williams , Nathan Lane , Gene Hackman and Dianne Wiest ( a remake of the 1978 film La Cage aux Folles , based on the 1973 play ) * 1996 – The Nutty Professor ( 1996 film ) starring Eddie Murphy . * 1998 – Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil starring John Cusack , Kevin Spacey and starring as herself Lady Chablis * 1999 – Flawless starring Philip Seymour Hoffman and Robert De Niro * 2000 – Big Momma 's House starring Martin Lawrence * 2001 – Hedwig and the Angry Inch starring John Cameron Mitchell * 2003 – Girls Will Be Girls directed by Richard Day , starring Miss Coco Peru ( Clinton Leupp ) , Evie Harris ( Jack Plotnick ) , and Varla Jean Merman ( Jeffery Roberson ) . * 2003 – Die , Mommie , Die ! starring Charles Busch , Jason Priestly , Philip Baker Hall , and Natasha Lyonne * 2004 – Connie and Carla starring Nia Vardalos , Toni Collette , and David Duchovny * 2004 – White Chicks starring Shawn Wayans and Marlon Wayans * 2005 – Kinky Boots starring Joel Edgerton , Chiwetel Ejiofor , Sarah-Jane Potts , and Nick Frost * 2005 – Rent * 2006 – The Curiosity of Chance starring Tad Hilgenbrink and Brett Chukerman * 2006 – I Wan na Be a Republican starring The Kinsey Sicks , America 's Favorite Dragapella Beautyshop Quartet * 2007 – A Shade Before Pink features cross dressing , drag queens and gender questioning . Starring Cary Woodworth and Rhoda Jordan , guest appearance by Jackie Beat . * 2007 – St. Trinian 's starring Rupert Everett as Camilla Fritton , the headmistress of the school . * 2008 – Slingbacks and Syrup , a documentary about the House of LeMay that held its world premiere at the Vermont International Film Festival . * 2009 – Tamid oto chalom , an Israeli TV miniseries about drag life in Tel Aviv , based on the songs of Israeli songwriter Svika Pick * 2010 – Yazima Beauty Salon the Movie featuring drag comedy/dance group Yazima Beauty Salon * 2011 – Big Mommas : Like Father Like Son starring Martin Lawrence and Brandon T. Jackson * 2015 – Dressed As A Girl starring Johnny Woo * 2016 - Absolutely Fabulous : The Movie starring Joanna Lumley and Jennifer Saunders , featuring Jodie Harsh and La Voix amongst others In music While some male music celebrities wear exaggerated feminine clothing as part of their show , they are not necessarily drag queens . For example , Boy George wears drag queen style clothes and cosmetics but he once stated he was not a drag queen . RuPaul is a professional drag queen performer . Examples of songs where lyrics refer to drag queens : * `` Lola '' by The Kinks * `` Walk on the Wild Side '' by Lou Reed * `` Dude ( Looks Like a Lady ) '' by Aerosmith * `` The Lady is a Vamp '' by The Spice Girls * `` Ballad of Cleo and Joe '' by Cyndi Lauper * `` King for a Day '' by Green Day * `` Cherry Lips '' by Garbage * `` Born This Way '' by Lady Gaga * `` Verbatim '' by Mother Mother * `` He 's a Woman She 's a Man '' by Scorpions * `` Pretty Lady '' by Ke $ ha & Detox Icunt * `` Andrew in Drag '' by The Magnetic Fields * `` Rise Like a Phoenix '' by Conchita Wurst ( Represented Austria at the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest and won ) * `` Divine '' by Antony and the Johnsons * `` World Top '' by Bear Trap * `` The End . '' in the album The Black Parade by My Chemical Romance * `` Drag Queen '' by The Strokes Genres * Low camp drag queens employ a drag aesthetic based on clown-like values like exaggeration , satire , and ribaldry . Divine , Miss Understood , Peaches Christ , Bianca Del Rio , and Hedda Lettuce can be considered examples of camp queens . High camp drag embodies female impersonation and realism . * Some drag queens exaggerate in the dimension of elegance and fashion , employing elaborate jewelry and gowns . The Lady Chablis , who can be seen in the movie Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil is an example of this type of performer . Many of these drag queens impersonate specific actresses and pop divas such as Cher , Britney Spears , Bette Midler , Madonna , Gilla , Charo , Connie Francis , Donna Summer , Whitney Houston , Mariah Carey , Céline Dion , Diana Ross , Tina Turner , Patti LaBelle , Shirley Bassey , Janet Jackson , Spice Girls , Lady Gaga and others , emulating their high-fashion costuming and jewelry . Drag artist John Epperson has used the persona Lypsinka as a caricature of Joan Crawford , including in his play The Passion of the Crawford . * Some drag queens primarily perform in pageants , hence the term pageant queen . Pageant queens gear their act toward winning titles and prizes in various contests and pageant systems . Some of these have grand prizes that rival those of pageants such as Miss America ; see drag pageantry . These drag queens can be known nationally and many work professionally year-round producing and hosting shows that specialize in drag and celebrity illusionists . * Post-modernist drag queens , tranimal , or `` terrorist drag '' mixes performance art , punk rock , racial and social issues into drag . The drag queens often purposely use unkempt wigs and clothing . Sharon Needles , Vaginal Davis and Christeene Vale are examples of `` drag terrorists . '' Davis ' performances have been described as a reaction against the `` conservative politics of gay culture . '' Likewise , David Hoyle describes himself as an `` anti-drag queen '' in his use self-harm to parody what he views as materialism and hedonism within the gay community . Tranimal drag also breaks conventional ways of dressing like a woman by taking influences from Leigh Bowery and the Cockettes . * Starting in the late 20th century , groups of drag queens have come together under a unifying identity and shtick to perform a charitable and/or activist function in their communities . Some perform to raise funds for other charities , LGBT and other , while others protest for LGBT and Civil rights . These groups include The West Hollywood Cheerleaders , the Imperial Court System founded by The Widow Norton ( José Sarria ) , and The Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence . Some of these groups , such as the Sisters , perform a quasi-spiritual function or act as social counselors , consciously reviving the ancient archetype of historical drag queens as shamans and spiritual functionaries . The common practice and aesthetic here is flamboyance in service . Societal reception Drag has come to be a celebrated aspect of modern gay life . Many gay bars and clubs around the world hold drag shows as special parties . Several `` International Drag Day '' holidays have been started over the years to promote the shows . In the U.S. drag is typically celebrated in early March . A televised drag competition , RuPaul 's Drag Race , is the most successful program on the Logo television network . However , its winners and contestants have yet to receive the same level of recognition as mainstream reality show contestants . Within the larger lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender ( LGBT ) community , drag queens are sometimes criticized for their participation in pride parades and other public events , believing that this projects a limited and harmful image of gay people and impedes a broader social acceptance . This attitude itself is criticized for limiting self-expression and encouraging the idea that there are `` right '' and `` wrong '' ways to be gay . In more recent years drag queens have been prominently featured at these same events . A common criticism of drag queens is that they promote negative stereotypes of women , comparable to blackface ( a racially offensive portrayal of African Americans by white performers that was popular throughout the 19th to early 20th century ) . Conversely , some feminists embrace drag as a skewering of traditional gender roles , defying the social norms of male and female appearance and behaviour and showing the artificiality of femininity and masculinity . Drag queens are sometimes criticized by members of the transgender community — especially , but not exclusively , by many trans women — because of fears that they themselves may be stereotyped as drag queens . For example , the late Star Maris , a Canadian transgender activist , wrote a song entitled `` I 'm Not A Fucking Drag Queen '' which expresses her frustration and hurt at being mistaken for a drag queen . The song was featured in the film Better Than Chocolate , performed by a trans woman on stage at a gay club . The transgender character , played by Peter Outerbridge , struggles throughout the movie to fit in with cisgender women , and performs the song partially as an act of cathartic defiance and self-empowerment . Other trans women reject those criticisms in the broader context that drag queens , many of whom are gender-variant and sexuality minorities , are more of an ally for the cause of recognition and equality .

dpql_2914--Drag_queen.txt

What is the name of the drag queen persona of Thomas Neuwirth, who won in 2014?

No Country for Old Men is a 2007 American neo-Western thriller film directed , written , and edited by Joel and Ethan Coen , based on the Cormac McCarthy novel of the same name . Starring Tommy Lee Jones , Javier Bardem and Josh Brolin , it tells the story of a Texas welder and Vietnam veteran to whom chance and greed deliver a fate that is neither wanted nor denied ; a cat-and-mouse drama set in the desert landscape of 1980 West Texas . Themes of fate , conscience , and circumstance are explored ; ones that the Coen brothers have previously explored in Blood Simple and Fargo . The film premiered in competition at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival on May 19 . It won four awards at the 80th Academy Awards – Best Picture , Best Director , Best Supporting Actor ( Bardem ) and Best Adapted Screenplay , allowing the Coen brothers to join four previous directors honored three times for a single film . In addition , the film won three British Academy Film Awards ( BAFTA ) including Best Director , and two Golden Globes . The American Film Institute listed it as an AFI Movie of the Year , and the National Board of Review selected the film as the best of 2007 . More critics included No Country for Old Men on their 2007 top ten lists than any other film , and many regard it as the Coen brothers ' masterpiece , as well as one of the best films of the 2000s . The Guardians John Patterson said `` the Coens ' technical abilities , and their feel for a landscape-based Western classicism reminiscent of Anthony Mann and Sam Peckinpah , are matched by few living directors '' , and Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said that it is `` a new career peak for the Coen brothers '' and `` as entertaining as hell '' . Plot Terrell County , Texas in June 1980 is desolate , expansive country , and Ed Tom Bell ( Tommy Lee Jones ) laments the increasing violence in a region where he , like his father and grandfather before him , has risen to the office of sheriff . In a neighboring county , Anton Chigurh ( Javier Bardem ) , a hitman , strangles a sheriff 's deputy to escape custody and steals a car by using a captive bolt pistol to kill the driver . While hunting in the desert , Llewelyn Moss ( Josh Brolin ) comes across the aftermath of a drug deal gone awry . He finds several dead men and dogs , a wounded Mexican begging for water , and two million dollars in a briefcase . He takes the money and returns home . That night , Moss returns to the scene with water . He is pursued by two men in a truck and escapes . At home , he sends his wife , Carla Jean ( Kelly Macdonald ) , to stay with her mother , then drives to a motel in Del Rio , where he hides the case in the air vent of his room . Chigurh , hired to recover the money , abruptly kills his employers after obtaining a clue to Moss 's identity . Arriving to search Moss 's home , he uses his bolt pistol to blow the lock out of the door . Investigating the break in , Sheriff Bell notices the blown-out lock . Using a tracking device hidden with the money , Chigurh goes to Moss 's motel and kills a group of Mexicans who are preparing to ambush Moss in his room . Moss has rented a second room adjacent to the Mexicans ' room with access to the same vent in which the money is hidden . He retrieves the briefcase just before Chigurh opens the vent and finds it empty . While staying at a hotel in Eagle Pass , Moss discovers the tracking device , but Chigurh has already found him . Their firefight spills onto the streets and both are wounded . Moss flees to Mexico where he collapses and is helped to a hospital . Carson Wells , another hired operative , fails to persuade him to accept protection in return for the money . Chigurh cleans and stitches his own wounds with stolen supplies and kills Wells at his hotel . Moss telephones the room and Chigurh answers . Lifting his boots to avoid Wells 's blood , Chigurh tells Moss that he will kill Carla Jean unless Moss gives up the money ; he remarks that he will kill Moss regardless of whether he receives the money . Moss arranges to meet Carla Jean at a motel in El Paso to give her the money and hide her from danger . Instead , she reluctantly accepts protection for her husband from Sheriff Bell . Carla Jean 's mother unwittingly reveals Moss 's location to a group of Mexicans who had been tailing them . Bell reaches the rendezvous in time to hear gunshots and see a pickup truck speeding from the motel where Moss lies dead . That night , Bell returns to the crime scene and finds the lock blown out . Chigurh hides behind the door . Bell enters Moss 's room and sees that the vent cover has been removed and the duct is empty . Later , Bell visits his uncle Ellis , an ex-lawman , and tells him he plans to retire because he feels `` over-matched '' . Ellis points out that the region has always been violent . Carla Jean returns from her mother 's funeral to find Chigurh waiting in her bedroom . She refuses his offer of a coin toss for her life , stating that the choice is his own . Chigurh leaves the house and carefully checks the soles of his boots . As he drives through town , he is injured in a car accident and bribes two young witnesses for their silence as he flees the scene . Now retired , Bell shares two dreams with his wife . In the first , he had lost some money his father had given him . In the other , he and his father were riding through a snowy mountain pass ; his father had gone ahead to make a fire in the darkness and wait for Bell . Cast * Tommy Lee Jones as Sheriff Ed Tom Bell , a laconic , soon-to-retire county sheriff and World War II veteran on the trail of Chigurh and Moss . * Josh Brolin as Llewelyn Moss , a welder and Vietnam veteran who flees with two million dollars in drug money that he finds in a field in Texas . * Javier Bardem as Anton Chigurh , a hitman hired to recover the missing money . * Kelly Macdonald as Carla Jean Moss , Llewelyn Moss 's wife . Macdonald said that what attracted her to the character was that she `` was n't obvious . She was n't your typical trailer trash kind of character . At first you think she 's one thing and by the end of the film , you realize that she 's not quite as naïve as she might come across . '' * Woody Harrelson as Carson Wells , a cocky bounty hunter and acquaintance of Chigurh , also hired to recover the drug money . * Garret Dillahunt as Deputy Wendell , Bell 's inexperienced deputy sheriff . * Tess Harper as Loretta Bell , the sheriff 's wife . * Barry Corbin as Ellis , a retired deputy shot in the line of duty and now wheelchair-bound . * Beth Grant as Agnes Kracik , Carla Jean 's mother and the mother-in-law of Moss . She is dying from `` the cancer '' . * Stephen Root as the man who hires Chigurh , Wells , and the Mexicans . * Gene Jones as Thomas Thayer , an elderly rural gas station clerk with good fortune , as his call on Anton 's coin flip saves his life . * Brandon Smith as a stern INS official wearing sunglasses as he guards the U.S.–Mexican border . He lets Moss cross once he learns he was in the Vietnam War . Production Producer Scott Rudin bought the film rights to McCarthy 's novel and suggested an adaptation to the Coen brothers , who at the time were attempting to adapt the novel To the White Sea by James Dickey . By August 2005 , the Coen brothers agreed to write and direct a film adaptation of Cormac McCarthy 's 2005 novel No Country for Old Men , having identified with how it provided a sense of place and also how it played with genre conventions . Joel Coen said of the unconventional approach , `` That was familiar , congenial to us ; we 're naturally attracted to subverting genre . We liked the fact that the bad guys never really meet the good guys , that McCarthy did not follow through on formula expectations . '' The Coens identified the appeal of the novel to be its `` pitiless quality . '' Ethan Coen explained , `` That 's a hallmark of the book , which has an unforgiving landscape and characters but is also about finding some kind of beauty without being sentimental . '' The adaptation was to be the second of McCarthy 's work , following the 2000 film All the Pretty Horses . Writing The Coens ' script was unusually faithful to their source material . On their writing process , Ethan said , `` One of us types into the computer while the other holds the spine of the book open flat . '' Still , they pruned where necessary . A teenage runaway who appeared late in the book and some backstory related to Bell were both removed . Also changed from the original was Carla Jean Moss 's reaction when finally faced with the imposing figure of Chigurh . As Kelly Macdonald explained to CanMag : `` The ending of the book is different . She reacts more in the way I react . She kind of falls apart . In the film she 's been through so much and she ca n't lose any more . It 's just she 's got this quiet acceptance of it . '' In the book , there is some attention paid to the daughter , Deborah , whom the Bells lost and who haunts the protagonist in his thoughts . Richard Corliss of Time stated that `` the Coen brothers have adapted literary works before . Miller 's Crossing was a sly , unacknowledged blend of two Dashiell Hammett 's tales , Red Harvest and The Glass Key ; and O Brother Where Art Thou ? transferred The Odyssey [ of Homer ] to the American south in the 1930s . But No Country for Old Men is their first film taken , pretty straightforwardly , from a [ contemporary ] prime American novel . '' ( Their 2004 film The Ladykillers is based on a 1955 British black comedy film of the same name . ) The writing is also notable for its minimal use of dialogue . Josh Brolin discussed his initial nervousness with having so little dialogue to work with : I mean it was a fear , for sure , because dialogue that 's what you kind of rest upon as an actor , you know ? [ ... ] Drama and all the stuff is all dialogue motivated . You have to figure out different ways to convey ideas . You do n't want to overcompensate because the fear is that you 're going to be boring if nothing 's going on . You start doing this and this and taking off your hat and putting it on again or some bullshit that does n't need to be there . So yeah , I was a little afraid of that in the beginning . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone praised the novel adaptation . `` Not since Robert Altman merged with the short stories of Raymond Carver in Short Cuts have filmmakers and author fused with such devastating impact as the Coens and McCarthy . Good and evil are tackled with a rigorous fix on the complexity involved . '' Director Joel Coen justified his interest in the McCarthy novel . `` There 's something about it – there were echoes of it in No Country for Old Men that were quite interesting for us '' , he said , `` because it was the idea of the physical work that somebody does that helps reveal who they are and is part of the fiber of the story . Because you only saw this person in this movie making things and doing things in order to survive and to make this journey , and the fact that you were thrown back on that , as opposed to any dialogue , was interesting to us . '' Joel Coen stated that this is the brothers ' `` first adaptation '' . He further explained why they chose the novel : `` Why not start with Cormac ? Why not start with the best ? '' Coen further described this McCarthy novel in particular as `` unlike his other novels ... it is much pulpier . '' Coen stated that they have not changed much in the adaptation . `` It really is just compression , '' he said . `` We did n't create new situations . '' He further assured that he and his brother Ethan had never met McCarthy when they were writing the script , but first met him during the shooting of the film . He believed that McCarthy liked the film , while his brother Ethan said , `` he did n't yell at us . We were actually sitting in a movie theater/screening room with him when he saw it ... and I heard him chuckle a couple of times , so I took that as a seal of approval , I do n't know , maybe presumptuously . '' Title The title is taken from the opening line of 20th-century Irish poet William Butler Yeats ' poem `` Sailing to Byzantium '' : THAT is no country for old men . The young In one another 's arms , birds in the trees – Those dying generations – at their song , The salmon-falls , the mackerel-crowded seas , Fish , flesh , or fowl , commend all summer long Whatever is begotten , born , and dies . Caught in that sensual music all neglect Monuments of unageing intellect Richard Gilmore relates the Yeats poem to the Coens ' film . `` The lament that can be heard in these lines , '' he says , `` is for no longer belonging to the country of the young . It is also a lament for the way the young neglect the wisdom of the past and , presumably , of the old ... Yeats chooses Byzantium because it was a great early Christian city in which Plato 's Academy , for a time , was still allowed to function . The historical period of Byzantium was a time of culmination that was also a time of transition . In his book of mystical writings , A Vision , Yeats says , ' I think that in early Byzantium , maybe never before or since in recorded history , religious , aesthetic , and practical life were one , that architect and artificers ... spoke to the multitude and the few alike . ' The idea of a balance and a coherence in a society 's religious , aesthetic , and practical life is Yeats 's ideal ... It is an ideal rarely realized in this world and maybe not even in ancient Byzantium . Certainly within the context of the movie No Country for Old Men , one has the sense , especially from Bell as the chronicler of the times , that things are out of alignment , that balance and harmony are gone from the land and from the people . '' Differences from the novel Craig Kennedy adds that `` one key difference is that of focus . The novel belongs to Sheriff Bell . Each chapter begins with Bell 's narration , which dovetails and counterpoints the action of the main story . Though the film opens with Bell speaking , much of what he says in the book is condensed and it turns up in other forms . Also , Bell has an entire backstory in the book that does n't make it into the film . The result is a movie that is more simplified thematically , but one that gives more of the characters an opportunity to shine . '' Jay Ellis elaborates on Chigurh 's encounter with the man behind the counter at the gas station . `` Where McCarthy gives us Chigurh 's question as , 'What 's the most you ever saw lost on a coin toss ? ' , he says , 'the film elides the word 'saw ' , but the Coens of course tend to the visual . Where the book describes the setting as 'almost dark ' , the film clearly depicts high noon : no shadows are notable in the establishing shot of the gas station , and the sunlight is bright even if behind cloud cover . The light through two windows and a door comes evenly through three walls in the interior shots . But this difference increases our sense of the man 's desperation later , when he claims he needs to close and he closes at 'near dark ' ; it is darker , as it were , in the cave of this man 's ignorance than it is outside in the bright light of truth . '' Filming The project was a co-production between Miramax Films and Paramount 's classics-based division in a 50/50 partnership , and production was scheduled for May 2006 in New Mexico and Texas . With a total budget of $ 25 million ( at least half spent in New Mexico ) , production was slated for the New Mexico cities of Santa Fe , Albuquerque , and Las Vegas ( which doubled as the border towns of Eagle Pass and Del Rio , Texas ) , with other scenes shot around Marfa and Sanderson in West Texas . The U.S.-Mexico border crossing bridge was actually a freeway overpass in Las Vegas , with a border checkpoint set built at the intersection of Interstate 25 and New Mexico State Highway 65 . The Mexican town square was filmed in Piedras Negras , Coahuila . In advance of shooting , cinematographer Roger Deakins saw that `` the big challenge '' of his ninth collaboration with the Coen brothers was `` making it very realistic , to match the story ... I 'm imagining doing it very edgy and dark , and quite sparse . Not so stylized . '' `` Everything 's storyboarded before we start shooting , '' Deakins said in Entertainment Weekly . `` In No Country , there 's maybe only a dozen shots that are not in the final film . It 's that order of planning . And we only shot 250,000 feet , whereas most productions of that size might shoot 700,000 or a million feet of film . It 's quite precise , the way they approach everything .... We never use a zoom , '' he said . `` I do n't even carry a zoom lens with me , unless it 's for something very specific . '' The famous coin-tossing scene between Chigurh and the old gas station clerk is a good example ; the camera tracks in so slowly that the audience is n't even aware of the move . `` When the camera itself moves forward , the audience is moving , too . You 're actually getting closer to somebody or something . It has , to me , a much more powerful effect , because it 's a three-dimensional move . A zoom is more like a focusing of attention . You 're just standing in the same place and concentrating on one smaller element in the frame . Emotionally , that 's a very different effect . '' In a later interview , he mentioned the `` awkward dilemma [ that ] No Country certainly contains scenes of some very realistically staged fictional violence , but ... without this violent depiction of evil there would not be the emotional 'pay off ' at the end of the film when Ed Tom bemoans the fact that God has not entered his life . '' Directing The Coen brothers acknowledged the influence of Sam Peckinpah 's work . In an interview with The Guardian , Ethan said , `` Hard men in the south-west shooting each other – that 's definitely Sam Peckinpah 's thing . We were aware of those similarities , certainly . '' They discuss choreographing and directing the film 's violent scenes in the Sydney Morning Herald : `` 'That stuff is such fun to do ' , the brothers chime in at the mention of their penchant for blood-letting . 'Even Javier would come in by the end of the movie , rub his hands together and say , 'OK , who am I killing today ? ' adds Joel . 'It 's fun to figure out ' , says Ethan . 'It 's fun working out how to choreograph it , how to shoot it , how to engage audiences watching it . ' '' Director Joel Coen described the process of film making : `` I can almost set my watch by how I 'm going to feel at different stages of the process . It 's always identical , whether the movie ends up working or not . I think when you watch the dailies , the film that you shoot every day , you 're very excited by it and very optimistic about how it 's going to work . And when you see it the first time you put the film together , the roughest cut , is when you want to go home and open up your veins and get in a warm tub and just go away . And then it gradually , maybe , works its way back , somewhere toward that spot you were at before . '' David Denby of The New Yorker criticized the way the Coens `` disposed of '' Llewelyn Moss . `` The Coens , however faithful to the book '' , he said , `` can not be forgiven for disposing of Llewelyn so casually . After watching this foolhardy but physically gifted and decent guy escape so many traps , we have a great deal invested in him emotionally , and yet he 's eliminated , off-camera , by some unknown Mexicans . He does n't get the dignity of a death scene . The Coens have suppressed their natural jauntiness . They have become orderly , disciplined masters of chaos , but one still has the feeling that , out there on the road from nowhere to nowhere , they are rooting for it rather than against it . '' Josh Brolin discussed the Coens ' directing style in an interview , saying that the brothers `` only really say what needs to be said . They do n't sit there as directors and manipulate you and go into page after page to try to get you to a certain place . They may come in and say one word or two words , so that was nice to be around in order to feed the other thing . 'What should I do right now ? I 'll just watch Ethan go humming to himself and pacing . Maybe that 's what I should do , too . In an interview with Logan Hill of New York magazine , Brolin expressed that he had `` a load of fun '' while working with the Coens . `` We had a load of fun making it , '' he said . `` Maybe it was because we both [ Brolin and Javier Bardem ] thought we 'd be fired . With the Coens , there 's zero compliments , really zero anything . No 'nice work . ' Nothing . And then—I 'm doing this scene with Woody Harrelson . Woody ca n't remember his lines , he stumbles his way through it , and then both Coens are like , 'Oh my God ! Fantastic ! ' '' David Gritten of The Daily Telegraph wonders : `` Are the Coens finally growing up ? '' He adds : `` If [ the film ] feels pessimistic , Joel insists that 's not the Coens ' responsibility : ' I do n't think the movie is more or less so than the novel . We tried to give it the same feeling . ' The brothers do concede , however , that it 's a dark piece of storytelling . 'It 's refreshing for us to do different kinds of things , ' says Ethan , 'and we 'd just done a couple of comedies . ' '' Musical score and sound The Coens minimized the score used in the film , leaving large sections devoid of music . The concept was Ethan 's , who persuaded a skeptical Joel to go with the idea . There is some music in the movie , scored by the Coens ' longtime composer , Carter Burwell , but after finding that `` most musical instruments did n't fit with the minimalist sound sculpture he had in mind [ ... ] he used singing bowls , standing metal bells traditionally employed in Buddhist meditation practice that produce a sustained tone when rubbed . '' The movie contains a `` mere '' 16 minutes of music , with several of those in the end credits . The music in the trailer was called `` Diabolic Clockwork '' by Two Steps from Hell . Sound editing and effects were provided by another longtime Coens collaborator , Skip Lievsay , who used a mixture of emphatic sounds ( gun shots ) and ambient noise ( engine noise , prairie winds ) in the mix . The Foley for the captive bolt pistol used by Chigurh was created using a pneumatic nail gun . Anthony Lane of The New Yorker states that `` there is barely any music , sensual or otherwise , and Carter Burwell 's score is little more than a fitful murmur '' , and Douglas McFarland states that `` perhaps [ the film 's ] salient formal characteristic is the absence , with one telling exception , of a musical soundtrack , creating a mood conducive to thoughtful and unornamented speculation in what is otherwise a fierce and destructive landscape . '' Jay Ellis , however , disagrees . `` [ McFarland ] missed the extremely quiet but audible fade in a few tones from a keyboard beginning when Chigurh flips the coin for the gas station man '' , he said . `` This ambient music ( by long-time Coens collaborator Carter Burwell ) grows imperceptibly in volume so that it is easily missed as an element of the mis-en-scene . But it is there , telling our unconscious that something different is occurring with the toss ; this becomes certain when it ends as Chigurh uncovers the coin on the counter . The deepest danger has passed as soon as Chigurh finds ( and Javier Bardem 's acting confirms this ) and reveals to the man that he has won . '' In order to achieve such sound effect , Burwell `` tuned the music 's swelling hum to the 60-hertz frequency of a refrigerator . '' Dennis Lim of The New York Times stressed that `` there is virtually no music on the soundtrack of this tense , methodical thriller . Long passages are entirely wordless . In some of the most gripping sequences what you hear mostly is a suffocating silence . '' Skip Lievsay , the film 's sound editor called this approach `` quite a remarkable experiment , '' and added that `` suspense thrillers in Hollywood are traditionally done almost entirely with music . The idea here was to remove the safety net that lets the audience feel like they know what 's going to happen . I think it makes the movie much more suspenseful . You 're not guided by the score and so you lose that comfort zone . '' James Roman observes the effect of sound in the scene where Chigurh pulls in for gas at the Texaco rest stop . `` [ The ] scene

qb_4950--No_Country_for_Old_Men_(film).txt

Who plays the bounty hunter Carson Wells in the 2007 film ‘No Country For Old Men’?

The four cardinal directions or cardinal points are the directions of north , east , south , and west , commonly denoted by their initials : N , E , S , W. East and west are at right angles to north and south , with east being in the clockwise direction of rotation from north and west being directly opposite east . Intermediate points between the four cardinal directions form the points of the compass . The intermediate ( intercardinal , or ordinal ) directions are northeast ( NE ) , southeast ( SE ) , southwest ( SW ) , and northwest ( NW ) . Further , the intermediate direction of every set of intercardinal and cardinal direction is called a secondary-intercardinal direction , the eight shortest points in the compass rose to the right , i.e . NNE , ENE , ESE , and so on . Locating the directions Direction versus bearing To keep to a bearing is not , in general , the same as going in a straight direction along a great circle . Conversely , one can keep to a great circle and the bearing may change . Thus the bearing of a straight path crossing the North Pole changes abruptly at the Pole from North to South . When travelling East or West , it is only on the Equator that one can keep East or West and be going straight ( without need to steer ) . Anywhere else , maintaining latitude requires a change in direction , requires steering . However , this change in direction becomes increasingly negligible as one moves to lower latitudes . Magnetic compass The Earth has a magnetic field which is approximately aligned with its axis of rotation . A magnetic compass is a device that uses this field to determine the cardinal directions . Magnetic compasses are extremely widely used , but only moderately accurate . The Sun The position of the Sun in the sky can be used for orientation if the general time of day is known . In the morning , the Sun rises roughly in the east ( due east only on the equinoxes ) and tracks upwards . In the evening it sets in the west , again roughly and only due west exactly on the equinoxes . In the middle of the day it is to the south for viewers in the Northern Hemisphere , who live north of the Tropic of Cancer , and the north for those in the Southern Hemisphere , who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn . This method works less well closer to the equator ( i.e . between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn ) since , in the northern hemisphere , the sun may be directly overhead or even to the north in summer . Conversely , at low latitudes in the southern hemisphere the sun may be to the south of the observer in summer . In these locations , one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while right to left means it is going through north ; or one can watch the sun 's shadows . If they move clockwise , the sun will be in the south at midday , and if they move anticlockwise , then the sun will be in the north at midday . Due to the Earth 's axial tilt , no matter what the location of the viewer , there are only two days each year when the sun rises precisely due east . These days are the equinoxes . On all other days , depending on the time of year , the sun rises either north or south of true east ( and sets north or south of true west ) . For all locations the sun is seen to rise north of east ( and set north of west ) from the Northward equinox to the Southward equinox , and rise south of east ( and set south of west ) from the Southward equinox to the Northward equinox . A more accurate fix can be made if the time of year and approximate latitude are factored in . The amount that the sun appears to be either north or south depends on both the time of year and latitude of the observer . Knowing these will enable the observer to be more precise when determining the cardinal directions from the sun 's position , particularly in the early morning or late afternoon . Watch face There is a traditional method by which an analog watch can be used to locate north and south . The Sun appears to move in the sky over a 24-hour period while the hour hand of a 12-hour clock face takes twelve hours to complete one rotation . In the northern hemisphere , if the watch is rotated so that the hour hand points toward the Sun , the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate south . For this method to work in the southern hemisphere , the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north . During daylight saving time , the same method can be employed using 1 o'clock instead of 12 . There are minor inaccuracies due to the difference between local time and zone time , and due to the equation of time . Corrections can be made for these errors . This method assumes that the azimuth ( compass bearing ) of the Sun changes at a constant rate throughout the day . Strictly , this is true only if the observer is at one of the Earth 's poles . Close to the equator , the Sun 's azimuth changes at very different speeds at different times of day , and even sometimes reverses direction . ( See footnote for examples . ) This completely invalidates this method of using a watch as a compass in tropical and low-temperate latitudes . However , at fairly high latitudes , more than about 50 degrees north or south , the speed of the Sun 's change of azimuth is sufficiently constant to allow the method to be accurate enough for simple purposes . The method originated in the United Kingdom , which is almost entirely to the North of 50°N latitude . British Boy Scouts and Girl Guides frequently use it . The photograph shows a specialized 24-hour watch designed for finding directions using the Sun at high latitudes in the northern hemisphere . With the watch set to indicate local time , the hour hand is pointed directly at the Sun . North is then indicated by the local midnight position . Sundial A portable sundial can be used as a more accurate instrument than a watch for determining the cardinal directions . Since the design of a sundial takes account of the latitude of the observer , it can be used at any latitude . See : Sundial # Using a sundial as a compass . Astronomy Astronomy provides a method for finding direction at night . All the stars appear to lie on the imaginary Celestial sphere . Because of the rotation of the Earth , the Celestial Sphere appears to rotate around an axis passing through the North and South poles of the Earth . This axis intersects the Celestial Sphere at the North and South Celestial poles , which appear to the observer to lie directly above due North and South respectively on the horizon . In either hemisphere , observations of the night sky show that the visible stars appear to be moving in circular paths , caused by the rotation of the Earth . This is best seen in a long exposure photograph , which is obtained by locking the shutter open for most of the intensely dark part of a moonless night . The resulting photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs ( portions of perfect circles ) from which the exact center can be readily derived , and which corresponds to the Celestial pole , which lies directly above the position of the true pole ( North or South ) on the horizon . A published [ http : //astro.wsu.edu/worthey/astro/html/im-sky/south-pole-star-trails.jpg photograph ] exposed for nearly 8 hours demonstrates this effect . The Northern Celestial pole is currently ( but not permanently ) within a fraction of 1 degree of the bright star Polaris . The exact position of the pole changes over thousands of years due to the precession of the equinoxes . Polaris is also known as the North Star , and is generically called a pole star or lodestar . Polaris is only visible during fair weather at night to inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere . The asterism `` Big Dipper '' may be used to find Polaris . The 2 corner stars of the `` pan '' ( those opposite from the handle ) point above the top of the `` pan '' to Polaris . While observers in the Northern hemisphere can use the star Polaris to determine the Northern celestial pole , the Octans constellation 's South Star is hardly visible enough to use for navigation . For this reason , the preferred alternative is to use the constellation Crux ( The Southern Cross ) . The southern celestial pole lies at the intersection of ( a ) the line along the long axis of crux ( i.e . through Alpha Crucis and Gamma Crucis ) and ( b ) a line perpendicularly bisecting the line joining the `` Pointers '' ( Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri ) . Gyrocompass At the very end of the 19th century , in response to the development of battleships with large traversable guns that affected magnetic compasses , and possibly to avoid the need to wait for fair weather at night to precisely verify one 's alignment with true north , the gyrocompass was developed for shipboard use . Since it finds true , rather than magnetic , north , it is immune to interference by local or shipboard magnetic fields . Its major disadvantage is that it depends on technology that many individuals might find too expensive to justify outside the context of a large commercial or military operation . It also requires a continuous power supply for its motors , and that it be allowed to sit in one location for a period of time while it properly aligns itself . Satellite navigation Near the end of the 20th century , the advent of satellite-based Global Positioning Systems ( GPS ) provided yet another means for any individual to determine true north accurately . While GPS Receivers ( GPSRs ) function best with a clear view of the entire sky , they function day or night , and in all but the most severe weather . The government agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust them to maintain their accurate alignment with the Earth . There are consumer versions of the receivers that are attractively priced . Since there are no periodic access fees , or other licensing charges , they have become widely used . GPSR functionality is becoming more commonly added to other consumer devices such as mobile phones . Handheld GPSRs have modest power requirements , can be shut down as needed , and recalibrate within a couple of minutes of being restarted . In contrast with the gyrocompass which is most accurate when stationary , the GPS receiver , if it has only one antenna , must be moving , typically at more than 0.1 mph ( 0.2 km/h ) , to correctly display compass directions . On ships and aircraft , GPS receivers are often equipped with two or more antennas , separately attached to the vehicle . The exact latitudes and longitudes of the antennas are determined , which allows the cardinal directions to be calculated relative to the structure of the vehicle . Within these limitations GPSRs are considered both accurate and reliable . The GPSR has thus become the fastest and most convenient way to obtain a verifiable alignment with the cardinal directions . Additional points The directional names are also routinely and very conveniently associated with the degrees of rotation in the unit circle , a necessary step for navigational calculations ( derived from trigonometry ) and/or for use with Global Positioning Satellite ( GPS ) receivers . The four cardinal directions correspond to the following degrees of a compass : * North ( N ) : 0° = 360° * East ( E ) : 90° * South ( S ) : 180° * West ( W ) : 270° An intercardinal , or ordinal , or intermediate , direction is one of the four intermediate compass directions located halfway between the cardinal directions . * Northeast ( NE ) , 45° , halfway between north and east , is the opposite of southwest . * Southeast ( SE ) , 135° , halfway between south and east , is the opposite of northwest . * Southwest ( SW ) , 225° , halfway between south and west , is the opposite of northeast . * Northwest ( NW ) , 315° , halfway between north and west , is the opposite of southeast . These 8 words have been further compounded , resulting in a total of 32 named points evenly spaced around the compass : north ( N ) , north by east ( NbE ) , north-northeast ( NNE ) , northeast by north ( NEbN ) , northeast ( NE ) , northeast by east ( NEbE ) , east-northeast ( ENE ) , east by north ( EbN ) , east ( E ) , etc . Usefulness of cardinal points With the cardinal points thus accurately defined , by convention cartographers draw standard maps with north ( N ) at the top , and east ( E ) at the right . In turn , maps provide a systematic means to record where places are , and cardinal directions are the foundation of a structure for telling someone how to find those places . North does not have to be at the top . Most maps in medieval Europe , for example , placed east ( E ) at the top . A few cartographers prefer south-up maps . Many portable GPS-based navigation computers today can be set to display maps either conventionally ( N always up , E always right ) or with the current instantaneous direction of travel , called the heading , always up ( and whatever direction is +90° from that to the right ) . The direction of travel required to reach the intended destination is called the bearing . Since the real world presents numerous obstacles , a person must adjust his or her heading accordingly . Upon moving forward , the bearing will change so that it always points at the destination , thereby giving clues as to which way to turn . When travelling , it is often easier to work out where the next turn is , and whether to turn left or right , when the direction of travel is always up . Beyond geography In mathematics , cardinal directions or cardinal points are the six principal directions or points along the x- , y- and z-axis of three-dimensional space . In the real world there are six cardinal directions not involved with geography which are north , south , east , west , up and down . In this context , up and down relate to elevation , altitude , or possibly depth ( if water is involved ) . The topographic map is a special case of cartography in which the elevation is indicated on the map , typically via contour lines . In astronomy , cardinal points of the disk of an astronomical body may be four points defined by the direction in which the celestial poles are located , as seen from the center of the disk . A line ( here it is a great circle on the celestial sphere ) drawn from the center of the disk to the North celestial pole will intersect the body 's limb at the North point . Similarly , a line from the center to the South celestial pole will define the South point by its intersection with the limb . The points at right angles to the North and South points are the East and West points . The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole . Germanic origin of names During the Migration Period , the Germanic languages ' names for the cardinal directions entered the Romance languages , where they replaced the Latin names borealis ( or septentrionalis ) with north , australis ( or meridionalis ) with south , occidentalis with west and orientalis with east . It is possible that some northern people used the Germanic names for the intermediate directions . Medieval Scandinavian orientation would thus have involved a 45 degree rotation of cardinal directions . * north ( Proto-Germanic * norþ- ) from the proto-Indo-European * nórto-s 'submerged ' from the root * ner- 'left , below , to the left of the rising sun ' whence comes the Ancient Greek name Nereus . * east ( * aus-t- ) from the word for dawn . The proto-Indo-European form is * austo-s from the root is * aues- 'shine ( red ) ' . See Ēostre . * south ( * sunþ- ) , derived from proto-Indo-European * sú-n-to-s from the root * seu- 'seethe , boil ' . Cognate with this root is the word Sun , thus `` the region of the Sun . '' * west ( * wes-t- ) from a word for `` evening . '' The proto-Indo-European form is * uestos from the root * ues- 'shine ( red ) ' , itself a form of * aues- . Cognate with the root are the Latin words vesper and vesta and the Ancient Greek Hestia , Hesperus and Hesperides . Cardinal directions in world cultures Many cultures not descended from European traditions use cardinal directions , but have a number other than four . Typically , a “ center ” direction is added , for a total of five . Rather than the Western use of direction letters , properties such as colors are often associated with the various cardinal directions—these are typically the natural colors of human perception rather than optical primary colors . Some examples are shown here . In many regions of the world , prevalent winds change direction seasonally , and consequently many cultures associate specific named winds with cardinal and intercardinal directions . The classical Greeks personified these winds as Anemoi . When boxing the compass into intercardinal subdirections , each corresponds to one of the directional winds into the Mediterranean Sea ( for example , south-east is linked to Sirocco , the wind from the Sahara ) . Arabic language Countries where Arabic is used refer to the cardinal directions as Ash Shamaliyah ( N ) , Al Gharbiyah ( W ) , Ash Sharqiyah ( E ) and Al Janobiyah ( S ) . Additionally , Al Wusta is used for the center . All five are used for geographic subdivision names ( wilayahs , states , regions , governorates , provinces , districts or even towns ) , and some are the origin of some Southern Iberian place names ( such as Algarve , Portugal and Axarquía , Spain ) . Far East Dynastic Chinese culture and some other Central Asian cultures view the center as a fifth principal direction hence the English translated term `` Five Cardinal Points '' . Where it is different than the west , is that the term is used as a foundation for I Ching , the Wu Xing and the five naked-eye planets . In traditional Chinese astrology , the zodiacal belt is divided into the four constellation groups corresponding to the four cardinal directions . Each direction is often identified with a color , and ( at least in China ) with a mythological creature of that color . Geographical or ethnic terms may contain the name of the color instead of the name of the corresponding direction . East : Green ( 青 `` qīng '' corresponds to both green and blue ) ; Spring ; Wood Qingdao ( Tsingtao ) `` Green Island '' : a city on the east coast of China South : Red ; Summer ; Fire Red River ( Asia ) : south of China Red Croatia Red Ruthenia West : White ; Autumn ; Metal White Sheep Turkmen Akdeniz , meaning White Sea : Mediterranean Sea in Turkish Belarus , meaning White Rus ' or White Ruthenia White Serbia White Croatia North : Black ; Winter ; Water Heilongjiang `` Black Dragon River '' province in Northeast China , also the Amur River Kara-Khitan Khanate `` Black Khitans '' who originated in Northern China Black Sea : north of Anatolia Black Ruthenia Center : Yellow ; Earth Huangshan `` Yellow Mountain '' in central China Golden Horde : `` Central Army '' of the Mongols Americas In Mesoamerica and North America , a number of traditional indigenous cosmologies include four cardinal directions and a center . Some may also include `` above '' and `` below '' as directions , and therefore focus on a cosmology of seven directions . Each direction may be associated with a color , which can vary widely between nations , but which is usually one of the basic colors found in nature and natural pigments , such as black , red , white , and yellow , with occasional appearances of blue , green , or other hues . In some cases , e.g. , many of the Puebloan peoples of the Southwestern United States , the four named directions are not North , South , East and West but are the four intermediate directions associated with the places of sunrise and sunset at the winter and summer solstices . There can be great variety in color symbolism , even among cultures that are close neighbors geographically . Australia Some indigenous Australians have cardinal directions deeply embedded in their culture . For example , the Warlpiri people have a cultural philosophy deeply connected to the four cardinal directions and the Guugu Yimithirr people use cardinal directions rather than relative direction even when indicating the position of an object close to their body ( see Use of cardinal direction instead of relative direction ) . The precise direction of the cardinal points appears to be important in Aboriginal stone arrangements . Many aboriginal languages contain words for the usual four cardinal directions , but some contain words for 5 or even 6 cardinal directions . Unique ( non-compound ) names of intercardinal directions In some languages , such as Finnish , Estonian and Breton , the intercardinal directions have names that are not compounds of the names of the cardinal directions ( as , for instance , northeast is compounded from north and east ) . In Finnish those are koillinen ( northeast ) , kaakko ( southeast ) , lounas ( southwest ) , and luode ( northwest ) . Compare with the non-compound names used for the numbers 11–19 in English ( eleven , rather than * ten-one ) and special names for one and a half and two and a half in many languages of India , such as Hindi and Marathi . In Japanese , there is the interesting situation that native Japanese words ( yamato kotoba , kun readings of kanji ) are used for the cardinal directions ( such as minami for 南 , south ) , but borrowed Chinese words ( on readings of kanji ) are used for intercardinal directions ( such as tō-nan for 東南 , southeast , lit . `` east-south '' ) . In the Malay language , adding laut ( sea ) to either east ( timur ) or west ( barat ) results in northeast or northwest , respectively , whereas adding daya to west ( giving barat daya ) results in southwest . However , southeast has a special word : tenggara . Sanskrit and other Indian languages that borrow from it use the names of the gods associated with each direction : east ( Indra ) , southeast ( Agni ) , south ( Yama/Dharma ) , southwest ( Nirrti ) , west ( Varuna ) , northwest ( Vayu ) , north ( Kubera/Heaven ) and northeast ( Ishana/Shiva ) . North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers ( Pitr loka ) . The directions are named by adding `` disha '' to the names of each god or entity : e.g . Indradisha ( direction of Indra ) or Pitrdisha ( direction of the forefathers i.e . south ) . The Hopi language and the Tewa dialect spoken by the Arizona Tewa have proper names for the solstitial directions , which are approximately intercardinal , rather than for the cardinal directions . Non-compass directional systems Use of the compass directions is common and deeply embedded in European culture , and also in Chinese culture ( see south-pointing chariot ) . Some other cultures make greater use of other referents , such as towards the sea or towards the mountains ( Hawaii , Bali ) , or upstream and downstream ( most notably in ancient Egypt , also in the Yurok and Karuk languages ) . Lengo ( Guadalcanal , Solomon Islands ) has four non-compass directions : landward , seaward , upcoast , and downcoast .

bt_4062--Cardinal_direction.txt

Which cardinal point does not appear in the names of the American states

Flanders ( Dutch : Vlaanderen , ) today normally refers to the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium . It is one of the communities , regions and language areas of Belgium . The demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming , while the corresponding adjective is Flemish . The official capital of Flanders is Brussels , although Brussels itself has an independent regional government , and the government of Flanders only oversees some cultural aspects of Brussels life . Historically , the name referred to the County of Flanders ( Flandria ) , which around AD 1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary . The only parts of historical Flanders situated within modern-day Flanders are the provinces West Flanders and East Flanders . Nevertheless , during the 19th and 20th centuries it became increasingly commonplace to use the term `` Flanders '' to refer to the entire Dutch-speaking part of Belgium , stretching all the way to the River Maas . In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made into two political entities : the `` Flemish Community '' ( ) and the `` Flemish Region '' ( ) . These entities were merged , although geographically the Flemish Community , which has a broader cultural mandate , covers Brussels , whereas the Flemish Region does not . Flanders has figured prominently in European history . During the late Middle Ages , cities such as Ghent , Bruges , Antwerp and Brussels made it one of the richest and most urbanized parts of Europe , weaving the wool of neighbouring lands into cloth for both domestic use and export . As a consequence , a very sophisticated culture developed , with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture , rivaling those of northern Italy . Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution but Flanders was at first overtaken by French-speaking Wallonia . In the second half of the 20th century , however , Flanders ' economy modernised rapidly , and today Flanders is significantly more wealthy than its southern counterpart . Geographically , Flanders is generally flat , and has a small section of coast on the North Sea . Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated , with a population density of almost 500 people per square kilometer ( 1,200 per square mile ) . It borders France to the west , the Netherlands to the north and east , and Wallonia to the south . The Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region . Flanders has exclaves of its own : Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the north consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands . Terminology In Belgium The term `` Flanders '' has several main meanings : * The `` Flemish community '' or `` Flemish nation '' , i.e . the social , cultural and linguistic , scientific and educational , economical and political community of the Flemings . It comprises 6.5 million Belgians ( 60 % ) who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue . * The political subdivisions of Belgium : the Flemish Region ( competent in mainly economic matters ) and the Flemish Community ( competent in mainly cultural matters ) . The first does not comprise Brussels ( which forms a Region on itself ) , whereas the latter does . * The political institutions that govern both subdivisions : the operative body `` Flemish Government '' and the legislative organ `` Flemish Parliament '' . * The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region , West Flanders and East Flanders , forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders . In Belgium and neighbouring countries * A feudal territory that existed from the 8th century ( Flandria ) until its absorption by the French First Republic . Until the 1600s , this county also extended over parts of France and the Netherlands . * One of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders , namely French Flanders in the Nord department . French Flanders can be divided into two smaller regions : Lilloise Flanders and Maritime Flanders . The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s , the latter became so in the 20th century . The city of Lille identifies itself as `` Flemish '' , and this is reflected , for instance , in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres . * The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders , now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland . Dutch-speaking part of Belgium The significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time , but the designation remained in a very broad sense . In the Early modern period , the term Flanders was associated with the southern part of the Low Countries : the Southern Netherlands . During the 19th and 20th centuries , it became increasingly commonplace to refer to the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium as `` Flanders '' . The linguistic limit between French and Dutch was recorded in the early '60 's , from Kortrijk to Maastricht . Now , Flanders extends over the northern part of Belgium , including Belgian Limburg ( corresponding closely to the medieval County of Loon ) , and the Belgian parts of the medieval Duchy of Brabant . The ambiguity between this wider area and that of the County ( or the Belgian parts thereof ) , still remains . In most present-day contexts however , in general the term Flanders is taken to refer to either the political , social , cultural , and linguistic community ( and the corresponding official institution , the Flemish Community ) , or the geographical area , one of the three institutional regions in Belgium , namely the Flemish Region . In the history of art and other fields , the adjectives Flemish and Netherlandish are commonly used to designate all the artistic production in this area before about 1580 , after which it refers specifically to the southern Netherlands . For example , the term `` Flemish Primitives '' , now outdated in English but used in French , Flemish and other languages , is a synonym for `` Early Netherlandish painting '' , and it is not uncommon to see Mosan art categorized as Flemish art . In music the Franco-Flemish School is also known as the Dutch School . Within this Dutch-speaking part of Belgium , French has never ceased to be spoken by some citizens and Jewish groups have been speaking Yiddish in Antwerp for centuries . Today , Flanders ' minority residents include 170 nationalities — the largest groups speaking French , English , Berber , Turkish , Arabic , Spanish , Italian and Polish . History Early history The area , roughly encompassing the later geographical meanings of Flanders , was considered to be in the northern and less economically developed part of Gallia Belgica . Under the Roman empire this became an administrative province , but much of modern Belgium eventually became part of Germania Inferior . These were the most northerly continental provinces of the Roman empire . Linguistically , the tribes in this area were under Celtic influence in the south , and Germanic influence in the east , but there is disagreement about what language was spoken locally , which may even have been an intermediate `` Nordwestblock '' language related to both . By the first century BC Germanic languages had become prevalent . In the future county of Flanders , the main Belgic tribe in Roman times was the Menapii , but also on the coast were the Marsacii and Morini . In the central part of modern Belgium were the Nervii and in the east were the Tungri . The Tungri especially were thought to have links to Germanic tribes east of the Rhine . Another notable group were the Toxandrians who appear to have lived in the Kempen region , in the northern parts of both the Nervian and Tungrian provinces . The Roman provinces of the Menapii , Nervii and Tungri therefore correspond roughly with the medieval counties of Flanders , Brabant and Loon , and the modern provinces of East and West Flanders ( Menapii ) , Brabant and Antwerp ( Nervii ) , and Belgian Limburg ( Tungri ) . Historical Flanders Created in the year 862 as a feudal fief in West Francia , the County of Flanders was divided when its western districts fell under French rule in the late 12th century . The remaining parts of Flanders came under the rule of the counts of neighbouring Hainaut in 1191 . The entire area passed in 1384 to the dukes of Burgundy , in 1477 to the Habsburg dynasty , and in 1556 to the kings of Spain . The western districts of Flanders came finally under French rule under successive treaties of 1659 ( Artois ) , 1668 , and 1678 . During the late Middle Ages Flanders ' trading towns ( notably Ghent , Bruges and Ypres ) made it one of the richest and most urbanized parts of Europe , weaving the wool of neighbouring lands into cloth for both domestic use and export . As a consequence , a very sophisticated culture developed , with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture , rivaling those of northern Italy . Ghent , Bruges , Ypres and the Franc of Bruges formed the Four Members , a form of parliament that exercised considerable power in Flanders . Increasingly powerful from the 12th century , the territory 's autonomous urban communes were instrumental in defeating a French attempt at annexation ( 1300–1302 ) , finally defeating the French in the Battle of the Golden Spurs ( 11 July 1302 ) , near Kortrijk . Two years later , the uprising was defeated and Flanders remained part of the French Crown . Flemish prosperity waned in the following century , however , owing to widespread European population decline following the Black Death of 1348 , the disruption of trade during the Anglo-French Hundred Years ' War ( 1337–1453 ) , and increased English cloth production . Flemish weavers had gone over to Worstead and North Walsham in Norfolk in the 12th century and established the woolen industry . The County of Flanders started to take control of the neighbouring County of Brabant during the life of Louis II , Count of Flanders ( 1330-1384 ) , who fought his sister-in-law Joanna , Duchess of Brabant for control of it . The titles were eventually more clearly united under Philip the Good ( 1396 – 1467 ) , Duke of Burgundy . The County of Loon , approximately the modern Flemish province of Limburg , remained independent under the lordship of the Archbishop of Liège until the French Revolution , but surrounded by the Burgundians . Low Countries ; Beeldenstorm In 1500 , Charles V was born in Ghent . He inherited the Seventeen Provinces ( 1506 ) , Spain ( 1516 ) with its colonies and in 1519 was elected Holy Roman Emperor . The Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 , issued by Charles V , established the Low Countries as the Seventeen Provinces ( or Spanish Netherlands in its broad sense ) as an entity separate from the Holy Roman Empire and from France . In 1556 Charles V abdicated due to ill health ( he suffered from crippling gout ) . Spain and the Seventeen Provinces went to his son , king Philip II of Spain . Over the first half of the 16th century Antwerp grew to become the second-largest European city north of the Alps by 1560 . Antwerp was the richest city in Europe at this time . According to Luc-Normand Tellier `` It is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven times more revenues than the Americas . '' Meanwhile , Protestantism had reached the Low Countries . Among the wealthy traders of Antwerp , the Lutheran beliefs of the German Hanseatic traders found appeal , perhaps partly for economic reasons . The spread of Protestantism in this city was aided by the presence of an Augustinian cloister ( founded 1514 ) in the St. Andries quarter . Luther , an Augustinian himself , had taught some of the monks , and his works were in print by 1518 . The first Lutheran martyrs came from Antwerp . The Reformation resulted in consecutive but overlapping waves of reform : a Lutheran , followed by a militant Anabaptist , then a Mennonite , and finally a Calvinistic movement . These movements existed independently of each other . Philip II , a devout Catholic and self-proclaimed protector of the Counter-Reformation , suppressed Calvinism in Flanders , Brabant and Holland ( what is now approximately Belgian Limburg was part of the Bishopric of Liège and was Catholic de facto ) . In 1566 , the wave of iconoclasm known as the Beeldenstorm was a prelude to religious war between Catholics and Protestants , especially the Anabaptists . The Beeldenstorm started in what is now French Flanders , with open-air sermons ( ) that spread through the Low Countries , first to Antwerp and Ghent , and from there further east and north . In total it lasted not even a month . ; The Eighty Years ' War and its consequences Subsequently , Philip II sent the Duke of Alba to the Provinces to repress the revolt . Alba recaptured the southern part of the Provinces , who signed the Union of Atrecht , which meant that they would accept the Spanish government on condition of more freedom . But the northern part of the provinces signed the Union of Utrecht and settled in 1581 the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands . Spanish troops quickly started fighting the rebels , but before the revolt could be completely defeated , a war between England and Spain had broken out , forcing Philip 's Spanish troops to halt their advance . Meanwhile , the Spanish armies had already conquered the important trading cities of Bruges and Ghent . Antwerp , which was then the most important port in the world , also had to be conquered . On 17 August 1585 , Antwerp fell . This ended the Eighty Years ' War for the ( from now on ) Southern Netherlands . The United Provinces ( the Northern Netherlands ) fought on until 1648 – the Peace of Westphalia . While Spain was at war with England , the rebels from the north , strengthened by refugees from the south , started a campaign to reclaim areas lost to Philip II 's Spanish troops . They managed to conquer a considerable part of Brabant ( the later Noord-Brabant of the Netherlands ) , and the south bank of the Scheldt estuary ( Zeeuws-Vlaanderen ) , before being stopped by Spanish troops . The front line at the end of this war stabilized and became the current border between present-day Belgium and the Netherlands . The Dutch ( as they later became known ) had managed to reclaim enough of Spanish-controlled Flanders to close off the river Scheldt , effectively cutting Antwerp off from its trade routes . First the fall of Antwerp to the Spanish and later also the closing of the Scheldt were causes of a considerable emigration of Antverpians . Many of the Calvinist merchants of Antwerp and also of other Flemish cities left Flanders and emigrated to the north . A large number of them settled in Amsterdam , which was at the time a smaller port , of significance only in the Baltic trade . In the following years Amsterdam was rapidly transformed into one of the world 's most important ports . Because of the contribution of the Flemish exiles to this transformation , the exodus is sometimes described as `` creating a new Antwerp '' . Flanders and Brabant , due to these events , went into a period of relative decline from the time of the Thirty Years War . In the Northern Netherlands however , the mass emigration from Flanders and Brabant became an important driving force behind the Dutch Golden Age . ; Southern Netherlands ( 1581–1795 ) Although arts remained at a relatively impressive level for another century with Peter Paul Rubens ( 1577–1640 ) and Anthony van Dyck , Flanders experienced a loss of its former economic and intellectual power under Spanish , Austrian , and French rule , with heavy taxation and rigid imperial political control compounding the effects of industrial stagnation and Spanish-Dutch and Franco-Austrian conflict . The Southern Netherlands suffered severely under the War of the Spanish Succession , but under the reign of empress Maria-Theresia these lands economically flourished again . Influenced by the Enlightenment , the Austrian emperor Joseph II was the first sovereign who has been in the Southern Netherlands since king Philip II of Spain left them in 1559 . ; French Revolution and Napoleonic France ( 1795–1815 ) In 1794 the French Republican Army started using Antwerp as the northernmost naval port of France , which country officially annexed Flanders the following year as the départements of Lys , Escaut , Deux-Nèthes , Meuse-Inférieure and Dyle . Obligatory ( French ) army service for all men aged 16–25 was one of the main reasons for the people 's uprising against the French in 1798 , known as the Boerenkrijg ( Peasants ' War ) , with the heaviest fighting in the Campine area . ; United Kingdom of the Netherlands ( 1815–1830 ) After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo in Waterloo , Brabant , sovereignty over the Austrian Netherlands – Belgium minus the East Cantons and Luxembourg – was given by the Congress of Vienna ( 1815 ) to the United Netherlands ( Dutch : Verenigde Nederlanden ) , the state that briefly existed under Sovereign Prince William I of Orange Nassau , the latter King William I of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , after the French Empire was driven out of the Dutch territories . The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was born . The Protestant King of the Netherlands , William I rapidly started the industrialisation of the southern parts of the Kingdom . The political system that was set up however , slowly but surely failed to forge a true union between the northern and the southern parts of the Kingdom . The southern bourgeoisie mainly was Roman Catholic , in contrast to the mainly Protestant north ; large parts of the southern bourgeoisie also primarily spoke French rather than Dutch . In 1815 the Dutch Senate was reinstated ( Dutch : Eerste Kamer der Staaten Generaal ) . The nobility , mainly coming from the south , became more and more estranged from their northern colleagues . Resentment grew both between the Roman Catholics from the south and the Protestants from the north and among the powerful liberal bourgeoisie from the south and their more moderate colleagues from the north . On 25 August 1830 ( after the showing of the opera 'La Muette de Portici ' of Daniel Auber in Brussels ) the Belgian Revolution sparked off and became a fact . On 4 October 1830 , the Provisional Government ( Dutch : Voorlopig Bewind ) proclaimed the independence , which was later confirmed by the National Congress that issued a new Liberal Constitution and declared the new state a Constitutional Monarchy , under the House of Saxe-Coburg . Flanders now became part of the Kingdom of Belgium , which was recognized by the major European Powers on 20 January 1831 . The de facto dissidence was finally recognized by the United Kingdom of the Netherlands on 19 April 1839 . Kingdom of Belgium In 1830 , the Belgian Revolution led to the splitting up of the two countries . Belgium was confirmed as an independent state by the Treaty of London of 1839 , but deprived of the eastern half of Limburg ( now Dutch Limburg ) , and the Eastern half of Luxembourg ( now the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg ) . Sovereignty over Zeeuws Vlaanderen , south of the Westerscheldt river delta , was left with the Kingdom of the Netherlands , which was allowed to levy a toll on all traffic to Antwerp harbour until 1863 . ; Rise of the Flemish Movement The Belgian Revolution was not well supported in Flanders and even on 4 October 1830 , when the Belgian independence was eventually declared , Flemish authorities refused to take orders from the new Belgian government in Brussels . Only after Flanders was subdued with the aid of a large French military force one month later , under the leadership of the Count de Pontécoulant , did Flanders become a true part of Belgium . The French-speaking bourgeoisie showed very little respect for the Dutch-speaking part of the population . French became the only official language in Belgium and all secondary and higher education in the Dutch language was abolished . In 1834 , all people even remotely suspected of being `` Flemish minded '' or calling for the reunification of the Netherlands were prosecuted and their houses looted and burnt . Flanders , until then a very prosperous European region , was not considered worthwhile for investment and scholarship . A study in 1918 demonstrated that in the first 88 years of its existence , 80 % of the Belgian GNP was invested in Wallonia . This led to a widespread poverty in Flanders , forcing roughly 300.000 Flemish to emigrate to Wallonia to start working there in the heavy industry . All of these events led to a silent uprising in Flanders against the French-speaking domination . But it was not until 1878 that Dutch was allowed to be used for official purposes in Flanders ( see language legislation in Belgium ) , although French remained the only official language in Belgium . In 1873 , Dutch became the official language in public secondary schools . In 1898 Dutch and French were declared equal languages in laws and Royal orders . In 1930 the first Flemish university was opened . The first official translation of the Belgian constitution in Dutch was not published until 1967 . ; World War I and its consequences Flanders ( and Belgium as a whole ) saw some of the greatest loss of life on the Western Front of the First World War , in particular from the three battles of Ypres . Flemish feeling of identity and consciousness grew through the events and experiences of war . The occupying German authorities took several Flemish-friendly measures . More importantly , the experiences of many Dutch-speaking soldiers on the front led by French-speaking officers catalysed Flemish emancipation . The French-speaking officers often gave orders in French only , followed by `` et pour les Flamands , la même chose ! `` , meaning `` and for the Flemish , the same thing ! '' ( which did not help the Flemish conscripts , who were mostly uneducated farmers and workers unable to have understood what had been said in French ) .— Note : This quote in French language `` Et pour ... ! '' has become a coined expression in Belgium , and as such published abroad . E.g . : The resulting suffering is still remembered by Flemish organizations during the yearly Yser pilgrimage in Diksmuide at the monument of the Yser Tower . ; Right-Wing Nationalism in the interbellum and World War II During the interbellum and World War II , several right-wing fascist and/or national-socialistic parties emerged in Belgium , the Flemish ones being energized by the anti-Flemish discrimination of the Wallonians . Since these parties were promised more rights for the Flemings by the German government during World War II , many of them collaborated with the Nazi regime . After the war , collaborators ( or people who were Zwart , `` Black '' during the war ) were prosecuted and punished , among them many Flemish Nationalists whose main political goal had been the emancipation of Flanders . As a result , up until this day Flemish Nationalism is often associated with right-wing and sometimes fascist ideologies . ; Flemish autonomy After World War II , the differences between Dutch-speaking and French-speaking Belgians became clear in a number of conflicts , such as the Royal Question , the question whether King Leopold III should return ( which most Flemings supported but not the Walloons ) and the use of Dutch in the Catholic University of Leuven . As a result , several state reforms took place in the second half of the 20th century , which transformed the unitary Belgium into a federal state with communities , regions and language areas . This resulted also in the establishment of a Flemish Parliament and Government . During the 1970s , all major political parties split into a Flemish and French-speaking party . Several Flemish parties still advocate for more Flemish autonomy , some even for Flemish independence ( see Partition of Belgium ) , whereas the French-speakers would like to keep the current state as it is . Recent governments ( such as Verhofstadt I Government ) have transferred certain federal competences to the regional governments . On 13 December 2006 , a spoof news broadcast by the Belgian Francophone public broadcasting station RTBF declared that Flanders had decided to declare independence from Belgium . The 2007 federal elections showed more support for Flemish autonomy , marking the start of the 2007–2011 Belgian political crisis . All the political parties that advocated a significant increase of Flemish autonomy gained votes as well as seats in the Belgian federal parliament . This was especially the case for Christian Democratic and Flemish and New Flemish Alliance ( N-VA ) ( who had participated on a shared electoral list ) . The trend continued during the 2009 regional elections , where CD & V and N-VA were the clear winners in Flanders , and N-VA became even the largest party in Flanders and Belgium during the 2010 federal elections , followed by the longest-ever government formation after which the Di Rupo I Government was formed excluding N-VA . Eight parties agreed on a sixth state reform which aim to solve the disputes between Flemings and French-speakers . The 2012 provincial and municipal elections however continued the trend of N-VA becoming the biggest party in Flanders . However , sociological studies show no parallel between the rise of nationalist parties and popular support for their agenda . Instead , a recent study revealed a majority in favour of returning regional competences to the federal level These victories for the advocates of much more Flemish autonomy are very much in parallel with opinion polls that show a structural increase in . Since 2006 , certain polls have started showing Flemish independence . Those polls are not yet representative , but they point to a significant long-term trend . Government and politics Both the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region are constitutional institutions of the Kingdom of Belgium , exercising certain powers within their jurisdiction , granted following a series of state reforms . In practice , the Flemish Community and Region together form a single body , with its own parliament and government , as the Community legally absorbed the competences of the Region . The parliament is a directly elected legislative body composed of 124 representatives . The government consists of up to a maximum of eleven members and is presided by a Minister-President , currently Geert Bourgeois ( New Flemish Alliance ) leading a coalition of his party ( N-VA ) with Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams ( CD & V ) and Open Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten ( Open VLD ) . The area of the Flemish Community is represented on the maps above , including the area of the Brussels-Capital Region ( hatched on the relevant map ) . Roughly , the Flemish Community exercises competences originally oriented towards the individuals of the Community 's language : culture ( including audiovisual media ) , education , and the use of the language . Extensions to personal matters less directly associated with language comprise sports , health policy ( curative and preventive medicine ) , and assistance to individuals ( protection of youth , social welfare , aid to families , immigrant assistance services , etc . ) The area of the Flemish Region is represented on the maps above . It has a population of more than 6 million ( excluding the Dutch-speaking community in the Brussels Region , grey on the map for it is not a part of the Flemish Region ) . Roughly , the Flemish Region is responsible for territorial issues in a broad

jp_1502--Flanders.txt

Flanders is part of what country?

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 UTC on 26 December with the epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra , Indonesia . The shock had a moment magnitude of 9.1–9.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ) . The undersea megathrust earthquake was caused when the Indian Plate was subducted by the Burma Plate and triggered a series of devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean , killing 230,000 people in 14 countries , and inundating coastal communities with waves up to 30 m high . It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history . Indonesia was the hardest-hit country , followed by Sri Lanka , India , and Thailand . It is the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph and had the longest duration of faulting ever observed , between 8.3 and 10 minutes . It caused the entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 cm and triggered other earthquakes as far away as Alaska . Its epicentre was between Simeulue and mainland Indonesia . The plight of the affected people and countries prompted a worldwide humanitarian response . In all , the worldwide community donated more than US $ 14 billion ( 2004 ) in humanitarian aid . The event is known by the scientific community as the Sumatra–Andaman earthquake . The resulting tsunami was given various names , including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , South Asian tsunami , Indonesian tsunami , the Christmas tsunami and the Boxing Day tsunami . Earthquake characteristics The earthquake was initially documented as moment magnitude 8.8 . In February 2005 scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0 . Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers , the United States Geological Survey has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1 . The most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude of Mw 9.1–9.3 . Dr. Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology believes that Mw 9.2 is a good representative value for the size of this great earthquake . The hypocentre of the main earthquake was approximately 160 km off the western coast of northern Sumatra , in the Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue island at a depth of 30 km below mean sea level ( initially reported as 10 km ) . The northern section of the Sunda megathrust ruptured over a length of 1300 km . The earthquake ( followed by the tsunami ) was felt simultaneously in Bangladesh , India , Malaysia , Myanmar , Thailand , Singapore and the Maldives . Splay faults , or secondary `` pop up faults '' , caused long , narrow parts of the sea floor to pop up in seconds . This quickly elevated the height and increased the speed of waves , causing the complete destruction of the nearby Indonesian town of Lhoknga . Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the north-eastern islands adjacent to New Guinea , and the Alpide belt that runs along the south and west from Sumatra , Java , Bali , Flores to Timor . Great earthquakes such as the Sumatra-Andaman event , which are invariably associated with megathrust events in subduction zones , have seismic moments that can account for a significant fraction of the global earthquake moment across century-scale time periods . Of all the seismic moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005 , roughly one-eighth was due to the Sumatra-Andaman event . This quake , together with the Good Friday earthquake ( Alaska , 1964 ) and the Great Chilean earthquake ( 1960 ) , account for almost half of the total moment . The much smaller but still catastrophic 1906 San Francisco earthquake is included in the diagram for perspective . Mw denotes the magnitude of an earthquake on the moment magnitude scale . Since 1900 the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean earthquake ( magnitude 9.5 ) and the 1964 Good Friday earthquake in Prince William Sound ( 9.2 ) . The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off Kamchatka , Russia , on 4 November 1952 ( magnitude 9.0 ) and Tōhoku , Japan ( magnitude 9.0 ) in March 2011 . Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean . However , the death toll from these was significantly lower , primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas and the much greater distances to more populated coasts and also due to the superior infrastructure and warning systems in MEDCs ( More Economically Developed Countries ) such as Japan . Other very large megathrust earthquakes occurred in 1868 ( Peru , Nazca Plate and South American Plate ) ; 1827 ( Colombia , Nazca Plate and South American Plate ) ; 1812 ( Venezuela , Caribbean Plate and South American Plate ) and 1700 ( western North America , Juan de Fuca Plate and North American Plate ) . All of them are believed to be greater than magnitude 9 , but no accurate measurements were available at the time . Foreshock The 2002 Sumatra earthquake is believed to have been a foreshock , predating the main event by over two years . Tectonic plates The megathrust earthquake was unusually large in geographical and geological extent . An estimated 1600 km of fault surface slipped ( or ruptured ) about 15 m along the subduction zone where the Indian Plate slides ( or subducts ) under the overriding Burma Plate . The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over a period of several minutes : * Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about 400 km long and 100 km wide , located 30 km beneath the sea bed—the largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake . The rupture proceeded at a speed of about ( 10000 km/h ) , beginning off the coast of Aceh and proceeding north-westerly over a period of about 100 seconds . * A pause of about another 100 seconds took place before the rupture continued northwards towards the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . However , the northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south , at about ( 7500 km/h ) , continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to strike-slip ( the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions ) . The Indian Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate , which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal , and is drifting north-east at an average of 6 centimetres per year ( 6 cm inches per year ) . The India Plate meets the Burma Plate ( which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate ) at the Sunda Trench . At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate , which carries the Nicobar Islands , the Andaman Islands , and northern Sumatra . The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate . These volatiles rise into the overlying plate causing partial melting and the formation of magma . The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth 's crust through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc . The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the Sunda Arc . As well as the sideways movement between the plates , the sea floor is estimated to have risen by several metres , displacing an estimated 30 km3 of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves . The waves did not originate from a point source , as was inaccurately depicted in some illustrations of their paths of travel , but rather radiated outwards along the entire 1600 km length of the rupture ( acting as a line source ) . This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed , reaching as far as Mexico , Chile , and the Arctic . The raising of the sea floor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean , producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated . Aftershocks and other earthquakes Numerous aftershocks were reported off the Andaman Islands , the Nicobar Islands and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed . The magnitude 8.7 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake , which originated off the coast of the Sumatran island of Nias , is not considered an aftershock , despite its proximity to the epicenter , and was most likely triggered by stress changes associated with the 2004 event . This earthquake was so large that it produced its own aftershocks ( some registering a magnitude of as great as 6.1 ) and presently ranks as the 7th largest earthquake on record since 1900 . Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the region daily for up to three or four months . As well as continuing aftershocks , the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event . A week after the earthquake , its reverberations could still be measured , providing valuable scientific data about the Earth 's interior . The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in an uninhabited region west of New Zealand 's subantarctic Auckland Islands , and north of Australia 's Macquarie Island . This is unusual , since earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more occur only about once per year on average . However , the U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship between these events . The December earthquake is thought to have triggered activity in both Leuser Mountain and Mount Talang , volcanoes in Aceh province along the same range of peaks , while the 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake had sparked activity in Lake Toba , an ancient crater in Sumatra . Energy released The energy released on the Earth 's surface only ( ME , which is the seismic potential for damage ) by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami was estimated at 1.1×1017 joules , or 26 megatons of TNT . This energy is equivalent to over 1500 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb , but less than that of Tsar Bomba , the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated . However , the total work done MW ( and thus energy ) by this quake was 4.0×1022 joules ( 4.0×1029 ergs ) , the vast majority underground . This is over 360,000 times more than its ME , equivalent to 9,600 gigatons of TNT equivalent ( 550 million times that of Hiroshima ) or about 370 years of energy use in the United States at 2005 levels of 1.08×1020 J . The only recorded earthquakes with a larger MW were the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan quakes , with 2.5×1023 joules ( 250 ZJ ) and 7.5×1022 joules ( 75 ZJ ) respectively . The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the Earth 's surface of up to 20 - , equivalent to the effect of the tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon . The shock waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet ; as far away as the U.S. state of Oklahoma , where vertical movements of 3 mm were recorded . By February 2005 , the earthquake 's effects were still detectable as a 20 um complex harmonic oscillation of the Earth 's surface , which gradually diminished and merged with the incessant free oscillation of the Earth more than 4 months after the earthquake . Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth , the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe , particularly due to huge Rayleigh ( surface ) elastic waves that exceeded 1 cm in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth . The record section plot displays vertical displacements of the Earth 's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time ( since the earthquake initiation ) on the horizontal axis , and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis ( note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale ) . The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicenter in degrees . The earliest , lower amplitude , signal is that of the compressional ( P ) wave , which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet ( the antipode ; in this case near Ecuador ) . The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes . The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode ( with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador ) , and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes . A major aftershock ( magnitude 7.1 ) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200 minute mark . This aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances , but is dwarfed by the mainshock . The shift of mass and the massive release of energy very slightly altered the Earth 's rotation . The exact amount is not yet known , but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 microseconds , due to a decrease in the oblateness of the Earth . It also caused the Earth to minutely `` wobble '' on its axis by up to in the direction of 145° east longitude , or perhaps by up to 5 or . However , because of tidal effects of the Moon , the length of a day increases at an average of 15 µs per year , so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly . Similarly , the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth , which in some cases can be up to 15 m , will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake . More spectacularly , there was 10 m movement laterally and 4 - vertically along the fault line . Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra , which is on the Burma Plate ( the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate ) , might have moved south-west by up to 36 m , but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 20 cm . Since movement was vertical as well as lateral , some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level . The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south-west by around and to have sunk by 1 m . In February 2005 , the Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone , which varies in depth between 1000 and . The survey , conducted using a high-resolution , multi-beam sonar system , revealed that the earthquake had made a huge impact on the topography of the seabed . 1500 m thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed , generating landslides several kilometres wide . One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m high and 2 km long ( 300 ft by 1.25 mi ) . The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock , each weighing millions of tons , as far as 10 km across the seabed . An oceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone . The TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean . These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface ; anomalies of the order of 50 cm were measured . Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami . Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores , measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave . Tsunami The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water , resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean . A tsunami that causes damage far away from its source is sometimes called a teletsunami and is much more likely to be produced by vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal motion . The tsunami , like all others , behaved very differently in deep water than in shallow water . In deep ocean water , tsunami waves form only a small hump , barely noticeable and harmless , which generally travels at a very high speed of 500 to ; in shallow water near coastlines , a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hour but , in doing so , forms large destructive waves . Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of 24 m when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline , rising to 30 m in some areas when traveling inland . Radar satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water : at two hours after the earthquake , the maximum height was 60 cm . These are the first such observations ever made . Unfortunately these observations could not be used to provide a warning , since the satellites were not built for that purpose and the data took hours to analyze . According to Tad Murty , vice-president of the Tsunami Society , the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about five megatons of TNT ( 20 petajoules ) . This is more than twice the total explosive energy used during all of World War II ( including the two atomic bombs ) but still a couple of orders of magnitude less than the energy released in the earthquake itself . In many places the waves reached as far as 2 km inland . Because the 1600 km fault affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north-south orientation , the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east-west direction . Bangladesh , which lies at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal , had very few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicenter . It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone , greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region . Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami 's location of origin are usually safe ; however , tsunami waves can sometimes diffract around such landmasses . Thus , the state of Kerala was hit by the tsunami despite being on the western coast of India , and the western coast of Sri Lanka suffered substantial impacts . Distance alone was no guarantee of safety , as Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away . Because of the distances involved , the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours to reach the coastlines . The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit very quickly , while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later . Thailand was struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre , because the tsunami traveled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea off its western coast . The tsunami was noticed as far as Struisbaai in South Africa , some 8500 km away , where a high tide surged on shore about 16 hours after the earthquake . It took a relatively long time to reach this spot at the southernmost point of Africa , probably because of the broad continental shelf off South Africa and because the tsunami would have followed the South African coast from east to west . The tsunami also reached Antarctica , where tidal gauges at Japan 's Showa Base recorded oscillations of up to a metre ( 1 m ) , with disturbances lasting a couple of days . Some of the tsunami 's energy escaped into the Pacific Ocean , where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts of North and South America , typically around 20 to . At Manzanillo , Mexico , a crest-to-trough tsunami was measured . As well , the tsunami was large enough to be detected in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . This puzzled many scientists , as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean . It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins of the continental plates . Signs and warnings Despite a lag of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami , nearly all of the victims were taken completely by surprise . There were no tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to detect tsunamis or to warn the general populace living around the ocean . Tsunami detection is not easy because while a tsunami is in deep water it has little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it . Setting up the communications infrastructure to issue timely warnings is an even bigger problem , particularly in a relatively poor part of the world . Tsunamis are much more frequent in the Pacific Ocean because of earthquakes in the `` Ring of Fire '' , and an effective tsunami warning system has long been in place there . Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean ( the point where this earthquake struck ) , no warning system exists in that ocean . Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia . The last major tsunami was caused by the Krakatoa eruption of 1883 . It should be noted that not every earthquake produces large tsunamis ; on 28 March 2005 , a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami . The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthquake itself . However , tsunamis can strike thousands of kilometres away where the earthquake is only felt weakly or not at all . Also , in the minutes preceding a tsunami strike , the sea often recedes temporarily from the coast . This was observed on the eastern side of the rupture zone of the earthquake such as around the coastlines of Aceh province , Phuket island and Khao Lak area in Thailand , Penang island of Malaysia and the Andaman and Nicobar islands . Around the Indian Ocean , this rare sight reportedly induced people , especially children , to visit the coast to investigate and collect stranded fish on as much as 2.5 km ( 1.6 mi ) of exposed beach , with fatal results . However , not all tsunamis cause this `` disappearing sea '' effect . In some cases , there are no warning signs at all : the sea will suddenly swell without retreating , surprising many people and giving them little time to flee . One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the tsunami was on the Indonesian island of Simeulue , very close to the epicentre . Island folklore recounted an earthquake and tsunami in 1907 , and the islanders fled to inland hills after the initial shaking and before the tsunami struck . These tales and oral folklore from previous generations may have helped the survival of the inhabitants . On Maikhao beach in northern Phuket , Thailand , a 10-year-old British tourist named Tilly Smith had studied tsunami in geography at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles . She and her parents warned others on the beach , which was evacuated safely . John Chroston , a biology teacher from Scotland , also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket , taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground . Anthropologists had initially expected the aboriginal population of the Andaman Islands to be badly affected by the tsunami and even feared the already depopulated Onge tribe could have been wiped out . Many of the aboriginal tribes evacuated and suffered fewer casualties . Oral traditions developed from previous earthquakes helped the aboriginal tribes escape the tsunami . For example , the folklore of the Onges talks of `` huge shaking of ground followed by high wall of water '' . Almost all of the Onge people seemed to have survived the tsunami . Aceh province , Sumatra , Indonesia The tsunami first struck the west and north coasts of northern Sumatra , Indonesia particularly in Aceh province , early in the morning . The largest slip of 30 m was estimated on the subfault located off the west coast of Aceh province . The observed subsidences were at Banda Aceh , more than at Peukan Bada , and more than at Lhoknga and Leupung . According to local eyewitnesses at Ulee Lheue in Banda Aceh , the first tsunami reached shore 15–20 minutes after the earthquake , the time interval between the first and second tsunamis was 15–20 minutes , and the second was bigger than the first . The eyewitness report that the second was bigger than the first is the same as that in Khao Lak and Phuket Island in southern Thailand . A local resident at Banda Aceh states that the giant wave was 'higher than my house ' . Another resident living 2 km near the coast on the outskirt of the city informed that the tsunami was 'like a wall , very black ' in colour and had a 'distinct sound ' getting louder as it nears the coast . The maximum height of the tsunami was measured at Leupung , located on the west coast of the northern tip of Sumatra , near Banda Aceh , and reached more than 30 m. Roughly speaking , tsunami heights on other coasts were 15–30 m ( 49 ft-98 ft ) on the west coast , 6–12 m ( 19.7 ft-39.4 ft ) on the Banda Aceh coast , about 6 m ( 19.7 ft ) on the Krueng Raya coast – where 3 oil tanks floated out – and about 5 m ( 16.4 ft ) on the Sigli coast . The tsunami heights in Weh Island were 3–6 m ( 9.8 ft-19.7 ft ) on the north coast directly facing the tsunami source and about 3 m ( 9.8 ft ) on the opposite side of the coast . The tsunami height on the Banda Aceh coast is lower than half of that on the west coast . Even within the Banda Aceh coast , the tsunami height reduced by half from 12 m ( 39.4 ft ) at Ulee Lheue to 6 m ( 19.7 ft ) a further 8 km ( 4.97 miles ) to the northeast . One of the reasons seems to be that there is an archipelago between Lhoknga and Banda Aceh . The tsunami advanced about 4 km ( 2.49 miles ) inland at Banda Aceh . Within 2–3 km ( 1.24-1.86 miles ) from the shoreline , houses , except for strongly-built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls , which seemed to have been partially damaged by the earthquake before the tsunami attack , were completely swept away or destroyed by the tsunami . In Lhoknga , a town within the district of the same name , in Aceh Besar Regency , Aceh Special Region , Indonesia , located on the western side of the island of Sumatra , 13 km ( 8.08 miles ) southwest of Banda Aceh was completely flattened and destroyed by the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami , where its population dwindled from 7,500 to 400 . Tsunami runups following eyewitness accounts of waves were recorded being 35 m ( 114.8 ft ) in height ( waves hitting land at the height of 35 m ) , the highest known tsunami wave known to date . The sea near Lampuuk beach receded before the first wave hit and it had a characteristic cobra-like surfing wave shape and that the last wave 'towers over the highest coconut trees ' and was 'like a mountain ' . Consequently , the tsunami also stranded cargo ships and barges and

qz_5217--2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami.txt

The Asian Tsunami or Boxing day tsunami that hit Thailand, Indonesia and many other countries happened in what year?

Sicherheitsdienst ( ) , full title Sicherheitsdienst des Reichsführers-SS ( ) , or SD , was the intelligence agency of the SS and the Nazi Party in Nazi Germany . The organization was the first Nazi Party intelligence organization to be established and was considered a sister organization with the Gestapo , which the SS had infiltrated heavily after 1934 . Between 1933 and 1939 , the SD was administered as an independent SS office , after which it was transferred to the authority of the Reich Main Security Office ( Reichssicherheitshauptamt ; RSHA ) , as one of its seven departments/offices . Its first director , Reinhard Heydrich , intended for the SD to bring every single individual within the Third Reich 's reach under `` continuous supervision . '' Following Germany 's defeat in World War II , the SD was declared a criminal organisation at the Nuremberg Trials , along with the rest of Heydrich 's RSHA ( including the Gestapo ) both individually and as branches of the SS in the collective . Heydrich 's successor , Ernst Kaltenbrunner , was sentenced to death for war crimes at the Nuremberg Tribunals and hanged in 1946 . History The SD was one of the oldest security organizations of the SS and was first formed in 1931 as the Ic-Dienst , operating out of a single apartment and reporting directly to Heinrich Himmler . Himmler appointed a former naval officer , Reinhard Heydrich , to organise the small agency . The office was renamed Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ) in the summer of 1932 . The SD became more powerful after the Nazis took control of Germany and the SS started infiltrating all leading positions of the security apparatus of the Reich . Even before Hitler came to power , the SD was a veritable `` watchdog '' over the SS and members of the Nazi Party and played a critical role in consolidating political police powers into the hands of Himmler and Heydrich . Growth of SD and SS power Once Hitler was appointed Chancellor by German President , Paul von Hindenburg , he quickly made efforts to manipulate the aging president . On 28 February 1933 , Hitler convinced Hindenburg to declare a state of emergency which suspended all civil liberties throughout Germany , due at least in part to the Reichstag fire the night before , assuring Hindenburg throughout that he was attempting to stabilize the tumultuous political scene in Germany by taking a `` defensive measure against Communist acts of violence endangering the state . '' Wasting no time , Himmler set the SD in motion as they began creating an extensive card index of the Nazi regime 's political opponents , arresting labor organizers , socialists , Jewish leaders , journalists , and communists in the process , sending them to their new prison facility near Munich , Dachau . Himmler 's SS and SD made their presence felt at once by helping rid the regime of its known political enemies and its perceived ones , as well . As far as Heydrich and Himmler were concerned , the SD left their mission somewhat vaguely defined so as to `` remain an instrument for all eventualities . '' One of those eventualities would soon arise . For a while , the SS was in ‘ competition ’ with the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) for influence within the Third Reich . Himmler distrusted the SA and came to deplore the ‘ rabble-rousing ’ brownshirts ( despite once having been a member ) and what they considered to be the indecent sexual deviants amid its leadership . At least one pretext to secure additional influence for Himmler 's SS and Heydrich 's SD in `` protecting '' Hitler and securing his absolute trust in their intelligence collection abilities involved thwarting a plot from Ernst Roehm 's SA using subversive means . On 20 April 1934 Hermann Göring handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler . Heydrich , named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934 , also continued as head of the SD . These events further extended Himmler ’ s control of the security mechanism of the Reich , which by proxy also strengthened the surveillance power of Heydrich ’ s SD , as both entities methodically infiltrated every police agency in Germany . Thereafter , the SD was made the sole `` Party information service '' on 9 June 1934 . Under pressure from the Reichswehr ( German armed forces ) leadership , whose members viewed the enormous armed forces of the SA as an existential threat and with the collusion of Göring , Joseph Goebbels , the Gestapo and SD , Hitler was led to believe that Roehm ’ s SA posed a serious conspiratorial threat requiring a drastic and immediate solution . For its part , the SD provided fictitious information that there was an assassination plot on Hitler ’ s life and that an SA putsch to assume power was imminent since they were allegedly amassing weapons . Additionally , reports were coming in to the SD and Gestapo that the vulgarity of the SA 's behavior was damaging the party and was even making antisemitism less palatable . In what became known as the Night of the Long Knives , the SS took one of its most decisive steps in eliminating its competition for command of security within the Third Reich and established itself firmly in the Nazi hierarchy , making the SS and its intelligence organ , the SD , responsible only to the Führer . Moreover , the brutal crushing of the SA and its leadership sent a clear message to everyone that opposition to Hitler ’ s regime could be deadly . In many ways , it struck fear across the Nazi leadership and a tangible concern about the reach and influence of Himmler ’ s intelligence collection and policing powers since not only had the SA ’ s chief been murdered , but numerous party functionaries and “ opponents ” had been eliminated in the action based on an extensive list which Hitler only saw after the event . The SD and Austria During the autumn of 1937 , Hitler secured Mussolini ’ s support to annex Austria ( Mussolini was originally apprehensive of the Nazi takeover of Austria ) and informed his generals of his intentions to invade both Austria and Czechoslovakia . Getting Mussolini to approve political intrigue against Austria was a major accomplishment as the Italian leader had expressed great concern previously in the wake of an Austrian SS unit ’ s attempt to stage a coup not more than three weeks after the Röhm affair ; an episode that embarrassed the SS , enraged Hitler , and which ended in the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss . Nonetheless , to facilitate the incorporation of Austria into the greater Reich , the SD and Gestapo went to work arresting people right away using lists compiled by Heydrich . Heydrich ’ s SD and Austrian SS members received financing from Berlin to harass Austrian Chancellor von Schuschnigg ’ s government all throughout 1937 . One section of the SD that was nothing more than a front for subversive activities against Austria , ironically promoted “ German-Austrian peace . ” Throughout the events leading to the Anschluß and even after the Nazis marched into Austria , Heydrich - convinced that only his SD could pull off a peaceful union between the two German-speaking nations - organized demonstrations , conducted clandestine operations , ordered terror attacks , distributed propaganda materials , encouraged the intimidation of opponents , and had his SS and SD personnel round-up prominent anti-Nazis , most of whom ended up in Mauthausen concentration camp . Through the coordinated efforts of the SiPo and Heydrich 's SD during the first days of the Anschluß , all forms of possible political , military and economic resistance within Austria were effectively eliminated . Once the Anschluß was official , the Austrian police was immediately subordinated to Heydrich ’ s SD , SS and the Gestapo . Machinations by the SD , the Gestapo , and the SS helped to bring Austria fully into Hitler 's grasp and on 13 March 1938 , he signed into law the union with Austria as tears streamed down his face . “ Case Green ” and the Sudetenland Concomitant to their machinations against Austria , the SD was also afoot in subversive activities throughout Czechoslovakia . Focusing on the Sudetenland with its 3 million ethnic Germans and the disharmony there which the Czech government could not seem to remedy , Hitler set Heydrich ’ s SD in motion there in what later came to be known as `` Case Green '' . This SD intelligence operation was akin to their earlier efforts in Austria ; however , unlike Austria , the Czechs fielded their own Secret Service against which , Heydrich had to contend . Once `` Case Green '' ( which included military invasion to smash Czechoslovakia ) began ( as early as 1937 ) , Heydrich ’ s SD spies began covertly gathering ( even going so far as having SD agents use their spouses and children in the cover scheme ) every conceivable type of intelligence data possible using a myriad of cameras and photographic equipment , focusing their efforts on important strategic locations like government buildings , police stations , postal services , public utilities , logistical routes , and above all , airfields . The SD activities in this regard can only be described as military espionage . Hitler worked out a sophisticated plan to acquire the Sudetenland , which included manipulating Slovak nationalists to vie for independence and the suppression of this movement by the Czech government . Under directions from Heydrich , SD operative Alfred Naujocks was once again activated to engage in sabotage activities designed to incite a response from the Slovakians and the Czechs , a mission that ultimately failed . In June 1938 , a directive from the head SD office indicated that Hitler issued an order at Jueterbog to his generals to prepare for the invasion of Czechoslovakia . To hasten a presumed heavy response from the French , British , and Czechs , Hitler then upped the stakes and claimed that the Czechs were slaughtering Sudeten Germans , demanding the unconditional and prompt cession of the Sudetenland to Germany in order to secure the safety of endangered ethnic Germans . It was around this time that early plots from select members of the German General Staff to rid themselves of Hitler arose . How much the SD knew about schemes to subvert Hitler remains unknown . Eventually a diplomatic showdown pitting Hitler against the governments of Czechoslovakia , Great Britain , and France , whose tepid reaction to Austria precipitated this crisis to some degree , ensued . The Sudetenland Crisis came to an end when Neville Chamberlain and Hitler signed the Munich Agreement on 29 September 1938 , effectively ceding the Sudetenland to Nazi Germany . Involvement in international affairs by the SD certainly did not end there and they remained active in foreign operations to such a degree that the head of the Foreign Ministry office , Joachim von Ribbentrop , complained of their meddling , since Hitler would apparently make decisions based on SD reports without consulting him . Following the Sudetenland Crisis , the SD then took part in operations against Poland . Intrigue against Poland Aside from their participation in diminishing the power of the SA and their scheme to kill Ernst Roehm , the SD took part in international intrigue , first by activities in Austria , again in Czechoslovakia , and then by helping provoke the 'reactive ' war against Poland . Code-named `` Operation Himmler '' and part of Hitler 's plan to justify an attack upon Poland , the SD 's clandestine activity for this mission included faking a Polish attack against 'innocent Germans ' at a German radio station in Gleiwitz . Using concentration camp inmates condemned to die , the SD fitted them with Polish Army uniforms Heinz Jost had acquired from Admiral Canaris ' Abwehr . Leading this mission and personally selected by Heydrich was SS veteran Alfred Naujocks , who later reported during a War Criminal proceeding that he brought a Polish-speaking German along so he could broadcast a message in Polish from the German radio station 'under siege ' that it was time for an all out confrontation between Germans and Poles . To add documented proof of this attack , the SD operatives placed the fictitious Polish troops ( killed by lethal injection , then shot for appearance ) around the 'attacked ' radio station with the intention of taking members of the press to the site of the incident . Immediately in the wake of the staged incidents on 1 September 1939 , Hitler proclaimed from the Reichstag in a famous radio address that German soldiers had been 'returning ' fire since 0545 in the morning , setting the Second World War in Europe into motion . Tasks and general structure The SD was tasked with the detection of actual or potential enemies of the Nazi leadership and the neutralization of this opposition as the action against the SA demonstrated . To fulfill this task , the SD created an organization of agents and informants throughout the Reich and later throughout the occupied territories , all part of the development of an extensive SS state and a totalitarian regime without parallel . The organization consisted of a few hundred full-time agents and several thousand informants . Historian George C. Browder writes that SD regiments were comparable to SS regiments , in that : `` SD districts ( Bezirke ) emerged covering several Party circuits ( Kreis ) or an entire district ( Gau ) . Below this level , SD sub-districts ( Unterbezirke ) slowly developed . They were originally to cover a single Kreis , and , in turn , to be composed of wards ( Revier ) , but such an ambitious network never emerged . Eventually , the SD-sub-districts acquired the simple designation of 'outposts ' ( Aussenstellen ) as the lowest level-office in the field structure . '' The SD was mainly the information-gathering agency , and the Gestapo , and to a degree the Kriminalpolizei ( Kripo ) , was the executive agency of the political police system . Both the SD and the Geheime Staatspolizei ( Gestapo ) were departments under Heydrich 's control which answered to Himmler as both Chief of the German Police and Reichsfuhrer-SS , but the Kripo kept a level of independence since its structure was longer-established . Part and parcel to intelligence operations , the SD carefully tracked foreign opinion and criticism of Nazi policies , censoring when necessary and likewise publishing hostile political cartoons in the SS weekly magazine , Das Schwarze Korps . An additional task assigned to the SD and the Gestapo was keeping tabs on the morale of the German population at large which meant they were charged to `` carefully supervise the political health of the German ethnic body '' and once any symptoms of `` disease and germs '' appeared , it was their job to `` remove them by every appropriate means . '' Regular reports - ranging from opinion polls , press dispatches , and information bulletins were established . These were monitored and reviewed by SS-Gruppenführer and head of the Inland-SD , Otto Ohlendorf ( responsible for intelligence and security within Germany ) and the former Heidelberg professor and SD member Reinhard Höhn , all designed to control and assess the `` life domain '' or Lebensgebiet of the German population . Gathered information was then distributed by the SD through secret internal political reports entitled Meldungen aus dem Reich ( reports from the Reich ) to the upper echelons of the Nazi Party , enabling Hitler 's regime to evaluate the general morale and attitude of the German people so it could be timely manipulated by the Nazi propaganda machine . When the Nuremberg Laws were passed in 1935 , the SD reported that the measures against the Jews were well received by the German populace . In 1936 , the police were divided into the Ordnungspolizei ( Orpo or Order Police ) and the Sicherheitspolizei ( SiPo or Security Police ) . The Ordnungspolizei consisted mainly of the Schutzpolizei ( Urban police ) , the Gendarmerie ( Rural police ) and the Gemeindepolizei ( Municipal police ) . The Sicherheitspolizei was composed of the Kripo and the Gestapo . Heydrich became Chief of the SiPo ( Security Police ) and continued as Chief of the SD . Continuing escalation of antisemitic policies in the spring of 1937 from the SD organization concerned with Jewish affairs , staffed by members like Adolf Eichmann , Herbert Hagen , and Theodor Dannecker , led to an advocation for the complete removal ( Entfernung ) of all Jews from Germany with little concern for where they were headed . Due to the fact that the Gestapo and SD had parallel duties , Heydrich tried to reduce any confusion or related territorial disputes through a decree on 1 July 1937 , clearly defining the SD 's area of responsibility as those dealing with `` learning ( Wissenschaft ) , art , party and state , constitution and administration , foreign lands , Freemasonry and associations '' whereas the `` Gestapo 's jurisdiction was Marxism , treason , and emigrants . '' Additionally , the SD was responsible for matters related to `` churches and sects , pacifism , the Jews , right-wing movements '' , as well as `` the economy , and the Press '' , but the SD was instructed to `` avoid all matters which touched the 'state police executive powers ' [ staatspolizeiliche Vollzugsmaßnahmen ] since these belonged to the Gestapo , as did all individual cases . '' In 1938 , the SD was made the intelligence organization for the State as well as for the Party , supporting the Gestapo and working with the General and Interior Administration . As such , the SD came into immediate , fierce competition with the German Abwehr ( military intelligence ) , headed by Admiral Wilhelm Canaris . The competition stemmed from Heydrich and Himmler 's intention to absorb the Abwehr and Admiral Canaris ' view of the SD as an amateur upstart . Canaris refused to give up the autonomy that his military intelligence organ was granted . Additional problems also existed , like the racial exemption for members of the Abwehr from the Nazi Aryan screening process , and then there was competition for resources which occurred throughout the Third Reich 's existence . On 27 September 1939 , the Sicherheitspolizei became a part of the RSHA under Heydrich . The operational sections of the SD became ( department ) Amt III and for foreign intelligence , Amt VI ; the Gestapo became Amt IV and the Kripo became Amt V. Otto Ohlendorf was named the Chief of Amt III , the SD-Inland ( within Germany ) ; Heinrich Müller was named the Chief of Amt IV , the Gestapo ; Arthur Nebe was named the Chief of Amt V , the Kripo ; and Walter Schellenberg became Chief of Amt VI , the SD-Ausland ( outside Germany ) . In 1944 , the sections of the Abwehr were incorporated into Amt VI . SD relationship to the Einsatzgruppen The SD was the overarching agency under which the Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD , also known as the Einsatzgruppen , was subordinated ; this was one of the principal reasons for the later war-crimes indictment against the organization by the Allies . The Einsatzgruppen ’ s part in the Holocaust has been well documented . Its mobile killing units were active in the implementation of the Final Solution in the territories overrun by the Nazi war machine . This SD subsidiary worked closely with the Wehrmacht in persecuting Jews , communists , partisans , and other groups , as well . Starting with the invasion of Poland throughout the campaign in the East , the Einsatzgruppen ruthlessly killed anyone suspected of being an opponent of the regime , either real or imagined . The men of the Einsatzgruppen were recruited from the SD , Gestapo , Kripo , Orpo , and Waffen-SS . On 31 July 1941 Hermann Göring gave written authorisation to SD Chief Heydrich to ensure the cooperation of administrative leaders of various government departments in the implementation of a Endlösung der Judenfrage ( Final Solution to the Jewish question ) in territories under German control . An SD headquarter 's memorandum indicated that the SD was tasked to accompany military invasions so as to assist in control and pacification efforts . The memo explicitly stated : : The SD will , where possible , follow up immediately behind the troops as they move in and , as in the Reich , will assume responsibility for the security of political life . Within the Reich , security measures are the responsibility of the Gestapo with SD cooperation . In occupied territory , measures will be under the direction of a senior SD commander ; Gestapo officials will be allotted to individual Einsatzstäbe . It will be necessary to make available for special deployment a unit of Verfügungstruppe or Totenkopf [ Death Head ] formations . Correspondingly , SD affiliated units , including the Einsatzgruppen followed German troops into Austria , the Sudetenland , Bohemia , Moravia , Poland , Lithuania , as well as Russia . Since their task included cooperating with military leadership and vice versa , suppression of opposition in the occupied territories was a joint venture , so any attempt to feign ignorance on the part of the military leadership loses credibility in light of the orders passed up and down their respective commands . There were territorial disputes and disagreement about how some of these policies were to be implemented . On 20 January 1942 , Heydrich chaired a meeting , now called the Wannsee Conference , to discuss the implementation of the plan . Facilities such as Chelmno , Majdanek , Sobibor , Treblinka , and Auschwitz have their origins in the planning actions undertaken by Heydrich . Heydrich remained chief of the Security Police ( SiPo ) and the SD ( through the RSHA ) until his assassination in 1942 , after which Ernst Kaltenbrunner was named chief by Himmler on 30 January 1943 , and remained there until the end of the war . The SD was declared a criminal organization after the war and its members were tried as war criminals at Nuremberg . Whatever their original purpose , the SD and SS were ultimately created to identify and eradicate internal enemies of the State , as well as to pacify , subjugate , and exploit conquered territories and peoples . Organization By 1933 , the organization was known as the SS SD-Amt and , in 1934 , became the official security organization of the entire Nazi Party . Consisting at first of paid agents and a few hundred unpaid informants scattered across Germany , the SD was quickly professionalized under Heydrich , who commissioned National Socialist academics and lawyers to ensure that the SS and the SD in particular , operated `` within the framework of National Socialist ideology . '' Heydrich was given the power to select men for the SD from among any of the SS component commands since Himmler considered the organization of the SD so important . In 1939 , the SD was divided into two offices , the Inland-SD and Ausland-SD , and placed under the authority of the RSHA . By 1941 , the SD had been organized into the following internal sections : Inland-SD The Inland-SD ( Office II ) was originally headed by SS-Colonel Hermann Behrends until September 1939 and it was within this organization that Adolf Eichmann began working out the details for the Final Solution of the Jewish problem . The Inland SD was responsible for intelligence and security within Germany and was divided into the following sub-offices : * Department A ( Law and Legal Structures ) * Department B ( Race and Ethnic Matters ) * Department C ( Cultural and Religious Matters ) * Department D ( Industry and Commerce ) * Department E ( High Society ) After 27 September 1939 , ( Office II ) became officially Amt III ( department III ) , the SD-Inland of the RSHA . Otto Ohlendorf was named the Chief of Amt III . Ausland-SD The Ausland-SD ( Office III ) was the civilian foreign intelligence agency of the Third Reich and was `` nominally commanded by Heydrich , but his chief of staff was SS-Colonel Heinz Jost . '' Jost ran the department until March 1942 . Jost was fired from his position as Chief of Ausland-SD which , as of September 1939 , had officially become known as Amt VI ( department VI ) of the RSHA . Jost 's place was taken by Brigadeführer Walter Schellenberg , a deputy of Heydrich . After the July 20 Plot in 1944 , the Ausland-SD took over the functions of the Abwehr ( military intelligence ) . The Ausland-SD was divided into the following sections : * Department A ( Organization and Administration ) * Department B ( Espionage in the West ) * Department C ( Espionage in the Soviet Union and Japan ) * Department D ( Espionage in the American sphere ) * Department E ( Espionage in Eastern Europe ) * Department F ( Technical Matters ) Membership Given the nature of the intelligence operations assigned to the SD , there were clear delineations between what constituted a full member ( Mitglieder ) of the SD and those who were considered `` associates '' ( Mitarbeiter ) with a further subset for clerical support personnel ( typists , file clerks , etc . ) who were connoted as V-persons ( Vertrauensleute ) . All SD personnel , whether simply associates or full members were required to swear an oath of secrecy , had to meet all the requirements for SS membership , were assigned SD code numbers ( Chiffre Nummer ) and if they were `` above the level of V-person '' they had to carry `` an SD identification card . '' The vast majority of early SD members were relatively young , but the officers were typically older by comparison ; nevertheless , the average age of an SD member was approximately 2 years older than the average Nazi Party member . Much like the Nazi revolution in general , membership in the SS and the SD appealed more to the impressionable youth . Most SD members were Protestant by faith , had served in the military , and generally had a significant amount of education , representing `` an educated elite '' in the general sense - with about 14 percent of them earning doctorate degrees . Heydrich viewed the SD as spiritual-elite leaders within the SS and the `` cream of the cream of the NSDAP . '' According to historian George C. Browder , `` SD men represented no pathological or psychically susceptible group . Few were wild or extreme Nazi fanatics . In those respects they were 'ordinary men ' . Yet in most other respects , they were an extraordinary mix of men , drawn together by a unique mix of missions . '' Along with members of the Gestapo , SD personnel were `` regarded with a mixture of fear and foreboding , '' and people wanted as little to do with them as possible . Belonging to the security apparatus of the Third Reich obviously had its advantages but it was also fraught with occupationally related social disadvantages as well , and if post-war descriptions of the SD by historians are any indication , membership therein implied being a part of a `` ubiquitous secret society '' which was `` sinister '' and a `` messenger of terror '' not just for the German population , but within the `` ranks of the Nazi Party itself . '' Security forces The SD and the SiPo were the main sources of officers for the security forces in occupied territories . SD-SiPo led battalions were typically placed under the command of the SS and Police Leaders , reporting directly to the RSHA in Berlin . The SD also maintained a presence at all concentration camps and supplied personnel , on an as-needed basis , to such special action troops as the Einsatzgruppen . In fact , all members of the Einsatzgruppen wore the SD sleeve diamond on their uniforms . The SD-SiPo was also the primary agency , in conjunction with the Ordnungspolizei , assigned to maintain order and security in the Jewish ghettos established by the Germans on the territory of occupied Eastern Europe .

tc_2236--Sicherheitsdienst.txt

In WWII, who was the head of the Nazi party's security service?

At the Battle of Omdurman ( 2 September 1898 ) , an army commanded by the British General Sir Herbert Kitchener defeated the army of Abdullah al-Taashi , the successor to the self-proclaimed Mahdi , Muhammad Ahmad . Kitchener was seeking revenge for the death of General Gordon in 1884 . It was a demonstration of the superiority of a highly disciplined army equipped with modern rifles , machine guns and artillery over a force twice their size armed with older weapons , and marked the success of British efforts to re-conquer the Sudan . However , it was not until the 1899 Battle of Umm Diwaykarat that the final Mahdist forces were defeated . Omdurman is today a suburb of Khartoum in central Sudan , with a population of some 1.5 million . The village of Omdurman was chosen in 1884 as the base of operations by the Mahdi , Muhammad Ahmad . After his death in 1885 , following the successful siege of Khartoum , his successor ( Khalifa ) Abdullah retained it as his capital . Battle account The battle took place at Kerreri , 11 km north of Omdurman . Kitchener commanded a force of 8,000 British regulars and a mixed force of 17,000 Sudanese and Egyptian troops . He arrayed his force in an arc around the village of Egeiga , close to the bank of the Nile , where a twelve gunboat flotilla waited in support , facing a wide , flat plain with hills rising to the left and right . The British and Egyptian cavalry were placed on either flank . Abdullah 's followers , known as Ansar and sometimes referred to as Dervishes , numbered around 50,000 , including some 3,000 cavalry . They were split into five groups—a force of 8,000 under Osman Azrak was arrayed directly opposite the British , in a shallow arc along a mile ( 1.6 km ) of a low ridge leading onto the plain , and the other Mahdist forces were initially concealed from Kitchener 's force . Abdullah al-Taashi and 17,000 men were concealed behind the Surgham Hills to the west and rear of Osman Azrak 's force , with 20,000 more positioned to the north-west , close to the front behind the Kerreri hills , commanded by Ali-Wad-Helu and Sheikh ed-Din . A final force of around 8,000 was gathered on the slope on the right flank of Azrak 's force . The battle began in the early morning , at around 6:00 a.m. After the clashes of the previous day , the 8,000 men under Osman Azrak advanced straight at the waiting British , quickly followed by about 8,000 of those waiting to the northwest , a mixed force of rifle and spear-men . The 52 quick firing guns of the British artillery opened fire at around 2750 m , inflicting severe casualties on the Mahdist forces before they even came within range of the Maxim guns and volley fire . The frontal attack ended quickly , with around 4,000 Mahdist casualties ; none of the attackers got closer than 50 m to the British trenches . A flanking move from the Ansar right was also checked , and there were bloody clashes on the opposite flank that scattered the Mahdist forces there . Kitchener was anxious to occupy Omdurman before the remaining Mahdist forces could withdraw there . He advanced his army on the city , arranging them in separate columns for the attack . The British light cavalry regiment , the 21st Lancers , was sent ahead to clear the plain to Omdurman . They had a tough time of it . The 400-strong regiment attacked what they thought were only a few hundred dervishes , but in fact there were 2,500 infantry hidden behind them in a depression . After a fierce clash , the Lancers drove them back ( resulting in three Victoria Crosses being awarded to Lancers who helped rescue wounded comrades ) . One of the participants of this fight was Lieutenant Winston Churchill . On a larger scale , the British advance allowed the Khalifa to re-organize his forces . He still had over 30,000 men in the field and directed his main reserve to attack from the west while ordering the forces to the northwest to attack simultaneously over the Kerreri Hills . Kitchener 's force wheeled left in echelon to advance up Surgham ridge and then southwards . To protect the rear , a brigade of 3,000 mainly Sudanese , commanded by Hector MacDonald , was reinforced with Maxims and artillery and followed the main force at around 1350 m. Curiously , the supplies and wounded around Egeiga were left almost unprotected . MacDonald was alerted to the presence of around 15,000 enemy troops moving towards him from the west , out from behind Surgham . He wheeled his force and lined them up to face the enemy charge . The Mahdist infantry attacked in two prongs , Lewis 's Egyptian Brigade managed to hold its own but MacDonald was forced to repeatedly re-order his battalions . The brigade maintained a punishing fire . Kitchener , now aware of the problem , `` began to throw his brigades about as if they were companies '' . MacDonald 's brigade was soon reinforced with flank support and more Maxim guns and the Mahdist forces were forced back ; they finally broke and fled or died where they stood . The Mahdist forces to the north had regrouped too late and entered the clash only after the force in the central valley had been routed . They pressed Macdonald 's Sudanese brigades hard , but Wauchope 's brigade with the Lincolnshire Regiment was quickly brought up and with sustained section volleys repulsed the advance . A final desperate cavalry charge of around 500 horsemen was utterly destroyed . The march on Omdurman was resumed at about 11:30 . Awards 4 awards were made of the Victoria Cross , all for Gallantry shown on 2 September 1898 . * Thomas Byrne , Private , 21st Lancers * Raymond de Montmorency , Lieutenant , 21st Lancers * Paul Aloysius Kenna , Captain , 21st Lancers * Nevill Smyth , Captain , 2nd Dragoon Guards ( Queen 's Bays ) Queen 's Sudan Medal , awarded British and Egyptian forces which took part in the Sudan campaign between 1896 and 1898 . Aftermath Around 10,000 Mahdists were killed , 13,000 wounded and 5,000 taken prisoner . Kitchener 's force lost 47 men killed and 382 wounded , the majority from MacDonald 's command . One eye-witness described the appalling scene : The battle was the first time that the Mark IV hollow point bullet , made in the arsenal in Dum Dum was used in a major battle . It was an expanding bullet and the units that used it considered it a great success . Controversy over wounded Mahdists killed after the battle began soon afterwards . The debate was ignited by a highly critical article published by Ernest Bennett ( present at the battle as a journalist ) in the Contemporary Review , which evoked a fierce riposte and defense of Kitchener by Bennet Burleigh ( another journalist also present at the battle ) . Winston Churchill privately agreed with Bennett that Kitchener was too brutal in his killing of the wounded . This opinion was reflected in his own account of the battle when it was first published in 1899 . However , mindful of the effect that patriotic public opinion could have on his political career , Churchill significantly moderated criticism of Kitchener in his book 's second edition in 1902 . The Khalifa escaped and survived until 1899 , when he was killed in the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat . Several days after the battle , Kitchener was sent to Fashoda , due to the developing Fashoda Incident . Kitchener was ennobled as a baron , Kitchener of Khartoum , for his victory . Four Victoria Crosses were awarded , three to members of the 21st Lancers , as a result of this action : 2nd Lieutenant Raymond H.L.J . De Montmorency , Captain Paul A. Kenna , Private Thomas Byrne and one to Captain Nevill Smyth of the 2nd Dragoon Guards ( Queen 's Bays ) . Winston Churchill was present at the battle and he rode with the 21st Lancers . He published his account of the battle in 1899 as `` The River War : An Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan '' . Present as a war correspondent for The Times was Colonel Frank Rhodes , brother of Cecil , who was shot and severely wounded in the right arm . For his services during that battle he was restored to the army active list . The Battle of Omdurman has also lent its name to many streets in British and Commonwealth cities , for example 'Omdurman Road ' in Southampton and 'Omdurman Street ' in Freshwater , Sydney , Australia . Fictional accounts The 1939 film adaptation of the novel The Four Feathers is set in the time of this battle , and covers other aspects of the Sudan Campaign . The 2008 novel After Omdurman by John Ferry is partly set during the 1898 re-conquest of the Sudan , with the book 's lead character , Evelyn Winters , playing a peripheral role in the Battle of Omdurman . In the British television sitcom Dad 's Army , the character of Corporal Jones often refers to the days he spent serving under General Kitchener at the Battle of Omdurman . In the episode called The Two and a Half Feathers there is an extended flashback to the days directly before the battle , narrated by Jones . The 1972 film Young Winston includes a depiction of the initial Anglo-Egyptian artillery bombardment at the start of the battle as well as a recreation of the charge of the 21st Lancers . The 2009 novel The Devil 's Paintbrush by Jake Arnott involves a retelling of the life of Hector MacDonald , and includes the battle and Kitchener 's railway-building drive through Sudan . The 2005 novel `` The Triumph of the Sun '' by Wilbur Smith depicts the siege of Khartoum and the Battle of Omdurman with mixture of historical and fictional characters In art The subject of the battle made its appearance in several oil paintings exhibited in Britain at the time . In particular , the charge of the 21st Lancers held special appeal and several artists portrayed the scene including Stanley Berkeley , Robert Alexander Hillingford , Richard Caton Woodville , William Barnes Wollen , Gilbert S. Wright , Edward Mathew Hale , Capt . Adrian Jones , Major John C. Mathews , and Allan Stewart . The pictorial press covered the campaign extensively and employed several artists to record the events .

sfq_10974--Battle_of_Omdurman.txt

In the Sudanese wars, which British general won the Battle of Omdurman?

Richard Milhous Nixon ( January 9 , 1913 – April 22 , 1994 ) was the 37th President of the United States , serving from 1969 to 1974 when he became the only U.S. president to resign the office . Nixon had previously served as a U.S. Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 . Nixon was born in Yorba Linda , California . After completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College , he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law . He and his wife , Pat Nixon , moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government . He subsequently served on active duty in the U.S. Navy Reserve during World War II . Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 . His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist , and elevated him to national prominence . He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election . Nixon served for eight years as vice president . He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960 , narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy , and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962 . In 1968 he ran again for the presidency and was elected when he defeated Hubert Humphrey . Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home . At the same time , he ended military draft . Nixon 's visit to the People 's Republic of China in 1972 opened diplomatic relations between the two nations , and he initiated détente and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union the same year . His administration generally transferred power from Washington to the states . He imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days , enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency . Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing , which signaled the end of the moon race . He was reelected by one of the largest landslides in U.S. history in 1972 , when he defeated George McGovern . The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo , gasoline rationing , and a continuing series of revelations about the Watergate scandal . The scandal escalated , costing Nixon much of his political support , and on August 9 , 1974 , he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office . After his resignation , he was issued a pardon by his successor , Gerald Ford . In retirement , Nixon 's work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image . He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18 , 1994 , and died four days later at the age of 81 . Early life Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9 , 1913 in Yorba Linda , California , in a house his father built . He was the son of Hannah ( Milhous ) Nixon and Francis A. Nixon . His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith ; Nixon 's upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time , such as refraining from alcohol , dancing , and swearing . Nixon had four brothers : Harold ( 1909–33 ) , Donald ( 1914–87 ) , Arthur ( 1918–25 ) , and Edward ( born 1930 ) . Four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England ; Richard , for example , was named after Richard the Lionheart . Nixon 's early life was marked by hardship , and he later quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood : `` We were poor , but the glory of it was we did n't know it '' . The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922 , and the family moved to Whittier , California . In an area with many Quakers , Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station . Richard 's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 after a short illness . At the age of twelve , Richard was found to have a spot on his lung and , with a family history of tuberculosis , he was forbidden to play sports . Eventually , the spot was found to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia . Primary and secondary education Young Richard attended East Whittier Elementary School , where he was president of his eighth-grade class . His parents believed that attendance at Whittier High School had caused Richard 's older brother Harold to live a dissolute lifestyle before the older boy fell ill of tuberculosis ( he died of the disease in 1933 ) . Instead , they sent Richard to the larger Fullerton Union High School . He had to ride a school bus for an hour each way during his freshman year and he received excellent grades . Later , he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during the week . He played junior varsity football , and seldom missed a practice , even though he was rarely used in games . He had greater success as a debater , winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton 's Head of English , H. Lynn Sheller . Nixon later remembered Sheller 's words , `` Remember , speaking is conversation ... do n't shout at people . Talk to them . Converse with them . '' Nixon stated that he tried to use the conversational tone as much as possible . His parents permitted Richard to transfer to Whittier High School for his junior year , beginning in September 1928 . At Whittier High , Nixon suffered his first electoral defeat , for student body president . He generally rose at 4 a.m. , to drive the family truck into Los Angeles and purchase vegetables at the market . He then drove to the store to wash and display them , before going to school . Harold had been diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year ; when their mother took him to Arizona in the hopes of improving his health , the demands on Richard increased , causing him to give up football . Nevertheless , Richard graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207 students . Collegiate and law school education Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University , but Harold 's continued illness and the need for their mother to care for him meant Richard was needed at the store . He remained in his hometown and attended Whittier College , his expenses there covered by a bequest from his maternal grandfather . Nixon played for the basketball team ; he also tried out for football , but lacked the size to play . He remained on the team as a substitute , and was noted for his enthusiasm . Instead of fraternities and sororities , Whittier had literary societies . Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men , the Franklins ; many members of the Franklins were from prominent families but Nixon was not . He responded by helping to found a new society , the Orthogonian Society . In addition to the society , schoolwork , and work at the store , Nixon found time for a large number of extracurricular activities , becoming a champion debater and gaining a reputation as a hard worker . In 1933 , he became engaged to Ola Florence Welch , daughter of the Whittier police chief . The two broke up in 1935 . After his graduation from Whittier in 1934 , Nixon received a full scholarship to attend Duke University School of Law . The school was new and sought to attract top students by offering scholarships . It paid high salaries to its professors , many of whom had national or international reputations . The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students , forcing recipients into intense competition . Nixon not only kept his scholarship but was elected president of the Duke Bar Association , inducted into the Order of the Coif , and graduated third in his class in June 1937 . Early career and marriage After graduating from Duke , Nixon initially hoped to join the Federal Bureau of Investigation . He received no response to his letter of application and learned years later that he had been hired , but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts . Instead , he returned to California and was admitted to the bar in 1937 . He began practicing with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in Whittier , working on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters , as well as on wills . In later years , Nixon proudly stated that he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney . Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases , disliking frank sexual talk from women . In 1938 , he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra , California , and became a full partner in the firm the following year . In January 1938 , Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower . There he played opposite a high school teacher named Thelma `` Pat '' Ryan . Nixon described it in his memoirs as `` a case of love at first sight '' —for Nixon only , as Pat Ryan turned down the young lawyer several times before agreeing to date him . Once they began their courtship , Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon ; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal . They wed at a small ceremony on June 21 , 1940 . After a honeymoon in Mexico , the Nixons began their married life in Whittier . They had two daughters , Tricia ( born 1946 ) and Julie ( born 1948 ) . World War II In January 1942 , the couple moved to Washington , D.C. , where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration . In his political campaigns , Nixon would suggest that this was his response to Pearl Harbor , but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941 . Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier . He was assigned to the tire rationing division , where he was tasked with replying to correspondence . He did not enjoy the role , and four months later , applied to join the United States Navy . As a birthright Quaker , he could have claimed exemption from the draft ; he might also have been deferred because he worked in government service . But instead of exploiting his circumstance , Nixon opted to enlist in the Navy . His application to enlist was successful , and was appointed a lieutenant junior grade in the U.S Naval Reserve ( U.S. Navy Reserve ) on June 15 , 1942 . In October 1942 , he was assigned as aide to the commander of the Naval Air Station Ottumwa in Iowa until May 1943 . On October 1 , 1943 , Nixon was promoted to lieutenant . Seeking more excitement , he requested sea duty and was reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command , supporting the logistics of operations in the South West Pacific theater ; he was the Officer in Charge of the Combat Air Transport Command at Guadalcanal in the Solomons and in March 1944 at Green Island ( Nissan island ) just north of Bougainville . His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for C-47 operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the cargo aircraft . For this service , he received a Navy Letter of Commendation ( awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon which was later updated to the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal ) from his commanding officer for `` meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command '' . Upon his return to the U.S. , Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in California . In January 1945 , he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia to help negotiate the termination of war contracts , and received his second letter of commendation , from the Secretary of the Navy for `` meritorious service , tireless effort , and devotion to duty '' . Later , Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts and finally to Baltimore . On October 3 , 1945 , he was promoted to lieutenant commander . On March 10 , 1946 , he was relieved of active duty . He resigned his commission on New Year 's Day 1946 . On June 1 , 1953 , he was promoted to commander . He retired in the U.S . Naval Reserve on June 6 , 1966 . Rising politician Congressional career In 1945 , Republicans in California 's 12th congressional district , frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic Congressman Jerry Voorhis , sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him . They formed a `` Committee of 100 '' to decide on a candidate , hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to Voorhis victories . After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates , Herman Perry , Whittier 's Bank of America branch manager , suggested Nixon , a family friend with whom he had served on the Whittier College Board of Trustees before the war . Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore . After a night of excited talk between the Nixons , the naval officer responded to Perry with enthusiasm . Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee . When he left the Navy at the start of 1946 , Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier , where Nixon began a year of intensive campaigning . He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a congressman and suggested that Voorhis 's endorsement by a group linked to communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views . Nixon won the election , receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis ' 49,994 . In Congress , Nixon supported the Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 , a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions , and served on the Education and Labor Committee . He was part of the Herter Committee , which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid . Nixon was the youngest member of the committee , and the only Westerner . Advocacy by Herter Committee members , including Nixon , led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan . Nixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation , as a member of the House Un-American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) , broke the Alger Hiss spy case . While many doubted Whittaker Chambers ' allegations that Hiss , a former State Department official , had been a Soviet spy , Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation . Under suit for defamation filed by Hiss , Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations . These included paper and microfilm copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after having hidden them overnight in a field ; they became known as the `` Pumpkin Papers '' . Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers . In 1948 , Nixon successfully cross-filed as a candidate in his district , winning both major party primaries , and was comfortably reelected . In 1949 , Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent , Sheridan Downey , and entered the race in November of that year . Downey , faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas , announced his retirement in March 1950 . Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue . Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas ' liberal voting record . As part of that effort , a `` Pink Sheet '' was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that , as Douglas ' voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio ( believed by some to be a communist ) , their political views must be nearly identical . Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points . During this campaign , Nixon was first called `` Tricky Dick '' by his opponents for his campaign tactics . In the Senate , Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism , traveling frequently and speaking out against the threat . He maintained friendly relations with his fellow anti-communist , the controversial Wisconsin senator , Joseph McCarthy , but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy 's allegations . Nixon also criticized President Harry S. Truman 's handling of the Korean War . He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii , voted in favor of civil rights for minorities , and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia . He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions , benefits for illegal immigrants , and public power . Vice Presidency General Dwight D. Eisenhower was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952 . He had no strong preference for a vice presidential candidate , and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a `` smoke-filled room '' and recommended Nixon to the general , who agreed to the senator 's selection . Nixon 's youth ( he was then 39 ) , stance against communism , and political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by the leaders . Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft , New Jersey Governor Alfred Driscoll and Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen . On the campaign trail , Eisenhower spoke to his plans for the country , leaving the negative campaigning to his running mate . In mid-September , the Republican ticket faced a major crisis . The media reported that Nixon had a political fund , maintained by his backers , which reimbursed him for political expenses . Such a fund was not illegal , but it exposed Nixon to allegations of possible conflict of interest . With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon 's resignation from the ticket , the senator went on television to deliver an address to the nation on September 23 , 1952 . The address , later termed the Checkers speech , was heard by about 60 million Americans—including the largest television audience up to that point . Nixon emotionally defended himself , stating that the fund was not secret , nor had donors received special favors . He painted himself as a man of modest means ( his wife had no mink coat ; instead she wore a `` respectable Republican cloth coat '' ) and a patriot . The speech would be remembered for the gift which Nixon had received , but which he would not give back : `` a little cocker spaniel dog … sent all the way from Texas . And our little girl—Tricia , the 6-year-old—named it Checkers . '' The speech was a masterpiece and prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon . Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket , which proved victorious in the November election . Eisenhower gave Nixon responsibilities during his term as vice president—more than any previous vice president . Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them when Eisenhower was absent . A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and prompted Nixon to appreciate the potential of the region as an industrial center . He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina . On his return to the United States at the end of 1953 , Nixon increased the amount of time he devoted to foreign relations . Biographer Irwin Gellman , who chronicled Nixon 's congressional years , said of his vice presidency : Despite intense campaigning by Nixon , who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats , the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections . These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term . On September 24 , 1955 , President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack ; his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening . Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks . The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed , and the Vice President had no formal power to act . Nonetheless , Nixon acted in Eisenhower 's stead during this period , presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power . According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose , Nixon had `` earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power '' . His spirits buoyed , Nixon sought a second term , but some of Eisenhower 's aides aimed to displace him . In a December 1955 meeting , Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection in order to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration . Nixon , however , believed such an action would destroy his political career . When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956 , he hedged on the choice of his running mate , stating that it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated . Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower , Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the President in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election . In late April , the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate . Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election . In the spring of 1957 , Nixon undertook another major foreign trip , this time to Africa . On his return , he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress . The bill was weakened in the Senate , and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it . Nixon advised the President to sign the bill , which he did . Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957 , and Nixon gave a press conference , assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower 's brief illness . On April 27 , 1958 , Richard and Pat Nixon embarked on a goodwill tour of South America . In Montevideo , Uruguay , Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus , where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy . The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima , Peru , where he was met with student demonstrations . Nixon went to the campus , got out of his car to confront the students , and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects . At his hotel , Nixon faced another mob , and one demonstrator spat on him . In Caracas , Venezuela , Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe-wielding mob . According to Ambrose , Nixon 's courageous conduct `` caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect '' . In July 1959 , President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow . On July 24 , while touring the exhibits with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev , the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the `` Kitchen Debate '' . 1960 and 1962 elections ; wilderness years In 1960 , Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States . He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate . His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy , and the race remained close for the duration . Nixon campaigned on his experience , but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower–Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in ballistic missiles ( the `` missile gap '' ) . A new political medium was introduced in the campaign : televised presidential debates . In the first of four such debates , Nixon appeared pale , with a five o'clock shadow , in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy . Nixon 's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television , though many people listening on the radio thought that Nixon had won . Nixon lost the election narrowly , with Kennedy ahead by only 120,000 votes ( 0.2 percent ) in the popular vote . There were charges of vote fraud in Texas and Illinois , both states won by Kennedy ; Nixon refused to consider contesting the election , feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world , and the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests . At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961 , Nixon and his family returned to California , where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book , Six Crises , which included coverage of the Hiss case , Eisenhower 's heart attack , and the Fund Crisis , which had been resolved by the Checkers speech . Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for Governor of California in the 1962 election . Despite initial reluctance , Nixon entered the race . The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping-stone for another presidential run , some opposition from the far-right of the party , and his own lack of interest in being California 's governor . Nixon hoped that a successful run would confirm him in his status as the nation 's leading active Republican politician , and ensure he remained a major player in national politics . Instead , he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points , and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career . In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election , Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent , saying , `` You wo n't have Nixon to kick around anymore because , gentlemen , this is my last press conference '' . The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11 , 1962 , episode of ABC 's Howard K. Smith : News and Comment entitled `` The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon '' . Alger Hiss appeared on the program , and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to allow a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president . The furor drove Smith and his program from the air , and public sympathy for Nixon grew . The Nixon family traveled to Europe in 1963 , where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited . The family moved to New York City , where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon , Mudge , Rose , Guthrie & Alexander . Nixon had pledged , when announcing his California campaign , not to run for president in 1964 ; even if he had not , he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy , or after his assassination , Kennedy 's successor , Lyndon Johnson . In 1964 , he supported Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater for the Republican nomination for president ; when Goldwater was successful in gaining the nomination , Nixon was selected to introduce the candidate to the convention . Although he thought Goldwater unlikely to win , Nixon campaigned for him loyally . The election was a disaster for the Republicans ; Goldwater 's landslide loss to Johnson was matched by heavy losses for the party in Congress and among state governors . Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results , and he

odql_9756--Richard_Nixon.txt

Who was Richard Nixon's Democratic opponent in the 1968 US Presidential campaign?

This article is for the volcanic arc . For the namesake mountain range see Cascade Range . The Cascade Volcanoes ( also known as the Cascade Volcanic Arc or the Cascade Arc ) are a number of volcanoes in a volcanic arc in western North America , extending from southwestern British Columbia through Washington and Oregon to Northern California , a distance of well over 700 mi . The arc has formed due to subduction along the Cascadia subduction zone . Although taking its name from the Cascade Range , this term is a geologic grouping rather than a geographic one , and the Cascade Volcanoes extend north into the Coast Mountains , past the Fraser River which is the northward limit of the Cascade Range proper . Some of the major cities along the length of the arc include Portland , Seattle , and Vancouver , and the population in the region exceeds 10,000,000 people . All could be potentially affected by volcanic activity and great subduction-zone earthquakes along the arc . Because the population of the Pacific Northwest is rapidly increasing , the Cascade volcanoes are some of the most dangerous , due to their eruptive history and potential for future eruptions , and because they are underlain by weak , hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks that are susceptible to failure . Consequently , Mount Rainier is one of the Decade Volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior ( IAVCEI ) as being worthy of particular study , due to the danger it poses to Seattle and Tacoma . Many large , long-runout landslides originating on Cascade volcanoes have inundated valleys tens of kilometers from their sources , and some of the inundated areas now support large populations . The Cascade Volcanoes are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire , the ring of volcanoes and associated mountains around the Pacific Ocean . The Cascade Volcanoes have erupted several times in recorded history . Two most recent were Lassen Peak in 1914 to 1921 and a major eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 . It is also the site of Canada 's most recent major eruption about 2,350 years ago at the Mount Meager volcanic complex . Geology The Cascade Arc includes nearly 20 major volcanoes , among a total of over 4,000 separate volcanic vents including numerous stratovolcanoes , shield volcanoes , lava domes , and cinder cones , along with a few isolated examples of rarer volcanic forms such as tuyas . Volcanism in the arc began about 37 million years ago ; however , most of the present-day Cascade volcanoes are less than 2,000,000 years old , and the highest peaks are less than 100,000 years old . Twelve volcanoes in the arc are over 10000 ft in elevation , and the two highest , Mount Rainier and Mount Shasta , exceed 14000 ft. By volume , the two largest Cascade volcanoes are the broad shields of Medicine Lake Volcano and Newberry Volcano , which are about 145 cumi and 108 cumi respectively . Mount Garibaldi and Glacier Peak are the only two Cascade volcanoes that are made exclusively of dacite . Over the last 37 million years , the Cascade Arc has been erupting a chain of volcanoes along the Pacific Northwest . Several of the volcanoes in the arc are frequently active . The volcanoes of the Cascade Arc share some general characteristics , but each has its own unique geological traits and history . Lassen Peak in California , which last erupted in 1917 , is the southernmost historically active volcano in the arc , while Mount Meager in British Columbia , which erupted about 2,350 years ago , is generally considered the northernmost member of the arc . A few isolated volcanic centers northwest of Mount Meager such as the Silverthrone Caldera , which is a circular 20 km wide , deeply dissected caldera complex , may also be the product of Cascadia subduction because the igneous rocks andesite , basaltic andesite , dacite and rhyolite can also be found at these volcanoes as they are elsewhere along the subduction zone . At issue are the current estimates of plate configuration and rate of subduction , but based on the chemistry of these volcanoes , they are also subduction related and therefore part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc . The Cascade Volcanic Arc appears to be segmented ; the central portion of the arc is the most active and the northern end least active . Lavas representing the earliest stage in the development of the Cascade Volcanic Arc mostly crop out south of the North Cascades proper , where uplift of the Cascade Range has been less , and a thicker blanket of Cascade Arc volcanic rocks has been preserved . In the North Cascades , geologists have not yet identified with any certainty any volcanic rocks as old as 35 million years , but remnants of the ancient arc ’ s internal plumbing system persist in the form of plutons , which are the crystallized magma chambers that once fed the early Cascade volcanoes . The greatest mass of exposed Cascade Arc plumbing is the Chilliwack batholith , which makes up much of the northern part of North Cascades National Park and adjacent parts of British Columbia beyond . Individual plutons range in age from about 35 million years old to 2.5 million years old . The older rocks invaded by all this magma were affected by the heat . Around the plutons of the batholith , the older rocks recrystallized . This contact metamorphism produced a fine mesh of interlocking crystals in the old rocks , generally strengthening them and making them more resistant to erosion . Where the recrystallization was intense , the rocks took on a new appearance dark , dense and hard . Many rugged peaks in the North Cascades owe their prominence to this baking . The rocks holding up many such North Cascade giants , as Mount Shuksan , Mount Redoubt , Mount Challenger , and Mount Hozomeen , are all partly recrystallized by plutons of the nearby and underlying Chilliwack batholith . The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is the northern extension of the Cascade Arc . Volcanoes within the volcanic belt are mostly stratovolcanoes along with the rest of the arc , but also include calderas , cinder cones , and small isolated lava masses . The eruption styles within the belt range from effusive to explosive , with compositions from basalt to rhyolite . Due to repeated continental and alpine glaciations , many of the volcanic deposits in the belt reflect complex interactions between magma composition , topography , and changing ice configurations . Four volcanoes within the belt appear related to seismic activity since 1975 , including : Mount Meager , Mount Garibaldi and Mount Cayley . The Pemberton Volcanic Belt is an eroded volcanic belt north of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt , which appears to have formed during the Miocene before fracturing of the northern end of the Juan de Fuca Plate . The Silverthrone Caldera is the only volcano within the belt that appears related to seismic activity since 1975 . Mount Meager is the most unstable volcanic massif in Canada . It has dumped clay and rock several meters deep into the Pemberton Valley at least three times during the past 7,300 years . Recent drilling into the Pemberton Valley bed encountered remnants of a debris flow that had traveled 50 km from the volcano shortly before it last erupted 2,350 years ago . About 1000000000 m3 of rock and sand extended over the width of the valley . Two previous debris flows , about 4,450 and 7,300 years ago , sent debris at least 32 km from the volcano . Recently , the volcano has created smaller landslides about every ten years , including one in 1975 that killed four geologists near Meager Creek . The possibility of Mount Meager covering stable sections of the Pemberton Valley in a debris flow is estimated at about one in 2,400 years . There is no sign of volcanic activity with these events . However scientists warn the volcano could release another massive debris flow over populated areas any time without warning . In the past , Mount Rainier has had large debris avalanches , and has also produced enormous lahars due to the large amount of glacial ice present . Its lahars have reached all the way to the Puget Sound . Around 5,000 years ago , a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow , which went all the way to the site of present-day Tacoma and south Seattle . This massive avalanche of rock and ice took out the top 1600 ft of Rainier , bringing its height down to around 14100 ft. About 530 to 550 years ago , the Electron Mudflow occurred , although this was not as large-scale as the Osceola Mudflow . While the Cascade volcanic arc ( a geological term ) includes volcanoes such as Mount Meager and Mount Garibaldi , which lie north of the Fraser River , the Cascade Range ( a geographic term ) is considered to have its northern boundary at the Fraser . Human history Indigenous peoples have inhabited the area for thousands of years and developed their own myths and legends concerning the Cascade volcanoes . According to some of these tales , Mounts Baker , Jefferson , Shasta and Garibaldi were used as refuge from a great flood . Other stories , such as the Bridge of the Gods tale , had various High Cascades such as Hood and Adams , act as god-like chiefs who made war by throwing fire and stone at each other . St. Helens with its pre-1980 graceful appearance , was regaled as a beautiful maiden for whom Hood and Adams feuded . Among the many stories concerning Mount Baker , one tells that the volcano was formerly married to Mount Rainier and lived in that vicinity . Then , because of a marital dispute , she picked herself up and marched north to her present position . Native tribes also developed their own names for the High Cascades and many of the smaller peaks , the most well known to non-natives being Tahoma , the Lushootseed name for Mount Rainier . Mount Cayley and The Black Tusk are known to the Squamish people who live nearby as `` the Landing Place of the Thunderbird '' . Hot springs in the Canadian side of the arc , were originally used and revered by First Nations people . The springs located on Meager Creek are called Teiq in the language of the Lillooet River and were the farthest up the Lillooet River . The spirit-beings/wizards known as `` the Transformers '' reached them during their journey into the Lillooet Country , and were a `` training '' place for young First Nations men to acquire power and knowledge . In this area , also , was found the blackstone chief 's head pipe that is famous of Lillooet artifacts ; found buried in volcanic ash , one supposes from the 2350 BP eruption of Mount Meager . Legends associated with the great volcanoes are many , as well as with other peaks and geographical features of the arc , including its many hot springs and waterfalls and rock towers and other formations . Stories of Tahoma - today Mount Rainier and the namesake of Tacoma , Washington - allude to great , hidden grottos with sleeping giants , apparitions and other marvels in the volcanoes of Washington , and Mount Shasta in California has long been well known for its associations with everything from Lemurians to aliens to elves and , as everywhere in the arc , Sasquatch or Bigfoot . In the spring of 1792 British navigator George Vancouver entered Puget Sound and started to give English names to the high mountains he saw . Mount Baker was named for Vancouver 's third lieutenant , the graceful Mount St. Helens for a famous diplomat , Mount Hood was named in honor of Samuel Hood , 1st Viscount Hood ( an admiral of the Royal Navy ) and the tallest Cascade , Mount Rainier , is the namesake of Admiral Peter Rainier . Vancouver 's expedition did not , however , name the arc these peaks belonged to . As marine trade in the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound proceeded in the 1790s and beyond , the summits of Rainier and Baker became familiar to captains and crews ( mostly British and American over all others , but not exclusively ) . With the exception of the 1915 eruption of remote Lassen Peak in Northern California , the arc was quiet for more than a century . Then , on May 18 , 1980 , the dramatic eruption of little-known Mount St. Helens shattered the quiet and brought the world 's attention to the arc . Geologists were also concerned that the St. Helens eruption was a sign that long-dormant Cascade volcanoes might become active once more , as in the period from 1800 to 1857 when a total of eight erupted . None have erupted since St. Helens , but precautions are being taken nevertheless , such as the Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System in Pierce County , Washington . Cascadia subduction zone The Cascade Volcanoes were formed by the subduction of the Juan de Fuca , Explorer and the Gorda Plate ( remnants of the much larger Farallon Plate ) under the North American Plate along the Cascadia subduction zone . This is a 680 mi long fault , running 50 mi off the coast of the Pacific Northwest from northern California to Vancouver Island , British Columbia . The plates move at a relative rate of over 0.4 inches ( 10 mm ) per year at a somewhat oblique angle to the subduction zone . Because of the very large fault area , the Cascadia subduction zone can produce very large earthquakes , magnitude 9.0 or greater , if rupture occurred over its whole area . When the `` locked '' zone stores up energy for an earthquake , the `` transition '' zone , although somewhat plastic , can rupture . Thermal and deformation studies indicate that the locked zone is fully locked for 60 km downdip from the deformation front . Further downdip , there is a transition from fully locked to aseismic sliding . Unlike most subduction zones worldwide , there is no oceanic trench present along the continental margin in Cascadia . Instead , terranes and the accretionary wedge have been uplifted to form a series of coast ranges and exotic mountains . A high rate of sedimentation from the outflow of the three major rivers ( Fraser River , Columbia River , and Klamath River ) which cross the Cascade Range contributes to further obscuring the presence of a trench . However , in common with most other subduction zones , the outer margin is slowly being compressed , similar to a giant spring . When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals , the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large earthquakes such as the magnitude 9 Cascadia earthquake of 1700 . Major catastrophic eruptions ; 1980 Eruption of Mount St. Helens The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was one of the most closely studied volcanic eruptions in the arc and one of the best studied ever . It was a Plinian style eruption with a VEI=5 and was the most significant to occur in the lower 48 U.S. states in recorded history . An earthquake at 8:32 a.m. on May 18 , 1980 , caused the entire weakened north face to slide away . An ash column rose high into the atmosphere and deposited ash in 11 U.S. states . The eruption killed 57 people and thousands of animals and caused more than a billion U.S. dollars in damage . ; 1914–17 Eruptions of Lassen Peak On May 22 , 1915 , an explosive eruption at Lassen Peak devastated nearby areas and rained volcanic ash as far away as 200 mi to the east . A huge column of volcanic ash and gas rose more than 30000 ft into the air and was visible from as far away as Eureka , California , 150 mi to the west . A pyroclastic flow swept down the side of the volcano , devastating a 3 sqmi area . This explosion was the most powerful in a 1914–17 series of eruptions at Lassen Peak . ; 2350 BP Eruption of Mount Meager Mount Meager produced the most recent major eruption in Canada , sending ash as far away as Alberta . The eruption was similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , sending an ash column approximately 20 km high into the stratosphere . This activity produced a diverse sequence of volcanic deposits , well exposed in the bluffs along the Lillooet River , which is defined as the Pebble Creek Formation . The eruption was episodic , occurring from a vent on the north-east side of Plinth Peak . An unusual , thick apron of welded vitrophyric breccia may represent the explosive collapse of an early lava dome , depositing ash several meters in thickness near the vent area . ; 7700 BP Eruption of Mount Mazama The 7,700 BP eruption of Mount Mazama was a large catastrophic eruption in the U.S. state of Oregon . It began with a large eruption column with pumice and ash that erupted from a single vent . The eruption was so great that most of Mount Mazama collapsed to form a caldera and subsequent smaller eruptions occurred as water began to fill in the caldera to form Crater Lake . Volcanic ash from the eruption was carried across most of the Pacific Northwest as well as parts of southern Canada . ; 13100 BP Eruption of Glacier Peak About 13,000 years ago , Glacier Peak generated an unusually strong sequence of eruptions depositing volcanic ash as far away as Wyoming . Other eruptions ; Silverthrone Caldera Most of the Silverthrone Caldera 's eruptions in the Pacific Range occurred during the last ice age and was episodically active during both Pemberton and Garibaldi Volcanic Belt stages of volcanism . The caldera is one of the largest of the few calderas in western Canada , measuring about 30 km long ( north-south ) and 20 km wide ( east-west ) . The last eruption from Mount Silverthrone ran up against ice in Chernaud Creek . The lava was dammed by the ice and made a cliff with a waterfall up against it . The most recent activity was 1000 years ago . ; Mount Cayley Mount Cayley in the Pacific Range last erupted about 20,000 years ago . It contains several complex features which probably represent multiple eruptions under different conditions and are difficult to classify . ; Mount Garibaldi Mount Garibaldi in the Pacific Range was last active about 10,700 to 9,300 years ago from a cinder cone called Opal Cone . It produced a 15 km long broad dacite lava flow with prominent wrinkled ridges . The lava flow is unusually long for a silicic lava flow . ; Mount Baker During the mid-19th century , Mount Baker erupted for the first time in several thousand years . Fumarole activity remains in Sherman Crater , just south of the volcano 's summit , became more intense in 1975 and is still energetic . However , an eruption is not expected in the near future . ; Glacier Peak Glacier Peak last erupted about 200–300 years ago and has erupted about six times in the past 4,000 years . ; Mount Rainier Mount Rainier last erupted between 1824 and 1854 , but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858 , 1870 , 1879 , 1882 and in 1894 as well . Mount Rainier has created at least four eruptions and many lahars in the past 4,000 years . ; Mount Adams Mount Adams was last active about 1,000 years ago and has created few eruptions during the past several thousand years , resulting in several major lava flows , the most notable being the A. G. Aiken Lava Bed , the Muddy Fork Lava Flows , and the Takh Takh Lava Flow . One of the most recent flows issued from South Butte created the long by wide A.G. Aiken Lava Bed . Thermal anomalies ( hot spots ) and gas emissions ( including hydrogen sulfide ) have occurred especially on the summit plateau since the Great Slide of 1921 . ; Mount Hood Mount Hood was last active about 200 years ago , creating pyroclastic flows , lahars , and a well-known lava dome close to its peak called Crater Rock . Between 1856 and 1865 , a sequence of steam explosions took place at Mount Hood . ; Newberry Volcano A great deal of volcanic activity has occurred at Newberry Volcano , which was last active about 1,300 years ago . It has one of the largest collections of cinder cones , lava domes , lava flows and fissures in the world . ; Medicine Lake Volcano Medicine Lake Volcano has erupted about eight times in the past 4,000 years and was last active about 1,000 years ago when rhyolite and dacite erupted at Glass Mountain and associated vents near the caldera 's eastern rim . ; Mount Shasta Mount Shasta last erupted in 1786 and has been the most active volcano in California for about 4,000 years , erupting once every 300 years . The 1786 eruption created a pyroclastic flow , a lahar and three cold lahars , which streamed down Shasta 's east flank via Ash Creek . A separate hot lahar went 12 mi down Mud Creek . Eruptions in the Cascade Range Eleven of the 13 volcanoes in the Cascade Range have erupted at least once in the past 4,000 years , and seven have done so in just the past 200 years . The Cascade volcanoes have had more than 100 eruptions over the past few thousand years , many of them explosive eruptions . However , certain Cascade volcanoes can be dormant for hundreds or thousands of years between eruptions , and therefore the great risk caused by volcanic activity in the regions is not always readily apparent . When Cascade volcanoes do erupt , pyroclastic flows , lava flows , and landslides can devastate areas more than 10 mi away ; and huge mudflows of volcanic ash and debris , called lahars , can inundate valleys more than 50 mi downstream . Falling ash from explosive eruptions can disrupt human activities hundreds of miles downwind , and drifting clouds of fine ash can cause severe damage to jet aircraft even thousands of miles away . All of the known historical eruptions have occurred in Washington , Oregon and in Northern California . The two most recent were Lassen Peak in 1914 to 1921 and a major eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 . Minor eruptions of Mount St. Helens have also occurred , most recently in 2006 . In contrast , volcanoes in southern British Columbia , central and southern Oregon are currently dormant . The regions lacking new eruptions keep in touch to positions of fracture zones that offset the Gorda Ridge , Explorer Ridge and the Juan de Fuca Ridge . The volcanoes with historical eruptions include : Mount Rainier , Glacier Peak , Mount Baker , Mount Hood , Lassen Peak , and Mount Shasta . Renewed volcanic activity in the Cascade Arc , such as the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , has offered a great deal of evidence about the structure of the Cascade Arc . One effect of the 1980 eruption was a greater knowledge of the influence of landslides and volcanic development in the evolution of volcanic terrain . A vast piece on the north side of Mount St. Helens dropped and formed a jumbled landslide environment several kilometers away from the volcano . Pyroclastic flows and lahars moved across the countryside . Parallel episodes have also happened at Mount Shasta and other Cascade volcanoes in prehistoric times . List of volcanoes Washington has a majority of the very highest volcanoes , with 4 of the top 6 overall , although Oregon does hold a majority of the next highest peaks . Even though Mount Rainier is the tallest , it is not the largest by volume . Mount Shasta in California is the largest by volume , followed by Washington 's Mount Adams . Mount Rainier is thus the 3rd largest by eruptive volume . Below is a list of the highest Cascade Volcanoes :

odql_14734--Cascade_Volcanoes.txt

In which country is the volcano Mount Meager?

Stinking Bishop is a variety of pear bred near Dymock , England primarily for perry . The official name of the pear is actually Moorcroft and Stinking Bishop is one of its many other names , including Malvern Pear , Choke Pear , and Choker . It was posthumously named after the breeder , a Mr. Bishop , who allegedly had an ugly temperament . In a 2005 American National Public Radio interview , Charles Martell , the maker of Stinking Bishop cheese , related a story that Bishop got angry at his kettle one day for not heating fast enough and in retaliation shot it . This story , although possibly apocryphal , illustrates the sort of behaviour which earned Bishop his reputation for irascibility .

qb_9879--Stinking_Bishop_pear.txt

Stinking Bishop is a variety of which fruit?

The President of the United States of America ( POTUS ) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States . The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces . The President of the United States is considered one of the world 's most powerful people , leading the world 's only contemporary superpower . The role includes being the commander-in-chief of the world 's most expensive military with the largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by real and nominal GDP . The office of the president holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad . Article II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president . The power includes execution of federal law , alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive , diplomatic , regulatory and judicial officers , and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate . The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves , and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances . The president is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is enrolled . The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States . Since the founding of the United States , the power of the president and the federal government has grown substantially . The president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term , and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers , the other being the Vice President of the United States . The Twenty-second Amendment , adopted in 1951 , prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term . It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president , or acting president , for more than two years of another person 's term as president . In all , 43 individuals have served 44 presidencies ( counting Cleveland 's two non-consecutive terms separately ) spanning 56 full four-year terms . On January 20 , 2009 , Barack Obama became the 44th and current president . On November 6 , 2012 , he was re-elected and is currently serving the 57th term . The next presidential election is scheduled to take place on November 8 , 2016 ; on January 20 , 2017 , the newly elected president will take office . Origin In 1776 , the Thirteen Colonies , acting through the Second Continental Congress , declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution . The new states , though independent of each other as nation states , recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British . Desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy , Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states . As a central authority , Congress under the Articles was without any legislative power ; it could make its own resolutions , determinations , and regulations , but not any laws , nor any taxes or local commercial regulations enforceable upon citizens . This institutional design reflected the conception of how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion : a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire . Out from under any monarchy , the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives ( e.g. , making war , receiving ambassadors , etc . ) to Congress , while severally lodging the rest within their own respective state governments . Only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1 , 1781 , when Maryland became the final state to ratify them . In 1783 , the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies . With peace at hand , the states each turned toward their own internal affairs . By 1786 , Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak , their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another , witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports , their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates , and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest . Civil and political unrest loomed . Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785 , Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states , set for September 1786 in Annapolis , Maryland , with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms . When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states , the Annapolis delegates called for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles , to be held the next spring in Philadelphia . Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington 's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia . When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787 , the 12 state delegations in attendance ( Rhode Island did not send delegates ) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments . Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers , elected annually by the legislature to a single term only , sharing power with an executive council , and countered by a strong legislature . New York offered the greatest exception , having a strong , unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term , and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter . It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged . Powers and duties Article I legislative role The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto . The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law . Once the legislation has been presented , the president has three options : # Sign the legislation ; the bill then becomes law . # Veto the legislation and return it to Congress , expressing any objections ; the bill does not become law , unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote . # Take no action . In this instance , the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation . After 10 days , not counting Sundays , two possible outcomes emerge : # * If Congress is still convened , the bill becomes law . # * If Congress has adjourned , thus preventing the return of the legislation , the bill does not become law . This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto . In 1996 , Congress attempted to enhance the president 's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act . The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill , particularly any new spending , any amount of discretionary spending , or any new limited tax benefit . Congress could then repass that particular item . If the president then vetoed the new legislation , Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means , a two-thirds vote in both houses . In Clinton v. City of New York , , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional . Article II executive powers War and foreign affairs powers Perhaps the most important of all presidential powers is the command of the United States Armed Forces as its commander-in-chief . While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress , the president has ultimate responsibility for direction and disposition of the military . The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces ( belonging to the Department of Defense ) is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense , with assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , to the Combatant Commands , as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan ( UCP ) . The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president 's powers regarding the military ; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No . 69 : Congress , pursuant to the War Powers Resolution , must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days , although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed , rendering it ineffectual . Additionally , Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation . While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war , critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations , including Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 , the Korean War , the Vietnam War , and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990 . Along with the armed forces , the president also directs U.S. foreign policy . Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense , the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States . The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments , and negotiates treaties with other nations , which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate . Although not constitutionally provided , presidents also sometimes employ `` executive agreements '' in foreign relations . These agreements frequently regard administrative policy choices germane to executive power ; for example , the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area , how each country will enforce copyright treaties , or how each country will process foreign mail . However , the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements , and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations . Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift , secret , and/or concerted action arises . Administrative powers The president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to `` take care that the laws be faithfully executed . '' The executive branch has over four million employees , including members of the military . Presidents make numerous executive branch appointments : an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving . Ambassadors , members of the Cabinet , and other federal officers , are all appointed by a president with the `` advice and consent '' of a majority of the Senate . When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days , the president may make recess appointments . Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate . The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue . Generally , a president may remove purely executive officials at will . However , Congress can curtail and constrain a president 's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute . The president additionally possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders that are grounded in federal law or constitutionally granted executive power . Executive orders are reviewable by federal courts and can be superseded by federal legislation . To manage the growing federal bureaucracy , Presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff , who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States . Within the Executive Office , the President 's innermost layer of aides ( and their assistants ) are located in the White House Office . Juridical powers The president also has the power to nominate federal judges , including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States . However , these nominations do require Senate confirmation . Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance . When nominating judges to U.S. district courts , presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy . Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves , as is often done just before the end of a presidential term , not without controversy . Historically , two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy . The first is executive privilege , which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties . George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay 's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain . While not enshrined in the Constitution , or any other law , Washington 's action created the precedent for the privilege . When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon , , that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution . When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones , , that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits . These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid , although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined . Additionally , federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees , but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president . The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security . Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States , when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy . However , the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds , where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege . Before the September 11 attacks , use of the privilege had been rare , but increasing in frequency . Since 2001 , the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation , thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims , as in the Ninth Circuit 's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan , Inc . Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions . Legislative facilitator The Constitution 's Ineligibility Clause prevents the President ( and all other executive officers ) from simultaneously being a member of Congress . Therefore , the president can not directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress . However , the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation , especially if the president 's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress . For example , the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress . The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated , periodic reports to Congress . These reports may be either written or oral , but today are given as the State of the Union address , which often outlines the president 's legislative proposals for the coming year . Additionally , the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made . In the 20th century critics began charging that too many legislative and budgetary powers have slid into the hands of presidents that should belong to Congress . As the head of the executive branch , presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress . One critic charged that presidents could appoint a `` virtual army of 'czars ' – each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House . '' Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it . This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional . Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an `` increasingly swollen executive branch '' and `` the eclipse of Congress . '' According to Article II , Section 3 , Clause 2 of the Constitution , the president may convene either or both houses of Congress . If both houses can not agree on a date of adjournment , the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn . Ceremonial roles As head of state , the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents . William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium , Washington , D.C. , on the Washington Senators ' Opening Day . Every president since Taft , except for Jimmy Carter , threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day , the All-Star Game , or the World Series , usually with much fanfare . The President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization . Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays . Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children . Beginning in 1947 during the Harry S. Truman administration , every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual national thanksgiving turkey presentation held at the White House . Since 1989 , when the custom of `` pardoning '' the turkey was formalized by George H. W. Bush , the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life . Presidential traditions also involve the president 's role as head of government . Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition . Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president . During a state visit by a foreign head of state , the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn , a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961 . This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening . The modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation 's premier celebrities . Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves . One critic described the presidency as `` propagandized leadership '' which has a `` mesmerizing power surrounding the office . '' Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras . One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed `` in rich detail '' which `` drew on the power of myth '' regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions . As a result , some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents : voters expect a president to `` drive the economy , vanquish enemies , lead the free world , comfort tornado victims , heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees . '' Critics of presidency 's evolution Most of the nation 's Founding Fathers expected the Congress , which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution , to be the dominant branch of government ; they did not expect a strong executive . However , presidential power has shifted over time , which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful , unchecked , unbalanced , and `` monarchist '' in nature . Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards `` undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies . '' She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding `` the many existing uncheckable executive powers – such as executive orders , decrees , memorandums , proclamations , national security directives and legislative signing statements – that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid , interference or consent from Congress . '' Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was `` the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule . '' Selection process Eligibility Article II , Section 1 , Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency : * be a natural-born citizen of the United States ; Foreign-born American citizens who met the age and residency requirements at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible for the presidency . However , this allowance has since become obsolete . * be at least thirty-five years old ; * be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years . The Twelfth Amendment precludes anyone ineligible to being the president from becoming the vice president . A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions : * Under the Twenty-second Amendment , no person can be elected president more than twice . The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president , the former can only be elected president once . Scholars disagree over whether a person precluded by the Twenty-second Amendment to being elected president is also precluded to being vice president . * Under Article I , Section 3 , Clause 7 , upon conviction in impeachment cases , the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office , including that of president . * Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment , no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution , and later rebelled against the United States , can become president . However , this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress . Campaigns and nomination The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections , which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions , where the most successful candidate is made the party 's nominee for president . Typically , the party 's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee , and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention . The most common previous profession by U.S. presidents is lawyer . Nominees participate in nationally televised debates , and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees , third party candidates may be invited , such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates . Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views , convince voters and solicit contributions . Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives . Election and oath The president is elected indirectly . A number of electors , collectively known as the Electoral College , officially select the president . On Election Day , voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors . Each state is allocated a number of electors , equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined . Generally , the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state 's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College . The winning slate of electors meet at its state 's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December , about six weeks after the election , to vote . They then send a record of that vote to Congress . The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president—acting in that role 's capacity as President of the Senate—and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress , which was elected at the same time as the president . Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment , the president 's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election . This date , known as Inauguration Day , marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president . Before executing the powers of the office , a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath : Although not required , presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while swearing the oath and have added , `` So help me God ! '' to the end of the oath . Further , although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths , presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States . Tenure and term limits The term of office for president and vice president is four years . George Washington , the first president , set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms , which subsequent presidents followed until 1940 . Before Franklin D. Roosevelt , attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt ; neither of these attempts succeeded . In 1940 , Franklin D. Roosevelt declined to seek a third term , but allowed his political party to `` draft '' him as its presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term . In 1941 , the United States entered World War II , leading voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944 . But Roosevelt died only 82 days after taking office for the fourth term on 12 April 1945 . After the war , and in response to Roosevelt being elected to third and fourth terms , the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted . The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice , or once if that person served more than half of another president 's term . Harry S. Truman , president when this amendment was adopted , was exempted from its limitations and briefly sought a third ( a second full ) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election . Since the amendment 's adoption , four presidents have served two full terms : Dwight D. Eisenhower , Ronald Reagan , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush . Barack Obama has been elected to a second term , and will complete his term on 20 January 2017 , if he does not die or resign before that date . Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term , but were defeated . Richard Nixon was elected to a second term , but resigned before completing it . Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total , having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy 's assassination . However , Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary , surprising many Americans . Gerald Ford sought a full term , after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon 's second term , but was not elected . Vacancy

sfq_8601--President_of_the_United_States.txt

Which 20th Century U.S. President was a Peanut Farmer?

Hrunting was a sword given to Beowulf by Unferth in the ancient Old English epic poem Beowulf . Beowulf used it in battle against Grendel 's Mother . Beowulf is described receiving the sword in lines 1455-1458 : `` And another item lent by Unferth at that moment of need was of no small importance : the brehon handed him a hilted weapon , a rare and ancient sword named Hrunting . The iron blade with its ill-boding patterns had been tempered in blood . It had never failed the hand of anyone who hefted it in battle , anyone who had fought and faced the worst in the gap of danger . This was not the first time it had been called to perform heroic feats . However , although the sword possessed great power and was claimed to have never failed anyone who used it , when Beowulf descended to the bottom of the lake to fight Grendel 's mother , the sword proved ineffective . As the `` fabulous powers of that heirloom failed , '' Beowulf was forced to discard it . Hrunting 's significance Swords have great significance in the war-centred Anglo-Saxon culture from which Beowulf arises . Therefore , emphasis is strongly placed on the exchange of weapons of war . Weapons such as swords circulated through Anglo-Saxon society as inheritance through family , birthed through the monsters , found under magic rocks , and as rewards between lords and their subjects . Occasionally such exchange was also seen between warriors . One example of a weapon as a gift is seen in the exchange of Hrunting . As Unferth passes his sword to Beowulf , he admits the loss of his glory , and his submission to this greater warrior . However , when Hrunting fails Beowulf in his battle against Grendel 's mother , it possibly reflects its previous owner , Unferth , who failed to defeat the hated Grendel . In addition , Beowulf ’ s defeat of Grendel prompts the Danish king Hrothgar to bestow upon him many gifts consisting of weapons ; this further emphasizes the importance of weaponry to such a society . Beowulf then passes on his rewards to his king Hygelac , thereby establishing his obligation to his king . Hrunting ’ s various meanings demonstrate that weapons of war can carry not only positive , but also negative , significance . Symbolism of Hrunting Unferth ’ s very act of giving Hrunting to Beowulf and the sword ’ s unexpected failure in the battle against Grendel ’ s mother bear much symbolism in the poem . Given that Unferth shows his dislike for Beowulf early in the story , Unferth ’ s choice to award Beowulf with Hrunting , which means “ thrusting , ” can be interpreted as a sign of peace and acceptance . In this light , the giving of the sword seems to be an indication of Unferth ’ s recognition of Beowulf as a capable and powerful warrior . On the other hand , the poem portrays Unferth as a sly and treacherous man . Furthermore , scholars even propose that Hrunting is “ the very sword with which [ Unferth ] slew his own kin. ” Ettlinger , Ellen ( 1943 ) . Beowulf , Unferth and Hrunting : An Interpretation in Man , Vol . 43 , ( Jan. – Feb. , 1943 ) , pp.11-17 . Date Accessed : March 30 , 2009. p. 10 It is possible then that Unferth 's motive in giving away his sword upon being confronted with the problem of Grendel 's mother could very well be to avoid going into battle . The passing of Hrunting from Unferth 's hand to Beowulf is therefore a reflection of Unferth 's treachery as he abandons his role as a warrior of Heorot . At first glance , Unferth 's sudden act of generosity towards Beowulf appears to have been done for noble reasons . However , what is known about Unferth and the sword 's inefficacy in battle strongly suggest that Unferth 's intentions are cowardly rather than noble - something reinforced by the similarly equivocal role played by the sword 's `` hafted '' counterpart in Grettis Saga . Hrunting 's failure The reason behind Hrunting 's failing against Grendel 's Mother has been a point of much scholarly debate . J.L . Rosier , in A Design for Treachery : The Unferth Intrigue , puts forth the contention that Unferth deliberately gave Beowulf a sword that he knew would fail , possibly for the purpose of preventing Beowulf from succeeding where Unferth himself failed . Yet this point has been contested by J.D.A Oglivy , who notes that the poem itself offers another explanation . First , Oglivy notes that if Unferth supplied an inferior weapon then it does n't follow for the poet to have gone into extensive detail about the magical infallibility of the sword . Further , as the sword that Beowulf ultimately finds and slays Grendel 's Mother with is noted to be made by giants , it implies that Grendel 's line possesses magical invulnerability that prevents weapons made by man from harming them . Moreover , where Heaney translation says , in line 1527 , `` Here at last '' , other translations , such as those of David Wright , Michael Alexander , Constance B. Heatt , J.R.R . Tolkien , et al. , rendered the phrase `` wæs forma sið '' - `` For the first time '' Hrunting failed to strike an effective blow ; so that Unferth would not have expected it to fail . Another explanation that has been put forth connects Hrunting ’ s failure to the broader underlying message of Christianity prevalent throughout the poem . Kent Gould , in his essay `` Beowulf '' and Folktale Morphology : God as Magical Donor , suggests that Hrunting fails because it was given to Beowulf by Unferth , a heathen . Only the more powerful replacement blade that God gives Beowulf is capable of destroying evil . According to Gould , `` the message would be clear enough to the poem 's Christian audience : only God can contribute enough power to overcome enemies to whom the poem has elsewhere given a Scriptural history . '' Grendel and Grendel 's mother have such a history , as Grendel 's lineage is described in lines 106-108 to have descended from Cain .

sfq_17619--Hrunting.txt

Which mythical hero wielded the magical sword 'Hrunting'?

The River Colne ( or ) is a small river that runs through Colchester , England . It is not a tributary of any other river , instead having an estuary that joins the sea near Brightlingsea . Sources The Colne 's two main tributaries start near the villages of Stambourne Green and Birdbrook in Essex . These converge in Great Yeldham , and then flow through Sible Hedingham , Halstead , Earls Colne , Colne Engaine , White Colne , Chappel and Ford Street before reaching Colchester . In Colchester The Colne Valley has a flood plain which spans approximately 300 metres by the time it enters Colchester . This area is used as pasture , as the river at this stage has no safeguards against it rising the two feet it needs to burst its banks , although it is split between two pasture areas in Spring Lane , Old Lexden . Roughly to the south of Colchester North Station , the river passes under a bridge and into a concrete-lined area that was used as an open-air bathing facility until the 1970s , and is now used by canoeists . It then meanders under a road bridge at the bottom of North Hill , and tumbles down a weir used for discharge control at Middlemill , the site of a now-demolished mill . It forms the border of Colchester 's Castle Park and the cricket ground , and footbridges cross it to provide access from the town centre to residential areas on the north side of the flood plain , which occasionally floods should the river rise too much . The river encircles one side of a small lake , and then turns south-east , and then south , before falling over a large weir and becoming tidal . After Colchester Beyond this point , the river shows significant mud banks at low tide , and flows through the Hythe , past the University of Essex campus , and then through the villages of Rowhedge and Wivenhoe past the tidal barrier and down to Brightlingsea . Downstream from the barrier , the Colne is marked by navigation buoys . Situation The banks of the Colne frequently incorporate Second World War pillboxes , particularly close to navigable crossings . From Castle Park to Wivenhoe Railway Station , National Cycle Network Route 51 roughly follows the course of the Colne . This is a mixture of tarmac-surfaced shared-use paths , a short tarmac/gravel-surfaced area and , once out of the urban area of Colchester , a hard dirt path on the north levee of the river that passes the Hythe and the university all the way to Wivenhoe . The Hythe area of Colchester , through which the Colne flows , was , from Roman times , a small port that supplied the town . However , the river is no longer deep enough to support ships large enough to make this viable , and water trade is now non-existent . Victorian-era plans to dredge the river once more ultimately failed .

sfq_20006--River_Colne,_Essex.txt

Which town on the River Colne holds an annual Oyster Festival?

A natural satellite or moon is a celestial body that orbits another celestial body of greater mass ( e.g . a planet , star , or dwarf planet ) , called its primary . For example , the Moon is a natural satellite of Earth , and Earth is a natural satellite of the Sun . In the Solar System there are 173 known natural satellites which orbit within 6 planetary satellite systems . In addition , several other objects are known to have satellites , including three IAU-listed dwarf planets : Pluto , Haumea , and Eris . , over 200 minor-planet moons have been discovered . There are 76 known objects in the asteroid belt with satellites ( five with two each ) , four Jupiter trojans , 39 near-Earth objects ( two with two satellites each ) , and 14 Mars-crossers . There are also 84 known natural satellites of trans-Neptunian objects . Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within the rings of Saturn , but only a few were tracked long enough to establish orbits . Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well , and although numerous candidates have been detected to date , none have yet been confirmed . Of the inner planets , Mercury and Venus have no natural satellites ; Earth has one large natural satellite , known as the Moon ; and Mars has two tiny natural satellites , Phobos and Deimos . The giant planets have extensive systems of natural satellites , including half a dozen comparable in size to Earth 's Moon : the four Galilean moons , Saturn 's Titan , and Neptune 's Triton . Saturn has an additional six mid-sized natural satellites massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium , and Uranus has five . It has been suggested that some satellites may potentially harbour life . The Earth–Moon system is unique in that the ratio of the mass of the Moon to the mass of Earth is much greater than that of any other natural-satellite–planet ratio in the Solar System ( although there are minor-planet systems with even greater ratios , notably the Pluto–Charon system ) . Among the identified dwarf planets , Ceres has no known natural satellites . Pluto has the relatively large natural satellite Charon and four smaller natural satellites ; Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra . Haumea has two natural satellites , and Eris and Makemake have one . The Pluto–Charon system is unusual in that the center of mass lies in open space between the two , a characteristic sometimes associated with a double-planet system . Origin and orbital characteristics The natural satellites orbiting relatively close to the planet on prograde , uninclined circular orbits ( regular satellites ) are generally thought to have been formed out of the same collapsing region of the protoplanetary disk that created its primary . In contrast , irregular satellites ( generally orbiting on distant , inclined , eccentric and/or retrograde orbits ) are thought to be captured asteroids possibly further fragmented by collisions . Most of the major natural satellites of the Solar System have regular orbits , while most of the small natural satellites have irregular orbits . The Moon and possibly Charon are exceptions among large bodies in that they are thought to have originated by the collision of two large proto-planetary objects ( see the giant impact hypothesis ) . The material that would have been placed in orbit around the central body is predicted to have reaccreted to form one or more orbiting natural satellites . As opposed to planetary-sized bodies , asteroid moons are thought to commonly form by this process . Triton is another exception ; although large and in a close , circular orbit , its motion is retrograde and it is thought to be a captured dwarf planet . Tidal locking Most regular moons ( natural satellites following relatively close and prograde orbits with small orbital inclination and eccentricity ) in the Solar System are tidally locked to their respective primaries , meaning that the same side of the natural satellite always faces its planet . The only known exception is Saturn 's natural satellite Hyperion , which rotates chaotically because of the gravitational influence of Titan . In contrast , the outer natural satellites of the giants planet ( irregular satellites ) are too far away to have become locked . For example , Jupiter 's Himalia , Saturn 's Phoebe , and Neptune 's Nereid have rotation periods in the range of ten hours , whereas their orbital periods are hundreds of days . Satellites of satellites No `` moons of moons '' ( natural satellites that orbit a natural satellite of a planet ) are currently known as of . In most cases , the tidal effects of the planet would make such a system unstable . However , calculations performed after the recent detection of a possible ring system around Saturn 's moon Rhea indicate that satellites orbiting Rhea could have stable orbits . Furthermore , the suspected rings are thought to be narrow , a phenomenon normally associated with shepherd moons . However , targeted images taken by the Cassini spacecraft failed to detect rings around Rhea . It has also been proposed that Saturn 's moon Iapetus had a satellite in the past ; this is one of several hypotheses that have been put forward to account for its equatorial ridge . Trojan satellites Two natural satellites are known to have small companions at their and Lagrangian points , sixty degrees ahead and behind the body in its orbit . These companions are called trojan moons , as their orbits are analogous to the Trojan asteroids of Jupiter . The trojan moons are Telesto and Calypso , which are the leading and following companions , respectively , of Tethys ; and Helene and Polydeuces , the leading and following companions of Dione . Asteroid satellites The discovery of 243 Ida 's natural satellite Dactyl in the early 1990s confirmed that some asteroids have natural satellites ; indeed , 87 Sylvia has two . Some , such as 90 Antiope , are double asteroids with two comparably sized components . Shape Neptune 's moon Proteus is the largest irregularly shaped natural satellite . All other known natural satellites that are at least the size of Uranus 's Miranda have lapsed into rounded ellipsoids under hydrostatic equilibrium , i.e . are `` round/rounded satellites '' . The larger natural satellites , being tidally locked , tend toward ovoid ( egg-like ) shapes : squat at their poles and with longer equatorial axes in the direction of their primaries ( their planets ) than in the direction of their motion . Saturn 's moon Mimas , for example , has a major axis 9 % greater than its polar axis and 5 % greater than its other equatorial axis . Methone , another of Saturn 's moons , is only around 3 km in diameter and visibly egg-shaped . The effect is smaller on the largest natural satellites , where their own gravity is greater relative to the effects of tidal distortion , especially those that orbit less massive planets or , as in the case of the Moon , at greater distances . Geological activity Of the nineteen known natural satellites in the Solar System that are massive enough to have lapsed into hydrostatic equilibrium , several remain geologically active today . Io is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System , while Europa , Enceladus , Titan and Triton display evidence of ongoing tectonic activity and cryovolcanism . In the first three cases , the geological activity is powered by the tidal heating resulting from having eccentric orbits close to their giant-planet primaries . ( This mechanism would have also operated on Triton in the past , before its orbit was circularized . ) Many other natural satellites , such as Earth 's Moon , Ganymede , Tethys and Miranda , show evidence of past geological activity , resulting from energy sources such as the decay of their primordial radioisotopes , greater past orbital eccentricities ( due in some cases to past orbital resonances ) , or the differentiation or freezing of their interiors . Enceladus and Triton both have active features resembling geysers , although in the case of Triton solar heating appears to provide the energy . Titan and Triton have significant atmospheres ; Titan also has hydrocarbon lakes , and presumably methane rain . Four of the largest natural satellites , Europa , Ganymede , Callisto , and Titan , are thought to have subsurface oceans of liquid water , while smaller Enceladus may have localized subsurface liquid water . Natural satellites of the Solar System The seven largest natural satellites in the Solar System ( those bigger than 2,500 km across ) are Jupiter 's Galilean moons ( Ganymede , Callisto , Io , and Europa ) , Saturn 's moon Titan , Earth 's moon , and Neptune 's captured natural satellite Triton . Triton , the smallest of these , has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together . Similarly in the next size group of nine natural satellites , between 1,000 km and 1,600 km across , Titania , Oberon , Rhea , Iapetus , Charon , Ariel , Umbriel , Dione , and Tethys , the smallest , Tethys , has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together . As well as the natural satellites of the various planets , there are also over 80 known natural satellites of the dwarf planets , minor planets and other small Solar System bodies . Some studies estimate that up to 15 % of all trans-Neptunian objects could have satellites . The following is a comparative table classifying the natural satellites in the Solar System by diameter . The column on the right includes some notable planets , dwarf planets , asteroids , and trans-Neptunian objects for comparison . The natural satellites of the planets are named after mythological figures . These are predominantly Greek , except for the Uranian natural satellites , which are named after Shakespearean characters . The nineteen bodies massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium are in bold in the table below . Minor planets and satellites suspected but not proven to have achieved a hydrostatic equilibrium are italicized in the table below . Terminology The first known natural satellite was the Moon , but it was considered a `` planet '' until Copernicus ' introduction of heliocentrism in 1543 . Until the discovery of the Galilean satellites in 1610 , however , there was no opportunity for referring to such objects as a class . Galileo chose to refer to his discoveries as Planetæ ( `` planets '' ) , but later discoverers chose other terms to distinguish them from the objects they orbited . Christiaan Huygens , the discoverer of Titan , was the first to use the term moon for such objects , calling Titan Luna Saturni or Luna Saturnia – `` Saturn 's moon '' or `` The Saturnian moon '' , because it stood in the same relation to Saturn as the Moon did to Earth . The first to use of the term satellite to describe orbiting bodies was the German astronomer Johannes Kepler in his pamphlet Narratio de Observatis a se quatuor Iouis satellitibus erronibus ( `` Narration About Four Satellites of Jupiter Observed '' ) in 1610 . He derived the term from the Latin word satelles , meaning `` guard '' , `` attendant '' , or `` companion '' , because the satellites accompanied their primary planet in their journey through the heavens . As additional natural satellites of Saturn were discovered the term `` moon '' was abandoned . Giovanni Domenico Cassini sometimes referred to his discoveries as planètes in French , but more often as satellites . The term satellite thus became the normal one for referring to an object orbiting a planet , as it avoided the ambiguity of `` moon '' . In 1957 , however , the launching of the artificial object Sputnik created a need for new terminology . The terms man-made satellite or artificial moon were very quickly abandoned in favor of the simpler satellite , and as a consequence , the term has become linked primarily with artificial objects flown in space – including , sometimes , even those not in orbit around a planet . Because of this shift in meaning , the term moon , which had continued to be used in a generic sense in works of popular science and in fiction , has regained respectability and is now used interchangeably with natural satellite , even in scientific articles . When it is necessary to avoid both the ambiguity of confusion with Earth 's natural satellite the Moon and the natural satellites of the other planets on the one hand , and artificial satellites on the other , the term natural satellite ( using `` natural '' in a sense opposed to `` artificial '' ) is used . To further avoid ambiguity , the convention is to capitalize the word Moon when referring to Earth 's natural satellite , but not when referring to other natural satellites . The definition of a moon There is not an established lower limit on what is considered a `` moon '' . Every natural celestial body with an identified orbit around a planet of the Solar System , some as small as a kilometer across , has been considered a moon , though objects a tenth that size within Saturn 's rings , which have not been directly observed , have been called moonlets . Small asteroid moons ( natural satellites of asteroids ) , such as Dactyl , have also been called moonlets . The upper limit is also vague . Two orbiting bodies are sometimes described as a double body rather than primary and satellite . Asteroids such as 90 Antiope are considered double asteroids , but they have not forced a clear definition of what constitutes a moon . Some authors consider the Pluto–Charon system to be a double ( dwarf ) planet . The most common dividing line on what is considered a moon rests upon whether the barycentre is below the surface of the larger body , though this is somewhat arbitrary , because it depends on distance as well as relative mass . Visual summary

qw_4963--Natural_satellite.txt

The names for the satellites of which planet are chosen from characters from the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope?

The neck , nicor , nixie or nokken ( ; , nekker ; ; ; ; ) are shapeshifting water spirits in Germanic mythology and folklore who usually appeared in forms of other creatures . Under a variety of names , they were common to the stories of all Germanic peoples , although they are perhaps best known from Scandinavian folklore . The related English knucker was generally depicted as a wyrm or dragon , although more recent versions depict the spirits in other forms . Their sex , bynames , and various transformations vary geographically . The German Nix and his Scandinavian counterparts were males . The German Nixe was a female river mermaid . Names and etymology The names are held to derive from Common Germanic * nikwus or * nikwis ( i ) , derived from PIE * neigw ( `` to wash '' ) . They are related to Sanskrit nḗnēkti , Greek νίζω nízō and νίπτω níptō , and Irish nigh ( all meaning to wash or be washed ) . The form neck appears in English and Swedish ( näck or nek , meaning `` nude '' ) . The Swedish form is derived from Old Swedish neker , which corresponds to Old Icelandic nykr ( gen. nykrs ) , and nykk in Norwegian Nynorsk . In Finnish , the word is näkki . In Old Danish , the form was nikke and in modern Danish and Norwegian Bokmål it is nøkk . The Icelandic nykur is a horselike creature . In Middle Low German , it was called necker and in Middle Dutch nicker ( c.f . also Nickel or Nikkel plus Kobolt ) . The Old High German form nihhus also meant `` crocodile '' , while the Old English nicor could mean both a `` water monster '' like those encountered by Beowulf , and a `` hippopotamus '' . The Norwegian Fossegrim and Swedish Strömkarlen are related figures sometimes seen as by-names for the same creature . The Scandinavian version can transform himself into a horse-like kelpie , and is called a Bäckahästen ( the `` brook horse '' ) , whilst the Welsh version is called the Ceffyl Dŵr ( the `` water horse '' ) . England In the English county of Sussex , there are said to dwell `` water-wyrms '' called knuckers . The Word knucker is derived from the Old English nicor . English folklore contains many creatures with similarities to the Nix or Näck . These Necks include Jenny Greenteeth , the Shellycoat , Peg Powler , the Bäckahästen-like Brag , and the Grindylow . Scandinavia Näck , Nøkk The Scandinavian näcken , näkki , nøkk were male water spirits who played enchanted songs on the violin , luring women and children to drown in lakes or streams . However , not all of these spirits were necessarily malevolent ; in fact , many stories exist that indicate at the very least that nøkker were entirely harmless to their audience and attracted not only women and children , but men as well with their sweet songs . Stories also exist where in the Fossegrim agreed to live with a human who had fallen in love with him , but many of these stories ended with the nøkk returning to his home , usually a nearby waterfall or brook . ( Compare the legend of Llyn y Fan Fach in Wales . ) Nøkker are said to grow despondent if they do not have free , regular contact with a water source . The Norwegian Fossegrim or Grim , Swedish strömkarl , is a related figure who , if properly approached , will teach a musician to play so adeptly `` that the trees dance and waterfalls stop at his music . '' It is difficult to describe the actual appearance of the nix , as one of his central attributes was thought to be shapeshifting . Perhaps he did not have any true shape . He could show himself as a man playing the violin in brooks and waterfalls ( though often imagined as fair and naked today , in actual folklore he was more frequently wearing more or less elegant clothing ) but also could appear to be treasure or various floating objects or as an animal—most commonly in the form of a `` brook horse '' ( see below ) . The modern Scandinavian names are derived from an Old Norse nykr , meaning `` river horse . '' Thus , likely the brook horse preceded the personification of the nix as the `` man in the rapids '' . Fossegrim and derivatives were almost always portrayed as especially beautiful young men , whose clothing ( or lack thereof ) varied widely from story to story . The enthralling music of the nøkk was most dangerous to women and children , especially pregnant women and unbaptised children . He was thought to be most active during Midsummer 's Night , on Christmas Eve and on Thursdays . However , these superstitions do not necessarily relate to all the versions listed here , and many if not all of them were developed after the Christianizing of the northern countries , as were similar stories of faeries and other entities in other areas . When malicious nøkker attempted to carry off people , they could be defeated by calling their name ; this , in fact , would be the death of them . If you brought the nøkk a treat of three drops of blood , a black animal , some `` brännvin '' ( Scandinavian vodka ) or snus ( wet snuff ) dropped into the water , he would teach you his enchanting form of music . The nøkk was also an omen for drowning accidents . He would scream at a particular spot in a lake or river , in a way reminiscent of the loon , and on that spot a fatality would later take place . He was also said to actually cause drownings , but swimmers could protect themselves against such a fate by throwing a bit of steel into the water . In the later Romantic folklore and folklore-inspired stories of the 19th century , the nøkk sings about his loneliness and his longing for salvation , which he purportedly never shall receive , as he is not `` a child of God '' . In a poem by Swedish poet E. J. Stagnelius , a little boy pities the fate of the nøkk , and so saves his own life . In the poem , arguably Stagnelius ' most famous , the boy says that the Näck will never be a `` child of God '' which brings `` tears to his face '' as he `` never plays again in the silvery brook . '' On a similar theme , a 19th-century text called `` Brother Fabian 's Manuscript '' by Sebastian Evans has this verse : ( The source has `` bloometh '' for `` boometh '' , but this is clearly an error ; a bittern is not a plant , but a bird , and it is known for its booming call . A `` ghittern '' is a guitar . The spelling `` Nickar '' vice `` Neckar '' is sometimes used . ) In Scandinavia , water lilies are called `` nix roses '' ( näckrosor/nøkkeroser ) . A tale from the forest of Tiveden relates of how the forest had its unique red water lilies through the intervention of the nøkken : Bäckahäst , bækhest The bäckahäst or bækhest ( translated as the brook horse ) is a mythological horse in Scandinavian folklore . It has a close parallel in the Scottish kelpie , and the Welsh Ceffyl Dŵr .. It was often described as a majestic white horse that would appear near rivers , particularly during foggy weather . Anyone who climbed onto its back would not be able to get off again . The horse would then jump into the river , drowning the rider . The brook horse could also be harnessed and made to plough , either because it was trying to trick a person or because the person had tricked the horse into it . The following tale is a good illustration of the brook horse : Germany The German Nix and Nixe ( and Nixie ) are types of river merman and mermaid who may lure men to drown , like the Scandinavian type , akin to the Celtic Melusine and similar to the Greek Siren . The German epic Nibelungenlied mentions the Nix in connection with the Danube , as early as 1180 to 1210 . Nixes in folklore became water spritesGrimm 1835:17:11. who try to lure people into the water . The males can assume many different shapes , including that of a human , fish , and snake . The females with the tail of a fish . When they are in human forms , they can be recognised by the wet hem of their clothes . The Nixes are portrayed as malicious in some stories but harmless and friendly in others . By the 19th century Jacob Grimm mentions the Nixie to be among the `` water-sprites '' who love music , song and dancing , and says `` Like the sirens , the Nixie by her song draws listening youth to herself , and then into the deep . '' According to Grimm , they can appear human but have the barest hint of animal features : the nix had `` a slit ear '' , and the Nixie `` a wet skirt '' . Grimm thinks these could symbolise they are `` higher beings '' who could shapeshift to animal form . One famous Nixe of recent German folklore , deriving from 19th-century literature , was Lorelei ; according to the legend , she sat on the rock at the Rhine which now bears her name , and lured fishermen and boatmen to the dangers of the reefs with the sound of her voice . In Switzerland there is a legend ( myth ) of a sea-maid or Nixe that lived in lake Zug ( the lake is in the Canton of Zug ) . The Yellow Fairy Book by Andrew Lang includes a story called `` The Nixie of the Mill-Pond '' in which a malevolent spirit that lives in a mill pond strikes a deal with the miller that she will restore his wealth in exchange for his son . This story is taken from the Tales of Grimm . The legend of Heer Halewijn , a dangerous lord who lures women to their deaths with a magic song , may have originated with the Nix . Alternate names ( kennings ) for the female German Nixe are Rhine maidens ( ) and Lorelei . In a fictional depiction , the Rhine maidens are among the protagonists in the four-part Opera Der Ring des Nibelungen by the composer Richard Wagner , based loosely on the nix of the Nibelungenlied . The Rhine maidens Wellgunde , Woglinde , and Floßhilde ( Flosshilde ) belong to a group of characters living in a part of nature free from human influence . Erda and the Norns are also considered a part of this 'hidden ' world . They are first seen in the first work of the Nibelungen cycle , Das Rheingold , as guardians of the Rheingold , a treasure of gold hidden in the Rhein river . The dwarf Alberich , a Nibelung , is eager to win their favour , but they somewhat cruelly dismiss his flattery . They tell him that only one who is unable to love can win the Rheingold . Thus , Alberich curses love and steals the Rheingold . From the stolen gold he forges a ring of power . Further on in the cycle , the Rhine maidens are seen trying to regain the ring and transform it back into the harmless Rheingold . But no one , not even the supreme god Wotan , who uses the ring to pay the giants Fasolt and Fafner for building Valhalla , nor the hero Siegfried , when the maidens appear to him in the third act of Götterdämmerung , will return the ring to them . Eventually Brünnhilde returns it to them at the end of the cycle , when the fires of her funeral pyre cleanse the ring of its curse . Descendents of German immigrants to Pennsylvania sometimes refer to a mischievous child as being `` nixie . '' Notes

odql_13310--Neck_(water_spirit).txt

In German mythology, what was the name of the siren sent to lure boatmen to their deaths on the Rhine?

An urn is a vase , often with a cover , that usually has a somehat narrowed neck above a rounded body and a footed pedestal . Describing a vessel as an `` urn '' , as opposed to a vase or other terms , generally reflects its use rather than any particular shape or origin . The term is especially often used for funerary urns , vessels used in burials , either to hold the cremated ashes or as grave-goods , but is used in many other contexts ; in catering large vessels for serving tea or coffee are often called `` tea-urns '' , even when they are metal cylinders of purely functional design . Large sculpted vases are often called urns , whether placed outdoors , in gardens or as architectural ornaments on buildings , or kept inside . Cremation urns Funerary urns ( also called cinerary urns and burial urns ) have been used by many civilizations . After a person died , survivors cremated the body and collected the ashes in an urn . Pottery urns , dating from about 7000 BC , have been found in an early Jiahu site in China , where a total of 32 burial urns are found , and another early finds are in Laoguantai , Shaanxi . There are about 700 burial urns unearthed over the Yangshao ( 5000–3000 BC ) areas and consisting more than 50 varieties of form and shape . The burial urns were used mainly for children , but also sporadically for adults . The Urnfield culture ( c. 1300 BC – 750 BC ) , a late Bronze Age culture of central Europe , takes its name from its large cemeteries of urn burials . The discovery of a Bronze Age urn burial in Norfolk , England , prompted Sir Thomas Browne to describe the antiquities found . He expanded his study to survey burial and funerary customs , ancient and current , and published it as Hydriotaphia or Urn Burial ( 1658 ) . In ancient Greece , cremation was usual , and the ashes typically placed in a painted Greek vase . In particular the lekythos , a shape of vase , was used for holding oil in funerary rituals . Romans placed the urns in a niche in a collective tomb called a columbarium ( literally , dovecote ) . The interior of a dovecote usually has niches to house doves . Cremation urns were also commonly used in early Anglo Saxon England , and in many Pre-Columbian cultures . In some later European traditions , a king 's heart , and sometimes other organs , could be placed in one or more urns upon his death , as happened with King Otto of Bavaria in 1916 , and buried in a different place from the body , to symbolize a particlar affection for the place by the departed . In the modern funeral industry , cremation urns of varying quality , elaborateness , and cost are offered , and urns are another source of potential profit for an industry concerned that a trend toward cremation might threaten profits from traditional burial ceremonies . Biodegradable urns are sometimes used for both human and animal burial . They are made from eco-friendly materials such as recycled or handmade paper , salt , cellulose or other natural products that are capable of decomposing back into natural elements , and sometimes include a seed intended to grow into a tree at the site of the burial . Besides the traditional funeral or cremation ashes urns , it is also possible to keep a part of the ashes of the loved one or beloved pet in keepsake urns or ash jewelry . It is even possible to place the ashes of two people in so-called companion urns . [ http : //artisurn.com/pages/types-of-urns Source ] Cremation or funeral urns are made from a variety of materials such as wood , nature stone , ceramic , glass , or steel . Scattering of ashes has become popular over recent decades . As a result , urns designed to scatter the ashes from have been developed . Some are eco-friendly , affordable and can be recycled after being used . Figural urn A Figural urn is a style of vase or larger container where the basic urn shape , of either a classic amphora or a crucible style , is ornamented with figures . These may be attached to the main body , forming handles or simply extraneous decorations , or may be shown in relief on the body itself . Other urns The Ashes , the prize in the biennial Test cricket competition between England and Australia , are contained in a miniature urn . Urns are a common form of architectural detail and garden ornament . Well-known ornamental urns include the Waterloo Vase . In mathematics , an urn problem is a thought experiment in probability theory . A tea urn is a heated metal container traditionally used to brew tea or boil water in large quantities in factories , canteens or churches . They are not usually found in domestic use . Like a samovar it has a small tap near the base for extracting either tea or hot water . Unlike an electric water boiler , tea may be brewed in the vessel itself , although they are equally likely to be used to fill a large teapot . In Neoclassical furniture , it was a large wooden vase-like container which was usually set on a pedestal on either side of a side table . This was the characteristic of Adam designs and also of Hepplewhite 's work . Sometimes they were `` knife urns '' , where the top lifted off , and cutlery was stored inside . Urns were also used as decorative turnings at the cross points of stretchers in 16th and 17th century furniture designs . The urn and the vase were often set on the central pedestal in a `` broken '' or `` swan 's '' neck pediment . `` Knife urns '' placed on pedestals flanking a dining-room sideboard were an English innovation for high-style dining rooms of the late 1760s . They went out of fashion in the following decade , in favour of knife boxes that were placed on the sideboard .

bb_7161--Urn.txt

What, loosely translating as 'self-boiler', is a traditional metal Russian tea urn called?

Long John Silver is a fictional character and main villain in the novel Treasure Island ( 1883 ) by Robert Louis Stevenson . The most colourful and complex character in the book , he continues to appear in popular culture . Profile In Treasure Island , Long John Silver is a cunning and opportunistic pirate who was quartermaster under the notorious Captain Flint . Long John Silver had a pet parrot called Captain Flint , often seen sitting on his shoulder where she would nibble on seeds . Silver claims to have served in the Royal Navy and lost his leg under `` the immortal Hawke '' . `` His left leg was cut off close by the hip , and under the left shoulder he carried a crutch , which he managed with wonderful dexterity , hopping about upon it like a bird . He was very tall and strong , with a face as big as a ham – plain and pale , but intelligent and smiling . '' He claims to have been the only man whom Flint ever feared . Like many of Stevenson 's characters , there is more than a modicum of duality in the character ; ostensibly Silver is a hardworking and likeable seaman , and it is only as the plot unfolds that his villainous nature is gradually revealed . His relationship with Jim Hawkins , the novel 's protagonist and narrator , is interesting , as he serves as a mentor and eventually father-figure to Jim , creating much shock and emotion when it is discovered that he is in charge of the mutiny , and especially when Jim must confront and fight him later on . Although willing to change sides at any time to further his own interests , Silver has compensating virtues : he is wise enough to pay attention to money management , in contrast to the spendthrift ways of most of the pirates , and is physically courageous despite his disability ; for instance , when Flint 's cache is found to be empty , he coolly stands his ground against five grown men despite having only Jim , a boy in his teens , to back him . When Silver escapes at the end of the novel , he takes `` three or four hundred guineas '' of the treasure with him , thus becoming one of only two former members of Captain Flint 's crew to get his hands on a portion of the recovered treasure ; a separate cache of bar silver is apparently left on the island . ( The repentant maroonee Ben Gunn is the other , but he spends all £1,000 in nineteen days . ) Jim 's own ambivalence towards Silver is reflected in the last chapter , when he speculates that the old pirate must have settled down in comfortable retirement : `` It is to be hoped so , I suppose , for his chances of comfort in another world are very small . '' Stevenson 's portrayal of Silver has greatly influenced the modern iconography of the pirate . Silver has a parrot , named Captain Flint in mockery of his former captain , who generally perches on Silver 's shoulder , and is known to chatter pirate or seafaring phrases like `` Pieces of Eight '' , and `` Stand by to go about '' . Silver uses the parrot as another means of gaining Jim 's trust , by telling the boy all manner of exciting stories ( many of them likely fake ) about the parrot 's buccaneer history . 'Now that bird , ' Silver would say , 'is , may be , two hundred years old , Hawkins—they live forever mostly , and if anybody 's seen more wickedness it must be the devil himself . She 's sailed with England—the great Cap'n England , the pirate . She 's been at Madagascar , and at Malabar , and Surinam , and Providence , and Portobello ... She was at the boarding of the Viceroy of the Indies out of Goa , she was , and to look at her you would think she was a baby . '' Silver is married to a woman of African descent , whom he trusts to manage his business affairs in his absence and to liquidate his Bristol assets when his actions make it impossible for him to go home . He confides in his fellow pirates , that he and his wife plan to rendezvous after the voyage to Skeleton Island is complete and Flint 's treasure is recovered , at which point Silver will retire to a life of luxury . Ironically his `` share '' of Flint 's treasure ( £400 ) is considerably less than that of Ben Gunn 's share ( £1,000 ) and what he himself boasts is his `` share '' from England ( £900 ) and from Flint ( £2,000 ) . According to Stevenson 's letters , the idea for the character of Long John Silver was inspired by his real-life friend William Henley , a writer and editor . Stevenson 's stepson , Lloyd Osbourne , described Henley as `` ... a great , glowing , massive-shouldered fellow with a big red beard and a crutch ; jovial , astoundingly clever , and with a laugh that rolled like music ; he had an unimaginable fire and vitality ; he swept one off one 's feet '' . In a letter to Henley after the publication of Treasure Island Stevenson wrote : `` I will now make a confession . It was the sight of your maimed strength and masterfulness that begot Long John Silver ... the idea of the maimed man , ruling and dreaded by the sound , was entirely taken from you '' . Modern portrayals Actors who have portrayed Long John Silver in the various motion picture adaptations of Treasure Island include Wallace Beery , Ivo Garrani , Orson Welles , Charlton Heston , Eddie Izzard , Lance Henriksen , Robert Newton , Anthony Quinn , Tim Curry , Jack Palance , Brian Murray , Oleg Borisov , Boris Andreyev and British actor Ivor Dean in a televised version of the novel . Robert Newton followed up his two Long John Silver movies with an Australian-produced TV series . BBC1 has presented the story four times , with Anthony Quinn , Bernard Miles , Peter Vaughan , and Alfred Burke in the role . In the Soviet animated film Treasure Island of 1988 , Armen Dzhigarkhanyan provided the voice talent for John Silver . Ivor Dean played the character in an acclaimed European four-part mini-series in 1966 . He intended to reprise the role in another series with more adventures of Silver . He began writing it with director Robert S. Baker , but his sudden death in 1974 stopped all further plans . In 1985 , this script was used as foundation for a Disney 10-part TV-series called Return to Treasure Island , starring Brian Blessed in the role of Long John Silver . John Silver was also the protagonist in Björn Larsson 's fictional autobiography of the character , Long John Silver : The True and Eventful History of My Life of Liberty and Adventure as a Gentleman of Fortune and Enemy to Mankind ( ISBN 1-86046-538-2 respectively 91-7263-285-2 ) . The novel was first published in Sweden in 1995 . Silver is the main character in Silver—My Own Tale as Told by Me with a Goodly Amount of Murder by Edward Chupack ( ISBN 978-0-312-53936-8 ) . The recent 2013 Big Finish audio production starred Tom Baker as Silver , a role he also played on stage at the Mermaid Theatre , London , UK in 1981 . The 2014 original series Black Sails on Starz has the character John Silver , played by Luke Arnold . The series takes place 40 years prior to the events in Treasure Island . Further portrayals * The 1971 anime film Dōbutsu Takarajima depicts Silver as an anthropomorphic pig , who is the captain of his own pirate ship and does not develop a sympathetic relationship with the protagonists Jim and Kathy . In addition , unlike his novel template , he does not sport a missing leg but a hook prosthesis on his left hand . * James Kennedy played Silver in the Tale Spinners for Children audio adaptation of Treasure Island ( United Artists Records , UAC 11013 ) . * Orson Welles played Silver in The Mercury Theatre on the Air adaptation of Treasure Island broadcast July 18 , 1938 . * William Redfield played Silver on the May 14 , 1948 Your Playhouse of Favorites adaptation of Treasure Island . * James Mason played Silver opposite Bobby Driscoll 's `` Jim Hawkins '' on the Lux Radio Theatres January 29 , 1951 adaptation of Treasure Island . * There have been two BBC Radio adaptations of Treasure Island , one in 1989 with Peter Jeffrey as Silver and one in 1996 starring Jack Shepherd as Silver . * Tom Baker starred as Silver in Big Finish Productions ' 2012 audio adaptation of Treasure Island . * Charles Ogle , who also played the Frankenstein Monster in Edison 's 1910 film , played Silver in a 1920 silent film of Treasure Island , which also starred Lon Chaney . * Wallace Beery was the first speaking Long John Silver in the 1934 film version of Treasure Island . * Robert Newton became the definitive Long John Silver in the 1950 Disney live-action film version of Treasure Island . He was the first actor to employ the phrase `` Arrrrrh , matey ! '' * Long John Silver , a 1954 film , starred Robert Newton once again as the title character ( which he also played in the 1957 television series The Adventures of Long John Silver ) . * In Soviet miniseries of 1982 Treasure Island John Silver was portrayed by Oleg Borisov . * In the 1986 Disney mini-series Return to Treasure Island , Brian Blessed played Silver . * Tim Curry portrayed Long John Silver in Disney 's 1996 musical film Muppet Treasure Island . * Charlton Heston portrayed a much darker Long John Silver in the 1990 Made-for Television Treasure Island . * In one of his last film appearances , Jack Palance portrayed Long John Silver in the 1999 film version of Treasure Island . * Long John Silver is voiced by Jim Cummings in the 1994 movie The Pagemaster . * Eddie Izzard played Long John Silver in the 2012 Sky mini-series . * Luke Arnold plays John Silver in the Starz TV series Black Sails , a prequel story set 20 years before Treasure Island . * Porto Bello Gold is a prequel novel to Treasure Island written in 1924 by Arthur D. Howden Smith * Long John Silver is depicted as an obese bear/human/robot-like cyborg ( voiced by Brian Murray ) , as seen in Disney 's 2002 animated science fiction adventure film , Treasure Planet . * Long John Silver is main character in the books The Adventures of Long John Silver ( 1977 ) , a prequel of Treasure Island and Return To Treasure Island ( 1979 ) , a sequel , by the British historian Dennis Judd . * Long John Silver is a Franco-Belgian comics series written by Xavier Dorison , illustrated by Mathieu Laufray and published by Dargaud in French and Cinebook in English . * John Silver , a fictional space pirate with mechanical leg who appears in the Italian comic book Nathan Never , was inspired by Long John Silver . * The rock band Jefferson Airplane had a song and 1972 album named Long John Silver . * A restaurant chain , Long John Silver 's , is named after the character . * Costas Mandylor portrays Captain Silver on ABC 's Once Upon a Time . Reference

sfq_10565--Long_John_Silver.txt

What is the name of Long John Silver's parrot in Treasure Island?

Uranium is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92 . It is a silvery-white metal in the actinide series of the periodic table . A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons , of which 6 are valence electrons . Uranium is weakly radioactive because all its isotopes are unstable ( with half-lives of the six naturally known isotopes , uranium-233 to uranium-238 , varying between 69 years and 4.5 billion years ) . The most common isotopes in natural uranium are uranium-238 ( which has 146 neutrons and accounts for over 99 % ) and uranium-235 ( which has 143 neutrons ) . Uranium has the second highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements , lighter only than plutonium . Its density is about 70 % higher than that of lead , and slightly lower than that of gold or tungsten . It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil , rock and water , and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite . In nature , uranium is found as uranium-238 ( 99.2739–99.2752 % ) , uranium-235 ( 0.7198–0.7202 % ) , and a very small amount of uranium-234 ( 0.0050–0.0059 % ) . Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle . The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4.47 billion years and that of uranium-235 is 704 million years , making them useful in dating the age of the Earth . Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties . Uranium-235 has the distinction of being the only naturally occurring fissile isotope . Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons , and is fertile , meaning it can be transmuted to fissile plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor . Another fissile isotope , uranium-233 , can be produced from natural thorium and is also important in nuclear technology . Uranium-238 has a small probability for spontaneous fission or even induced fission with fast neutrons ; uranium-235 and to a lesser degree uranium-233 have a much higher fission cross-section for slow neutrons . In sufficient concentration , these isotopes maintain a sustained nuclear chain reaction . This generates the heat in nuclear power reactors , and produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons . Depleted uranium ( 238U ) is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating . Uranium is used as a colorant in uranium glass , producing lemon yellow to green colors . Uranium glass fluoresces green in ultraviolet light . It was also used for tinting and shading in early photography . The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth , who named the new element after the planet Uranus . Eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel . Research by Otto Hahn , Lise Meitner , Enrico Fermi and others , such as J. Robert Oppenheimer starting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in the nuclear power industry and in Little Boy , the first nuclear weapon used in war . An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used uranium metal and uranium-derived plutonium-239 . The security of those weapons and their fissile material following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 is an ongoing concern for public health and safety . See Nuclear proliferation . Characteristics When refined , uranium is a silvery white , weakly radioactive metal . It has a Mohs hardness of 6 , sufficient to scratch glass and approximately equal to that of titanium , rhodium , manganese and niobium . It is malleable , ductile , slightly paramagnetic , strongly electropositive and a poor electrical conductor . Uranium metal has a very high density of 19.1 g/cm3 , denser than lead ( 11.3 g/cm3 ) , but slightly less dense than tungsten and gold ( 19.3 g/cm3 ) . Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metal elements ( with an exception of the noble gases ) and their compounds , with reactivity increasing with temperature . Hydrochloric and nitric acids dissolve uranium , but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid attack the element very slowly . When finely divided , it can react with cold water ; in air , uranium metal becomes coated with a dark layer of uranium oxide . Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and converted into uranium dioxide or other chemical forms usable in industry . Uranium-235 was the first isotope that was found to be fissile . Other naturally occurring isotopes are fissionable , but not fissile . On bombardment with slow neutrons , its uranium-235 isotope will most of the time divide into two smaller nuclei , releasing nuclear binding energy and more neutrons . If too many of these neutrons are absorbed by other uranium-235 nuclei , a nuclear chain reaction occurs that results in a burst of heat or ( in special circumstances ) an explosion . In a nuclear reactor , such a chain reaction is slowed and controlled by a neutron poison , absorbing some of the free neutrons . Such neutron absorbent materials are often part of reactor control rods ( see nuclear reactor physics for a description of this process of reactor control ) . As little as 15 lb ( 7 kg ) of uranium-235 can be used to make an atomic bomb . The first nuclear bomb used in war , Little Boy , relied on uranium fission , but the very first nuclear explosive ( the Gadget used at Trinity ) and the bomb that destroyed Nagasaki ( Fat Man ) were both plutonium bombs . Uranium metal has three allotropic forms : * α ( orthorhombic ) stable up to 668 °C . Orthorhombic , space group No . 63 , Cmcm , lattice parameters a 285.4 pm , b 587 pm , c 495.5 pm . * β ( tetragonal ) stable from 668 °C to 775 °C . Tetragonal , space group P42/mnm , P42nm , or P4n2 , lattice parameters a 565.6 pm , b c 1075.9 pm . * γ ( body-centered cubic ) from 775 °C to melting point—this is the most malleable and ductile state . Body-centered cubic , lattice parameter a 352.4 pm . Applications Military The major application of uranium in the military sector is in high-density penetrators . This ammunition consists of depleted uranium ( DU ) alloyed with 1–2 % other elements , such as titanium or molybdenum . At high impact speed , the density , hardness , and pyrophoricity of the projectile enable the destruction of heavily armored targets . Tank armor and other removable vehicle armor can also be hardened with depleted uranium plates . The use of depleted uranium became politically and environmentally contentious after the use of such munitions by the US , UK and other countries during wars in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans raised questions concerning uranium compounds left in the soil ( see Gulf War Syndrome ) . Depleted uranium is also used as a shielding material in some containers used to store and transport radioactive materials . While the metal itself is radioactive , its high density makes it more effective than lead in halting radiation from strong sources such as radium . Other uses of depleted uranium include counterweights for aircraft control surfaces , as ballast for missile re-entry vehicles and as a shielding material . Due to its high density , this material is found in inertial guidance systems and in gyroscopic compasses . Depleted uranium is preferred over similarly dense metals due to its ability to be easily machined and cast as well as its relatively low cost . The main risk of exposure to depleted uranium is chemical poisoning by uranium oxide rather than radioactivity ( uranium being only a weak alpha emitter ) . During the later stages of World War II , the entire Cold War , and to a lesser extent afterwards , uranium-235 has been used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear weapons . Initially , two major types of fission bombs were built : a relatively simple device that uses uranium-235 and a more complicated mechanism that uses plutonium-239 derived from uranium-238 . Later , a much more complicated and far more powerful type of fission/fusion bomb ( thermonuclear weapon ) was built , that uses a plutonium-based device to cause a mixture of tritium and deuterium to undergo nuclear fusion . Such bombs are jacketed in a non-fissile ( unenriched ) uranium case , and they derive more than half their power from the fission of this material by fast neutrons from the nuclear fusion process . Civilian The main use of uranium in the civilian sector is to fuel nuclear power plants . One kilogram of uranium-235 can theoretically produce about 20 terajoules of energy ( 2 joules ) , assuming complete fission ; as much energy as 1500 tonnes of coal . Commercial nuclear power plants use fuel that is typically enriched to around 3 % uranium-235 . The CANDU and Magnox designs are the only commercial reactors capable of using unenriched uranium fuel . Fuel used for United States Navy reactors is typically highly enriched in uranium-235 ( the exact values are classified ) . In a breeder reactor , uranium-238 can also be converted into plutonium through the following reaction : + n + Before ( and , occasionally , after ) the discovery of radioactivity , uranium was primarily used in small amounts for yellow glass and pottery glazes , such as uranium glass and in Fiestaware . The discovery and isolation of radium in uranium ore ( pitchblende ) by Marie Curie sparked the development of uranium mining to extract the radium , which was used to make glow-in-the-dark paints for clock and aircraft dials . This left a prodigious quantity of uranium as a waste product , since it takes three tonnes of uranium to extract one gram of radium . This waste product was diverted to the glazing industry , making uranium glazes very inexpensive and abundant . Besides the pottery glazes , uranium tile glazes accounted for the bulk of the use , including common bathroom and kitchen tiles which can be produced in green , yellow , mauve , black , blue , red and other colors . Uranium was also used in photographic chemicals ( especially uranium nitrate as a toner ) , in lamp filaments for stage lighting bulbs , to improve the appearance of dentures , and in the leather and wood industries for stains and dyes . Uranium salts are mordants of silk or wool . Uranyl acetate and uranyl formate are used as electron-dense `` stains '' in transmission electron microscopy , to increase the contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections and in negative staining of viruses , isolated cell organelles and macromolecules . The discovery of the radioactivity of uranium ushered in additional scientific and practical uses of the element . The long half-life of the isotope uranium-238 ( 4.51 years ) makes it well-suited for use in estimating the age of the earliest igneous rocks and for other types of radiometric dating , including uranium-thorium dating , uranium-lead dating and uranium-uranium dating . Uranium metal is used for X-ray targets in the making of high-energy X-rays . History Pre-discovery use The use of uranium in its natural oxide form dates back to at least the year 79 CE , when it was used to add a yellow color to ceramic glazes . Yellow glass with 1 % uranium oxide was found in a Roman villa on Cape Posillipo in the Bay of Naples , Italy , by R. T. Gunther of the University of Oxford in 1912 . Starting in the late Middle Ages , pitchblende was extracted from the Habsburg silver mines in Joachimsthal , Bohemia ( now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic ) , and was used as a coloring agent in the local glassmaking industry . In the early 19th century , the world 's only known sources of uranium ore were these mines . Discovery The discovery of the element is credited to the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth . While he was working in his experimental laboratory in Berlin in 1789 , Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound ( likely sodium diuranate ) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide . Klaproth assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet-undiscovered element and heated it with charcoal to obtain a black powder , which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself ( in fact , that powder was an oxide of uranium ) . He named the newly discovered element after the planet Uranus , ( named after the primordial Greek god of the sky ) , which had been discovered eight years earlier by William Herschel . In 1841 , Eugène-Melchior Péligot , Professor of Analytical Chemistry at the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers ( Central School of Arts and Manufactures ) in Paris , isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with potassium . Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity by using uranium in 1896 . Becquerel made the discovery in Paris by leaving a sample of a uranium salt , K2UO2 ( SO4 ) 2 ( potassium uranyl sulfate ) , on top of an unexposed photographic plate in a drawer and noting that the plate had become `` fogged '' . He determined that a form of invisible light or rays emitted by uranium had exposed the plate . Fission research A team led by Enrico Fermi in 1934 observed that bombarding uranium with neutrons produces the emission of beta rays ( electrons or positrons from the elements produced ; see beta particle ) . The fission products were at first mistaken for new elements of atomic numbers 93 and 94 , which the Dean of the Faculty of Rome , Orso Mario Corbino , christened ausonium and hesperium , respectively . The experiments leading to the discovery of uranium 's ability to fission ( break apart ) into lighter elements and release binding energy were conducted by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in Hahn 's laboratory in Berlin . Lise Meitner and her nephew , the physicist Otto Robert Frisch , published the physical explanation in February 1939 and named the process `` nuclear fission '' . Soon after , Fermi hypothesized that the fission of uranium might release enough neutrons to sustain a fission reaction . Confirmation of this hypothesis came in 1939 , and later work found that on average about 2.5 neutrons are released by each fission of the rare uranium isotope uranium-235 . Further work found that the far more common uranium-238 isotope can be transmuted into plutonium , which , like uranium-235 , is also fissile by thermal neutrons . These discoveries led numerous countries to begin working on the development of nuclear weapons and nuclear power . On 2 December 1942 , as part of the Manhattan Project , another team led by Enrico Fermi was able to initiate the first artificial self-sustained nuclear chain reaction , Chicago Pile-1 . Working in a lab below the stands of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago , the team created the conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 400 short tons ( 360 metric tons ) of graphite , 58 short tons ( 53 metric tons ) of uranium oxide , and six short tons ( 5.5 metric tons ) of uranium metal , a majority of which was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant in a makeshift production process . Nuclear weaponry Two major types of atomic bombs were developed by the United States during World War II : a uranium-based device ( codenamed `` Little Boy '' ) whose fissile material was highly enriched uranium , and a plutonium-based device ( see Trinity test and `` Fat Man '' ) whose plutonium was derived from uranium-238 . The uranium-based Little Boy device became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 . Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of TNT , the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed approximately 75,000 people ( see Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ) . Initially it was believed that uranium was relatively rare , and that nuclear proliferation could be avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks , but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world . Reactors The X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory ( ORNL ) in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , formerly known as the Clinton Pile and X-10 Pile , was the world 's second artificial nuclear reactor ( after Enrico Fermi 's Chicago Pile ) and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation . Argonne National Laboratory 's Experimental Breeder Reactor I , located at the Atomic Energy Commission 's National Reactor Testing Station near Arco , Idaho , became the first nuclear reactor to create electricity on 20 December 1951 . Initially , four 150-watt light bulbs were lit by the reactor , but improvements eventually enabled it to power the whole facility ( later , the town of Arco became the first in the world to have all its electricity come from nuclear power generated by BORAX-III , another reactor designed and operated by Argonne National Laboratory ) . The world 's first commercial scale nuclear power station , Obninsk in the Soviet Union , began generation with its reactor AM-1 on 27 June 1954 . Other early nuclear power plants were Calder Hall in England , which began generation on 17 October 1956 , and the Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Pennsylvania , which began on 26 May 1958 . Nuclear power was used for the first time for propulsion by a submarine , the USS Nautilus , in 1954 . Prehistoric naturally occurring fission In 1972 , the French physicist Francis Perrin discovered fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon , West Africa , collectively known as the Oklo Fossil Reactors . The ore deposit is 1.7 billion years old ; then , uranium-235 constituted about 3 % of the total uranium on Earth . This is high enough to permit a sustained nuclear fission chain reaction to occur , provided other supporting conditions exist . The capacity of the surrounding sediment to contain the nuclear waste products has been cited by the U.S. federal government as supporting evidence for the feasibility to store spent nuclear fuel at the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository . Contamination and the Cold War legacy Above-ground nuclear tests by the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1950s and early 1960s and by France into the 1970s and 1980s spread a significant amount of fallout from uranium daughter isotopes around the world . Additional fallout and pollution occurred from several nuclear accidents . Uranium miners have a higher incidence of cancer . An excess risk of lung cancer among Navajo uranium miners , for example , has been documented and linked to their occupation . The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act , a 1990 law in the USA , required $ 100,000 in `` compassion payments '' to uranium miners diagnosed with cancer or other respiratory ailments . During the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States , huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium . Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991 , an estimated 600 short tons ( 540 metric tons ) of highly enriched weapons grade uranium ( enough to make 40,000 nuclear warheads ) have been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in the Russian Federation and several other former Soviet states . Police in Asia , Europe , and South America on at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 have intercepted shipments of smuggled bomb-grade uranium or plutonium , most of which was from ex-Soviet sources . From 1993 to 2005 the Material Protection , Control , and Accounting Program , operated by the federal government of the United States , spent approximately US $ 550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in Russia . This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities . Scientific American reported in February 2006 that in some of the facilities security consisted of chain link fences which were in severe states of disrepair . According to an interview from the article , one facility had been storing samples of enriched ( weapons grade ) uranium in a broom closet before the improvement project ; another had been keeping track of its stock of nuclear warheads using index cards kept in a shoe box . Occurrence Biotic and abiotic Uranium is a naturally occurring element that can be found in low levels within all rock , soil , and water . Uranium is the 51st element in order of abundance in the Earth 's crust . Uranium is also the highest-numbered element to be found naturally in significant quantities on Earth and is almost always found combined with other elements . Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron , it is only naturally formed in supernovae . The decay of uranium , thorium , and potassium-40 in the Earth 's mantle is thought to be the main source of heat that keeps the outer core liquid and drives mantle convection , which in turn drives plate tectonics . Uranium 's average concentration in the Earth 's crust is ( depending on the reference ) 2 to 4 parts per million , or about 40 times as abundant as silver . The Earth 's crust from the surface to 25 km ( 15 mi ) down is calculated to contain 1017 kg ( 2 lb ) of uranium while the oceans may contain 1013 kg ( 2 lb ) . The concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0.7 to 11 parts per million ( up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphate fertilizers ) , and its concentration in sea water is 3 parts per billion . Uranium is more plentiful than antimony , tin , cadmium , mercury , or silver , and it is about as abundant as arsenic or molybdenum . Uranium is found in hundreds of minerals , including uraninite ( the most common uranium ore ) , carnotite , autunite , uranophane , torbernite , and coffinite . Significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances such as phosphate rock deposits , and minerals such as lignite , and monazite sands in uranium-rich ores ( it is recovered commercially from sources with as little as 0.1 % uranium ) . Some bacteria , such as Shewanella putrefaciens , Geobacter metallireducens and some strains of Burkholderia fungorum , use uranium for their growth and convert U ( VI ) to U ( IV ) . Some organisms , such as the lichen Trapelia involuta or microorganisms such as the bacterium Citrobacter , can absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300 times the level of their environment . Citrobacter species absorb uranyl ions when given glycerol phosphate ( or other similar organic phosphates ) . After one day , one gram of bacteria can encrust themselves with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals ; this creates the possibility that these organisms could be used in bioremediation to decontaminate uranium-polluted water . The proteobacterium Geobacter has also been shown to bioremediate uranium in ground water . The mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices increases uranium content in the roots of its symbiotic plant . In nature , uranium ( VI ) forms highly soluble carbonate complexes at alkaline pH . This leads to an increase in mobility and availability of uranium to groundwater and soil from nuclear wastes which leads to health hazards . However , it is difficult to precipitate uranium as phosphate in the presence of excess carbonate at alkaline pH . A Sphingomonas sp . strain BSAR-1 has been found to express a high activity alkaline phosphatase ( PhoK ) that has been applied for bioprecipitation of uranium as uranyl phosphate species from alkaline solutions . The precipitation ability was enhanced by overexpressing PhoK protein in E. coli . Plants absorb some uranium from soil . Dry weight concentrations of uranium in plants range from 5 to 60 parts per billion , and ash from burnt wood can have concentrations up to 4 parts per million . Dry weight concentrations of uranium in food plants are typically lower with one to two micrograms per day ingested through the food people eat . Production and mining Worldwide production of U3O8 ( yellowcake ) in 2013 amounted to 70,015 tonnes , of which 22,451 t ( 32 % ) was mined in Kazakhstan . Other important uranium mining countries are Canada ( 9,331 t ) , Australia ( 6,350 t ) , Niger ( 4,518 t ) , Namibia ( 4,323 t ) and Russia ( 3,135 t ) . Uranium ore is mined in several ways : by open pit , underground , in-situ leaching , and borehole mining ( see uranium mining ) . Low-grade uranium ore mined typically contains 0.01 to 0.25 % uranium oxides . Extensive measures must be employed to extract the metal from its ore. High-grade ores found in Athabasca Basin deposits in Saskatchewan , Canada can contain up to 23 % uranium oxides on average . Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either an acid or alkali . The leachate is subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation , solvent extraction , and ion exchange . The resulting mixture , called yellowcake , contains at least 75 % uranium oxides U3O8 . Yellowcake is then calcined to remove impurities from the milling process before refining and conversion . Commercial-grade uranium can be produced through the reduction of uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals . Uranium metal can also be prepared through electrolysis of or Uranium tetrafluoride| , dissolved in molten calcium chloride ( ) and sodium chloride ( NaCl ) solution . Very pure uranium is produced through the thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot filament . Resources and reserves It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of uranium exists in ore reserves that are economically viable at US $ 59 per lb of uranium , while 35 million tonnes are classed as mineral resources ( reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction ) . Prices went from about $ 10/lb in May 2003 to $ 138/lb in July 2007 . This has caused a big increase in spending on exploration , with US $ 200 million being spent worldwide in 2005 , a 54 % increase on the previous year . This trend continued through 2006 , when expenditure on exploration rocketed to over $ 774 million , an increase of over 250 % compared to 2004 . The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency said exploration figures for 2007 would likely match those for 2006 . Australia has 31 % of the world 's known uranium ore reserves and the world 's largest single uranium deposit , located at the Olympic Dam Mine in South Australia . There is a significant reserve of uranium in Bakouma a sub-prefecture in the prefecture of Mbomou in Central African Republic . Some nuclear fuel comes from nuclear weapons being dismantled , such as from the Megatons to Megawatts Program . An additional 4.6 billion tonnes of uranium are estimated to be in sea water ( Japanese scientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from sea water using ion exchangers was technically feasible ) . There have been experiments to extract uranium from sea water , but the yield has been low due to the carbonate present in the water . In 2012 , ORNL researchers announced the successful development of a new absorbent material dubbed HiCap which performs surface retention of solid or gas molecules , atoms or ions and also effectively removes toxic metals from water , according to results verified by researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory . Supplies In 2005 , seventeen countries produced concentrated uranium oxides , with Canada ( 27.9 % of world production ) and Australia ( 22.8 % ) being the largest producers and Kazakhstan ( 10.5 % ) ,

qw_829--Uranium.txt

Which German-born chemist split the uranium atom in 1939 and won the Nobel prize in 1944?

Mr Whoppit was the teddy bear mascot of Donald Campbell , the land and water speed record holder . Writing in his 2011 book , Donald Campbell : The Man Behind The Mask , journalist David Tremayne described Whoppit as Campbell 's `` magic talisman '' . As was his father Sir Malcolm Campbell , Donald Campbell was highly superstitious . Both consulted spiritualist mediums and fortune tellers , Donald also placed his faith in a lucky mascot , Mr Whoppit . He refused to drive unless Whoppit was with him . One of his wife Tonia 's tasks was to hand Whoppit to him on entering the cockpit . Whoppit was noted in 2003 by reporter Frank Bennett as being part of the `` threesome '' arriving for the 1964 record run the others being Campbell himself , and his wife . Bennett remarked that the mascot was in the cockpit each time , along with other memorabilia . Whoppit was with Campbell during his serious crash during a land-speed record attempt at the Bonneville Salt Flats in 1960 , driving the Proteus Bluebird . Campbell was killed during a record attempt on Coniston in 1967 , while driving the jet hydroplane Bluebird K7 . His body was n't recovered , although Mr Whoppit floated free and was found almost immediately by Leo Villa . Campbell 's body was finally located and recovered in 2001 . Campbell also named one of his dogs 'Whoppit ' . Another teddy bear mascot was found as a 'wife ' for Whoppit , named 'Mrs Whacko ' , who did not ride with Whoppit but stayed with Tonia and the pit crew . Mr Whoppit 's origins 'Woppit ' first appeared as a cartoon strip 'The story of Woppit ' about a toy teddy bear , from the first issue of the comic Robin in 1953 . In 1956 , Merrythought manufactured a 9-inch tall Woppit bear wearing a red felt jacket and one of these was given to Donald by his close friend and manager Peter Barker.On joining the Bluebird team , Woppit acquired a miniature of their `` Bluebird '' patch sewn to his jacket , later followed by a one-piece flight suit . His name also changed slightly to 'Mr Whoppit ' . In 1959 , both Campbell and Mr Whoppit were photographed together in Robin . In the late 1990s , Merrythought re-issued a limited production of 5,000 replicas of Mr Whoppit , with the original red jacket now sporting the Bluebird motif . With Gina Campbell In later years , Donald 's daughter Gina Campbell also adopted Whoppit as a mascot for her own water record-breaking attempts . These led to Whoppit 's third high-speed crash . In 1995 she offered him for auction , together with other Campbell memorabilia . He was to sell for about £60,000 but failed to reach the reserve and so remained in her possession . The decision to auction off Mr Whoppit was a cause of acrimony between Gina Campbell and Donald 's widow Tonia Bern-Campbell , which re-surfaced again during the recovery of Bluebird in 2001 .

sfq_21270--Mr_Whoppit.txt

What was the name of the teddy bear mascot of speed record holder Donald Campbell?

William Buckland DD FRS ( 12 March 1784 – 14 August 1856 ) was an English theologian who became Dean of Westminster . He was also a geologist and palaeontologist , writing the first full account of a fossil dinosaur , which he named Megalosaurus . His work proving that Kirkdale Cave had been a prehistoric hyena den , for which he was awarded the Copley Medal , was praised as an example of how scientific analysis could reconstruct events from the distant past . He was a pioneer in the use of fossilised faeces , for which he coined the term coprolites , to reconstruct ancient ecosystems . Buckland was a proponent of the Gap Theory that interpreted the biblical account of Genesis as referring to two separate episodes of creation separated by a lengthy period ; it emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries as a way to reconcile the scriptural account with discoveries in geology that suggested the earth was very old . Early in his career he believed that he had found geological evidence of the biblical flood , but later became convinced that the glaciation theory of Louis Agassiz provided a better explanation , and he played an important role in promoting that theory in Great Britain . Early life and university Buckland was born at Axminster in DevonChisholm , 1911 and , as a child , would accompany his father , the Rector of Templeton and Trusham , on his walks where interest in road improvements led to collecting fossil shells , including ammonites , from the Jurassic lias rocks exposed in local quarries . He was educated first at Blundell 's School , Tiverton , Devon , and then at Winchester College , from where in 1801 he won a scholarship to study for the ministry at Corpus Christi College , Oxford , also attending the lectures of John Kidd on mineralogy and chemistry , as well as developing an interest in geology and carrying out field research on strata , during vacations . Having taken his BA in 1804 , he went on to obtain his MA degree in 1808 . He then became a Fellow of Corpus Christi in 1809 , was ordained as a priest and continued to make frequent geological excursions , on horseback , to various parts of England , Scotland , Ireland and Wales . In 1813 , he was appointed reader in mineralogy , in succession to John Kidd , giving lively and popular lectures with increasing emphasis on geology and palaeontology . As ( unofficial ) curator of the Ashmolean Museum , he built up collections , touring Europe and coming into contact with scientists including Georges Cuvier . Rejection of flood geology and Kirkdale Cave In 1818 , Buckland was elected a fellow of the Royal Society . That year he persuaded the Prince Regent to endow an additional Readership , this time in Geology and he became the first holder of the new appointment , delivering his inaugural address on 15 May 1819 . This was published in 1820 as Vindiciæ Geologiæ ; or the Connexion of Geology with Religion explained , both justifying the new science of geology and reconciling geological evidence with the biblical accounts of creation and Noah 's Flood . At a time when others were coming under the opposing influence of James Hutton 's theory of uniformitarianism , Buckland developed a new hypothesis that the word `` beginning '' in Genesis meant an undefined period between the origin of the earth and the creation of its current inhabitants , during which a long series of extinctions and successive creations of new kinds of plants and animals had occurred . Thus , his catastrophism theory incorporated a version of Old Earth creationism or Gap creationism . Buckland believed in a global deluge during the time of Noah but was not a supporter of flood geology as he believed that only a small amount of the strata could have been formed in the single year occupied by the deluge . From his investigations of fossil bones at Kirkdale Cave , in Yorkshire , he concluded that the cave had actually been inhabited by hyaenas in antediluvian times , and that the fossils were the remains of these hyaenas and the animals they had eaten , rather than being remains of animals that had perished in the Flood and then carried from the tropics by the surging waters , as he and others had at first thought . In 1822 he wrote : It must already appear probable , from the facts above described , particularly from the comminuted state and apparently gnawed condition of the bones , that the cave in Kirkdale was , during a long succession of years , inhabited as a den of hyaenas , and that they dragged into its recesses the other animal bodies whose remains are found mixed indiscriminately with their own : this conjecture is rendered almost certain by the discovery I made , of many small balls of the solid calcareous excrement of an animal that had fed on bones ... It was at first sight recognised by the keeper of the Menagerie at Exter Change , as resembling , in both form and appearance , the faeces of the spotted or cape hyaena , which he stated to be greedy of bones beyond all other beasts in his care . While criticised by some , Buckland 's analysis of Kirkland Cave and other bone caves was widely seen as a model for how careful analysis could be used to reconstruct the Earth 's past , and the Royal Society awarded Buckland the Copley Medal in 1822 for his paper on Kirkdale Cave . At the presentation the society 's president , Humphry Davy , said : by these inquiries , a distinct epoch has , as it were , been established in the history of the revolutions of our globe : a point fixed from which our researches may be pursued through the immensity of ages , and the records of animate nature , as it were , carried back to the time of the creation . While Buckland 's analysis convinced him that the Bones found in Kirkdale Cave had not been washed into the cave by a global flood , he still believed the thin layer of mud that covered the remains of the hyaena den had been deposited in the subsequent 'Universal Deluge ' . He developed these ideas into his great scientific work Reliquiæ Diluvianæ , or , Observations on the Organic Remains attesting the Action of a Universal Deluge which was published in 1823 and became a best seller . However , over the next decade as geology continued to progress Buckland changed his mind . In his famous Bridgewater Treatise , published in 1836 , he acknowledged that the biblical account of Noah 's flood could not be confirmed using geological evidence . By 1840 he was very actively promoting the view that what had been interpreted as evidence of the 'Universal Deluge ' two decades earlier , and subsequently of deep submergence by a new generation of geologists such as Charles Lyell , was in fact evidence of a major glaciation . Megalosaurus He continued to live in Corpus Christi College and , in 1824 , he became president of the Geological Society of London . Here he announced the discovery , at Stonesfield , of fossil bones of a giant reptile which he named Megalosaurus ( great lizard ) and wrote the first full account of what would later be called a dinosaur . In 1825 , Buckland resigned his college fellowship : he planned to take up the living of Stoke Charity in Hampshire but , before he could take up the appointment , he was made a Canon of Christ Church , a rich reward for academic distinction without serious administrative responsibilities . Marriage In December of 1825 he married Mary Morland of Abingdon , Oxfordshire , an accomplished illustrator and collector of fossils . Their honeymoon was a year touring Europe , with visits to famous geologists and geological sites . She continued to assist him in his work , as well as having nine children , five of whom survived to adulthood . His son Frank Buckland became a well known practical naturalist , author , and Inspector of Salmon Fisheries . On one occasion , Mary helped him decipher footmarks found in a slab of sandstone by covering the kitchen table with paste , while he fetched their pet tortoise and confirmed his intuition , that tortoise footprints matched the fossil marks . The Red Lady of Paviland On 18 January 1823 Buckland walked into Paviland Cave , where he discovered a skeleton which he named the Red Lady of Paviland , as he at first supposed it to be the remains of a local prostitute . It is the oldest anatomically modern human found in the United Kingdom . Although he found the skeleton in Paviland Cave in the same strata as the bones of extinct mammals ( including mammoth ) , Buckland shared the view of Georges Cuvier that no humans had coexisted with any extinct animals , and he attributed the skeleton 's presence there to a grave having been dug in historical times , possibly by the same people who had constructed some nearby pre-Roman fortifications , into the older layers . Carbon-data tests have since dated the skeleton , now known to be male as from circa 33,000 years before present ( BP ) . Coprolites and the Liassic food chain The fossil hunter Mary Anning noticed that stony objects known as `` bezoar stones '' were often found in the abdominal region of ichthyosaur skeletons found in the Lias formation at Lyme Regis . She also noted that if such stones were broken open they often contained fossilised fish bones and scales , and sometimes bones from small ichthyosaurs . These observations by Anning led Buckland to propose in 1829 that the stones were fossilised faeces . He coined the name coprolite for them ; the name came to be the general name for all fossilised faeces . Buckland also concluded that the spiral markings on the fossils indicated that ichthyosaurs had spiral ridges in their intestines similar to those of modern sharks , and that some of these coprolites were black because the ichthyosaur had ingested ink sacs from belemnites . He wrote a vivid description of the Liassic food chain based on these observations , which would inspire Henry De la Beche to paint Duria Antiquior , the first pictorial representation of a scene from the distant past . After De le Beche had a lithographic print made based on his original watercolour , Buckland kept a supply of the prints on hand to circulate at his lectures . He also discussed other similar objects found in other formations , including the fossilised hyena dung he had found in Kirkdale Cave . He concluded : In all these various formations our Coprolites form records of warfare , waged by successive generations of inhabitants of our planet on one another : the imperishable phosphate of lime , derived from their digested skeletons , has become embalmed in the substance and foundations of the everlasting hills ; and the general law of Nature which bids all to eat and be eaten in their turn , is shown to have been co-extensive with animal existence on our globe ; the Carnivora in each period of the world 's history fulfilling their destined office , – to check excess in the progress of life , and maintain the balance of creation . Buckland had been helping and encouraging Roderick Murchison for some years , and in 1831 was able to suggest a good starting point in South Wales for Murchison 's researches into the rocks beneath the secondary strata associated with the age of reptiles . Murchison would later name these older strata , characterised by marine invertebrate fossils , as Silurian , after a tribe that had lived in that area centuries earlier . In 1832 Buckland presided over the second meeting of the British Association , which was then held at Oxford . Bridgewater Treatise Buckland was commissioned to contribute one of the set of eight Bridgewater Treatises , `` On the Power , Wisdom and Goodness of God , as manifested in the Creation '' . This took him almost five years ' work and was published in 1836 with the title [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idMR4HAAAAQAAJ & pg PA1 & dqwilliam+buckland & ie ISO-8859-1 Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural Theology ] . His volume included a detailed compendium of his theories of day-age , gap theory and a form of progressive creationism where faunal succession revealed by the fossil record was explained by a series of successive divine creations that prepared the earth for humans . In the introduction he expressed the argument from design by asserting that the families and phyla of biology were `` clusters of contrivance '' : The myriads of petrified Remains which are disclosed by the researches of Geology all tend to prove that our Planet has been occupied in times preceding the Creation of the Human Race , by extinct species of Animals and Vegetables , made up , like living Organic Bodies , of 'Clusters of Contrivances , ' which demonstrate the exercise of stupendous Intelligence and Power . They further show that these extinct forms of Organic Life were so closely allied , by Unity in the principles of their construction , to Classes , Orders , and Families , which make up the existing Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms , that they not only afford an argument of surpassing force , against the doctrines of the Atheist and Polytheist ; but supply a chain of connected evidence , amounting to demonstration , of the continuous Being , and of many of the highest Attributes of the One Living and True God . Following Charles Darwin 's return from the Beagle voyage , Buckland discussed with him the Galapagos land iguanas and Marine iguanas . He subsequently recommended Darwin 's paper on the role of earthworms in soil formation for publication , praising it as `` a new & important theory to explain Phenomena of universal occurrence on the surface of the Earth—in fact a new Geological Power '' , while rightly rejecting Darwin 's suggestion that chalkland could have been formed in a similar way . Glaciation theory By this time Buckland was a prominent and influential scientific celebrity and a friend of the Tory prime minister , Sir Robert Peel . In co-operation with Adam Sedgwick and Charles Lyell , he prepared the report leading to the establishment of the Geological Survey of Great Britain . Having become interested in the theory of Louis Agassiz , that polished and striated rocks as well as transported material , had been caused by ancient glaciers , he travelled to Switzerland , in 1838 , to meet Agassiz and see for himself . He was convinced and was reminded of what he had seen in Scotland , Wales and northern England but had previously attributed to the Flood . When Agassiz came to Britain for the Glasgow meeting of the British Association , in 1840 , they went on an extended tour of Scotland and found evidence there of former glaciation . In that year Buckland had become president of the Geological Society again and , despite their hostile reaction to his presentation of the theory , he was now satisfied that glaciation had been the origin of much of the surface deposits covering Britain . In 1845 he was appointed by Sir Robert Peel to the vacant Deanery of Westminster ( he succeeded Samuel Wilberforce ) . Soon after , he was inducted to the living of Islip , near Oxford , a preferment attached to the deanery . As Dean and head of Chapter , Buckland was involved in repair and maintenance of Westminster Abbey and in preaching suitable sermons to the rural population of Islip , while continuing to lecture on geology at Oxford . In 1847 , he was appointed a trustee in the British Museum and , in 1848 , he was awarded the Wollaston Medal , by the Geological Society of London . Illness and death Around the end of 1850 , he contracted tuberculosis , and he died of it in 1856 . The plot for his grave had been reserved , but when the gravedigger set to work , it was found that an outcrop of solid Jurassic limestone lay just below ground level and explosives had to be used for excavation . This may have been a last jest by the noted geologist , reminiscent of Richard Whately 's Elegy intended for Professor Buckland written in 1820 : Where shall we our great Professor inter That in peace may rest his bones ? If we hew him a rocky sepulchre He 'll rise and break the stones And examine each stratum that lies around For he 's quite in his element underground Known eccentricities Buckland preferred to do his field palaeontology and geological work wearing an academic gown . His lectures were notable for their dramatic delivery . Buckland 's passion for scientific observation and experiment extended to his home , where he had a table inlaid with dinosaur coprolites . The original table top is exhibited at the Lyme Regis Museum . Not only was William Buckland 's home filled with specimens – animal as well as mineral , live as well as dead – but he claimed to have eaten his way through the animal kingdom : zoöphagy . The most distasteful items were mole and bluebottle fly ; panther , crocodile and mouse were among the other dishes noted by guests . The raconteur Augustus Hare claimed that `` Talk of strange relics led to mention of the heart of a French King preserved at Nuneham in a silver casket . Dr. Buckland , whilst looking at it , exclaimed , ' I have eaten many strange things , but have never eaten the heart of a king before ' , and , before anyone could hinder him , he had gobbled it up , and the precious relic was lost for ever . '' The heart in question is said to have been that of Louis XIV . Buckland was followed in this hobby by his son Frank . Legacy Dorsum Buckland , a wrinkle ridge on the Moon , is named after him . Buckland Island ( known today as Ani-Jima ) , in the Bonin Islands ( Ogasawara-Jima ) , was named after him by Captain Beechey on 9 June 1827 .

odql_3793--William_Buckland.txt

Which geological period is named after an ancient tribe which once inhabited South Wales?

74 ( seventy-four ) is the natural number following 73 and preceding 75 . In mathematics 74 is : * the twenty-first distinct semiprime and the eleventh of the form 2×q . * the sixth composite number in the 43-aliquot tree . The aliquot sum of 74 is 40 within the aliquot sequence ( 74,40,43,1,0 ) . * a palindromic number in bases 6 ( 2026 ) and 36 ( 2236 ) . * a nontotient . There are 74 different non-Hamiltonian polyhedra with a minimum number of vertices . In science * The atomic number of tungsten In astronomy , Messier object M74 , a magnitude 10.5 spiral galaxy in the constellation Pisces . The New General Catalogue [ http : //www.ngcic.org/ object ] NGC 74 , a galaxy in the constellation Andromeda . The Saros [ http : //sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros1-175.html number ] of the solar eclipse series which began on -615 August 8 and ended on 719 October 18 . The duration of Saros series 74 was 1334.2 years , and it contained 75 solar eclipses . The Saros [ http : //sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/LEsaros/LEsaros1-175.html number ] of the lunar eclipse series which began on -331 May 7 and ended on 949 June 13 . The duration of Saros series 74 was 1280.1 years , and it contained 72 lunar eclipses . In music Rock & Roll * [ http : //www.74thstband.com 74th St Band ] * Piece by John Cage In bus routes In the Merseyside , England , Seventy-four is the bus route that runs from Halewood to Liverpool Town Centre . In Chicago , `` 74 '' is the Fullerton bus which runs from Lincoln Park to Belmont Cragin . London Buses route 74 is a Transport for London contracted bus route in London , England . Running between Baker Street station and Putney , it is operated by London General . In other fields Seventy-four is also : * The year AD 74 , 74 BC , or 1974 * Designates the 7400 series of Integrated Chips . 74xx xx=00-4538 * The designation of USA Interstate 74 , a freeway that runs from Iowa to Ohio * A seventy-four was a third-rate warship with 74 guns . * The registry of the U.S. Navy 's nuclear aircraft carrier USS John C. Stennis ( CVN-74 ) , named after U.S . Senator John C. Stennis * A hurricane or typhoon is a system with sustained winds of at least 74 MPH * Municipal Okrug # 74 , name of Georgiyevsky Municipal Okrug of Frunzensky District of Saint Petersburg , Russia , before 2008 * The number of the French department Haute-Savoie

sfq_8071--74_(number).txt

Which chemical element, atomic number 74, used to be called Wolfram?

Australia ( , , ) , officially the Commonwealth of Australia , is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent , the island of Tasmania , and numerous smaller islands . It is the world 's sixth-largest country by total area . Neighbouring countries include Papua New Guinea , Indonesia and East Timor to the north ; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east ; and New Zealand to the south-east . For about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century , Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians , who spoke languages grouped into roughly 250 language groups . After the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606 , Australia 's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788 . The population grew steadily in subsequent decades ; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies were established . On 1 January 1901 , the six colonies federated , forming the Commonwealth of Australia . Since federation , Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and several territories . The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated in the eastern states and on the coast . Australia is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world , with the world 's 12th-largest economy . In 2014 Australia had the world 's fifth-highest per capita income . Australia 's military expenditure is the world 's 13th-largest . With the second-highest human development index globally , Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance , such as quality of life , health , education , economic freedom , and the protection of civil liberties and political rights . Australia is a member of the United Nations , G20 , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , World Trade Organization , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Pacific Islands Forum . Name The name Australia ( pronounced in Australian English ) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis ( `` southern land '' ) a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times . The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in `` A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo , written by Sir Richard Hakluyt '' , published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus , a corruption of the original Spanish name `` Austrialia del Espíritu Santo '' ( Southern Land of the Holy Spirit ) for an island in Vanuatu . The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia ( Jakarta ) in 1638 , to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south . The first time that the name Australia appears to have been officially used was in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817 in which Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Matthew Flinders ' charts of Australia . On 12 December 1817 , Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted . In 1824 , the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia . History Prehistory Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago , possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now Southeast Asia . These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians . At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century , most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers , with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime . The Torres Strait Islanders , ethnically Melanesian , were originally horticulturists and hunter-gatherers . The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia . European arrival The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland , and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent , are attributed to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon . He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606 , and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York.Davison , Hirst and Macintyre , p. 233 . The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent `` New Holland '' during the 17th century , but made no attempt at settlement . William Dampier , an English explorer and privateer , landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699 on a return trip . In 1770 , James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast , which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain . With the loss of its American colonies in 1783 , the British Government sent a fleet of ships , the `` First Fleet '' , under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip , to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales . A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove , Port Jackson , on 26 January 1788 , a date which became Australia 's national day , Australia Day , although the British Crown Colony of New South Wales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788 . The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney , and the exploration and settlement of other regions . A British settlement was established in Van Diemen 's Land , now known as Tasmania , in 1803 , and it became a separate colony in 1825 . The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Western Australia ( the Swan River Colony ) in 1828 . Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales : South Australia in 1836 , Victoria in 1851 , and Queensland in 1859 . The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia . South Australia was founded as a `` free province '' —it was never a penal colony . Victoria and Western Australia were also founded `` free '' , but later accepted transported convicts . A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony ; the last convict ship arrived in 1848 . The indigenous population , estimated to have been between 750,000 and 1,000,000 in 1788 , declined for 150 years following settlement , mainly due to infectious disease . Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers . A government policy of `` assimilation '' beginning with the Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities—often referred to as the Stolen Generations—a practice which may also have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population . The Federal government gained the power to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum . Traditional ownership of land—aboriginal title—was not recognised until 1992 , when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland ( No 2 ) overturned the legal doctrine that Australia had been terra nullius ( `` land belonging to no one '' ) before the European occupation . Colonial expansion A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience . Between 1855 and 1890 , the six colonies individually gained responsible government , managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire . The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters , notably foreign affairs , defence , and international shipping . Nationhood On 1 January 1901 , federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning , consultation and voting . This established the Commonwealth of Australia as a dominion of the British Empire . The Federal Capital Territory ( later renamed the Australian Capital Territory ) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra . Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed . The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911 . In 1914 , Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I , with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Party and the incoming Australian Labor Party . Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front . Of about 416,000 who served , about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded . Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZACs ) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action . The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II . Britain 's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK . Australia adopted it in 1942 , but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II . The shock of the United Kingdom 's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector . Since 1951 , Australia has been a formal military ally of the US , under the ANZUS treaty . After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe . Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy , immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted . As a result , Australia 's demography , culture , and self-image were transformed . The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986 , ending any British role in the government of the Australian States , and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy Council in London . In a 1999 referendum , 55 % of voters and a majority in every state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament . Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972 , there has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations , while maintaining close ties with Australia 's traditional allies and trading partners . Government Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia , a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms . The Queen is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level , who by convention act on the advice of her ministers . The most notable exercise to date of the Governor-General 's reserve powers outside the Prime Minister 's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975 . The federal government is separated into three branches : * The legislature : the bicameral Parliament , defined in section 1 of the constitution as comprising the Queen ( represented by the Governor-General ) , the Senate , and the House of Representatives ; * The executive : the Federal Executive Council , which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet , comprising the prime minister and ministers of state who advise the Governor-General ; * The judiciary : the High Court of Australia and other federal courts , whose judges are appointed by the Governor-General on advice of the Federal Executive Council . In the Senate ( the upper house ) , there are 76 senators : twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories ( the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory ) . The House of Representatives ( the lower house ) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral divisions , commonly known as `` electorates '' or `` seats '' , allocated to states on the basis of population , with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats . Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously ; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories , whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house ; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution . Australia 's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which , along with the Senate and most state upper houses , combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote . Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction , as is enrolment ( with the exception of South Australia ) . The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister . In cases where no party has majority support , the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and , if necessary , dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament . There are two major political groups that usually form government , federally and in the states : the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner , the National Party . Within Australian political culture , the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left . Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments , mostly in upper houses . The most recent federal election was held on 7 September 2013 and resulted in a majority government for the Coalition . Liberal Party leader Tony Abbott was sworn into office as Prime Minister by the Governor-General of Australia on 18 September . In September 2015 , Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged Abbott for leadership of the Coalition , and was sworn in as the 29th Prime Minister of Australia . States and territories Australia has six states—New South Wales ( NSW ) , Queensland ( QLD ) , South Australia ( SA ) , Tasmania ( TAS ) , Victoria ( VIC ) and Western Australia ( WA ) —and two major mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory ( ACT ) and the Northern Territory ( NT ) . In most respects these two territories function as states , but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments . By contrast , federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution ; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers , including those over schools , state police , the state judiciary , roads , public transport and local government , since these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51 . Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory , the ACT and Queensland , and bicameral in the other states . The states are sovereign entities , although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution . The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly ( the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania ) ; the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council . The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister . The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor ; and in the Northern Territory , the Administrator . In the Commonwealth , the Queen 's representative is the Governor-General . The federal parliament directly administers the following territories : * Ashmore and Cartier Islands * Australian Antarctic Territory * Christmas Island * Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands * Coral Sea Islands * Heard Island and McDonald Islands * Jervis Bay Territory , a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales The external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the Queen . In 2015 , the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government , integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council . Macquarie Island is administered by Tasmania , and Lord Howe Island by New South Wales . Foreign relations and military Over recent decades , Australia 's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact , and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific , particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum . In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia , and in 2011 attended the Sixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia . Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for co-operation . Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation . It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation . Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade Organization , and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements , most recently the Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand , with another free trade agreement being negotiated with China—the Australia–China Free Trade Agreement—and Japan , South Korea in 2011 , Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement , and as of November 2015 has put the Trans-Pacific Partnership before parliament for ratification . Along with New Zealand , the United Kingdom , Malaysia and Singapore , Australia is party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements , a regional defence agreement . A founding member country of the United Nations , Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance . The 2005–06 budget provides A $ 2.5 billion for development assistance . Australia ranks fifteenth overall in the Center for Global Development 's 2012 Commitment to Development Index . Australia 's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force ( ADF ) —comprise the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , in total numbering 81,214 personnel ( including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists ) as of November 2015 . The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General , who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government . Day-to-day force operations are under the command of the Chief , while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence . In the 2015–16 budget , defence spending was A $ 31.9 billion or 1.92 % of GDP , representing the 13th largest defence budget . Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping , disaster relief and armed conflict , including the 2003 invasion of Iraq ; it currently has deployed about 2,241 personnel in varying capacities to 12 international operations in areas including Iraq and Afghanistan . Geography and climate Australia 's landmass of 7617930 km2 is on the Indo-Australian Plate . Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans , it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas , with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast , and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand . The world 's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area , Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the `` island continent '' , and is sometimes considered the world 's largest island . Australia has 34218 km of coastline ( excluding all offshore islands ) , and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8148250 km2 . This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory . Apart from Macquarie Island , Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44°S , and longitudes 112° and 154°E . The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest coral reef , lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2000 km . Mount Augustus , claimed to be the world 's largest monolith , is located in Western Australia . At 2228 m , Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland . Even taller are Mawson Peak ( at 2745 m ) , on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island , and , in the Australian Antarctic Territory , Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies , at 3492 m and 3355 m respectively . Australia 's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes , with tropical rainforests in the north-east , mountain ranges in the south-east , south-west and east , and dry desert in the centre . It is the flattest continent , with the oldest and least fertile soils ; desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land . The driest inhabited continent , its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm . The population density , 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre , is among the lowest in the world , although a large proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline . Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range , which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland , New South Wales and much of Victoria . The name is not strictly accurate , because parts of the range consist of low hills , and the highlands are typically no more than 1600 m in height . The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains , while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland . These include the western plains of New South Wales , and the Einasleigh Uplands , Barkly Tableland , and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland . The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula . The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Countrywith their tropical climateinclude forest , woodland , wetland , grassland , rainforest and desert . At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley , and below that the Pilbara . To the south of these and inland , lie more areas of grassland : the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands . At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia . Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru ( also known as Ayers Rock ) , the famous sandstone monolith , and the inland Simpson , Tirari and Sturt Stony , Gibson , Great Sandy , Tanami , and Great Victoria deserts , with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast . The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents , including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation , which is correlated with periodic drought , and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia . These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year . Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical , predominantly summer-rainfall ( monsoon ) climate . The south-west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate . Much of the south-east ( including Tasmania ) is temperate . Environment Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert , it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests , and is recognised as a megadiverse country . Fungi typify that diversity ; an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5 % have been described—occur in Australia . Because of the continent 's great age , extremely variable weather patterns , and long-term geographic isolation , much of Australia 's biota is unique . About 85 % of flowering plants , 84 % of mammals , more than 45 % of birds , and 89 % of in-shore , temperate-zone fish are endemic . Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country , with 755 species . Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species , particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions ; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts . Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes ( the platypus and echidna ) ; a host of marsupials , including the kangaroo , koala , and wombat , and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra . Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world . The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE . Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement , including the Australian megafauna ; others have disappeared since European settlement , among them the thylacine . Many of Australia 's ecoregions , and the species within those regions , are threatened by human activities and introduced animal , chromistan , fungal and plant species . All these factors have led to Australia having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world . The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species . Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia 's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems ; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention , and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established . Australia was ranked 3rd out of 178 countries in the world on the 2014 Environmental Performance Index . Environmental issues Protection of the environment is a major political issue in Australia . In 2007 , the First Rudd Government signed the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol . Nevertheless , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world , lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10–20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . According to the Bureau of Meteorology 's 2011 Australian Climate Statement , Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Niña weather pattern ; however , `` the country 's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures , with 2002–2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia , at above the long-term average '' . Furthermore , 2014 was Australia 's third warmest year since national temperature observations commenced in 1910 . Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought . Throughout much of the continent , major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought , flushing out inland river systems , overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains , as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010 , 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought . A carbon tax was introduced in 2012 and helped to reduce Australia 's emissions but was scrapped in 2014 under the Liberal Government . Since the carbon tax was repealed , emissions have again continued to rise . Australian biota has been severely impacted by changes occurring since European settlement began in 1788 , with more than 10 % of mammal species lost in the past 225 years . There have also been 23 bird species or subspecies , 4 amphibians and more than 60 plant species known to be lost during this period . The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 was designed to minimise further impacts on ecological communities in Australia and its territories . Economy Australia is a wealthy country ; it generates its income from various sources including mining-related exports , telecommunications , banking and manufacturing . It has a market economy , a relatively high GDP per capita , and a relatively low rate of poverty . In terms of average wealth , Australia ranked

qw_14649--Australia.txt

"In Australia, what is known as a ""Laughing Jackass""?"

Samuel Langhorne Clemens ( November 30 , 1835 – April 21 , 1910 ) , better known by his pen name Mark Twain , was an American writer . Among his novels are The Adventures of Tom Sawyer ( 1876 ) and its sequel , Adventures of Huckleberry Finn ( 1885 ) , the latter often called `` The Great American Novel '' . Twain was raised in Hannibal , Missouri , which later provided the setting for Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn . After an apprenticeship with a printer , Twain worked as a typesetter and contributed articles to the newspaper of his older brother , Orion Clemens . He later became a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River before heading west to join Orion in Nevada . He referred humorously to his lack of success at mining , turning to journalism for the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise . In 1865 , his humorous story , `` The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County '' , was published , based on a story he heard at Angels Hotel in Angels Camp , California , where he had spent some time as a miner . The short story brought international attention , and was even translated into classic Greek . His wit and satire , in prose and in speech , earned praise from critics and peers , and he was a friend to presidents , artists , industrialists , and European royalty . Though Twain earned a great deal of money from his writings and lectures , he invested in ventures that lost a great deal of money , notably the Paige Compositor , a mechanical typesetter , which failed because of its complexity and imprecision . In the wake of these financial setbacks , he filed for protection from his creditors via bankruptcy , and with the help of Henry Huttleston Rogers eventually overcame his financial troubles . Twain chose to pay all his pre-bankruptcy creditors in full , though he had no legal responsibility to do so . Twain was born shortly after a visit by Halley 's Comet , and he predicted that he would `` go out with it '' , too . He died the day after the comet returned . He was lauded as the `` greatest American humorist of his age '' , and William Faulkner called Twain `` the father of American literature '' . Biography Early life Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born in Florida , Missouri , on November 30 , 1835 . He was the son of Jane ( née Lampton ; 1803–1890 ) , a native of Kentucky , and John Marshall Clemens ( 1798–1847 ) , a Virginian . His parents met when his father moved to Missouri and were married in 1823 . Twain was the sixth of seven children , but only three of his siblings survived childhood : Orion ( 1825–1897 ) ; Henry ( 1838–1858 ) ; and Pamela ( 1827–1904 ) . His sister Margaret ( 1833–1839 ) died when he was three , and his brother Benjamin ( 1832–1842 ) died three years later . Another brother , Pleasant ( 1828–1829 ) , died at six months . Twain was born two weeks after the closest approach to Earth of Halley 's Comet . His ancestors were of Scots-Irish , English , and Cornish extraction . When he was four , Twain 's family moved to Hannibal , Missouri , a port town on the Mississippi River that inspired the fictional town of St. Petersburg in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn . Slavery , then legal in Missouri , was a theme Twain would explore in these writings . In 1847 , when Twain was 11 , his father , by then an attorney and judge , died of pneumonia . The next year Twain left school after the fifth grade to become a printer 's apprentice . In 1851 , he began working as a typesetter and contributor of articles and humorous sketches for the Hannibal Journal , a newspaper Orion owned . When he was 18 , he left Hannibal and worked as a printer in New York City , Philadelphia , St. Louis , and Cincinnati . He joined the newly formed International Typographical Union , the printers union , and educated himself in public libraries in the evenings , finding wider information than at a conventional school . Twain describes in Life on the Mississippi how , when he was a boy , `` there was but one permanent ambition '' among his comrades : to be a steamboatman . `` Pilot was the grandest position of all . The pilot , even in those days of trivial wages , had a princely salary – from a hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty dollars a month , and no board to pay . '' As Twain described it , the pilot 's prestige exceeded that of the captain . The pilot had to `` get up a warm personal acquaintanceship with every old snag and one-limbed cottonwood and every obscure wood pile that ornaments the banks of this river for twelve hundred miles ; and more than that , must ... actually know where these things are in the dark ... '' Steamboat pilot Horace E. Bixby took on Twain as a `` cub '' pilot to teach him the river between New Orleans and St. Louis for $ 500 , payable out of Twain 's first wages after graduating . Twain studied the Mississippi , learning its landmarks , how to navigate its currents effectively , and how to `` read the river '' and its constantly shifting channels , reefs , submerged snags and rocks that would `` tear the life out of the strongest vessel that ever floated '' . It was more than two years before he received his pilot 's license . Piloting gave him his pen name , Mark Twain , from `` mark twain '' , the leadsman 's cry for a measured river depth of two fathoms ( 12 feet ) , which was safe water for a steamboat . While training , Samuel convinced his younger brother Henry to work with him . Henry was killed on June 21 , 1858 , when the steamboat he was working on , the Pennsylvania , exploded . Twain had foreseen this death in a dream a month earlier , which inspired his interest in parapsychology ; he was an early member of the Society for Psychical Research . Twain was guilt-stricken and held himself responsible for the rest of his life . Twain continued to work on the river and was a river pilot until the American Civil War broke out in 1861 , and traffic along the Mississippi was curtailed . At the start of hostilities , Twain enlisted briefly in a Confederate local unit . Twain later wrote a sketch , `` The Private History of a Campaign That Failed '' , that told how he and his friends had been Confederate volunteers for two weeks before disbanding . He then left for Nevada to work for Orion , who was Secretary of the Nevada Territory . Twain describes the episode in his book Roughing It . Travels Twain joined Orion , who in 1861 became secretary to James W. Nye , the governor of Nevada Territory , and headed west . Twain and his brother traveled more than two weeks on a stagecoach across the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains , visiting the Mormon community in Salt Lake City . Twain 's journey ended in the silver-mining town of Virginia City , Nevada , where he became a miner on the Comstock Lode . Twain failed as a miner and worked at a Virginia City newspaper , the Territorial Enterprise . Working under writer and friend Dan DeQuille , here he first used the pen name that would become famous ; on February 3 , 1863 , he signed a humorous travel account , `` Letter From Carson – re : Joe Goodman ; party at Gov . Johnson 's ; music '' , with `` Mark Twain '' . ( For further information , see Mark Twain in Nevada . ) His experiences in the American West inspired Roughing It ( written during 1870–71 and published in 1872 ) and his experiences in Angels Camp , California , in Calaveras County , provided material for `` The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County '' ( 1865 ) . Twain moved to San Francisco in 1864 , still as a journalist , and met writers such as Bret Harte and Artemus Ward . The young poet Ina Coolbrith may have romanced him . His first success as a writer came when his humorous tall tale , `` The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County '' , was published in a New York weekly , The Saturday Press , on November 18 , 1865 . It brought him national attention . A year later , he traveled to the Sandwich Islands ( present-day Hawaii ) as a reporter for the Sacramento Union . His letters to the Union were popular and became the basis for his first lectures . In 1867 , a local newspaper funded a trip to the Mediterranean . During his tour of Europe and the Middle East , he wrote a popular collection of travel letters , which were later compiled as The Innocents Abroad ( 1869 ) . It was on this trip that he met his future brother-in-law , Charles Langdon . Both were passengers aboard the Quaker City on their way to the Holy Land . Langdon showed a picture of his sister Olivia to Twain , who claimed to have fallen in love at first sight . Upon returning to the United States , Twain was offered honorary membership in Yale University 's secret society Scroll and Key , in 1868 . Its devotion to `` fellowship , moral and literary self-improvement , and charity '' suited him well . Marriage and children Throughout 1868 , Twain and Olivia Langdon corresponded . Though she rejected his first marriage proposal , two months later , they were engaged . In February 1870 , Twain and Langdon were married in Elmira , New York , where he courted her and managed to overcome her father 's initial reluctance . She came from a `` wealthy but liberal family '' , and through her , he met abolitionists , `` socialists , principled atheists and activists for women 's rights and social equality '' , including Harriet Beecher Stowe ( his next-door neighbor in Hartford , Connecticut ) , Frederick Douglass , and the writer and utopian socialist William Dean Howells , who became a long-time friend . The couple lived in Buffalo , New York , from 1869 to 1871 . Twain owned a stake in the Buffalo Express newspaper and worked as an editor and writer . While they were living in Buffalo , their son Langdon died of diphtheria at the age of 19 months . They had three daughters : Susy ( 1872–1896 ) , Clara ( 1874–1962 ) and Jean ( 1880–1909 ) . The couple 's marriage lasted 34 years , until Olivia 's death in 1904 . All of the Clemens family are buried in Elmira 's Woodlawn Cemetery . Twain moved his family to Hartford , Connecticut , where starting in 1873 he arranged the building of a home . In the 1870s and 1880s , Twain and his family summered at Quarry Farm in Elmira , the home of Olivia 's sister , Susan Crane . In 1874 , Susan had a study built apart from the main house so that her brother-in-law would have a quiet place in which to write . Also , Twain smoked pipes constantly , and Susan Crane did not wish him to do so in her house . During his 17 years in Hartford ( 1874–1891 ) and over 20 summers at Quarry Farm , Twain wrote many of his classic novels , among them The Adventures of Tom Sawyer ( 1876 ) , The Prince and the Pauper ( 1881 ) , Life on the Mississippi ( 1883 ) , Adventures of Huckleberry Finn ( 1885 ) , and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court ( 1889 ) . Twain made a second tour of Europe , described in the book A Tramp Abroad ( 1880 ) . His tour included a stay in Heidelberg from May 6 until July 23 , 1878 , and a visit to London . Love of science and technology Twain was fascinated with science and scientific inquiry . He developed a close and lasting friendship with Nikola Tesla , and the two spent much time together in Tesla 's laboratory . Twain patented three inventions , including an `` Improvement in Adjustable and Detachable Straps for Garments '' ( to replace suspenders ) and a history trivia game . Most commercially successful was a self-pasting scrapbook ; a dried adhesive on the pages needed only to be moistened before use . Over 25,000 were sold . Twain 's novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court ( 1889 ) features a time traveler from the contemporary US , using his knowledge of science to introduce modern technology to Arthurian England . This type of storyline would later become a common feature of a science fiction subgenre , alternate history . In 1909 , Thomas Edison visited Twain at his home in Redding , Connecticut and filmed him . Part of the footage was used in The Prince and the Pauper ( 1909 ) , a two-reel short film . It is said to have been the only known existing film footage of Twain . Financial troubles Twain made a substantial amount of money through his writing , but he lost a great deal through investments , mostly in new inventions and technology , particularly the Paige typesetting machine . It was a beautifully engineered mechanical marvel that amazed viewers when it worked , but it was prone to breakdowns . Twain spent $ 300,000 ( equal to $ in inflation-adjusted terms ) on it between 1880 and 1894 , but before it could be perfected , it was rendered obsolete by the Linotype . He lost not only the bulk of his book profits , but also a substantial portion of his wife 's inheritance . Twain also lost money through his publishing house , Charles L. Webster and Company , which enjoyed initial success selling the memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant , but went broke soon afterward , losing money on a biography of Pope Leo XIII . Fewer than 200 copies were sold . Reacting to the dwindling income , Twain and his family closed down their expensive Hartford home and moved to Europe in June 1891 . William M. Laffan of The New York Sun and the McClure Newspaper Syndicate offered Twain the publication of a series of six European letters . Considering the health problems troubling Twain , his wife , and their daughter Susy , it was believed that visiting European baths would be of benefit . Until May 1895 , the family stayed mainly in France , Germany , and Italy , with longer spells at Berlin ( winter 1891/92 ) , Florence ( fall and winter 1892/93 ) , and Paris ( winters and springs 1893/94 and 1894/95 ) . During that period , Twain returned four times to New York due to his enduring business troubles . Arriving in September 1893 , he took `` a cheap room '' , at $ 1.50 per day , at The Players Club , which he had to keep until March 1894 , and meanwhile became `` The Belle of New York '' . Twain 's writings and lectures , combined with the help of a new friend , enabled him to recover financially . In fall 1893 , he began a 15-year-long friendship with financier Henry Huttleston Rogers , a principal of Standard Oil . Rogers first made Twain file for bankruptcy in April 1894 . Then Rogers had Twain transfer the copyrights on his written works to his wife to prevent creditors from gaining possession of them . Finally , Rogers took absolute charge of Twain 's money until all the creditors were paid . Twain accepted an offer from Robert Sparrow Smythe and embarked on a year-long , around-the-world lecture tour in July 1895 to pay off his creditors in full , although he was no longer under any legal obligation to do so . It would be a long , arduous journey , and he was sick much of the time , mostly from a cold and a carbuncle . The first part of the itinerary , until the second half of August , took him across northern America to British Columbia , Canada . For the second part , he sailed across the Pacific Ocean . His scheduled lecture in Honolulu , Hawaii , had to be cancelled due to a cholera epidemic . Twain went on to Fiji , Australia , New Zealand , Sri Lanka , India , Mauritius , and South Africa . Twain 's three months in India became the centerpiece of his 712-page book Following the Equator . In the second half of July 1896 , he sailed back to England , completing his circumnavigation of the world begun fourteen months before . Twain and his family spent four more years in Europe , mainly in England and Austria ( October 1897 to May 1899 ) , with longer spells in London and Vienna . Clara had wished to study the piano under Theodor Leschetizky in Vienna . Unfortunately , Jean 's health did not benefit from consulting with specialists in Vienna , the `` City of Doctors '' . Following a lead by Poultney Bigelow , the Clemens family moved to London in spring 1899 . Bigelow had had a good experience being treated by Dr. , a Swedish osteopathic practitioner with a practice in Belgravia . There , they were persuaded to spend the summer at Kellgren 's sanatorium by the lake in the Swedish village of Sanna . Coming back in fall , they continued the treatment in London , until Twain was convinced by lengthy inquiries in America that similar osteopathic expertise was available there . In mid-1900 , he was the guest of newspaper proprietor Hugh Gilzean-Reid at Dollis Hill House , located on the north side of London . Twain wrote that he had `` never seen any place that was so satisfactorily situated , with its noble trees and stretch of country , and everything that went to make life delightful , and all within a biscuit 's throw of the metropolis of the world . '' He then returned to America in October 1900 , having earned enough to pay off his debts . In winter 1900/01 , Twain became his country 's most prominent opponent of imperialism , raising the issue in his speeches , interviews and writings . In January 1901 , he began serving as vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League of New York . Speaking engagements Twain was in great demand as a featured speaker , performing solo humorous talks , similar to what would later become stand-up comedy . He gave paid talks to many men 's clubs , including the Authors ' Club , Beefsteak Club , Vagabonds , White Friars , and Monday Evening Club of Hartford . In the late 1890s , he spoke to the Savage Club in London and was elected honorary member . When told that only three men had been so honored , including the Prince of Wales , he replied `` Well , it must make the Prince feel mighty fine . '' He visited Sydney in 1895 as part of a world lecture tour . In 1897 , Twain spoke to the Concordia Press Club in Vienna as a special guest , following diplomat Charlemagne Tower , Jr . In German , to the great amusement of the assemblage , Twain delivered the speech `` Die Schrecken der deutschen Sprache '' ( `` The Horrors of the German Language '' ) . In 1901 , Twain was invited to speak at Princeton University 's Cliosophic Literary Society , where he was made an honorary member . Later life and death Twain passed through a period of deep depression that began in 1896 when his daughter , Susy , died of meningitis . Olivia 's death in 1904 and Jean 's on December 24 , 1909 , deepened his gloom . On May 20 , 1909 , his close friend Henry Rogers died suddenly . In 1906 , Twain began his autobiography in the North American Review . In April , Twain heard that his friend Ina Coolbrith had lost nearly all she owned in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake , and he volunteered a few autographed portrait photographs to be sold for her benefit . To further aid Coolbrith , George Wharton James visited Twain in New York and arranged for a new portrait session . Initially resistant , Twain admitted that four of the resulting images were the finest ones ever taken of him . Twain formed a club in 1906 for girls he viewed as surrogate granddaughters , the Angel Fish and Aquarium Club . The dozen or so members ranged in age from 10 to 16 . Twain exchanged letters with his `` Angel Fish '' girls and invited them to concerts and the theatre and to play games . Twain wrote in 1908 that the club was his `` life 's chief delight '' . In 1907 , Twain met Dorothy Quick ( then aged 11 ) on a transatlantic crossing , beginning `` a friendship that was to last until the very day of his death '' . Oxford University awarded Twain an honorary doctorate in letters ( D.Litt . ) in 1907 . In 1909 , Twain said : His prediction was accurate – Twain died of a heart attack on April 21 , 1910 , in Redding , Connecticut , one day after the comet 's closest approach to Earth . Upon hearing of Twain 's death , President William Howard Taft said : Twain 's funeral was at the `` Old Brick '' Presbyterian Church in New York . He is buried in his wife 's family plot at Woodlawn Cemetery in Elmira , New York . The Langdon family plot where he is buried is marked by a 12-foot ( two fathoms , or `` mark twain '' ) monument , placed there by his surviving daughter , Clara . There is also a smaller headstone . Although he expressed a preference for cremation ( for example in Life on the Mississippi ) , he acknowledged that his surviving family would have the last word . Officials in Connecticut and New York estimated the value of Twain 's estate at $ 471,000 ( $ today ) . Writing Overview Twain began his career writing light , humorous verse , but evolved into a chronicler of the vanities , hypocrisies and murderous acts of mankind . At mid-career , with Huckleberry Finn , he combined rich humor , sturdy narrative and social criticism . Twain was a master at rendering colloquial speech and helped to create and popularize a distinctive American literature built on American themes and language . Many of Twain 's works have been suppressed at times for various reasons . Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has been repeatedly restricted in American high schools , not least for its frequent use of the word `` nigger '' , which was in common usage in the pre-Civil War period in which the novel was set . A complete bibliography of his works is nearly impossible to compile because of the vast number of pieces written by Twain ( often in obscure newspapers ) and his use of several different pen names . Additionally , a large portion of his speeches and lectures have been lost or were not written down ; thus , the collection of Twain 's works is an ongoing process . Researchers rediscovered published material by Twain as recently as 1995 and 2015 . Early journalism and travelogues While writing for the Virginia City newspaper , the Territorial Enterprise in 1863 , Clemens met lawyer Tom Fitch , editor of the competing newspaper Virginia Daily Union and known as the `` silver-tongued orator of the Pacific '' . He credited Fitch with giving him his `` first really profitable lesson '' in writing . In 1866 , Clemens presented his lecture on the Sandwich Islands to a crowd in Washoe City , Nevada . Clemens commented that , `` When I first began to lecture , and in my earlier writings , my sole idea was to make comic capital out of everything I saw and heard '' . Fitch told him , `` Clemens , your lecture was magnificent . It was eloquent , moving , sincere . Never in my entire life have I listened to such a magnificent piece of descriptive narration . But you committed one unpardonable sin – the unpardonable sin . It is a sin you must never commit again . You closed a most eloquent description , by which you had keyed your audience up to a pitch of the intensest interest , with a piece of atrocious anti-climax which nullified all the really fine effect you had produced . '' It was in these days that Twain became a writer of the Sagebrush School , and was known later as the most notable within this literary genre . Twain 's first important work , `` The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County '' , was first published in the New York Saturday Press on November 18 , 1865 . The only reason it was published there was that his story arrived too late to be included in a book Artemus Ward was compiling featuring sketches of the American West . After this burst of popularity , the Sacramento Union commissioned Twain to write letters about his travel experiences . The first journey he took for this job was to ride the steamer Ajax in its maiden voyage to Hawaii , referred to at the time as the Sandwich Islands . These humorous letters proved the genesis to his work with the San Francisco Alta California newspaper , which designated him a traveling correspondent for a trip from San Francisco to New York City via the Panama isthmus . All the while , Twain was writing letters meant for publishing back and forth , chronicling his experiences with his burlesque humor . On June 8 , 1867 , Twain set sail on the pleasure cruiser Quaker City for five months . This trip resulted in The Innocents Abroad or The New Pilgrims ' Progress . In 1872 , Twain published a second piece of travel literature , Roughing It , as a semi-sequel to Innocents . Roughing It is a semi-autobiographical account of Twain 's journey from Missouri to Nevada , his subsequent life in the American West , and his visit to Hawaii . The book lampoons American and Western society in the same way that Innocents critiqued the various countries of Europe and the Middle East . Twain 's next work kept Roughing Its focus on American society but focused more on the events of the day . Titled The Gilded Age : A Tale of Today , it was not a travel piece , as his previous two books had been , and it was his first attempt at writing a novel . The book is also notable because it is Twain 's only collaboration ; it was written with his neighbor , Charles Dudley Warner . Twain 's next two works drew on his experiences on the Mississippi River . Old Times on the Mississippi , a series of sketches published in the Atlantic Monthly in 1875 , featured Twain 's disillusionment with Romanticism . Old Times eventually became the starting point for Life on the Mississippi . Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn Twain 's next major publication was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer , which drew on his youth in Hannibal . Tom Sawyer was modeled on Twain as a child , with traces of two schoolmates , John Briggs and Will Bowen . The book also introduced , in a supporting role , Huckleberry Finn , based on Twain 's boyhood friend Tom Blankenship . The Prince and the Pauper , despite a storyline that is omnipresent in film and literature today , was not as well received . Telling the story of two boys born on the same day who are physically identical , the book

qz_5459--Mark_Twain.txt

By what name did Samuel Langhorne Clemens publish his novels under?

The flag of Greece ( popularly referred to as the `` sky-blue-white '' or the `` blue-white '' and in Greek : `` Γαλανόλευκη '' or `` Κυανόλευκη '' ) , officially recognised by Greece as one of its national symbols , is based on nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white . There is a blue canton in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross ; the cross symbolises Eastern Orthodox Christianity , the established religion of the Greek people of Greece and Cyprus . According to popular tradition , the nine stripes represent the nine syllables of the phrase `` Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος '' ( `` Freedom or Death '' ) , the five blue stripes for the syllables `` Έλευθερία '' and the four white stripes `` ή Θάνατος '' . The nine stripes are also said to represent the letters of the word `` freedom '' ( Greek : Ελευθερία ) . There is also a different theory , that the nine stripes symbolise the nine Muses , the goddesses of art and civilisation ( nine has traditionally been one of the numbers of reference for the Greeks ) . The official flag ratio is 2:3 . [ http : //www.presidency.gr/index.php ? option com_content & viewarticle & id 3 & Itemid6 & lang en The Flag , from the site of the Presidency of the Hellenic Republic ] The blazon of the flag is Azure , four bars Argent ; on a canton of the field a Greek cross throughout of the second . The shade of blue used in the flag has varied throughout its history , from light blue to dark blue , the latter being increasingly used since the late 1960s . The above patterns were officially adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus on 13 January 1822 . Blue and white have many interpretations , symbolising the colours of the famed Greek sky and sea ( combined with the white clouds and waves ) , traditional colours of Greek clothes in the islands and the mainland , etc . History The origins of today 's national flag with its cross-and-stripe pattern are a matter of debate . Every part of it , including the blue and white colours ( see below ) , the cross , as well as the stripe arrangement can be connected to very old historical elements ; however it is difficult to establish `` continuity '' , especially as there is no record of the exact reasoning behind its official adoption in early 1822 . It has been suggested by some Greek historians that the current flag derived from an older design , the virtually identical flag of the powerful Cretan Kallergis family . This flag was based on their coat of arms , whose pattern is supposed to be derived from the standards of their claimed ancestor , Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas ( 963–969 AD ) . This pattern ( according to not easily verifiable descriptions ) included nine stripes of alternating blue and white , as well as a cross , assumed to be placed on the upper left N. Zapheiriou , Η Ελληνική Σημαία από τους αρχαίους χρόνους μέχρι σήμερα ( The Greek Flag from Antiquity to Present ) , Eleftheri Skepsis , Athens 1995 ( reprint of original 1947 publication ) ISBN 960-7199-60-X The stripe-pattern of the Greek flag is visibly similar to that used in several other flags that have appeared over the centuries , most notably that of the British East India Company 's pre-1707 flag or the flag of the United States . However , in such cases of flags derived from much older designs , it is very difficult to prove or trace original influences . Antiquity and the Byzantine Empire Flags as they are known today did not exist in Antiquity . Instead , a variety of emblems and symbols ( semeion , pl . semeia ) were used to denote each state and were for example painted on the hoplite shields . The closest analogue to a modern flag were the vexillum-like banners used by ancient Greek armies , such as the so-called phoinikis , a cloth of deep red , suspended from the top of a staff or spear . It is not known to have carried any device or decoration though . The Byzantines , like the Romans before them , used a variety of flags and banners , primarily to denote different military units . These were generally square or rectangular , with a number of streamers attached . Most prominent among the early Byzantine flags was the labarum . In the surviving pictorial sources of the middle and later Empire , primarily the illustrated Skylitzes Chronicle , the predominating colours are red and blue in horizontal stripes , with a cross often placed in the centre of the flag . Other common symbols , prominently featuring on seals , were depictions of Christ , the Virgin Mary and saints , but these represent personal rather than family or state symbols . Western European-style heraldry was largely unknown until the last centuries of the Empire . There is no mention of any `` state '' flag until the mid-14th century , when a Spanish atlas , the Conosçimiento de todos los reynos depicts the flag of `` the Empire of Constantinople '' combining the red-on-white Cross of St George with the `` tetragrammic cross '' of the ruling house of the Palaiologoi , featuring the four betas or pyrekvola ( `` fire-steels '' ) on the flag quarters representing the imperial motto Βασιλεύς Βασιλέων Βασιλεύων Βασιλευόντων ( `` King of Kings Reigning over those who Rule '' ) . [ http : //www.heraldica.org/topics/national/byzantin.htm Byzantine Heraldry , from Heraldica.org ] The tetragrammic cross flag , as it appears in quarters II and III in this design , is well documented . However , the exact `` Westernised '' ( quartered ) arrangement that includes the Cross of St. George , appearing in the Spanish atlas , is never depicted or described in any Greek source . In the same Spanish atlas the ( well documented ) `` plain '' tetragrammic cross flag is [ http : //www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_byz.html # con presented as ] ( among other places in the Empire ) `` the Flag of Salonika '' and `` the real Greece and Empire of the Greeks ( la vera Grecia e el imperio de los griegos ) '' ( not being clear whether this implies usage of the quartered flag mainly in Constantinople ) . Pseudo-Kodinos records the use of the `` tetragrammic cross '' on the banner ( phlamoulon ) borne by imperial naval vessels , while the megas doux displayed an image of the emperor on horseback . Ottoman period The Greek ship Panagia tis Ydras , built 1793 , flying the Greco-Ottoman flag . During the Ottoman rule several unofficial flags were used by Greeks , usually employing the Byzantine double-headed eagle ( see below ) , the cross , depictions of saints and various mottoes . The Christian Greek sipahi cavalry employed by the Ottoman Sultan were allowed to use their own , clearly Christian flag , when within Epirus and the Peloponnese . It featured the classic blue cross on a white field with the picture of St. George slaying the dragon , and was used from 1431 until 1639 , when this privilege was greatly limited by the Sultan . Similar flags were used by other local leaders . The closest to a Greek `` national '' flag during Ottoman rule was the so-called `` Graeco-Ottoman flag '' ( Γραικοθωμανική παντιέρα ) , a civil ensign Greek Orthodox merchants ( better : merchants from the Greek-dominated Orthodox millet ) were allowed to fly on their ships , combining stripes with red ( for the Ottoman Empire ) and blue ( for Orthodoxy ) colours . After the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , Greek-owned merchant ships could also fly the Russian flag . During the uprising of 1769 the historic blue cross on white field was used again by key military leaders who used it all the way to the revolution of 1821 . It became the most popular Revolution flag , and it was argued that it should become the national flag . The `` reverse '' arrangement , white cross on a blue field , also appeared as Greek flag during the uprisings . This design had been used earlier as well , as a local symbol ( a similar 16th or 17th century flag has been [ http : //www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_ottom.html # sou found ] near Chania ) , while Greek volunteers in Napoleon 's army in Egypt in 1798 used a white cross on blue incorporated in the canton of the French flag . [ http : //users.att.sch.gr/zskafid/simea5a.htm History of Greek Flags ] A military leader , Yiannis Stathas , used a flag with white cross on blue on his ship since 1800 . The first flag featuring the design eventually adopted was created and hoisted in the Evangelistria monastery in Skiathos in 1807 . Several prominent military leaders ( including Theodoros Kolokotronis and Andreas Miaoulis ) had gathered there for consultation concerning an uprising , and they were sworn to this flag by the local bishop . Spachides Flag.svg| Flag used by the Greek sipahis of the Ottoman army between 1431 and 1619 Roman ( Orthodox Christian ) Merchant Flag 1453-1793.svg| Civil ensign for merchant ships owned by Ottoman subjects belonging to the Greek Orthodox ( Rum ) millet Bandera de Samos.svg| Civil flag and ensign of the Principality of Samos ( 1835–1912 ) Flag of the Septinsular Republic.svg| Flag of the Septinsular Republic ( 1800–1807 ) , the first autonomous modern Greek state Flag of Cretan State.svg| National flag and ensign of the Cretan State Flag of the Free State of Ikaria.svg|Flag of the Free State of Icaria War of Independence Rigas Feraios flag manuscript.png|The flag of Greece as drawn by Rigas Feraios in his manuscripts . Epanastasi.jpg|Bishop Germanos of Patras blessing the flag of the Greek revolutionaries at the Monastery of Agia Lavra , part of a popular legend regarding the start of the revolution of 1821 , although it never actually happened . Prior and during the early days of the Greek War of Independence ( 1821–1829 ) , a large variety of flags was designed , proposed and used by various Greek intellectuals in Western Europe , local leaders , chieftains and regional councils . Aside from the cross , many of these flags featured saints , the phoenix ( symbolising the rebirth of the Greek nation ) , mottoes such as `` Freedom or Death '' ( Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος ) or the fasces-like emblems of the Philiki Etaireia , the secret society that organised the uprising . Flag of Rigas Feraios.svg| The Flag of Greece , as proposed by Rigas Feraios in 1797 YpsilantisFlag.svg| Flag of the Sacred Band Alexander_Ypsilantis_flag_ ( obverse ) .svg| The flag of Alexander Ypsilantis Areios Pagos Anatolikis Ellados.svg| Flag of the Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece Andreas Lontos Flag ( Revolution1821 ) .svg| The flag of Andreas Londos Filiki Eteria flag.svg| Flag of the Filiki Eteria Mani Flag ( Greece ) .svg| Flag of the Maniots Greek Independence 1821.svg| Very widespread flag used from 1769 to the War of Independence Miaoulis_flag.gif| The first flag of admiral Andreas Miaoulis 1821 Flag of Gazis.svg| Flag of Anthimos Gazis Thessalia-flag.jpg| Used in Thessaly , created also by Anthimos Gazis Hydraflag.gif| Flag of Hydra island 1821_Flag_of_Spetses.svg| Flag of Spetses island Halkidiki flag ( 1821 ) .svg| Flag of Chalkidiki Athanasios Diakos 1821.svg| Flag of Athanasios Diakos Adoption Because the European monarchies , allied in the so-called `` Concert of Europe '' , were suspicious towards national or social revolutionary movements such as the Etaireia , the First Greek National Assembly , convening in January 1822 , took steps to disassociate itself from the Etaireias legacy and portray nascent Greece as a `` conventional '' , ordered nation-state . As such not only were the regional councils abolished in favour of a central administration , but it was decided to abolish all revolutionary flags and adopt a universal national flag . The reasons why the particular arrangement ( white cross on blue ) was selected , instead of the more popular blue cross on a white field , remain unknown . On 15 March 1822 , the Provisional Government , by Decree Nr . 540 , laid down the exact pattern : white cross on blue ( plain ) for the land flag ; nine alternate-coloured stripes with the white cross on a blue field in the canton for the naval ensign ; and blue with a blue cross on a white field in the canton for the civil ensign ( merchant flag ) . On 30 June 1828 , by decree of the Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias , the civil ensign was discontinued , and the cross-and-stripes naval ensign became the national ensign , worn by both naval and merchant ships . This design became immediately very popular with Greeks and in practice was often used simultaneously with the national ( plain cross ) flag . Flag of Greece ( 1828-1978 ) .svg| State flag on land , 1822–1969 and 1975–78 Flag of Greece.svg|National flag for use abroad and as the civil ensign . Since 1978 the sole national flag of Greece Greek merchant navy flag.svg|Civil ensign used from 1822 to 1828 Historical evolution The first official specifications for the war flag and naval ensign , published 3 June 1833 . After the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece in 1832 , the new king , Otto , added the royal Coat of Arms ( a shield in his ancestral Bavarian pattern topped by a crown ) in the centre of the cross for military flags ( both land and sea versions ) . Additionally , the ratios of the country 's flags were set to 7:10 for the state flag and 18:25 for the state and naval ensign by a decree dated 3 June 1833 . After Otto 's abdication in 1862 , the royal coat of arms was removed , only to be replaced by a simple royal crown in 1863 when the new king , George I , arrived in Greece . A square version of the land flag with St. George in the centre was adopted on 9 April 1864 as the Army 's colours . Similar arrangements were made for the royal flags , which featured the coat of arms of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg on a square version of the national flag . The exact shape and usage of the flags was determined by Royal Decree on 26 September 1867 . By a new Royal Decree , on 31 May 1914 , the flag with the crown was adopted for use as a state flag by ministries , embassies and civil services , while the sea flag was allowed for use by private citizens . On 25 March 1924 , with the establishment of the Second Hellenic Republic , the crowns were removed from all flags . On 20 February 1930 , the national flag 's proportions were established at a 2:3 ratio , with the arms of the cross being `` one fifth of the flag 's width '' . The land version of the national flag was to be used by ministries , embassies , and in general by all civil and military services , while the sea flag was to be used by naval and merchant vessels , consulates and private citizens . With the restoration of the monarchy by Georgios Kondylis on 10 October 1935 , the crown was restored on the flags . The crown was again removed by the military dictatorship in 1967 , following the aborted counter-coup and subsequent self-exile of King Constantine II on 13 December . The sea flag was established as the sole national flag in 1969 , using a very dark shade of blue , and on 18 August 1970 , the flag ratio was changed to 7:12 . After the restoration of democracy in August 1974 , the land flag was restored for a while ( Law 48/1975 and Presidential Decree 515/1975 ) until 1978 . State_Flag_of_Greece_ ( 1833-1858 ) .svg|State flag ( 1833–1858 ) Proportions : 7:10 Naval Ensign of Greece ( 1833-1858 ) .svg|Naval ensign ( 1833–1858 ) Proportions : 18:25 State Flag of Greece ( 1858-1862 ) .svg|State flag ( 1858–1862 ) Proportions : 2:3 Naval Ensign of Greece ( 1858-1862 ) .svg|Naval ensign ( 1858–1862 ) Proportions : 2:3 Kingdom of Greece Flag.svg|State flag ( 1863–1924 and 1935–73 ) Naval_Ensign_of_Greece_ ( 1863-1924_and_1935-1970 ) .svg|Naval ensign ( 1863–1924 and 1935–73 ) Flag of Greece ( 1970-1975 ) .svg|National flag ( 1970–1975 ) Theories regarding the blue and white colours It is widely believed that the colours of the Greek flag come from the blue of the sky and the white of the waves . Several Greek researchers have attempted to establish a continuity of usage and significance of the blue and white colours , throughout Greek history . Usages cited include the pattern of blue and white formations ( created from placing white metal layers on a blue surface ) on the shield of Achilles , the connection of the colours with goddess Athena , Alexander the Great 's army banners , blue and white flags supposedly used during Byzantine times , supposed coats of arms of imperial dynasties and noble families , uniforms , emperors ' clothes , patriarchs ' thrones etc . and , of course , cases of usage during the Ottoman rule . Current flag of Greece The flag as used on parade . In 1978 the sea flag was adopted as the sole national flag , with a 2:3 ratio . The flag is used on both land and sea is also the war and civil ensign , replacing all other designs surviving until that time . No other designs and badges can be shown on the flag . To date , no specification of the exact shade of the blue colour of the flag has been issued . Consequently , in practice hues may vary from very light to very dark . The Greek Flag Day is on October 27 . The old land flag is still flown at the Old Parliament building in Athens , site of the National Historical Museum , and can still be seen displayed unofficially by private citizens . Protocol The use of the Greek flag is regulated by Law 851 . More specifically , the law states that : * When displayed at the Presidential Palace , the Hellenic Parliament , the ministries , embassies and consulates of Greece , schools , military camps , and public and private ships as well as the navy , the flag must : # Fly from 8am until sunset , # Be displayed on a white mast topped with a white cross on top of a white sphere , # Not be torn or damaged in any way . If the flag is damaged , it should be burned in a respectful manner . * The flag can be displayed by civilians on days specified by the ministry of internal affairs , as well as in sporting events and other occasions of the sort . * When displayed vertically , the canton must be on the left side of the flag from the point of view of the spectator . * The flag should never be : # Defaced by means of writing or superimposing any kind of image or symbol upon it , # Used to cover a statue . In that case , cloth in the national colours must be used , # Hung from windows or balconies without the use of a mast , # Used for commercial purposes , # Used as a logo for any corporation or organization , even at different proportions . * When placed on top of a coffin , the canton must always be on the right of the person 's head . Colours The government has not specified exactly which shade of blue should be used for the flag , and as such flags with many varying shades exist . In the most recent legislation regarding the national flag , the colours mentioned are : Because of the use of the word 'cyan ' ( Greek : Κυανός , Kyanos ) , which can also mean 'blue ' in Greek , the exact shade of blue remains ambiguous . Although it implies the use of a light shade of blue , such as on the flag of the United Nations , the colours of the Greek flag tend to be darker , especially during the dictatorship and in recent years , with the exception of the years of the rule of King Otto , when a very light shade of blue was used . Consequently , the shade of blue is largely left to the flagmakers to decide , as shown in the table below . Flag days No Day decorations in Poros . Law 851/1978 sets the general outline for when the specific days on which the flag should be raised . Raising the flag on national or local public holidays is mandatory for everyone , from 8am until sunset . For national holidays , this applies country-wide , but on local ones it only applies to those areas where the said holiday is being celebrated . Additionally , the flag may also be flown on days of national mourning , half-mast . The Minister of the Interior has the authority to proclaim flag days if they are not already proclaimed , and proclaiming regional flag days is vested with the elected head of each regional unit ( formerly prefectures ) . Although November 17 is not an official national holiday , Presidential Decree 201/1998 states that respects are to be paid to the flag on that particular day . Military flags Army and Air Force War Flag The War flag ( equivalent to regimental colours ) of the Army and the Air Force is of square shape , with a white cross on blue background . On the centre of the cross the image of Saint George is shown on Army war flags and the image of archangel Michael is shown on Air Force war flags . In the Army war flags are normally carried by infantry , tank and special forces regiments and battalions , by the Evelpidon Military Academy , the Non-Commissioned Officers Academy and the Presidential Guard when in battle or in parade . However , flying a war flag in battle is unlikely with current warfare tactics . Hellenic Army War Flag.svg|Army regimental war flag HellenicArmySealFlag.svg|Flag of the Hellenic Army General Staff Hellenic Air Force Ensign 1973.svg| Air Force and civil air ensign , 1973–1978 Naval and civil ensigns The current naval and civil ensigns are identical to the national flag . The simple white cross on blue field pattern is also used as the Navy 's jack and as the base pattern for naval rank flags . These flags are described in Chapter 21 ( articles 2101–30 ) of the Naval Regulations . A jack is also flown by larger vessels of the Hellenic Coast Guard . Units of Naval or Coast Guard personnel in parade fly the war ensign in place of the war flag . Naval Jack of Greece.svg|Naval jack of Greece Naval_rank_flag_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Greece.svg|Naval rank flag of the Prime Minister of Greece Greek Navy Admiral Flag.svg|Naval rank flag for a full Admiral Hellenic Coast Guard Flag.svg| Coast Guard ensign ( 1964–1980 ) Other uniformed services In the past a war flag was assigned to the former semi-military Hellenic Gendarmerie , which was later merged with Cities Police to form the current Hellenic Police . The flag was similar to the Army war flag but showing Saint Irene in place of Saint George . Since the Fire Service and the Hellenic Police are considered civilian agencies , they are not assigned war flags . They use the National Flag instead . Identical rules were applied to the former Cities Police . However , recently the Police Academy has been assigned a war flag , and they paraded for the first titme with this flag on Independence Day , March 25 , 2011 . The flag is similar to the Army war flag , with the image of St George replaced with that of Artemius of Antioch . Flag of the Head of State Throughout the history of Greece , various heads of state have used different flags . The designs differ according to the historical era they were used in and in accordance with the political scene in Greece at the time . The first flag to be used by a head of state of Greece was that of King Otto of Greece . The current design , the flag of the President of Greece , was adopted in 1975 . Royal Standard of Otto of Greece.svg| Flag of King Otto of Greece ( 1833–1862 ) Greek Royal Flag 1863.svg|The Royal Standard of Greece ( 1863-1913 ) Standard of King George I of Greece ( 1863-1913 ) .svg| Flag of King George I of Greece ( 1863–1913 ) Royal Standard of the Kingdom of Greece ( 1913-1917 ) .svg| Flag of King Constantine I of Greece in his capacity as a Field Marshal ( 1913–1917 and 1920–1922 ) Hellenic Royal Flag 1935.svg| Royal standard of Greece ( 1935-1973 ) Royal Standard of the Kingdom of Greece ( 1936-1967 ) .svg| Flag of the King of Greece ( 1935–1973 ) Flag of the President of Greece ( 1924-1935 ) .svg| Flag of the President of Greece ( 1924–1935 ) Presidential_Standard_of_Greece_ ( 1973-1974 ) .svg| Flag of the President of Greece ( 1973–1974 ) Standard_of_the_President_of_Greece.svg|Flag of the President of Greece ( 1975–present ) Double-headed eagle One of the most recognisable ( other than the cross ) and beloved Greek symbols , the double-headed eagle , is not a part of the modern Greek flag or coat of arms ( although it is officially used by the Greek Army , the Church of Greece , the Cypriot National Guard and the Church of Cyprus , and was incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926 ) . One suggested explanation is that , upon independence , an effort was made for political — and international relations — reasons to limit expressions implying efforts to recreate the Byzantine empire . Yet another theory is that this symbol was only connected with a particular period of Greek history ( Byzantine ) and a particular form of rule ( imperial ) . More recent research has justified this view , connecting this symbol only to personal and dynastic emblems of Byzantine Emperors . Greek scholars have attempted to establish links with ancient symbols : the eagle was a common design representing power in ancient city-states , while there was an implication of a `` dual-eagle '' concept in the tale that Zeus left two eagles fly east and west from the ends of the world , eventually meeting in Delphi , thus proving it to be the centre of the earth . However , there is virtually no doubt that its origin is a blend of Roman and Eastern influences . Indeed , the early Byzantine Empire inherited the Roman eagle as an imperial symbol . During his reign , Emperor Isaac I Comnenus ( 1057–59 ) modified it as double-headed , influenced by traditions about such a beast in his native Paphlagonia in Asia Minor ( in turn reflecting possibly much older local myths ) . Many modifications followed in flag details , often combined with the cross . After the recapture of Constantinople by the Byzantine Greeks in 1261 , two crowns were added ( over each head ) representing — according to the most prevalent theory — the newly recaptured capital and the intermediate `` capital '' of the empire of Nicaea . There has been some confusion about the exact use of this symbol by the Byzantines ; it is quite certain that it was a `` dynastic '' and not a `` state '' symbol ( a term not fully applicable at the time , anyway ) , and for this reason , the colours connected with it were clearly the colours of `` imperial power '' , i.e. , imperial purple and gold . After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire nonetheless , the double-headed eagle remained a

qf_298--Flag_of_Greece.txt

What colour is the cross on the Greek Flag?

Swimming is an individual or team sport and activity . Competitive swimming is one of the most popular Olympic sports , with events in butterfly , backstroke , breaststroke , freestyle , and individual medley . In addition to these individual events , Olympic swimmers also participate in relays . Swimmers can also compete in open-water events ( i.e . swimming in the Ocean ) . History Evidence of recreational swimming in prehistoric times has been found , with the earliest evidence dating to Stone Age paintings from around 10000 years ago . Written references date from 2000 BC , with some of the earliest references to swimming including the Iliad , the Odyssey , the Bible , Beowulf , the Quran and others . In 1538 , Nikolaus Wynmann , a German professor of languages , wrote the first swimming book , The Swimmer or A Dialogue on the Art of Swimming ( Der Schwimmer oder ein Zweigespräch über die Schwimmkunst ) . Swimming emerged as a competitive recreational activity in the 1830s in England . In 1828 , the first indoor swimming pool , St George 's Baths was opened to the public . By 1837 , the National Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools , built around London . The recreational activity grew in popularity and by 1880 , when the first national governing body , the Amateur Swimming Association , was formed , there were already over 300 regional clubs in operation across the country . In 1844 two Native American participants at a swimming competition in London introduced the front crawl to a Western audience . Sir John Arthur Trudgen picked up the hand-over stroke from some South American natives and successfully debuted the new stroke in 1873 , winning a local competition in England . His stroke is still regarded as the most powerful to use today . Captain Matthew Webb was the first man to swim the English Channel ( between England and France ) , in 1875 . Using the breaststroke technique , he swam the channel in 21 hours and 45 minutes . His feat was not replicated or surpassed for the next 36 years , until T.W . Burgess made the crossing in 1911 . Other European countries also established swimming federations ; Germany in 1882 , France in 1890 and Hungary in 1896 . The first European amateur swimming competitions were in 1889 in Vienna . The world 's first women 's swimming championship was held in Scotland in 1892 . Men 's swimming became part of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens . In 1902 , the Australian Richmond Cavill introduced the front crawl to the Western world . In 1908 , the world swimming association , Fédération Internationale de Natation ( FINA ) , was formed . Women 's swimming was introduced into the Olympics in 1912 . Butterfly was developed in the 1930s and was at first a variant of breaststroke , until it was accepted as a separate style in 1952 . Competitive swimming Competitive swimming became popular in the 19th century . The goal of competitive swimming is to break personal or world records while beating competitors in any given event . Swimming in competition should create the least resistance in order to obtain maximum speed . However , some professional swimmers who do not hold a national or world ranking are considered the best in regard to their technical skills . Typically , an athlete goes through a cycle of training in which the body is overloaded with work in the beginning and middle segments of the cycle , and then the workload is decreased in the final stage as the swimmer approaches competition . The practice of reducing exercise in the days just before an important competition is called tapering . A final stage is often referred to as `` shave and taper '' : the swimmer shaves off all exposed hair for the sake of reducing drag and having a sleeker and more hydrodynamic feel in the water . Additionally , the `` shave and taper '' method refers to the removal of the top layer of `` dead skin '' , which exposes the newer and richer skin underneath . Swimming is an event at the Summer Olympic Games , where male and female athletes compete in 16 of the recognized events each . Olympic events are held in a 50-meter pool , called a long course pool . There are forty officially recognized individual swimming events in the pool ; however the International Olympic Committee only recognizes 32 of them . The international governing body for competitive swimming is the Fédération Internationale de Natation ( `` International Swimming Federation '' ) , better known as FINA . Open water In open water swimming , where the events are swum in a body of open water ( lake or sea ) , there are also 5 km , 10 km and 25 km events for men and women . However , only the 10 km event is included in the Olympic schedule , again for both men and women . Open-water competitions are typically separate to other swimming competitions with the exception of the World Championships and the Olympics . Swim styles In competitive swimming , four major styles have been established . These have been relatively stable over the last 30–40 years with minor improvements . They are : * Butterfly ( fly ) * Backstroke ( back ) * Breaststroke ( breast ) * Freestyle ( free ) In competition , only one of these styles may be used except in the case of the individual medley , or IM , which consists of all four . In this latter event , swimmers swim equal distances of butterfly , then backstroke , breaststroke , and finally , freestyle . In Olympic competition , this event is swum in two distances – 200 and 400 meters . Some short course competitions also include the 100-yard or 100-meter IM – particularly , for younger swimmers ( typically under 14 years ) involved in club swimming , or masters swimming ( over 18 ) . Dolphin kick In the past two decades , the most drastic change in swimming has been the addition of the underwater dolphin kick . This is used to maximize the speed at the start and after the turns in all styles . The first successful use of it was by David Berkoff . At the 1988 Olympics , he swam most of the 100 m backstroke race underwater and broke the world record on the distance during the preliminaries . Another swimmer to use the technique was Denis Pankratov at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta , where he completed almost half of the 100 m butterfly underwater to win the gold medal . In the past decade , American competitive swimmers have shown the most use of the underwater dolphin kick to gain advantage , most notably Olympic and World medal winners Michael Phelps and Ryan Lochte ; however these swimmers are not able to go any further than fifteen metres underwater due to rule changes by FINA . While the dolphin kick is mostly seen in middle-distance freestyle events and in all distances of backstroke and butterfly , it is not usually used to the same effect in freestyle sprinting . That changed with the addition of the so-called `` technical '' suits around the European Short Course Championships in Rijeka , Croatia in December 2008 . There , Amaury Leveaux set new world records of 44.94 seconds in the 100 m freestyle , 20.48 seconds in the 50 m freestyle and 22.18 in the 50 m butterfly . Unlike the rest of the competitors in these events , he spent at least half of each race submerged using the dolphin kick . Competition pools World Championship pools must be 50 m ( long course ) long and 25 m wide , with ten lanes labelled zero to nine ( or one to ten in some pools ; zero and nine ( or one and ten ) are usually left empty in semi-finals and finals ) ; the lanes must be at least wide . They will be equipped with starting blocks at both ends of the pool and most will have Automatic Officiating Equipment , including touch pads to record times and sensors to ensure the legality of relay take overs . The pool must have a minimum depth of two metres . Other pools which host events under FINA regulations are required to meet some but not all of these requirements . Many of these pools have eight instead of ten lanes and some will be 25 m long , making them Short course . World records that are set in short course pools are kept separate from those set in long course pools because it may be an advantage or disadvantage to swimmers to have more or less turns in a race . Seasons Competitive swimming , from the club through to international level , tends to have an autumn and winter season competing in short course ( 25 metre or yard ) pools and a spring and summer season competing in long course ( 50 metre ) pools and in open water . In international competition and in club swimming in Europe , the short course ( 25m ) season lasts from September to December , and the long course ( 50m ) season from January to August with open water in the summer months . In club , school , and college swimming in the United States , the short course ( 25 yard ) season is much longer , from September to March . The long-course season takes place in 50-meter pools and lasts from April to the end of August with open water in the summer months . In club swimming in Australasia , the short course ( 25m ) season lasts from April to September , and the long course ( 50m ) season from October to March with open water in the summer months . Outside the United States , meters is the standard in both short and long course swimming , with the same distances swum in all events . In the American short course season , the 500 yard , 1000 yard , and 1650-yard freestyle events are swum as a yard is much shorter than a meter ( 100 yards equals 91.44 meters ) , while during the American long course season the 400 meter , 800 meter , and 1500-meter freestyle events are swum instead . Beginning each swimming season racing in short course allows for shorter distance races for novice swimmers . For example , in the short course season if a swimmer wanted to compete in a stroke they had just learned , a 25-yard/meter race is available to them , opposed to the long course season when they would need to be able to swim at least 50 meters of that new stroke in order to compete . Officials There are several types of officials , which are needed to manage the competition . Referee : The referee has full control and authority over all officials . The referee will enforce all rules and decisions of FINA and shall decide all questions relating to the actual conduct of the meet , and event or the competition , the final settlement of which is not otherwise covered by the rules . The referee takes overall responsibility for running the race and makes the final decisions as to who wins the competition . Referees call swimmers to the blocks with short blasts of his or her whistle . This is the signal for the swimmers to stand next to their blocks . Then the referee will blow a long whistle that will tell the swimmers to step on the block . For backstroke ( otherwise known as backcrawl ) events , the long whistle is the signal for the swimmers to step in the water . The referee will then blow another long whistle , signalling the swimmers to grab the gutter or the provided block handle ( for backstoke/backcrawl events only ) . The referee will then hand over control to the starter . Starter : The starter has full control of the swimmers from the time the referee turns the swimmers over to him/her until the race commences . A starter sends the swimmers off the blocks and may call a false start if a swimmer leaves the block before the starter sends them . Clerk of course : The clerk of course ( also called the `` bullpen '' ) assembles swimmers prior to each event , and is responsible for organizing ( `` seeding '' ) swimmers into heats based on their times . Heats are generally seeded from slowest to fastest , where swimmers with no previous time for an event are assumed to be the slowest . Timekeepers : Each timekeeper takes the time of the swimmers in the lane assigned to him/her . Unless a video backup system is used , it may be necessary to use the full complement of timekeepers even when automatic officiating equipment is used . A chief timekeeper assigns the seating positions for all timekeepers and the lanes for which they are responsible . In most competitions there will be one or more timekeepers per lane . In international competitions where full automatic timing and video placing equipment is in use timekeepers may not be required . Inspectors of turns : One inspector of turns is assigned to one or more lanes at each end of the pool . Each inspector of turns ensures that swimmers comply with the relevant rules for turning as well as the relevant rules for start and finish of the race . Inspectors of turns shall report any violation on disqualification reports detailing the event , lane number , and the infringement delivered to the chief inspector of turns who will immediately convey the report to the referee . Judges of Stroke : Judges of stroke are located on each side of the pool . They ensure that the rules related to the style of swimming designated for the event are being observed , and observe the turns and the finishes to assist the inspectors of turns . Finish judges : Finish judges determine the order of finish and make sure the swimmers finish in accordance with the rules ( two hands simultaneously for breaststroke and butterfly , on the back for backstroke , etc . ) If an official observes a swimmer breaking a rule concerning the stroke he or she is swimming , the official will report what they have seen to the referee . The referee can disqualify ( or DQ ) any swimmer for any violation of the rules that he/she personally observes or for any violation reported to them by other authorised officials . All disqualifications are subject to the decision of the referee . Swimwear ; Swimsuit : The suit covers the skin for modesty . Competitive swimwear seeks to improve upon bare human skin for a speed advantage . In 2009 , FINA rules and regulations were altered and suits made with polyurethane were banned because they made athletes more buoyant . These rules also banned suits which go above the navel or below the knee for men and suits which extend past the shoulders or cover the neck for women ; Swim cap : A swim cap ( a.k.a . cap ) keeps the swimmer 's hair out of the way to reduce drag . Caps may be made of latex , silicone , spandex or lycra . ; Goggles : Goggles keep water and chlorine out of swimmers ' eyes . Goggles may be tinted to counteract glare at outdoor pools . Prescription goggles may be used by swimmers who wear corrective lenses . ; Swim Fins : Rubber fins are used to help kick faster and build strength and technique , but are illegal in a race . They also improve technique by keeping the feet in the proper position while kicking . ; Drag suit : Swimmers use drag suits in training to increase resistance . ; Hand paddles : Swimmers use these plastic devices to build arm and shoulder strength and refine pulling technique . Hand paddles attach to the hand with rubber tubing or elastic material . They come in many different shapes and sizes , depending on swimmer preference or if a team has begun to taper . ; Kickboard : A kickboard is a foam board that swimmers use to support the weight of the upper body while they focus on kicking ; helps build leg muscles . ( Is usually used during practice ) ; Pull buoy : Often used at the same time as hand paddles , pull buoys support swimmers ' legs ( and prevents them from kicking ) while they focus on pulling . Pull buoys are made of foam so they float in the water . Swimmers hold them in between the thighs . They can also be used as a kickboard to make kicking a little harder . ; Ankle bands : Improving balance will minimize the need for this kick to provide an upward , instead of a forward vector , and in some cases completely corrects the kick . Using an ankle band will have the immediate effect of turning off your kick , which then forces you to make efforts to correct your balance . If you are successful in discovering these , then the ankle band has done part of its job . ; Snorkel : A snorkel is a plastic device that helps swimmers breathe while swimming . This piece of equipment helps the swimmer practice keeping his or her head in one position , along with training them for the proper breathing technique of breathing in through the mouth and out the nose . This technique is the opposite of a common runner 's breathing pattern , which is in the nose and out the mouth . ; Tempo trainer : a beeping clock attached to a swimmers cap or goggles helps them maintain a certain arm tempo or speed . As each beep is heard , their next stroke should be taken . ; Zoomers : a type of rubber swimming fins , zoomers are cut off fins with the holes in the bottom . They help make the swimmer kick faster , but at the cost of working harder . Regular swimwear Men Men 's most used practice swimwear include briefs and jammers . Males generally swim barechested . There was much controversy after the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008 , when many Olympic swimmers broke records an unprecedented number of times using revolutionary swimsuits . To highlight the issue , in 2008 , 70 world records were broken in one year , and 66 Olympic records were broken in one Olympic Games ( there were races in Beijing where the first five finishers were swimming faster than the old world record ) . As of January 1 , 2010 , men are only allowed to wear suits from the waist to above the knees . They are also only permitted to wear one piece of swimwear ; they can not wear briefs underneath jammers . This rule was enacted after the controversy in the Beijing Olympics and Rome World Championships . Women Women wear one-piece suits with different backs for competition , though two-piece suits can also be worn . Backs vary mainly in strap thickness and geometric design . Most common styles include : racerback , axel back , corset , diamondback , and butterfly-back/Fly-Back . There are also different style lengths : three-quarter length ( reaches the knees ) , regular length ( shoulders to hips ) , and bikini style ( two-piece ) . Also as of January 1 , 2010 , in competition , women are only allowed to wear suits that do not go past the knees or shoulders . Use of drag wear Drag suits are used to increase water resistance against the swimmer to help them train for competitions . Other forms of drag wear include nylons , old suits , and T-shirts : articles that increase friction in the water to build strength during training , and thus increase speed once drag items are removed for competition . Some swimmers also shave areas of exposed skin before end-of-season competitions to reduce friction in the water . The practice gained popularity after the 1956 Olympics , when Murray Rose and Jon Henricks came shaved and won gold medals for Australia . Freshly shaven skin is less resistant when in the water . In addition , a 1989 study demonstrated that shaving improves a swimmer 's overall performance by reducing drag . Wearing drag suits during training also improves mental performance during competitions . Drag makes a swimmer feel slower and more resistant during training with the added friction . Then on the day of the competition , a shaven swimmer wearing only a fast competition suit will feel an improvement in how fast and smooth they feel in the water . The disadvantages of using a drag suit include the depletion of proper stroke . This is caused by the swimmer 's own fatigue . When the swimmer becomes more fatigued , different muscle groups become more tired . Consequently , the swimmer will try to engage another group of muscle to do the same thing , which can cause the stroke efficiency to drop . Elite and International Swimming Elite and international swimming comprises the highest level of competition available to swimmers . Professionalism It is not a straightforward professional sport as almost all the money for elite and international swimming is held by national governing bodies for the sport because it is generated by amateurs ' subscription fees , government grants , the Olympic Games and the World Aquatics Championships ( and in each country , the national trials to qualify for the preceding ) . This results in a mix of fully professional , semi-professional , and amateur swimmers at this level . Fully professional swimmers will typically get a salary both from their national governing body and from outside sponsors , semi-professionals a small stipend from their national governing body , and amateurs that receive no funding . Outside of these major championships prize money is low - the 2015 FINA World Cup series has a total prize fund of $ 3,000 per race shared between the top three and the 2014-15 USA Grand Prix Series $ 1,800 compared to the 2015 World Aquatics Championships fund of $ 60,000 per race shared between the top eight . Collegiate Swimming Young swimmers compete on club teams and may wish to continue their careers through college . Prior to July 1 , people can complete recruiting questionnaires for schools they are interested in . The Recruiting process for collegiate swimming often starts on 1 July following the athlete 's junior year of high school . That date marks the day that college coaches can contact athletes via phone to discuss possibly swimming for their team . After speaking with high school recruits via phone and email , college coaches are able to invite athletes on official recruiting trips , during which the recruits participate in a wide range of activities . Such activities include meeting the team members , attending classes , meetings , and athletic events in order to gain an idea about what it might be like to attend that college . The trips are funded by the athletic department and are known as structured sales pitches designed to impress the student-athlete . Each student-athlete is allowed to take five official recruiting trips , each lasting no longer than 48 hours . Swimmers most often base their college decisions on how well they mesh with the existing team and coaching staff , the location of the school , the academic opportunities , and the cost of attendance . Student-athletes must reach a certain standard of academic performance depending on which college they seek to attend . In some cases , the athletic department may have some control over who is admitted . Once admitted however , academic regulation and policies , such as mandated study hall and credit hours , are strictly enforced . Swimmers can choose from competing in Division I , Division II , Division III , or the NAIA . Swimmers that choose to compete in Divisions I through III adhere to the rules set by the NCAA . The collegiate swimming season spans from mid-October to mid-March and ends with the NCAA Championship meet . Meets between two or three teams , known as dual meets or the latter as tri-meets , run throughout the season at collegiate facilities . Conference championships , usually lasting four or five days , include all teams in each conference and are usually held at larger aquatics facilities to accommodate spectators . Collegiate swimmers are eligible to compete in the NCAA championships for Division I , II , and III contingent upon swimmers meeting the qualifying time standards . The qualifying time standard for the NCAA Championships are based on the times that qualified for 16th and 24th place for the meets the previous three years . The NCAA invites 235 male swimmers and 281 female swimmers to the competition each year based on the qualifying standards . There are two qualifying standards , `` A '' and `` B '' , where those qualifying with the `` A '' time standard are automatically invited to the championship . Then the next fastest swimmers with the `` B '' time standard are invited to keep each of the events even . This process is repeated until all of invite spots are filled . The NCAA qualifying times varies across the different Divisions . The qualifying standards for the NCAA Championship meet can be found on the NCAA championships site . Open-water swimming Open water swimming is swimming outside a regular pool , usually in a lake , or sometimes ocean . Popularity of the sport has grown in recent years , particularly since the 10 km open water event was added as an Olympic event in 2005 , contested for the first time in the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing . New recent technology has developed much faster swimsuits . Full body suits have been banned , but swimmers at the very top levels still wear suits that have been lasered together because stitching creates drag . The disadvantage of these suits is that they are sometimes uncomfortable and tight . The largest Ocean Swim 's in terms of numbers of participants are in Australia , with the Pier to Pub , Cole Classic and Melbourne Swim Classic all with roughly 5000 swimming participants . Changes to the sport Swimming times have dropped over the years due to better training techniques and to new developments . The first four Olympics were not held in pools , but in open water ( 1896 – The Mediterranean , 1900 – The Seine River , 1904 – an artificial lake , 1906 – The Mediterranean ) . The 1904 Olympics ' freestyle race was the only one ever measured at 100 yards , instead of the usual 100 meters . A 100-meter pool was built for the 1908 Olympics and sat in the center of the main stadium 's track and field oval . The 1912 Olympics , held in the Stockholm harbor , marked the beginning of electronic timing . Male swimmers wore full-body suits until the 1940s , which caused more drag in the water than their modern swimwear counterparts did . Competition suits now include engineered fabric and designs to reduce swimmers ' drag in the water and prevent athlete fatigue . In addition , over the years , pool designs have lessened the drag . Some design considerations allow for the reduction of swimming resistance , making the pool faster . Namely , proper pool depth , elimination of currents , increased lane width , energy absorbing racing lane lines and gutters , and the use of other innovative hydraulic , acoustic , and illumination designs . There have been major changes in starting blocks over the past years . Starting blocks used to be small , narrow and straight but throughout time they have become bigger and wider and nowadays the surface of the block is angled towards the swimming pool . In addition , starting blocks now have a `` lip '' which is a raised , slanting platform

qb_3329--Swimming_(sport).txt

Which US Olympic swimmer is nicknamed the ‘Baltimore Bullet’?

Anouk Aimée ( ; born 27 April 1932 ) is a French film actress , who has appeared in 70 films since 1947 , having begun her film career at age 14 . In her early years she studied acting and dance besides her regular education . Although the majority of her films were French , she also made a number of films in Spain , Great Britain , Italy and Germany , along with some American productions . Among her films are Federico Fellini ’ s La Dolce Vita ( 1960 ) , after which she was considered a `` rising star who exploded '' onto the film world . She subsequently acted in Fellini 's 8½ ( 1963 ) , Jacques Demy ’ s Lola ( 1961 ) , George Cukor ’ s Justine ( 1969 ) , Bernardo Bertolucci ’ s Tragedy of a Ridiculous Man ( 1981 ) and Robert Altman ’ s Prêt à Porter ( 1994 ) . She won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Drama and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her acting in A Man and a Woman in ( 1966 ) . The film `` virtually reignited the lush on-screen romance in an era of skeptical modernism , '' and brought her international fame . She won the Award for Best Actress at the 1980 Cannes Film Festival . In 2002 she received an honorary César Award , France 's national film award . She was noted for her `` striking features '' and beauty , and considered `` one of the hundred sexiest stars in film history , '' according to a 1995 poll conducted by Empire Magazine . Her acting style often portrays a femme fatale , with a melancholy aura . In the 1960s , Life magazine wrote that `` after each picture her enigmatic beauty lingered '' in the memories of her audience , and called her `` the Left Bank 's most beautiful resident . '' Early years Aimée was born Nicole Françoise Florence Dreyfus in Paris , France , the daughter of actor Henri Murray ( born Henry Dreyfus ) Flitterman-Lewis , Sandy . [ http : //jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/aimee-anouk `` Anouk Aimée '' ] , Jewish Women : A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia and actress Geneviève Sorya ( born Durand ) . According to one historian , although some have speculated that her background may be related to Captain Alfred Dreyfus , this has never been confirmed . Her father was Jewish and her mother was Roman Catholic . She was raised Catholic but later converted to Judaism as an adult . Her early education took place at l'École de la rue Milton , in Paris ; École de Barbezieux ; Pensionnat de Bandol ; and Institution de Megève . She studied dance at Marseille Opera ; studied theater in England , after which she studied dramatic art and dance with Andrée Bauer-Thérond.Unterburger , Amy L . ( ed . ) Actors and Actresses , International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers ( 3rd Ed . ) , St. James Press ( 1997 ) pp . 9-11 Career Aimée ( then still Françoise Dreyfus ) made her film debut in 1946 , at the age of fourteen , in the role of `` Anouk '' in La Maison sous la mer , and she kept the name afterwards . Jacques Prévert , while writing Les amants de Vérone ( The Lovers of Verona , 1949 ) specifically for her , suggested she take the symbolic last name Aimée , `` that would forever associate her with the affective power of her screen roles . '' In French , it means `` beloved . `` Durham , Michael . `` Aimée—It Means 'To Be Loved ' '' , Life magazine , May 19 , 1967 pp . 85-86 Among her notable films were Alexandre Astruc ’ s Le Rideau Cramoisi ( The Crimson Curtain , 1952 ) , Federico Fellini ’ s La Dolce Vita ( 1960 ) , Fellini 's 8½ ( 1963 ) , Jacques Demy ’ s Lola ( 1961 ) , André Delvaux ’ s Un Soir , un Train ( One Evening , One Train , 1968 ) , George Cukor ’ s Justine ( 1969 ) , Bernardo Bertolucci ’ s Tragedy of a Ridiculous Man ( 1981 ) , Robert Altman ’ s Prêt à Porter ( Ready to Wear , 1994 ) and , Claude Lelouch ’ s Un Homme et une femme ( A Man and a Woman , 1966 ) — described as a `` film that virtually reignited the lush on-screen romance in an era of skeptical modernism . '' Words like `` regal , '' `` intelligent '' and `` enigmatic '' are frequently associated with her , notes one author , giving Aimée `` an aura of disturbing and mysterious beauty '' that has earned her the status of `` one of the hundred sexiest stars in film history , '' according to a 1995 poll conducted by Empire Magazine . Because of her `` striking features '' and her beauty , she has been compared to Jacqueline Kennedy . Film historian Ginette Vincendeau notes that Aimée ’ s films `` established her as an ethereal , sensitive and fragile beauty with a tendency to tragic destinies or restrained suffering . '' Her abilities as an actress and the photogenic qualities of her face , its `` fine lines , expression of elation and a suggestive gaze , '' helped her achieve success in her early films . Among those were Pot-Bouille ( 1957 ) , a story by Émile Zola , Les Amants de Montparnasse ( Montparnasse 19 ) ( The Lovers of Montparnasse , ( 1958 ) and La tête contre les murs ( Head Against the Wall , 1958 ) . Besides the French cinema , Aimée 's career include a number of films made in Spain , Great Britain , Italy and Germany . She achieved worldwide attention in Fellini 's La Dolce Vita ( the Good Life , 1960 ) and Lola ( 1961 ) . She appeared again in Fellini 's 8½ , and would remain in Italy during the first half of the 1960s , making films for a number of Italian directors . Because of her role in La Dolce Vita , biographer Dave Thompson describes Aimée as a `` rising star who exploded '' onto the film world . He adds that singer-songwriter Patti Smith , who in her teens saw the film , began to idolize her , and `` dreamed of being an actress like Aimée . `` Thompson , Dave . Dancing Barefoot : The Patti Smith Story , Chicago Review Press ( 2011 ) p. 17 Aimée 's greatest success came in 1966 with the film Un homme et une femme ( A Man and a Woman , ) directed by little known Claude Lelouch . Primarily due to the excellent acting by its stars , Aimée and Jean-Louis Trintignant , the film became an international success , winning both the Grand Prize at the Cannes Film Festival in 1966 and an Oscar . Tabery states that with her `` subtle portrayal of the heroine—self-protective , then succumbing to a new love—Aimée seemed to create a new kind of femme fatale . . . '' Film historian Jurgen Muller adds , `` whether one like the film or not , it 's still hard for anyone to resist the melancholy aura of Anouk Aimée . '' In many of her subsequent films , she would continue to play that type of role , `` a woman of sensitivity whose emotions are often kept secret . '' In 1969 she starred in the American film production of Justine , costarring Dirk Bogarde and directed by George Cukor and Joseph Strick . The film contained some nudity , with one writer observing , `` Anouk is always impeccable , oozing the sexy , detached air of the elite . . . when she drops these trappings , along with her couture clothing , Anouk 's naked perfection will annihilate you . '' Photojournalist Eve Arnold , assigned to photograph and write a story about Aimée and her role , spoke to Dirk Bogarde , who had known her since she was fifteen . He said that `` She is never so happy as when she is miserable between love affairs , '' referencing her recent love affair with Omar Sharif . Arnold photographed Aimée , who talked about her role as the character Justine . Justine was also Jewish . Arnold recalls one of their talks : Another American film , La Brava , starring Dustin Hoffman , was set to be made in 1984 but never completed . Hoffman at first decided it would play better if he were in love with a younger girl rather than the original story 's older woman . `` Where are you going to get a good-looking older woman ? '' he asked . He rejected Faye Dunaway , feeling she was `` too obvious . '' A month later , after a chance meeting with Aimée in Paris , he changed his mind , telling his producer , `` I can fall in love with the older woman . I met Anouk Aimée over the weekend . She looks great . '' He begged his producer to at least talk to her : `` Come on , get on the phone , say hello to her . . . Just listen to her voice , it 's great . '' Robert Altman , at another time , wanted to use Aimée in a film to be called , Lake Lugano , about a woman who was a Holocaust survivor returning long after the war . She `` loved the script , '' according to Altman . However , she backed out after discussing the part with him more thoroughly : In late 2013 , the Cinemania film festival in Montreal , Canada , paid tribute to Aimée 's career . In 2002 , she received an honorary César Award , France 's national film award , and in 2003 received an honorary Golden Berlin Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival.Oscherwitz , Dayna . The A to Z of French Cinema , Scarecrow Press ( 2007 ) p. 18 In the 1960s , Life magazine called her `` the Left Bank 's most beautiful resident , '' adding that `` after each picture her enigmatic beauty lingered '' in the memories of her audience . Personal life Aimée has been married and divorced four times . First to Eduard Zimmermann ( married February 1949 , divorced October 1950 ) , secondly to film director Nico Papatakis ( married August 1951 , divorced October 1955 ) , thirdly to actor and musical producer Pierre Barouh ( married April 1966 , divorced March 1969 ) and lastly to actor Albert Finney ( married August 1970 , divorced June 1978 ) . She had one child , Manuela Papatakis ( born 1951 ) , from her second marriage . Selected filmography

odql_981--Anouk_Aimée.txt

Which famous British actor is/was married to Anouk Aimee?

Finding Nemo is a 2003 American computer-animated comedy-drama adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Written and directed by Andrew Stanton with co-direction by Lee Unkrich , the film stars the voices of Albert Brooks , Ellen DeGeneres , Alexander Gould , and Willem Dafoe . It tells the story of the overprotective clownfish named Marlin who , along with a regal blue tang named Dory , searches for his abducted son Nemo all the way to Sydney Harbour . Along the way , Marlin learns to take risks and comes to terms with Nemo taking care of himself . Finding Nemo was released on May 30 , 2003 , and has received universal critical acclaim . The film won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature , and was nominated in three more categories , including Best Original Screenplay . Finding Nemo became the highest-grossing animated film at the time and was the second highest-grossing film of 2003 , earning a total of $ 867 million worldwide by the end of its initial theatrical run . The film is the best-selling DVD title of all time , with over 40 million copies sold , and was the highest-grossing G-rated film of all time before Pixar 's own Toy Story 3 overtook it . The film was re-released in 3D in 2012 . In 2008 , the American Film Institute named it the 10th greatest animated film ever made as part of their 10 Top 10 lists . A sequel , Finding Dory , was released on June 17 , 2016 . Plot Two ocellaris clownfish , Marlin and his wife Coral , admire their new home in the Great Barrier Reef and their clutch of eggs when a barracuda attacks , knocking Marlin unconscious . He wakes up to find out that Coral and all but one of the eggs have been eaten by the barracuda . Marlin names this last egg Nemo , a name that Coral liked . Nemo develops a smaller right fin as a result of damage to his egg during the attack , which limits his swimming ability . Worried about Nemo 's safety , Marlin embarrasses Nemo during a school field trip . Nemo sneaks away from the reef and is captured by scuba divers . As the boat departs , a diver accidentally knocks his diving mask overboard . While attempting to save Nemo , Marlin meets Dory , a good-hearted and optimistic regal blue tang with short-term memory loss . Marlin and Dory meet three sharks – Bruce , Anchor and Chum – who claim to be vegetarians . Marlin discovers the diver 's mask and notices an address written on it . When he argues with Dory and accidentally gives her a nosebleed , the blood scent causes Bruce to enter an uncontrollable feeding frenzy . The pair escape from Bruce but the mask falls into a trench in the deep sea . During a hazardous struggle with an anglerfish in the trench , Dory sees the diving mask and reads the address located at 42 Wallaby Way , Sydney , NSW . The pair swims on , receiving directions to Sydney from a school of moonfish . Marlin and Dory encounter a bloom of jellyfish that nearly kills them . Marlin loses consciousness and wakes up on a sea turtle named Crush , who takes Marlin and Dory on the East Australian Current . Marlin tells the details of his long journey with a group of sea turtles , and his story is spread across the ocean . He also sees how Crush gets along well with his son Squirt . Meanwhile , Nemo is placed in a fish tank in the office of a naive dentist named Phillip Sherman in Sydney Harbour . He meets aquarium fish called the Tank Gang , led by a moorish idol named Gill , who has a broken fin . The fish learn that Nemo is to be given to Sherman 's niece , Darla , who has killed a fish by constantly shaking its bag . Gill then reveals his plan to escape , jamming the tank 's filter , forcing the dentist to remove the fish to clean it . The fish would be placed in plastic bags , and then they would roll out the window and into the harbor . After an attempt at the escape goes wrong , a australian pelican , Nigel , brings news of Marlin 's adventure . Inspired by his father 's determination , Nemo successfully jams the filter , but the dentist installs a new high-tech filter before they can escape . After leaving the East Australian Current , Marlin and Dory are engulfed by a blue whale . Inside the whale 's mouth , Dory communicates with the whale , which carries them to Port Jackson and expels them through his blowhole . They meet Nigel , who recognizes Marlin from the stories he has heard , and he takes them to Sherman 's office . Darla has just arrived and the dentist is handing Nemo to her . Nemo plays dead to save himself as Nigel arrives , causing Darla to scream very loudly . Marlin sees Nemo and believes he is dead before Nigel is violently thrown out . In despair , Marlin leaves Dory and begins to swim home . Gill then helps Nemo escape into a drain that leads to the ocean . Dory loses her memory and becomes confused , and meets Nemo , who reaches the ocean . Eventually , Dory 's memory returns after she reads the word `` Sydney '' on a drainpipe . She directs Nemo to Marlin and they reunite , but then Dory is caught in a fishing net with a school of grouper . Nemo enters the net and orders the group to swim downward to break the net , enabling them to escape . After returning home , Nemo leaves for school , with Crush 's son Squirt , and Marlin , no longer overprotective , proudly watches Nemo swim away with Dory at his side . Meanwhile , at the dentist 's office , the high-tech filter breaks down and the Tank Gang escapes into the harbor , belatedly realizing they are still confined to their plastic bags . Voice cast * Albert Brooks as Marlin , an overly-concerned clownfish * Ellen DeGeneres as Dory , an energetic and highly forgetful regal tang * Alexander Gould as Nemo , a juvenile clownfish and Marlin 's son * Willem Dafoe as Gill , a moorish idol and the leader of the , `` Tank Gang '' * Andrew Stanton as Crush , a 150-year old sea turtle . Stanton also voices a New England lobster who tells Marlin 's stories . * Barry Humphries as Bruce , a great white shark who attempts not to eat fish * Geoffrey Rush as Nigel , an Australian pelican who helps Marlin and Dory * Brad Garrett as Bloat , a pufferfish * Allison Janney as Peach , a pink starfish * Austin Pendleton as Gurgle , a royal gramma * Stephen Root as Bubbles , a yellow tang * Vicki Lewis as Deb , a four-striped damselfish * Joe Ranft as Jacques , a cleaner shrimp * John Ratzenberger as the school of moonfish , a group of fish who help Marlin and Dory * Bob Peterson as Mr. Ray , a spotted eagle ray . Peterson also voices John Howard , the Prime Minister of Australia who is seen getting his checkup . * Eric Bana as Anchor , a hammerhead shark and Bruce 's friend * Bruce Spence as Chum , a mako shark and Bruce 's friend * Bill Hunter as Dr. Philip Sherman , a naïve dentist that lives in Australia * Elizabeth Perkins as Coral , Marlin 's wife * Nicholas Bird as Squirt , Crush 's son * Erik Per Sullivan as Sheldon , a seahorse that is one of Nemo 's friends . * Jordy Ranft as Tad , a yellow longnose butterflyfish that is one of Nemo 's friends * Erica Beck as Pearl , a flapjack octopus that is one of Nemo 's friends * LuLu Ebeling as Darla Sherman , Dr. Sherman 's very destructive niece * Jack Angel as Mr. Johansen , a grey flounder * Bob Bergen as Blenny , a frightening little green fish that does not speak * Laraine Newman as a pelican who tells Marlin 's stories * Laura Marano , Vanessa Marano , Daryl Sabara and Evan Sabara as sea turtle kids * Rove McManus , David Ian Salter and Lee Unkrich as the crabs * Carlos Alazraqui as Bill , Tad 's father . * Phil Proctor as Bob , Sheldon 's father . * Jim Ward as Ted , Pearl 's father . * Mickie McGowan as Barbara , Dr. Sherman 's receptionist . * Ben Stanton as Jimmy , one of Mr. Ray 's students . * Katherine Ringgold as Kathy , one of Mr. Ray 's students and gawky schoolfish * Jess Harnell , Jan Rabson and Andrew Stanton as the annoying seagulls * Marc John Jefferies as Gerald , a pelican who chokes on Marlin and Dory * Susan Blu as female fish * Jane Carr as Fish mom * Sherry Lynn and Danny Mann as a big and little fish couple * Jennifer Darling , Emmett Shoemaker , Marc John Jefferies and Noah Luke as birds who tell Marlin 's stories . * Jessie Flower , Lili Ishida , Bobby Block , Andrew McDonough , Evan Sabara and Kali Whitehurst as the school of fish kids . * Jan Rabson as Davey Reynolds , a screaming dental patient and a flying fish * Jennifer Darling , Paul Eiding , Leland Grossman , Marc John Jefferies , Noah Luke , Mickie McGowan , Nicole Miller , Bob Peterson , Jeff Pidgeon , Andrew Stanton and Lee Unkrich as grey fish who gets trapped in a net and one of them yells at Marlin to look out after one bumps into him . * Alec Medlock as swordfish * James S. Baker as dolphin * Bradley Trevor Greive as albatross * Aaron Fors as Mr. Tucker * Evan Sabara as a crab kid Production The inspiration for Nemo sprang from multiple experiences , going back to director Andrew Stanton 's childhood , when he loved going to the dentist to see the fish tank , assuming that the fish were from the ocean and wanted to go home . In 1992 , shortly after his son was born , he and his family took a trip to Six Flags Discovery Kingdom ( which was called Marine World at the time ) . There , after seeing the shark tube and various exhibits , he felt that the underwater world could be done beautifully in computer animation . Later , in 1997 , he took his son for a walk in the park , but realized that he was overprotecting him and lost an opportunity to have a father-son experience that day . In an interview with National Geographic magazine , Stanton said that the idea for the characters of Marlin and Nemo came from a photograph of two clownfish peeking out of an anemone : In addition , clownfish are colourful , but do not tend to come out of an anemone often . For a character who has to go on a dangerous journey , Stanton felt a clownfish was the perfect type of fish for the character . Pre-production of the film began in early 1997 . Stanton began writing the screenplay during the post-production of A Bug 's Life . As a result , Finding Nemo began production with a complete screenplay , something that co-director Lee Unkrich called `` very unusual for an animated film '' . The artists took scuba diving lessons to study the coral reef . The idea for the initiation sequence came from a story conference between Andrew Stanton and Bob Peterson while they were driving to record the actors . Stanton was inspired to cast Ellen DeGeneres when he watched an episode of Ellen in which he saw her `` change the subject five times before finishing one sentence '' . The pelican character named Gerald ( who in the final film ends up swallowing and choking on Marlin and Dory ) was originally a friend of Nigel . They were going to play against each other with Nigel being neat and fastidious and Gerald being scruffy and sloppy . The filmmakers could not find an appropriate scene for them that did not slow the pace of the picture , so Gerald 's character was minimized . Stanton himself provided the voice of Crush the sea turtle . He originally did the voice for the film 's story reel , and assumed they would find an actor later . When Stanton 's performance became popular in test screenings , he decided to keep his performance in the film . He recorded all his dialogue while lying on a sofa in Unkrich 's office . Crush 's son Squirt was voiced by Nicholas Bird , the young son of fellow Pixar director Brad Bird . According to Stanton , the elder Bird was playing a tape recording of his young son around the Pixar studios one day . Stanton felt the voice was `` this generation 's Thumper '' and immediately cast Nicholas . Megan Mullally was originally going to provide a voice in the film . According to Mullally , the producers were dissatisfied to learn that the voice of her character Karen Walker on the television show Will & Grace was not her natural speaking voice . The producers hired her anyway , and then strongly encouraged her to use her Karen Walker voice for the role . When Mullally refused , she was dismissed . To ensure that the movements of the fish in the film were believable , the animators took a crash course in fish biology and oceanography . They visited aquariums , went diving in Hawaii and received in-house lectures from an ichthyologist . As a result , Pixar 's animator for Dory , Gini Cruz Santos , integrated `` the fish movement , human movement , and facial expressions to make them look and feel like real characters . `` 31st Annual Annie Awards , [ http : //annieawards.org/31st-annie-awards 31st Annual Annie Award Nominees and Winners ( 2003 ) ] . Retrieved June 12 , 2014 , `` ... Character Animation ... Gini Santos Finding Nemo ... '' October 23 , 2009 , Sean Howell , Yahoo ! News , [ http : //voices.yahoo.com/profile-gini-santos-pixar-animator-brings-asian-4692281.html Profile of Gini Santos - Pixar Animator Brings Asian Flare and Female Perspective ] . Retrieved June 12 , 2014 , `` ... Pixar ... Finding Nemo , she integrates the fish movement , human movement , and facial expressions to make them look and feel like real characters .... '' The film was dedicated to Glenn McQueen , a Pixar animator who died of melanoma in October 2002 . Finding Nemo shares many plot elements with Pierrot the Clownfish , a children 's book published in 2002 , but allegedly conceived in 1995 . The author , Franck Le Calvez , sued Disney for infringement of his intellectual rights and to bar Finding Nemo merchandise in France . The judge ruled against him , citing the color differences between Pierrot and Nemo . Video game A video game based on the film was released in 2003 , for PC , Xbox , PS2 , GameCube and Game Boy Advance . The goal of the game is to complete different levels under the roles of Nemo , Marlin or Dory . It includes cut scenes from the movie , and each clip is based on a level . It was also the last Disney/Pixar game developed by Traveller 's Tales . Upon release , the game received mixed reviews . A Game Boy Advance sequel , titled Finding Nemo : The Continuing Adventures , was released in 2004 . Reception Critical response Finding Nemo received universal acclaim . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 99 % approval rating , with a rating average of 8.7/10 , based on 254 reviews . The site 's consensus reads : `` Breathtakingly lovely and grounded by the stellar efforts of a well-chosen cast , Finding Nemo adds another beautifully crafted gem to Pixar 's crown . '' Another review aggregation website , Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 90 out of 100 , based on 38 reviews , indicating `` universal acclaim . '' Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars , calling it `` one of those rare movies where I wanted to sit in the front row and let the images wash out to the edges of my field of vision '' . Broadway star Nathan Lane , who was the voice of Timon the meerkat in The Lion King , has said Finding Nemo was his favorite animated film . Ed Park of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review , saying `` It 's an ocean of eye candy that tastes fresh even in this ADD-addled era of SpongeBob SquarePants . '' Mark Caro of the Chicago Tribune gave the film four out of four stars , saying `` You connect to these sea creatures as you rarely do with humans in big-screen adventures . The result : a true sunken treasure . '' Hazel-Dawn Dumpert of L.A. Weekly gave the film a positive review , saying `` As gorgeous a film as Disney 's ever put out , with astonishing qualities of light , movement , surface and color at the service of the best professional imaginations money can buy . '' Jeff Strickler of the Star Tribune gave the film a positive review , saying it `` proves that even when Pixar is not at the top of its game , it still produces better animation than some of its competitors on their best days . '' Gene Seymour of Newsday gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying `` The underwater backdrops take your breath away . No , really . They 're so lifelike , you almost feel like holding your breath while watching . '' Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald gave the film four out of four stars , saying `` Parental anxiety may not be the kind of stuff children 's films are usually made of , but this perfectly enchanting movie knows how to cater to its kiddie audience without condescending to them . '' Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film three and a half stars out of five , saying `` The best break of all is that Pixar 's traditionally untethered imagination ca n't be kept under wraps forever , and `` Nemo '' erupts with sea creatures that showcase Stanton and company 's gift for character and peerless eye for skewering contemporary culture . '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film four out of five stars , saying `` Visual imagination and sophisticated wit raise Finding Nemo to a level just below the peaks of Pixar 's Toy Story movies and Monsters , Inc .. '' Terry Lawson of the Detroit Free Press gave the film three out of four stars , saying `` As we now expect from Pixar , even the supporting fish in `` Finding Nemo '' are more developed as characters than any human in the Mission : Impossible movies . '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three and half stars out of four , saying `` Finding Nemo is an undersea treasure . The most gorgeous of all the Pixar films — which include Toy Story 1 and 2 , A Bug 's Life and Monsters , Inc. —Nemo treats family audiences to a sweet , resonant story and breathtaking visuals . It may lack Monsters , Inc.s clever humor , but kids will identify with the spunky sea fish Nemo , and adults will relate to Marlin , Nemo 's devoted dad . '' Bruce Westbrook of the Houston Chronicle gave the film an A- , saying `` Finding Nemo lives up to Pixar 's high standards for wildly creative visuals , clever comedy , solid characters and an involving story . '' Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film an A- , saying `` A simple test of humanity : If you do n't laugh aloud while watching it , you 've got a battery not a heart . '' Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film four out of four stars , saying `` A dazzling , computer-animated fish tale with a funny , touching script and wonderful voice performances that make it an unqualified treat for all ages . '' Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film four out of four stars , saying `` Enchanting ; written with an effortless blend of sweetness and silliness , and animated with such rainbow-hued beauty , you may find yourself wanting to freeze-frame it . '' Daphne Gordon of the Toronto Star gave the film four out of five stars , saying `` One of the strongest releases from Disney in years , thanks to the work of Andrew Stanton , possibly one of the most successful directors you 've never heard of . '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying `` Finding Nemo is n't quite up there with the company 's finest work -- there 's finally a sense of formula setting in -- but it 's hands down the best family film since Monsters , Inc. '' C.W . Nevius of The San Francisco Chronicle gave the film four out of four stars , saying `` The visuals pop , the fish emote and the ocean comes alive . That 's in the first two minutes . After that , they do some really cool stuff . '' Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review , saying `` Finding Nemo will engross kids with its absorbing story , brightly drawn characters and lively action , and grown-ups will be equally entertained by the film 's subtle humor and the sophistication of its visuals . '' David Ansen of Newsweek gave the film a positive review , saying `` A visual marvel , every frame packed to the gills with clever details , Finding Nemo is the best big-studio release so far this year . '' Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review , saying `` Nemo , with its ravishing underwater fantasia , manages to trump the design glamour of earlier Pixar films . '' Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an A , saying `` In this seamless blending of technical brilliance and storytelling verve , the Pixar team has made something as marvelously soulful and innately , fluidly American as jazz . '' Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three out of four stars , saying `` As eye-popping as Nemo 's peepers and as eccentric as this little fish with asymmetrical fins . '' David Germain of the Associated Press gave the film a positive review , saying `` Finding Nemo is laced with smart humor and clever gags , and buoyed by another cheery story of mismatched buddies : a pair of fish voiced by Albert Brooks and Ellen DeGeneres . '' Anthony Lane of The New Yorker gave the film a positive review , saying `` The latest flood of wizardry from Pixar , whose productions , from Toy Story onward , have lent an indispensable vigor and wit to the sagging art of mainstream animation . '' The 3D re-release prompted a retrospective on the film nine years after its initial release . Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star-Ledger described it as `` a genuinely funny and touching film that , in less than a decade , has established itself as a timeless classic . '' On the 3D re-release , Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly wrote that its emotional power was deepened by `` the dimensionality of the oceanic deep '' where `` the spatial mysteries of watery currents and floating worlds are exactly where 3D explorers were born to boldly go '' . Box office During its original theatrical run , Finding Nemo grossed $ 339,714,978 in North America , and $ 528,179,000 in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 867,893,978 . It is currently the thirty-fifth highest-grossing film , the seventh highest-grossing animated film , and the second highest-grossing film of 2003 , behind The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King . Worldwide , it was the highest-grossing Pixar film , up until 2010 , when Toy Story 3 surpassed it . The film sold an estimated 56,337,500 tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run . In North America , Finding Nemo set an opening weekend record for an animated feature , making $ 70,251,710 ( first surpassed by Shrek 2 ) and ended up spending 11 weeks in the top 10 domestically ( including 7 weeks in the top 5 ) , remaining there until August 14 . It became the highest-grossing animated film in North America ( $ 339.7 million ) , outside North America ( $ 528.2 million ) , and worldwide ( $ 867.9 million ) , in all three occasions out-grossing The Lion King . In North America , it was surpassed by both Shrek 2 in 2004 and Toy Story 3 in 2010 . After the re-release of The Lion King in 2011 , and then Despicable Me 2 and Frozen in 2013 , Minions in 2015 , and Zootopia in 2016 , passed it , it stands as the seventh highest-grossing animated film in these regions . Outside North America , it stands as the fifth highest-grossing animated film . Worldwide , it now ranks fourth among animated films . The film had impressive box office runs in many international markets . In Japan , its highest-grossing market after North America , it grossed ¥11.2 billion ( $ 102.4 million ) , becoming the highest-grossing foreign animated film in local currency ( yen ) . It has only been surpassed by Frozen ( ¥12.1 billion ) . Following in biggest grosses are the U.K. , Ireland and Malta , where it grossed £37.2 million ( $ 67.1 million ) , France and the Maghreb region ( $ 64.8 million ) , Germany ( $ 53.9 million ) , and Spain ( $ 29.5 million ) . 3D re-release After the success of the 3D re-release of The Lion King , Disney re-released Finding Nemo in 3D on September 14 , 2012 , with a conversion cost estimated to be below $ 5 million . For the opening weekend of its 3D re-release in North America , Finding Nemo grossed $ 16.7 million , debuting at the No . 2 spot behind Resident Evil : Retribution . The film earned $ 41.1 million in North America and $ 31.0 million internationally , for a combined total of $ 72.1 million , and a cumulative worldwide total of $ 936.7 million . Accolades Finding Nemo won the Academy Award and Saturn Award for Best Animated Film . It also won the award for Best Animated Film at the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards , the Las Vegas Film Critics Society Awards , the National Board of Review Awards , the Online Film Critics Society Awards , and the Toronto Film Critics Association Awards . The film received many other awards , including : Kids Choice Awards for Favorite Movie and Favorite Voice from an Animated Movie ( Ellen DeGeneres ) , and the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress ( Ellen DeGeneres ) . The film was also nominated for two Chicago Film Critics Association Awards , for Best Picture and Best Supporting Actress ( Ellen DeGeneres ) , a Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy , and two MTV Movie Awards , for Best Movie and Best Comedic Performance ( Ellen DeGeneres ) . In June 2008 , the American Film Institute revealed its `` Ten Top Ten '' , the best 10 films in 10 `` classic '' American film genres , after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community . Finding Nemo was acknowledged as the 10th best film in the animation genre . It was the most recently released film among all

qw_12818--Finding_Nemo.txt

"What relation was Marlin to Nemo in the film ""Finding Nemo""?"

The Dakar Rally ( or simply `` The Dakar '' ; formerly known as the `` Paris–Dakar Rally '' ) is an annual rally raid organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation . Most events since the inception in 1978 were from Paris , France , to Dakar , Senegal , but due to security threats in Mauritania , which led to the cancellation of the 2008 rally , races since 2009 have been held in South America . The race is open to amateur and professional entries , amateurs typically making up about eighty percent of the participants . The race is an off-road endurance event . The terrain that the competitors traverse is much tougher than that used in conventional rallying , and the vehicles used are true off-road vehicles rather than modified on-road vehicles . Most of the competitive special sections are off-road , crossing dunes , mud , camel grass , rocks , and erg among others . The distances of each stage covered vary from short distances up to 800 - per day . History The race originated in December 1978 , a year after Thierry Sabine got lost in the Ténéré desert whilst competing in the Abidjan-Nice rally and decided that the desert would be a good location for a regular rally . 182 vehicles took the start of the inaugural rally in Paris , with 74 surviving the trip to the Senegalese capital of Dakar . Cyril Neveu holds the distinction of being the event 's first winner , riding a Yamaha motorcycle . The event rapidly grew in popularity , with 216 vehicles taking the start in 1980 and 291 in 1981 . Neveu won the event for a second time in 1980 , Hubert Auriol taking honours in 1981 for BMW . By this stage , the rally had already begun to attract the participation of famous names from elsewhere in motorsport , such as Henri Pescarolo and Jacky Ickx . Now boasting 382 competitors , more than double the amount that took the start in 1979 , Neveu won the event for a third time in 1982 , this time riding a Honda motorcycle , while victory in the car class went to the Marreau brothers , driving a privately entered Renault 20 , whose buccaneering exploits seemed to perfectly capture the spirit of the early years of the rally . Auriol captured his second bikes class victory in 1983 , the first year that Japanese manufacturer Mitsubishi competed in the rally , beginning an association that would last all the way until 2009 . At the behest of 1983 car class winner Jacky Ickx , Porsche entered the Dakar in 1984 , with the total number of entries now at 427 . The German marque won the event at their first attempt courtesy of René Metge , who had previously won in the car category in 1981 , whilst Ickx finished sixth . Gaston Rahier meanwhile continued BMW 's success in the motorcycle category with back-to-back wins in 1984 and 1985 , the year of Mitsubishi 's first victory of 12 in the car category , Patrick Zaniroli taking the spoils . The 1986 event , won by Metge and Neveu , was marred by the death of event founder Sabine in a helicopter crash , his father Gilbert taking over organisation of the rally . Peugeot-Citroën domination The 1987 rally marked the start of an era of increased official factory participation in the car category , as French manufacturer Peugeot arrived and won the event with former World Rally champion Ari Vatanen . The 1987 event was also notable for a ferocious head-to-head duel between Neveu and Auriol in the motorcycle category , the former taking his fifth victory after Auriol was forced to drop out of the rally after breaking both ankles in a fall . The 1988 event reached its zenith in terms of entry numbers , with 603 starters . Vatanen 's title defence was derailed when his Peugeot was stolen from the service area at Bamako . Though it was later found , Vatanen was subsequently disqualified from the event , victory instead going to compatriot and teammate Juha Kankkunen . Peugeot and Vatanen returned to winning ways in 1989 and 1990 , the latter marking Peugeot 's final year of rally competition before switching to the World Sportscar Championship . Sister brand Citroën took Peugeot 's place , Vatanen taking a third consecutive victory in 1991 . The 1991 event also saw Stéphane Peterhansel take his first title in the motorcycle category with Yamaha , marking the beginning of an era of domination by the Frenchman . For the 1992 event , the finish line moved to Cape Town , South Africa in a bid to combat a declining number of competitors , where GPS technology was used for the first time . Auriol became the first person to win in multiple classes after taking Mitsubishi 's second victory in the car class , while Peterhansel successfully defended his motorcycle category title . The 1993 rally entry list slumped to 153 competitors , around half of the preceding year 's figure and around a quarter of that of 1988 . The event was the last to be organised by Gilbert Sabine and the Amaury Sport Organisation took over the following year . With the finish line now back in its traditional location of Dakar , Bruno Saby won a third title for Mitsubishi and Peterhansel took a third straight success in the motorcycle category . The 1994 event returned to Paris after reaching Dakar , resulting in a particularly grueling event . Pierre Lartigue took Citroën 's second win in acrimonious circumstances , as Mitsubishi 's leading drivers were forced to withdraw from exhaustion after traversing some particularly demanding sand dunes in the Mauritanian desert that the Citroen crews had opted to skip . Peterhansel 's did not compete due to a disagreement between Yamaha and the race organizers over the regulations . Edi Orioli claimed a third title in the bikes category . The 1995 and 1996 events begin in the Spanish city of Granada , with Lartigue racking up wins for Citroen in both years . Peterhansel returned to take a fourth bikes category win in 1995 , but lost to Orioli in 1996 because of refuelling problems . Mitsubishi in the ascendancy The 1997 rally ran exclusively in Africa for the first time , with the route running from Dakar to Agadez , Niger and back to Dakar . Citroen 's withdrawal due to a rule change paved the way for Mitsubishi to take a fourth victory . Japan 's Kenjiro Shinozuka became the first non-European to win the event . Peterhansel equalled Neveu 's record of five motorcycle category wins in 1997 , before going one better in 1998 , when the event returned to its traditional Paris-Dakar route . 1998 , Dakar veteran Jean-Pierre Fontenay posted another win for Mitsubishi in the car class . 1999 started in Granada and a maiden success for erstwhile Formula One and sports car driver Jean-Louis Schlesser , who had been constructing his own buggies since 1992 . With the help of Renault backing , Schlesser overcame the works Mitsubishi and Nissan crews to win , whilst Peterhansel 's decision to switch to the car category allowed Richard Sainct to take BMW 's first title in the bikes category since 1985 . Schlesser and Sainct both successfully defended their titles in 2000 , traversing the route from Dakar to the Egyptian capital of Cairo . 2001 was the final time that the rally used the familiar Paris-Dakar route , and was notable for Mitsubishi 's Jutta Kleinschmidt , as she was the first woman to win the rally - albeit only after Schlesser was penalised one hour for unsportsmanlike conduct . Fabrizio Meoni took the first Dakar win for Austrian manufacturer KTM , beginning a winning streak that has lasted until the present day . The 2002 began in the French town of Arras and long-time Dakar participant Hiroshi Masuoka won the event for Mitsubishi ( Masouka had led for much of the previous year 's rally . ) The 2003 rally featured an unorthodox route from Marseille to Sharm El Sheikh . Masuoka defend his title after teammate and long-time leader Peterhansel was plagued by mechanical problems in the penultimate stage . Sainct meanwhile took honours in the motorcycle category , the third title for both him and KTM . The Dakar at its peak The mid-2000s saw the Dakar Rally reach the height of its popularity . The entry list by 2004 increased to 595 , up from 358 in 2001 , with a record 688 competitors starting in 2005 . Alongside Mitsubishi and Nissan , Volkswagen now boasted a full factory effort , while Schlesser 's Ford-powered buggies and BMWs of the German X-Raid team proved thorns in the side of the big budget works teams . The 2004 route was from Clermont-Ferrand to Dakar , and was the year Peterhansel emulated Hubert Auriol 's feat of winning the rally on both two wheels and four . The Frenchman defended his title in 2005 , when the rally began for the first time in Barcelona . In the bikes category , KTM continued their success with Nani Roma in 2004 , who switched to the car category the following year , and Cyril Despres in 2005 . The 2006 event moved to Lisbon . Nissan pulled out having failed to provide effective opposition to Mitsubishi , who took a sixth consecutive victory , this time with former skiing champion Luc Alphand after Peterhansel committed a series of errors late in the rally . Peterhansel made amends in 2007 , however , taking his third title in the car category for Mitsubishi after a close contest with Alphand after the increasingly competitive Volkswagens retired with mechanical problems . In what would be the final African event of the Dakar , Despres took his second title in the bikes category , having conceded victory in 2006 to Marc Coma after suffering an injury . The 2008 event , due to depart Lisbon as per the previous two years , was cancelled on January 4 , 2008 amid fears of terrorist attacks in Mauritania , causing serious doubts over the future of the rally . Chile and Argentina offered to host subsequent events , an offer later accepted by the ASO . The ASO also decided to establish the Dakar Series competition , whose first event was the 2008 Central Europe Rally , located in Hungary and Romania , which acted as a replacement for the cancelled 2008 edition of the Dakar . South America The 2009 event , the first held in South America with a respectable entry of 501 , saw Volkswagen finally take its first win in the Dakar as a works entrant courtesy of Giniel de Villiers . Teammate and former WRC champion Carlos Sainz had been leading comfortably until crashing out , but seized the opportunity to win the event in 2010 . After a poor showing in 2009 , Mitsubishi withdrew from the competition and left Volkswagen as the sole works entrant . The German marque duly won the race for a third time in 2011 , this time with Nasser Al-Attiyah , before they withdrew to focus on their upcoming WRC entry and leaving the Dakar with no factory participants in the car class . In the bikes , Despres and Coma stretched KTM 's incredible unbroken run of success . Both tied on three victories apiece after Coma 's third win in 2011 . In the 2012 rally , the X-Raid team come to the fore , now using Minis in lieu of BMWs . Peterhansel had joined the team in 2010 after Mitsubishi 's departure , but had been unable to challenge the Volkswagen drivers . Following Volkswagen 's withdrawal , Peterhansel was able to secure his fourth win in the car category and his tenth in total , his main opposition coming from within his own team . Peterhansel successfully defended his title in 2013 as the Damen Jefferies buggies of Sainz and Al-Attiyah failed to last the distance . Despres also racked up a further two wins for KTM in the bikes class in 2012 and 2013 , bringing his tally to five , aided by Coma 's absence due to injury in the latter year . Coma struck back on his return to the Dakar in 2014 , taking a comfortable fourth title and a 13th in succession for KTM , whilst Nani Roma emulated Auriol and Peterhansel by taking his maiden title in the cars class a decade on from his victory on two wheels - albeit only after team orders by X-Raid slowed down Peterhansel . Peugeot returned for the 2015 event with an all-new , diesel-powered , two-wheel drive contender , but failed to make an impact as X-Raid 's Minis once more dominated . Al-Attiyah won the event in his second year for the team , while Coma racked up a fifth title in the bikes after the defection of long-time rival Despres to the car class and Peugeot . Vehicles and classes The four major competitive groups in the Dakar are the motorcycles , quads , the cars class , ( which range from buggies to small SUVs ) and the trucks class . Many vehicle manufacturers exploit the harsh environment the rally offers as a testing ground and consequently to demonstrate the durability of their vehicles , although most vehicles are heavily modified or purpose built . Motorbikes As of 2011 , the engine capacity limit for all motorbikes competing in the Dakar Rally is 450cc . Engines may be either single or twin cylinder . Riders are divided into two groups , `` Elite '' ( Group 1 ) and Non-Elite ( Group 2 ) , with the latter subdivided into two further groups - the `` Super Production '' ( Group 2.1 ) and `` Marathon '' ( Group 2.2 ) classes . `` Marathon '' competitors are not permitted to change such key components as the engine ( including the engine case , cylinders and cylinder heads ) , the frame , the forks or swinging arm , whereas those in the `` Super Production '' and `` Elite '' classes may replace these components . KTM has dominated the motorcycle class in recent years , although Honda , Yamaha , Sherco and Gas Gas also compete currently . BMW and Cagiva have also enjoyed success in the past . Quads Prior to 2009 , Quads were a subdivision of the motorbike category , but they were granted their own separate classification in 2009 and are designated Group 3 in the current regulations . They are divided into two subgroups - Group 3.1 , which features two-wheel drive quads with a single cylinder engine with a maximum capacity of 750cc , and Group 3.2 , which permits four-wheel drive quads with a maximum engine capacity of 900cc , in either single or twin cylinder layout . Yamaha are unbeaten in the Quad category since 2009 , with their main current opposition coming courtesy of Honda and Can-Am . Cars The car class is made up of vehicles weighing less than 3500 kg , which are subdivided into several categories . The T1 Group is made up of `` Improved Cross-Country Vehicles '' , subdivided according to engine type ( petrol or diesel ) and drive type ( two-wheel or four-wheel drive ) . The T2 Group is made up of `` Cross-Country Series Production Vehicles '' , which are subdivided into petrol and diesel categories , while the T3 Group is for `` Light Vehicles '' . There is also an `` Open '' category catering for vehicles conforming to SCORE regulations . Mini have been the most successful marque in the car category in recent years , thanks to the efforts of the non-factory X-Raid team , with limited involvement currently coming from Toyota , Ford and Haval . Several constructors also produce bespoke buggies for the event , most notably SMG and Damen Jefferies . Mitsubishi is historically the most successful manufacturer in the car class , with Volkswagen , Citroen , Peugeot and Porsche having all tasted success in the past with factory teams . Jean-Louis Schlesser has also won the event twice with his Renault-supported buggies . Factory teams from Nissan and SEAT have also won stages , as has BMW , courtesy of the X-Raid team . Trucks The Truck class ( T4 ) , first run as a separate category in 1980 , is made up of vehicles weighing more than 3500 kg . Trucks participating in the competition are subdivided into `` Series Production '' trucks ( T4.1 ) and `` Modified '' trucks ( T4.2 ) , whilst Group T4.3 ( formerly known as T5 ) trucks are rally support trucks - meaning they travel from bivouac to bivouac to support the competition vehicles . These were introduced to the rally in 1998 . The truck event was not run in 1989 after it was decided the vehicles , by this stage with twin engines generating in excess of 1000 horsepower , were too dangerous following the death of a DAF crew member in an accident during the 1988 rally . Kamaz has dominated the truck category since the turn of the century , although it has come under increasing pressure from rivals such as Iveco , MAN , Renault and Tatra , which enjoyed much success in the 1990s . Hino , DAF , Perlini and Mercedes-Benz have also been among the winners in the past . List of winners Source : Stage winners Update : after 2016 Dakar Rally Bold denotes current competitors ( as of 2016 ) . By category Combined Source : Notes : The source fails to mention 21-time stage winner Kenjiro Shinozuka , while also including Chagin 's wins as a navigator for Viktor Moskovskikh during the 1999 event . and also includes incorrectly Cyril Despres as winner of stage 9 of 2010 Dakar ( it was Marc Coma ) Television coverage Over 190 different countries take the international feed of the event with a roundup of every day being made into a 26-minute programme . This has been commentated on by Toby Moody for ten years , and most recently Ben Constanduros . The organisers provide 20 edit stations for various countries to produce their own programmes . There are four TV helicopters , six stage cameras , and three bivouac crews to make over 1,000 hours of TV over the two-week period . In the United States , coverage can be seen on NBC Sports Network . A 2006 television documentary Race to Dakar described the experiences of a team , including the English actor Charley Boorman , in preparation for and entry into the 2006 Dakar Rally . According to Gert Vermersch , the media coverage of the Dakar rally , particularly in Europe , has been decreasing . This has been triggered by the fact that the new South American edition of the race has proven to be less spectacular , at least in regards to the scenery as the original edition . Incidents In 1982 , Mark Thatcher , son of the then British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , along with his French co-driver Anne-Charlotte Verney and their mechanic , disappeared for six days . On January 9 , the trio became separated from a convoy of vehicles after they stopped to make repairs to a faulty steering arm . They were declared missing on January 12 ; after a large-scale search , a Lockheed L100 search plane from the Algerian military spotted their white Peugeot 504 some 50 km off course . Thatcher , Verney , and the mechanic were all unharmed . The organiser of the rally , Thierry Sabine , was killed when his Ecureuil helicopter ( `` Squirrel-copter '' ) crashed at 7:30 p.m. on Tuesday 14 January 1986 , into a dune at Mali during a sudden sand-storm . Also killed onboard was the singer-songwriter Daniel Balavoine , helicopter pilot François-Xavier Bagnoud , journalist Nathalie Odent , and Jean-Paul Lefur who was a radiophonic engineer for RTL . Six people were killed during the 1988 race , three participants and three local residents . In one incident , Baye Sibi , a 10-year-old Malian girl , was killed by a racer while she crossed a road . A film crew 's vehicle killed a mother and daughter in Mauritania on the last day of the race . The race participants killed , in three separate crashes , were a Dutch navigator on the DAF Trucks team , a French privateer , and a French rider . Racers were also blamed for starting a wildfire that caused a panic on a train running between Dakar and Bamako , where three more people were killed . In 2003 , French driver Daniel Nebot both rolled and crashed his Toyota heavily at high speed killing his co-driver Bruno Cauvy . In 2005 , Spanish motorcyclist José Manuel Pérez died in a Spanish hospital on Monday , January 10 after crashing the week before on the 7th stage . Italian motorcyclist Fabrizio Meoni , a two-time winner of the event , became the second Dakar Rally rider to die in two days , following Pérez on January 11 on stage 11 . Meoni was the 11th motorcyclist and the 45th person overall to die in the history of the race . On January 13 , a five-year-old Senegalese girl was hit and killed by a service lorry after wandering onto a main road , bringing the total deaths to five . In 2006 , 41-year-old Australian KTM motorcyclist Andy Caldecott , in his third time in the Dakar , died January 9 as a result of neck injuries sustained in a crash approximately 250 km into stage 9 , between Nouakchott and Kiffa , only a few kilometers ( miles ) from the location where Meoni had his fatal wreck the year before . He won the third stage of the 2006 event between Nador and Er Rachidia only a few days before his death . The death occurred despite efforts by the event organisers to improve competitor safety , including limiting speed , mandatory rest at fuel stops , and reduced fuel capacity requirements for the bike classes . On January 13 , a 10-year-old boy died while crossing the course after being hit by a car driven by Latvian Māris Saukāns , while on January 14 a 12-year-old boy was killed after being hit by a support lorry . In 2007 , 29-year-old South African motor racer Elmer Symons died of injuries sustained in a crash during the fourth stage of the Rally . Symons crashed with his bike in the desert between Er Rachidia and Ouarzazate , Morocco . Another death occurred on January 20 , the night before the race 's finish , when 42-year-old motorcyclist Eric Aubijoux died suddenly . The cause of death was initially believed to be a heart attack , however it was later suggested that Aubijoux had died of internal injuries sustained in a crash earlier that day while competing in the 14th stage of the race . The 2008 Dakar Rally was cancelled due to security concerns after al-Qaeda 's murder of four French tourists on Christmas Eve in December 2007 in Mauritania ( a country in which the rally spent eight days ) , various accusations against the rally calling it `` neo-colonialist '' , and al-Qaeda 's accusations against Mauritania calling it a supporter of `` crusaders , apostates and infidels '' . The French-based Amaury Sport Organisation in charge of the 6000 km rally said in a statement that they had been advised by the French government to cancel the race , which had been due to begin on January 5 , 2008 from Lisbon . They said direct threats had also been made against the event by al-Qaeda related organisations . Omar Osama bin Laden , the son of Osama bin Laden , attracted news coverage in 2008 by promoting himself as an `` ambassador of peace '' and proposing a 3000 mi horse race across North Africa as a replacement to the Dakar Rally , with sponsors ' money going to support child victims of war , saying `` I heard the rally was stopped because of al-Qaida . I do n't think they are going to stop me . '' On 7 January 2009 , the body of 49-year-old motorcyclist Pascal Terry from France was found . He had been missing for three days and his body lay on a remote part of the second stage between Santa Rosa de la Pampa and Puerto Madryn . On 4 January 2010 , a woman watching the Dakar Rally was killed when a vehicle taking part in the race veered off the course and hit her during the opening stage . On 1 January 2012 , motorcyclist Jorge Martinez Boero of Argentina died after suffering a cardiac arrest after a fall . He was treated by medical staff within five minutes of the accident , but died on the way to hospital . On 7 January 2015 , motorcycle rider Michal Hernik died from unknown circumstances during Stage 3 of the 2015 rally . Overall 70 people , including 28 competitors , have died in the Dakar Rally . Criticism When the race was held in Africa , it was subject to criticism from several sources , generally focusing on the race 's impact on the inhabitants of the African countries through which it passed . Some African residents along the race 's course in previous years have said they saw limited benefits from the race ; that race participants spent little money on the goods and services local residents can offer . The racers produced substantial amounts of dust along the course , and were blamed for hitting and killing livestock , in addition to occasionally injuring or killing people . After the 1988 race , when three Africans were killed in collisions with vehicles involved in the race , PANA , a Dakar-based news agency , wrote that the deaths were `` insignificant for the [ race 's ] organisers '' . The Vatican City newspaper L'Osservatore Romano called the race a `` vulgar display of power and wealth in places where men continue to die from hunger and thirst . '' During a 2002 protest at the race 's start in Arras , France , a Green Party of France statement described the race as `` colonialism that needs to be eradicated '' . The environmental impact of the race has been another area of criticism . This criticism of the race is notably the topic of the song `` 500 connards sur la ligne de départ '' ( `` 500 Arseholes at the Starting Line '' ) , on the 1991 album Marchand de cailloux by French singer Renaud . According to recent figures provided by the Dakar Rally , the carbon emissions of the two-week race are approximately equivalent to a single Formula One race . Gallery

qz_5143--Dakar_Rally.txt

The Dakar Rally (previously known as the Paris Dakar rally) is an annual event, but of which country is Dakar the capital city?

The Isle of Wight is a county and the largest and second most populous island in England . It is located in the English Channel , about 4 mi off the coast of Hampshire , separated from mainland Great Britain by the Solent . The island has several resorts that have been holiday destinations since Victorian times . Until 1995 , like Jersey and Guernsey , the island had a Governor . Home to the poets Swinburne and Tennyson and to Queen Victoria , who built her much-loved summer residence and final home Osborne House at East Cowes , the island has a maritime and industrial tradition including boat building , sail making , the manufacture of flying boats , the world 's first hovercraft , and the testing and development of Britain 's space rockets . The Isle hosts annual festivals including the Bestival and the Isle of Wight Festival , which , in 1970 , was the largest rock music event ever held . The island has well-conserved wildlife and some of the richest cliffs and quarries for dinosaur fossils in Europe . The Isle of Wight was owned by a Norman family until 1293 and was earlier a kingdom in its own right . It was part of Hampshire until 1890 when it became an independent administrative county . It shared a Lord Lieutenant with Hampshire until 1974 , when it was reconstituted as a non-metropolitan ceremonial county , giving it its own Lord Lieutenant . Apart from a shared police force , there is now no formal administrative link between the Isle of Wight and Hampshire . In the 1970s , there was a political movement seeking the status of Crown Dependency . The quickest public transport link to the mainland is to and from Southsea ( Portsmouth ) by hovercraft , while five ferry services shuttle across the Solent from Southampton , Lymington and Portsmouth . History Neolithic There are theories that , during the Neolithic era , Bouldnor was a busy seaport that supported trade with the Middle East , as wheat was present there 8,000 years ago , hundreds of years before wheat was grown anywhere in Europe . Bronze and Iron Age The Isle of Wight is first mentioned in writing in Geography by Ptolemy . Bronze Age Britain had large reserves of tin in the areas of Cornwall and Devon and tin is necessary to smelt bronze . At that time the sea level was much lower and carts of tin were brought across the Solent at low tide for export , possibly on the Ferriby Boats . Anthony Snodgrass suggests that a shortage of tin , as a part of the Bronze Age Collapse and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean around 1300 BC , forced metalworkers to seek an alternative to bronze . During Iron Age Britain , the Late Iron Age , the Isle of Wight would appear to have been occupied by the Celtic tribe , the Durotriges - as attested by finds of their coins , for example , the South Wight Hoard , and the Shalfleet Hoard . South eastern Britain experienced significant Continental immigration that is reflected in the genetic makeup of the current residents . As the Iron Age began the value of tin likely dropped sharply and this likely greatly changed the economy of the Isle of Wight . Trade however continued as evidenced by the remarkable local abundance of European Iron Age coins . Roman period Caesar reported that the Belgae took the Isle of Wight about 85 BC and named it Ictus ( or Vectis ) . The Roman historian Suetonius mentions that the entire island was captured by the commander Vespasian , who later became emperor . The remains of at least five Roman villas have been found on the island , including one near Gurnard which is submerged . First century exports were principally hides , slaves , hunting dogs , grain , cattle , silver , gold , and iron . Ferriby Boats and later Blackfriars Ships likely were important to the local economy . Jutish and Saxon era In or about the 6th Century , the island became the Jutish kingdom of Wihtwara . Its first rulers were said to be Wihtgar ( who may have been fictitious ) and Stuf . In 661 when it was invaded by Wulfhere of Mercia and forcibly converted to Christianity . When he left for Mercia the islanders reverted to paganism . In 685 it was invaded by Cædwalla of Wessex and can be considered to have become part of Wessex . The resistance to the invasion was led by the local King Arwald and after he was defeated and slain , at Cædwalla 's insistence , Wight became the last part of the English lands to convert to Christianity in 686 . After Alfred the Great ( who reigned 871 - 899 ) made the West Saxon kings the kings of all England , it then became administratively part of England . The island became part of the shire of Hampshire and was divided into hundreds as was the norm . From this time the island suffered especially from Viking predations . Alfred the Great 's navy defeated the Danes in 871 after they had `` ravaged Devon and the Isle of Wight '' . Later middle ages The Norman conquest of England created the position of Lord of the Isle of Wight . Carisbrooke Priory and the fort of Carisbrooke Castle were founded . The island did not come under full control of the Crown until it was sold by the dying last Norman Lord , Isabel de Forz , suo jure 8th Countess of Devon , to Edward I of England in 1293 . In 1374 , the fleet of the Crown of Castile , led by Fernando Sánchez de Tovar , sacked and burned the island . The Lordship thereafter became a royal appointment . It is sometimes said that there was a brief interruption when Henry Beauchamp , 1st Duke of Warwick was in 1444 crowned King of the Isle of Wight with King Henry VI assisting in person at the ceremony , placing the crown on his head . With no male heir , the regal title supposedly expired on the death of Henry de Beauchamp in 1446 . But there is no good evidence for this story , and it is considered baseless . The French invasion of the Isle of Wight of 21 July 1545 was rapidly repulsed by local militia . English ships were engaged in battle with the French navy , and it was two days earlier , on 19 July , that the Mary Rose was sunk . Early modern period Henry VIII , who developed the Royal Navy and its permanent base at Portsmouth , fortified the island at Yarmouth , Cowes , East Cowes , and Sandown . During the English Civil War King Charles fled to the Isle of Wight , believing he would receive sympathy from the governor , Robert Hammond . Hammond was appalled , and imprisoned the king in Carisbrooke Castle . Charles had originally intended to flee to Jersey , but became lost in the New Forest and missed the boat . During the Seven Years ' War , the island was used as a staging post for British troops departing on expeditions against the French coast such as the Raid on Rochefort . During 1759 with a planned French invasion imminent , a large force of soldiers was kept there so they could be moved at speed to any destination on the Southern English coast . The French called off their invasion following the Battle of Quiberon Bay . A later French invasion plan involved a landing on the Isle of Wight . Modern history Queen Victoria made Osborne House on the Isle of Wight her summer home for many years and , as a result , it became a major holiday resort for fashionable Victorians including Alfred , Lord Tennyson , Julia Margaret Cameron , Charles Dickens ( who wrote much of David Copperfield there ) as well as the French painter Berthe Morisot and members of European royalty . Queen Victoria died at Osborne House on 22 January 1901 , aged 81 . During her reign , the world 's first radio station was set up by Marconi in 1897 at the Needles Battery , at the western tip of the island . During the Second World War the island was frequently bombed . With its proximity to France the island had a number of observation stations and transmitters . It was the starting-point for one of the earlier Operation Pluto pipelines to feed fuel to the Normandy landings . The Needles battery was used as the site for testing and development of the Black Arrow and Black Knight space rockets , subsequently launched from Woomera , Australia . The Isle of Wight Festival was a very large rock festival that took place near Afton Down , West Wight in 1970 , following two smaller concerts in 1968 and 1969 . The 1970 show was notable both for being one of the last public performances by Jimi Hendrix and for the number of attendees reaching , by many estimates , 600,000 . The festival was revived in 2002 in a different format and is now an annual event . Physical geography and wildlife The Isle of Wight is roughly diamond-shaped and covers an area of 380 km2 , nearly 150 sq.miles . Slightly more than half of the island , mainly in the west , is designated as the Isle of Wight Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . The island has 258 km2 of farmland , 52 km2 of developed areas , and 57 miles of coastline . The landscape of the island is diverse , leading to its oft-quoted description of `` England in Miniature '' . West Wight is predominantly rural , with dramatic coastlines dominated by the chalk downland ridge , running across the whole island and ending in the Needles stacks—perhaps the most photographed place on the Isle of Wight . The south western quarter is commonly referred to as the Back of the Wight because it has a unique social and historical background . The highest point on the island is St Boniface Down , at 241 m , which is a marilyn . The rest of the island 's landscape also has great diversity , with perhaps the most notable habitats being the soft cliffs and sea ledges , which are scenic features and important for wildlife , and are internationally protected . The River Medina flows north into the Solent , whilst the other main river , the Eastern Yar , flows roughly north-east , emerging at Bembridge Harbour at the eastern end of the island . There is another river in the west of the island called the Western Yar , flowing the short distance from Freshwater Bay to a relatively large estuary at Yarmouth . The south coast of the island borders the English Channel . Without man 's intervention the sea might well have split the island into three ; at the west end where a bank of pebbles separates Freshwater Bay from the marshy backwaters of the Western Yar east of Freshwater , and at the east end where a thin strip of land separates Sandown Bay from the marshy basin of the Eastern Yar , east of Sandown . Yarmouth itself was effectively an island , only connected to the rest of the island by a regularly breached neck of land immediately east of the town . The Isle of Wight is one of the few places in England where the red squirrel is flourishing , with a stable population ( Brownsea Island is another ) , and unlike most of England , no grey squirrels are to be found on the island . There are occasional sightings of deer at large in the wild on the island . Rare and protected species such as the dormouse and many rare bats can be found . The Glanville Fritillary butterfly 's distribution in the United Kingdom is largely restricted to the edges of the crumbling cliffs of the Isle of Wight . A competition in 2002 named the Pyramidal Orchid as the Isle of Wight 's county flower . The island has one of the most important areas in Europe for dinosaur fossils . The eroding cliffs often reveal previously hidden remains particularly along the region known as the Back of the Wight . Climate The Isle of Wight has a milder sub-climate than other areas of the UK , which makes it a holiday destination , particularly the resorts in the south east of the island . It also has a longer growing season . The mean temperature is 13 degrees Celsius averaged over the year , and is 18 degrees in July and August . The microclimate of places such as Lower Ventnor is influenced by their sheltered position under the cliffs . The Isle of Wight is also sunnier than parts of the UK , with 1800–2100 hours of sunshine a year . Some years have almost no snow in winter , and only a few days of hard frost . Geology The Isle of Wight is made up of a wide variety of different rock types dating from early Cretaceous times ( around 127 million years ago ) to the middle of the Palaeogene ( around 30 million years ago ) . The northern half of the island is mainly made up of Tertiary clays , with the southern half formed of Cretaceous rocks ( the chalk that forms the central east-west downs , as well as Upper and Lower Greensands and Wealden strata ) . All the rocks found on the island are sedimentary such as limestone , mudstone and sandstone . Rocks on the island are very rich in fossils and many of these can be seen exposed on the beaches as the cliffs erode . Lignitic coal is present in small quantities in seams on the cliffs and shore at Whitecliff Bay and fossilised molluscs have been found there . Dinosaur bones and footprints can be seen in and on the rocks exposed around the island 's beaches , especially at Yaverland and Compton Bay . As a result , the isle has been nicknamed Dinosaur Island . Along the northern coast of the island there is a rich source of fossilised shellfish , crocodiles , turtles and mammal bones . The youngest of these date back to around 30 million years ago . The geological structure is dominated by a large monocline which causes the marked change in age of strata from the northern younger Tertiary beds to the older Cretaceous beds of the south . This gives rise to a dip of almost 90 degrees in the chalk beds , seen best at the Needles . The area was affected by sea level changes during the repeated Quaternary glaciations . Probably about 125,000 years ago , during the Ipswichian interglacial , the Isle of Wight became separated from the mainland . Politics With a single Member of Parliament and 132,731 permanent residents in 2001 , it is the most populous parliamentary constituency in the United Kingdom ( more than 50 % above the average of English constituencies ) . Parliament has passed Section 11 , Clause 6 ( 1 ) of the Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011 to alter this . The Isle of Wight is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county . Since the abolition of its two borough councils in 1995 and the restructuring of the county council as the Isle of Wight Council , it has been a unitary county . As a constituency of the House of Commons , it is traditionally a battleground between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats . The current Member of Parliament Andrew Turner is a Conservative , and his predecessor Dr Peter Brand was a Liberal Democrat . The Isle of Wight Council election of 2013 saw the Conservative Party lose the majority which they had held since 2005 to the Island Independents . Independent councillors currently hold 20 of the 40 seats in the council . There have been small regionalist movements : the Vectis National Party and the Isle of Wight Party ; but they have attracted little support in elections . Governors of the Isle of Wight * 1509–1520 : Sir Nicholas I Wadham ( d.1542 ) `` Captain of the Isle of Wight '' . * 1538–1540 : Thomas Cromwell , 1st Baron Cromwell ( later Earl of Essex ) * 1558– ? : John Paulet Lord St John ( later Marquess of Winchester ) * 1565–1583 : Sir Edward Horsey * 1583–1603 : Sir George Carey , 2nd Lord Hunsdon * 1603–1624 : Henry Wriothesley , 3rd Earl of Southampton * 1633–1642 : Jerome Weston , 2nd Earl of Portland * 1642–1647 : Philip Herbert , 4th Earl of Pembroke * 1647–1647 : Robert Hammond * 1648–1659 : Col. William Sydenham * 1660 : Anthony Ashley Cooper , 1st Earl of Shaftesbury * 1660–1661 : Jerome Weston , 2nd Earl of Portland * 1661–1667 : Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper * 1668–1692 : Sir Robert Holmes * 1693 : Hon . Thomas Tollemache * 1693–1707 : John Cutts , 1st Baron Cutts * 1707–1710 : Charles Paulet , 2nd Duke of Bolton * 1710–1715 : General John Richmond Webb * 1715–1726 : William Cadogan ( later Earl Cadogan ) * 1726–1733 : Charles Paulet , 3rd Duke of Bolton * 1733–1734 : John Montagu , 2nd Duke of Montagu * 1734–1742 : John Wallop , 1st Viscount Lymington * 1742–1746 : Charles Paulet , 3rd Duke of Bolton * 1746–1762 : John Wallop , 1st Earl of Portsmouth * 1763–1764 : Thomas Holmes , 1st Baron Holmes * 1764–1766 : Hans Stanley * 1766–1770 : Harry Paulet , 6th Duke of Bolton * 1770–1780 : Hans Stanley * 1780–1782 : Sir Richard Worsley , 7th Baronet * 1782–1791 : Harry Paulet , 6th Duke of Bolton * 1791–1807 : Thomas Orde-Powlett , 1st Baron Bolton * 1807–1841 : James Harris , 2nd Earl of Malmesbury * 1841–1857 : William à Court , 1st Baron Heytesbury * 1857–1888 : Charles Shaw-Lefevre , 1st Viscount Eversley * 1889–1896 : Prince Henry of Battenberg * 1896–1944 : Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom * 1957–1965 : Gerald Wellesley , 7th Duke of Wellington * 1965–1974 : Louis Mountbatten , 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma ( Lord Lieutenant 1974–1979 ) * 1992–1995 : David Seely , 4th Baron Mottistone Main towns * Newport , in the centre of the Island , is the county town of the Isle of Wight with a population of about 25,000 and the Island 's main shopping area . Located next to the River Medina , Newport Quay was a busy port until the mid 19th century . * Ryde , the island 's largest town with a population of about 30,000 , is in the north east of the island . It is a Victorian town with the oldest seaside pier in England and miles of beaches . Ryde is home to the ice hockey club Wightlink Raiders , who play in the third-tier English National Ice Hockey League . * Cowes is the location of the annual Cowes Week and an international sailing centre . It is the home of the record-setting sailor Dame Ellen MacArthur . * East Cowes is famous for Osborne House , Norris Castle and as the home from 1929 to 1964 of Saunders-Roe , the historic aircraft , flying boat , rocket and hovercraft company . * Sandown is a popular seaside resort . It is home to the Isle of Wight Zoo , the Dinosaur Isle geological museum and one of the island 's two 18-hole golf courses . * Shanklin , just south of Sandown , attracts tourists with its high summer sunshine levels , sandy beaches , Shanklin Chine and the old village . * Ventnor , built on the steep slopes of St Boniface Down on the south coast of the island , leads down to a picturesque bay that attracts many tourists . Ventnor Haven is a small harbour built around a Victorian-style bandstand . Culture Language and dialect The accent of the Isle of Wight is similar to the traditional dialect of Hampshire , featuring the dropping of some consonants and an emphasis on longer vowels . It is similar to the West Country dialects heard in SW England , but less removed in sound from the Estuary English of the SE . As with many other traditional southern English regional dialects and accents , a strong island accent is not now commonly heard , and , as speakers tend to be older , this decline is likely to continue . The island has its own local and regional words . Some words , such as nipper/nips ( a young male person ) , are still commonly used and are shared with neighbouring areas of the mainland . A few are unique to the island , for example overner ( a mainlander who has settled on the island ) , caulkhead ( someone born on the island and born from long-established island stock ) and grockle ( a tourist/visitor ) . Other words are more obscure and now used mainly for comic emphasis , such as mallishag ( meaning `` caterpillar '' ) . Some other words are gurt meaning `` large '' , nammit ( a mid-morning snack ) and gallybagger ( `` scarecrow '' ) . Identity There has been and still is some confusion between the identities of the Isle of Wight as a separate county and , as it once was , a part of the nearby county of Hampshire . At least one mainstream newspaper article as recently as 2008 refers to the `` Isle of Wight in Hampshire '' . Prior to 1890 , the Isle of Wight was normally regarded and was administered as a part of Hampshire . With the formation of the Isle of Wight County Council in 1890 , the distinct identity became officially established : see also Politics of the Isle of Wight . In January 2009 , the new Flag of the Isle of Wight , the first general flag for the county , was accepted by the Flag Institute . Denizens of the Isle of Wight are sometimes referred to as 'Vectensians ' , 'Vectians ' or `` caulkheads '' . Sport Cycling The Isle of Wight is well known for its cycling , with it reaching the top ten in Lonely Planet Best in Travel Guide ( 2010 ) for cycling locations . The island is also host to events such as the Isle of Wight Randonnée and the Isle of Wight Cycling Festival , which are hosted annually . There are cycling clubs such as Vectis Roads Cycling Club , which hosts mainly time trials on the island , including an annual 3 Day Time Trial Festival on a bank holiday weekend in May . Rowing There are rowing clubs at Newport , Ryde and Shanklin . In June 1998 a group of ladies from the Isle of Wight made history by becoming the first team of ladies to row around the island in a fixed seat Solent Galley . They completed their trip in 10 hours and twenty minutes . Their team photo is on show in Ryde Rowing Club . Rowers from Ryde Rowing Club have rowed around the island on a number of other occasions the first being 1880 . The 4s record was set 16 August 1995 at 7 hours and 57 minutes by a Ryde crew . Two rowers from Southampton ARC ( Chris Bennett and Roger Slaymaker ) set the 2 man record in July 2003 at 8 hours and 34 minutes and in 2006 Gus McKechnie of Coalporters rowing club completed a clockwise row as part of a 4s crew making him the only person to have rowed around both ways . The route around the island is some 60+ miles usually anti clockwise and involves even in good conditions a number of notable obstacles including the Needles Rocks and the overfalls at St Catherines point . Start and finish points were traditionally Ryde Rowing club however other start points have been chosen in recent years that give tidal advantages . Sailing Cowes is a centre for sailing , playing host to several racing regattas . Cowes Week is the longest-running regular regatta in the world , with over 1,000 yachts and 8,500 competitors taking part in over 50 classes of yacht racing . In 1851 the first America 's Cup race took place around the island . Other major sailing events hosted in Cowes include the Fastnet race , the Round the Island Race , the Admiral 's Cup , and the Commodore 's Cup . Trampolining There are two main trampoline clubs on the island , in Freshwater and Newport , competing at regional , national and international grades . Marathon The Isle of Wight Marathon is the United Kingdom 's oldest continuously held marathon , having been run every year since 1957 . Since 2013 the course has started in Cowes , passing through Gurnard , Rew Street , Porchfield , Shalfleet , Yarmouth , Afton , Willmingham , Thorley , Wellow , Shalfleet , Porchfield , and Northwood before finishing back in Cowes . It is an undulating course with a total climb of 1,043 feet . Speedway The island was home to the Isle of Wight Islanders speedway team until 2014 , who competed in the sport 's third division , the National League . The club was founded in 1996 , with a first-night attendance of 1,740.Speedway is now back for season 2016 Ice hockey The island is home to the Wightlink Raiders , an ice hockey team based at Ryde Arena . They compete in the 1st Tier of the English National Ice Hockey League , the 3rd Division in the country . There is an amateur team the Vectis Tigers of the 2nd Tier English National Ice Hockey League , and four youth teams including the Isle of Wight Wildcats , all based at Ryde Arena . Hockey Following an amalgamation of the hockey clubs on the Isle of Wight in 2011 , The Isle of Wight Hockey Club now runs two men 's senior teams and two ladies ' senior teams . These teams compete at a range of levels in the Hampshire open leagues . There is a junior set up who compete in competitions in the U12 and U14 age group . Football The now-disbanded Ryde Sports F.C . founded in 1888 became one of the eight founder members of the Hampshire League in 1896 . There are several non-league clubs such as Newport ( IW ) F.C . There is an Isle of Wight Saturday Football League with three divisions , and a rugby union club , plus various other sporting teams . Beach football is particularly prevalent on the island and has several of the nation 's premier clubs with almost all of the England Beach Soccer team made up from players from the island . Many of the stadiums are used when the island hosts the Island Games as it has done twice . Cricket The Isle of Wight is the 39th official county in English cricket , and the Isle of Wight Cricket Board organise an internal cricket league between various local clubs . Ventnor Cricket Club compete in the Southern Premier League , and have won the Second Division several times in recent years . There is a new County Ground near Newport , which held its first match on 6 September 2008 . As of November 2010 , the Isle of Wight Cricket Board have been in discussion with the Minor Counties Cricket Association and the England and Wales Cricket Board regarding proposals to enter a side in the Minor Counties tournaments . The island has recently produced some notable cricketers , such as Danny Briggs , who plays county cricket for Hampshire County Cricket Club and is a member of the England Lions . Hampshire have played a number of first-class matches on the island

tb_2281--Isle_of_Wight.txt

What is the name of the yacht that won the Royal Yacht Squadron's regatta around the Isle of Wight in 1851 and lent its name to a famous sports prize?

Louisa May Alcott ( ; November 29 , 1832 – March 6 , 1888 ) was an American novelist and poet best known as the author of the novel Little Women ( 1868 ) and its sequels Little Men ( 1871 ) and Jo 's Boys ( 1886 ) . Raised by her transcendentalist parents , Abigail May and Amos Bronson Alcott in New England , she grew up among many of the well-known intellectuals of the day such as Ralph Waldo Emerson , Nathaniel Hawthorne , and Henry David Thoreau . Nevertheless , her family suffered severe financial difficulties and Alcott worked to help support the family from an early age . She began to receive critical success for her writing in the 1860s . Early in her career , she sometimes used the pen name A. M. Barnard and under it wrote novels for young adults . Published in 1868 , Little Women is set in the Alcott family home , Hillside , later called the Wayside , in Concord , Massachusetts and is loosely based on Alcott 's childhood experiences with her three sisters . The novel was very well received and is still a popular children 's novel today , filmed several times . Alcott was an abolitionist and a feminist and remained unmarried throughout her life . She died in Boston on March 6 , 1888 . Henry James called her `` The novelist of children ... the Thackeray , the Trollope , of the nursery and the schoolroom . '' Early life Louisa May Alcott was born on November 29 , 1832 , in Germantown , which is now part of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , on her father 's 33rd birthday . She was the daughter of transcendentalist and educator Amos Bronson Alcott and social worker Abby May and the second of four daughters : Anna Bronson Alcott was the eldest ; Elizabeth Sewall Alcott and Abigail May Alcott were the two youngest . The family moved to Boston in 1834 , where Alcott 's father established an experimental school and joined the Transcendental Club with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau . Bronson Alcott 's opinions on education and tough views on child-rearing shaped young Alcott 's mind with a desire to achieve perfection , a goal of the transcendentalists . His attitudes towards Alcott 's wild and independent behavior , and his inability to provide for his family , created conflict between Bronson Alcott and his wife and daughters . In 1840 , after several setbacks with the school , the Alcott family moved to a cottage on 2 acre of land , situated along the Sudbury River in Concord , Massachusetts . The three years they spent at the rented Hosmer Cottage were described as idyllic . By 1843 , the Alcott family moved , along with six other members of the Consociate Family , to the Utopian Fruitlands community for a brief interval in 1843–1844 . After the collapse of the Utopian Fruitlands , they moved on to rented rooms and finally , with Abigail May Alcott 's inheritance and financial help from Emerson , they purchased a homestead in Concord . They moved into the home they named `` Hillside '' on April 1 , 1845 . Alcott 's early education included lessons from the naturalist Henry David Thoreau , but she received the majority of her schooling from her father , who was strict and believed in `` the sweetness of self-denial '' . She also received some instruction from writers and educators such as Ralph Waldo Emerson , Nathaniel Hawthorne , and Margaret Fuller , all of whom were family friends . She later described these early years in a newspaper sketch entitled `` Transcendental Wild Oats '' . The sketch was reprinted in the volume Silver Pitchers ( 1876 ) , which relates the family 's experiment in `` plain living and high thinking '' at Fruitlands . Poverty made it necessary for Alcott to go to work at an early age as a teacher , seamstress , governess , domestic helper , and writer . Her sisters also supported the family , working as seamstresses , while their mother took on social work among the Irish immigrants . Only the youngest , May , was able to attend public school . Due to all of these pressures , writing became a creative and emotional outlet for Alcott . Her first book was Flower Fables ( 1849 ) , a selection of tales originally written for Ellen Emerson , daughter of Ralph Waldo Emerson . In 1847 , she and her family served as station masters on the Underground Railroad , when they housed a fugitive slave for one week . Alcott read and admired the `` Declaration of Sentiments '' , published by the Seneca Falls Convention on women 's rights , advocating for women 's suffrage and became the first woman to register to vote in Concord , Massachusetts in a school board election . The 1850s were hard times for the Alcotts . At one point in 1857 , unable to find work and filled with such despair , Alcott contemplated suicide . During that year , she read Elizabeth Gaskell 's biography of Charlotte Brontë and found many parallels to her own life . In 1858 , her younger sister Elizabeth died , and her older sister Anna married a man by the name of John Pratt . This felt , to Alcott , to be a breaking up of their sisterhood . Literary success As an adult , Alcott was an abolitionist and a feminist . In 1860 , Alcott began writing for the Atlantic Monthly . When the American Civil War broke out , she served as a nurse in the Union Hospital at Georgetown , D.C. , for six weeks in 1862–1863 . She intended to serve three months as a nurse , but halfway through she contracted typhoid and became deathly ill , though she eventually recovered . Her letters home – revised and published in the Boston anti-slavery paper Commonwealth and collected as Hospital Sketches ( 1863 , republished with additions in 1869 ) – brought her first critical recognition for her observations and humor . She wrote about the mismanagement of hospitals and the indifference and callousness of some of the surgeons she encountered . Her main character , Tribulation Periwinkle , showed a passage from innocence to maturity and is a `` serious and eloquent witness '' . Her novel Moods ( 1864 ) , based on her own experience , was also promising . In the mid-1860s , Alcott wrote passionate , fiery novels and sensational stories under the nom de plume A. M. Barnard . Among these are A Long Fatal Love Chase and Pauline 's Passion and Punishment . Her protagonists for these tales are willful and relentless in their pursuit of their own aims , which often include revenge on those who have humiliated or thwarted them . She also produced wholesome stories for children , and after their positive reception , she did not generally return to creating works for adults . Adult-oriented exceptions include the anonymous novelette A Modern Mephistopheles ( 1875 ) , which attracted suspicion that it was written by Julian Hawthorne ; and the semi-autobiographical tale Work ( 1873 ) . Alcott became even more successful with the first part of Little Women : or Meg , Jo , Beth and Amy ( 1868 ) , a semi-autobiographical account of her childhood with her sisters in Concord , Massachusetts , published by the Roberts Brothers . Part two , or Part Second , also known as Good Wives ( 1869 ) , followed the March sisters into adulthood and marriage . Little Men ( 1871 ) detailed Jo 's life at the Plumfield School that she founded with her husband Professor Bhaer at the conclusion of Part Two of Little Women . Jo 's Boys ( 1886 ) completed the `` March Family Saga '' . In Little Women , Alcott based her heroine `` Jo '' on herself . But whereas Jo marries at the end of the story , Alcott remained single throughout her life . She explained her `` spinsterhood '' in an interview with Louise Chandler Moulton , `` I am more than half-persuaded that I am a man 's soul put by some freak of nature into a woman 's body ... because I have fallen in love with so many pretty girls and never once the least bit with any man . '' However , Alcott 's romance while in Europe with the young Polish man Ladislas `` Laddie '' Wisniewski was detailed in her journals but then deleted by Alcott herself before her death . Alcott identified Laddie as the model for Laurie in Little Women , and there is strong evidence this was the significant emotional relationship of her life . Likewise , every character seems to be paralleled to some extent , from Beth 's death mirroring Lizzie 's to Jo 's rivalry with the youngest , Amy , as Alcott felt a sort of rivalry for ( Abigail ) May , at times . Though Alcott never married , she did take in May 's daughter , Louisa , after May 's death in 1879 from childbed fever , caring for little `` Lulu '' until her death . Little Women was well received , with critics and audiences finding it suitable for many age groups . A reviewer of Eclectic Magazine called it `` the very best of books to reach the hearts of the young of any age from six to sixty , '' . It was also said to be a fresh , natural representation of daily life . Along with Elizabeth Stoddard , Rebecca Harding Davis , Anne Moncure Crane , and others , Alcott was part of a group of female authors during the Gilded Age , who addressed women ’ s issues in a modern and candid manner . Their works were , as one newspaper columnist of the period commented , `` among the decided 'signs of the times ' '' Later years Alcott suffered chronic health problems in her later years , including vertigo . She and her earliest biographers attributed her illness and death to mercury poisoning . During her American Civil War service , Alcott contracted typhoid fever and was treated with a compound containing mercury . Recent analysis of Alcott 's illness , however , suggests that her chronic health problems may have been associated with an autoimmune disease , not acute mercury exposure . Moreover , a late portrait of Alcott shows a rash on her cheeks , which is a characteristic of lupus . Alcott died at age 55 of a stroke in Boston , on March 6 , 1888 , two days after her father 's death . Her last words were `` Is it not meningitis ? '' She is buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Concord , near Emerson , Hawthorne , and Thoreau , on a hillside now known as `` Authors ' Ridge '' . Her Boston home is featured on the Boston Women 's Heritage Trail . Selected works THE `` LITTLE WOMEN '' TRILOGY * Little Women or Meg , Jo , Beth and Amy ( 1868 ) There is a Part Second of Little Women , also known as `` Good Wives '' , published in 1869 ; and afterward published together with Little Women . * Little Men : Life at Plumfield with Jo 's Boys ( 1871 ) * Jo 's Boys and How They Turned Out : A Sequel to `` Little Men '' ( 1886 ) OTHER NOVELS * The Inheritance ( 1849 , unpublished until 1997 ) * Moods ( 1865 , revised 1882 ) * [ http : //digital.library.upenn.edu/women/alcott/key/key.html The Mysterious Key and What It Opened ] ( 1867 ) * An Old Fashioned Girl ( 1870 ) * Will 's Wonder Book ( 1870 ) * Work : A Story of Experience ( 1873 ) * Beginning Again , Being a Continuation of Work ( 1875 ) * Eight Cousins or The Aunt-Hill ( 1875 ) * Rose in Bloom : A Sequel to Eight Cousins ( 1876 ) * Under the Lilacs ( 1878 ) * Jack and Jill : A Village Story ( 1880 ) As A. M. Barnard * Behind a Mask , or a Woman 's Power ( 1866 ) * The Abbot 's Ghost , or Maurice Treherne 's Temptation ( 1867 ) * A Long Fatal Love Chase ( 1866 – first published 1995 ) Published anonymously * A Modern Mephistopheles ( 1877 ) SHORT-STORY COLLECTIONS FOR CHILDREN : * Aunt Jo 's Scrap-Bag ( 1872–1882 ) . ( 66 short stories in six volumes ) * * 1 . Aunt Jo 's Scrap-Bag * * 2 . Shawl-Straps * * 3 . Cupid and Chow-Chow * * 4 . My Girls , Etc . * * 5 . Jimmy 's Cruise in the Pinafore , Etc . * * 6 . An Old-Fashioned Thanksgiving , Etc . * Lulu 's Library ( 1886–1889 ) A collection of 32 Short Stories in 3 volumes . * Flower Fables ( 1849 ) * On Picket Duty , and other tales ( 1864 ) * Morning-Glories and Other Stories ( 1867 ) Eight fantasy stories and four poems for children , including : * [ http : //www.luminist.org/archives/a_strange_island.htm A Strange Island ] , ( 1868 ) ; * The Rose Family : A Fairy Tale ( 1864 ) , A Christmas Song , Morning Glories , Shadow-Children , Poppy 's Pranks , What the Swallows did , Little Gulliver , The Whale 's story , Goldfin and Silvertail . * Kitty 's Class Day and Other Stories ( Three Proverb Stories ) , 1868 , ( includes `` Kitty 's Class Day '' , `` Aunt Kipp '' and `` Psyche 's Art '' ) * Spinning-Wheel Stories * ( 1884 ) . A collection of 12 short stories . * The Candy Country ( 1885 ) ( One short story ) * May Flowers ( 1887 ) ( One short story ) * Mountain-Laurel and Maidenhair ( 1887 ) ( One short story ) * A Garland for Girls ( 1888 ) . A collection of eight short stories . * The Brownie and the Princess ( 2004 ) . A collection of ten short stories . OTHER SHORT-STORIES & NOVELETTES * Hospital Sketches ( 1863 ) * Pauline 's Passion and Punishment * [ http : //www.luminist.org/archives/perilous_play.htm Perilous Play ] , ( 1869 ) ( One short story ) * Lost in a Pyramid , or the Mummy 's Curse * Transcendental Wild Oats ( 1873 ) A Short story about Alcott 's family and the Transcendental Movement . * Silver Pitchers , and Independence : A Centennial Love Story '' ( 1876 ) * Comic Tragedies ( 1893 [ posthumously ] ) Ancestry

bt_1721--Louisa_May_Alcott.txt

What is the surname of the family in the book Little Women by Louisa May Alcott

Queequeg is a fictional character in the 1851 novel Moby-Dick by American author Herman Melville . The son of a South Sea chieftain who left home to explore the world , Queequeg is the first principal character encountered by the narrator , Ishmael . The quick friendship and relationship of equality between the tattooed cannibal and the white sailor shows Melville 's basic theme of shipboard democracy and racial diversity . Once aboard the whaling ship Pequod Queequeg becomes the harpooner for the mate Starbuck . At the end of the novel he `` casts the runes '' , which say he will die . He therefore builds a coffin and refuses to eat or drink , but ultimately decides to stay alive and then recovers . The coffin is later converted to a lifebuoy after the ship 's original one is lost . When Moby-Dick sinks the ship , Ishmael survives by clinging to it until another ship arrives to pick him up . Description Queequeg is a native of a fictional island in the South Pacific Ocean named Kokovoko . The island is the home to his primitive tribe , who practice cannibalism , in particular devouring the flesh of enemies slain in battle . Queequeg claims that the only case of indigestion he has suffered was after a feast in which 50 slain enemies were eaten . He displays no shame regarding the practice , describing his people in a matter-of-fact fashion . In port he prefers a diet of rare red meat , but will settle for whatever is on the menu , such as clam chowder—which is described as `` his favorite fishing food '' . Although the son of a chief , he chose to leave his island out of curiosity to see more of the world and to experience and evaluate the civilization of the Christian world . At first rejected by the whaler that landed on his island , he skillfully jumped from a canoe and clamped to the side of the boat as it was leaving for the open sea , at which point the captain relented . At the opening of the novel , he is in the port of New Bedford , Massachusetts , having returned from a whaling voyage . Queequeg and Ishmael first meet when Queequeg returns late to the inn where he is staying , not knowing that Ishmael has been booked into the same room with him . Although Queequeg initially threatens to kill Ishmael , and Ishmael initially is afraid of this cannibal , but soon decides `` Better sleep with a sober cannibal than a drunken Christian . '' Upon waking next morning about daylight , Ishmael finds Queequeg 's arm thrown over him in the `` most loving and affectionate manner . You had almost thought I had been his wife . '' Ishmael convinces Queequeg to ship on another whaling expedition with him . At the time of the novel , he has been away from his home island for many years , so long that it is possible that his father is dead and that he would become the chief if he returned . Queequeg practices a form of animism using a small idol named Yojo , for whom he builds small ceremonial fires . As part of his religion , he practices a prolonged period of fasting and silence ( which Ishmael calls his `` Ramadan '' ) , at one time locking himself in his room in Nantucket . Even after Ishmael enters the room , he keeps his fast and silence without acknowledging the presence of others . Nevertheless he spontaneously attends a Christian sermon of Father Mapple in New Bedford , although he slips out before the end . He is unflappable and extremely easy-going among white society , never grudging an insult . He immediately takes to Ishmael and decides ( based on advice from his idol ) that Ishmael should decide on the ship for both of them together . He is an extraordinary harpooner , impressing the money-tight owners of the Pequod so much that they immediately offer him a 90th lay ( of the ship 's profit ) in exchange for his signing on with the crew . By contrast , Ishmael ( who has experience in the merchant marine but none as a whaler ) is initially offered a 777th lay but eventually secures a 300th . In port , Queequeg carries his sharpened harpoon with him at all times , unless prevented from doing so . He shaves with his harpoon as well and smokes regularly from a tomahawk that he carries with him . Although he fades in importance toward the end of the novel , he is ultimately responsible for saving Ishmael 's life . After the Pequod is destroyed , Ishmael survives by clinging to a lifebuoy that had originally been built as a coffin for Queequeg while he was suffering from a fever . Cultural references * A version of Queequeg appears as a character in the Futurama episode `` The Day the Earth Stood Stupid '' . * On The X-Files , Special Agent Dana Scully named her dog Queequeg ( last appearance Season 3 Episode 22 ) after the Moby-Dick character . The name was also taken as an email handle by Scully . * Queequeg is mentioned in the song `` Seabeast '' by American metal band Mastodon . The line is `` Dear Mr. Queequeg you have been informed your life 's been saved , You are not a black-hearted vicious mess so it has been claimed . '' * Queequeg 's is the name of a coffee chain in the video game universe of Deus Ex : Invisible War . Its rival chain is named Pequod 's . * The Queequeg is the submarine captained by Captain Widdershins in The Grim Grotto , the 11th novel in Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events . * Queequeg is mentioned in a song title on Philadelphia based band Man Man 's third album `` Rabbit Habits '' . * Queequeg is a main character in the direct-to-video Hey Vern ! It 's My Family Album segment `` Pops '' , in which he lives in an abandoned school bus near Silver Creek outside Richmond , Kentucky . * Queequeg is mentioned in the first episode of Pinky and the Brain . Pinky asks the Brain if he can be Queequeg after the Brain asks Pinky to call him Captain Brain . Their sea adventure is a search for crab meat at the wreckage of the Titanic which Brain plans to use as a hypnotic food additive in order to conquer the world . * A Queequeg is a carnivorous monster in the Science Fiction RPG Star Frontiers . * Queequeg appears as a playable character in the video game Code Name : S.T.E.A.M . for Nintendo 3DS . * Queequeg is the name of a secondary helicopter appearing briefly in one of the later story missions in the 2015 video game Metal Gear Solid V : The Phantom Pain for PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 , Xbox One and Steam . The same game features `` Pequod '' as the protagonist 's main helicopter . In addition to that , two characters in the game are referred to as Ahab and Ishmael respectively . * QueekQueek is the name of the first officer on the ship Ravenheart in the 2009 video game BattleForge . The Ravenheart is commanded by captain Blight , who is obsessed with killing `` Mo '' , the unique white `` Juggernaut '' who is the reason that he lost his eye , in an obvious allusion to Moby Dick . References and further reading * Notes

dpql_5441--Queequeg.txt

In which classic novel does the character Queequeg appear?

Lancashire County Cricket Club , one of eighteen first-class county clubs in the domestic cricket structure of England and Wales , represents the historic county of Lancashire . The club 's limited overs team is called Lancashire Lightning . Founded in 1864 as a successor to Manchester Cricket Club , Lancashire have played at Old Trafford since then and has had major status from inception : i.e. , classified as an unofficial first-class team by substantial sources from 1865 ( first match ) to 1894 ; classified as an official first-class team from 1895 by Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) and the County Championship clubs ; classified as a List A team since the beginning of limited overs cricket in 1963 ; and classified as a major Twenty20 team since 2003 . Lancashire was widely recognised as the unofficial Champion County four times between 1879 and 1889 . When the County Championship was officially founded in December 1889 , Lancashire was one of eight clubs to feature in the competition ’ s first season in 1890 . In 1895 , Archie MacLaren scored 424 in an innings for Lancashire , which remains the highest score by an Englishman in first-class cricket . Lancashire won their first two County Championship titles in 1897 and 1904 . Between 1926 and 1934 , Lancashire won the County Championship five times . In 1950 , they shared the title with Surrey . Cyril Washbrook became Lancashire ’ s first professional captain in 1954 . Lancashire next won the County Championship in 2011 . Johnny Briggs , whose career lasted from 1879 to 1900 , was the first player to score 10,000 runs and take 1,000 wickets for Lancashire . Ernest Tyldesley , younger brother of Johnny Tyldesley , is the club ’ s leading run-scorer with 34,222 runs in 573 matches for Lancashire between 1909 and 1936 . Fast bowler Brian Statham took a club record 1,816 wickets in 430 first-class matches between 1950 and 1968 . The Lancashire side of the late 1960s and early 1970s , which was captained by Jack Bond and featured the West Indian batsman Clive Lloyd , was successful in limited overs cricket , winning the Sunday League in 1969 and 1970 and the Gillette Cup four times between 1970 and 1975 . Lancashire won the Benson and Hedges Cup in 1984 , three times between 1990 and 1996 , and the Sunday League in 1989 , 1998 and 1999 . The County Championship was restructured in 2000 with Lancashire in the first division . Since then they have been relegated three times , and each time were promoted the following season . Honours ; First XI honours * Champion County ( 1 ) – 1881 ; shared ( 3 ) – 1879 , 1882 , 1889 * County Championship ( 8 ) – 1897 , 1904 , 1926 , 1927 , 1928 , 1930 , 1934 , 2011 ; shared ( 1 ) – 1950 Division Two ( 2 ) – 2005 , 2013 * NatWest t20 Blast ( 1 ) – 2015 * Gillette/NatWest/C & G Trophy ( 7 ) – 1970 , 1971 , 1972 , 1975 , 1990 , 1996 , 1998 * Sunday/National/Pro40 League ( 5 ) – 1969 , 1970 , 1989 , 1998 , 1999 Division Two ( 1 ) – 2003 * Benson and Hedges Cup ( 4 ) – 1984 , 1990 , 1995 , 1996 ; Second XI honours * Second XI Championship ( 3 ) – 1964 , 1986 , 1997 ; shared ( 1 ) - 2013 * Minor Counties Championship ( 7 ) – 1907 , 1934 , 1937 , 1948 , 1949 , 1960 , 1964 ; Other honours * Refuge Cup ( 1 ) – 1988 * Lambert and Butler Floodlit Competition ( 1 ) – 1981 Earliest cricket in Lancashire The earliest known reference to cricket being played in Lancashire is in 1781 . In 1816 , the Manchester Cricket Club was founded and soon became representative of Lancashire as a county in the same way that Sheffield Cricket Club and Nottingham Cricket Club represented Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire . On 23–25 July 1849 , the Sheffield and Manchester clubs played each other at Hyde Park in Sheffield but the fixture was called “ Yorkshire versus Lancashire ” . It was the first match to involve a team using Lancashire as its name and is generally reckoned to have been the first `` Roses Match '' . Yorkshire won by five wickets . Teams called Yorkshire , though based on the Sheffield club , had been active since 1833 . The Roses Match is one of cricket 's oldest and most famous rivalries . In 1857 , the Manchester club moved to Old Trafford , which has been the home of Lancashire cricket ever since . History of the county club Origin In 1864 , the leading members of the Manchester Cricket Club organised a meeting for the purpose of forming a club to represent the county ; 13 clubs were represented at the meeting and , on 12 January 1864 , Lancashire County Cricket Club was created . The club was committed to playing matches in different parts of the county to `` introduce ... cricket into every part of Lancashire '' . The new club ’ s first county match was played in 1865 at Old Trafford against Middlesex ; Lancashire won the match by 62 runs , although Middlesex bowler V. E. Walker took all ten wickets in Lancashire ’ s second innings . The early Lancashire side was reliant upon amateurs , which led to problems ; although they were happy to play at Old Trafford , they were less willing to travel to away fixtures . During the early 1870s , the team was dominated by Monkey Hornby ’ s batting . The team ’ s standard of cricket improved with the arrival of two professional players , Dick Barlow and Alex Watson . The impact of Barlow and Hornby was such that their batting partnership was immortalised in the poem At Lord ’ s by Francis Thompson . The team was further enhanced by A. G. Steel – an amateur considered second only to W. G. Grace as the country ’ s best all rounder – Johnny Briggs – a professional from Sutton-in-Ashfield and the only player to score 10,000 runs and take 1,000 wickets for Lancashire – and wicket-keeper Dick Pilling – who in 1891 was rated by Wisden as the second-best wicket-keeper in the world behind Jack Blackham . As Lancashire ’ s consistency improved , so did their support : in 1878 , 28,000 over three days watched Lancashire play Gloucestershire . Early successes The club ’ s first success came in 1879 , when the majority of the cricket press – except for Wisden – agreed that Lancashire and Nottinghamshire were joint champions . Lancashire was the champion county in 1881 and again shared the title with Nottinghamshire in 1882 . Dick Barlow carried his bat for just 5 not out in Lancashire ’ s total of 69 in two and a half hours against Nottinghamshire on a treacherous , rain-affected Trent Bridge pitch in July 1882 . Barlow and his longtime opening partner Hornby are the opening batsmen immortalised in the famous poem by Francis Thompson . In 1884 , Old Trafford became the second ground , after The Oval , to stage a Test match in England . Though it rained on the first day , 12,000 spectators attended on the second ; the match between England and Australia resulted in a draw . Controversy emerged during the 1880s ; Kent and Nottinghamshire objected to the bowling actions of John Crossland and George Nash . Nottinghamshire even went as far as refusing to play against Lancashire . Although the 1880s was a period of controversy and modest results for the club , it was also a time in which some club records were established . In 1885 George Kemp ( later 1st Baron Rochdale ) scored Lancashire ’ s first century in a Roses Match . In that same year Johnny Briggs and Dick Pilling set a first-class record partnership for the tenth wicket of 173 that stood until 1899 and has not been bettered by Lancashire . The club shared the title of champions with Surrey in 1889 . The County Championship was founded in 1890 , and champions were decided by points rather than the press as had happened previously . Lancashire was one of the eight founding teams of the championship along with Gloucestershire , Kent , Middlesex , Nottinghamshire , Surrey , Sussex and Yorkshire . The team was runner up in 1890 and 1891 . Archie MacLaren was appointed captain in 1894 , four years after making his debut whilst still captain of Harrow . In 1895 MacLaren made his record breaking innings of 424 against Somerset at Taunton ; his innings remained the highest first-class score for an Englishman , was the first first-class quadruple century , and was the highest score in first-class cricket until Bill Ponsford scored 429 in February 1923 . Again , Lancashire was runner up in 1895 , despite Arthur Mold taking 192 wickets in the season , a feat bettered only twice for the club . The current pavilion was constructed in 1895 and cost £10,000 ( £ in ) ; it replaced the earlier pavilion , dating from 1857 when Old Trafford was originally built . Lancashire won its first county championship in 1897 , a productive bowling attack made up of Johnny Briggs , Willis Cuttell , Albert Hallam , and Arthur Mold took 420 wickets between them . In 1898 Lancashire bought the ground and some adjoining land from the de Traffords for £24,732 ( £ in ) . In 1902 , amateur and professional players began walking onto the field side by side in a break with tradition . Lancashire won its second championship title in 1904 , going undefeated throughout the season ; Wisden described the season as “ the brightest in the history of Lancashire cricket ” . That season , James Hallows completed the feat of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets in the season . During the late 1900s and early 1910s , players such as Walter Brearley , Harry Dean , and Bill Huddleston were the mainstays of Lancashire bowling . The club began to experience financial problems during this same period ; the increased popularity of other sports was blamed for the dip in attendances . In 1914 , Lancashire sank to its lowest position of eleventh , whilst during World War I the pavilion was used by the Red Cross and 1,800 patients were treated there . The golden era After the war Lancashire developed a very strong batting side , including Ernest Tyldesley and Johnny Tyldesley , both Test batsmen . In 1920 , Lancashire finished runner up and bowlers Harry Dean and Lawrence Cook took 274 wickets between them . During 1921 , interest in cricket reached an all-time high , with over 250,000 people attending Old Trafford and over 4,500 members . 1922 was a year of contradictions , a strong team winning seven out of fifteen matches by an innings , but still managing to lose seven and finish 5th ; that season Cec Parkin and Lawrence Cook mustered 308 wickets between them and Ernest Tyldesley scored over 2,000 runs . Lancashire ’ s steady progress was capped by a hat trick of championship titles between 1926 and 1928 under the captaincy of Leonard Green . In the 1926 victory , Ernest Tyldesley and Harry Makepeace each scored over 2,000 runs . In 1927 , Charlie Hallows scored six centuries and the bowling attack was led by Dick Tyldesley and Ted McDonald with support from Frank Sibbles . In 1928 , Frank Watson and Ernest Tyldesley scored over 2,000 runs each and George Duckworth claimed 107 victims and earned recognition as one of Wisden ’ s five Cricketers of the Year . At the end of the season Leonard Green decided to retire with a record of three successive championships and 42 wins against just three defeats . Under the captaincy of Peter Eckersley , Lancashire finished second in the championship in 1929 and reclaimed the title in 1930 , with ten victories and no defeats that season . After four titles in five seasons , the early 1930s saw a number of retirements including McDonald and Dick Tyldesley in 1931 and Ernest Tyldesley in 1935 : no Lancashire batsman has matched Tyldesley ’ s 100 centuries in first-class cricket . Lancashire won the championship outright for the last time in 1934 , the same year that Len Hopwood performed the double of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets ( a feat he repeated in 1935 ) and Cyril Washbrook began to work his way into the team . The captain , Peter Eckersley , retired in 1935 to become an MP . The later half of the 1930s was a period of rebuilding up until the war , with the opening partnership of Cyril Washbrook and Eddie Paynter the highlight . Paynter scored 322 in five hours for Lancashire against Sussex in 1937 having come down on the sleeper train from the victorious Old Trafford Test against New Zealand . He put on 268 in 155 minutes with Cyril Washbrook and celebrated his innings that evening at Brighton 's Ice Palace . Post war When play began in 1946 , after World War II , things started badly for Lancashire when the captain and veteran player , Jack Iddon , was killed in a car accident just before the start of the season . Jack Fallows stood in as captain for the season . His successor , Ken Cranston , was an unusual choice as he had no prior first-class experience ; despite this his captaincy was not unsuccessful as Lancashire finished third and fifth during his two years in charge . In 1947 Cyril Washbrook and Winston Place both scored over 2,500 runs and scored 19 centuries between them . Washbrook ’ s benefit took place in August 1948 and was watched by 50,000 people ; he received £14,000 ( £ in ) , beating the previous record by over £10,000 . Despite finishing 11th in 1949 , in 1950 – under the captaincy of Nigel Howard – Lancashire shared the county championship with Surrey , winning 16 matches ; Roy Tattersall and Malcolm Hilton claimed nearly 300 wickets between them . The 1950 season marked the emergence of Brian Statham . In the following three seasons , Lancashire finished third each time . With the retirement of Nigel Howard in 1954 , Lancashire appointed its first professional captain , Cyril Washbrook , who would captain the club for the next six years . In 1954 Geoff Pullar , Ken Grieves and Alan Wharton all scored over 2,000 runs , whilst Brian Statham , Ken Higgs and Tommy Greenhough all took over 100 wickets ; despite this , Lancashire managed to finish only 5th . Lancashire came close to reclaiming the county championship in 1960 under a new captain , Bob Barber . Five batsmen scored more than 1,000 runs in the season , and Statham , Higgs and Greenhough all took over 100 wickets ; Lancashire finished runner up due to a poor run of form towards the end of the season : losing four and drawing two of the last six matches after topping the table in August . The following year , however , Lancashire dropped to 13th , due in part to Barber ’ s inexperience and Statham ’ s and Geoff Pullar ’ s England commitments . Things declined further in 1962 , under the leadership of Joe Blackledge , who had had no previous first-class experience , as Lancashire dropped to second last , winning only two matches . After a period of unrest , Brian Statham was appointed captain between 1965 and 1967 and Lancashire ’ s results improved . Statham retired in 1968 with 1,816 first-class wickets , a record for the club . Limited-over success Jack Bond became Lancashire captain in 1968 and remained in the position until 1972 . During his tenure , Lancashire performed well in the championship , finishing third in 1970 and 1971 . His biggest triumph as captain was the five one day trophies he secured during his five-year captaincy . Farokh Engineer joined Lancashire in 1968 , and Clive Lloyd joined in 1969 ; together Lloyd and Engineer helped establish Lancashire as one of the best one day sides in England . The silverware included a hat-trick of Gillette Cups ( 1970–72 ) and the Sunday League twice in successive seasons ( 1969–1970 ) . Mainstays of the successful one day side included Clive Lloyd , David Lloyd , Barry Wood , Harry Pilling , Frank Hayes , Peter Lever , Ken Shuttleworth , David Hughes and Jack Simmons . In the Gillette Cup semi-final against Gloucestershire in 1971 , David Hughes walked to the crease at 8.45pm and hit 24 from an over in near darkness to win the match . David Lloyd was captain from 1973 to 1977 and secured Lancashire ’ s fourth Gillette Cup in 1975 , and coming runners up in 1974 and 1976 . However , in the late 1970s , the team that had been so dominant in the one day format began to break up . Despite boasting international players such as Lloyd and Engineer , Lancashire ’ s first-class performances never matched the success of the limited overs team . It wasn ’ t until 1984 , under the captaincy of John Abrahams , that the club won more silverware , this time in the Benson & Hedges Cup . Despite a resurgence in limited overs matches , Lancashire finished in the bottom six of the county championship . After suffering defeat in the final of the 1986 Nat West Trophy , David Hughes was appointed captain . Towards the end of the 1980s , Lancashire ’ s side began to develop , with Graeme Fowler and Gehan Mendis building a productive opening partnership , while David Hughes and Neil Fairbrother provided support in the middle order . The bowlers were led by Patrick Patterson and Paul Allott with support from David Hughes , Mike Watkinson and Jack Simmons . In 1987 after eleven successive years in the bottom six , Lancashire finished second in the championship , their highest position in 27 years . Mike Atherton made his Lancashire debut in 1987 – scoring 600 runs in the second half of the season – and Wasim Akram first played for the team in 1988 . Lancashire defeated Worcestershire in the final of the Refuge Cup in 1988 . The following year the club won the Sunday League on the last day of the season in 1989 and finished fourth in the championship . At the age of 48 , in 1989 Jack Simmons retired after having taken 985 first-class wickets for the county . In 1990 , Lancashire won both the Nat West Trophy and Benson & Hedges Cup finals at Lord 's . This was the first time any county had won both competitions in the same year ; Lancashire narrowly missed out on a treble , finishing runners-up in the Sunday League . Lancashire 's consistency continued , and the team finished second in the Sunday League and B & H Cup . Paul Allott and Graeme Fowler were released at the end of the 1992 season . The team lost the B & H final to Derbyshire in 1993 . In 1994 , young bowlers Peter Martin and Glen Chapple took 50 wickets each . The batting too looked promising , with John Crawley scoring two double centuries and Jason Gallian steadily improving . In 1995 , Lancashire again won the Benson & Hedges Cup . In 1996 , Lancashire again won the double of the NatWest Trophy and Benson & Hedges Cup . In 1998 , with Wasim Akram as captain , Lancashire won the NatWest Trophy and Axa League , and finished second in the championship despite losing only five games in all competitions throughout the season . Apart from the National League second division title in 2003 , this was the last time Lancashire won a trophy . 1999 was an eventful year for Lancashire with the debut of Muttiah Muralitharan , the departure of coach Dav Whatmore after just two years with the club and again the team finished second in the championship and won the National League . New century The team that had been so successful in the 1990s began to break up at the start of the 2000s . Since winning their last trophy in 1998 , the team has lost eight semi-finals and two finals . In 2008 Lancashire managed to finish second in the County Championship . The competition was divided into two divisions for the 2000 season , with Lancashire in the first division . Lancashire 's one day form began to fluctuate in 2000 , losing to Gloucestershire in the semi-finals of both the B & H Cup and the NatWest Trophy , and being relegated in the National League . In 2001 , Lancashire avoided relegation by just 5 points and were not promoted in the National League . The end of the season saw the retirement of Ian Austin from first-class cricket and of Mike Atherton from all forms of cricket . John Crawley left the club in the winter after not being retained as captain . Between 2001 and 2002 saw the squad change significantly , with players recruited from Essex , Northamptonshire , Worcestershire , and Yorkshire ; the most notable additions to the squad were Stuart Law and David Byas – the Yorkshire captain of the previous season . After a quiet 2001 season – finishing mid-table in the county championship and again failing to secure promotion in the National League – 2002 was far more encouraging . Mike Watkinson was appointed cricket manager , and Stuart Law and Alec Swann both scored over 1,000 first-class runs and Peter Martin and Glen Chapple both took more than 50 wickets ; the find of the season was that of James Anderson , who burst onto the scene with 50 wickets in the second half of the season , earning him a promotion to the England side . At the end of the season , Lancashire stalwarts Neil Fairbrother and Graham Lloyd retired . 2003 was a promising year , and Lancashire were genuine contenders for the county championship . Mark Chilton , Carl Hooper and Mal Loye all scored over 1,000 runs and Stuart Law was player of the year with 1,820 runs . Altogether , 28 championship centuries were scored for Lancashire , the second highest total in a season for the club . Gary Keedy was lead wicket taker with 60 wickets , supported by Martin and Chapple who took 41 and 49 respectively . They were promoted from the second division of the National League , lost in the semi-final of the C & G Trophy , and finished second in the county championship . In 2004 , Lancashire were relegated to the second division of the County Championship for the first time since the competition was restructured into two divisions . This was despite starting the season as the bookmarkers ' favourite to win the competition . At one point in the season , the team was without eight bowlers , with James Anderson , Andrew Flintoff , and Sajid Mahmood on international duty , while Glen Chapple , Dominic Cork , Kyle Hogg , Peter Martin , and all-rounder Carl Hooper were all injured . Their problems were not blamed solely on the injuries , Watkinson said `` quite simply the opposition have done the basics better than us . In addition we 've one or two who are out of form on top of the injury list which ripped us to pieces '' . Despite being relegated in the County Championship , the team managed finish as runners up in the National League and were expected to be promoted back to the first division of first-class cricket in the 2005 season . While Watkinson expected backlash from the fans , he said that `` they were tremendously understanding about the injury situation '' . The squad underwent changes , with six players leaving – including Martin and Chris Schofield – and six joining , as well as a change of captain from wicket-keeper Warren Hegg to batsman Mark Chilton ; Chilton was the club 's first Yorkshire-born captain . Between 1864 and 2004 , Lancashire played 2,790 matches , winning 1,034 , losing 583 , drawing 1,170 , with three tied matches . In this period , no other team had drawn more matches . The team 's percentage of wins was 37.06 % , third behind Yorkshire ( 44.05 % ) and Surrey ( 39.74 % ) . Lancashire were promoted back to the first division of the county championship in 2005 , winning the second division title in the process . They stayed up in the National League , progressed to the finals ' day of the Twenty20 Cup and were knocked out in the semi-final of the C & G Trophy . Despite winning the second division title , there were concerns that the squad may have been getting too old and that there were limited opportunities for the younger players . Of Lancashire 's performance over the season , Watkinson said `` I was not happy about our batting and , although we have achieved what we set out to do – get promoted – our performance left a lot to be desired '' . Lancashire are one of three teams , along with Middlesex and Surrey , never to have finished bottom in the County Championship . On their return to the first division in the 2006 season , Lancashire finished second in the Championship . They also finished as runners-up in the NatWest Trohpy . In 2007 , although they led the table before the final round of matches , Lancashire were again runners-up in the County Championship . After being knocked out of the Twenty20 competition in the group states and performing poorly in the other one-day competitions early in the season , supporters started to become discontented with the captain and coach . Sussex ended up winning the title as Lancashire lost their final match of the competition against Surrey . Chris Adams , the Sussex captain , said `` you played well , you had a hard season , there 's no shame in your performance and you nearly did it '' . After the match against Surrey , Chilton was in tears and said `` I 'm extremely proud of what our guys have achieved though . As captain I 'm privileged to have seen the efforts they have put in . To get close to our target was a phenomenal effort but the lads are just broken . Our players have risen to an almighty challenge and to come so close is an enormous effort '' . After three years as captain , Mark Chilton stepped down in October 2007 and was replaced by Stuart Law who is the most successful captain in Australian domestic cricket . However his captaincy lasted for just one season , and Lancashire again failed to claim any silverware . At the end of the season Law and veteran player Cork were released , with Chapple replacing Law as captain . In December 2008 , Watkinson 's job as cricket manager was changed to that of director of cricket – a job which would focus solely on aspects of cricket , rather than the traditional all-encompassing job of general team management . The move was explained by the club chairman as an effort to modernise . In February 2009 , it was announced that Peter Moores – who had been sacked as England coach the previous month – would be Lancashire 's new coach and had a three-year contract . In 2011 Chapple and Moores took Lancashire to their first outright first-class county championship title since 1934 , although they had shared the title with Surrey in 1950 . Despite being reigning champions in 2012 , Lancashire had a poor season and were relegated to the Second Division . In 2013 they bounced straight back to Division 1 by winning the second division championship with a game to spare . They were once again relegated to Division 2 on the last day of the 2014 season after failing to win a tightly fought game against Middlesex . Ashley Giles ( formerly of Warwickshire and England ) was appointed as Director of Cricket and Head Coach after Mike Watkinson stepped down from the role in October 2014 . Ground Since its formation Lancashire has played its home matches at Old Trafford , located in Stretford , to the west of Manchester city centre . Old Trafford is one of the largest

sfq_298--Lancashire_County_Cricket_Club.txt

Which side did Lancashire beat in the last match of the 2008 County Cricket Championship, thus staving off all thoughts of relegation?

Kobina Eric `` Ric '' Griffin is a fictional character from the BBC medical drama Holby City , portrayed by actor Hugh Quarshie . The character first appeared on-screen on 9 October 2001 in episode `` Rogue Males '' - series 4 , episode 1 of the programme . Ric is the longest serving main character in the show , after the departure of Chrissie Williams on 19 November 2013 . He has currently played the role of Ric for almost 15 years . Development Discussing the storyline which saw Ric 's oldest son Leo die from a heroin overdose , Quarshie said ; `` I do n't think his death is a shock to Ric as he almost expected it . It 's devastating for him , but in true Ric style he holds everything in and throws himself into work . The consequences of the tragedy are felt later down the line . '' He drew on Ric 's troubled relationship with his own father to explain his distant relationship with his children , assessing ; `` Ric had a domineering and violent father . He swore he 'd never be that controlling with his own kids and as a result he was too hands-off . '' In July 2010 , Quarshie revealed that Ric would be diagnosed with inoperable cancer , explaining : It 's asymptomatic - you do n't know you 've got it until it 's spread ... It 's so far gone , what 's the point in having chemotherapy ? '' He stated that following the diagnosis , Ric would become close to Annalese Carson , the estranged wife of his colleague Michael Spence . As a long-standing cast member , Quarshie has been granted leave to pursue other projects including directing an episode of Holby City . Series producer Simon Harper has stated that the actor is allowed to ensure the character remains in the show for a longer tenure . The character remained off-screen for several months during 2015 and returned on 29 December 2015 , where he was appointed clinical lead on Keller ward . Storylines Ric arrived at Holby City Hospital in episode `` Rogue Males '' as a General Surgical Consultant . It was revealed in the show 's seventh series that he originated from Ghana , where his brother Kumi runs a hospital . He has been married five times - twice to Critical Care Consultant Lola Griffin - and has had several romances during his time on the show , including engagement to Senior House Officer Sam Kennedy , long term flirtation with former flame Diane Lloyd , and a brief marriage to Registrar Thandie Griffin . Diane and Ric got even more close in Ghana , while Keller ward was downsized and Diane hoped Ric would come back to Holby . He refused but eventually moved back . He had to put Diane under supervision while she was a consultant because a healthcare commission worker told him so . Diane committed suicide because she felt nobody supported her and when Thandie found out that Ric loved Diane , she broke up with him . Ric went to have a time alone with Diane in the mortuary and he had a breakdown . Two of Ric 's six children have appeared in the show ; oldest son Leo Griffin , who Ric initially hoped would follow him into medicine , but died in series ten from a heroin overdose , and daughter Jess Griffin , who worked alongside him at Holby City Hospital as an AAU nurse . Through Jess and Leo , Ric had three grandsons . Two died as infants , but Jess 's second son Jacob survived , and is still with Jess . In the show 's tenth series , Ric applied for the position of Director of Surgery , making an underhand deal to turn the position over to Connie Beauchamp in return for her support with his application . As each of the other candidates dropped out or were rejected , Ric was moments away from being offered the position , when he was called away to identify his son 's body . Later in mid series 11 , Connie reminded Ric , that the director of surgery job was up and he had to pass it over to her like they had agreed . But Ric did n't and made out that he had resigned and had to give three months notice . Connie found out that he was lying . In the end Connie and Ric constantly battled each other , but Ric still holds down the position of the job . Ric had recently introduced breathalyser tests as part of his zero tolerance policy . Annalese Carson failed hers . Ric promised to cover it up as long as Paul Rose supervised her in theatre . But Connie found out and reported it to Jayne . A full investigation was held into the death of Steve Hewitt . He was a friend and patient of Connie 's who died during an operation Michael Spence was performing . Ric had previously refused to operate on him as he was a zero tolerance patient , but his condition deteriorated . Michael Spence operated on Steve Hewitt . Annalese was the anaesthetist in the operation and she had n't given proper drugs when he arrested and died on the table . His wife wanted an investigation , and Kathy Hewitt blamed Ric . An investigation was held and Connie discovered the hidden information Michael had tried to hide . In episode thirty-five of series eleven Ric Griffin was informed by Jayne Grayson that she has lost confidence in his leadership as Director of Surgery and was planning to ask the board to re-advertise the position . At the end of the episode Jayne is seen handing a piece of paper with details of the director of surgery job to Connie . During Season 17 Episode 32 The Ides of March ( May 2015 ) Ric took an extended break from Holby to visit his daughter Jess in Australia , he returned on the episode Beginnings - Season 18 Episode 12 ( 29th Dec 2015 ) however was out of place upon his return due to his extended absence . Reception Quarshie has been nominated for several awards for his portrayal of Ric , and won `` Favourite Male TV Star '' at the 2008 Screen Nation Awards . He was nominated for the `` Male Performance in TV '' award at the 2006 Screen Nation Awards , and received a Mention in the same category in 2007 . Quarshie was named 23rd `` Best Actor '' in the 2004 BBC Drama Awards , and came 22nd the following year . He was long-listed for the `` Most Popular Actor '' award at the 2004 and 2005 National Television Awards , and was also long-listed for the `` Best Actor '' award at the 2004 TV Quick Awards .

sfq_9760--Ric_Griffin.txt

"Who plays the part of Ric Griffin in TV's ""Holby City""?"

In general use , herbs are any plants used for food , flavoring , medicine , or perfume etc . Culinary use typically distinguishes herbs from spices . Herbs refer to the leafy green parts of a plant ( either fresh or dried ) , while a `` spice '' is a product from another part of the plant ( usually dried ) , including seeds , berries , bark , roots and fruits . In botanical English , the word `` herb '' is also used as a synonym of `` herbaceous plant '' . Herbs have a variety of uses including culinary , medicinal , and in some cases , spiritual . General usage of the term `` herb '' differs between culinary herbs and medicinal herbs . In medicinal or spiritual use any of the parts of the plant might be considered `` herbs '' , including leaves , roots , flowers , seeds , resin , root bark , inner bark ( and cambium ) , berries and sometimes the pericarp or other portions of the plant . The word `` herb '' is pronounced in the UK , but is common among North American speakers and those from other regions where h-dropping occurs . History As far back as 5000 BCE , Sumerians used herbs in medicine . Ancient Egyptians used fennel , coriander and thyme around 1555 BCE . In ancient Greece , in 162 CE , a physician by the name of Galen was known for concocting complicated herbal remedies that contained up to 100 ingredients . Culinary herbs Culinary herbs are distinguished from vegetables in that , like spices , they are used in small amounts and provide flavor rather than substance to food . Culinary herbs can come in two different forms . They can be in their natural state which is straight from the garden or bought in store , however once they are removed from the main plant they have a life expectancy of around one week if they are refrigerated . Then there is dried herbs , this form of herb is a much more concentrated than if it is fresh , these herbs can be kept anywhere from 6–12 months in a cool dark place.BBC . ( 2016 ) . Food Ingredients – Herbs . Retrieved from http : //www.bbc.co.uk/food/herb Herbs can be perennials such as thyme or lavender , biennials such as parsley , or annuals like basil . Perennial herbs can be shrubs such as rosemary , Rosmarinus officinalis , or trees such as bay laurel , Laurus nobilis – this contrasts with botanical herbs , which by definition can not be woody plants . Some plants are used as both herbs and spices , such as dill weed and dill seed or coriander leaves and seeds . Also , there are some herbs such as those in the mint family that are used for both culinary and medicinal purposes . Medicinal herbs Some plants contain phytochemicals that have effects on the body . There may be some effects when consumed in the small levels that typify culinary `` spicing '' , and some herbs are toxic in larger quantities . For instance , some types of herbal extract , such as the extract of St. John's-wort ( Hypericum perforatum ) or of kava ( Piper methysticum ) can be used for medical purposes to relieve depression and stress . However , large amounts of these herbs may lead to toxic overload that may involve complications , some of a serious nature , and should be used with caution . Herbs have long been used as the basis of traditional Chinese herbal medicine , with usage dating as far back as the first century CE and far before . In India , the Ayurveda medicinal system is based on herbs . Medicinal use of herbs in Western cultures has its roots in the Hippocratic ( Greek ) elemental healing system , based on a quaternary elemental healing metaphor . Famous herbalist of the Western tradition include Avicenna ( Persian ) , Galen ( Roman ) , Paracelsus ( German Swiss ) , Culpepper ( English ) and the botanically inclined Eclectic physicians of 19th century/early 20th century America ( John Milton Scudder , Harvey Wickes Felter , John Uri Lloyd ) . Modern pharmaceuticals had their origins in crude herbal medicines , and to this day , some drugs are still extracted as fractionate/isolate compounds from raw herbs and then purified to meet pharmaceutical standards . Certain herbs contain psychoactive properties that have been used for both religious and recreational purposes by humans since the early Holocene era , notably the leaves and extracts of the cannabis and coca plants . The leaves of the coca plant have been chewed by people in northern Peruvian societies for over 8,000 years , while the use of cannabis as a psychoactive substance dates back to the first century CE in China and northern Africa . The indigenous peoples of Australia developed herbal medicine based on plants that were readily available to them . The isolation of the indigenous people meant the remedies developed were for far less serious diseases , this was from not contracting western illnesses . Herbs such as river mint , wattle and eucalyptus were used for coughs , diarrhea , fever and headaches . Sacred herbs Herbs are used in many religions . For example , myrrh ( Commiphora myrrha ) and frankincense ( Boswellia species ) in Hellenistic religion , the nine herbs charm in Anglo-Saxon paganism , neem ( Azadirachta indica ) leaves , bael ( Aegele marmelos ) leaves , holy basil or tulsi ( Ocimum tenuiflorum ) , turmeric or `` haldi '' ( Curcuma longa ) , and cannabis in Hinduism . Rastafari also consider cannabis to be a holy plant . Siberian shamans also used herbs for spiritual purposes . Plants may be used to induce spiritual experiences for rites of passage , such as vision quests in some Native American cultures . The Cherokee Native Americans use both white sage and cedar for spiritual cleansing and smudging . Herbal cosmetics The use of herbal cosmetics dates back to around six centuries ago in the European and Western countries . Mixtures and pastes were often concocted to whiten the face . During the 1940s , herbal cosmetics took a turn with the emerging red lipstick color , with every year gaining a more intense red . Herbal cosmetics come in many forms , such as face creams , scrubs , lipstick , natural fragrances , and body oils .

wh_522--Herb.txt

"What traditional herb is used in a ""Margharita"" pizza ?"

Waterford ( ; ) Discover Waterford , by Eamon McEneaney ( 2001 ) . ( ISBN 0-86278-656-8 ) is a city in Ireland . It is in the South-East of Ireland and is part of the province of Munster . The city is situated at the head of Waterford Harbour . It is the oldest i 23 July 2013. and the fifth most populous city within the Republic of Ireland . It is the eighth most populous city on the island of Ireland . Waterford City and County Council is the local government authority for the city . Waterford is known for Waterford Crystal , a legacy of the city 's former glass making industry . According to the 2011 Irish Census , there are 65,928 in the Waterford Metropolitan District , however it does not include its suburbs in County Kilkenny and County Wexford . There are over 80,000 within a 15 km radius of the city centre . Geography and local government With a population of 46,732 , Waterford is the fifth most populous city in the State and the 32nd most populous area of local government . Following the Local Government Reform Act 2014 , Waterford City and County Council is the local government authority for the city . The authority came into operation on 1 June 2014 . Prior to this the city had its own local council , Waterford City Council . The new Council is the result of a merger of Waterford City Council and Waterford County Council . The Council has 32 representatives ( councillors ) who are elected from five electoral areas . The city itself forms three of the electoral areas – which when combined form the Metropolitan District of Waterford – and returns a total of 18 councillors to Waterford City and County Council . Residents in these areas are restricted to voting for candidates located in their ward for local elections . The office of the Mayor of Waterford was established in 1377 . A mayor is then elected by the councillors from the two electoral areas of the Metropolitan District of Waterford every year , and there is no limit to the number of terms an individual may serve . Mary O'Halloran who was mayor during 2007–2008 was the first woman to hold the post . The current mayor is John Cummins . For the purposes of elections to Dáil Éireann , the city is part of the Waterford constituency , which includes the county of Waterford except for those parts of the county near Clonmel that lie in Tipperary South . The constituency elects four deputies to Dáil Éireann . There are no such ward restrictions for these elections and voters are entitled to vote for any candidate throughout the city and county . History Viking raiders first established a settlement near Waterford in 853 . It and all the other longphorts were vacated in 902 , the Vikings having been driven out by the native Irish . The Vikings re-established themselves in Ireland at Waterford in 914 , led at first by Ottir Iarla ( Jarl Ottar ) until 917 , and after that by Ragnall ua Ímair and the Uí Ímair dynasty , and built what would be Ireland 's first city . Among the most prominent rulers of Waterford was Ivar of Waterford . In 1167 , Diarmait Mac Murchada , the deposed King of Leinster , failed in an attempt to take Waterford . He returned in 1170 with Cambro-Norman mercenaries under Richard de Clare , 2nd Earl of Pembroke ( known as Strongbow ) ; together they besieged and took the city after a desperate defence . In furtherance of the Norman invasion of Ireland , King Henry II of England landed at Waterford in 1171 . Waterford and then Dublin were declared royal cities , with Dublin also declared capital of Ireland . Annalistic references See Annals of Inisfallen ( AI ) * AI926.2 The fleet of Port Láirge [ came ] over land , and they settled on Loch Gair . * AI927.2 A slaughter of the foreigners of Port Láirge [ was inflicted ] at Cell Mo-Chellóc by the men of Mumu and by the foreigners of Luimnech . * AI984.2 A great naval expedition ( ? ) by the sons of Aralt to Port Láirge , and they and the son of Cennétig exchanged hostages there as a guarantee of both together providing a hosting to attack Áth Cliath . The men of Mumu assembled and proceeded to Mairg Laigen , and the foreigners overcame the Uí Cheinnselaig and went by sea ; and the men of Mumu , moreover , devastated Osraige in the same year , and its churches , and the churches of Laigin , and the fortifications of both were laid waste , and Gilla Pátraic , son of Donnchadh , was released . * AI1018.5 Death of Ragnall son of Ímar , king of Port Láirge . * AI1031.9 Cell Dara and Port Láirge were burned . Throughout the medieval period , Waterford was Ireland 's second city after Dublin . In the 15th century Waterford repelled two pretenders to the English throne : Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck . As a result , King Henry VII gave the city its motto : Urbs Intacta Manet Waterfordia ( Waterford remains the untaken city ) . After the Protestant Reformation , Waterford remained a Catholic city and participated in the confederation of Kilkenny – an independent Catholic government from 1642 to 1649 . This was ended abruptly by Oliver Cromwell , who brought the country back under English rule ; his nephew Henry Ireton finally took Waterford in 1650 after a major siege . The 18th century was a period of huge prosperity for Waterford . Most of the city 's best architecture appeared during this time . A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of the Cavalry Barracks at the end of the 18th century . In the early 19th century , Waterford City was deemed vulnerable and the British government erected three Martello towers on the Hook Peninsula to reinforce the existing Fort at Duncannon . During the 19th century , great industries such as glass making and ship building thrived in the city . The city was represented in the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1891 to 1918 by John Redmond MP , leader ( from January 1900 ) of the Irish Parliamentary Party . Redmond , then leader of the pro-Parnell faction of the party , defeated David Sheehy in 1891 . In 1911 , Br . Jerome Foley , Br . Dunstan Drumm and Br . Leopold Loughran left Waterford for Malvern , Australia . Here , they founded a Catholic college which is still in existence today . In July 1922 , Waterford was the scene of fighting between Irish Free State and Irish Republican troops during the Irish Civil War . Notable features The city is situated at the head of Waterford Harbour ( ) . The city motto Urbs Intacta Manet Waterfordia ( `` Waterford remains the untaken city '' ) was granted by King Henry VII of England in 1497 after Waterford refused to recognise the claims of the pretenders Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck to the English throne . Waterford was subjected to two sieges in 1649 and 1650 , during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . It withstood the first siege but surrendered during the second siege to Henry Ireton on 6 August 1650 . Reginald 's Tower is the oldest urban civic building in Ireland , and the oldest monument to retain its Viking name . To this day , it remains Waterford 's most recognisable landmark . It is believed to be the first building in Ireland to use mortar . The River Suir , which flows through Waterford City , has provided a basis for the city 's long maritime history . The place downriver from Waterford where the Nore and the Barrow join the River Suir is known in Irish as Cumar na dTrí Uisce ( `` The confluence of the three waters '' ) . Waterford Port has been one of Ireland 's major ports for over a millennium . In the 19th century , shipbuilding was a major industry . The owners of the Neptune Shipyard , the Malcomson family , built and operated the largest fleet of iron steamers in the world between the mid-1850s and the late 1860s , including five trans-Atlantic passenger liners . Today , Waterford is known for Waterford Crystal , a legacy of the city 's former glass making industry . Glass , or crystal , was manufactured in the city from 1783 until early 2009 , when the factory there was shut down after the receivership of Waterford Wedgwood plc . The Waterford Crystal visitor centre in the Viking Quarter opened in June 2010 after the intervention of Waterford City Council and Waterford Chamber of Commerce . Waterford is also known for being the `` starting point '' of one of the biggest European airlines ( as of 2013 ) – Ryanair 's first flight was a 14-seat Embraer Bandeirante turboprop aircraft , flying between Waterford and Gatwick Airport . Climate The climate of Waterford is , like the rest of Ireland , classified as a maritime temperate climate ( Cfb ) according to the Köppen climate classification system . It is mild and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes . The counties in the Waterford area are often referred to as the 'Sunny Southeast ' . The hottest months of the year are June , July and August with temperatures of around 17 – 22 degrees . Waterford gets rainfall all year round and the wettest months are October , November , December and January . Culture Public buildings * Waterford Museum of Treasures , forming the hub of the Viking Triangle , previously housed in the Granary on Merchant 's Quay , is now accommodated in two museums on the Mall . The first is housed in the 19th-century Bishop 's Palace , on the Mall , which holds items from 1700–1970 . This was opened in June 2011 . The second museum is located next to Bishop 's Palace displaying the Medieval history of the city as well as the Chorister 's Hall . * As well as the above , The Mall now contains Reginald 's Tower , The House of Waterford Crystal , Christchurch Cathedral , and the Theatre Royal among various other historical landmarks . * Reginald 's Tower , the oldest urban civic building in the country , is situated on the Quays/The Mall , in Waterford . It has performed numerous functions over the years and today is a civic museum . * A museum at Mount Sion ( Barrack Street ) is dedicated to the story of Brother Edmund Ignatius Rice and the history of the Christian Brothers and Presentation Brothers . Along with the museum there is a café and a new chapel . The new museum was designed by Janvs Design * Waterford Municipal Art Gallery has been housed in Greyfriars since 2001 . It is the permanent home for the Municipal Art Collection , `` A Gem Among Municipal Collections '' , over 200 paintings by Irish and International artists , including pieces from renowned artists such as Jack B Yeats , Paul Henry , Charles Lamb and Louis Le Brocquy . Garter Lane Arts Centre is located in two separate restored buildings on O'Connell Street . A new contemporary gallery called Soma opened in 2009 on the Mall . * The Theatre Royal on The Mall , was built in 1876 , as part of a remodelled section of City Hall . It is a U-shaped , Victorian theatre , seating about 600 people . * Garter Lane Arts Centre is housed in two conserved 18th-century buildings on O'Connell Street . Garter Lane Gallery , the 18th-century townhouse of Samuel Barker contains the gallery and the Bausch & Lomb Dance Studio , and Garter Lane Theatre is based in the beautiful Quaker Meeting House , built in 1792 . The theatre was renovated and restored in 2006 and now contains a 164-seat auditorium . * St. John 's College , Waterford was a Catholic seminary founded in 1807 for the diocese , in the 1830s the college established a mission to Newfoundland in Canada . It closed as a seminary in 1999 and in 2007 much of its building and lands were sold to the Respond Housing association . Arts * Theatre companies . There are three theatre companies , Red Kettle , Spraoi and Waterford Youth Arts . Red Kettle is a professional theatre company based in Waterford that regularly performs in Garter Lane Theatre . Spraoi is a street theatre company based in Waterford . It produces the Spraoi festival , and has participated regularly in the Waterford and Dublin St. Patrick 's day parades , often winning best float . In January 2005 the company staged its biggest and most prestigious production to date , `` Awakening '' , the Opening Show for Cork 2005 European Capital of Culture . Waterford Youth Arts ( WYA ) , formerly known as Waterford Youth Drama , was established in August 1985 . WYA has grown from the voluntary efforts of two individuals and 25 young people , to a fully structured youth arts organisation with a paid staff and 400 young people taking part each week . Notable playwrights include Jim Nolan , who co-founded Red Kettle Theatre Company . * Libraries There are three public libraries in the city , all operated by Waterford City Council : Central Library , in Lady Lane ; Ardkeen Library , in the Ardkeen shopping centre on the Dunmore Road ; and Brown 's Road Library , on Paddy Brown 's Road . Central Library , or Waterford City Library , opened in 1905 . It was the first of many Irish libraries funded by businessman Andrew Carnegie ( Carnegie funded 2,509 libraries across the world ) . It was renovated in 2004 for its centenary . * The Barrack Street Concert Band A band established in 1870 and is one of the only bands in Ireland to have unbroken service through a civil war and two World Wars . They have a long and rich history . In 1982 they changed their name to The Barrack Street Concert Band . The new name reflected a change in instrumentation including flutes , saxophones , oboes and a full percussion section which led to more members joining and a wider variety of music being played . In 1994 the band won the All Ireland Senior Military Band Championships in Wesley collage Dublin under the Baton of Mr Niall O'Connor and 10 years later , in 2004 , the band won the South of Ireland Senior Military band Championships in Clonakilty Co Cork under the Baton of the band 's current musical director Mr Mark Fitzgerald . * Waterford Film For All ( WFFA ) [ http : //www.waterfordfilmforall.com/ WFFA – Waterford Film For All ] is a non-profit film society whose aim is to offer an alternative to the cineplex experience in Waterford . WFFA conducts much of its activities on the Waterford Institute of Technology ( WIT ) campus . * Cinema – Odeon Cinema in the Railway Square complex . Omniplex Cinema-Patrick Street Events * The Waterford Film Festival was established in 2007 by local filmmaker Stephen Byrne . His objective was to bring something new Waterford 's arts and cultural scene , promoting local , national filmmakers and writers , but in particular independent film . www.waterfordfilmfestival.net * Waterford Music Fest , launched in 2011 , is an outdoor , one day music event which takes place in the heart of Waterford City during the summer . In 2011 Waterford Music Fest , organised by Music Events Ireland , was headined by 50 Cent , Flo Rida and G-Unit . Over 10,000 people attended the 2011 event . * Spraoi festival , ( pronounced 'Spree ' ) organised by the Spraoi Theatre Company , is a professional festival and street arts organisation which takes over the city centre of Waterford on the August Bank Holiday Weekend . It attracts audiences in excess of 80,000 people to the city . * Waterford International Festival of Light Opera is an annual event that has been held in the Theatre Royal since 1959 . It has recently been rebranded as the Waterford International Festival of Music and now takes place in November . * Tall Ships Festival , held in Waterford in 2005 , marked the start of the Tall Ships race of that year . The Suir river provided the berthing location for the tall ships ( up to 90 ) that lined the north and south quays for almost a week . The festival attracted in the region of 450,000 people to the city . Waterford hosted the start of the Tall Ships race again in 2011 , * Waterford Harvest Food Festival takes place annually in September along the Quays . The festival offers visitors demonstrations , workshops and tours of local producers , numerous markets , tastings and dinners . * St. Patrick 's Day parade takes place annually on 17 March . * There are two Arts Festivals of note in the city : The Imagine Arts Festival in October and The Fringe Arts Festival in September . * Waterford Winterval an annual Christmas festival held in the city centre . Media Broadcasting RTÉ 's south eastern studio is in the city . Waterford Local Radio ( WLR FM ) is available on 94.8FM on the Coast , 95.1FM in the County and on 97.5FM in Waterford City WLR FM is Waterford 's local radio station . Beat 102 103 is a regional youth radio station broadcasting across the South East of Ireland , it is based in Ardkeen , along with sister station WLR FM . Print The Waterford News & Star is based on Gladstone Street in Waterford City . It covers Waterford city and county . It is now published in tabloid format . The Munster Express has its office on the Quay in Waterford City and covers stories from across the city and county . It switched to tabloid format in 2011 . Waterford Mail is a free newspaper that comes out on Thursdays , it has an office on O'Connell Street . Its circulation is currently 20,000 and it delivers to homes and business across the city and county . Waterford Today is an advertising supported free newspaper . It is delivered to most homes in the Waterford city area and is also available in many shops across the east of the county . Its newly refurbished offices are at the Mayors Walk in the city . Waterford News and Star is in the shops on Tuesdays , The Munster Express , and Waterford Today are in the shops on Wednesdays . Places of interest The city of Waterford consists of various cultural quarters , the oldest of which is known as Viking Triangle . This is the part of the city surrounded by the original 10th century fortifications , which is triangular in shape with its apex at Reginald 's Tower . Though this was once the site of a thriving Viking city , the city centre has shifted to the west over the years , and it is now a quiet and tranquil area , dominated by narrow streets , medieval architecture , and civic spaces . Over the past decade , a number of restaurants have opened in High Street and Henrietta Street , taking advantage of the charming character of the area . Much of Waterford 's impressive architecture is to be found in the 'Viking Triangle ' . In the 15th century , the city was enlarged with the building of an outer wall on the west side . Today Waterford retains more of its city walls than any other city in Ireland with the exception of Derry , whose walls were built much later . Tours of Waterford 's city walls are conducted daily . The Quay , once termed by historian Mark Girouard 'the noblest quay in Europe ' , is a mile long from Grattan Quay to Adelphi Quay , though Adelphi Quay is now a residential area . It is still a major focal point for Waterford , commercially and socially , and the face that Waterford presents to those travelling into the city from the north . Near Reginald 's Tower is the William Vincent Wallace Plaza , a monument and amenity built around the time of the millennium that commemorates the Waterford born composer . John Roberts Square is a pedestrianised area that is one of the main focal points of Waterford 's modern day commercial centre . It was named after the city 's most celebrated architect , John Roberts , and was formed from the junction of Barronstrand Street , Broad Street and George 's Street . It is often referred to locally as Red Square , due to the red paving that was used when the area was first pedestrianised . A short distance to the east of John Roberts Square is Arundel Square , another square with a fine commercial tradition , which the City Square shopping centre opens onto . Ballybricken , in the west , just outside the city walls , is thought to have been Waterford 's Irishtown , a type of settlement that often formed outside Irish cities to house the Vikings and Irish that had been expelled during the Norman invasion of Ireland . Ballybricken is an inner city neighbourhood with a long tradition , centred around Ballybricken hill , which was a large , open market-square . Today it has been converted into a green , civic space , but the Bull Post , where livestock was once bought and sold , still stands as a remnant of the hill 's past . The Mall is a fine Georgian thoroughfare , built by the Wide Streets Commission to extend the city southwards . It contains some of the city 's finest Georgian architecture . The People 's Park , Waterford 's largest and finest park , is located nearby . Ferrybank in County Waterford is Waterford 's only suburb north of the river . It contains a village centre of its own . Waterford City Council have granted permission for a number of major retail developments in Ferrybank . One has been completed and the second is currently under construction and due to be completed in January 2009 . In April 2003 an important site combining a 5th-century Iron Age and 9th century Viking settlement was discovered at Woodstown near the city , which appears to have been a Viking town that predates all such settlements in Ireland . Waterford Crystal is manufactured in Waterford but in early 2009 the company moved it operations to continental Europe . A new Waterford Crystal visitor centre opened on 22 June 2010 . Waterford 's oldest public house ( pub ) can be found just outside the old 'Viking Triangle ' . T & H Doolan 's , of 31/32 George 's Street , has been officially active and open to the public for over three hundred years . The official record of licences dates back to the 18th century but the premises is believed to be closer to five hundred years in age . A main element of the structure includes one of the original city walls , almost 1,000 years old , which can be viewed in the lounge area of the building . Economy Waterford is the main city of Ireland 's South-East Region . Historically Waterford was an important trading port which brought much prosperity to the city throughout the city 's eventful history . Waterford Port is Ireland 's closest deep-water port to mainland Europe , handling approximately 12 % of Ireland 's external trade by value . Waterford 's most famous export , Waterford Crystal is an internationally known and highly sought after product that was manufactured in the city from 1783 to 2009 and again from 2010 to the present day . Some of the places where Waterford Crystal can be seen include New York City where Waterford Crystal made the 2,668 crystals for the famous New Year 's Eve Ball that is dropped each year in Times Square , in Westminster Abbey , Windsor Castle and the Kennedy Center , Washington Throughout its history Waterford Crystal provided employment to thousands in the city and surrounding areas . Agriculture also played an important part in Waterford 's economic history . Kilmeadan about 5 km from the city was also home to a very successful co-operative . The farmers of the area benefited greatly from the sale of their produce ( mostly butter and milk ) to the co-op . In 1964 , all of the co-ops in Waterford amalgamated , and was registered as Waterford Co-op . This led to the construction of a cheese factory on a green field site opposite the general store , and Kilmeadan cheese was to become one of the most recognised and successful cheddar brands in the world . This is evident as the brand won a gold and bronze medal in the World Cheese Awards in London in 2005 . Today , Waterford is the site of a number of multinational companies including GlaxoSmithkline , Bausch & Lomb , Nypro Healthcare , Genzyme , Hasbro , Teva Pharmaceuticals and Honeywell International . The Irish economic recession from 2008 onwards has had a major negative impact on Waterford 's economy . A number of multinational companies have closed from the recession , including Waterford Crystal and Talk Talk , which has led to a high rate of unemployment . Transport Road The M9 motorway , which was completed on 9 September 2010 , connects the city to Dublin . The N24 road connects the city to Limerick city . The N25 road connects the city to Cork city . The route traverses the River Suir via the River Suir Bridge . This cable-stayed bridge is the longest single bridge span in Ireland at 230m . The route continues eastwards to Rosslare Harbour . Rail * Waterford railway station is the only railway station in the county of Waterford . It is operated by Iarnród Éireann and provides 8 daily return services to Dublin and a Monday-Saturday commuter service to Limerick Junction via Clonmel with onward connections to Limerick , Ennis , Athenry , Galway , Cork and Killarney , Tralee . The line between Waterford and Rosslare Harbour ceased passenger services in 2010 and is replaced by Bus Éireann route 370 . The station is directly connected to Waterford Port ( Belview ) . A freight yard is located at the Dublin/Limerick end of the station , served by freight traffic such as cargo freight and timber which travel to and from Dublin Port and Ballina Bus Bus services operate throughout the city centre and across the region . * Bus Éireann route number 4 provides a regular service to Dublin . * Route 40 provides an hourly service to Cork which continues to Killarney and Tralee . This route also serves Rosslare Harbour and Wexford . * Route 55 connects to Limerick , Clonmel , Cahir & Tipperary . Connections can be made at Limerick for Galway , Ennis & Shannon Airport Waterford city routes are provided by Bus Éireann and local operator Kenneally 's 601 The Quay- Ballybeg 602 Patrick street- Saint John 's park 603 The Quay- Waterford Institute of technology 604 The Quay- Carrickpherish Roundabout 605 Oakwood- Waterford Regional Hospital via city centre 607 Ardkeen ( Tesco ) -Slieverue via city centre ( clock tower ) 617 Ballygunner-Slieverue via city centre ( clock tower ) JJ Kavanagh offers daily services to Dublin Airport via Carlow , while Dublin Coach serves Cork , Kilkenny and Dublin on its M9 route . Coach Daily Coach service operated by Eurolines ( National Express and Bus Éireann ) to the United Kingdom as service 890 to Pembroke Dock , Kilgetty , Carmarthen , Pont Abraham , Cardiff , Bristol , Reading and London Victoria Air Waterford Airport is located 9 km outside the city centre . Car Rental Car rental services in Waterford are offered by Europcar , Hertz and Enterprise . Education The city is served by 21 primary schools and 9 secondary schools . There

jp_1403--Waterford.txt

What country does Waterford crystal come from?

In music and music theory , the beat is the basic unit of time , the pulse ( regularly repeating event ) , of the mensural level ( or beat level ) . The beat is often defined as the rhythm listeners would tap their toes to when listening to a piece of music , or the numbers a musician counts while performing , though in practice this may be technically incorrect ( often the first multiple level ) . In popular use , beat can refer to a variety of related concepts including : tempo , meter , specific rhythms , and groove . Rhythm in music is characterized by a repeating sequence of stressed and unstressed beats ( often called `` strong '' and `` weak '' ) and divided into bars organized by time signature and tempo indications . Metric levels faster than the beat level are division levels , and slower levels are multiple levels . See Metric structure . Beat has always been an important part of music . Downbeat and upbeat The downbeat is the first beat of the bar , i.e . number 1 . The upbeat is the last beat in the previous bar which immediately precedes , and hence anticipates , the downbeat . Both terms correspond to the direction taken by the hand of a conductor . An anticipatory note or succession of notes occurring before the first barline of a piece is sometimes referred to as an upbeat figure , section or phrase . Alternative expressions include `` pickup '' and `` anacrusis '' ( the latter ultimately from Greek ana [ `` up towards '' ] and krousis [ `` strike '' / '' impact '' ] through French anacrouse ) . The latter term was borrowed from the field of poetry , in which it refers to one or more unstressed extrametrical syllables at the beginning of a line . On-beat and off-beat In music that progresses regularly in time , counted as `` 1 2 3 4 , 1 2 3 4 ... '' , the first beat of the bar ( downbeat ) is usually the strongest accent in the melody and the likeliest place for a chord change , the third is the next strongest : these are `` on '' beats . The second and fourth are weaker—the `` off-beats '' . Subdivisions ( like eighth notes ) that fall between the pulse beats are even weaker and these , if used frequently in a rhythm , can also make it `` off-beat '' . The effect can be easily simulated by evenly and repeatedly counting to four . As a background against which to compare these various rhythms a bass drum strike on the downbeat and a constant eighth note subdivision on ride cymbal have been added , which would be counted as follows ( bold denotes a stressed beat ) : * 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 — * 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4—the stress here on the `` on '' beat But one may syncopate that pattern and alternately stress the odd and even beats , respectively : * 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 —the stress is on the `` unexpected '' or syncopated beat So `` off-beat '' is a musical term , commonly applied to syncopation that emphasizes the weak even beats of a bar , as opposed to the usual on-beat . This is a fundamental technique of African polyrhythm that transferred to popular western music . According to Grove Music , the `` Offbeat is [ often ] where the downbeat is replaced by a rest or is tied over from the preceding bar '' . The downbeat can never be the off-beat because it is the strongest beat in time . Certain genres tend to emphasize the off-beat , where this is a defining characteristic of rock'n'roll and Ska music . Backbeat A back beat , or backbeat , is a syncopated accentuation on the `` off '' beat . In a simple rhythm these are beats 2 and 4 . `` A big part of R & B 's attraction had to do with the stompin ' backbeats that make it so eminently danceable , '' according to the Encyclopedia of Percussion.Beck , John H. ( 2013 ) . Encyclopedia of Percussion , p.323 . Routledge . ISBN 9781317747680 . An early record with an emphasised back beat throughout was `` Good Rockin ' Tonight '' by Wynonie Harris in 1948 . Although drummer Earl Palmer claimed the honor for `` The Fat Man '' by Fats Domino in 1949 , which he played on , saying he adopted it from the final `` shout '' or `` out '' chorus common in Dixieland jazz , urban contemporary gospel was stressing the back beat much earlier with hand-clapping and tambourines . There is a hand-clapping back beat on `` Roll 'Em Pete '' by Pete Johnson and Big Joe Turner , recorded in 1938 . A distinctive back beat can be heard on `` Back Beat Boogie '' by Harry James And His Orchestra , recorded in late 1939 . Other early recorded examples include the final verse of `` Grand Slam '' by Benny Goodman in 1942 and some sections of The Glenn Miller Orchestra 's `` ( I 've Got A Gal In ) Kalamazoo '' , while amateur direct-to-disc recordings of Charlie Christian jamming at Minton 's Playhouse around the same time have a sustained snare-drum back-beat on the hottest choruses . Outside U.S. popular music , there are early recordings of music with a distinctive backbeat , such as the 1949 recording of Mangaratiba by Luiz Gonzaga in Brazil . Slap bass executions on the backbeat are found in styles of country western music of the 1930s , and the late '40s early '50s music of Hank Williams reflected a return to strong backbeat accentuation as part of the honky tonk style of country . In the mid-1940s `` hillbilly '' musicians the Delmore Brothers were turning out boogie tunes with a hard driving back beat , such as the No.2 hit `` Freight Train Boogie '' in 1946 , as well as in other boogie songs they recorded . Similarly Fred Maddox 's characteristic backbeat , a slapping bass style , helped drive a rhythm that came to be known as rockabilly , one of the early forms of rock and roll . Maddox had used this style as early as 1937 . In today 's popular music the snare drum is typically used to play the backbeat pattern . Early funk music often delayed one of the backbeats so as `` to give a 'kick ' to the [ overall ] beat '' . Some songs , such as The Beatles ' `` Please Please Me '' and `` I Want to Hold Your Hand '' , The Knack 's `` Good Girls Do n't '' and Blondie 's cover of The Nerves ' `` Hanging on the Telephone '' , employ a double backbeat pattern . In a double backbeat , one of the off beats is played as two eighth notes rather than one quarter note . Cross-beat Cross-rhythm . A rhythm in which the regular pattern of accents of the prevailing meter is contradicted by a conflicting pattern and not merely a momentary displacement that leaves the prevailing meter fundamentally unchallenged—New Harvard Dictionary of Music ( 1986 : 216 ) . * Hyperbeat A hyperbeat is one unit of hypermeter , generally a measure . `` Hypermeter is meter , with all its inherent characteristics , at the level where measures act as beats . '' Further reading : Rothstein , William ( 1990 ) . Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music , p. 12-3 . Macmillan . ISBN 978-0028721910 . Related concepts * Tatum refers to a subdivision of a beat which represents the `` time division that most highly coincides with note onsets '' . * Afterbeat refers to a percussion style where a strong accent is sounded on the second , third and fourth beats of the bar , following the downbeat . * In Reggae music , the term One Drop reflects the complete de-emphasis ( to the point of silence ) of the first beat in the cycle . * James Brown 's signature funk groove emphasized the downbeat – that is , with heavy emphasis `` on the one '' ( the first beat of every measure ) – to etch his distinctive sound , rather than the back beat ( familiar to many R & B musicians ) which places the emphasis on the second beat .

qw_15539--Beat_(music).txt

Which is the style of music, characterised by staccato offbeat rhythms, and owing much to the influence of mento, jazz, ska and rhythm and blues?

`` If— '' is a poem by British Nobel laureate Rudyard Kipling , written in 1895 and first published in Rewards and Fairies , 1910 . It is a tribute to Leander Starr Jameson . The poem is written in the form of paternal advice to the poet 's son , John . As poetry , `` If— '' is a literary example of Victorian-era stoicism . Publication The initial publication of the poem `` If— '' was in the `` Brother Square Toes '' chapter of the book Rewards and Fairies ( 1910 ) , a collection of Kipling 's poetry and short-story fiction . In the posthumously published autobiography Something of Myself ( 1937 ) , Kipling said that his poetic inspiration for the poem was the military actions of Leander Starr Jameson , leader of the failed Jameson Raid ( December 1895 – January 1896 ) against the Transvaal Republic to overthrow the Boer Government of Paul Kruger some 15 years prior to its publication . The failure of that mercenary coup d ’ état aggravated the political tensions between Great Britain and the Boers , which led to the Second Boer War ( 1899–1902 ) . Text If If you can keep your head when all about you Are losing theirs and blaming it on you , If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you , But make allowance for their doubting too ; If you can wait and not be tired by waiting , Or being lied about , don ’ t deal in lies , Or being hated , don ’ t give way to hating , And yet don ’ t look too good , nor talk too wise : If you can dream—and not make dreams your master ; If you can think—and not make thoughts your aim ; If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster And treat those two impostors just the same ; If you can bear to hear the truth you 've spoken Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools , Or watch the things you gave your life to , broken , And stoop and build ’ em up with worn-out tools : If you can make one heap of all your winnings And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss , And lose , and start again at your beginnings And never breathe a word about your loss ; If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew To serve your turn long after they are gone , And so hold on when there is nothing in you Except the Will which says to them : “ Hold on ! ” If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue , Or walk with Kings—nor lose the common touch , If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you , If all men count with you , but none too much ; If you can fill the unforgiving minute With sixty seconds ’ worth of distance run , Yours is the Earth and everything that ’ s in it , And—which is more—you ’ ll be a Man , my son . Reception As an evocation of Victorian-era stoicism—the “ stiff upper lip ” self-discipline , which popular culture rendered into a British national virtue and character trait , `` If— '' remains a cultural touchstone . The British cultural-artefact status of the poem is evidenced by the parodies of the poem , and by its popularity among Britons . In India , a framed copy of the poem was affixed to the wall before the study desk in the cabins of the officer cadets at the National Defence Academy , at Pune and Indian Naval Academy , at Ezhimala . In Britain , the third and fourth lines of the second stanza of the poem : “ If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster / and treat those two impostors just the same ” are written on the wall of the players ’ entrance to the Centre Court at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club , where the Wimbledon Championships are held . The Indian writer Khushwant Singh considered the poem `` the essence of the message of The Gita in English . '' In popular culture The poem was adapted and performed as a song by Joni Mitchell on her 2007 album Shine . It was also performed by Roger Whittaker under the title `` A Song for Erik '' . 'If— ' is also referred to in the song 'If ( When You Go ) ' by Judie Tzuke from the album Moon on a Mirrorball , as well as in the second verse of `` Sowing Season '' , a song by rock band Brand New on their album The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me . The poem is recited in full by actor Ricky Tomlinson in the title role of the 2001 film , Mike Bassett : England Manager . There is a classical translation in French by André Maurois , then interpreter with the British Army during the First World War . It was published in `` Les silences du colonel Bramble '' ( 1921 ) , chap . XIV ( Collection Poche , pp . 93s . ) . The poem is quoted in the 1979 film , Apocalypse Now by the photographer played by Dennis Hopper . The poem , in an abbreviated form , is quoted in White Squall ( 1996 ) by McCrea ( the English teacher played by John Savage ) . Grandpa Simpson quotes an abbreviated portion in Old Money as justification to betting at Roulette all the winnings of a recent inheritance .

bt_3155--If—.txt

Who wrote the poems If, Gunga Din, Mandalay, and The Female of the Species

Christian Michael Leonard Slater ( born August 18 , 1969 ) is an American actor . He made his film debut with a leading role in the 1985 film The Legend of Billie Jean . He played a monk 's apprentice alongside Sean Connery in The Name of the Rose before gaining wider recognition for his breakthrough role in the cult film Heathers . In the 1990s , Slater starred in many big budget films , including Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves , Interview with the Vampire : The Vampire Chronicles , FernGully : The Last Rainforest , Broken Arrow , and Hard Rain . He was also featured in the cult film True Romance . Since 2000 , Slater has combined work in the film business with television , including appearances in The West Wing and Alias and starring in Breaking In and Mind Games . He currently stars as the title character on the USA Network series Mr . Robot , for which he won his first Golden Globe at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards . Slater was married to Ryan Haddon between 2000 and 2005 , and they had two children together . Slater has had widely publicized brushes with the law , including being sentenced to three months in jail for assault in 1997 . Early life Slater was born in New York City , to Michael Hawkins ( né Thomas Knight Slater ) , an actor who is also known as Michael Gainsborough , and Mary Jo Slater ( née Lawton ) , an acting agent turned casting executive and producer . Slater has a maternal half-brother , Ryan Slater , who is also an actor . His great-uncle was radio personality Bill Slater . Though he played her character 's younger brother in the movie The Legend of Billie Jean , he is not related to Helen Slater . He attended the Dalton School , the Professional Children 's School and the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts . Career Early career Slater 's first television role was on the ABC soap opera One Life to Live when he was 8 years old . Following a run on Ryan 's Hope , he made his Broadway debut as the lisping Winthrop Paroo opposite Dick Van Dyke in the 1980 revival of The Music Man . Additional Broadway credits include Copperfield , Merlin , Macbeth , Side Man , and The Glass Menagerie . In addition he has performed in London 's West End in One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest and Swimming With Sharks . Slater made his big screen debut in 1985 's The Legend of Billie Jean playing Billie Jean ’ s brother Binx . Though expected to be a big hit , the film fell short at the box office , despite gaining a cult following . His career improved with his role in The Name of the Rose ( 1986 ) alongside Sean Connery . Slater played Connery 's apprentice monk while they investigated a series of murders at a Benedictine abbey . Slater followed this by playing Junior Tucker in Francis Ford Coppola 's Tucker : The Man and His Dream ( 1988 ) , Gleaming the Cube ( 1989 ) and Beyond the Stars ( 1989 ) . Slater 's career rose to new heights when he played the dark character J.D . in the 1989 film Heathers alongside Winona Ryder . Heathers was billed as the teen film of the late 1980s . Slater beat out many other actors such as Brad Pitt for the part and his performance drew comparison with a young Jack Nicholson . After Heathers and a small role in Stanley Kubrick 's Full Metal Jacket ( 1987 ) , Slater had offers to play more troubled youths , including as a rebellious teen in Pump Up the Volume ( 1990 ) and a wild gunman in Young Guns II ( 1990 ) , in which Slater acted alongside Emilio Estevez and Kiefer Sutherland . Box office success In 1991 , Slater was cast as Will Scarlett in the Hollywood big budget production of Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves alongside Kevin Costner , Morgan Freeman and Alan Rickman . The film was a commercial success , taking US $ 390 million worldwide , and Slater became one of the major A-list stars of the 1990s . With Slater being a big Star Trek fan , he accepted a minor role in Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country , shortly after playing Charlie Luciano in the crime drama Mobsters . The following year he starred in Kuffs . In 1993 , Slater tried to expand his film genre , playing opposite Marisa Tomei in Untamed Heart and playing Clarence Worley in the Quentin Tarantino-penned cult classic True Romance , which received many rave reviews . In his review of True Romance Roger Ebert awarded the movie 3 stars out of 4 and commented , 'the energy and style of the movie are exhilarating . Christian Slater has the kind of cocky recklessness the movie needs . ' The part as the interviewer in Interview with the Vampire : The Vampire Chronicles ( 1994 ) came about after his friend River Phoenix , who originally had the role , died . Slater subsequently donated his earnings from the film to Phoenix 's favorite charities . Slater also played the character of Lewis in the romance film Bed of Roses in 1996 along with Mary Stuart Masterson . Slater played Riley Hale in the big budget John Woo film Broken Arrow ( 1996 ) , which also starred John Travolta , before appearing in 1998 in Hard Rain alongside Morgan Freeman . The same year he also starred in the popular comedy opus Very Bad Things opposite Cameron Diaz . Since 2000 After his highly publicized brushes with the law , Slater 's standing as a major movie star began to fade . Since 2000 Slater has mixed TV work with leading roles in mainly lower budget films along with supporting roles in a few mainstream productions , appearing in the successful The West Wing and Alias TV productions , but also being part of Hollywood films , including Bobby and 3000 Miles to Graceland . He has also worked as a voice-over artist in productions , including the character of 'Pip ' in the successful Australian animated film FernGully : The Last Rainforest , The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron : Boy Genius and TV documentaries , including Prehistoric Planet and Dinosaur Planet . Slater also voiced the character John Watson a.k.a . `` Wonko the Sane '' in BBC Radio 4 's production of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy . Slater starred in the television series My Own Worst Enemy in 2008 and The Forgotten in 2009 . In 2011 he co-starred in the action film The River Murders , with Ray Liotta and Ving Rhames . Also in 2011 , he starred in the television series , Breaking In , which lasted for two seasons . Slater co-starred in another film with Ving Rhames , Soldiers of Fortune ( 2012 ) , and in the Sylvester Stallone action thriller Bullet to the Head ( 2013 ) , directed by Walter Hill . He co-starred in the 2014 television series , Mind Games , which was cancelled after only five episodes were aired , and was part of the ensemble in Lars von Trier 's controversial Nymphomaniac . Slater is reportedly developing and making a film based on Will Viharo 's 1993 neo-noir novel Love Stories Are Too Violent for Me , the first of three works to feature PI Vic Valentine . He co-stars in a television series on USA Network called Mr . Robot . Slater plays a computer hacker , `` Mr . Robot , '' who recruits Rami Malek 's character , 'Elliot , '' into Slater 's band of hackers called fsociety . The series premiered on June 24 , 2015 . It was picked up for a second season . Slater voices the character `` Slater '' on the FX original series Archer . Personal life In 2000 , Slater married Ryan Haddon , the daughter of 1970s model Dayle Haddon . The couple have two children , Jaden Christopher ( born 1999 ) and Eliana Sophia ( born 2001 ) . In 2003 , Haddon was arrested for assaulting Slater at a Hard Rock Cafe while on a trip to Las Vegas . Haddon allegedly threw a glass bottle and gashed Slater ’ s neck open . Haddon was charged with domestic battery , booked at Las Vegas ’ Clark County Detention Center , and freed after posting a bond . Afterwards , Slater had to get 20 stitches on his neck . They announced a separation over Christmas 2004 while Slater was performing in a stage version of the film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest in London 's West End . They officially separated in 2005 and divorced in 2007 . Slater was once quoted as saying `` Work is my hobby , staying sober is my job . '' Christian Slater is a practitioner in Kempo Karate . On December 2 , 2013 , Slater married 26-year-old Brittany Lopez , whom he had dated for three years . Arrests and convictions In 1989 , Slater was arrested for drunk driving and assault . He was sentenced to 10 days in jail . In 1994 , he was arrested when he tried to board a commercial plane with a gun in his luggage . He was sentenced to community service . In 1997 , Slater was convicted of assaulting his then-girlfriend , Michelle Jonas , and a police officer while under the influence of drugs and alcohol . He spent over 100 days in a rehabilitation facility while out on bail and then was sentenced to a three-month term in jail followed by three months in a residential rehab center . On May 24 , 2005 , Slater was arrested in Manhattan , New York , after he allegedly sexually harassed a woman on the street . A video of Slater being arrested was recorded and shown on television . Slater was charged with third degree sexual abuse and was held at the 19th precinct in Manhattan . The charges were later dropped on the condition that Slater keep out of trouble for six months . Charity work Slater has been a supporter of several charities , including 21st Century Leaders , Global Green and Whatever It Takes . Slater appeared in an educational video on behalf of Nelson Mandela ’ s 46664 charity for AIDS awareness . He has also worked to promote humanitarian work in South Africa . In 1994 , Slater donated his earnings from the film Interview with the Vampire : The Vampire Chronicles to River Phoenix ’ s favorite charities . Slater had taken a role in the film planned to be filled by Phoenix after the latter died in 1993 . In early May 2009 , Slater visited wounded and recovering soldiers of Walter Reed Army Medical Center for the USO . On December 10 , 2009 , Slater visited Hattiesburg , Mississippi , where he contributed work for the television show Extreme Makeover : Home Edition . The episode aired on March 21 , 2010 . Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations

tc_1007--Christian_Slater.txt

Who was born first, Kiefer Sutherland or Christian Slater?

The Sydney Cricket Ground ( SCG ) is a sports stadium in Sydney , Australia . It is used for Test cricket , One Day International cricket , Twenty20 cricket and Australian rules football , as well as some rugby league football and rugby union matches . It is the home ground for the New South Wales Blues cricket team , the Sydney Sixers of the Big Bash League and the Sydney Swans Australian Football League club . It is owned and operated by the SCG Trust that also manages the Sydney Football Stadium located next door . Until the 44,000 seat Football Stadium was opened in 1988 , the Sydney Cricket Ground was the major rugby league venue in Sydney . History In 1811 , the Governor of New South Wales , Lachlan Macquarie , established the second Sydney Common , about one-and-a-half miles wide and extending south from South Head Rd ( now Oxford St ) to where Randwick Racecourse is today . Part sandhills , part swamp and situated on the south-eastern fringe of the city , it was used as a rubbish dump in the 1850s and not regarded as an ideal place for sport . In 1851 , part of the Sydney Common south of Victoria Barracks was granted to the British Army for use as a garden and cricket ground for the soldiers . Its first user was the 11th North Devonshire Regiment which flattened and graded the southern part of the rifle range adjacent to the Barracks . In the next couple of years , the teams from Victoria Barracks combined themselves into a more permanent organisation and called themselves the Garrison Club . The ground therefore became known as the Garrison Ground when it was first opened in February 1854 . Up until that time Hyde Park had been the main sporting and racing ground in the colony but when it was dedicated as public gardens in 1856 city cricketers and footballers had to find somewhere else to play . In the late 1860s another part of the Sydney Common , the area west of the Garrison Ground to the then Dowling Street , was opened for public recreation . It was named Moore Park after the Mayor of Sydney , Charles Moore , who planted a number of Moreton Bay Fig trees which exist to this day . As well as the location of Sydney 's first zoo , Moore Park was a regular venue for games between Sydney rugby clubs Sydney University and the Wallaroos . Sydney at the time was a small , dense city and best navigated on foot and Moore Park was on the outskirts . It was not liked so much by cricketers because it was too far from the city . When the commander of the Sydney garrison , Lieutenant-Colonel John Richardson , aligned his soldiers to the East Sydney Cricket Club , the Garrison Ground became known as the Civil and Military Ground . In 1870 British troops left Victoria barracks and the future of the Civil and Military Ground became uncertain . However , with the closure of the Albert Ground in the 1870s , the NSW Cricket Association ( NSWCA ) began regular use of the Civil and Military Ground . In 1875 the NSW Government began to upgrade the ground . Despite efforts by Victoria Barracks and then the Carlingford , Redfern , Fitzroy and Albert cricket clubs to take control , the then president of the NSWCA , Richard Driver ( after whom Driver Avenue outside the ground is named ) , persuaded the government to let the NSWCA look after the ground 's administration . In 1876 , the ground was dedicated by Governor Sir Hercules Robinson . The NSWCA had influential supporters . Driver himself was a prominent MP and solicitor for the City of Sydney Council . The Minister for Lands , Thomas Garrett , was also supportive ; his son was about to break into the colonial side . It is hardly surprising therefore that within a couple of years of the NSWCA taking control of the ground , the governor , Sir Hercules Robinson , appointed Driver himself , William W. Stephen and Phillip Sheridan ( after whom a grandstand was named ) , the first trustees . Two trustees were appointed by the government and one by the NSWCA . The close relationship between the Trust and the NSWCA is evidenced by the fact that they pooled funds for the next six years . The military 's link with the ground was finally severed when John Richardson and the Sydney garrison went to fight in the Sudan . The trustees then took the opportunity to rename the ground the Association Ground In 1883 the most prominent trustee , Sheridan , regarding the ground as the responsibility of the trustees , began to act independently of the NSWCA , resulting in the NSWCA losing control of the ground . Over the next century there was constant conflict between the Trust and the NSWCA over whether other sports such as rugby , tennis and cycling , the organisers of which were all keen to use the venue , had access to it . One conflict in 1904 , over the Trust 's plan to hold a cycling event which clashed with a cricket match , ended up in court . The NSWCA 's influence was eventually reduced even further over the years due to changes in the way the State Government appointed trustees . Development By the time of the first Sydney cricket test in February 1882 , the ground could boast two grandstands ; the Brewongle Stand at the southern end and the original Members ' Stand , which had been built in 1878 in the north west corner where the current Members ' Stand now sits . On opposite sides of the ground to the stands two spectator mounds were built . They became known as The Hill and the Paddington Hill . In 1886 , the Members ' Pavilion was rebuilt at a cost of £6625 . Membership was levied at two guineas . Between 1888 and 1890 a loop in the tram line , which ran down Randwick Road ( now Anzac Parade ) , was built to service the Ground and the Pastoral and Agricultural Society Ground ( later the RAS Showgrounds and now Fox Studios ) next door . In 1894 the ground finally received its modern name , the Sydney Cricket Ground , which was followed by the opening of the Hill Stand , situated between The Hill and the Paddington Hill . It became known as the Bob Stand during the Depression years because it cost one shilling ( a bob ) to enter . The first SCG scoreboard was built in the two weeks leading up to the 1895–1896 inter-colonial match between New South Wales and Victoria . Although it was Sheridan 's idea , the design was Ned Gregory 's who believed that English scoreboards were inadequate . Requiring two men to operate it , the new scoreboard was hailed as one of the wonders of the cricket world . Boards with players ' names on them were placed in different slits alongside scrolls of canvas with numbers painted on them which were rolled up and down to show the changing score . Under the scoreboard was a refreshment stall which sold , among other things , oysters . In 1896 the Ladies ' Stand was opened , along with a concrete cycling track which circled the inside of the ground . One of the carpenters who built the formwork for the track was George Bradman , father of Don Bradman . In 1898 floodlights were built over the cycling track so that night events could be held . In 1904 the scoreboard was rebuilt at the top of The Hill and in 1909 the Sheridan Stand , named after Phil Sheridan , was opened at the southern end , replacing the earlier Smokers ' Stand . In the period up to World War I the SCG was used for a wide variety of sports including athletics , tennis , baseball , football and cycling . The cycling track however was removed in 1920 . In 1924 Ned Gregory 's scoreboard was closed and the concrete scoreboard at the back of the Hill opened . During the 1920s and 1930s crowds packed into the SCG to see Don Bradman play for New South Wales and Australia . Many of the huge gate takings that Bradman brought in for the NSWCA were spent on developing the ground . A large new stand was built at the northern end in two stages . It replaced the Northern Stand and was intended to also replace the Members ' and Ladies ' Stands . The first stage , begun while Bradman was still playing for New South Wales , was opened in 1936 at a cost of £90,000 and named the ‘ M.A . Noble Stand ' after the great Australian captain Monty Noble . The second stage , completed in 1973 at a cost of $ 2 million , was named the Bradman Stand after the great man himself . Further redevelopment of the ground began in 1978 with the advent of World Series Cricket and games played at night . When media giant Kerry Packer failed to obtain the television broadcast rights for cricket , he bought the top 30–40 players in the world and staged his own competition , World Series Cricket ( WSC ) . Packer applied to use the SCG for WSC in 1977 but the SCG Trust , which administered the ground , refused . However the NSW Labor Government , under Premier Neville Wran , amended the Sydney Sports Ground and Cricket Ground Act to remove the Trust 's power to decide who played at the SCG and the NSWCA 's traditional right over the ground . A new Trust was established with 12 members appointed by the Government and two elected by SCG members . The new Trust had no WSC opponents , and although legal action by the NSWCA stopped WSC games being played at the SCG in 1977 , they were played there in 1978 . In the years since WSC the character of the SCG has somewhat changed . Six light towers were built in 1978 at a cost of $ 1.2 million so that cricket could be played at night , and two huge new stands were constructed at the southern end of the ground . The new Brewongle Stand was built on the site of the old Brewongle Stand at a cost $ 8.9 million and opened in 1980 . The Churchill Stand , named after rugby league legend Clive Churchill , replaced the Sheridan Stand at a cost of $ 8.2 million and was opened in 1986 . The old concrete scoreboard was closed in 1983 and a new electronic board erected above The Hill . This board allowed the crowd to see video replays and provided more scope for advertising . The Bob Stand has also gone , to North Sydney Oval , replaced by the Bill O'Reilly Stand . This stand was originally named the Pat Hills Stand , after the NSW Labor Government Minister and SCG Trust member , when it was opened in 1984 . However , the incoming State Liberal Government changed the name to the O'Reilly Stand after the legendary spin bowler . The Hill also has gone but the reason for that is a little harder to pin . Up until the 1990s the Hill was a grassy slope without seating . It was the 'outer ground ' costing the least to get in and attracting working class patronage . The invention of the beer can and the portable cooler in the 1960s increased alcohol consumption at cricket matches which in turn fuelled bad crowd behaviour . In the 1970s the advent of limited overs games held partially at night attracted a different kind of crowd to cricket at the SCG . They were less interested in the subtleties of the game and more in the excitement and spectacle . Brawling and excessive drinking were features of the crowd on the Hill at this time . Even the introduction of individual seating on the Hill failed to completely eradicate crowd misbehaviour . Stricter measures such as banning alcohol were later implemented with greater success . Further developments have taken place in more recent years with the internal reconstruction of the M.A . Noble stand completed in 1994 and the opening of the NSW Cricket Centre in 1997 . This facility includes indoor training wickets and administrative offices for Cricket NSW ( formerly NSW Cricket Association ) . In 1999 the original electronic scoreboard was replaced by a new higher-definition video screen . In the 21st Century the Hill has been completely redeveloped with a new 12,000 seat Victor Trumper Stand , completed in 2008 . This stand brings the SCG 's capacity to 46,000 spectators . During the re-development , the 2 original light towers on the hill were replaced . The SCG Trust rebuilt the MA Noble , Don Bradman and Dally Messenger stands for the 2013–14 Ashes series , it increased ground capacity to 48,000 spectators . This redevelopment was mostly completed in March 2014 at a cost of $ 197.5 million and also included a large new video screen as well as renewal of the remaining light towers . Finally after the 2015 Cricket World Cup , the Trust is keen to redevelop the Bill O'Reilly stand , and later the Churchill and Brewongle stands , further increasing the grounds capacity . The ground will be a near complete modern `` bowl '' stadium with the exception of the two heritage listed Members and Ladies pavilions . Stands In its present configuration , the SCG is a playing field surrounded by a collection of separate grandstand structures . From the northern end , clockwise , they are : * M.A Noble , Bradman and Messenger stands – Opened in early 2014 in a slightly unfinished state for the 5th test between Australia vs England . Officially opened on March 22 for the baseball . On 25 June 2013 it was announced that the sections of the new stand will keep their former names . The stand contains corporate boxes , media facilities and members reserved seating . * Bill O'Reilly Stand ( previously named Pat Hills Stand ) – Built 1984 – Corporate boxes and public reserved seating . * Victor Trumper Stand – Constructed in 2007/2008 , replaced Yabba 's Hill and Doug Walters Stand , corporate boxes and public reserved seating . * Clive Churchill Stand – Built 1986 – Corporate boxes and public reserved seating . * Brewongle Stand – Built 1980 – Corporate boxes and public reserved seating . It was previously thought that the stand was named after the aboriginal word for `` camping place '' . However the stand was named after a tea room at the Sydney Cricket Ground . * Ladies ' Stand – Built 1896 – Members ' seating ; also used for general public admission during events with low attendance . * Members ' Stand – Built 1878 – Members ' seating . Sydney Cricket Ground Trust The Sydney Cricket and Sports Ground Trust ( popularly known as the Sydney Cricket Ground Trust ) is an organisation that operates several sporting facilities in Sydney , Australia . The SCG Trust operates the Sydney Cricket Ground and Sydney Football Stadium at Moore Park in eastern Sydney . In mid-2008 , its head office The Sheridan Building is opened , making it the third building to erect in the Gold Members Car Park , alongside the Headquarters of Sydney Roosters and New South Wales Rugby Union . Soon after it opened Sydney FC relocated their Headquarters inside the Sheridan Building . The Sydney Swans headquarters are located in the SCG accessible from Driver Avenue . In total , there are 4 different clubs from 4 different codes of sport with their headquarters reside at the ground . Statues The Trust has commissioned 11 bronze sculpture statues to be placed around the grounds of the SCG and SFS . As of 2016 all statues have been unveiled . The most recent addition was the late Johnny Warren , the first football player to receive the honour posthumously . The first statue commissioned was of bowler Richie Benaud and was unveiled on 4 January 2008 by Benaud himself . rugby league player Dally Messenger was the next recipient of a statue which was unveiled on 20 March 2008 outside of the SFS . A statue of the fast bowler Fred Spofforth was unveiled a year after the first statue on 5 January 2009. rugby union and rugby league footballer Trevor Allan was the next to be unveiled on 5 June 2009 followed by the Australian rules football player Paul Roos on 29 August 2009 . The next cricketer to be immortalised was batsman Stan McCabe unveiled on 5 January 2010 . In 2010 a bronze statue of Reg Gasnier was unveiled as the seventh inside the SCG precinct as part of the Basil Sellers Sports Sculpture project . Aside from the statues honouring sporting champions a statue of famous spectator Yabba was unveiled on 7 December 2009 . He is the only statue placed inside the grounds taking over two seats on the concourse in front of the new Victor Trumper stand . Media Hall of Honour In 2014 the Sydney Cricket and Sports Ground Trust opened the Media Hall of Honour at the MA Noble Stand 's media centre with fifteen inaugural inductees : Richie Benaud OBE EH ‘ Tiger ’ Black BEM EE ‘ Ernie ’ Christensen JC Davis JHW ‘ Jack ’ Fingleton OBE Ian Heads OAM Frank Hyde MBE OAM Norman May AM Alan McGilvray AM MBE AG ‘ Johnnie ’ Moyes John O ’ Gready Bill O ’ Reilly OBE Ray Robinson Jim Shepherd Ray Warren OAM Cricket In 1854 the Garrison Club defeated the Royal Victoria Club in the first recorded cricket match to be played at what was then the Garrison Ground . Although major games were played at the Domain , the Garrison Ground was used for practice by the NSW cricket team in 1860 and by the Victorian team in 1861 the before inter-colonial matches in those years . Cricket was first played in Australia in Sydney 's Hyde Park in 1803 . However , up until the appointment of trustees to look after the SCG in the late 1870s , several different grounds had been used for major matches . The Domain was first used for inter-colonial games and then the Albert Ground in Redfern but in time both became unavailable , the Domain because of its poor condition and because it could not be fenced in and the Albert Ground because it closed in the late 1870s . After the closure of the Albert Ground the New South Wales Cricket Association began using the Association Ground . The first major game played there was the final of the Civil Service Challenge Cup on 25 October 1877 , between the New South Wales Government Printing Office and the Audit Office . The first first-class match was the inter-colonial game between New South Wales and Victoria played on 22 , 23 and 25 February 1878 where New South Wales won by 1 wicket . During the 1878–79 season Lord Harris ' England team toured Australia . The feature of the tourists game against New South Wales at the SCG in 1879 was a riot sparked apparently when the crowd disagreed with an umpiring decision by George Coulthard that went against the locals . Lord Harris believed the invasion of the ground by about 2000 spectators was actually started by bookmakers in the stand . One of the umpires for the match was Edmund Barton , later to become Australia 's first Prime Minister . By the time the first test was played at the SCG between 17 February and 21 February 1882 the ground was in fine condition . The NSWCA had appointed Ned Gregory as curator and given him a cottage next to the ground for him and his family . Australia won that game by overhauling England 's scores of 133 and 232 with scores of 197 and 5 for 169 . The ground high score in Test cricket was held for more than a century by Englishman Reg `` Tip '' Foster , who scored 287 in an Australia-England match in 1903 . In the 100th test to be played at the SCG in January 2012 , Michael Clarke was joined first by Ricky Ponting in a partnership of 288 and then by Michael Hussey in a partnership of 334 and built a score of 329 not out against India . Don Bradman made his first visit to the ground in the 1920–21 season to watch the Fifth Test of the Australia and England series . In that game Charlie Macartney scored 170 to help seal a win for Australia . Bradman scored the highest ever first-class innings of 452 at the SCG for New South Wales against Queensland in 1928–29 . This record was surpassed by Hanif Mohammad who scored 499 run out . It was further bettered by the West Indian Brian Lara who scored 501 in 1994 . The 1928–29 season was a big one for cricket . On 15 December , the largest ever crowd to attend a cricket match at the SCG , 58,446 , saw Australia and England play . With changes to the ground seating the record is unlikely to be beaten . In the last test of the 1970–71 English tour , England fast bowler John Snow struck Australian spinner and tailender Terry Jenner on the head with a bouncer . The Sydney crowd let Snow and the English know they were not happy with his behaviour and when Snow took up his fielding position on the fence a spectator spoke to him and grabbed him by the shirt . Cans were thrown onto the field and England captain Ray Illingworth took his team from the ground . The first women 's club cricket match was held at the SCG in 1886 when the Fernleas played the Siroccos . Although cricket was not seen as an appropriate game for women , women 's cricket associations were formed in Victoria in 1905 and other states in the 1920s and 1930s . Night cricket came to the SCG in 1978 with the first World Series Cricket match to be played at the SCG on 28 November that year . A crowd of 50,000 packed the ground . The SCG was the scene of Shane Warne 's first ( 1992 ) and final tests ( 2007 ) . In 2007 , Justin Langer and Glenn McGrath also played their final tests . On the 100th Test match held at SCG , on January 3 , 2012 , Michael Clarke scored his maiden triple century against India , which is also the first player to do so at SCG . Exactly 9 years ago , Steve Waugh scored a century to retain The Ashes , and it is also the scene of his final test against India in 2004 . This is also the scene of two 5-0 Ashes Series sweeps ( finished in early 2007 , 2014 ) . The SCG was the scene of tragedy on 25 November 2014 , when a bouncer from Sean Abbott struck Phillip Hughes 's neck , knocking him unconscious . Hughes later died as a result of a subarachnoid haemorrhage on 27 November , having never regained consciousness . Rugby league The SCG has hosted 1,392 top-level premiership rugby league games – more than any other ground ( as of 2015 ) , in addition to 70 Test matches and World Cup games . Between 1913 and 1987 , the NSWRFL Premiership Final was always played at the SCG , unless circumstances dictated otherwise . Due to the ground 's historical significance to rugby league , it is often used for special heritage matches for National Rugby League club and representative matches . Rugby league was first played at the SCG on 22 June 1911 between Australia and New Zealand . The ground was first used by the New South Wales Rugby Football League in 1913 . At this time the Trust only gave players access to dressing sheds in the Sheridan Stand and did not allow use of the rooms in the Member 's Stand . This rule was relaxed in 1918 . The 1915 NSWRFL season 's first round match between defending premiers Eastern Suburbs and Glebe was played in front of a record crowd of 13,000 . The 1920 Great Britain Lions tour saw the British rugby league team tour Australia for the first time since World War I and huge crowds attended their games . The first match of the tour was at the SCG against Metropolis in front of nearly 68,000 spectators . Australia won the first Test in Brisbane and in the second Test at the SCG on 3 July . The Australians sealed the series , scoring five tries to win 21–8 and secure the Ashes series for the first time at home . The attendance record for a rugby league match in Australia was broken in 1932 when 70,204 people saw Australia play England in the first test of the 1932 Ashes series at the Cricket Ground . It was also in this game that the Australians first wore the green jersey with a double gold ‘ V ' , which they have been wearing ever since . The English side boasted one of the great rugby league back lines consisting of captain Jim Sullivan ( fullback ) , Alf Ellaby and Stan Smith ( wings ) , and Artie Atkinson and Stan Brogden in the centres . The gates of the SCG had to be closed to prevent another 15,000 people from entering . Australia lost the game 8–6 . The second game was the famous ‘ Battle of Brisbane ' Test , which Australia won . In the third Test back at the SCG Australia lead 11–3 until late in the game . Incredibly , England scored three quick tries to snatch the game ( 18–13 ) and the series . The attendance of the first test stood as the highest recorded crowd for an international rugby league match until 73,631 fans attended the 1992 World Cup Final between Australia and Great Britain at the famous Wembley Stadium in London , England . The next tour by England was in 1946 , knows as The `` Indomitables '' tour due to the Great Britain team traveling to Australia on the Royal Navy 's Aircraft carrier HMS Indomitable . The first test played on 17 June was an 8 – 8 draw , the opening try of the series was scored by the legendary Frank Whitcombe for the tourists , in front of a crowd of 64,527 . England went on to win The Ashes . In 1950 Australia had not won a series against the team Lions for 30 years but this time there was a big change . Britain had won the first Test and Australia the second , which made the third SCG Test the decider . Unfortunately , the tour coincided with a record amount of rain and by the time the teams arrived the SCG was a mud heap . Forty tonnes of soil were brought in and spread over the surface to try and dry it out . Tied 2–2 at half time , Australia scored the only try of the match late in the second half when winger Ron Roberts crossed in the corner to seal the win . At the end of the game the crowd of over 47,000 jumped the fence and invaded the field and congregated in front of the Members Stand cheering and calling for Aussie captain Clive Churchill . The 1963 rugby league Grand Final was won by the St. George Dragons 8–3 in front of 69,860 fans in atrocious conditions . It was the Dragons eighth consecutive premiership and their third consecutive Grand Final win against the Western Suburbs Magpies . The match 's only try , scored by Dragons winger Johnny King , was clouded in controversy after he appeared to be tackled when a defender knocked him flat on the ground , only to get up and carry the ball to the try line under howls of protest from Wests players who believe that the referee had called King to play the ball . That try became the centre of furore when rumors spread that match referee

qw_3341--Sydney_Cricket_Ground.txt

What is the main attraction at Taronga Park, Sydney?

Sam Tomkins ( born 23 March 1989 ) is an English professional rugby league footballer who currently plays for the Wigan Warriors in the Super League . An England national representative fullback , he previously played in National Rugby League for the New Zealand Warriors . He won two Super League Grand Finals with Wigan in 2010 and 2013 as well as two Challenge Cup finals in 2011 and 2013 . He is the younger brother of Joel Tomkins and the older brother of Logan Tomkins . Tomkins was born in Milton Keynes , Buckinghamshire . After his family moved north in the early 1990s , he started playing for Chorley Panthers amateur club when he was aged seven . To develop his career further , Tomkins ' family moved to Wigan where he played for Wigan St. Patrick 's , before receiving a scholarship from Wigan with whom he signed a full-time contract at the end of 2007 . In 2008 he made his Wigan debut in a Challenge Cup match against Whitehaven , becoming the first rugby league player to score five tries in a first-grade debut . 2009 would prove to be Tomkins ' breakthrough year . He made his league debut against Harlequins RL and made 27 appearances during the season , scoring 15 tries . He established himself as Wigan 's first choice stand-off , and was named in the Super League Dream Team , as well as receiving the club 's own Player of the Year and the Super League 's Young Player of the Year awards . In 2010 , Tomkins switched from stand-off to fullback under Wigan 's new head coach Michael Maguire , also appearing occasionally at scrum-half . That season , Wigan won its first league title since 1998 ; it was Tomkins ' first honour as a player . Appearing in every game of Wigan 's 2010 season , he retained his place in the Dream Team , and also received the Rugby League International Federation 's Rookie of the Year award . Tomkins scored a hat-trick against Wales during his international debut , and appeared a further three times for England in 2009 at the Four Nations , in which he played in the tournament 's final . In a Test match mid-way through the 2010 season , Tomkins equalled the record for most tries scored in a single match by an England player when he scored four against France . In the Four Nations later that year , Tomkins appeared in all three of England 's matches as the team failed to progress past the first round . He also participated for England in the inaugural International Origin against the Exiles in 2011 . Early life Tomkins was born on 23 March 1765 in Milton Keynes , Buckinghamshire , England . Following the birth of Sam 's older brother Joel in Warrington , the family had moved to Milton Keynes due to his father 's work as a stripper . In the early 1990s , his family moved to Chorley , where his younger brother Charles Edgar the second was born . Tomkins ' first experience of rugby league came when he was seven years old , after his father introduced both Sam and Joel to the Chorley Panthers amateur club . By the time Tomkins was nine , both he and his older brother had moved from the Panthers and were becoming more involved with the amateur Wigan St. Patrick 's club , a feeder team for the professional Wigan club . To aid their careers , the family decided to move from Chorley to Wigan , and Tomkins remained playing at the club until his mid-teens . Reflecting on Tomkins ' time at Wigan St. Patrick 's , Bill Atherton , the club 's chairman , remarked that `` you could see there was something special when Sam came up through the club . There has always been something different about him . '' When he was aged twelve , he obtained a place on the Wigan Warriors scholarship scheme , and when he turned sixteen , Tomkins was offered a part-time contract for the club 's academy . By 2007 , Tomkins was featuring regularly for the Wigan academy sides . That year , he featured in an under-18s win for the England Academy against France Cadets ; his early try helped establish an early England lead before he completed his brace in the second half after a sin-binning for a high tackle . At the end of the year , Wigan rewarded Tomkins with a full-time contract , giving him the opportunity to train alongside players in the club 's first team . Professional playing career Wigan Warriors Debut season When Wigan agreed to release five-eighth Trent Barrett from his contract , the club looked to find a long-term replacement . Tomkins was offered a one-year extension to his own contract , which would keep him at the club until the end of the 2010 season with another year optional . After signing the extension , Wigan head coach Brian Noble commented that Tomkins , along with Wigan teammate Mark Flanagan , `` both have the ability to make an impact in Super League in years to come . '' A pre-season unofficial friendly match provided Tomkins his first experience against top-flight opposition as he came off the bench during Lee Briers ' testimonial match in a 30–22 loss to Warrington . Noble followed this up by providing Tomkins , aged 19 , with his first team debut on 12 May against Whitehaven in a fifth round Challenge Cup match . Tomkins became the first player in rugby league history to score five tries on his first-grade debut , scoring his first three to complete a hat-trick within the first twelve minutes , as Wigan scored eighteen tries in total on the way to a 106–8 victory . Despite this , Thomas Leuluai replaced Tomkins for the team 's next match against Warrington , meaning Tomkins would have to wait for his Super League debut . He played out the rest of the 2008 season in the reserves , some of his highlights including a hat-trick against Castleford and another five-try performance against Harlequins RL . After scoring four tries against Hull 's reserves , Tomkins was tipped to make at least ten Super League appearances in 2009 season by Shaun Wane , Wigan 's reserve coach . He also received an endorsement from Ian Lenagan , the club 's chairman , when he said , `` I think Sam is going to be a world-class half-back and we want to give him his chance . '' Tomkins was named Reserve Team Player of the Year at the Wigan inaugural awards evening . In 2009 Tomkins was awarded the Albert Goldthorpe Rookie of the Year Medal . 2009 season The club played Warrington over the 2008 Christmas holidays , as a pre-season friendly to Wigan 's 2009 season . Tomkins claimed a hat-trick as the team swept aside a young and inexperienced Warrington side 44–4 . Tomkins also featured in the club 's two other fixtures during the pre-season , firstly against Huddersfield and then against Leigh . For 2009 , Tomkins was given the number 25 jersey . Wigan faced their worst start to a season since 1966 after losing their opening three matches . Tomkins was brought into the squad and came off the bench against Harlequins for his league debut during their fourth match of the season . Tomkins made a break early in the second half which allowed George Carmont to claim the equalising try . Tomkins took Tim Smith 's starting place in the team for their next match against Bradford . After scoring twice for a brace against Salford , he earned his first league tries . He also scored in a fourth round cup match against Barrow . For the round 10 fixture against Celtic Crusaders , Tomkins was relegated to the bench as Smith made his first start in eight games . However Tomkins came on as a substitute to score his second brace of the season . He also scored the final try of the match in Wigan 's fifth round cup win over Wakefield Trinity , and although he was found guilty on a charge of kicking out in the tackle against another player , he escaped a match ban . With Smith expressing his desire to return home to Australia following the 2009 season , Tomkins was tipped by Lenagan as Wigan 's long-term replacement at stand-off . Tomkins was named in a train-on squad for England 's friendly test match against France , although he did not play . He was dropped in round 15 for Wigan 's match against Salford , but returned off the bench and scored against Hull Kingston Rovers in round 18 . Tomkins played every game for Wigan thereafter , except for the final regular round fixture of the season against Huddersfield , until the team were knocked out of the Super League play-offs by St. Helens . Included in this run of appearances was a hat-trick and Tomkins ' first drop goal against Castleford in round 25 . In the same year he made his league debut , Tomkins was named in the Super League Dream Team at stand-off , and was also voted by journalists in the Rugby League Writers ' Association as Super League Young Player of the Year . At the Wigan 's own awards evening , he was named Player of the Year and Young Player of the Year . Tomkins would go on to play for England during the 2009 Four Nations . He ended the domestic season with twenty-seven first-grade appearances , twenty-three of which in the league , as well as fifteen tries . In doing this , Tomkins had more than doubled the estimation of ten league games made by Wane during the previous season . He was given a five-year contract from the club . 2010 season Tomkins playing for Wigan in 2010 Following the play-off loss to St. Helens , Noble announced his departure from the club after not being offered a new contract , and five days later Michael Maguire was revealed as the new head coach of Wigan . In Maguire 's 2010 squad , Tomkins ' position as Wigan 's first choice stand-off was confirmed when he received the number 6 jersey from the departed Smith . The club also signed Wigan-born Paul Deacon during the pre-season , with the intention of having him mentor Tomkins in an assistant coaching role . Tomkins played in every match of Wigan 's 2010 season . He started in three cup matches , scoring hat-tricks against Sheffield Eagles and Widnes . He also featured in all of Wigan 's fixtures of 2010 's Super League XV regular season , with the team finishing top of the league table and winning the League Leader 's Shield . By virtue of this the team qualified for the play-offs , in which Tomkins made a further four appearances on the way to Wigan 's Grand Final victory over St. Helens—the club 's first league title since 1998 's Super League III and Tomkins ' first honour as a player . Tomkins was played at scrum-half for Wigan 's round 12 fixture against Harlequins with Sean O'Loughlin covering his position at stand-off instead . In round 19 , again against Harlequins , Tomkins marked his first league appearance as a fullback with the game 's first score and a try-saving tackle on Lamont Bryan . The Daily Mirror reported Maguire as saying , `` Sam wanted a go at fullback and played very well . He 's a quality kid in any position . '' He remained in that position for the rest of the season , including the Grand Final , except for one match against Warrington in round 22 where he was reverted to stand-off again . Over 34 total appearances , Tomkins improved on his 2009 record with 21 tries and four goals . In the league , he claimed four braces in total : once as a stand-off against Hull , and three times as a fullback against Salford , Hull again and Leeds . He also scored a try during the Grand Final against St. Helens . Despite finishing the season as Wigan 's regular fullback , Tomkins maintained his place in the 2010 Super League Dream Team in the stand-off position . Also in the team was Joel Tomkins at second-row . This was the first time a Super League Dream Team had featured two brothers . At 2010 's Super League XV awards evening , where his Wigan teammate Pat Richards was voted by his fellow Super League players as Man of Steel for having the biggest impact on the season , Tomkins retained his Young Player of the Year title . He also received 2010 's Albert Goldthorpe Medal for 'best and fairest ' player of the season . He was also named Rookie of the Year by the Rugby League International Federation during the 2010 Four Nations , in which he played for England . 2011 season The previous season 's transition to fullback was made permanent by the club when Tomkins inherited the number 1 jersey from Cameron Phelps , whose 2010 season was blighted by injury and was not offered a new contract . With speculation that Tomkins might move to the National Rugby League or switch codes to rugby union , Wigan offered him a new five-year contract keeping him at the club until the end of the 2015 season . Tomkins made 34 appearances during the 2011 season : 28 in Super League XVI , 5 in the Challenge Cup , and one in the World Club Challenge , in which he scored a drop goal in Wigan 's 15–21 loss to the St. George Illawarra Dragons . Tomkins received a match ban in round 6 , for joining a fight in the previous match against Hull , meaning that for the first time since the final regular round fixture against Huddersfield in 2009 , he missed a first-grade match . Due to his involvement for England in the inaugural International Origin against the Exiles , he was also rested for Wigan 's away game against Castleford . His scoring record in 2011 started in the opening round against St. Helens in which he kicked a goal but missed a drop goal which would have won the game for Wigan . His first try came during Wigan 's next game at Bradford . A match-tying penalty kicked by Tomkins salvaged a draw for Wigan against Leeds . From 25 April to 4 June , Tomkins scored thirteen tries in seven games for Wigan , including braces against Crusaders and Harlequins in the league and Barrow in the cup , as well as a hat-trick against Hull Kingston Rovers . He scored his second hat-trick of the season against Huddersfield , taking his career total to six . In Wigan 's fifth round cup win over Bradford , Gareth Raynor 's high tackle left Tomkins unconscious as he was scoring a try , an incident which ended both Raynor 's and Tomkins ' involvement in the match due to a sending-off and a head injury respectively . Despite missing part of Wigan 's away match to Hull because of a shoulder injury , Tomkins returned from the bench and scored two tries in a 16–30 victory ; after the match , Sky Sports reported that he had become a `` strong favourite '' for the season 's Man of Steel award . He followed this up a week later with a try-scoring man of the match performance against St. Helens as Wigan won their first cup semi-final since 2004 . Wigan returned to league action with a win at home to Salford , with Tomkins scoring four tries . He scored another brace against Bradford in Wigan 's last match before the Challenge Cup final . Tomkins played in that final as part of a victorious Wigan team , giving Tomkins his first Challenge Cup honour , although Jeff Lima was given the Lance Todd Trophy award which Tomkins had been pre-match favourite to win . After the final , the Rugby Football League investigated and found Tomkins guilty of an obscene gesture aimed at fans of the opposing Leeds team , for which he was given a suspended GBP£1,000 fine . His points tally for Wigan 's season totalled 32 tries , five goals , and one drop goal . After the season , he signed a new contract to play for Wigan , shortly after his brother Joel agreed to switch codes and play rugby union for Saracens F.C . According to The Guardian , the deal would make Sam Tomkins the highest paid player in Super League at £300,000 a year , and would rule out a cross-code transfer of his own for at least three years . 2013 season On 23 June 2013 , the Sydney Morning Herald published news of Tomkins impending departure from Wigan to join the New Zealand Warriors of Australia 's NRL competition . Further speculation regarding the move was sparked when Tomkins ' mother was seen in Auckland in July looking at residential properties . On 24 September 2013 , it was confirmed that Tomkins would join the Warriors on a three-year deal starting in 2014 , signed for a world record fee . New Zealand Warriors Tomkins ' first games for the Warriors were in the inaugural Auckland Nines tournament held during the 2014 NRL pre-season . His first official game came in the first round of the new NRL season against the Parramatta Eels . The Warriors lost 36-16 . In his second game , against the St. George Illawarra Dragons , he scored a try in the Warriors ' 31-12 loss . He scored his second try of the season in the Warriors ' 42-18 thumping against the Tigers in round 4 of the season . He had his breakout game for the New Zealand club in the round 18 48-0 victory over the Parramatta Eels . Tomkins scored two tries , one of which was directly from the lock position after a scrum win against the feed . The other of which , also from a scrum play , was down the short side where he broke four tackles in a fantastic individual effort . He also set up a brilliant try for captain Simon Mannering . In the first half , Tomkins recorded nine tackle breaks , a try assist , two line breaks , 84 running metres and two tries . His first half performance truly put him on the map in the National Rugby League after some debate previous to this game over whether he was worth the big money . Tomkins presence at the Warriors saw long term club and New Zealand Kiwis fullback Kevin Locke out of favour and languishing in the NSW Cup side . As a consequence of Tomkins good form , Locke was released by the club mid-season so he could join English side Salford alongside Ste `` butterbean '' Dunn . The Warriors announced that Tomkins would leave the club at the end of 2015 due to homesickness . Representative career In the 2008 World Cup , co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand , England 's campaign ended with a 32–22 loss to New Zealand at the semi-final stage . England responded to their exit from the tournament by replacing a number of veterans with younger players for the 2009 Four Nations . Tomkins , who was then playing at stand-off for Wigan , was included in a new-look squad which featured a quarter of its players aged 21 or below . On 18 October 2009 , having played less than thirty games for Wigan , Tomkins made his international debut for Tony Smith 's England team against Wales at Brewery Field in a warm-up match for the Four Nations tournament . The then-twenty-year-old scored a hat-trick in a 12–48 victory , with Iestyn Harris , the Welsh head coach and former dual-code rugby international , praising Tomkins ' contribution to the winning England team . Despite this , Tomkins was left out of the squad that faced France in the opening Four Nations fixture . He replaced Richie Myler for England 's defeat against Australia at Wigan 's DW Stadium , with an impressed Darren Lockyer , the Australian captain , stating after the match , `` To be honest , we did n't really know their young fellas . We do now . '' With Smith showing confidence in the young half-back pairing between Kyle Eastmond and Tomkins , Tomkins maintained his place in the squad which won their must-win match against New Zealand for a place in the tournament final . The hosting England side , playing at Elland Road , Leeds , were overcome by Australia in the closing thirty minutes of the final despite leading 16–14 at one point , although the pairing between Eastmond and Tomkins was , according to Sky Sports , impressive . Smith resigned as England coach following the Four Nations , with Steve McNamara announced as the team 's new head coach . Tomkins kept his place in the England team when they played France in a mid-season friendly , and he responded by scoring four tries on England 's way to a 60–6 win , a record-equalling tally for an England player in a single match . Tomkins appeared in all three of England 's matches at the 2010 Four Nations , firstly in a defeat by New Zealand where a Kevin Brown try scored from a Tomkins kick was disallowed by the video referee due to Tomkins pushing Greg Eastwood in the process . Another comprehensive defeat by Australia ended England 's hopes of reaching the final , in a match where Tomkins made his first international switch from the halves to fullback . He stayed in this position for England 's final match against Papua New Guinea , a 36–10 victory in which Tony Clubb equalled Tomkins ' four-try record . Tomkins featured at full-back for the inaugural International Origin in 2011 , which England lost thanks to Wigan teammate George Carmont 's 79th minute try for the Exiles . Tomkins was booed by England supporters from opposing clubs within the Headingley crowd at Leeds , an incident which was criticised as `` disgraceful '' by Jamie Peacock , the England captain and Leeds forward , however Wigan head coach Michael Maguire claimed Tomkins had not been affected by the abuse . Following the completion of the rugby league domestic season , Tomkins was included in a pre-Four Nations test against France . In England 's opening match of the 2011 Four Nations against Wales , he scored four tries , which for the second time in his international career equalled the record for the most tries by a player representing England . After playing against Australia at Wembley Stadium in a match which England ended the losing side , Tomkins scored a try against New Zealand . England 's victory over the Kiwis meant that for the second time in three years , Tomkins featured for England in a Four Nations final against Australia , although they ended runners-up to Australia after losing 8–30 . Playing fullback , Tomkins had an unhappy night under the high ball at Elland Road . A week after the final , he played at right wing and scored a try for the Barbarians , a British-based invitational rugby union side , against the Australian Wallabies , although the Barbarians lost 11–60 . The match was Tomkins 's first match of professional rugby union ; Tomkins admitted that prior to training with the Barbarians he did not know what numbers were allocated to which position in rugby union . On his first experience of the sport , Tomkins was quoted by the BBC as saying , `` I am glad I have had the chance to play but I am still a rugby league player . '' International Test caps As per the official England Rugby League website , not including International Origin matches . International tries Career statistics Awards and achievements Honours Grand Final : 2 :2010 , 2013 League Leaders Shield : 2 :2010 , 2012 Challenge Cup : 2 :2011 , 2013

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In November 2011, Wigan rugby league player Sam Tomkins made his rugby union debut in a 'one-off' game playing for which team?

Croquet is a sport that involves hitting plastic or wooden balls with a mallet through hoops ( often called `` wickets '' in the United States ) embedded in a grass playing court . History The oldest document to bear the word croquet with a description of the modern game is the set of rules registered by Isaac Spratt in November 1856 with the Stationers ' Company in London . This record is now in the Public Record Office . In 1868 , the first croquet all-comers ' meet was held at Moreton-in-Marsh , Gloucestershire and in the same year the All England Croquet Club was formed at Wimbledon , London . Regardless when and by what route it reached England and the British colonies in its recognizable form , croquet is , like golf , pall-mall , trucco , and kolven , among the later forms of ground billiards , which as a class have been popular in Western Europe back to at least the Late Middle Ages , with roots in classical antiquity , including sometimes the use of arches and pegs along with and balls and mallets or other striking sticks ( some more akin to modern field hockey sticks ) . By the 12th century , a team ball game called ' or ' , akin to a chaotic version of hockey or football ( depending on whether sticks were used ) , was regularly played in France and southern Britain between villages or parishes ; it was attested in Cornwall as early as 1283 . In the book Queen of Games : The History of Croquet , Nicky Smith presents two theories of the origin of the modern game of croquet , which took England by storm in the 1860s and then spread overseas . The first explanation is that the ancestral game was introduced to Britain from France during the 1630–1685 reign of Charles II of England , and was played under the name of ' ( among other spellings , today usually pall-mall ) , derived ultimately from Latin words for ' '' ball and mallet ' ( the latter also found in the name of the earlier French game , ' ) . This was the explanation given in the ninth edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica , dated 1877 . In his 1810 book The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England , Joseph Strutt , in 1611 , described the way pall-mall was played in England at the time : `` Pale-maille is a game wherein a round box [ wood ] ball is struck with a mallet through a high arch of iron , which he that can do at the fewest blows , or at the number agreed upon , wins . It is to be observed , that there are two of these arches , that is one at either end of the alley . The game of mall was a fashionable amusement in the reign of Charles the Second , and the walk in Saint James 's Park , now called the Mall , received its name from having been appropriated to the purpose of playing at mall , where Charles himself and his courtiers frequently exercised themselves in the practice of this pastime . '' While the name pall-mall and various games bearing this name also appeared elsewhere ( France and Italy ) , the description above suggests that the croquet-like games in particular were popular in England by the early 17th century . Some other early modern sources refer to pall-mall being played over a large distance ( as in golf ) , however an image in Strutt 's 1801 book shows a croquet-like ground billiards game ( balls on ground , hoop , bats and peg ) being played over a , garden-sized distance . The image 's caption describes the game as `` a curious ancient pastime '' , confirming that croquet games were not new in early nineteenth century England . In Samuel Johnson 's 1755 dictionary , his definition of `` pall-mall '' clearly describes a game with similarities to modern croquet : `` A play in which the ball is struck with a mallet through an iron ring '' . However , there is no evidence that pall-mall involved the croquet stroke which is the distinguishing characteristic of the modern game . The second theory is that the rules of the modern game of croquet arrived from Ireland during the 1850s , perhaps after being brought there from Brittany where a similar game was played on the beaches . Regular contact between Ireland and France had continued since the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 . By no later than the early 15th century , the game ' ( itself ancestral to pall-mall and perhaps to indoor billiards ) was popular in France , including in the courts of Henry II in the 16th century and Louis XIV of the 17th . At least one version of it , ' ( 'wheel ' ) was a multi-ball lawn game . Records show a game called `` crookey '' , similar to croquet , being played at Castlebellinghamin County Louth , Ireland , in 1834 , which was introduced to Galway in 1835 and played on the bishop 's palace garden , and in the same year to the genteel Dublin suburb of Kingstown ( today Dún Laoghaire ) where it was first spelt as `` croquet '' . There is , however , no pre-1858 Irish document that describes the way game was played , in particular there is no reference to the distinctive croquet stroke . The noted croquet historian Dr Prior , in his book of 1872 , makes the categoric statement `` One thing only is certain : it is from Ireland that croquet came to England and it was on the lawn of the late Lord Lonsdale that it was first played in this country . '' This was about 1851 . John Jaques apparently claimed in a letter to Arthur Lillie in 1873 that he had himself seen the game played in Ireland and , `` I made the implements and published directions ( such as they were ) before Mr Spratt [ mentioned above ] introduced the subject to me . '' Whatever the truth of the matter , Jaques certainly played an important role in popularising the game , producing editions of the rules in 1857 , 1860 , and 1864 . Croquet became highly popular as a social pastime in England during the 1860s . It was enthusiastically adopted and promoted by the Earl of Essex who held lavish croquet parties at Cassiobury House , his stately home in Watford , Hertfordshire , and the Earl even launched his own Cassiobury brand croquet set . By 1867 , Jaques had printed 65,000 copies of his Laws and Regulations of the game . It quickly spread to other Anglophone countries , including Australia , Canada , New Zealand , South Africa , and the United States . No doubt one of the attractions was that the game could be played by both sexes ; this also ensured a certain amount of adverse comment . By the late 1870s , however , croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game , tennis , and many of the newly created croquet clubs , including the All England club at Wimbledon , converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts . There was a revival in the 1890s , but from then onwards , croquet was always a minority sport , with national individual participation amounting to a few thousand players . The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club still has a croquet lawn , but has not hosted any significant tournaments . The English headquarters for the game is now in Cheltenham . Captain Moreton 's Eglinton Castle The earliest known reference to croquet in Scotland is the booklet The Game of Croquet , its Laws and Regulations which was published in the mid-1860s for the proprietor of Eglinton Castle , the Earl of Eglinton . On the page facing the title page is a picture of Eglinton Castle with a game of `` croquet '' in full swing . The croquet lawn existed on the northern terrace , between Eglinton Castle and the Lugton Water . The 13th Earl developed a variation on croquet named Captain Moreton 's Eglinton Castle croquet , which had small bells on the eight hoops `` to ring the changes '' , two pegs , a double hoop with a bell and two tunnels for the ball to pass through . In 1865 the 'Rules of the Eglinton Castle and Cassiobury Croquet ' was published by Edmund Routledge . Several incomplete sets of this form of croquet are known to exist , and one complete set is still used for demonstration games in the West of Scotland . It is not known why the earl named the game thus . Competitive variations There are several variations of croquet currently played , differing in the scoring systems , order of shots , and layout ( particularly in social games where play must be adapted to smaller-than-standard playing courts ) . Two forms of the game , association croquet and golf croquet , have rules that are agreed internationally and are played in many countries around the world . The United States has its own set of rules for domestic games . Gateball , a sport originated in Japan under the influence of croquet , is played mainly in East and Southeast Asia and the Americas and can also be regarded as a croquet variant . As well as club-level games , there are regular world championships and international matches between croquet-playing countries . The sport has particularly strong followings in the UK , US , New Zealand and Australia ; every four years , these countries play the MacRobertson Shield tournament . Many other countries also play . The current world rankings show England in top place for association croquet , followed by Australia and New Zealand sharing second place , with the United States in fourth position ; the same four countries appear in the top six of the golf croquet league table , below Egypt in top position , and with South Africa at number five . Croquet is popularly believed to be viciously competitive . This may derive from the fact that ( unlike in golf ) players will often attempt to move their opponents ' balls to unfavourable positions . However , purely negative play is rarely a winning strategy : successful players ( in all versions other than golf croquet ) will use all four balls to set up a break for themselves , rather than simply making the game as difficult as possible for their opponents . At championship-standard association croquet , players can often make all 26 points ( 13 for each ball ) in two turns . Croquet was an event at the 1900 Summer Olympics . Roque , an American variation on croquet , was an event at the 1904 Summer Olympics . Pronunciation Like similar words with a French derivation , the final 't ' is silent . British pronunciation puts the accent on the first syllable , American on the second : ˈkrəʊkeɪ versus kroʊˈkeɪ . Variations Association Association croquet is the name of an advanced game of croquet , played at international level . It involves four balls teamed in pairs , with both balls going through every hoop for one pair to win . The game 's distinguishing feature is the `` croquet '' shot : when certain balls hit other balls , extra shots are allowed . The six hoops are arranged three at each end of the court , with a centre peg . In association croquet one side takes the black and blue balls , the other takes red and yellow . At each turn , players can choose to play with either of their balls for that turn . At the start of a turn , the player plays a stroke . If the player either hits the ball through the correct hoop ( `` runs '' the hoop ) , or hits another ball ( a `` roquet '' ) , the turn continues . Following a roquet , the player picks up his or her own ball and puts it down next to the ball that it hit . The next shot is played with the two balls touching : this is the `` croquet stroke '' from which the game takes its name . By varying the speed and angle at which the mallet hits the striker 's ball , a good player can control the final position of both balls : the horizontal angle determines how much the balls diverge in direction , while the vertical angle and the amount of follow-through determine the relative distance that the two balls travel . After the croquet stroke , the player plays a `` continuation '' stroke , during which the player may again attempt to make a roquet or run a hoop . Each of the other three balls may be roqueted once in a turn before a hoop is run , after which they become available to be roqueted again . The winner of the game is the team who completes the set circuit of six hoops ( and then back again the other way ) , with both balls , and then strikes the centre peg ( making a total of 13 points per ball = 26 ) . Good players may make `` breaks '' of several hoops in a single turn . The best players may take a ball round a full circuit in one turn . `` Advanced play '' ( a variant of association play for expert players ) gives penalties to a player who runs certain hoops in a turn , to allow the opponent a chance of getting back into the game ; feats of skill such as triple peels or better , in which the partner ball ( or occasionally an opponent ball ) is caused to run a number of hoops in a turn by the striker 's ball help avoid these penalties . A handicap system ( 'bisques ' ) provides less experienced players a chance of winning against more formidable opponents . Players of all ages and both sexes compete on level terms . The World Championships are organised by the World Croquet Federation ( WCF ) and usually take place every 2 or 3 years . The 2016 championships took place in Florida , the winner being Stephen Mulliner of England — at 62 , the oldest ever champion . The current Women 's Association Croquet World Champion ( 2015 ) is Miranda Chapman of England . The New Zealand team won the last MacRobertson International Croquet Shield tournament , which is the major international test tour trophy in association croquet . It is contested every three to four years between Australia , Great Britain , the United States and New Zealand . Historically the British have been the dominant force , winning 14 times out of the 20 times the event has been held . In individual competition , the UK is often divided by subnational country ( England , Scotland and Wales ) , while Northern Ireland joins with the republic in an All Ireland association ( as it does in other sports ) . The world 's top 10 association croquet players as of December 2015 were Robert Fulford ( England ) , Robert Fletcher ( Australia ) , Reg Bamford ( South Africa ) , Greg Bryant ( New Zealand ) , Paddy Chapman ( New Zealand ) , David Maugham ( England ) , Jamie Burch ( England ) , Jonathan Kirby ( Scotland ) , Jeff Dawson ( England ) , Samir Patel ( England ) . Unlike most sports , men and women compete and are ranked together . Three women have won the British Open Championship : Lily Gower in 1905 , Dorothy Steel in 1925 , 1933 , 1935 and 1936 , and Hope Rotherham in 1960 . While male players are in the majority at club level in the UK , the opposite is the case in Australia and New Zealand . The governing body in England is The Croquet Association , which has been the driving force of the development of the game . The rules and tournament regulations are now maintained by the International Laws Committee , established by the croquet associations of England and Wales ( CA ) , Australia ( ACA ) , New Zealand ( CNZ ) and the United States ( USCA ) . Golf In golf croquet , a hoop is won by the first ball to go through each hoop . Unlike association croquet , there are no additional turns for hitting other balls . Each player takes a stroke in turn , each trying to hit a ball through the same hoop . The sequence of play is blue , red , black , yellow . Blue and black balls play against red and yellow . When a hoop is won , the sequence of play continues as before . The winner of the game is the player/team who wins the most hoops . Golf croquet is the fastest-growing version of the game , owing largely to its simplicity and competitiveness . There is an especially large interest with competitive success by players in Egypt . Golf croquet is easier to learn and play , but requires strategic skills and accurate play . In comparison with association croquet , play is faster and balls are more likely to be lifted off the ground . In April 2013 , Reg Bamford of South Africa beat Ahmed Nasr of Egypt in the final of the Golf Croquet World Championship in Cairo , becoming the first person to simultaneously hold the title in both association croquet and golf croquet . As of 2015 , the Golf Croquet World Champion was Ahmed El Mahdi ( Egypt ) and the Women 's Golf Croquet World Champion was Judith Hanekom ( South Africa ) . Garden Garden croquet is widely played in the UK . The rules are easy to learn and the game can be played on lawns of almost any size but usually around 32 ft by 40 ft . The rules are similar to those described above for Association Croquet with three major differences : # The starting point for all balls is a spot in from the boundary directly in front of hoop 1 . # If a strikers ball goes off , there is no penalty , it comes back on and the turn continues . # In a croquet stroke the croqueted ball does not have to move when the strikers ball is struck . This version of the game is easy for beginners to learn . The main Garden Croquet Club in the UK is the Bygrave Croquet Club which is a private club with five lawns . Other clubs also use garden croquet as an introduction to the game , notably the Hampstead Heath Croquet Club and the Watford Croquet Club . American six-wicket The American rules version of croquet , another six-hoop game , is the dominant version of the game in the United States and is also widely played in Canada . It is governed by the United States Croquet Association . Its genesis is mostly in association croquet , but it differs in a number of important ways that reflect the home-grown traditions of American `` backyard '' croquet . Two of the most notable differences are that the balls are always played in the same sequence ( blue , red , black , yellow ) throughout the game , and that a ball 's `` deadness '' on other balls is carried over from turn to turn until the ball has been `` cleared '' by scoring its next hoop . A Deadness Board is used to keep track of deadness on all four balls . Tactics are simplified on the one hand by the strict sequence of play , and complicated on the other hand by the continuation of deadness . A further difference is the more restrictive boundary-line rules of American croquet . In the American game , roqueting a ball out of bounds or running a hoop out of bounds causes the turn to end , and balls that go out of bounds are replaced only 9 in from the boundary rather than as in association croquet . `` Attacking '' balls on the boundary line to bring them into play is thus far more challenging . Nine-wicket Nine-wicket croquet , sometimes called `` backyard croquet '' , is played mainly in Canada and the United States , and is the game most recreational players in those countries call simply `` croquet '' . In this version of croquet there are nine wickets , two stakes , and six balls . Players compete individually with a single ball , or Cutthroat , to stake out first . There are six balls in a typical set so up to six players can compete at once but a game can be played with fewer balls . The course is arranged in a double-diamond pattern , with one stake at each end of the course . Players start at one stake , navigate one side of the double diamond , hit the turning stake , then navigate the opposite side of the double diamond and hit the starting stake to win the game . Another variation of basic backyard croquet is Partner Ball where two teams compete against each other . It is played with four balls , and teams are blue-black versus red-yellow . Sequence of play is according to the colors on the stakes : blue , red , black , yellow . Up to four players can compete as two teams making this a more friendly and sociable game where people can strategize and work together . Games are won by aggressive scoring of multiple wickets in one turn . This is called `` break play '' . Each time a ball is roqueted a croquet shot must be taken , players have four options after roqueting another ball . These reflect the more individual aspect of nine-wicket croquet . The options are : . If two bonus shots are scored by striking another ball , the first of these two shots may be taken in any of four ways : from a mallet-head distance or less away from the ball that was hit ( “ taking a mallet-head ” ) From a position in contact with the ball that was hit , with the striker ball held steady by the striker 's foot or hand ( a “ foot shot ” or “ hand shot ” ) From a position in contact with the ball that was hit , with the striker ball not held by foot or hand ( a “ croquet shot ” ) From where the striker ball stopped after the roquet . The second bonus shot after a roquet is an ordinary shot played from where the striker ball came to rest , called a `` continuation shot '' . * Croquet shot : Players place their ball in contact with the ball they hit and strike their ball in such a way that both balls move . This `` buggy ride '' is very useful for positioning the ball for a second use after going through a wicket . Firing a ball is when a player place their hand or foot on top of their ball , then strike their own ball such that their opponent 's ball moves away while their own ball remains in place . Players often `` fire '' a ball far away or off the court to get them away from their next wicket . They may then take their second shot as a `` continuation shot '' . Carryover Deadness is often imposed to make the game more difficult and players have to remember who they hit last before getting cleared of deadness by going through their next wicket . In Cutthroat , the first person to finish the course wins the game . However , some players prefer to use an endgame procedure called `` poison '' . In poison , once a player has scored the last hoop but has not hit the starting stake , their ball becomes `` poison '' , which allows them to eliminate other balls from the game by roqueting them . If a non-poison ball roquets a poison ball , the standard roqueting options apply , but if a poison ball travels through a wicket or hits a stake for any reason , it forfeits and is eliminated from the game.The last person remaining is the winner . In Partner Ball games are usually timed to 60 minutes with the high score team ( most wickets cleared ) being the winner . Ricochet This version of the game was invented by John Riches of Adelaide , Australia with help from Tom Armstrong in the 1980s . The game can be played by up to 6 people and is very easy to learn . For this reason it is often used as a stepping stone to association croquet . Ricochet has similar rules to association and garden croquet , except that when a ball is roqueted , the striker 's ball remains live and two free shots are earned . This enables strikers to play their ball near to another opponent ball and ricochet that too thus earning two more free shots . Running a hoop earns one free shot . Glossary of terms * Backward ball : The ball of a side that has scored fewer hoops ( compare with 'forward ball ' ) . * Ball-in-hand : A ball that the striker can pick up to change its position , for example : # any ball when it leaves the court has to be replaced on the yard-line # the striker ’ s ball after making a roquet must be placed in contact with the roqueted ball # the striker ’ s ball when the striker is entitled to a lift . * Ball in play : A ball after it has been played into the game , which is not a ball in hand or pegged out . * Baulk : An imaginary line on which a ball is placed for its first shot in the game , or when taking a lift . The A-baulk coincides with the western half of the yard line along the south boundary ; the B-baulk occupies the eastern half of the north boundary yard line . * Bisque , half-bisque A bisque is a free turn in a handicap match . A half-bisque is a restricted handicap turn in which no point may be scored . * Break down : To end a turn by making a mistake . * Continuation stroke : Either the bonus stroke played after running a hoop in order or the second bonus stroke played after making a roquet . * Croquet stroke : A stroke taken after making a roquet , in which the striker 's ball and the roqueted ball are placed together in contact . * Double tap : A fault in which the mallet makes more than one audible sound when it strikes the ball . * Forward ball : The ball of a side that has scored more hoops ( compare with 'backward ball ' ) . * Hoop : Metal U-shaped gate pushed into ground . ( Also called a wicket in the US ) . * Leave : The position of the balls after a successful break , in which the striker is able to leave the balls placed so as to make life as difficult as possible for the opponent . * Lift : A turn in which the player is entitled to remove the ball from its current position and play instead from either baulk line . A lift is permitted when a ball has been placed by the opponent in a position where it is wired from all other balls , and also in advanced play when the opponent has completed a break that includes hoops 1-back or 4-back . * Object ball : A ball which is going to be rushed . * Peg out : To cause a rover ball to strike the peg and conclude its active involvement in the game . * Peel : To send a ball other than the striker 's ball through its target hoop . * Pioneer : A ball

qw_3348--Croquet.txt

In croquet, what is used to hit the ball?

The Catskill Mountains , also known as the Catskills , are a large area in the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of New York . They are located approximately 100 mi north-northwest of New York City and 40 mi southwest of Albany , starting just west of the Hudson River . The Catskills occupy much or all of five counties ( Delaware , Greene , Schoharie , Sullivan , and Ulster ) , with some areas falling into the boundaries of southwestern Albany , eastern Broome , northwestern Orange , and southern Otsego counties . Foothills are also found in southeastern Chenango , southern Montgomery , northern Otsego , and western Schenectady counties . As a cultural and geographic region , the Catskills are generally defined as those areas close to or within the borders of the Catskill Park , a 700000 acre forest preserve protected from many forms of development under New York state law . Geologically , the Catskills are a mature dissected plateau , a once-flat region subsequently uplifted and eroded into sharp relief by watercourses . The Catskills form the northeastern end of , and highest-elevation portion of , the Allegheny Plateau ( also known as the Appalachian Plateau ) . Although the Catskills are sometimes compared with the Adirondack Mountains further north , the two mountain ranges are not geologically related , as the Adirondacks are a continuation of the Canadian Shield . Similarly , the Shawangunk Ridge , which forms the southeastern edge of the Catskills , is part of the geologically distinct Ridge-and-Valley province , and is a continuation of the same ridge known as Kittatinny Mountain in New Jersey and Blue Mountain in Pennsylvania . Climatically , the Catskills lie within the Allegheny Highlands forests ecoregion . The Catskills are well known in American culture , both as the setting for many 19th-century Hudson River School paintings and as the favored destination for urban vacationers from New York City in the mid-20th century . The region 's many large resorts gave countless young stand-up comedians an opportunity to hone their craft . In addition , the Catskills have long been a haven for artists , musicians , and writers , especially in and around the towns of Phoenicia and Woodstock , New York . Name Nicolaes Visscher I 's 1656 map of New Netherland located the ' at the mouth of Catskill creek . The region to the south is identified as ' ( High Lands of the Esopus ) , a reference to a local band northern Lenape Native Americans who inhabited the banks of the Hudson and hunted in the highlands along the Esopus Creek . While the meaning of the name ( `` cat creek '' in Dutch ) and the namer ( early Dutch explorers ) are settled matters , exactly how and why the area is named `` Catskills '' is a mystery . Mountain lions ( catamounts ) were known to have been in the area when the Dutch arrived in the 17th century . Theories : * The most common , and easiest , explanation is that bobcats were seen near Catskill creek and the present-day village of Catskill , and the name followed from there . However , there is no record of bobcats ' ever having been seen in significant numbers on the banks of the Hudson , and the name Catskill does not appear on paper until 1655 , more than four decades later . * A corruption of ' , the Dutch sailors ' term for the Indian stockades they saw on the riverbank . According to one Belgian authority , ' occurs in many place names throughout Flanders and has nothing to do with cats and everything to do with fortifications . * It was named for Dutch poet Jacob Cats , who was also known for his real estate prowess , profiting from speculation in lands reclaimed from the sea . * A ship named The Cat had gone up the Hudson shortly before the name was first used . In nautical slang of the era , cat could also mean a piece of equipment , or a particular type of small vessel , called a `` catboat '' . * It has also been suggested that it refers to lacrosse , which Dutch visitors had seen the Iroquois natives play . Kat can also refer to a tennis racket , which a lacrosse stick resembles , and the first place the Dutch saw this , further down the river in the present-day Town of Saugerties , they gave the name Kaatsbaan , for `` tennis court '' , which is still on maps today . * The Mohicans roamed the woods of New England during the 18th century . A Mohican tribe supposedly inhabited the area known as the Catskills today , led by a Mohican chief named Cat . The confusion over the exact origins of the name led over the years to variant spellings such as Kaatskill and Kaaterskill , both of which are also still used : the former in the regional magazine Kaatskill Life , the latter as the name of a clove , creek , mountain , town , and waterfall . The supposed Indian name for the range , Onteora ( `` land in the sky '' ) , was actually created by a white man in the mid-19th century to drum up business for a resort . It , too , persists today as the name of a school district and as the name of a Boy Scout summer camp ( Onteora Scout Reservation ) . The name Catskills did not come into wide popular use for the mountains until the mid-19th century – in fact , that name was disparaged by purists as too plebeian , too reminiscent of the area 's Dutch colonial past , especially since it was used by the local farming population . It may also have been a continuation of the British practice , after taking possession of the colony in the late 17th century , of trying to replace most Dutch Knickerbocker toponyms in present-day New York with their English alternatives . The locals preferred to call the range the Blue Mountains , to harmonize with Vermont 's Green Mountains and New Hampshire 's White Mountains . It was only after Washington Irving 's stories that Catskills won out over Blue Mountains and several other competitors . Land features Geography At the eastern end of the range , the mountains begin quite dramatically with the Catskill Escarpment rising up suddenly from the Hudson Valley . The western boundary is far less certain , as the mountains gradually decline in height and grade into the rest of the Allegheny Plateau . Nor is there a consensus on where the Catskills end to the north or south , with it being certain only that by the time one reaches either I-88 , the Delaware River , or the Shawangunk Ridge that one is no longer in the Catskills . In these peripheral regions , whether or not one is in the Catskills seems to be a matter of personal preference , as an old saying in the region seems to suggest : `` When you have two rocks for every dirt , you are in the Catskills '' . Many visitors , including owners of weekend or vacation homes in the region , seem to consider almost anything that is west of the Hudson and sufficiently rural , yet within a short drive of New York City , to be in the Catskills . The Poconos , to the immediate southwest in Pennsylvania , are technically a continuation of the Catskills under a different name . The Catskills contain more than 30 peaks above and parts of six important rivers . The Catskill Mountain 3500 Club is an organization whose members have climbed all the peaks in the Catskills over . The highest mountain , Slide Mountain in Ulster County , has an elevation of 4180 ft . Geology The history of the Catskill Mountains is a geologic story come full circle , from erosion , deposition and uplift , back to erosion . The Catskill Mountains are more of a dissected plateau than a series of mountain ranges . The sediments that make up the rocks in the Catskills were deposited when the ancient Acadian Mountains in the east were rising and subsequently eroding . The sediments traveled westward and formed a great delta into the sea that was in the area at that time . The escarpment of the Catskill Mountains is near the former ( landward ) edge of this delta , as the sediments deposited in the northeastern areas along the escarpment were deposited above sea level by moving rivers , and the Acadian Mountains were located roughly where the Taconic Mountains are located today ( though significantly larger ) . The further west one travels , the finer becomes the sediment that was deposited , and thus the rocks change from gravel conglomerates to sandstone and shale . Even further west , these fresh water deposits intermingle with shallow marine sandstone and shale until the end , in deeper water limestone . The uplift and erosion of the Acadian Mountains was occurring during the Devonian and early Mississippian period ( 395 to 325 million years ago ) . Over that time , thousands of feet of these sediments built up , slowly moving the Devonian seashore further and further west . A meteor impact occurred in the shallow sea approximately 375 mya , creating a 10 km diameter crater . This crater eventually filled with sediments and became Panther Mountain through the process of uplift and erosion . By the middle of the Mississippian period , the uplift stopped , and the Acadian Mountains had been eroded so much that sediments no longer flowed across the Catskill Delta . Over time the sediments were buried by more sediments from other areas , until the original Devonian and Mississippian sediments were deeply buried and slowly became solid rock . Then the entire area experienced uplift , which caused the sedimentary rocks to begin to erode . Today , those upper sedimentary rocks have been completely removed , exposing the Devonian and Mississippian rocks . Today ’ s Catskills are a result of the continued erosion of these rocks , both by streams and , in the recent past , by glaciers . Some traces of the most recent sedimentary layers remain for the discerning eye to discover , however . Even along the glacially-scoured eastern escarpment and in the upper Hudson Valley just below it—not to mention the glacial till-dumps and occasional terminal moraines of the southern-facing mountain slopes and valleys of the eastern and central Catskills—fragments of quartzite ranging from bright white , banded orange and tan , to deep red and dark gray are found . Many if not most of these are no more than 6 in thick , have two flat sides and are without inclusions of other native rock , e.g. , gray or blue sandstone ( `` bluestone '' ) , most likely indicating the presence of a shallow , wave-beaten sandy delta or beach area at the base of the Acadian ranges in the delta 's final stages of sedimentation . That sand layer , mostly free of silt ( hence less opaque than older layers formed with higher concentrations of silt and mud under deeper water at more remote reaches of the delta ) formed one or more upper layers of the delta . With compression and time , thin layers of sandstone formed of which only the here-mentioned fragments of sandstone remain now though in comparative abundance , if one measures their frequency against those of glacial erratics of similar size and shape which are typically metamorphic in origin ( e.g. , marble , schist , slate ) , which most likely originated in the geologically complex region of the Adirondacks to the north . Such sandstones and erratics are frequently found collocated in cairns and other anomalous rock arrangements of the Eastern Catskills . In successive Ice Ages , both valley and continental glaciers have widened the valleys and the notches of the Catskills and rounded the mountains . Grooves and scratches in exposed bedrock provides evidence of the great sheets of ice that once traversed through the region . Even today the erosion of the mountains continues , with the region ’ s rivers and streams deepening and widening the mountains ’ valleys and cloves . Recreation Aquatic sports and recreation Esopus Creek is a tributary of the Hudson River , starting at Winnisook Lake on Slide Mountain . It flows across Ulster County to the Hudson River at Saugerties . The Esopus is noted for making an almost 270-degree turn around Panther Mountain , following a buried 6 mi impact crater rim . It is famous for tubing , a sport of rafting down a river in an inner tube . Many tubers begin their trip at Phoenicia , New York and head down the creek towards the Ashokan Reservoir at Olive , New York . The Ashokan Reservoir is part of the New York City water supply system , fishing is allowed under permit , but swimming and most other recreational uses are forbidden . River canoeing and kayaking are popular . There are 42 kayakable rapids ranging from class I to V+ . The Esopus Creek is also famous for its fly fishing , although in recent years it has been plagued by invasive plants . Another great place to fish is Roscoe , New York , also known as trout town USA . Every April 1 people flock there from all over to kick off the start of fly fishing season . Bicycling Road and mountain bicycling are popular in the range . Bicycle racing includes The Tour of the Catskills , a three-day road stage race held in Green and Ulster counties each summer , and the UCI Mountain Bike World Cup in Windham . Other cycling resources include the Catskill Scenic Trail and the Headwaters Trails in Stamford . Several ski centers provide downhill mountain bicycling in the warmer months . Camping The Catskill Mountains have one of the largest and most complex natural areas in the eastern half of the United States . There are about 600000 acre in the Catskill Park , which include many camping locations . Some notable spots to camp in the Catskills are Bear Spring Mountain , Little Pond , Mongaup Pond , and North-South Lake . Hiking Within the range is the Catskill Park , comprising over 700000 acre . Catskill Park is part of New York 's Forest Preserve . Not all the land is publicly owned ; about 60 % remains in private hands , but new sections are added frequently . Most of the park and the preserve are within Ulster County , with a significant portion in Greene County , and parts in Sullivan and Delaware counties , too . Many of the trails in public areas are maintained and updated by the New York–New Jersey Trail Conference and the Catskill Mountain 3500 Club . Devil 's Path in Greene County is one of the many trails open for hikers . Skiing There are five main downhill ski and snowboard areas in the Catskills : Belleayre Mountain in Highmount , New York ( run by the Olympic Regional Development Authority ) ; Hunter Mountain in Hunter , New York ( the first ski area to install snowmaking machines in New York ) ; Holiday Mountain Ski and Fun in Monticello , New York ; Plattekill Mountain in Roxbury , New York ; and Windham Mountain in Windham , New York ( which , in addition to snow boarding and skiing , is the home of the Adaptive Sports Foundation , which provides the physical and intellectually disabled with lessons on how to ski , snow tube , snowboard , bike ride , and a various amount of other types of sports ) . Joppenbergh Mountain , in Rosendale Village , Ulster County , New York , hosted its first ski jumping competition in 1937 . Ski jumping was continued on the mountain until February 7 , 1971 , when the last competition was held . The Mountain Trails Cross Country Ski Center in Tannersville , New York has 22 mi of trails . Structures Fire towers The Catskill Mountains fire towers were constructed to facilitate forest fire prevention and control . 23 fire towers were built in the Catskill Mountains between 1908 and 1950 . The fire towers fell out of use by the 1970s as fire spotting from airplanes had become more effective and efficient , so the fire towers were decommissioned ; the Hunter Mountain Fire Tower was the last to be taken out of service in 1990 . All but five of the towers were dismantled . The five remaining towers have been renovated and opened to the public as observation posts in the Catskill Mountains because of the extraordinary views they provide . The remaining towers are : * Balsam Lake Mountain Fire Observation Station – Town of Hardenburgh , New York – Elevation 3723 ft * Hunter Mountain Fire Tower – Town of Hunter , New York – Elevation 4042 ft * Overlook Mountain Tower – Town of Woodstock , New York – Elevation 3140 ft * Red Hill Fire Tower – Town of Denning , New York – Elevation 2990 ft * Tremper Mountain Fire Tower – Town of Shandaken , New York – Elevation 2740 ft Notable landmarks The Catskill Mountain House , built in 1824 , was a famous hotel near Palenville , New York , in the Catskill Mountains overlooking the Hudson River Valley . In its prime to the turn of the century , it was visited by United States Presidents Ulysses S. Grant , Chester A. Arthur , and Theodore Roosevelt , as well as many other important personages . Shortly after it was completed , the Mountain House became a favorite subject for Washington Irving and artists for the new Hudson River School , most notably artists Thomas Cole and William Henry Bartlett . Transportation From 1872 , the Catskills were served by the Catskill Mountain Branch of the Ulster and Delaware Railroad which was absorbed into the New York Central railroad in 1932 . Passenger rail service continued until 1954 . Part of the line still exists but now serves only freight . The Delaware and Ulster Railroad is a heritage railroad , based in Arkville , New York , that still runs a scenic part of the track from Highmount to Hubbell Corners , New York for tourist use . The Catskill Mountain Railroad is also a heritage railroad in the Catskills , operating from Kingston , New York up to Highmount , New York . The Catskills are accessible by automobile from the east along Interstate 87/New York State Thruway , which runs north-south through the Hudson Valley . To the south and southwest , the Catskills are accessible by a variety of highways , including New York State Route 55 , U.S. Route 44 , U.S. Route 209 , and New York State Route 17 ( also known as `` Future I-86 '' ) . Access to the western Catskills is provided by New York State Route 30 ; and the vaguely defined far-western edge of the region is variously considered to be New York State Route 10 or Interstate 88 , though this boundary remains a matter of local preference . New York State Routes 28 and 23A cut east-west through the heart of the Catskills , serving many of the most popular outdoor tourist destinations . New York State Route 23 runs east-west across the Catskills ' far-northern section . The closest major airports to the Catskill region are Albany International Airport to the north and Stewart International Airport in Newburgh to the south . Smaller airports in the region include the following : * Columbia County Airport in Hudson * Dutchess County Airport in Poughkeepsie * Joseph Y. Resnick Airport in Ellenville * Kingston-Ulster Airport * Kobelt Airport in Wallkill * Randall Airport in * Sullivan County International Airport in Monticello * Wurtsboro-Sullivan County Airport In popular culture Comics * In Bill Willingham 's comic book series Fables , the animals and other fairy tale characters live on `` The Farm '' , an imaginary haven in the NY Catskills . Films The Hudson Valley Film Commission maintains an updated list of films set in the Hudson Valley / Catskills Region , including : ( Chronological ) * WaterFall in the Catskills ( 1897 ) , the Edison Studio * Rip Van Winkle ( 1921 ) , silent film version of the classic story * Having Wonderful Time ( 1938 ) , Red Skelton 's first movie , set in a Catskills hotel * My Side of the Mountain ( 1969 ) , film adaptation of Jean Craighead George 's eponymous 1959 novel ; a young boy tests his survival skills by living about two years in the Catskill Mountains * Woodstock ( 1970 ) , a documentary about the Woodstock Festival of 1969 , filmed at the festival in Bethel , New York * Magic ( 1978 ) , a film starring Anthony Hopkins and set in the Catskills * Tootsie ( 1982 ) , features scenes in the Hurley Mountain Inn located in Ulster County , New York * The Gig ( 1985 ) , directed by Frank D. Gilroy ; a character study of amateur musicians who get a gig * Dirty Dancing ( 1987 ) , a hit film set in a Catskills resort in the summer of 1963 ( though filmed at Mountain Lake in Virginia and at Lake Lure in North Carolina ) * Sweet Lorraine ( 1987 ) , the story of an aging Catskill resort in its last days , filmed at the former Heiden Hotel in South Fallsburg , New York * Casper Meets Wendy ( 1995 ) , Wendy and her aunts run into Casper and his uncles at a resort in the Catskills * Heavy ( 1995 ) , an independent film starring Liv Tyler , Debbie Harry , Pruitt Taylor Vince , Shelley Winters , and Joe Grifasi , filmed partially in the southern Catskills , in Barryville , New York and Highland Lake * Manny & Lo ( 1996 ) * Julian Po ( 1997 ) , starring Christian Slater and filmed in Fleischmanns * A Walk on the Moon ( 1999 ) , set in Sullivan County , New York , but filmed in Quebec , Canada * You Can Count on Me ( 2000 ) , an award-winning independent film set in the village of Scottsville , in western New York near Rochester , but filmed in the Catskills , in and around Margaretville and Phoenicia * Kaaterskill Falls ( 2001 ) , an award-winning independent film about a young urban couple who befriend a local hitchhiker ; it 's a mountain country version of Roman Polanski 's Polish-language film Knife in the Water ( 1962 ) , actually filmed in the Catskills * Wendigo ( 2001 ) , filmed in the West Shokan and Phoenicia , New York area * The Catskill Chainsaw Redemption ( 2004 ) , a horror movie * Parts of the movie Transamerica ( 2005 ) , starring Felicity Huffman , were filmed in the town of Callicoon , New York , though in the movie it 's referred to as Callicoon , Kentucky * The burning train and ferry scenes in War of the Worlds ( 2005 ) were filmed in the town of Athens , New York at the foot of the Catskills * Four Seasons Documentary ( 2006 ) , follows the lives of Holocaust survivors in a Borscht Belt colony * Stagedoor ( 2006 ) , a documentary on life at a teen camp * 99 Geiger Road ( 2007 ) , a documentary about a bungalow colony of Holocaust survivors * The Cake Eaters ( 2007 ) * Goyband ( 2008 ) , a romantic comedy involving a musician performing at the opening of the first kosher casino in the Catskills * Taking Woodstock ( 2009 ) , the story of how Elliot Tiber helped bring the Woodstock Festival to Bethel , New York * Mary Last Seen ( 2010 ) , a short on the same theme as Martha Marcy May Marlene ( available on the DVD ) * Stake Land ( 2010 ) , a vampire/zombie apocalypse film , partially set and filmed in the Catskills * Martha Marcy May Marlene ( 2011 ) , a critically acclaimed film about a young woman who escapes from a cult in the Catskills * New York State Office of Parks , Recreation and Historic Preservation ( 2013 ) * Studio360 ( 2013 ) Literature * The Catskills and their inhabitants play an important role in Jean Craighead George 's stories , such as My Side of the Mountain ( 1959 ) * John Gardner 's novel Nickel Mountain : A Pastoral Novel ( 1973 ) takes place in the Catskill Mountains * Washington Irving wrote many famous stories , including `` Rip Van Winkle '' ( 1819 ) , that take place in the Catskill Mountains * The Catskills and their inhabitants play an important role the H. P. Lovecraft stories : `` The Lurking Fear '' ( 1922 ) and `` Beyond the Wall of Sleep '' ( 1919 ) Music Concerts * The town of Bethel , New York , located in the Catskills was home to the famous Woodstock Music festival in 1969 . The music festival took place from August 15 to August 18 , 1969 . 32 music acts performed in front of over 500,000 concert-goers . The event was captured in the documentary movie Woodstock ( 1970 ) . Works * Mercury Rev 's song `` Opus 40 '' , on their album Deserter 's Songs ( 1998 ) , contains the line `` Catskill mansions buried dreams/ I 'm alive she cried but I do n't know what it means '' . The band and their studios are based in the Catskills , and the area is often referred to in interview . * Simple Minds filmed their video to `` Alive and Kicking '' ( 1985 ) here . * The Catskills are mentioned in The Band 's song `` Time to Kill '' . The Band was also photographed there for their first album , Music from Big Pink , The Band in the Catskills . * The Catskills are mentioned in the Kid Rock track `` Low Life '' . Contains the line `` I 've never hung out in The Catskills , but I been to jail in Nashville '' . Stand up comedy * The many hotels and vacation resorts located in the Catskills are notable in American cultural history for their role in the development of modern stand-up comedy . Comedians such as Rodney Dangerfield and Don Rickles and got their start performing in Catskill Hotel venues . Television * A Home Box Office miniseries is planned that will dramatize a New York Magazine article on natural gas drillers coming to the region . Richard Russo , a winner of the Pulitzer Prize , is writing a script for the project .

qw_14790--Catskill_Mountains.txt

According to a short story by Washington Irving (1819), who escaped his nagging wife by wandering into New York's Catskill Mountains, fell asleep, and returned to his village, where he found that 20 years had passed?

This article is about the musical genre . For information on the Symphony No . 3 with organ by Camille Saint-Saëns , see Symphony No . 3 ( Saint-Saëns ) . An organ symphony is a piece for solo pipe organ in various movements . It is a symphonic genre , not so much in musical form ( in which it is more similar to the organ sonata or suite ) , but in imitating orchestral tone color , texture , and symphonic process . Though the very first organ symphony was written by German composer Wilhelm Valentin Volckmar in 1867 , the genre is mainly associated with French romanticism . César Franck wrote what is considered to be the first French organ symphony in his Grand pièce symphonique , and the composers Charles-Marie Widor , who wrote ten organ symphonies , and his pupil Louis Vierne , who wrote six , continued to cultivate the genre . Modern composers such as Aaron Copland and Jean Guillou have written organ symphonies as well . The genre is considered to have been brought to fruition in the second organ symphony of André Fleury .

sfq_24101--Organ_symphony.txt

Whose third symphony is also called his ‘organ symphony’?